title,text
Category:Environmental law,"{{Cat main}}
{{Commons category}}
{{Portal|Environment}}
{{see also|Category:Energy law}}

[[Category:Environmental humanities|Law]]
[[Category:environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Law by issue]]
[[Category:Occupational safety and health]]"
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development,"{{short description|1992 short document}}
The '''Rio Declaration on Environment and Development''', often shortened to '''Rio Declaration''', was a short document produced at the 1992 [[United Nations]] ""Conference on Environment and Development"" (UNCED), informally known as the [[Earth Summit]]. The Rio Declaration consisted of 27 principles intended to guide countries in future [[sustainable development]]. It was signed by over 175 countries.

==History==
The Rio Conference, which adopted the Declaration, took place from 3 to 14 June 1992. Subsequently, the international community has met twice to assess the progress made in implementing the principles of the document; first in [[New York City]] in 1997 during a General Assembly Session of the UN, and then in [[Johannesburg]] in 2002. While the document helped to raise environmental awareness, evidence from 2007 suggested that little of the document's environmental goals had at that time been achieved.<ref name=""Robbins2007"">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Palmer |first1=Robert |last2=Nursey-Bray |first2=Melissa |editor1-last=Robbins |editor1-first=Paul |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Environment and Society |title=Rio Declaration on Environment and Development |volume=4 |date=2007 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Thousand Oaks |isbn=9781412927611 |pages=1512–1514}}</ref>

== Content ==
Referring to the ""integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, ""our home"", the Rio Declaration proclaims 27 principles. The first principle states that sustainable development primarily concerns [[human beings]], who are entitled to live [[Human health|health]]y and [[Productivity|productive]] lives in harmony with nature.<ref>UN Documentation Centre, [https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf  Rio Declaration], Article 1</ref> Article 11 creates an expectation that states will enact [[environmental legislation]]. Further articles include formulations of the [[precautionary principle]], which should be ""widely applied by states according to their capabilities"" (principle 15), and of the [[polluter pays principle]], which states are encouraged to adopt where it is in the [[public interest]] to do so and it will not distort [[international trade]] and investment (principle 16). The final principle invites fulfillment of the other principles in a spirit of good faith.

The Rio Declaration expresses a positive view of [[traditional ecological knowledge]].<ref name="":9"">{{Cite book |last=Taiban |first=Sasala |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |last2=Lin |first2=Hui-Nien |last3=Pei |first3=Kurtis Jia-Chyi |last4=Lu |first4=Dau-Jye |last5=Gau |first5=Hwa-Sheng |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=Ashley |location=Seattle |chapter=Indigenous Conservation in Taiwan |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=Mary Alice |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Joanna I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=Stevan}}</ref>{{Rp|page=132}}

==See also==
* [[Three generations of human rights]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource}}
* [https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf UN Documentation Centre] The full text of the Rio Declaration.
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/dunche/dunche.html Introductory note by Günther Handl, procedural history note and audiovisual material] on the ''Rio Declaration on Environment and Development'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/historicarchives.html Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]

{{Sustainability|state=collapsed}}
{{Portal bar|Politics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1992 documents]]
[[Category:1992 in the United Nations]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:International sustainable development]]
[[Category:United Nations Development Programme]]"
Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive,"{{EngvarB|date=July 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{update|date=June 2016}} 
{{Infobox EU legislation
|type=Directive
|title=Urban Waste Water Directive
|number= 91/271/EEC
|madeby=[[European Council]]
|madeunder=Article 130 S
|OJref= L 135 , 30 May 1991 P. 40 – 52
|OJrefurl= 
|made= 21 May 1991
|commenced= 
|implementation= 
|CommProp= 
|ESCOpin= 
|ParlOpin= 
|Reports= 
|replaces= 
|amends= 
|amendedby= 
|replacedby= 
|status=Current}}
The '''Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive 1991''' ([https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A01991L0271-20140101 91/271/EEC]) [[European Union directive]] concerning urban waste water ""collection, [[Waste water treatment|treatment]] and discharge of urban waste water and the treatment and discharge of waste water from certain industrial sectors"". It aims ""to protect the environment from adverse effects of waste water discharges from cities and ""certain industrial sectors"". Council Directive 91/271/EEC on Urban Wastewater Treatment was adopted on 21 May 1991,<ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex – 31991L0271 – EN – EUR-Lex| date=21 May 1991 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31991L0271:EN:NOT}}</ref> amended by the Commission Directive 98/15/EC.<ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex – 31998L0015 – EN – EUR-Lex| date=27 February 1998 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31998L0015:EN:NOT}}</ref>

It prescribes the waste water collection and treatment in [[urban agglomeration]]s with a [[population equivalent]] of over 2000, and more advanced treatment in places with a population equivalent greater than 10,000 in ""sensitive areas"".

==Description==
The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (full title ""Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment"") is a [[European Union directive]] regarding urban wastewater collection, [[wastewater treatment]] and its discharge, as well as the treatment and discharge of ""waste water from certain industrial sectors"". It was adopted on 21 May 1991.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1991L0271:20081211:EN:PDF | title=Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment (91/271/EEC) | access-date=19 July 2009}}</ref> It aims ""to protect the environment from the adverse effects of urban waste water discharges and discharges from certain industrial sectors"" by mandating waste water collection and treatment in [[urban agglomeration]]s with a [[population equivalent]] of over 2000, and more advanced treatment in places with a population equivalent above 10,000 in sensitive areas.<ref name=""EC_Overview"">{{cite web | url = http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/index_en.html | title = Urban Waste Water Directive Overview | access-date = 19 July 2009 | publisher = [[European Commission]]}}</ref>

Member states in the European Union maintain and operate waste-water treatment plants to conform to the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive which sets standards for both treatment and disposal of sewage for communities of more than 200 person equivalents. Each member state is obliged to enact the requirements of the directive through appropriate local legislation. This directive also links to the Bathing Waters Directive and to the environmental standards set in the [[Water Framework Directive]] which are designed to protect all legitimate end uses of the receiving environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hansen|first=Wenke|date=2003|title=EU Water Policy and Challenges for Regional and Local Authorities|journal=Ecologic Institute for International and European Environmental Policy, Berlin – Brussels|pages=1–17}}</ref>

Commission Decision 93/481/EEC defines the information that Member States should provide the commission on the state of implementation of the Directive.<ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex – 31993D0481 – EN – EUR-Lex|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993D0481:EN:NOT}}</ref>

Conventional wastewater treatment plants currently service over 90% of the EU population. Continuing implementation of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directives plans to lower the EU's contribution to global [[microplastics]] discharge into the oceans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bank |first=European Investment |date=2023-02-27 |title=Microplastics and Micropollutants in Water: Contaminants of Emerging Concern |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230042-microplastics-and-micropollutants-in-water |language=EN}}</ref> According to a cost-benefit analysis prepared for the proposed Directive, the investment required to implement quaternary treatment in [[Wastewater treatment|wastewater treatment plants]] with a capacity of at least 10,000 person equivalents in the EU is estimated to be around €2.6 billion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-26 |title=A promising proposal for the new Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive - Water Europe |url=https://watereurope.eu/a-promising-proposal-for-the-new-urban-wastewater-treatment-directive/ |access-date=2023-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Sensitive areas===
The directive defines sensitive areas, as ""[[freshwater]] bodies, [[Estuary|estuaries]] and coastal waters which are [[Eutrophy|eutrophic]] or which may become eutrophic if protective action is not taken"", ""surface freshwaters intended for the abstraction of [[drinking water]] which contain or are likely to contain more than 50 mg/L of nitrates"", areas where further treatment is necessary to comply with other directives, such as the directives on fish waters, on bathing waters, on shellfish waters, on the conservation of wild birds and natural habitats, etc.<ref name=""EC_Report_2004""/>

The directive contains a [[derogation]] for areas designated as ""less sensitive""; such derogations were approved for areas in Portugal.<ref name=""EC_Report_2004""/>{{page needed|date=June 2016}}

==Implementation==
{{update section|date=June 2016}} 
[[Member states of the European Union|Member states]] were required to make waste water treatment facilities available 
*By 31 December 1998 for all places with a population equivalent of over 10,000 where the effluent discharged into a sensitive area.<ref name=""EC_Report_2004"">{{cite web | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52004DC0248:EN:NOT | title = Implementation of Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste water treatment, as amended by Commission Directive 98/15/EC of 27 February 1998 | access-date = 19 July 2009 | date = 23 April 2004 | format = pdf | publisher = [[European Commission]] }}</ref>  
*By 31 December 1998 for all places with a population equivalent of over 15,000, which discharged their effluent into so-called ""normal areas"" and that biodegradable waste water produced by [[Food processing industry|food-processing plants]],which discharged directly into water bodies, fulfilled certain conditions.<ref name=""EC_Report_2004""/>
*by 31 December 2005 for all places with a population equivalent between 2000 and 10 000 where effluent is discharged into a sensitive area, 
*by 31 December 2005 for all places with a population equivalent between 10,000 and 15,000 where the effluent is not discharged into such a sensitive area

In a 2004 Commission report on implementation by the member states, the Commission noted that some member states, in particular France and Spain, had been tardy in providing the required information, and infringement procedures had been initiated.<ref name=""EC_Report_2004""/> The report mentioned Spain's non-provision of any advanced treatment in the [[Drainage basin|catchment areas]] of rivers identified as sensitive in their downstream section, such as the [[Ebro]] and the [[Guadalquivir]]; Italy's implementation in the catchment area of the [[Po River]], the delta and adjacent coastal waters; and the United Kingdom's interpretation and implementation of the directive in regard to the catchment areas of sensitive areas.<ref name=""EC_Report_2004""/> Most member states planned to achieve conformity with the Directive by 2005 or 2008 at the latest.<ref name=""EC_Report_2004""/>

In 2020 the Commission published its latest implementation report that covers over 23,600 agglomerations where people (and to a limited extent industry) generate wastewater.<ref>Report from the commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Tenth report on the implementation status and programmes for implementation (as required by Article 17 of Council Directive 91/271/EEC, concerning urban wastewater treatment) (2020)</ref> As the UWWTD will soon be revised in light of meeting the goals of the European Green Deal, this report carries out an evaluation of the directive.<ref>European Commission, ‘Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive – Review’ <https://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/evaluation/index_en.htm> accessed 20 April 2022.</ref> This was followed by an impact assessment in order to determine policy options for an update, fit for the future UWWTD. Over the last decade, the compliance rates have gone up, with 95% for collection, 88% for secondary (biological) treatment, and 86% for more stringent treatment. There is positive trend in general, but full compliance with the directive is still not achieved. This is necessary, because this would show significant reductions in pollutant loads in the Member States.<ref>Joint Research Center, ‘Water quality in Europe: effects of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive’ (2019) Science for Policy Report</ref> In the long term, more investments are needed to reach and maintain compliance with the directive. Several towns and cities are still building or renewing infrastructure for the collection of wastewater. To support the Member States, the commission has set up funding and financial initiatives.

==Political significance==
The Urban Waste Water Directive marked a shift from legislation aimed at end-use standards to stricter legislation aimed at regulating water quality at the source. The directive applied both to domestic waste water and to waste water from industrial sectors, both of which account for much of the pollution. The Directive is an example of the detailed nature of European Union legislation and resulted in ""significant costs in many member states"".<ref name=""Weale"">. {{cite book | last = Weale | first = Albert |author2=Geoffrey Pridham |author3=Michelle Cini |author4=Martin Porter | title = Environmental governance in Europe: an ever closer ecological union? | year = 2000 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-829708-6 | page = 363 |doi= 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199257478.001.0001 }}</ref>

Nine years after the directive was adopted, considerable variations remained in the provision of sewage treatment in the different member states.<ref name=""Weale""/>

==Planned Revision==

On 13 July 2018, the European Commission published a Consultation on the Evaluation of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive ahead of a potential revision. Since its adoption in 1991, new technical advances on treatment techniques for waste and emerging pollutants have been identified that might require removal. In addition, the EU has since enlarged from 12 to 28 countries and new different experiences and challenges need to be taken into account.

However, the biggest challenge of the revision will be to exploit the potential the [[wastewater treatment]] sector can contribute to the [[circular economy]] agenda and the fight against [[climate change]]. Globally, the wastewater treatment sector consumes 1% of the global total energy consumption.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190518194946/https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/WorldEnergyOutlook2016ExcerptWaterEnergyNexus.pdf Water Energy Nexus]</ref> Under a business as usual scenario, this figure is expected to increase by 60% by 2040 compared to 2014. With the introduction of energy efficiency requirements, the energy consumption of the wastewater treatment sector can be reduced by 50% only by using current technologies. On top of that, there are also opportunities to produce enough energy from wastewater to turn the whole water sector energy neutral.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170709215504/https://www.americanbiogascouncil.org/pdf/ENER6C13_factSheet.pdf Energy from Wastewater]</ref> It uses the energy embedded in the [[sludge]] by producing [[biogas]] through [[anaerobic digestion]]. These features have been mainly overlooked due to the over-riding objective for utilities to meet existing and future needs for wastewater treatment.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/resource_efficiency/pdf/final_report.pdf Study on the Energy Saving Potential of Increasing Resource Efficiency]</ref>

In October 2022, the planned revision included stricter goals and policies. These had time frames on either 2030, 2035, or 2040. The revision would have inclusion of areas with smaller populations, stricter limits on [[Nitrogen]] and [[Phosphorus]], reduction of Micropollutants, a goal of [[Carbon neutrality|Energy Neutrality]] for all purification plants with over 10,000 person equivalents by 2040, tracking of diseases, additional sanctions, and other goals. This proposal has currently been read by the European Council.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lindqvist |first1=Advokatfirman Lindahl-Johanna |last2=Gustavsson |first2=Jonathan |last3=Ahl |first3=Philip |date=2023-02-13 |title=The EU Commission is proposing a new Waste Water Directive |url=https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=923108fa-b1d3-410b-a878-689836f5694b |access-date=2023-06-10 |website=Lexology |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Water supply and sanitation in the European Union]]
*[[Population equivalent]]
*[[Sustainable Development Goal 6]]
*[[Water, energy and food security nexus]]
*[[Sewage sludge treatment]]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1991L0271:20081211:EN:PDF Text of the directive (as amended)]
* [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31991L0271:EN:NOT Original text of the directive and other legislative information]

{{Waste}}

[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:European Union directives]]
[[Category:European Union and the environment]]
[[Category:Sewerage]]
[[Category:1991 in law]]
[[Category:1991 in the European Economic Community]]
[[Category:1991 in the environment]]
[[Category:Waste legislation in the European Union]]"
Coral reef protection,"{{Short description|Modifying human activities to reduce impact on coral reefs.}}
[[File:Coral Outcrop Flynn Reef.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A diversity of corals]]

'''Coral reef protection''' is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy [[coral reef]]s and to help damaged reefs recover. The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health. One management technique is to create [[Marine Protected Area]]s (MPAs) that directly limit human activities such as fishing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coral Reefs|url=http://www.nfwf.org/coralreef/Pages/home.aspx#.VUrJKl5N1ua|website=National Fish and Wildlife Foundation|access-date=2015-05-07|archive-date=2019-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222130812/https://www.nfwf.org/coralreef/Pages/home.aspx#.VUrJKl5N1ua|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Recreational diving|Recreational scuba diving]] can have a [[Environmental impact of recreational diving|measurable adverse impact]] on tropical coral reefs, mostly due to contact damage of brittle and fragile branched [[Scleractinia|stony corals]]. The most common damages of corals while diving occurs due to the fins striking the corals as well as hands, knees, and equipment gauges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barker |first1=Nola H. L. |last2=Roberts |first2=Callum M. |date=2004-12-01 |title=Scuba diver behaviour and the management of diving impacts on coral reefs |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320704001466 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=481–489 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2004.03.021 |bibcode=2004BCons.120..481B |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> [[Low impact diving|This can be reduced]] by improving diver [[Scuba skills#Buoyancy control|buoyancy]] and [[Diver trim|trim]] skills, and by educating divers on the consequences of clumsy behavior on the reef ecosystem.<ref name=""Hammerton 2014"" >{{cite thesis |publisher=Southern Cross University |date=2014 |title=SCUBA-diver impacts and management strategies for subtropical marine protected areas |first=Zan |last=Hammerton |url=https://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=theses |access-date=2019-09-17 |archive-date=2020-05-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526064457/https://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=theses |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=""Musa and Dimmock 2013"" >{{cite book|title=Scuba Diving Tourism: Contemporary Geographies of Leisure, Tourism and Mobility |last=Johansen |first=Kelsey|editor1-first=Ghazali |editor1-last=Musa |editor2-first=Kay |editor2-last=Dimmock |chapter=Education and training |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=9781136324949}}</ref> Divers given a 45 minute presentation on coral biology and protected areas combined with a brief in water demonstration have been shown to cause less damages to corals during their dive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Medio |first1=D. |last2=Ormond |first2=R. F. G. |last3=Pearson |first3=M. |date=1997-01-01 |title=Effect of briefings on rates of damage to corals by scuba divers |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320796000742 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=91–95 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00074-2 |bibcode=1997BCons..79...91M |issn=0006-3207}}</ref>

It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef, and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a fully mature reef to form.<ref name=""Stanford : Types of Reefs"">{{cite web|title=Stanford : Types of Reefs|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/typesofreefs.html|website=web.stanford.edu|access-date=3 September 2019|archive-date=17 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117235001/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/typesofreefs.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Coral reefs ==
Coral reefs are among the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystems on Earth.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last1=Moberg|first1=Fredrik|last2=Folke|first2=Carl|title=Ecological goods and services of coral reef ecosystems|journal=Ecological Economics|volume=29|issue=2|pages=215–233|doi=10.1016/s0921-8009(99)00009-9|year=1999}}</ref> Differences in exposure to wave patterns create a variety of habitat types.<ref>{{cite web|title=Stanford : Reef Structure|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/reefstructure.html|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-date=2017-09-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909022634/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/reefstructure.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The coral need a [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship with [[Symbiodinium|zooxanthellae algae]] in order to build a reef. The single celled algae derive their nutrients by using [[photosynthesis]], and the coral provide shelter to the algae in return for some of the nutrients.<ref name=""Stanford : Types of Reefs"" />  Zooxanthellae populations can die with changing environmental conditions, causing the coral to lose color, known as [[coral bleaching]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/whatisacoral.html|title=Stanford : Reef Structure|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-date=2017-09-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909022625/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/whatisacoral.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Environmental conditions such as a rise in water temperature inflict stress on the corals causing their symbiont [[Zooxanthellae]] to be expelled. The loss of Zooxanthellae causes corals to starve because they have lost the sugar food source Zooxanthellae had provided.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=B. E. |date=1997-06-01 |title=Coral bleaching: causes and consequences |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s003380050249 |journal=Coral Reefs |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=S129–S138 |doi=10.1007/s003380050249 |s2cid=16449216 |issn=1432-0975}}</ref> Corals that require the symbiotic algae receive their vibrant colors from the different species of Zooxanthellae that inhabit them.

== Ecosystem services ==
Corals provide millions of people with [[ecosystem services]] such as fisheries, medicine, tourism and recreation, coastal protection as well as aesthetic and cultural benefits,<ref name="":3"" /> yet they constitute a mere 0.2% of the world's marine ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Souter|first1=David W|last2=Lindén|first2=Olof|date=January 2000|title=The health and future of coral reef systems|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=43|issue=8–9|pages=657–688|doi=10.1016/S0964-5691(00)00053-3|bibcode=2000OCM....43..657S }}</ref>

=== Biodiversity ===
Also known as the ""rainforests of the sea,"" coral reefs cover less than 10% of the ocean yet provide a habitat to over 9 million species, approximately one fourth of all marine life, for food, shelter, and even hunting grounds for predators.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life-education-resources/coral-reef-ecosystems|title=Coral reef ecosystems {{!}} National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|website=www.noaa.gov|access-date=2019-12-02|archive-date=2020-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430200847/https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life-education-resources/coral-reef-ecosystems|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="":0"">{{cite web |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/species.html |title=Species on Coral Reefs |publisher=Coral Reef Alliance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212085409/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/species.html |archive-date=12 February 2020}}</ref> Species found on coral reefs include fish, invertebrates, birds, and megafauna such as sharks, sea turtles, and marine mammals.<ref name="":4"" /> Finally, they serve as essential spawning, nursing, and breeding grounds for numerous organisms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|title=Value of Corals {{!}} Coral Reef Systems|access-date=2019-12-02|archive-date=2019-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012947/https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Coastal Protection ===
Coral reefs provide complex structures that buffer the ocean's waves, protecting coastlines from strong currents and nasty storms. Approximately 500 million people live within 100&nbsp;km of coral reefs and rely on them for this protection. Not only are they critical in preventing the loss of lives, property damage, and erosion, but they also serve as a barrier for harbors and ports that depend on them economically.<ref name="":4"" />

=== Fisheries ===
Over a billion people globally depend on the fish that live among coral reefs as a major food source.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|url=https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|title=Value of Corals {{!}} Coral Reef Systems|access-date=2019-12-03|archive-date=2019-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012947/https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|url-status=live}}</ref> It is estimated that half of all US commercial and recreational fisheries depend on coral reefs to provide them over $100 million annually.<ref name="":4"" /> Globally, fisheries account for $5.7 billion of the net income provided by coral reefs.<ref name="":5"" />

=== Medicine ===
Species found in coral ecosystems produce chemical compounds that are used to develop new medicines to treat cancer, arthritis, asthma, heart disease, ulcers, bacterial infections, and viruses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html|title=NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Corals|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|access-date=2019-12-03|archive-date=2019-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922034459/https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As early as the 14th century, the medicinal properties of coral reef dwelling species were utilized. Antiviral extracts and tonics continue to be studied and toxic compounds such as [[neurotoxins]] discovered in coral reefs have proven beneficial as painkillers. [[Diterpenes]] isolated from coral have been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory as well as anti-microbial properties that are useful in medicinal therapies.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1155/2014/184959 |doi-access=free |title=Corals and Their Potential Applications to Integrative Medicine |year=2014 |last1=Cooper |first1=Edwin L. |last2=Hirabayashi |first2=Kyle |last3=Strychar |first3=Kevin B. |last4=Sammarco |first4=Paul W. |journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=2014 |pages=1–9 |pmid=24757491 |pmc=3976867 }}</ref> The [[limestone]] skeleton of coral has been tested and used for human [[Bone grafting|bone grafts]], due to its porous nature and has a lower rate of rejection than artificial bone graft materials.<ref name=""NOAA"">{{cite web|title = NOAA|url = http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/medicine/#b|access-date = 2015-05-09|archive-date = 2015-04-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150427155306/http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/medicine/#b|url-status = live}}</ref>

=== Tourism & Recreation ===
Millions of scuba divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs every year to observe their incredible beauty, as well as beachgoers who are protected by the reefs. Local economies rely heavily on coral reefs, receiving about $9.6 billion through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, and restaurants.<ref name="":5"" />

== General interests ==
There are four main categories of interest the public should have for the preservation of coral reefs: the preservation of natural beauty and value, the promotion of the local economy, potential source of new biological products, and preservation of the world ecosystems of which they are a part.

Over one-third of marine species live in coral reef ecosystems. These provide a beautiful underwater experience for snorkelers and divers with a significant tourism value.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Done|first=Terry|year=2004|title=Coral Reef Protection|journal=Issues in Science & Technology|volume=20|issue=3|pages=14–16|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref><ref name=""Musa and Dimmock 2013"" /> This great genetic biodiversity has a lot of potential for industries like pharmaceutics, biochemistry, and cosmetics. This biodiversity also boosts the economy through an increase in marine tourism and commercial fisheries. Long-term, coral reefs have been recognized as large contributors to the absorption of carbon dioxide emissions which has been an important part of the mitigation of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Caillaud|first=Anne|year=2012|title=Preventing Coral Grief: A Comparison Of Australian And French Coral Reef Protection Strategies In A Changing Climate|journal=Sustainable Development Law & Policy|volume=12|issue=2|pages=26–64|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref>

== Stressors ==
Two types of stressors are associated with [[reef]] systems: natural and human-induced. The effects of these stressors can range from negligible to catastrophic.

[[File:Marine debris on Hawaiian coast.jpg|thumbnail|left|Debris on the coast of Hawaii.]]The warming waters, ocean pH changes and [[sea level rise]] associated with [[climate change]] operate on a global basis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/oceans/coral/|title=Water Resources|date=2016-11-08|access-date=2009-10-20|archive-date=2009-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102084744/http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/oceans/coral/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wagner | first1 = D. E. | last2 = Kramer | first2 = P. | last3 = Van Woesik | first3 = R. | title = Species composition, habitat, and water quality influence coral bleaching in southern Florida | doi = 10.3354/meps08584 | journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series | volume = 408 | pages = 65–78 | year = 2010 | bibcode = 2010MEPS..408...65W | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Localized examples include residential, developmental, agricultural and industrial runoff, sedimentation from land clearing, human [[sewage]] and [[toxic]] discharges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://time.com/4080985/sunscreen-coral-reefs/|title=How Sunscreen May Be Destroying Coral Reefs|date=21 October 2015 |access-date=2016-12-05|archive-date=2016-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205163519/http://time.com/4080985/sunscreen-coral-reefs/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Acute stressors can inflict other damage, via unsustainable fishing practices, boat [[anchor]]s or accidental groundings. Some fishing practices are destructive to reef habitats, such as [[bottom trawling]], [[blast fishing|dynamite fishing]] and [[cyanide fishing]]. [[ghost net|Ghost fishing]] (unintended damage from abandoned fishing equipment) harms many coral reefs. Even small-scale fishing can damage reefs if herbivores are removed and thereby not allowed to protect reefs from encroachment by algae.<ref>{{cite web|title=WWF - Fishing problems: Destructive fishing practices|url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/destructive_fishing/|website=WWF Global|access-date=23 April 2015|archive-date=24 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424230200/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/destructive_fishing/|url-status=live}}</ref> Boaters can damage [[coral]] by dropping their anchors on reefs instead of sand.<ref name=""Bartels"">Bartels, Paul. ""Fragile reefs: handle with care."" Cruising World 22.n1 (Jan 1996). 15 Oct. 2009 [http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510172355/http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS|date=2013-05-10}}.</ref> Accidental boat groundings can obliterate areas of coral reef. Lettuce [[coral]]s and branching corals such as [[Elkhorn coral|elkhorn]] and finger coral are fragile, but even massive boulder corals can be crushed or broken and turned upside down to die by a sailboat keel. Groundings in sand, or even the churning action of [[propellers]], can cause major localized siltation, indirectly killing adjacent corals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS|title=Gale - Enter Product Login|access-date=2009-10-20|archive-date=2013-05-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510172355/http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the 20th century recreational scuba diving was considered to have generally low environmental impact, and was consequently one of the activities permitted in most marine protected areas. Basic diver training has concentrated on an acceptable risk to the diver, and paid less attention to the environment. The increase in the popularity of diving and in tourist access to sensitive ecological systems has led to the recognition that the activity can have significant environmental consequences.<ref name=""Hammerton 2014"" />

Scuba diving has grown in popularity during the 21st century, as is shown by the number of certifications issued worldwide.<ref name=""Lucrezi 2016"" >{{cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/how-scuba-diving-is-warding-off-threats-to-its-future-52504 |title=How scuba diving is warding off threats to its future |date=18 January 2016 |last=Lucrezi |first=Serena |website=The Conversation |access-date=5 September 2019 |archive-date=25 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125151346/https://theconversation.com/how-scuba-diving-is-warding-off-threats-to-its-future-52504 |url-status=live }}</ref> Scuba diving tourism is a growth industry, and it is necessary to consider [[environmental sustainability]], as the expanding impact of divers can adversely affect the [[marine environment]] in several ways, and the impact also depends on the specific environment. Tropical coral reefs are more easily damaged by poor diving skills than reefs where the environment is more robust. The same pleasant sea conditions that allow development of relatively delicate and highly diverse ecologies also attract the greatest number of tourists, including divers who dive infrequently, exclusively on vacation and never fully develop the skills to dive in an environmentally friendly way.<ref name=""Dimmock et al 2013"" >{{cite book |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259489022 |title=Scuba Diving Tourism |chapter=Chapter 10: The business of Scuba diving |pages=161–173 |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |first1=Kay |last1=Dimmock |first2=Terry |last2=Cummins |first3=Ghazali |last3=Musa |editor1-first=Ghazali |editor1-last=Musa |editor2-first=Kay |editor2-last=Dimmock |access-date=2020-04-19 |archive-date=2021-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723092824/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259489022_Kay_Dimmock_Terry_Cummins_and_Ghazali_Musa_2013_The_Business_of_SCUBA_Diving_Chapter_10_161-173_in_SCUBA_Diving_Tourism_edited_by_Ghazali_Musa_and_Kay_DimmockRoutledge_London_and_New_York |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Sediment ===
Sediment pollution from land has severe consequences for coral reef ecosystems. However, even along one coastline, separate reefs can experience different water flow conditions that affect sediment distribution. A 2015 study assessed sediment from two streambeds less than a mile apart on the island of [[Lānaʻi]], [[Hawaii]]. One site experienced quick-moving currents that efficiently flushed away sediment, protecting the reef, while the other was subjected to currents and wave conditions that allowed sediment to be continuously re-suspended in the water, starving the reef of light.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|title = Study clears the waters on a dirty threat to Hawai'i's reefs –...|url = http://blog.conservation.org/2016/01/study-clears-the-waters-on-a-dirty-threat-to-hawaiis-reefs/|website = Human Nature – Conservation International Blog|access-date = 2016-02-21|date = 2016-01-20|archive-date = 2016-02-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160225012517/http://blog.conservation.org/2016/01/study-clears-the-waters-on-a-dirty-threat-to-hawaiis-reefs/|url-status = live}}</ref>

=== Overfishing ===
The vast biodiversity of coral reefs consequently create an abundant fishing area for locals. This leads to [[overfishing]] of reef herbivore organisms which makes the coral reefs more vulnerable and unable to recover from large environmental disturbances.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rasher|first=Douglas|year=2012|title=Effects of Herbivory, Nutrients, And Reef Protection On Algal Proliferation And Coral Growth On A Tropical Reef|journal=Oecologia|volume=169|issue=1|pages=187–198|via=Academic Search Complete|doi=10.1007/s00442-011-2174-y|pmid=22038059|pmc=3377479|bibcode=2012Oecol.169..187R}}</ref> Unfortunately, most marine ecologists expect future oceans to be more overfished than now.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last=Lowe|first=Phillip|year=2011|title=Empirical Models Of Transitions Between Coral Reef States: Effects of Region, Protection, and Environmental Change|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0026339 |pmid=22073157|pmc=3206808|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=6|issue=11|pages=1–15|bibcode=2011PLoSO...626339L|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Other ===
See [[Environmental issues with coral reefs#Issues]]
{{expand section|date=September 2019}}
UV Filters
UV radiation is a threat to public health in terms of sunburn risk, and skin cancer. In turn People use sunscreen that has UV filters in it to absorb excess UV radiation. Protecting the skin, and each UV filter has its own absorption rate based on the SPF amount for skin sensitivity. UV filters in sunscreen can be either organic or inorganic. Inorganic UV filters reflect and absorb UV light. Zinc oxide is widely used inorganic UV filters and are mainly incorporated into sunscreen because the larger, size particles usually leave unpleasant white marks on the skin. Some of the mineral UV filters do get additional coatings such as alumina or incorporated manganese to minimize the formation of free radicals. Exposure to all tested sunscreen and led to the conclusion that UV filters induce a lytic viral cycle that leads to coral bleaching. However, the study is limited by the lack of analytical data as well as flaws in the experimental setup.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moeller |first1=Pawlowski |title=Challenges in Current Coral Reef Protection - Possible Impacts of UV Filters Used in Sunscreens, a Critical Review |year=2021 |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |volume=8 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.665548 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Monitoring ==
The continuous assessment of the health state of coral reef is an important task. To perform large-scale studies on the condition and bleaching of shallow-water coral reefs usually satellite or airborne imagery is used.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Normile |first=D. |date=2016 |title=El Niño's warmth devastating reefs worldwide |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/el-ni-o-s-warmth-devastating-reefs-worldwide |journal=Science |volume=352 |issue=6281 |pages=15–16|doi=10.1126/science.352.6281.15 |pmid=27034348 }}</ref> To more accurately document the status of the reef, recently, photogrammetric techniques have been introduced to generate orthophotos of the interested areas either by using consumer drones<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burns |first1=J. H. R. |last2=Delparte |first2=D. |last3=Gates |first3=R. D. |last4=Takabayashi |first4=M. |date=2015 |title=Integrating structure-from-motion photogrammetry with geospatial software as a novel technique for quantifying 3D ecological characteristics of coral reefs |url=https://peerj.com/articles/1077/ |journal=PeerJ |volume=1077}}</ref> or by capturing photos with scuba divers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nocerino |first1=Erica |last2=Menna |first2=Fabio |last3=Gruen |first3=Armin |last4=Troyer |first4=Matthias |last5=Capra |first5=Alessandro |last6=Castagnetti |first6=Cristina |last7=Rossi |first7=Paolo |last8=Brooks |first8=Andrew J. |last9=Schmitt |first9=Russell J. |last10=Holbrook |first10=Sally J. |date=January 2020 |title=Coral Reef Monitoring by Scuba Divers Using Underwater Photogrammetry and Geodetic Surveying |journal=Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=12 |issue=18 |pages=3036 |doi=10.3390/rs12183036 |issn=2072-4292 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020RemS...12.3036N |hdl=20.500.11850/446222 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> To analyze and annotate the large [[Orthophoto|orthographic images]] generated with these techniques semi-automatic [[Image segmentation|segmentation]] techniques are applied using open source tools like [[TagLab]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pavoni |first1=Gaia |last2=Corsini |first2=Massimiliano |last3=Ponchio |first3=Federico |last4=Muntoni |first4=Alessandro |last5=Edwards |first5=Clinton |last6=Pedersen |first6=Nicole |last7=Sandin |first7=Stuart |last8=Cignoni |first8=Paolo |date=May 2022 |title=TagLab: AI-assisted annotation for the fast and accurate semantic segmentation of coral reef orthoimages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rob.22049 |journal=Journal of Field Robotics |language=en |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=246–262 |doi=10.1002/rob.22049 |s2cid=244648241 |issn=1556-4959}}</ref>

== Restoration ==
[[File:ORAcoral1.jpg|thumbnail|Coral growing in an aquaculture tank]]
It is difficult to create a substantial plan for the protection of coral reefs due to their location out in open water; there is no distinct ownership over certain parts of the ocean, which creates difficulty in delegating responsibility.<ref name="":2"" /> But private and government groups whose purpose is to help the environment have made steps towards the restoration of coral reefs.

The aim of coral restoration is to help coral adapt to stressors and changing environments. [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA's]] Coral Reef Conservation Program and Damage Assessment, Remediation and Restoration Program approaches restoration by responding to and restoring physically damaged reefs, preventing the loss of habitat, implementing coral conservation projects, focusing on restoring endangered coral species and controlling  [[invasive species]].<ref>{{cite web|title=NOAA Habitat Conservation|url=http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/restoration/approaches/corals.html|access-date=2015-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423171112/http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/restoration/approaches/corals.html|archive-date=2015-04-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Coral reef organizations|Coral Restoration Foundation]] has restored over 100 genotypes of [[staghorn coral]]s (''Acropora cervicornis'') using coral nurseries, and also has research goals of determining ecological success, ideal restoration locations and how surrounding organisms affect restoration.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coral Restoration Foundation|url=http://www.coralrestoration.org/research/priorities/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518074223/http://www.coralrestoration.org/research/priorities/|archive-date=2015-05-18}}</ref> Laboratories located near reefs, such as Elizabeth Moore International Center for Coral Reef Research & Restoration — which has planted more than 43,000 corals in the Florida Keys — play a crucial role in maintaining these nurseries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mote.org/research/program/coral-reef-restoration|title=Coral Reef Restoration {{!}} Mote Field Stations|website=mote.org|access-date=2019-10-24|archive-date=2019-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024070352/https://mote.org/research/program/coral-reef-restoration|url-status=live}}</ref>

Coral reefs can be grown both asexually or sexually- in land-based or ocean nurseries. One of the first and most crucial steps taken to restore coral reefs is assess the land using acoustic technology. Gathering live coral and coral fragments is essential. Once coral reach a certain size in the nursery, they are out-planted and then transported to coral reefs for the restoration process. Planting nursery-grown corals back onto reefs is a tedious process. However, it is of the utmost importance to make sure the habitat is suitable for natural coral growth. It is best to build coral that is resilient to threats like climate change. Moreover, each coral must be handled manually and transplanted to the reef by hand.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lippsett|first=Lonny|date=12 Nov 2018|title=How Do Corals Build Their Skeletons?|url=https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/how-do-corals-build-their-skeletons/#:~:text=Coral%20skeletons%20are%20made%20of,a%20framework%20of%20aragonite%20crystals.&text=They%20pump%20hydrogen%20ions%20(H,CaCO3)%20for%20their%20skeletons.|url-status=live|website=Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution|access-date=23 July 2021|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415054715/https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/how-do-corals-build-their-skeletons/#:~:text=Coral%20skeletons%20are%20made%20of,a%20framework%20of%20aragonite%20crystals.&text=They%20pump%20hydrogen%20ions%20(H,CaCO3)%20for%20their%20skeletons.}}</ref> Researchers and marine biologists have used 3D printing to produce coral structures designed to stimulate coral growth and preserve the underwater ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Randall|first=Ryan|date=September 13, 2021|title=New Research Examines 3D Coral Printing Possibilities|url=https://phys.org/news/2021-09-3d-coral-possibilities.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913150846/https://phys.org/news/2021-09-3d-coral-possibilities.html |archive-date=2021-09-13 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-09|title=7 Projects That Are Restoring Coral Reefs by 3D Printing Them|url=https://3dprint.com/271739/7-projects-that-are-restoring-coral-reefs-by-3d-printing-them/|access-date=2021-09-14|website=3DPrint.com {{!}} The Voice of 3D Printing / Additive Manufacturing|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Managing stream flow ===
Sediment flux can be reduced in steep watersheds on montane tropical islands in the [[Hawaiian Islands|Hawaiian archipelago]] by restoring vegetation and controlling [[invasive species]]. [[Gabion]]s — check dams — created by planting normally invasive [[Prosopis pallida|kiawe trees]] by a local community group, stopped 77 tons of sediment from flowing into the ocean that would have needed about five weeks of natural water flow to flush from the reef.<ref name="":1"" />{{clarify|reason=Gabions are not made of trees, how was 77 tons established?|date=September 2019}}

=== Coral nurseries ===
[[Aquaculture of coral|Coral aquaculture]], the process of using coral nurseries to restore the world's reefs is a project that is capable of improving [[biodiversity]], structural integrity and coral cover.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gateño|first1=D.|title=Aquarium Maintenance of Reef Octocorals Raised from Field Collected Larvae|journal=Aquarium Sciences and Conservation|volume=2|issue=4|pages=227–236|doi=10.1023/A:1009627313037|year=1998|s2cid=82102974}}</ref> Coral nurseries can provide young corals for transplantation to rehabilitate areas of reef decline or physical damaged. Direct transplantation is a common process where corals from coral nurseries or salvaged coral that has been dislodged is transplanted and attached in a new area.<ref>Bayraktarov E, Banaszak AT, Montoya Maya P, Kleypas J, Arias-Gonza´lez JE, Blanco M, et al. (2020) Coral reef restoration efforts in Latin American countries and territories. PLoS ONE 15 (8): e0228477. {{doi|10.1371/journal}}. pone.0228477</ref> In this process, coral [[gamete]]s are harvested from spawning grounds and grown in a laboratory environment, then replanted when they grow larger. This allows the coral to grow safely in controlled amounts under lab conditions.<ref>{{cite news|title=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23773672|date=2013-08-21|access-date=2018-06-21|archive-date=2018-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521160223/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23773672|url-status=live}}</ref> Nurseries can begin as small patches of rescued coral colonies, and may be salvaged and restored before transplantation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Florida Keys NOAA|url=http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/resource_protection/coralnurseries.html|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-date=2015-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518104009/http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/resource_protection/coralnurseries.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2009, [[The Nature Conservancy]] began to grow over 30,000 young coral in underwater nurseries in Florida and the Caribbean for transplantation.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nature Conservancy|url=http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/florida/howwework/stimulating-coral-restoration.xml|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518104018/http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/florida/howwework/stimulating-coral-restoration.xml|archive-date=2015-05-18|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Management Strategies of Invasive Species ==
[[Invasive species]] are non-native species that are introduced to an [[ecosystem]] through a variety of pathways such as: intentional introductions, accidental releases, and natural events like tsunamis.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web |title=What are Invasive Species? {{!}} National Invasive Species Information Center |url=https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/what-are-invasive-species |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov}}</ref> The most common pathways are said by researches to be ballast water exchange of ocean going vessels and the marine ornamental trade.<ref name="":6"" /> Many species that are introduced into non-native areas either die out because they are not able to adapt to their new environment fast enough or they do survive but don’t alter the ecosystems enough to cause any damage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Invasive Species |url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-Wildlife/Invasive-Species |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=National Wildlife Federation |language=en}}</ref><ref name="":7"">{{Cite web |title=MASNA » Release and Invasion |url=https://masna.org/masna-education/release-invasion/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAyMKbBhD1ARIsANs7rEEA1mMEoRtBdY7CrBs9S62juqGA43vJ6HplDeTcqCJNaamLKnNfqM4aAsW_EALw_wcB |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=masna.org |language=en-US}}</ref> However, invasive species are given their name because they are able to adapt and thrive in non-native ecosystems causing significant damage to their new ecosystems, the food-web and the environment itself which why it is necessary to develop these management strategies to control them.<ref name="":7"" />

Invasive species affect coral reefs both directly and indirectly, corallivores like the [[Crown-of-thorns starfish|Crown of Thorns Starfish]] directly consume corals while [[Pterois]] pose a threat through their over consumption of native species within [[coral reef]] ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crown of Thorns Starfish {{!}} Reef Resilience |url=https://reefresilience.org/stressors/predator-outbreaks/crown-of-thorns-starfish/ |access-date=2022-11-29 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="":7"" /> Management strategies may vary depending on the type of invasive species.<ref name="":7"" />  Outbreaks of these invasive species have become more frequent over the past century and are adding to the frequency at which coral cover is being lost.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Babcock |first1=Russell C. |last2=Dambacher |first2=Jeffrey M. |last3=Morello |first3=Elisabetta B. |last4=Plagányi |first4=Éva E. |last5=Hayes |first5=Keith R. |last6=Sweatman |first6=Hugh P. A. |last7=Pratchett |first7=Morgan S. |date=2016-12-30 |title=Assessing Different Causes of Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Outbreaks and Appropriate Responses for Management on the Great Barrier Reef |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=e0169048 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0169048 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=5201292 |pmid=28036360|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1169048B |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Crown of Thorns Starfish ===
Native to the [[Indo-Pacific|Indo-pacific]] these [[marine invertebrates]] feed on [[coral]] and play a critical role in the coral reef ecosystem, regulating the diversity of corals and maintaining balance within the reefs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crown of Thorns Starfish {{!}} Reef Resilience |url=https://reefresilience.org/stressors/predator-outbreaks/crown-of-thorns-starfish/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |language=en-US}}</ref> However, the [[Crown-of-thorns starfish|crown of thorns starfish]] (''[[Acanthaster]]'' ''sp''., COTS) is also a natural boom-and-bust species which mean that their population dynamics are characterized by the extreme fluctuations in adult abundance, followed by population collapse as coral food levels decline, leaving a swath of dead coral behind.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite journal |last=Westcott |first=David |date=2020 |title=Relative efficacy of three approaches to mitigate Crown-of-Thorns Starfish outbreaks on Australia's Great Barrier Reef |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343319638 |access-date=2022-11-30 |journal=Scientific Reports|volume=10 |issue=1 |page=12594 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-69466-1 |pmid=32724152 |pmc=7387460 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1012594W }}</ref> COTS outbreaks were first discovered in the 1960’s on the  [[Great Barrier Reef|GBR]], occurring under natural conditions as frequently as every 50–80 years. However, unnaturally there has been an increase in the frequency of outbreaks to every 15 years has led to further research that still hasn’t been answered.<ref name="":8"" />

'''Manual control'''

Manual control is the process in which experienced COTS control divers remove COTS from reefs either by [[lethal injection]]s or hand collections and disposal on shore.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite journal |date=2022 |title=Crown of thorns starfish life-history traits contribute to outbreaks, a continuing concern for coral reefs |url=https://portlandpress.com/emergtoplifesci/article/6/1/67/230852/Crown-of-thorns-starfish-life-history-traits |journal=Nature}}</ref> This method has been around from the 1960s, since then 17 million starfish have been killed or removed as a collective by 84 manual control programs at an estimated cost of $15–44 million USD.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":9"" /> Due to the large cost and limited success in preventing COTS outbreaks and coral loss, scientists doubt the effectivity of this method.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":9"" /> Sites are selected by the national governments of individual countries with coasts based on the potential significance in the overall pattern of coral and COTS larval spread for example: economically important for tourism, or located on reefs that oceanographic modeling suggested were highly connected to other reefs.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":9"" /><ref name="":12"">{{Citation |last1=Matthews |first1=S. A. |title=Chapter Nine - Larval connectivity and water quality explain spatial distribution of crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks across the Great Barrier Reef |date=2020-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065288120300390 |journal=Advances in Marine Biology |volume=87 |pages=223–258 |editor-last=Riegl |editor-first=Bernhard M. |series=Population Dynamics of the Reef Crisis |publisher=Academic Press |language=en |access-date=2022-11-30 |last2=Mellin |first2=C. |last3=Pratchett |first3=Morgan S.|issue=1 |doi=10.1016/bs.amb.2020.08.007 |pmid=33293012 |s2cid=226407282 }}</ref> Selected sites including permanent survey marked sites are used to precisely relocate RHIS survey sites for continuous measurements of coral cover.<ref name="":8"" />

'''Marine Protected Area zoning'''

Marine Protected Area zones are areas created by [[Marine national parks|Marine National Parks]] or other management operators of a country. There are two components to a Marine protected area, zoning and the degree of protection for each zone.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":11"">{{Cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=Jacob G. D. |last2=Plagányi |first2=Éva E. |date=2022-05-09 |title=Culling corallivores improves short-term coral recovery under bleaching scenarios |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=2520 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-30213-x |pmid=35534497 |pmc=9085818 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.2520R |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> Marine zoning has in previous studies been highly successful in minimizing outbreaks of COTS when it is paired with manual control.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":11"" /> There are three different types of zoning, ‘no-take’, ‘limited-take’ and ‘take’ zones on COTS numbers and coral cover.<ref name="":11"" />

'''Water quality management'''

Increasing water quality has the ability to increase or decrease COTS outbreaks.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":12""/> According to earlier studies, controlling the quality of the water can help prevent breakouts to some extent but this is not always tangible.<ref name="":8"" /> Exposure to flood plumes variables and the presence of COTS indicated a positive threshold type response at low levels, highlighting the significance of larval nutrition availability for the establishment of COTS populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castro-Sanguino |first1=Carolina |last2=Ortiz |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Thompson |first3=Angus |last4=Wolff |first4=Nicholas H. |last5=Ferrari |first5=Renata |last6=Robson |first6=Barbara |last7=Magno-Canto |first7=Marites M. |last8=Puotinen |first8=Marji |last9=Fabricius |first9=Katharina E. |last10=Uthicke |first10=Sven |date=2021-04-01 |title=Reef state and performance as indicators of cumulative impacts on coral reefs |journal=Ecological Indicators |language=en |volume=123 |pages=107335 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.107335 |s2cid=233569637 |issn=1470-160X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":12"" /> Excess nutrients run-off from agricultural land uses (grazing, grain, sugar cane, and horticulture) create [[Algal bloom|phytoplankton blooms]] in reef waters that can be carried to COTS populations.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":12"" /> Water quality can be managed by controlling how [[Drainage basin|catchments]] discharge water, but this requires intensive land management employing best management practices.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":12""/>

==Marine protected areas==
[[File:NPS channel-islands-marine-reserve-map.jpg|thumb|252x252px|This map shows all the marine reserve areas around the Santa Barbara Channel islands, where fishing is not permitted. Also labeled are marine conservation areas and visitor centers on the mainland.]]
[[Marine protected area]]s (MPAs) have become an increasingly prominent tool for reef management. MPAs promote responsible [[Fisheries management|fishery management]] and [[habitat]] protection. Much like [[national park]]s and [[wildlife refuge]]s, and to varying degrees, MPAs restrict potentially damaging activities. MPAs encompass both social and biological objectives, including reef restoration, aesthetics, biodiversity and economic activity. MPAs have not been universally accepted. Conflicts relate to lack of participation, clashing views, effectiveness and funding.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Many MPAs offer inadequate protection for coral reefs. Only 27% of coral reefs are in MPAs globally. Only 15% of MPA sites were considered effective, with 38% partially effective and 47% ineffective. This leaves only 6% of coral reefs in effectively managed MPAs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited_executive_summary.pdf |title=Reefs at Risk Revisited |publisher=World Resources Institute |date=February 2011 |access-date=March 16, 2012 |archive-date=June 13, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613030504/http://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited_executive_summary.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In some situations, as in [[Kiribati]]'s [[Phoenix Islands Protected Area]], MPAs provide revenue that is potentially equal to the income they would have generated without controls.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Phoenix Rising
|publisher=National Geographic Magazine
|date=January 2011
|access-date=April 30, 2011
|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/phoenix-islands/stone-text
|archive-date=August 9, 2011
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809040407/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/phoenix-islands/stone-text
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

[[Biosphere reserve]], [[marine park]], [[national monument]] and [[world heritage]] status can protect reefs. For example, Belize's Barrier reef, [[Chagos Archipelago]], [[Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve|Sian Ka'an]], the [[Galápagos Islands]], [[Great Barrier Reef]], [[Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)|Henderson Island]], [[Palau]] and [[Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument]] are world heritage sites.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}
The [[Parcel de Manuel Luís Marine State Park]] protects the largest coral reef in the South Atlantic.<ref>{{citation|title=Decreto nº 11.902 de 11 de Junho de 1991|language=pt|author1=Edison Lobão|author2=Fernando César de Moreira Mesquita|date=11 June 1991|publisher=State of Maranhão|url=https://documentacao.socioambiental.org/ato_normativo/UC/305_20100823_151217.pdf|access-date=2016-08-03|archive-date=2019-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021072153/https://documentacao.socioambiental.org/ato_normativo/UC/305_20100823_151217.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
This became a Ramsar Site in February 2000.<ref>{{citation|date=23 January 2015|title=Parcel de Manuel Luís, sítio Ramsar e parque marinho|author=Marcelo Carota|publisher=MMA: Ministério do Meio Ambiente|language=pt|url=http://mma.gov.br/index.php/comunicacao/agencia-informma?view=blog&id=709|access-date=2016-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523093132/http://mma.gov.br/index.php/comunicacao/agencia-informma?view=blog&id=709|archive-date=23 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]], and is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}

Inhabitants of Ahus Island, [[Manus Province]], [[Papua New Guinea]], have followed a generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow line fishing, but not net or [[spear fishing]]. The result is both the [[biomass]] and individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cinner |first1=Joshua E. |first2=Michael J.|last2= MARNANE |first3=Tim R.|last3= McClanahan |year=2005 |title=Conservation and community benefits from traditional coral reef management at Ahus Island, Papua New Guinea |journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1714–1723 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00209.x-i1 |bibcode=2005ConBi..19.1714C |s2cid=83619557 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17182 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001013329/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17182 | url-status=dead | archive-date=1 October 2006 |title=Coral Reef Management, Papua New Guinea |publisher = [[NASA]] [[Earth Observatory]]|access-date=2 November 2006}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Environmental issues with coral reefs]]
* [[Coral Reef Alliance]]
* [[Seacology]]
* [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]]
* [[Marine cloud brightening#Research|Marine cloud brightening]]
*[[Frozen zoo]]
*[[National Ice Core Laboratory]]
*[[Amphibian Ark]]
*[[Svalbard Global Seed Vault]]
*[[Rosetta Project]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|36em}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|publisher=The National Academies Press, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine|author=|title=A Research Review of Interventions to Increase the Persistence and Resilience of Coral Reefs|location=Washington, DC|date=2019|doi=10.17226/25279|isbn=978-0-309-48535-7|s2cid=134877358}} {{open access}}

== External links ==
* {{Cite web|url = http://www.mnmrc.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Maui_Coral_Reef_Recovery_Plan_MASTER.pdf|title = Maui Coral Reef Recovery Plan|date = 2012|access-date = 2016-02-21|website = mnmrc.org|publisher = Maui Nui Marine Resource Council|last = Maui Coral Reef Recovery Team}}
{{Corals}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Coral reefs|*]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Category:Environmental protection agencies,"{{Commons category|Environmental protection agencies}}
Government bodies and agencies whose role includes the oversight, administration and enforcement of environmental policy.

[[Category:Environmental agencies|Protection agencies]]
[[Category:Environmental protection|Agencies]]"
Low-emission zone,"{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{short description|Area established to improve air quality}}

A '''low-emission zone''' ('''LEZ''') is a defined area where access by some polluting vehicles is restricted or deterred with the aim of improving [[air quality]]. This may favour vehicles such as bicycles, [[micromobility]] vehicles, (certain) [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s, [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s, [[plug-in hybrid]]s, and [[zero-emission vehicle]]s such as [[all-electric vehicle]]s.

A '''zero-emission zone''' ('''ZEZ''') is a LEZ where only zero-emissions vehicles (ZEVs) are allowed. In such areas, all [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles are banned; this includes any [[plug-in hybrid vehicle]]s which cannot run zero-emission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20216/air_quality_management/1306/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez_frequently_asked_questions|title=Oxford Zero Emission Zone (ZEZ) frequently asked questions|last=Council|first=Oxford City|website=www.oxford.gov.uk|language=en|access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref> Only [[battery electric vehicle]]s and [[hydrogen vehicle]]s are allowed in a ZEZ, along with walking and cycling and fully electric public transport vehicles, e.g. trams, [[electric bus]]es etc.

==Workings==
In many LEZs, vehicles that do not meet the emission standards set by the LEZ are not barred from entry into the LEZ (i.e. using automated [[boom barrier]]s), but rather simply fined if they enter the zone. A fine is not issued if entering the LEZ with a vehicle that does not meet the emission standards, when a fee (LEZ daily charge, ...) has been paid. In some LEZs, such as the one in London, this is done by [[automatic number-plate recognition]] (ANPR) cameras which read the vehicle registration number plate as they enter the LEZ and then compare it against a database of vehicles which:
* either meet the LEZ emissions standards, 
* or are either exempt or registered for a 100 percent discount, 
* or if the LEZ daily charge has been paid<ref>[https://www.ifsecglobal.com/uncategorized/anpr-cameras-used-for-london-emission-zone/ ANPR cameras used for London emission zone]</ref>
This fee/fine works as a deterrent for those having a vehicle that does not meet the LEZ emission standard for entering the city, and those having such vehicles will hence try to avoid paying this fee/fine (using various means, see ""intent and actual impact"").

==Intent and actual impact==
The intent of LEZs is generally to improve air quality within cities.<ref>[https://airqualitynews.com/2017/11/30/london-emissions-crackdown/ Views sought on ‘inner London’ ULEZ]</ref> This intent is indeed achieved, with diesel particulates (PM10) dropping in most LEZs,<ref name=""Impact of Low Emission Zones"">[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/low-emission-zones-main/impact-of-low-emission-zones Impact of Low Emission Zones]</ref> and health improving.<ref> {{Cite news |last=Fuller |first=Gary |date=2023-06-30 |title=Low emission zones are improving health, studies show |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/30/low-emission-zones-lez-improving-health-studies |access-date=2023-07-12 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

Often, this is achieved as people with polluting vehicles replace them with vehicles that attain a higher emission standard,<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136192091300059X | doi=10.1016/j.trd.2013.03.010 | title=Five years of London's low emission zone: Effects on vehicle fleet composition and air quality | year=2013 | last1=Ellison | first1=Richard B. | last2=Greaves | first2=Stephen P. | last3=Hensher | first3=David A. | journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment | volume=23 | pages=25–33 }}</ref> which may mean buying a new vehicle, or travelling throughout avenues and roads distant from the areas where pollution is concentrated. Some people (such as workers on night shift or carrying heavy tools or cargo) however can't do without a car, but might not be able to afford to purchase unsubsidized cleaner vehicles. Therefore in some places the LEZ is only enforced when public transport is available, or electric taxis<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.bristol.gov.uk/news/subsidies-on-offer-to-taxi-drivers-who-switch-to-electric-vehicles-2|title=Subsidies on offer to taxi drivers who switch to electric vehicles|website=Bristol City Council News|language=english|access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref> or [[cargobike]]s are subsidized.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/carltonreid/2019/04/03/london-wants-vans-replaced-by-cargobikes-introduces-subsidy-and-behavior-change-program/|title=London Wants Vans Replaced By Cargobikes, Introduces Subsidy And Behavior Change Program|last=Reid|first=Carlton|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref>

The [[European Federation for Transport and Environment]] is of the opinion that LEZs should be gradually turned into zero-emission mobility zones and complement policies promoting a switch to [[Alternatives to car use|clean alternatives]], including walking and cycling, among others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bannon |first=Eoin |title=Low-Emission Zones are a success – but they must now move to zero-emission mobility |url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/publications/low-emission-zones-are-success-%E2%80%93-they-must-now-move-zero-emission-mobility |website=Transport & Environment |access-date=1 April 2021 |date=10 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sumantran |first1=Venkat |last2=Fine |first2=Charles |last3=Gonsalvez |first3=David |title=Our cities need fewer cars, not cleaner cars |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/16/our-cities-need-fewer-cars-not-cleaner-cars-electric-green-transport |access-date=1 April 2021 |website=The Guardian |date=16 October 2017}}</ref>

Most LEZs which are not also congestion charge zones do not change the number of vehicles entering the zone: but some LEZs  (such as the one in Milan) double as congestion charge zones and thus have the potential to reduce the numbers travelling into the city.<ref name=""Impact of Low Emission Zones""/>

==Implementation by country==
[[File:Umweltzone rot, gelb, grün frei.svg|thumb|Sign marking a German low-emission zone. Vehicles with red, yellow, and green emissions stickers are permitted in the zone.]]

{{As of|2019}} there are about 250 low-emission zones (LEZ),<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47816360|title=London's ULEZ: How does it compare?|last=McGrath|first=Matt|date=8 April 2019|access-date=19 June 2019|language=en-GB}}</ref> which help meet EU health-based [[Air pollution#European Union|air quality limit values]]. This means that vehicles may be banned from a LEZ, or in some cases charged if they enter a LEZ when their emissions are over a set level. Although common in Europe the continent's largest cities are lacking: Istanbul has no LEZ and Moscow's is not enforced.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kholod |first1=Nazar |last2=Evans |first2=Meredydd |date=2016-02-01 |title=Reducing black carbon emissions from diesel vehicles in Russia: An assessment and policy recommendations |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |language=en |volume=56 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2015.10.017 |issn=1462-9011|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Different vehicles may be regulated, depending on local conditions. All LEZs apply to heavy vehicles, some to diesel vans, others also to diesel and petrol cars; in Italy, motor cycles and three-wheelers are also liable to control.

A publicly funded website run by a network of cities and ministries operating or preparing LEZs gives up-to-date information on LEZs, such as which cities have LEZs, the vehicle types affected, the required emissions standards and their application dates.<ref name=LEZEurope>{{cite web|url=https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/ |title=Urban Access Regulations in Europe |publisher=Sadler Consultants Ltd. |date= |accessdate=19 June 2019}}</ref>

===Belgium===
* [[Antwerp]]: Since 2017, there has been a LEZ in [[Antwerp]], 24/7. Only diesel vehicles above Euro 3/III norm and petrol vehicles above Euro 1/I norm are allowed to enter the LEZ.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.slimnaarantwerpen.be/en/lez  |title=Antwerp LEZ |publisher=Stad Antwerpen |accessdate=8 March 2017}}</ref>
* Brussels: Since 2018, the entire [[Brussels Capital Region]] has been a LEZ.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brussels.be/lez |title=Low Emission Zone |date=3 October 2017 |publisher=Brussels Capital Region |accessdate=30 June 2021}}</ref> Only diesel vehicles above Euro 4/IV norm are allowed to enter Brussels.<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 December 2021|title=Low Emission Zone: new ban from 2022|url=https://www.brussels.be/low-emission-zone-new-ban-2022|access-date=8 January 2022|website=www.brussels.be|language=en}}</ref> <br/>Since 2019 petrol or gas-powered vehicles need to be Euro 2/II or more.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lez.brussels/mytax/en/practical?tab=Agenda  |title=In practice: Everything you need to know about the LEZ in the Brussels-Capital Region. |publisher=Brussels Capital Region |accessdate=30 June 2021}}</ref>
* [[Ghent]] introduced a LEZ on 1 January 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://stad.gent/natuur-milieu/lage-emissiezone-2020 |title=Lage-Emissiezone 2020 |publisher=Stad Gent |accessdate=11 November 2017}}</ref>

===China===
An LEZ is present in Beijing.<ref>[https://wrirosscities.org/our-work/project-city/beijing-low-emission-zone Beijing Low Emission Zone]</ref><ref>[http://www.sustainabletransport.org/archives/tag/low-emission-zones LEZ examples]</ref>

===Denmark===
Denmark has LEZs that are applicable to vehicles over 3.5 t.<ref name=LEZEurope/>
In Denmark, LEZs exist in Aalborg, Aarhus, Copenhagen, Frederiksberg and Odense.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/denmark-mainmenu-221 LEZs Denmark]</ref>

===Finland===
A LEZ is present in Helsinki.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/finland LEZs Finland]</ref>

===France===
France has LEZs in Greater Paris, Grenoble, Lyon, Paris and Strasbourg<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/france LEZs in France]</ref>

===Germany===
In Germany, an LEZ is called an environmental zone (''Umweltzone''). There are currently 47 LEZs in operation or in planning in Germany.<ref name=""LEZEurope"" /> The cities of [[Berlin]], [[Cologne]], [[Hanover]], [[Mannheim]] and [[Stuttgart]] started LEZs in their respective central city areas in 2008 and more cities followed in the years after.

===Hong Kong===
Since the end of 2015, the Hong Kong Government has designated three major junctions in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], [[Causeway Bay]] and [[Mong Kok]] as low emission zone for [[Bus services in Hong Kong|franchised buses]]. For bus routes entering the three zones, franchised bus operators are required to use only buses meeting emission standards of [[European emission standards|Euro IV]] or above except when necessary. The LEZ scheme does not cover vehicles other than franchised buses.<ref>[http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201512/31/P201512310204.htm Government sets up franchised bus low emission zones starting today] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202173836/http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201512/31/P201512310204.htm |date=2 February 2016 }}</ref> As of 31 December 2019, the standard for entry into the LEZ has been increased to Euro V.

=== Indonesia ===
The first LEZ in Indonesia is implemented at the old downtown of [[Jakarta]], the [[Kota Tua Jakarta]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |last=Wibawana |first=Widhia Arum |date=2022-09-11 |title=Low Emission Zone Artinya Apa? LEZ Berlaku di Kota Tua Jakarta |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-6285913/low-emission-zone-artinya-apa-lez-berlaku-di-kota-tua-jakarta |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=[[Detik.com|detiknews]] |language=id-ID}}</ref> It was first implemented on 8 February 2021 after having a trial run from 18-23 December 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2020-12-19 |title=Membatasi Kendaraan Bermotor di Kota Tua |url=https://koran.tempo.co/read/metro/460878/membatasi-kendaraan-bermotor-di-kota-tua |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=[[Tempo (Indonesian magazine)|koran.tempo.co]] |language=id}}</ref> The city government chose Kota Tua Jakarta as an LEZ in order to reduce air pollution on the site due to its rich historical value.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anjani |first=Anatasia |date=2021-11-17 |title=Kota Tua Dijadikan Kawasan Emisi Rendah, Mengapa? |url=https://www.detik.com/edu/detikpedia/d-5814882/kota-tua-dijadikan-kawasan-emisi-rendah-mengapa |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=[[Detik.com|detikedu]] |language=id-ID}}</ref> Air pollution is concerned to damage the structure of old buildings within the site. The LEZ implementation is permanent and only [[TransJakarta]] buses, bicycles, pedestrians, and vehicles with special marker are allowed to enter the streets of the old town.<ref name="":0"" />

Beside that, LEZ is also implemented at the surrounding area of [[Tebet Eco Park]] in [[South Jakarta]]. Unlike the previous one in Kota Tua, LEZ in Tebet Eco Park is only implemented on weekends and public holidays.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Budi |first=Mulia |date=2022-08-20 |title=Pro Kontra Opini Pengunjung soal Tebet Eco Park Masuk Zona Emisi Rendah |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-6244645/pro-kontra-opini-pengunjung-soal-tebet-eco-park-masuk-zona-emisi-rendah |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=detiknews |language=id-ID}}</ref> Residents or workers in the surrounding area of the park have to place a sticker with [[QR code]] on their vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-11 |title=Ini 2 Ruas Jalan di Sekitar Tebet Eco Park yang Bakal Dilarang untuk Dilintasi Kendaraan Bermotor |url=https://voi.id/amp/188983/ini-2-ruas-jalan-di-sekitar-tebet-eco-park-yang-bakal-dilarang-untuk-dilintasi-kendaraan-bermotor |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=VOI - Waktunya Merevolusi Pemberitaan |language=id}}</ref>

===Italy===
Italy has LEZs that are applicable to all vehicles.<ref name=LEZEurope/>
There are combined LEZs and urban road tolling schemes in Milan and Palermo as well as low emission zones with differing standards and time periods. The latter are mainly found in north Italy, but also in mid Italy and Sicily.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/italy-mainmenu-81 LEZs Italy]</ref> Some [[limited traffic zone]]s are also aimed at limiting pollution levels.

===Japan===
In Tokyo, the municipal government decided to tackle controlling diesel vehicle emissions (particulate matter emissions, ...) far ahead of the national government.<ref>[https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id030817.html Tokyo Metropolitan Government's Efforts to Control Diesel Vehicle Emissions]</ref><ref>[http://www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/en/automobile/diesel.html TMG: Measures against Diesel Emissions]</ref>

===Netherlands===
[[Amsterdam]], [[The Hague]], [[Utrecht]] and [[Arnhem]] have LEZs (''milieuzone'') applying to passenger cars and delivery vans. Only diesel passenger cars and diesel delivery vans meeting the emission standards of Euro 4 and above are allowed to enter the LEZs. Diesel trucks and diesel Buses/coaches have to meet Euro VI (6) or above to enter the LEZs. The LEZ of Arnhem does not apply to buses/coaches.<ref>[https://www.milieuzones.nl/locaties-milieuzones LEZs in the Netherlands]</ref>

The LEZ of Amsterdam covers practically the entire area within the [[A10 motorway (Netherlands)|A10 highway]]. The highway itself is not part of the LEZ.<ref>[https://www.amsterdam.nl/en/traffic-transport/low-emission-zone/ LEZ for diesel vehicles]</ref>

The LEZ of The Hague covers the area enclosed by the Centrumring (S100) and Professor B.M. Teldersweg (S200). These roads themselves, as well as the road from Lijnbaan to the visitors’ car park and the parking garage of the HMC Westeinde hospital, are not part of the LEZ.<ref>[https://www.denhaag.nl/en/in-the-city/getting-there-and-around/low-emission-zone-for-diesel-cars-.htm LEZ for diesel cars]</ref>

[[Rotterdam]] has an LEZ applying to trucks only. Diesel trucks have to meet the Euro VI (6) emission standard or above.<ref>[https://www.rotterdam.nl/wonen-leven/milieuzone/ LEZ Rotterdam]</ref>

===Norway===
Norway has LEZs in Bergen and Oslo.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/norway-mainmenu-197 LEZs in Norway]</ref>

===Portugal===
Portugal has an LEZ in Lisbon.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/portugal LEZs in Portugal]</ref>

===Spain===
[[Pontevedra]] was the first Spanish city to ban traffic in its core, in 1999.<ref>[https://elpais.com/sociedad/2018/11/30/actualidad/1543595906_838257.html Pontevedra, the city that defeated cars]. [[El País]]</ref> [[Málaga]] and [[Seville]] were the next cities to establish low emission zones, with traffic only allowed for residents, in 2009.<ref>[https://www.20minutos.es/noticia/475742/0/pilonas/centro/malaga/ Málaga: The historic center closes to traffic]. [[20 minutos]]</ref> Seville rolled back its low-emission zone under the mayorship of [[Juan Ignacio Zoido]] in 2011,<ref>[https://www.lainformacion.com/estilo-de-vida-y-tiempo-libre/el-alcalde-deroga-el-plan-que-restringia-los-coches-en-centro-de-sevilla_boVsoW4oQEN35u7MigLE04/ Mayor abolishes plan to restrict cars in Seville center]. La Información</ref> but at date of August 2021 a new system was in the process of implementation.<ref>[https://www.sevilla.org/respira/casco-antiguo-triana Restricted traffic zones]. Seville City Council</ref>

[[Madrid]] established [[Madrid Central|its LEZ]] in 2018 in its [[Centro (Madrid)|city center]], and [[Barcelona]] approved it in 2020.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/spain LEZs in Spain]</ref>

===Sweden===
The cities of [[Gothenburg]], [[Lund]], [[Malmö]], Helsingborg, Mölndal, Uppsala, Umeå and [[Stockholm]] have low-emission zones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Urban Access Regulation in Europe|url=http://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/sweden-mainmenu-248|accessdate=21 December 2016}}</ref> Heavy trucks and buses with compression ignited engines (mainly diesel engines) may not be allowed inside the environmental zones depending on their age and on their emission class.<ref>{{cite web|title=Miljözoner|url=https://www.transportstyrelsen.se/sv/vagtrafik/Miljo/Miljozoner/|accessdate=12 January 2017}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
{{See also|Clean Air Zone}}
[[File:Sign for London ultra low emission zone (geograph 6183970).jpg|thumb|Sign for the [[Ultra Low Emission Zone]] (ULEZ) in London (left)]]

The [[London low emission zone]] came into effect in 2008 covering almost all of [[Greater London]] – the largest such zone in the world. The [[Low Emission Zone]] targets emissions of these pollutants from older diesel-engined [[lorries]], buses, [[Coach (vehicle)|coaches]], vans, [[minibus]]es and other heavy vehicles that are derived from lorries and vans such as motor caravans and motorised horse boxes. There was a phased introduction of the scheme from 2008 through to 2012. Different vehicles were affected over time and increasingly tougher emissions standards applied.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tfl.gov.uk/roadusers/lez/vehicles/2535.aspx |title=Emissions standards |publisher=Transport for London |accessdate=21 November 2007}}</ref>

The London [[Ultra Low Emission Zone]] started on 8 April 2019 and initially covered [[Central London]], the same area as the existing [[London congestion charge|congestion charge]]. On 25 October 2021, the zone was extended to cover the [[Inner London]] area within the [[North Circular Road|North Circular]] and [[South Circular Road, London|South Circular]] roads.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/167d27aa-d7e1-4b6b-b8d2-b657310efe01|title=Londoners get ready for expansion of low emission zone|date=24 October 2021|website=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref> It was expanded again on 29 August 2023 to coincide with the London low emission zone, covering almost all of [[Greater London]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-63754724 |title=ULEZ: Ultra Low Emissions Zone to cover all of London |date=25 November 2022 |website=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

[[File:UK traffic sign TA4754.H.svg|thumb|upright|Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) sign]]

[[Glasgow]] introduced a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) at the end of 2018. Initially, only local buses in the centre of the city are affected. On 1 June 2023 restrictions were extended to all vehicles, including older petrol and diesel cars.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.glasgow.gov.uk/LEZ | title=Glasgow's Low Emission Zone (LEZ) | date=20 July 2018 }}</ref> [[Norwich]], and [[York]] also introduced a LEZ.<ref>[Norwich Low Emission Zone https://laqm.defra.gov.uk/documents/Norwich_lez.pdf]</ref><ref name=UKZEZ/>

Since 2015, more than 60 local authorities have been ordered to tackle illegal levels of air pollution, which is why many of these planning to introduce [[clean air zone]]s. The following cities have plans to introduce LEZs: [[Aberdeen]] (2020), [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]] (2021), [[Birmingham]] (2019), [[Derby]], Dundee (2020), [[Edinburgh]] (2020), [[Manchester]] (2022), [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] (2021), and [[Sheffield]] (2021).<ref name=UKZEZ/> [[Leeds]] also intended to introduce a LEZ, however increased uptake of cleaner vehicles led to the scheme's cancellation in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://news.leeds.gov.uk/news/leeds-clean-air-zone-has-achieved-its-aims-early-and-is-no-longer-required-joint-review-finds |title=Leeds' Clean Air Zone has achieved its aims early and is no longer required, joint review finds |date=2020-10-13 |access-date=2023-05-31 |author=[[Leeds City Council]] }}</ref>

{{Asof|2020|06}}, [[Oxford]] is claiming to become the first city to implement a Zero Emission Zone (ZEZ) scheme, beginning with a small area to go into effect by mid 2021. It was postponed from a 2020 start due to the economic impacts of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. However, the proposals can more accurately be described as a Low Emission Zone or Ultra Low Emission Zone as any vehicle can enter on payment of a charge.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20299/air_quality_projects/1305/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez | title=Oxford's Zero Emission Zone – 20/03/2020 update | author=Oxford City Council |publisher=[[Oxford City Council]] | date=20 March 2020 | accessdate=18 June 2020}}</ref> The plan is to expand the ZEZ gradually into a much larger zone, until the ZEZ encompasses the majority of the city centre by 2035.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20299/air_quality_projects/1305/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez | title=Oxford's Zero Emission Zone – 20/03/2020 update | author=Oxford City Council |publisher=[[Oxford City Council]] | date=20 March 2020 | accessdate=18 June 2020}}</ref><ref name=UKZEZ>{{Cite web|url=https://www.buyacar.co.uk/cars/economical-cars/523/clean-air-zone-charges-where-are-britains-low-emission-zones |first=Dominic |last=Tobin |title=Clean air zone charges: where are Britain's low emission zones?|publisher=buyacar.co.uk |date=12 March 2019|access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20216/air_quality_management/208/oxfords_low_emission_zone_lez|title=Oxford's Low Emission Zone (LEZ)}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Automatic number-plate recognition]]
*[[Battery electric vehicle]]
*''[[Crit'air]]''
*[[Carfree city]]
*[[Congestion pricing]]
*[[Cyclability]]
*[[Ecopass]]
*[[Electric car]]
*[[Environmental aspects of the electric car]]
*[[Fenceline community]]
*[[List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles]]
*[[Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles]]
*[[Plug-in electric vehicle]]
*[[Plug-in hybrid]]
*[[Road space rationing]]
*[[Sustainable transport]]
*[[Transit mall]]
*[[Zero-emissions vehicle]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.lowemissionzones.eu Low-emission zones in Europe]

[[Category:Air pollution]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Traffic calming]]
[[Category:Transportation planning]]"
Three generations of human rights,"{{short description|Division of human rights into three chronological categories}}
{{Rights|Human}}
The division of [[human rights]] into '''three generations''' was initially proposed in 1979 by the [[Czech people|Czech]] jurist [[Karel Vasak]] at the [[International Institute of Human Rights]] in [[Strasbourg]]. He used the term at least as early as November 1977.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vašák|first=Karel|title=A 30-year struggle; the sustained efforts to give force of law to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000048063|access-date=2021-09-20|website=UNESDOC}}</ref> Vasak's theories have primarily taken root in European law.

In a speech two years later, his divisions follow the three watchwords of the [[French Revolution]]: ''[[Liberté, égalité, fraternité|Liberty, Equality, Fraternity]]''.<ref>Etudes et essais sur le droit international humanitaire et sur les principes de la Croix-Rouge en l'honneur de Jean Pictet, red. by Christophe Swinarski, Comité Internat. de la Croix-Rouge ; Nijhoff, 1984</ref> The three generations are reflected in some of the rubrics of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]].{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} While the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] lists first- and second-generation rights, the document itself does not specifically order them in accordance with Vasak's framework.

== First-generation human rights ==
First-generation human rights, sometimes called ""blue rights"", deal essentially with liberty and participation in political life. They are fundamentally [[civil and political rights|civil and political]] in nature: They serve [[negative and positive rights|negatively to protect]] the individual from excesses of the state. First-generation rights include, among other things, the [[right to life]], [[equality before the law]], [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of religion]], [[property right]]s, the [[right to a fair trial]], and [[voting rights]]. Some of these rights and the right to due process date back to the [[Magna Carta]] of 1215 and the [[Rights of Englishmen]], which were expressed in the [[English Bill of Rights]] in 1689. A more full set of first-generation human rights was pioneered in [[France]] by the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] in 1789, and by the [[United States Bill of Rights]] in 1791.

They were enshrined at the global level and given status in [[international law]] first by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and later in the 1966 [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]]. In Europe, they were enshrined in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] in 1953.

== Second-generation human rights ==
Second-generation human rights are related to equality and began to be recognized by governments after [[World War II]]. They are fundamentally [[economic, social and cultural rights|economic, social, and cultural]] in nature. They guarantee different members of the citizenry equal conditions and treatment. Secondary rights would include a [[right to work|right to be employed]] in [[decent work|just and favorable condition]], rights to [[right to food|food]], [[public housing|housing]] and [[universal health care|health care]], as well as [[social security]] and [[unemployment benefit]]s. Like first-generation rights, they were also covered by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and further embodied in Articles 22 to 28 of the Universal Declaration, and the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights]].

In the [[United States of America]], President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] proposed a [[Second Bill of Rights]], covering much the same grounds, during his State of the Union Address on January 11, 1944. Today, many nations, states, or groups of nations have developed legally binding declarations guaranteeing comprehensive sets of human rights, e.g. the [[European Social Charter]].

Some [[U.S. state|U.S. states]] have enacted some of these economic rights; for example, the state of [[New York (state)|New York]] has enshrined the [[Campaign for Fiscal Equity#Campaign for Fiscal Equity.2C Inc. v. State|right to a free education]],<ref>N.Y. Const. ART. XI, § 1, found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA11S1+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=14425895+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website].  Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref><ref>''Campaign for Fiscal Equity, Inc. v. State'', 86 N.Y.2d 307 (1995).  Case brief found at [https://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/comments/i95_0156.htm] [[Cornell Law School]] website. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> as well as ""the right to [[Labor union|organize]] and to [[Collective bargaining|bargain collectively]]"",<ref>N.Y. Const. ART. I, § 17, found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA1S17+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website].  Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> and [[workers' compensation]],<ref>N.Y. Const. ART. I, § 18, found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA1S18+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website].  Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> in its [[constitutional law]].

These rights are sometimes referred to as ""[[Red#Use by political movements|red]]"" rights. They impose upon the government the duty to respect and promote and fulfill them, but this depends on the availability of resources. The duty is imposed on the state because it controls its own resources. No one has the direct [[right to housing]] and [[right to education]]. (In [[South Africa]], for instance, the right is not, ''per se'', to housing, but rather ""to have access to adequate housing"",<ref>[[Constitution of South Africa|Constitution of the Republic of South Africa]], [[1996 in South Africa|1996]], s 26(1).</ref> realised on a progressive basis.<ref>s s 26(2).</ref>)

The duty of government is in the realization of these positive rights.

== Third-generation human rights ==
Third-generation human rights are those rights that go beyond the mere civil and social, as expressed in many progressive documents of [[international law]], including the 1972 [[Stockholm Declaration]] of the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]], the 1992 [[Rio Declaration]] on Environment and Development, and other pieces of generally aspirational ""[[soft law]]"".

Also known as '''Solidarity human rights''', they are rights that try to go beyond the framework of individual rights to focus on collective concepts, such as community or people. However, the term remains largely unofficial,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://derecho.isipedia.com/optativas/derechos-humanos/18-los-derechos-humanos-de-solidaridad |title=Los Derechos Humanos de solidaridad |access-date=May 12, 2020 |work=Isipedia |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://eacnur.org/blog/derechos-humanos-tercera-generacion-tc_alt45664n_o_pstn_o_pst/ |title=¿Cuáles son los derechos humanos de tercera generación? |access-date=May 12, 2020 |date=April 2017 |publisher=Spanish committee of ACNUR |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnistiacatalunya.org/edu/es/historia/dh-futuros.html |title=Los derechos de tercera generación |access-date=May 12, 2020 |publisher=Amnesty International Catalonia |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalization101.org/es/three-generations-of-rights/ |title=Three Generations of Human Rights |access-date=May 12, 2020 |work=Globalization 101 |publisher=Levin Institute - State University of New York }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.openglobalrights.org/putting-to-rest-the-three-generations-theory-of-human-rights/ |title=Putting to rest the Three Generations Theory of human rights |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Jensen |first=Steven |work=Open Global Rights }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Karel Vasak's Generations of Rights and the Contemporary Human Rights Discourse |last1=Domaradzki |first1=Spasimir |last2=Khvostova |first2=Margaryta |last3=Pupovac |first3=David |date=September 6, 2019 |journal=Human Rights Review |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=423–443 |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/s12142-019-00565-x |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.law.muni.cz/sborniky/dny_prava_2009/files/prispevky/tvorba_prava/Cornescu_Adrian_Vasile.pdf |title=The generations of human's rights |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Cornescu |first=Adrian |date=2009 }}</ref> just as the also-used moniker of ""[[Green politics|green]]"" rights, and thus houses an extremely broad spectrum of rights, including:

* [[Group rights|Group]] and [[collective rights]]
* Right to [[self-determination]]
* [[right to development|Right to economic and social development]]
* [[Right to a healthy environment]]
* Right to [[natural resources]]
* Right to [[communication|communicate]] and [[Communication Rights|communication rights]]
* Right to participation in [[cultural heritage]]
* Rights to [[intergenerational equity]] and [[sustainability]]

The [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]] ensures many of those: the right to self-determination, right to development, right to natural resources and right to satisfactory environment.<ref>[[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]], Article 20, 21, 22 and 24</ref> Some countries also have constitutional mechanisms for safeguarding third-generation rights. For example, the Hungarian [[Parliamentary Commissioner for Future Generations]],<ref>[http://www.pieandcoffee.org/2010/02/26/sandor-fulop/ Notes: Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Future Generations]</ref> the [[Eduskunta|Parliament of Finland]]'s {{ill|Committee for the Future|fi|Tulevaisuusvaliokunta}}, and the erstwhile [[Commission for Future Generations]] in the Israeli [[Knesset]].

Some international organizations have offices for safeguarding such rights. An example is the [[High Commissioner on National Minorities]] of the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]]. The [[Directorate-General for the Environment]] of the European Commission has as its mission ""protecting, preserving and improving the environment for present and future generations, and promoting sustainable development"".

A few jurisdictions have enacted provisions for [[environmental protection]], e.g. New York's ""forever wild"" constitutional article,<ref>N.Y. Const. ART XIV, § 1.  Found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA14S1+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website].  Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> which is enforceable by action of the [[New York State Attorney General]] or by any citizen ''[[ex rel.]]'' with the consent of the [[New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division|Appellate Division]].<ref>N.Y. Const. ART XIV, § 5.  Found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA14S5+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website].  Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref>

==Fourth generation==

Several analysts claim that a fourth generation of human rights is emerging, which would include rights that cannot be included in the third generation, future claims of first and second generation rights and new rights, especially in relation to technological development and information and communication technologies and cyberspace.<ref name=oei>{{cite web |url=https://www.oei.es/historico/revistactsi/numero1/bustamante.htm |title=Hacia la cuarta generación de Derechos Humanos: repensando la condición humana en la sociedad tecnológica |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Bustamante |first=Javier |date=September 2001 |work=Revista Iberoamericana de Ciencia, Tecnología, Sociedad e Innovación |publisher=[[Organization of Ibero-American States]] |location=Madrid |language=es }}</ref>

However, the content of it is not clear, and these analysts do not present a unique proposal. They normally take some rights from the third generation and include them in the fourth, such as the right to a healthy [[natural environment|environment]] or aspects related to [[bioethics]]. Some of those analysts believe that the fourth generation is given by human rights in relation to [[Information and communications technology|new technologies]],<ref name=oei /> while others prefer to talk about digital rights,<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.revistas.una.ac.cr/index.php/derechoshumanos/article/view/6117 |title=La cuarta ola de derechos humanos: los derechos digitales |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Riofrío |first=Juan Carlos |date=2014 |journal=Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=15–45 |language=es }}</ref> where a new range of rights would be found, such as:

* The right to equally access computing and digital 
* The right to digital self-determination
* The right to digital security
* The right to access one's own digital data (''[[habeas data]]'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.encuentrojuridico.com/2013/01/los-derechos-humanos-de-tercera-y.html |title=Los derechos humanos de tercera y cuarta generación |access-date=May 12, 2020 |date=January 2013 |work=Encuentro Jurídico |language=es }}</ref>

Others point out that the differentiating element would be that, while the first three generations refer to the human being as a member of society, the rights of the fourth would refer to the human being as a species.

== Commentary ==
[[Maurice Cranston]] argued that [[scarcity]] means that supposed second-generation and third-generation rights are not really rights at all.<ref>Cranston, Maurice. ""Human Rights: Real and Supposed,"" in ''Political Theory and the Rights of Man'', edited by D. D. Raphael (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967), pp. 43-51.</ref> If one person has a right, others have a duty to respect that right, but governments lack the resources necessary to fulfill the duties implied by citizens' supposed second- and third-generation rights.

[[Charles Kesler]], a professor of government at [[Claremont McKenna College]] and senior fellow of the [[Claremont Institute]], has argued that second- and third-generation human rights serve as an attempt to cloak political goals, which the majority may well agree are good things in and of themselves, in the language of rights, and thus grant those political goals inappropriate connotations. In his opinion, calling socio-economic goods ""rights"" inherently creates a related concept of ""[[duties]]"", so that other citizens have to be coerced by the government to give things to other people in order to fulfill these new rights. He also has stated that, in the U.S., the new rights create a ""nationalization"" of political decision-making at the federal level in violation of federalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/47825927.html |title=Charles Kesler on the Grand Liberal Project |date=May 28, 2009 |access-date=January 5, 2010 |publisher=[[Uncommon Knowledge]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715094108/http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/47825927.html |archive-date=July 15, 2009 }}</ref> In his book ''Soft Despotism, Democracy's Drift'', Paul Rahe, professor at [[Hillsdale College]], wrote that focusing on equality-based rights leads to a subordination of the initial civil rights to an ever-expanding government, which would be too incompetent to provide for its citizens correctly and would merely seek to subordinate more rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/72025472.html |title=Soft Despotism with Paul Rahe |date=November 19, 2009 |access-date=January 5, 2010 |publisher=[[Uncommon Knowledge]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104072827/http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/72025472.html |archive-date=January 4, 2010 }}</ref>

19th century philosopher [[Frederic Bastiat]] summarized the conflict between these [[negative and positive rights]] by saying: {{quote|M. de Lamartine wrote me one day: ""Your doctrine is only the half of my program; you have stopped at liberty; I go on to fraternity."" I answered him: ""The second half of your program will destroy the first half."" And, in fact, it is quite impossible for me to separate the word ""fraternity"" from the word ""voluntary"". It is quite impossible for me to conceive of fraternity as legally enforced, without liberty being legally destroyed, and justice being legally trampled underfoot.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bastiat|first=Frédéric|author-link=Frédéric Bastiat|chapter=The Law|title=Selected Essays on Political Economy|publisher=Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: The Foundation for Economic Education, Inc|date=1850}}</ref>}}

Economist [[Friedrich Hayek]] has argued that the second generation concept of ""[[social justice]]"" cannot have any practical political meaning: {{quote|No state of affairs as such is just or unjust: it is only when we assume that somebody is responsible for having brought it about ... In the same sense, a [[free market|spontaneously working market]], where prices act as guides to action, cannot take account of what people in any sense need or deserve, because it creates a distribution which nobody has designed, and something which has not been designed, a mere state of affairs as such, cannot be just or unjust. And the idea that things ought to be designed in a ""just"" manner means, in effect, that we must abandon the market and turn to a [[planned economy]] in which somebody decides how much each ought to have, and that means, of course, that we can only have it at the price of the complete abolition of personal liberty.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://reason.com/archives/1992/07/01/the-road-from-serfdom/4|magazine=[[Reason Magazine|Reason]]|access-date=January 4, 2010|title=The Road from Serfdom: Forseeing the Fall|first=Thomas W.|last=Hazlett|date=July 1992}}</ref>}}

[[New York University School of Law]] professor of law [[Jeremy Waldron]] has written in response to critics of the second-generation rights: {{quote|In any case, the argument from first-generation to second-generation rights was never supposed to be a matter of conceptual analysis. It was rather this: if one is really concerned to secure civil or political liberty for a person, that commitment should be accompanied by a further concern about the conditions of the person's life that make it possible for him to enjoy and exercise that liberty. Why on earth would it be worth fighting for this person's liberty (say, his liberty to choose between A and B) if he were left in a situation in which the choice between A and B meant nothing to him, or in which his choosing one rather than the other would have no impact on his life?""<ref>Jeremy Waldron, 1993. Liberal Rights: Collected Papers, page 7, 1981–91. {{ISBN|0-521-43617-6}}</ref>}}

[[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] [[socialist]] and [[political economist]] [[Karl Polanyi]] made the antithetical argument to Hayek in the book ''[[The Great Transformation (book)|The Great Transformation]]''. Polanyi wrote that an uncontrolled free market would lead to repressive economic concentration and then to a co-opting of democratic governance that degrades civil rights.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karl Polanyi|title=The Great Transformation|publisher=[[Beacon Press]]|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8070-5643-1|author-link=Karl Polanyi|title-link=The Great Transformation (book)}}</ref>

The [[World Conference on Human Rights]] in 1993 opposed the distinction between [[civil and political rights]] (negative rights) and [[economic, social and cultural rights]] (positive rights) that resulted in the [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]] proclaiming that ""all human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated"".<ref>[[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]], Part I para 5</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Human security]]
* ""[[Two Concepts of Liberty]]"", a lecture by [[Isaiah Berlin]] which distinguished between [[Positive liberty|positive]] and [[negative liberty]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Human rights}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Three Generations Of Human Rights}}
[[Category:Human rights concepts]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:1977 introductions]]"
Earth Hour,"{{Short description|Annual symbolic environmental event}}
{{distinguish|Earth Day}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2017}}

{{Infobox holiday
| holiday_name  = Earth Hour
| type          = 
| image         = EH Logo stacked RGB.jpg
| imagesize     = 
| caption       = 
| official_name = 
| nickname      = 
| observedby    = World Wild Fund for Nature (WWF)
| litcolor      = 
| longtype      = International, Movement, World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
| significance  = Climate change and to save Earth
| begins        = 8:30 pm
| ends          = 9:30 pm
| date          = Last Saturday of March (or the penultimate Saturday of March if the last Saturday coincides with [[Holy Saturday]])
| scheduling    = Different day each year
| duration      = 1 hour
| frequency     = Annual
| week_ordinal  = last
| weekday       = Saturday
| month         = March
| date2022      = March 26
| date2023      = March 25
| date2024      = March 23
| date2025      = March 29
| date2026      = March 28
| date2027      = March 20
| celebrations  = Mass activations to encourage the public to give an hour for the planet; Switching off national and international monuments and landmarks
| observances   = 
| relatedto     = [[Earth Day]]
}}

'''Earth Hour''' is a worldwide movement organized by the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF). The event is held annually, encouraging the individuals, communities, and businesses to give an hour for Earth, and additionally marked by landmarks and businesses switching off non-essential electric lights, for one hour from 8:30 to 9:30&nbsp;p.m., usually on the last Saturday of March, as a symbol of commitment to the planet.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.earthhour.org/about-us |title=About Us |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2014}}</ref> It was started as a lights-off event in [[Sydney]], Australia, in 2007.

Occasionally, in years when [[Holy Saturday]] falls on the last Saturday of March (as in 2024), Earth Hour is held a week earlier.

== History of Earth Hour ==

=== Conception and start: 2004–2007 ===
In 2004, confronted with scientific findings, WWF Australia met with advertising agency [[Leo Burnett Worldwide|Leo Burnett Sydney]] to ""discuss ideas for engaging Australians on the issue of climate change"".<ref name=""earthhour1"">{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/page/media-centre/earth-hour-history |title=history |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327103047/http://www.earthhour.org/page/media-centre/earth-hour-history |archive-date=March 27, 2012 }}</ref> The idea of a large scale switch off was coined and developed in 2006, originally under the working title ""The Big Flick"".  WWF Australia presented their concept to [[Fairfax Media]] who, along with Sydney Lord Mayor [[Clover Moore]], agreed to back the event.<ref name=""earthhour1""/> The 2007 Earth Hour was held on March 31 in Sydney, Australia at 7:30&nbsp;pm, local time.

In October 2007, [[San Francisco]] ran its own ""Lights Out"" program inspired by the Sydney Earth Hour.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2007/sep/19/local/me-lightsout19 |title= Hour leg of darkness | newspaper =[[Los Angeles Times]] | date = September 19, 2007| author = John M. Glionna}}</ref> After their successful event in October, the organizers decided to rally behind the Earth Hour being planned for March 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lightsoutsf.org/2007/10/24/moving-forward/ |title=Moving forward &#124; Lights Out San Francisco |publisher=Lightsoutsf.org |date=October 24, 2007 |access-date=September 30, 2013}}</ref>

=== 2008 ===
[[File:Sydney Opera House - After.jpg|thumb|Overview of Sydney during Earth Hour 2008]]
{{Wikinews|Businesses and individuals worldwide turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2008}}
Earth Hour 2008 was held internationally on March 29, 2008, from 8&nbsp;p.m. to 9&nbsp;p.m. local time, marking the first anniversary of the event. 35 countries around the world participated as official flagship cities and over 400 cities also supported. Landmarks around the world turned off their non-essential lighting for Earth Hour. Some websites took part in the event, with [[Google]]'s homepage going ""dark"" on the day .<ref>{{cite news|title=World Cities Shut Lights for Earth Hour 2008|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/2008/03/29/world-cities-shut-lights-for-earth-hour-2008/|agency=Associated Press|access-date=February 4, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302101303/http://www.foxnews.com/story/2008/03/29/world-cities-shut-lights-for-earth-hour-2008/|archive-date=March 2, 2014|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

According to a [[Zogby International]] online survey, 36 million Americans—approximately 16 percent of the United States adult population—participated in Earth Hour 2008. The survey also showed there was a 4 percentage point increase in the level of interest in environmental issues such as climate change and pollution directly after the event (73 percent pre-event versus 77 percent post-event).<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/21/idUS134396+21-Apr-2008+BW20080421 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151006004516/http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/21/idUS134396+21-Apr-2008+BW20080421 | url-status = dead | archive-date = October 6, 2015 | title = 36 Million Americans Take Part in World Wildlife Fund's Global 'Earth Hour' | publisher = [[Reuters]] | date = April 28, 2008 | access-date = October 5, 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Sydney Harbour Bridge and Opera House Earth Hour.jpg|thumb|[[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] and [[Sydney Opera House]] were darkened during Earth Hour 2007.]]
[[Tel Aviv]] scheduled their Earth Hour for Thursday March 27, 2008 to avoid conflict with [[Shabbat|Sabbath]].<ref>{{Cite news | last = Ross | first = Oakland | title = Tel Aviv rock concert gets power from pedals | newspaper = [[Toronto Star]] | pages = A1, A10 | date = March 28, 2008 | url = https://www.thestar.com/SpecialSections/EarthHour/article/404826 |access-date = March 29, 2008}}</ref> [[Dublin]] moved their Earth Hour to between 9 and 10&nbsp;p.m. due to their northern geographical location.<ref>{{Cite news | last = Winsa | first = Patty | title = Someone get the lights | newspaper = [[Toronto Star]] | date = March 27, 2008 | url = https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/earthour/2008/03/27/someone_get_the_lights.html | access-date = October 2, 2015 | archive-date = October 4, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151004042458/http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/earthour/2008/03/27/someone_get_the_lights.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>

[[File:AzrieliCenterEarthHour2010.png|thumb|left|[[Azrieli Center]] in [[Tel Aviv]] darkened for Earth Hour 2010.]]
[[File:Colosseum Earth Hour.jpg|thumb|[[Colosseum]] darkened for Earth Hour 2008]]
According to WWF Thailand, [[Bangkok]] decreased electricity usage by 73.34 [[megawatts]], which, [[megawatt-hour|over one hour]], is equivalent to 41.6 [[tonnes]] of [[carbon dioxide]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/canadians-go-dark-with-world-for-earth-hour-1.749682 |title= Canadians go dark with world for Earth Hour |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008}}</ref> The ''Bangkok Post'' gave different figures of 165 [[megawatt-hours]] and 102 tonnes of carbon dioxide. This was noted to be significantly less than a similar campaign initiated by [[Bangkok]]'s City Hall the previous year in May, when 530 megawatt-hours were saved and 143 tonnes of [[carbon dioxide emission]] were cut.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/News/30Mar2008_news03.php|title=Lights out campaign disappointing: Bangkok helps save very little energy |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008 |publisher=[[Bangkok Post]]}} {{Dead link|date=March 2010}}</ref>

Philippine Electricity Market Corp. noted that power consumption dropped by about 78.63 megawatts in [[Metro Manila]], and up to 102.2 megawatts on [[Luzon]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/news/breakingnews/view/20080331-127542/Earth-Hour-made-dent-in-power-use |title=Earth Hour made dent in power use |publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=March 31, 2008 |access-date=March 29, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526020555/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/news/breakingnews/view/20080331-127542/Earth-Hour-made-dent-in-power-use |archive-date=May 26, 2008 }}</ref> The maximum demand drop of around 39 MW was experienced at 8:14&nbsp;p.m. in Metro Manila and of around 116&nbsp;MW at 8:34&nbsp;p.m. in the Luzon grid.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.inquirer.net/specialfeatures/theenvironmentreport/view.php?db=1&article=20081211-177480 |title=WWF calls for 'lights out' event in 2009 |publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=December 11, 2008 |access-date=March 29, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212211646/http://www.inquirer.net/specialfeatures/theenvironmentreport/view.php?db=1&article=20081211-177480 |archive-date=December 12, 2008 }}</ref>

[[Ontario]] used approximately 900 megawatt-hours less electrical energy during Earth Hour. At one point, [[Toronto]] saw an 8.7% reduction in consumption as compared to a typical March Saturday night.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thestar.com/SpecialSections/EarthHour/article/407246 |title= Toronto hits energy target |publisher=[[Toronto Star]] |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008 | first=Peter | last=Gorrie}}</ref>

Ireland, as a whole, had a reduction in electricity use of about 1.5% for the evening.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2008/0330/environment.html |title= Ireland uses less power for 'Earth Hour' |publisher=[[RTÉ News And Current Affairs|RTÉ News]] |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008}}</ref> In the three-hour period between 6:30&nbsp;p.m. and 9:30&nbsp;pm, there was a reduction of 50 megawatts, saving 150 megawatt-hours, or approximately 60 tonnes of carbon dioxide.<ref name = ""continuation"">{{cite news |url=http://www.breakingnews.ie/ireland/mhojojmhcwoj/ |title=Call for continuation of Earth Hour ethos |publisher=Breakingnews.ie |date=March 2008 |access-date=March 31, 2008 |archive-date=June 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614041306/http://www.breakingnews.ie/ireland/mhojojmhcwoj/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In [[Dubai]], where external lighting on several major city landmarks was turned off and street lighting in selected areas was dimmed by 50%, the Electricity and Water Authority reported savings of 100 megawatt-hours of electricity. This represented a 2.4% reduction in demand compared to before the hour began.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/515051-dubai-slashes-energy-use-for-earth-hour?ln=en |title=Dubai slashes energy use for Earth Hour |publisher=[[Arabian Business]] |date=March 2008 |access-date=April 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305053058/http://www.arabianbusiness.com/515051-dubai-slashes-energy-use-for-earth-hour?ln=en |archive-date=March 5, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Earth Hour Sky Tower Auckland.jpg|thumb|The [[Sky Tower (Auckland)|Sky Tower]] in [[Auckland]], New Zealand, switched off its usual floodlighting during the Earth Hour, and re-lit afterwards. (the red lights in the middle image are [[aircraft warning lights]]) ]]
The best result was from [[Christchurch]], New Zealand, with the city reporting a drop of 13% in electricity demand. However, national grid operator [[Transpower New Zealand Limited|Transpower]] reported that New Zealand's power consumption during Earth Hour was 335 megawatts, higher than the 328 megawatt average of the previous two Saturdays.<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/4457620a11.html Lights on, power use up for Earth Hour] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620172110/http://www.stuff.co.nz/4457620a11.html |date=June 20, 2008 }}. Kelly Andrew. ''[[The Dominion Post (Wellington)|The Dominion Post]]''. Monday, March 31, 2008.</ref> [[Melbourne]], Australia reduced demand by 10.1%. Sydney, being the city that participated in both the 2007 and 2008 Earth Hours, cut electricity consumption by 8.4%. This is less than the previous year's 10.2%; however, Earth Hour executive director Andy Ridley made the claim that after factoring [[margin of error]], the participation in this city was the same.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thestar.com/article/407472 |title= Where do we go from here? |work=[[Toronto Star]] |pages=A1, A17 |date= March 31, 2008 |access-date = March 31, 2008 | first=Peter | last=Gorrie}}</ref>

The worst result was from [[Calgary]], Canada. The city's power consumption actually went up 3.6% at the hour's peak electricity demand.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.canada.com/globaltv/calgary/story.html?id=1b997ecc-3465-499f-ab5c-913213ba229a&k=48356 |title=Calgary's Earth Hour effort uses more power, not less |publisher=[[Global Calgary]] |date=March 30, 2008 |access-date=March 30, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305044146/http://www.canada.com/globaltv/calgary/story.html?id=1b997ecc-3465-499f-ab5c-913213ba229a&k=48356 |archive-date=March 5, 2009 }}</ref> Calgary's weather plays a large role in power consumption, and the city experienced weather 12&nbsp;°C (around 22&nbsp;°F) colder than the previous Saturday's recorded temperature in the inaugural year.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/cityplus/story.html?id=5f6ba0de-d209-45e6-b568-d1df7772d4b4&k=44185 |title=Edmontonians cut power consumption by 1.5 per cent during Earth Hour |work=[[Edmonton Journal]] |date=April 1, 2008 |access-date=April 7, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305053537/http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/cityplus/story.html?id=5f6ba0de-d209-45e6-b568-d1df7772d4b4&k=44185 |archive-date=March 5, 2009 }}</ref> [[Enmax]], the city's power supplier, has confirmed that in all subsequent years, Calgarians have not supported the Earth Hour initiative, noting that power consumption changed only marginally during the hour in 2010 and 2011 (1% or less) and in 2012 and 2013 showed no appreciable change in power usage at all.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nolais |first=Jeremy |url=http://metronews.ca/news/calgary/27937/earth-hour-sees-little-change-in-calgary-electricity-use |title=Earth Hour sees little change in Calgary electricity use &#124; Metro |publisher=Metronews.ca |access-date=September 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219160919/http://metronews.ca/news/calgary/27937/earth-hour-sees-little-change-in-calgary-electricity-use/ |archive-date=February 19, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/story/2013/03/24/calgary-earth-hour.html |title=CBC News report 24 March 2013 |publisher=Cbc.ca |date=March 24, 2013 |access-date=September 30, 2013}}</ref>

=== 2009 ===
{{Wikinews|Businesses and individuals worldwide to turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2009}}
Earth Hour 2009 was from 8:30&nbsp;p.m. to 9:30&nbsp;p.m. local time, March 28, 2009. The campaign was titled ""Vote Earth"" and was dubbed ""the world's first global vote"" with one billion votes was the stated aim for Earth Hour 2009,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.campaignbrief.com/2009/02/vote-earth-worlds-first-global.html |title=Vote Earth – Leo Burnett to Launch the World's First Global Election |work=Campaign Brief Australia |date=February 6, 2009 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> in the context of the pivotal [[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference]]. WWF reported that 88 countries and 4,159 cities participated in Earth Hour 2009,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecology.com/2010/03/11/step-forward-earth-hour-2010/ |title=Step Forward – Earth Hour 2010 |work=Ecology Global Network |access-date=May 31, 2015 |archive-date=November 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117030043/http://www.ecology.com/2010/03/11/step-forward-earth-hour-2010/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ten times more cities than Earth Hour 2008 had (2008 saw 400 cities participate).

Among the participants in 2009 was, for the first time, the [[United Nations Headquarters]] in New York City.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=573&ArticleID=6105&l=en |title=Press release March 2009 – UNEP to observe Earth Hour in support of action on climate change – United Nations Environment Programme |publisher=UNEP |access-date=March 25, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090907221502/http%3A//www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID%3D573%26ArticleID%3D6105%26l%3Den |archive-date=September 7, 2009  }}</ref>

In Egypt, the lights went out on the [[Sphinx]] and the [[Great Pyramids of Giza]] from 8:30 to 9:30&nbsp;pm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/news/default:en/article?id=eh6974755038146759259 |title=Great Pyramids of Giza to switch off for Earth Hour |publisher=EarthHour.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327073456/http://www.earthhour.org/news/default%3Aen/article?id=eh6974755038146759259 |archive-date=March 27, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[Philippines]] saw participation from 647 cities and towns; over 10&nbsp;million Filipinos were estimated to have joined in the hour-long lights-off.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://globalvoicesonline.org/2010/04/06/philippines-earth-hour-2010/|title=Philippines: Earth Hour 2010 |work=Global Voices|date=April 6, 2010 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> This was followed by Greece with 484 cities and towns participating, and Australia with 309.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecology.com/2009/03/31/step-forward-earth-wins-in-2009-vote-earth-earth-hour-campaign/|title=Step Forward – Earth Wins in 2009 Vote Earth / Earth Hour Campaign|work=Ecology Global Network|access-date=May 31, 2015|archive-date=November 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117014649/http://www.ecology.com/2009/03/31/step-forward-earth-wins-in-2009-vote-earth-earth-hour-campaign/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Despite official organizers WWF stating that the event is not about the reduction in electricity, a number of public institutions reported on electricity savings in their cities to see participation numbers. The [[Canadian province]] of [[Ontario]], excluding the city of [[Toronto]], saw a decrease of 6% in electricity usage while Toronto saw a decrease of 15.1% (nearly doubled from 8.7% the previous year) as many businesses darkened, including the landmark [[CN Tower]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/earth-hour-prompts-15-per-cent-t-o-power-drop-1.384119 |title=CTV Toronto – Earth Hour prompts 15 per cent T.O. power drop – CTV News |date=March 29, 2009 |publisher=Toronto.ctv.ca |access-date=March 25, 2010}}</ref>

The [[Philippines]] was able to save 611 MWh of electricity during the time period, which is said to be equivalent to shutting down a dozen coal-fired power plants for an hour.<ref>{{cite news |last=Adraneda |first=Katherine |url=http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleid=454057 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130131113049/http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleid=454057 |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 31, 2013 |title=RP's Earth Hour savings: 611 megawatt-hours |newspaper=The Philippine Star |date=April 1, 2009 |access-date=January 25, 2011 }}</ref>

Swedish electricity operator [[Svenska Kraftnät]] recorded a 2.1% decrease in power consumption from its projected figure between 8&nbsp;p.m. and 9&nbsp;pm. The following hour, the corresponding number was 5%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dn.se/nyheter/sverige/tio-villors-arliga-elforbrukning-1.832821 |title=Tjugofem villors årliga elförbrukning |language=sv |publisher=DN.se |date=March 28, 2009 |access-date=March 25, 2010}}</ref> This is equivalent to the consumption of approximately half a million households out of the total 4.5&nbsp;million households in Sweden.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.svk.se/Press--info/Nyheter/Nyheter-pressmeddelanden/Nyheter/Sa-paverkade-Earth-Hour-det-svenska-elsystemet/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100812001332/http://www.svk.se/Press--info/Nyheter/Nyheter-pressmeddelanden/Nyheter/Sa-paverkade-Earth-Hour-det-svenska-elsystemet/ | archive-date = August 12, 2010 | title=Så påverkade Earth Hour det svenska elsystemet – Svenska Kraftnät |publisher=Svk.se |date=March 28, 2009 }}</ref>

According to the National Power Dispatch Centre, [[Vietnam]]'s electricity demand fell 140 [[MWh]] during Earth Hour.<ref>{{cite web |title=Earth Hour in Vietnam: a perspective from the electricity industry |date = April 21, 2020|url=https://socialsciences.nature.com/posts/66561-earth-hour-in-vietnam-a-perspective-from-the-electricity-industry#:~:text=In%202009%2C%20the%20World%20Wide,Earth%20Hour%20campaign%20in%20Vietnam.&text=This%20year%2C%20the%20National%20Power,one%20hour%20of%20the%20event. |publisher=Nature Research}}</ref>
<!-- mostly uncited
==== Participation ====
96 countries and territories on 6 continents participated in the event in 2009.

==== Participating television and radio stations ====
* The [[National Geographic Channel]] suspended regular programming for an hour and showed how to reduce energy consumption during Earth Hour.
** [[National Geographic Channel (Asia)|National Geographic Channel Asia]] suspended broadcast on March 28, 2009 from 8:30&nbsp;p.m. to 9:30&nbsp;p.m.
* [[Cartoon Network (UK & Ireland)|Cartoon Network]] and [[Magic 105.4 FM]] broadcast Earth Hour at 20:30 for the event.

[[Malaysia]]'s [[8TV (Malaysia)|8TV]] halted transmission for one hour starting from 20:30<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myfew.net/2009/03/06/8tv-to-halt-its-prime-time-programme-transmission-for-earth-hour.html |title= 8TV to Halt Its Prime Time Programme Transmission for Earth Hour |publisher=Myfew.net |date=March 6, 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090313190343/http://www.myfew.net/2009/03/06/8tv-to-halt-its-prime-time-programme-transmission-for-earth-hour.html | archive-date = March 13, 2009}}</ref>
* [[DhiTV]] and [[Villa TV]] halted transmission for one hour in [[Maldives]] from 20:30.
* [[XHGC-TV|Canal 5]] in Mexico halted transmission for one hour in [[Mexico City]] at 20:30.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}
* [[Philippine]] network [[ABS-CBN]] turned off the lights in their studio from 20:30 to 21:30.
** [[Naga, Camarines Sur|Naga City]] internet radio stations Zone105 and XFM Naga went offline at 20:30.
* [[RTVE|Radiotelevisión Española (RTVE)]] turned off the lights in their newsrooms and their sets.
-->

=== 2010 ===
[[File:Botanical Garden of Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (Earth Hour 2010).gif|thumb|The metal structure of the [[greenhouse]]s of the [[Botanical Garden of Curitiba|curitiban Botanic Garden]] ([[Curitiba]], Paraná, Southern Brazil), with its lights off on March 27, 2010]]
Earth Hour 2010 was held from 8:30&nbsp;p.m. to 9:30&nbsp;p.m. local time on March 27.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myearthhour.org/about/faq | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100323024425/http://www.myearthhour.org/about/faq | archive-date = March 23, 2010 | title=Frequently Asked Questions – Earth Hour website (2010) |publisher=Earth Hour }}</ref> In Israel, the hour was held on April 22.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3874552,00.html |title=Israel to mark 3rd Earth Hour |newspaper=Ynetnews |publisher=[[Ynet]] News |date=April 16, 2010 |last1=Ben-David |first1=Amir |last2=Ahronoth |first2=Yedioth }}</ref>

126 countries participated in Earth Hour 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wwf.es/que_hacemos/cambio_climatico/la_hora_del_planeta_2010/|language=es|title=La Hora de la Tierra 2010 |work=[[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] |publisher=WWF Spain|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100329214434/http://www.wwf.es/que_hacemos/cambio_climatico/la_hora_del_planeta_2010 | archive-date = March 29, 2010 }}</ref>

In the United States polling showed that an estimated 90,000,000 Americans participated in Earth Hour as lights were turned off around the country, including landmarks such as [[Mount Rushmore]], the [[Las Vegas Strip]], the [[Empire State Building]] and [[Niagara Falls]].

Some cities and landmarks took the opportunity to make more long-term adjustments to their everyday power consumption. In [[Chicago]], the Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) developed lighting guidelines to reduce light pollution and reduce the carbon footprint of downtown buildings. [[Mount Rushmore]] in [[South Dakota]] started powering down each night around 9&nbsp;p.m. instead of 11&nbsp;p.m.

In [[Vietnam]], electricity demand fell 500,000&nbsp;kWh during Earth Hour 2010, which was three times larger than the first time the country joined the event in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |author=[Trở về] |url=http://www.vnexpress.net/GL/Kinh-doanh/2010/03/3BA1A2E1/ |title=Tiết kiệm 450 triệu đồng trong giờ Trái đất |publisher=VnExpress |date=March 28, 2010 |access-date=March 31, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118001037/http://vnexpress.net/gl/kinh-doanh/2010/03/3ba1a2e1/ |archive-date=January 18, 2012 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

In the Philippines, 1,067 towns and cities pledged participation in 2010 and over 15 million Filipinos participated in the event.

About 4000 cities participated, including landmarks such as [[Big Ben]], the [[Empire State Building]], the [[Sydney Opera House]], the [[Eiffel Tower]], the [[Parthenon]], the [[Brandenburg Gate]], and the [[Forbidden City]].<ref>Alastair Jamieson (March 27, 2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20100329190746/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7531183/Big-Ben-in-darkness-as-4000-cities-switch-off-for-Earth-Hour.html Big Ben in darkness as 4,000 cities switch off for Earth Hour]. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved April 6, 2009.</ref>
<!-- uncited
==== Participating TV channels and radio stations ====
* [[National Geographic Channel (Asia)|National Geographic Channel Asia]] and [[Cartoon Network]] both suspended broadcasting from 8:30&nbsp;pm to 9:30&nbsp;pm
* In the Philippines, [[GMA Network]] turned off lights in their building from 8:30&nbsp;pm to 9:30&nbsp;pm, while [[ABS-CBN]] stopped broadcasting and turned off their lights.
* Vietnam's FBNC channel joined hands with Earth Hour Vietnam.
* ''The Agenda with Steve Paikin'' on [[TVOntario]] ran its full program running only on candlelight again.
-->

=== 2011 ===
Earth Hour 2011 was the biggest year in the campaign's five-year history, reaffirming it as the largest ever voluntary action for the environment. In 2011, the tagline ""Beyond the Hour"" was adopted by organizers as a way to encourage people to take their commitment to the cause beyond the 60-minute event. Together with agency Leo Burnett, Earth Hour unveiled an updated planet themed logo that included a small plus symbol to the right of the signature ""60"" which was used in previous years. The 60+ symbol continues to be the main logo used by campaign organizers around the world.

Earth Hour 2011 took place in a record 5,251 cities and towns in 135 countries and territories on all seven continents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthhour.org/page/about/about-earth-hour |title=about |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330132314/http://www.earthhour.org/page/about/about-earth-hour |archive-date=March 30, 2012 }}</ref> It had an estimated reach of 1.8&nbsp;billion people across the globe. In addition to this, the campaign's digital footprint grew to 91 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthhour.org/blog/earthhour-heats-social-media |title=#Earthhour Heats Up on Social Media |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=October 2, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628120010/http://earthhour.org/blog/earthhour-heats-social-media |archive-date=June 28, 2012 }}</ref>

In [[India]], Earth Hour 2011 was held on March 26, 2011, from 8:30&nbsp;p.m. to 9:30&nbsp;pm. IST, flagged off by the [[Chief Minister of Delhi]] [[Sheila Dikshit]] and Earth Hour 2011 Ambassador and Bollywood actress [[Vidya Balan]] in the presence of Jim Leape, Director General, WWF International.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.indiaprwire.com/pressrelease/environmental-services/2011032881849.htm|title=India switches off on March 26 from 8.30&nbsp;p.m. and beyond|publisher=India PRwire|date=March 28, 2011|access-date=October 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005000920/http://www.indiaprwire.com/pressrelease/environmental-services/2011032881849.htm|archive-date=October 5, 2015|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Rosebowl channel suspended broadcasting from 8.30&nbsp;p.m. to 9.30&nbsp;p.m. to mark the observance of Earth Hour.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|date=2018-06-06|title=Earth Hour|url=https://www.greenergyexpo.eu/earth-hour/|access-date=2020-11-24|website=greenergyexpo.eu|language=en-US|archive-date=November 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123193644/https://www.greenergyexpo.eu/earth-hour/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In Azerbaijan, [[Maiden Tower (Baku)|Maiden Tower]] darkened for Earth Hour.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rustamov |first=Elshan |title=Девичья башня на час останется без света ради природы |url=http://www.1news.az/society/20110324035120563.html |publisher=1news.az |access-date=March 26, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326054316/http://www.1news.az/society/20110324035120563.html |archive-date=March 26, 2011 }}</ref>

The Philippines, which has been an active participant of the Earth Hour, had an early ""earth hour"" when power was accidentally interrupted,<ref>{{cite web|last=Gatdulla and Villanueva|first=Rodina and Donabelle|title=Earth Hour comes early in Metro|website=[[The Philippine STAR]] |url=http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=670245&publicationSubCategoryId=68&newsalert|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910094316/http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=670245&publicationSubCategoryId=68&newsalert|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 10, 2012|access-date=March 27, 2011}}</ref> plunging Metro Manila and nearby [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]] into darkness. After power was restored, major buildings, commercial centers and residential areas in Metro Manila and most [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]] continued to turn off their lights, while participating channels in the Philippines, ABS-CBN, Nickelodeon and Cartoon Network halted their transmissions for an hour.<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.premiere.fr/Tele/Earth-Hour-Nickelodeon-et-Nickelodeon-Junior-coupent-leur-antenne-le-26-mars-2011
 |title=Earth Hour: Nickelodeon and Nickelodeon Junior cut their antenna on March 26, 2011 |publisher=Presscenter.org.vn |date=March 8, 2011 |access-date=March 8, 2011}}</ref>

30 provinces and cities in Vietnam took part in Earth Hour 2011 with the main event held in [[Nha Trang]]. The nation's electricity demand fell 400,000&nbsp;kWh, one-fifth less than the previous year's. Vietnam managed to save 500 million [[VND]] (US$23,809) thanks to the saved power.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presscenter.org.vn/en/content/view/5038/51/ |title=Vietnam Foreign Press Center – Vietnam saves 400,000 kWh of power during Earth Hour |publisher=Presscenter.org.vn |date=March 29, 2011 |access-date=March 31, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322162359/http://www.presscenter.org.vn/en/content/view/5038/51/ |archive-date=March 22, 2012 }}</ref>

YouTube promoted the Earth Hour by changing its logo, and by adding a switch on/off feature near the title of each video, so that users could change the background colour from white to black.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}

One of the least co-operative areas traditionally has been [[Alberta]]; in 2008, Calgary's power consumption went up during Earth Hour. The trend continued in 2011 when [[Edmonton]]'s power usage also increased. While [[Calgary]]'s power usage went down in 2011 during the event, electricity officials could not distinguish their readings between normal usage and a conscious attempt to participate.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/story/2011/03/28/edmonton-earth-hour-failure.html |title=No Energy for Earth Hour |publisher=Cbc.ca |date=March 28, 2011 |access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref>

=== 2012 ===
Earth Hour Global headquarters was moving from Sydney to Singapore in February 2012. A launch event took place at ION Orchard on February 20, with the move supported by Singapore's [[Economic Development Board]] (EDB) and WWF-Singapore.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiaone.com/News/Latest%2BNews/Singapore/Story/A1Story20120221-329146.html |title=Earth Hour to move HQ to Singapore |publisher=Asiaone.com |date=February 21, 2012 |access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref>

Earth Hour 2012 was observed on March 31, 2012, from 8:30&nbsp;p.m. to 9:30&nbsp;p.m. (participants' local time).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/ |title=Earth Hour |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref> It took place in more than 7000 cities and towns across 152 countries and territories, making it the biggest growth year for the campaign since 2009. It was also the first year that Earth Hour was celebrated in space, with Dutch astronaut [[André Kuipers]] tweeting at various moments during the event's trek around the globe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/PromISSe/Andre_Kuipers_takes_Earth_Hour_into_orbit |title=André Kuipers takes Earth Hour into orbit |work=European Space Agency|access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref>

=== 2013 ===
[[File:Ora della Terra Verona Piazza Bra Arena 2013 WWF Verona Paolo Villa 9954.JPG|thumb|Italy, Verona, Arena with backlight off on square Bra, in the bottom Town Hall during Earth Hour 2013]]

Earth Hour 2013 was held across the world on Saturday, March 23 at 8:30&nbsp;p.m. to 9:30&nbsp;p.m. local time<ref>{{cite web |last=Malezer |first=Rosie |url=https://www.facebook.com/earthhour |title= Dare the World to Save the Planet |website=[[Facebook]] |access-date = November 24, 2012}}</ref> to avoid taking place after [[European Summer Time]] began, ensuring a greater impact for the lights-off event. It was also changed to avoid coinciding with the Christian Holy Saturday, which fell on March 30 of that year.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Earth Hour|url=http://www.unishineopto.com/earth-hour.html|access-date=2020-11-26|website=www.unishineopto.com}}</ref>

==== Africa ====
In 2013, the world's first Earth Hour Forest began in Uganda, an ongoing project that aims to restore 2700 hectares of degraded land. Standard Chartered Bank-Uganda pledged to help fill the forest with more than 250,000 trees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/uganda2013 |title=Uganda Unveils The World's First Earth Hour Forest |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=September 30, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915221131/http://earthhour.org/uganda2013 |archive-date=September 15, 2013 }}</ref>

Earth Hour commemorations in Madagascar had as their highlight the distribution of one thousand wood-saving stoves to victims of the cyclone Haruna in the southern town of Toliara, extensively damaged in the February 22 storm. WWF-Madagascar and ADES (Association pour le Développement de l'Energie Solaire) distributed an additional 2,200 wood-saving stoves later that year.

Former President of [[Botswana]], [[Festus Mogae]] promised to plant one million [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous trees]] over four years, as part of his ""I Will If You Will"" challenge for Earth 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/blog/botswana-plant-one-million-trees-restore-forests |title=Botswana To Plant One Million Trees To Restore Forests |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=September 30, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919230521/http://earthhour.org/blog/botswana-plant-one-million-trees-restore-forests |archive-date=September 19, 2013 }}</ref>

==== Europe ====
WWF-Russia launched its 2013 campaign aiming to secure more than 100,000 signatures from Russian citizens to petition for amendments to the current forest legislation. The petition reached more than 127,000 signatures before the Earth Hour event, ensuring the legislation was debated in the State Duma by politicians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?207667/Earth-Hour-Seeks-Law-Reform-For-Protective-Forests-In-Russia |title=WWF – Earth Hour Seeks Law Reform For Protective Forests in Russia |work=panda.org |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref>

=== 2014 ===
Earth Hour 2014 took place on Saturday, March 29, during the same 8:30 to 9:30&nbsp;p.m. local timeslot. Earth Hour Blue was launched as a global crowdfunding and crowdsourcing platform for the planet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crowdfundinsider.com/2014/03/34849-earth-hour-targets-2014-crowdfunding-center-innovation-creativity-planet/ |title=Earth Hour Targets 2014 to be the Crowdfunding Center For Innovation and Creativity for the Planet |work=crowdfundinsider.com |date=March 30, 2014 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> ""It is all about the collective effort of individuals around the world getting together to help fund or add their voice to support on-the-ground environmental and social projects that deliver real outcomes.""<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenafricadirectory.org/earth-hour-blue-mobilising-crowdfunding-support-conservation-sustainable-development/ |title=Earth Hour Blue: mobilising crowdfunding to support conservation and sustainable development |work=Green Africa Directory |access-date=May 31, 2015 |archive-date=March 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329090032/http://www.greenafricadirectory.org/earth-hour-blue-mobilising-crowdfunding-support-conservation-sustainable-development/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Earth Hour 2014 Report<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/earth-hour-2014-report|title=2014 Report|work=Earth Hour|access-date=May 31, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524150131/https://www.earthhour.org/earth-hour-2014-report|archive-date=May 24, 2015}}</ref> highlighted a broad range of environmental outcomes achieved by the movement across 162 countries and territories around the world. More than US$60,000 was raised on the Earth Hour Blue platform for grassroots environmental projects run by WWF. The movement also saw campaigns to help protect Australia's Great Barrier Reef,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our Reef needs more than an hour|url=https://www.wwf.org.au/news/blogs/our-reef-needs-more-than-an-hour#gs.lr8n1g|access-date=24 November 2020|website=World Wide Fund Australia|archive-date=February 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221074418/https://www.wwf.org.au/news/blogs/our-reef-needs-more-than-an-hour#gs.lr8n1g|url-status=dead}}</ref> the launch of a Blue Sky App in China,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Smog Ruining Your Pictures? There's an App For That|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-CJB-21381|access-date=24 November 2020|newspaper=WSJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=App can transform gray sky to blue|url=https://www.adobomagazine.com/global-news/wwf-china-and-om-china-launch-blue-sky-app-for-clean-air/|access-date=24 November 2020|website=Adobo Magazine|date=March 26, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=App can transform gray sky to blue|url=http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2014-03/29/content_17391868.htm|access-date=24 November 2020|website=ChinaDaily Europe}}</ref> and the delivery of thousands of wood efficient stoves to communities in Madagascar.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cook stoves project combating deforestation in Madagascar gets an Earth Hour boost|url=https://wwf.panda.org/?227997/Cook-stoves-project-combating-deforestation-in-Madagascar-gets-an-Earth-Hour-boost|access-date=24 November 2020|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=WWF China Launch Blue Sky App {{!}} LBBOnline|url=https://www.lbbonline.com/news/wwf-china-launch-blue-sky-app|access-date=2020-11-27|website=www.lbbonline.com|language=en}}</ref>

=== 2015 ===
Earth Hour 2015 took place on Saturday, March 28, again between 8:30 and 9:30&nbsp;p.m. local time.<ref name=""earthhour2"">[http://www.earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour Celebrating Earth Hour] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219191454/http://earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour |date=February 19, 2017 }} Earth Hour/WWF Website</ref> The tagline for the global campaign was ""Change Climate Change"", returning to the movement's original focus to initiate citizen action on global warming. A day before the event, over 170 countries and territories had confirmed their participation; with more than 1200 landmarks and close to 40 UNESCO world heritage sites set for the switch off.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skynews.com.au/news/national/2015/03/25/earth-hour-to-illuminate-climate.html |title=Earth Hour to illuminate climate |work=skynews.com.au |date=March 25, 2015 |access-date=May 31, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503055916/http://www.skynews.com.au/news/national/2015/03/25/earth-hour-to-illuminate-climate.html |archive-date=May 3, 2015 }}</ref>

For the second year running, Earth Hour Blue aims to raise funds for WWF organized climate focused projects on a crowdfunding platform.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/earth-hour-2015-why-world-turning-off-its-lights-1493492 |title=Earth Hour 2015: Why is the world turning off its lights? |work=International Business Times UK |date=March 25, 2015 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> This year, crowdfunding projects include solar light distribution in the Philippines<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/456925/news/nation/palace-encourages-pinoys-to-join-earth-hour-2015-on-march-28|title=Palace encourages Pinoys to join Earth Hour 2015 on March 28|work=GMA News Online|date=March 22, 2015 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> and India,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-wwf-india-will-run-earth-hour-campaign-to-help-sundarbans-village-2070290|title=WWF-India will run Earth Hour campaign to help Sundarbans village|work=dna|access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> and wildlife based projects from Colombia,<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nOOD1suB_-8 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/nOOD1suB_-8 |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|title=Let Sea Turtles Off the Hook – Earth Hour 2015|date=March 7, 2015|work=YouTube|access-date=May 31, 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Uganda and Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wwf.or.id/?36082/SOSSebangau-Seruan-Aksi-Peduli-Kebakaran-Hutan-Kalimantan|title=#SOSSebangau: Seruan Aksi Peduli Kebakaran Hutan Kalimantan|work=WWF Indonesia|access-date=May 31, 2015|language=id|archive-date=September 26, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926122459/https://www.wwf.or.id/?36082%2FSOSSebangau-Seruan-Aksi-Peduli-Kebakaran-Hutan-Kalimantan|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Uniquely participating in the Earth Hour activity are the inhabitants of an island called [[Sibuyan]] in the Philippines who turned on their lights to elevate the message of using renewable energy. The island's source of electricity is a mini-hydro power plant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rappler.com/move-ph/88271-philippines-sibuyan-island-lights-earth-hour|title=PH island switches on lights during Earth Hour|work=Rappler|date=March 28, 2015|access-date=March 20, 2016}}</ref>

=== 2016 ===
Earth Hour 2016 was on Saturday, March 19, from 8:30&nbsp;p.m. to 9:30&nbsp;p.m. during participants' local time. It was also changed to avoid coinciding with the Christian Holy Saturday, which fell on March 26 of that year.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} It was the 10th anniversary of the campaign's beginnings in Sydney, Australia. Östersund in Sweden cancelled the 2016 event, following a spate of sex attacks, highlighting safety as a subject for discussion when saving resources.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Virtue|first=Rob|date=2016-03-18|title=The terrified town which has even cancelled Earth Hour over migrant sex attack fears|url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/653754/Ostersund-cancels-Earth-Hour-festival-over-fears-of-migrant-sex-attacks|access-date=2020-12-29|website=Express.co.uk|language=en}}</ref> Almost all the countries in the world observed Earth Hour.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}

=== 2017 ===
Earth Hour occurred on Saturday, March 25 from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm.<ref>{{Cite web|last=International|first=W. W. F.|title=Reports {{!}} Earth Hour 2020|url=https://www.earthhour.org/earth-hour-reports|access-date=2020-11-26|website=www.earthhour.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Earth Hour 2017 Date, Time, and Everything Else You Need to Know|url=https://gadgets.ndtv.com/others/features/earth-hour-2017-date-time-and-everything-else-you-need-to-know-1673057|access-date=2020-11-26|website=NDTV Gadgets 360|date=March 24, 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

=== 2018 ===
Earth Hour 2018 took place on March 24, from 8:30&nbsp;p.m. to 9:30&nbsp;p.m. in participants' time,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Earth Hour 2018 – A New Generation of Leaders Turn Out to Turn Up Climate Action {{!}} Press Releases {{!}} WWF|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/earth-hour-2018-a-new-generation-of-leaders-turn-out-to-turn-up-climate-action|access-date=2020-11-26|website=World Wildlife Fund|language=en}}</ref> in order to avoid coinciding with Christian Holy Saturday which fell on March 31.<ref>{{Cite web|last=International|first=W. W. F.|title=Join One Of The World's Largest Movements for Nature {{!}} Earth Hour 2020|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|access-date=2020-11-26|website=www.earthhour.org|language=en}}</ref>

=== 2019 ===
Earth Hour 2019 was held on March 30, from 8:30&nbsp;p.m. to 9:30&nbsp;pm. A total of 188 countries participated in Earth Hour 2019.<ref name=""twitter.com"">{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/earthhour|title=Earth Hour (@earthhour) {{!}} Twitter|website=twitter.com|language=en|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-lights-out-20190330-story.html|title=Earth Hour: Landmarks in L.A. and around the world are going dark to promote energy conservation|last=Lozano|first=Carlos|date=March 30, 2019|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=2019-03-30}}</ref> [[Miss Earth 2018]] [[Nguyễn Phương Khánh]] from Vietnam was designated as the Earth Hour Ambassador to implement several environmental protection activities.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lan |first1=Ngọc |title=Miss Earth 2018 Phương Khánh becomes Ambassador of the Earth Hour 2019(Miss Earth 2018 Phương Khánh Tro Thanh Dai Su Gio Trai Dat 2019)|url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quochoitv.vn%2Fvan-hoa-giai-tri%2F2019%2F3%2Fmiss-earth-2018-phuong-khanh-tro-thanh-dai-su-gio-trai-dat-2019%2F231198%3Ffbclid%3DIwAR30a_pQco7TJF63XES3girUUfQapbjQYye750Pyddwg8h6TD3LiEEVGeiM |access-date=25 March 2019 |agency=National Assembly Television (QuocHoiTV))|publisher=TRANG TIN ĐIỆN TỬ TRUYỀN HÌNH QUỐC HỘI VIỆT NAM |date=25 March 2019}}</ref> As ambassador, Phuong Khanh urged everyone to voluntarily turn off unnecessary lights and equipment for an hour, contributing to spreading the message ""Save Energy, Save Earth – Energy saving, Earth protection"".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://laodong.vn/xa-hoi/hoa-hau-trai-dat-phuong-khanh-tham-gia-chien-dich-gio-trai-dat-665929.ldo|title=Hoa hậu Trái đất Phương Khánh tham gia Chiến dịch ""Giờ Trái đất""|last=Quan|first=Ky|date=31 March 2019|work=Báo Lao Động|access-date=15 April 2019}}</ref>

=== 2020 ===
Earth Hour 2020 took place on Saturday, 28 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time and it went digitally due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. 190 countries and territories came together to support this movement and few of the many public personalities such as UN Secretary General [[António Guterres]], [[Pope Francis]], environmental activist [[Greta Thunberg]], Canadian Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]], Indian film star [[Amitabh Bachchan]], UN Environment Goodwill ambassador [[Dia Mirza]], Kenyan singing sensation [[Nikita Kering]], Colombian model [[:es:Claudia Bahamón|Claudia Bahamon]] and British Singer Songwriter, [[Cat Stevens]] also participated in Earth Hour 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://latest.earthhour.org/earth-hour-2020-wrap-up|title = Millions unite online making Earth Hour 2020 one of the largest virtual movements for the environment}}</ref>

=== 2021 ===
Earth Hour 2021 took place on Saturday, 27 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time.

=== 2022 ===
Earth Hour 2022 took place on Saturday, 26 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time.

=== 2023 ===
Earth Hour 2023 took place on Saturday, 25 March at 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time.<ref>{{cite web |title=WWF's Earth Hour Launches 'The Biggest Hour for Earth' |url=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/press_releases/?7838441/WWFs-Earth-Hour-Launches-The-Biggest-Hour-for-Earth |website=World Wide Fund for Nature |access-date=20 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Ahead of the event, Earth Hour was rebranded as the ""Biggest Hour for Earth"",<ref>{{cite web |title=WWF rebrands its Earth Hour campaign to deliver the Biggest Hour for Earth |url=https://www.marketing-beat.co.uk/2023/03/17/wwf-biggest-hour-for-earth/ |website=Marketing Beat |date=March 17, 2023 |access-date=24 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref> which included a bigger focus on community action and less reliance on the 'switch off'. Over the course of the event Earth Hour measured over 410,000 hours of planet-positive activities pledged<ref>{{cite web |title=Millions celebrate WWF's Earth Hour 2023, creating The Biggest Hour for Earth |url=https://latest.earthhour.org/millions-celebrate-earth-hour-2023-creating-the-biggest-hour-for-earth |website=Earth Hour |access-date=24 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref> as part of the 'Hour Bank' which collated committed actions by the public.<ref>{{cite web |title=Give an Hour for Earth |url=https://www.earthhour.org/take-part/give-an-hour |website=Earth Hour |access-date=24 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

=== 2024 ===
Earth Hour 2024 will take place on Saturday, 23 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time in order to avoid coinciding with [[Western Christianity|Western Christian]] Holy Saturday which will fall on March 30.<ref>{{cite web |title=Earth Hour |url=https://www.earthhour.org/ |access-date=26 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

== Measurement of reduction in electricity use ==
The Earth Hour Global FAQ page states:
{{Blockquote|Earth Hour does not purport to be an energy/[[Carbon neutrality|carbon reduction]] exercise, it is a symbolic action. Therefore, we do not engage in the measurement of energy/carbon reduction levels for the hour itself. Earth Hour is an initiative to encourage individuals, businesses and governments around the world to take accountability for their [[ecological footprint]] and engage in dialogue and resource exchange that provides real solutions to our environmental challenges. Participation in Earth Hour symbolizes a commitment to change beyond the hour.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour |title=Celebrating Earth Hour |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=2014-03-29 |archive-date=February 19, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219191454/http://earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}

A 2014 study published in ''Energy Research and Social Science'' compiled 274 measurements of observed changes in electricity demand caused by Earth Hour in 10 countries, spanning 6 years, and found that the events reduced electricity consumption an average of 4%.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The electricity impacts of Earth Hour: An international comparative analysis of energy-saving behavior| doi=10.1016/j.erss.2014.04.014|volume=2|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|pages=159–182|year=2014|last1=Olexsak|first1=Sarah J.|last2=Meier|first2=Alan| s2cid=153963717|url=https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt4bj0h7bc/qt4bj0h7bc.pdf?t=pd3sl2}}</ref> The study noted the policy challenge of converting Earth Hour's short-term energy saving into longer-term actions, including sustained changes in behaviour and investment.

== Reception ==
{{Undue weight|date=March 2023}}
[[Bjørn Lomborg]], author of ''[[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]'', wrote, ""It is vital to make [[solar power|solar]] and [[green energy|other new technology]] cheaper than [[fossil fuels]] quickly so we can turn off carbon energy sources for a lot longer than one hour and keep the planet running... Fossil fuels literally gave us an enlightenment, by lighting our world and giving us protection from the fury of the elements. It is ironic that today's pure symbolism should hark back to a darker age.""<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25247677-7583,00.html | title = Hour of no power increases emissions | publisher = The Australian | date = March 27, 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090329232500/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25247677-7583,00.html | archive-date = March 29, 2009 | access-date = March 30, 2009 | url-status = dead | df = mdy-all }}</ref> Lomborg also pointed out the feel-good factor Earth Hour creates, noting that it is an ""ineffective feel good event"" that makes people feel they are doing something for the environment, while in reality the amount of carbon emissions reduced by the earth hour is negligible.<ref>{{cite news|title=Q&A: Why Bjorn Lomborg won't be turning off the lights during Earth Hour|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/q-a-why-bjorn-lomborg-won-t-be-turning-off-the-lights-during-earth-hour-1.2591072|access-date=June 12, 2014|work=Mark Gollom, CBC News|agency=CBC News|issue=March 29, 2014}}</ref>

Other criticisms of Earth Hour have included the following:  
* Some critics point out that the reduction in power consumption during Earth Hour itself is relatively insignificant.<ref name = ""rage against dimming"">{{cite news | last = Soloman | first = David | url = http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,21694864-7583,00.html | title = Rage, rage against dimming of the light | publisher = The Australian | date = May 9, 2007 | access-date = March 29, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080602041228/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,21694864-7583,00.html | archive-date = June 2, 2008 | url-status = dead | df = mdy-all }}</ref> ''[[The Herald Sun]]'' equated the power savings in the Sydney central business district to ""taking 48,613 cars off the road for 1 hour"".{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} Australian columnist [[Andrew Bolt]] pointed out that ""A cut so tiny is trivial – equal to taking six cars off the road for a year"".<ref>Bolt, Andrew (March 28, 2008). [http://www.heraldsun.com.au/opinion-old/earth-hour-coverage-should-be-grounded/story-e6frfifx-1111115907103 ""Earth Hour coverage should be grounded""], Herald Sun, Retrieved March 20, 2011</ref>  
*Other environmentalists have criticized Earth Hour's focus on individual behaviour, when a small number of fossil fuel companies have emitted the vast majority of man-made carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sustainababble.fish/?p=101|title=Sustainababble Podcast – Earth Hour|date=March 29, 2015|access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref> [[Adam McGibbon]], writing for ''[[The Independent]]'', criticized Earth Hour for releasing fossil fuel companies and politicians from their responsibility to deal with climate change.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/earth-hour-climate-change-environment-fossil-fuels-boycott-make-change-happen-really-care-a7643971.html|title=If you really care about climate change, boycott Earth Hour|date=March 22, 2017|work=The Independent|access-date=March 25, 2017|language=en-GB}}</ref>
* ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'' said that most candles are made from [[Paraffin wax|paraffin]], a heavy [[hydrocarbon]] derived from [[crude oil]], a [[fossil fuel]], and that depending on how many candles a person burns (if one uses candles during Earth Hour), whether or not they normally use [[compact fluorescent light]] bulbs, and what source of energy is used to produce their electricity, in some cases, replacing light bulbs with candles will cause an increase, instead of a decrease, in carbon dioxide emissions.<ref>[http://features.csmonitor.com/environment/2009/03/27/does-lighting-candles-for-earth-hour-defeat-the-purpose/ Does lighting candles for Earth Hour defeat the purpose?], ''Christian Science Monitor'', March 27, 2009</ref>
* On March 29, 2009, one day after Earth Hour 2009, ''Dân Trí Daily News'' published an editorial expressing concern that many young people chose to drive around the darkened city of [[Hanoi]] for fun, exhausting petroleum instead of electricity and resulting in long traffic jams.<ref>[http://dantri.com.vn/xa-hoi/cai-nhin-khac-trong-gio-trai-dat-316112.htm ""Cái nhìn khác trong Giờ Trái đất""], ''Dân Trí Daily News'', by Cường Cao, date: March 29, 2009. {{in lang|vi}}</ref>
* George Marshall of the Climate Outreach Information Network criticized Earth Hour for ""playing into the hands of (the critics of environmentalists),"" as darkness is symbolic of fear and decay.  ""The overwhelming need at the moment is to inspire ordinary people with a vision of a better world, to make them feel that action on climate change is utterly desirable and positive.... the cultural resonance (of Earth Hour) couldn't be any worse.""<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/cif-green/2009/mar/27/climate-change-carbon-emissions|title=Earth Hour: Turning out the lights plays into the hands of our critics|last=Marshall|first=George|date=March 27, 2009|work=The Guardian|access-date=March 25, 2017|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
* The [[Competitive Enterprise Institute]] has introduced an opposing ''Human Achievement Hour'' in celebration of human progress in various fields of industry, including technology, medicine, energy, and more. During this hour, the Institute suggests that people celebrate by using modern technology such as electricity, telecommunications and indoor plumbing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cei.org/content/human-achievement-hour-2015|title=Human Achievement Hour 2015|work=cei.org|access-date=May 31, 2015|archive-date=January 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120025719/https://cei.org/content/human-achievement-hour-2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> 
* In 2009, economist [[Ross McKitrick]] criticized the idea, saying, ""Abundant, cheap electricity has been the greatest source of human liberation in the 20th century.[...] The whole mentality around Earth Hour demonizes electricity.""<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rossmckitrick.com/uploads/4/8/0/8/4808045/earthhour.pdf | title=Earth Hour: A Dissent | last=McKitrick | first=Ross | author-link=Ross McKitrick | year=2009 | access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref>
* In March 2010, ''The Daily Telegraph'' quoted Ross Hayman, head of media relations at the [[UK National Grid]], as saying ""it could therefore result in an increase in carbon emissions"" due to complications related to rapidly lowering then raising electricity generation.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/environment/climatechange/7527469/Earth-Hour-will-not-cut-carbon-emissions.html | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph | title=Earth Hour 'will not cut carbon emissions' | date=March 27, 2010}}</ref>
* In February 2010, Rick Giles, president of [[ACT on Campus]], the youth wing of New Zealand's [[ACT Party]], appeared on the [[morning television]] show ''[[Sunrise (New Zealand TV program)|Sunrise]]'' to denounce Earth Hour and instead suggested the celebration of ""Edison Hour"". He argued that Earth Hour is an ""anti-technology"" cause, and that people will simply use candles instead, which is undesirable as they are petroleum-based. He argued that if we are heading for some kind of disaster, it makes sense to use technology to combat this.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2B9MqNzQuuk  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/2B9MqNzQuuk |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|title=I think my argument is so powerful that it's not necessary to talk about it |publisher=YouTube |date=March 29, 2010 |access-date=March 31, 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Rick said ""I think my argument is so powerful that it's not necessary to talk about it"".
* The [[Ayn Rand Institute]] wrote, ""Participants spend an enjoyable sixty minutes in the dark, safe in the knowledge that the life-saving benefits of industrial civilization are just a light switch away... Forget one measly hour with just the lights off. How about Earth Month... Try spending a month shivering in the dark without heating, electricity, refrigeration; without power plants or generators; without any of the labor-saving, time-saving, and therefore life-saving products that industrial energy makes possible.""<ref>[https://ari.aynrand.org/issues/science-and-industrialization/environmental-issues/The-Real-Meaning-of-Earth-Hour The Real Meaning of Earth Hour], by Keith Lockitch, Ayn Rand Institute, March 23, 2009</ref>
* Expressing sarcastic support for Earth Hour, the pro-carbon Carbon Sense Coalition wants Earth Hour to be renamed ""Blackout Night"", and to be held outside on the shortest and coldest day of the year ""...to prepare our population for the dark days ahead"".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://carbon-sense.com/|title=The Carbon Sense Coalition|work=carbon-sense.com|access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref>
* During the 2010 Earth Hour in the city of [[Uusikaupunki]] in Finland, a 17-year-old female motorcyclist hit a 71-year-old man, who was walking on the street instead of the sidewalk for an unknown reason. The man died from his injuries, while the motorcyclist and her passenger were uninjured. At the time of the accident, the street lights had been turned off as part of the Earth Hour. The police stated that the lack of street lighting may have played a part in the accident, while the mayor believed the city's street lights would have been too dim to prevent it even if they had been on.<ref>{{cite web | title=Mies kuoli moottoripyörän alle pimeystempauksen pimentämällä tiellä | work=[[Helsingin Sanomat]] | url=<!-- http://www.hs.fi/kotimaa/artikkeli/Mies+kuoli+moottoripy%C3%B6r%C3%A4n+alle+pimeystempauksen+piment%C3%A4m%C3%A4ll%C3%A4+tiell%C3%A4/1135255005911 -->http://hommaforum.org/index.php?topic=25901.5;imode | date=March 27, 2010 | access-date=March 28, 2010 | language=fi | archive-date=March 29, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329150314/https://hommaforum.org/index.php?topic=25901.5;imode | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Kaupunki sammutti katuvalot Earth Hourin ajaksi – Mies jäi moottoripyörän alle pimeällä tiellä ja kuoli |work=[[Aamulehti]] |url=http://www.aamulehti.fi/uutiset/kotimaa/174590.shtml |date=March 28, 2010 |access-date=March 28, 2010 |language=fi }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
* [[Jeremy Clarkson]], ex-host of the [[BBC]] motoring programme ''[[Top Gear (2002 TV series)|Top Gear]]'', claimed switching on all electrical items in his home as a protest against the perceived impact of Earth Hour, claiming the event would have little to no effect on attitudes towards climate change.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/driving/jeremy_clarkson/article1976771.ece |location=London |work=The Times |title=Jeremy Clarkson |url-access=subscription  }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Environment|Energy}}
* [[88888 Lights Out]]
* [[Denmark plants trees]]
* [[Earth Anthem]]
* [[Earth Day]]
* [[Earth Strike]]
* [[Flick Off]]
* [[International Dark Sky Week]]
* [[Light pollution]]
* [[Planet Relief]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
{{Wikinews|Businesses and individuals worldwide to turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2009 | Businesses and individuals worldwide turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2008}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Earth hour|Earth Hour}}
* [https://www.earthhour.org/ Earth Hour]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Climate change and society]]
[[Category:Annual events]]
[[Category:Recurring events established in 2007]]
[[Category:World Wide Fund for Nature]]
[[Category:Energy conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:March observances]]
[[Category:Saturday observances]]"
"Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc.","{{Short description|U.S. watershed organization}}
{{multiple issues|
{{cleanup-PR|date=January 2016}}
{{overly detailed|date=January 2016}}
}}
'''Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc.''', or ""CU"", is a [[501(c)(3)]] (nonprofit) regional   [[Drainage basin|watershed]] organization. It was founded in 1979 and incorporated in 1986.

CU received Environmental Quality Awards from the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) in 1994 <ref>[http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/016bcfb1deb9fecd85256aca005d74df/ccaf54bc14551e9985257173006765a3!OpenDocument EPA]</ref> and again in 2000 for their efforts to procure the federal [[National Wild and Scenic River|Wild and Scenic]] designation for the [[Maurice River|Maurice]], [[Menantico River|Menantico]], [[Manumuskin River]]s and the [[Muskee Creek]]. In the year 2000 CU was also acknowledged by the EPA for the work on an osprey colony, their annual raptor and waterfowl survey, the film “Down Jersey” and accompanying teachers’ guide, and the [[North American Wetlands Conservation Act]].

In 2002 Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. took first place in the category of Education and Learning Institute, NJ Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Watershed Management for their PBS film “Down Jersey” and the teachers’ curriculum, “Down Jersey: Celebrating Our Sense of Place.” Over 500 teachers have taken workshops in order to teach the curriculum.

CU also co-produced a documentary with [[New Jersey Network]] for which they received a Mid-Atlantic [[Emmy]] award for Outstanding Arts Program or Special.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061006232152/http://www.njn.net/about/pressrelease/06archive/06sept-emmywinners.html NJN Media Release: NJN Brings Home 2 Emmys]</ref>

==Mission==
Their mission reads:

:''Citizens United is dedicated to protecting the watershed of the Maurice River and the region known as Down Jersey, thereby enabling current and future generations to enjoy the environmental, recreational, cultural, and scenic resources of this Wild & Scenic global treasure.''

:''CU empowers individuals, organizations, and neighboring communities to promote the region’s enduring well-being and quality of life. CU invites participation and fosters responsible stewardship. CU supports education, awareness, and informed decision-making utilizing field work, research, and advocacy<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/pages/about.html Citizen's United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries]</ref>''.

==Work==
CU's work in the [[Maurice River]] watershed typically begins geographically at Willow Grove Lake and continues south; the South Jersey Land and Water Trust begins its work in the vicinity of Willow Grove Lake and extends northward to the headwaters of Scotland Run.

The Maurice River watershed has a drainage of {{convert|386|sqmi|km2}} and runs south through Cumberland County, New Jersey to the Delaware Bay. The major tributaries of the Maurice River include [[Scotland Run]], [[Menantico Creek]], Muskee Creek, [[Muddy Run (Maurice River)|Muddy Run]], and the [[Manumuskin River]].<ref>[http://www.nj.gov/dep/watershedmgt/DOCS/WMAFactsheets/WMA17.pdf NJ DEP Watershed Management Area] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725070608/http://www.nj.gov/dep/watershedmgt/DOCS/WMAFactsheets/WMA17.pdf |date=2008-07-25 }}</ref>

On December 1, 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] signed a congressional act designating {{convert|10.3|mi|km}} of the Maurice River, {{convert|7.9|mi|km}} of the Menantico Creek, {{convert|14.3|mi|km}} of the Manumuskin River, and {{convert|2.7|mi|km}} of the Muskee Creek as Wild and Scenic.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/maur/ National Park Service: Maurice River, Wild and Scenic]</ref>

The Delaware Bay estuary is a [[Ramsar convention|Ramsar]] Wetlands of International Importance listed site.<ref>[http://ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance] {{webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060206174606/http%3A//ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf |date=2006-02-06 }}</ref> It has also been named by [[The Nature Conservancy]] as one of the ""Last Great Places on Earth"".<ref>[http://training.fws.gov/library/pubs5/web_link/text/nj_pine.htm Fish and Wildlife Services: Significant habitats and habitat complexes of the NJ Pinelands]</ref>

=== Ecological significance ===
The Maurice River watershed includes a variety of habitat supporting rare wildlife and plant populations. Its vast wetland and forest complexes host wintering waterfowl and spring migratory shorebirds. A 1992 report by the National Wild and Scenic River Study states that “[t]he study area functions as critical migration-related habitat for shorebirds, songbirds, waterfowl, raptors, rails and fish. The Maurice River and its tributaries drain the Southwest portion of the Pinelands National Reserve, which is also an International Biosphere Reserve under the United Nations Man and Biosphere Program.”

The New Jersey Landscape mapping indicates the Maurice River watershed as habitat for bald eagles, waterfowl, and several other migratory birds.<ref>[http://www.state.nj.us/dep/fgw/ensp/landscape New Jersey's Landscape Project]</ref>  In addition, the area contains the world's largest population of ''Aeschynomene virginica'', (sensitive joint vetch). Its NatureServ Conservation Status is G2, globally imperiled.<ref>[http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Aeschynomene%20virginica NatureServ Plant Profile: Aeschynomene virginica]</ref> The watershed also contains the state's largest expanse of wild rice marsh, within the Glades Refuge,<ref>[http://www.natlands.org/projects/project.asp?fldProjectId=9 Natural Lands Trust Glades Refuge] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013025410/http://www.natlands.org/projects/project.asp?fldProjectId=9 |date=2007-10-13 }}</ref>  and an old growth swamp forest, [[Bear Swamp, New Jersey|Bear Swamp]], a NJ state listed Natural Heritage Priority Site.<ref>[http://www.state.nj.us/dep/gis/digidownload/metadata/statewide/prisites.htm NJ Natural Heritage Priority Sites]</ref>

=== Cultural history ===
The Native Americans called the Maurice River “Wahatquenack”. The river's current name is thought to be derived from the Prince Maurice, a 17th-century Dutch ship reputed to have sunk in its waters.

The river's maritime history is intertwined with the oyster harvest, commercial fishing, and shipbuilding.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/nj2/chap3a.htm National Park Service: Historic Themes and Resources within the New Jersey Coastal Heritage Trail Route]</ref>  The [[A. J. Meerwald|AJ Meerwald]], a 1928 oyster schooner that operated on the Maurice and in the Delaware Bay, dubbed “NJ’s Tall Ship” by former [[Christine Todd Whitman|Governor Christie Whitman]], has been restored by the Bayshore Discovery Project for educational purposes.<ref>[http://www.ajmeerwald.org/ Bayshore Discovery Project]</ref>

=== Economic importance and recreational opportunities ===
The Maurice River supports such industries as commercial crabbing, eeling, net fishing, and oystering. Boating, kayaking, canoeing, birding, hiking, fishing, hunting and railbirding are several of the recreational activities pursued on the river. [[Benjamin Harrison|President Benjamin Harrison]] hunted on the Maurice River during his presidential term.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/downjersey/maritime/m-lesson3.html Maritime History: Railbird hunting]</ref>

==Approach==
* Education
* Fieldwork
* Research
* Advocacy

=== Education ===
CU created a curriculum called “Down Jersey” which won the 2000 EPA Regional Education Award, and the 2001 NJDEP Statewide Watershed Award for Education. CU also partnered with [[New Jersey Network]] Public Television in 1997 to create a documentary by the same name in conjunction with this curriculum. Additionally, CU and NJN partnered on two other documentaries: “Bayshore Artists: Celebrating Our Sense of Place,” in 2001, and “Glenn Rudderow: Reflections of a Bayshore Painter,” in 2005, the second of which was awarded a Mid-Atlantic Emmy award for Outstanding Arts Program or Special.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061006232152/http://www.njn.net/about/pressrelease/06archive/06sept-emmywinners.html NJN Media Release: NJN Brings Home 2 Emmys]</ref> The documentary aired nationally in 2006.

CU has also created various educational slideshows such as “Eggs to Flight” which follows the maturation of osprey from hatching to fledging, and “Fish and Chicks” which traces the decline and subsequent restoration efforts involving the osprey on the Maurice River.

Additionally, CU has created a botanical site that focuses on the flora of southern New Jersey and the [[Pine Barrens (New Jersey)|Pine Barrens]] of New Jersey.

CU has documented the local history of a number of [[reach (geography)|reaches]] on the Maurice River as well as securing source material on the Burcham Farm, the last remaining diked farm in southern New Jersey.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/pages/burchamfarmthesis2.pdf Burcham Farm Thesis by Patricia Ball Bover]</ref>

Other aspects of CU's educational approach include:
* Participation in various community festivals such as the Cumberland County Winter Eagle Festival and Bay Days;
* “Raptor Discovery Days,” which involve programming for approximately 600 school children preceding the Eagle Festival; and
* Various activities and events for the public including bimonthly meetings with speakers, presentations for local groups, and opportunities such as birding, kayaking, and hiking.

The group also provides a scholarship for art students.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/downjersey/maritime/m-cjost-schl.html Connie Jost Scholarship]</ref> The Connie Jost Scholarship was created in 1998 in memory of the late Connie Jost, a local artist, painter, sculptor, and educator who frequently incorporated fish and marine animals into her works.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/28/nyregion/art-review-fishing-for-meaning-and-for-a-good-time.html NY Times Art Review; Fishing for Meaning And for a Good Time]</ref>

=== Fieldwork ===
CU's fieldwork includes an osprey colony project, purple martin banding, wood ducks, Adopt-a-Swamp pink population, eagle nest monitoring, and international shorebird team assistance.

'''Osprey colony project''': The [[osprey]] (Pandion haliaetus) ) is a bird of prey (raptor) which feeds almost exclusively on fish. Seen in the coastal estuaries of many countries, the osprey is present on every continent with the exception of Antarctica. Its head is white with a black eye stripe. Its wing span is four and half to six feet and it is highly streamlined, making it an extremely maneuverable flier. Its talons are extremely sharp, which helps in piercing through the scales of a fish. Osprey generally mate for life but they will choose a new partner if a mate perishes. They normally lay three eggs; four is rare. On average they raise 2.5 young each season. Under the management of the New Jersey State Division of Fish and Wildlife, the NJ Endangered and Nongame Species Program monitors osprey populations statewide. Historically there were 500 nesting pair of osprey in NJ. In the 1950s and 1960s the use of DDT reduced their numbers to 50 pair. They were not productive, so chicks were brought in from nests in regions that had not been exposed to these chemical contaminants and the young were fostered by NJ's remaining birds. The fledglings imprinted to the area and returned as adults to build their own nests along New Jersey's rivers and bays.

Citizens statewide volunteered to help restore populations by providing nesting platforms for this threatened species. In the mid-1980s Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. (Citizens United or CU) began an osprey colony. In 2007 the State passed the milestone of 400 nesting pair. Citizens United's volunteers monitor approximately 50 nesting platforms and they have constructed and erected more than 50 platforms for other organizations and corporations, including the NJ Endangered and Nongame Species Program, NJ Department of Protection Bureau of Emergency Response, Community Energy, PSE&G and The Natural Lands Trust.

CU volunteers maintain the 50+ platforms along the Maurice River. Each June and July they band the offspring in these structures. Between 1985 and 2007 more than 150 people participated in this project. When the program was begun in 1985, an average of three chicks fledged each year. Since 2006, nesting pairs have produced in excess of 60 chicks. The platform design developed by Citizens United has become the official design of the State of New Jersey. The platform plans and materials list, available online, have been utilized by people from a number of different geographical regions.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/pages/npmats.html Osprey platform plans]</ref>

'''Purple martin banding:''' [[Purple martin]]s (Progne subis) are the largest of the North American swallows and, in the eastern U.S., are entirely dependent upon man for their housing. In conjunction with CU, members and other individuals band the birds for research purposes. In 2008, CU member Allen Jackson and those working with him banded over 8000 purple martins, an increase of 2000 birds from the prior year. CU also donates funds to purchase the bands.

'''Wood ducks:''' CU has put up a number of [[wood duck]] boxes on both the Manumuskin and the Maurice, and has also taught various groups of local high school students to build them, as well as making the plans for the boxes available online.

'''Adopt a swamp pink population:''' [[Swamp pink]] (Helonias bullata) is a federally threatened member of the lily family. Seventy percent of its global population occurs in New Jersey. CU has partnered with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service on a monitoring project, “Adopt-a-Swamp-Pink Population”.<ref>[http://www.fws.gov/northeast/njfieldoffice/Fact%20Sheets%20PDF%20holding/Swamp_Pink_PDF.pdf U.S. Fish Wildlife Service Adopt a swamp pink program]</ref> The survey results are shared with U.S.F.W.S. and NJ Natural Heritage.

'''Assisting NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife, Endangered and Nongame Species Program:''' CU assists in two facets: a number of volunteers monitor eagles’ nests for the State; and their members also provide support to the international Shorebird Team that visits May–June of each year to study the migratory shorebird phenomenon. CU members help with the banding of shorebirds, as well as hosting the scientists during their stay by providing them with meals and local cultural activities.

'''[[World Series of Birding]]:''' CU's team, the “Fish Hawks”, was formed in 2007 and placed second in the category of limited geographical region that year. A portion of the monies raised by the team defray the expenses of hosting the international shorebird scientists.

=== Research ===
CU has funded in part or wholly a number of studies of flora and fauna in the Maurice River watershed including an annual Raptor Waterfowl study carried out since 1988, a number of botanical surveys, and the Parvin-Tarkiln Branch Water Study.

=== Advocacy ===
Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. has been involved in environmental advocacy since its inception, and has made presentations and given testimony at local, state, and national levels for local land protection efforts.

Some of those include: 
* Giving testimony on behalf of the Maurice River Project Area, a cooperative endeavor under the North American Wetlands Conservation Act.<ref>[http://www.acjv.org/Fact_Sheets/NJ08.pdf Atlantic Coast Joint Venture: New Jersey]{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* Initiating a number of nominations that were submitted to the National Park Service and Congress requesting the dedication of the Maurice River and three of its tributaries: the Manantico, Manumuskin, and Muskee River as Wild and Scenic River by the US Congress
* Serving on the Wild and Scenic Task Force that developed the summary of the resource values and the ultimate management plan for the rivers
* Challenging the placement of structures within the wild and scenic corridor and making suggestions to cell tower companies on locating towers
* Assisting local governments with the design of various city ordinances for tree harvesting, land mining, and communication towers
* Proposing alternatives to the development of environmentally sensitive sites
* Assisting corporations to help them meet project mitigation standards
* Opposing pollution of sites that were later deemed US EPA Superfund Sites

==Partnerships==
Since its inception, CU has partnered with other conservation organizations. Partners have included National Park Service, Natural Lands Trust, The Nature Conservancy, New Jersey Network, New Jersey Audubon Society, NJ Conservation Foundation, Bayshore Discovery Project, NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife, Rutgers Environmental Law Clinic, Columbia Environmental Law Clinic, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. CU also works with corporations on their habitat projects: Community Energy, PSE&G Estuary Enhancement Project, Morie Sand and Gravel and others.

CU is also a member of the South Jersey Bayshore Coalition.<ref>[http://sjbayshore.org/Coalition.htm South Jersey Bayshore Coalition]</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.cumauriceriver.org Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc.]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060219182724/http://njn.net/television/highlights/05november/bayshore/ New Jersey Network]
*[http://www.nps.gov/maur/ National Park Service]
*[http://www.ramsar.org Ramsar]
*[http://www.rivers.gov National Wild and Scenic Rivers System]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Citizens United To Protect The Maurice River And Its Tributaries, Inc.}}
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in New Jersey]]
[[Category:Cumberland County, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Water organizations in the United States]]"
Metropolitan River Protection Act,"'''Metropolitan River Protection Act''' (Georgia Code 12-5-440 et seq.) was enacted in 1973 by the [[Georgia General Assembly]] to establish a 2000-foot Corridor along the banks of the [[Chattahoochee River]] and its impoundments for the 48 miles between [[Buford Dam]] and [[Peachtree Creek]].

==History==
Enacted in 1973, the Metropolitan River Protection Act initially covered a 48-mile corridor between Buford Dam (on the north) and Peachtree Creek, to the south. In 1998, the Act was amended to extend the corridor an additional 36 miles to the downstream limits of [[Fulton County, Georgia|Fulton]] and [[Douglas County, Georgia|Douglas Counties]].

===Atlanta Regional Commission===
The Act requires the [[Atlanta Regional Commission]] (ARC) to adopt a plan to protect the Chattahoochee River corridor and to review development proposals for consistency with the plan.  Local governments along the corridor are required to implement the plan by issuing permits based on ARC findings, monitoring land-disturbing activity in the corridor and enforcing the Act and the plan. Under the Act, land-disturbing activity in the corridor must comply with the adopted plan to be legal.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094236/http://www.atlantaregional.com/cps/rde/xchg/arc/hs.xsl/278_ENU_HTML.htm Metropolitan River Protection Act & Chattahoochee Corridor Plan]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094155/http://www.atlantaregional.com/cps/rde/xbcr/arc/CHAT_MRPA.PDF Metropolitan River Protection Act]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094132/http://www.atlantaregional.com/cps/rde/xchg/arc/hs.xsl/304_ENU_HTML.htm Chattahoochee Corridor Plan Summary]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094315/http://www.atlantaregional.com/cps/rde/xbcr/arc/CHAT_COR_PLAN.pdf Chattahoochee Corridor Plan (PDF)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094243/http://www.atlantaregional.com/cps/rde/xchg/arc/hs.xsl/305_ENU_HTML.htm Review Process Overview]
{{portal bar|Georgia (U.S. state)|Environment}}

[[Category:Chattahoochee River]]
[[Category:1973 in American law]]
[[Category:1973 in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Georgia (U.S. state) statutes]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]


{{GeorgiaUS-stub}}"
American Heritage Rivers Protection Program,"The '''American Heritage Rivers Protection Program''' was authorized by [[s:Executive_Order_13061|Executive Order 13061]] during the [[Presidency of Bill Clinton|Clinton Administration]] on September 11, 1997.  The initiative was to support existing community-based efforts to preserve, protect, and restore rivers and their communities. It was considered an avenue to deliver federal resources more efficiently and effectively in support of [[Volunteering|voluntary]] community efforts at enhancing and protecting rivers or river segments.  

The initial selection criteria were developed under the Chair of the [[Council on Environmental Quality]] to reflect the wide variety of viewpoints concerning riverine and natural resource utilization, including those representing natural, cultural, and historic resources; scenic, environmental, and recreation interests; tourism, transportation, and economic development interests; and industries such as agriculture, hydropower, manufacturing, mining, and forest management. 

The designated [[American Heritage Rivers]] were selected based on proposals submitted by local sponsors.  The designations are located in or affect pristine lands, [[arable land|agricultural lands]] and urban environments

== References ==

*{{CRS|article = Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition|url = http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/05jun/97-905.pdf|author= Jasper Womach}}






{{US-gov-stub}}
[[Category:Clinton administration initiatives]]
[[Category:Rivers of the United States]]
[[Category:Environment of the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:American Heritage Rivers]]"
International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River,"{{Short description|International environmental organisation}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{unreferenced|date=August 2019}}
[[File:International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River.PNG|350px|right|thumb|{{center|Contracting parties of the ICPDR, with the European Union shaded in light green; excludes Montenegro.}}]]

The '''International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River''' ('''ICPDR''') is an international organisation with its permanent secretariat in [[Vienna]]. It was established by the Danube River Protection Convention, signed by the [[Danube]] countries in [[Sofia]], [[Bulgaria]], in 1994.

The TransNational Monitoring Network (TNMN) began in 1996, and the Accident Emergency Warning System (AEWS) first came into operation in 1997 – both continue today as key transnational measures under the ICPDR. Although the ICPDR contracting parties are a mix of EU Member States and Non-Member States, all have committed themselves to meeting the requirements of the EU [[Water Framework Directive]]. This commitment was augmented by the EU Floods Directive in 2007. The ICPDR celebrated 25 years of the Danube River Protection Convention in 2019.

==Legal basis==
The ICPDR’s legal basis is the Convention on Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable use of the Danube River, generally referred to as the Danube River Protection Convention or DRPC. It commits the contracting parties to join their efforts in sustainable water management, including conservation of surface and [[ground water]], [[pollution]] reduction, and the prevention and control of floods, accidents and ice hazards. The convention was signed in Sofia, Bulgaria, in 1994 and came into force in October 1998.

==Objectives==
The ICPDR was created to implement the Danube River Protection Convention (DRPC). It is both a forum to allow its contracting parties to coordinate the implementation of the convention and a platform to review the progress they make. The key objectives of the ICPDR include the following:

# Ensure sustainable water management
# Control pollution and reduce inputs of nutrients and hazardous substances
# Control floods and ice hazards

The ICPDR facilitates cooperation between the Danube countries and the [[Black Sea]] region in issues requiring coordination. It cooperates with other international organisations where appropriate to address new challenges related to water management as they emerge. As of its adoption in 2000, a commitment to implementing the EU’s [[Water Framework Directive]] (WFD, formally Directive 2000/60/EC) is also central to the activities of all ICPDR members, including non-EU members.

When the Water Framework Directive was adopted in October 2000, all countries cooperating under the DRPC (which includes at present 9 EU and 5 non EU member states) nominated the ICPDR as the platform for the Implementation of all transboundary aspects of the EU Water Framework Directive. They decided to make all efforts to implement the Directive throughout the whole basin. The Non EU Member States also committed themselves to implement the WFD within the frame of the DRPC. In addition, the ICPDR serves as a coordination platform for the basin-wide implementation of the EU [[Floods directive]] (EFD, formally Directive 2007/60/EC).

==Structure and decision making==
The ICPDR is an international organisation. It meets twice a year: The Ordinary Meeting is held in [[Vienna]] in December, another meeting of Heads of Delegations, the Standing Working Group, is held in June in the country of the Presidency. The meetings consist of delegations of contracting parties and observer organisations. Every contracting party has one Head of Delegation representing the country. For all decisions the achievement of consensus is sought. The meetings are chaired by the ICPDR President; ICPDR Presidency is passed on from one country to another in an alphabetical order every year.

Much of the work of the ICPDR is done by Expert Groups (EGs), which are panels of specialists from the ICPDR contracting parties and observers – usually civil servants of the relevant ministries, in some cases employees of NGOs or contracted agencies. There are seven permanent Expert Groups and one ad hoc Expert Group as of 2020:

# Pressures and Measures
# Monitoring and Assessment
# Flood Protection
# River Basin Management
# Information Management and GIS
# Public Participation and Communication
# Accident Prevention and Control
# Strategic Expert Group (ad hoc)

The expert groups all have Terms of Reference and mandates adopted by the Commission. They usually meet twice to three times a year. Time- and target-limited task groups may also be established for specific tasks which not necessarily all countries are represented in. The expert groups discuss issues related to their Terms of Reference and prepare reports and recommendations for coordinated action.

The ICPDR has a Permanent Secretariat to support its work, supervised by an Executive Secretary, as of 2013, [[Ivan Zavadsky]]. The secretariat has its headquarters in Vienna, from where it administers, manages and supports the work of the ICPDR. The total staff of the secretariat is 9 permanent staff members and additional short-term project staff. If all national experts, delegates from observers and consultants are considered, there are more than 300 people working with and for the ICPDR.

==Regular activities==
On 29 June each year, the 14 countries of the Danube River Basin jointly acknowledge [http://www.danubeday.at/ Danube Day], a day celebrating their shared river system with a series of live events at schools and other public buildings. Largely targeting youth and education, the day includes challenges, quizzes, teaching events, folk dancing, traditional music, and similar activities shared throughout the region. The first Danube Day was held on the 10th anniversary of the signing of the Danube River Protection Convention in 2004.

Also held since 2004, the ICPDR also co-runs [http://www.danubeday.org/Danube_Art_Master Danube Art Master] with the Global Water Partnership Central and Eastern Europe (GWP CEE). An art competition involving thousands of school pupils throughout the Danube River Basin, DAM invites pupils to create original artworks, with winners chosen every year by a panel of judges.

==Dispute prevention and resolution==
The ICPDR serves as a platform for cooperation and coordination . The signing of the Convention, however, commits the countries under international law to some specific actions and to uphold certain principles. In some past disputes, the ICPDR was able to contribute towards the harmonisation of efforts by providing a platform for discussion.

The Convention provides a dispute settlement mechanism, but in practice this has not been necessary thus far, as the countries concerned have worked to ensure dialogue and developed consensus on issues of conflict. The work of the ICPDR is less prone to disputes than outsiders might imagine. The atmosphere at meetings is focused on facts and characterised by mutual respect and a common acknowledgement of the ICPDR’s objectives and tasks.

==Members==
[[Image:Danube basin.png|thumb|upright=2.5|right|{{center|The Danube River Basin<br>is the catchment area of the river.}}]]

The ICPDR has fifteen contracting parties:

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{AUT}}
* {{BIH}}
* {{BUL}}
* {{HRV}}
* {{CZE}}
* {{DEU}}
* {{HUN}}
* {{MDA}}
* {{MNE}}
* {{ROM}}
* {{SVK}}
* {{SVN}}
* {{SRB}}
* {{UKR}}
* {{EU}}
{{div col end}}

==Observers==
The ICPDR has 24 official observers with rights to attend meetings and participate in decision-making:
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Black Sea#The Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution|Black Sea Commission]]
* [[Carpathian Convention]]
* [[Central Dredging Association]]
* [https://www.eip-water.eu/organisations/def-%E2%80%93-danube-environmental-forum Danube Environmental Forum]
* [[Danube Commission]]
* [https://dcsf.danubestrategy.eu/ Danube Civil Society Forum]
*[https://www.facebook.com/danubecc/ Danube Competence Center]
* [http://www.danubeparks.org/ Danube Parks]
* [http://www.dstf.eu/species/acipenser-sturio/ Danube Sturgeon Task Force] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630163432/http://www.dstf.eu/species/acipenser-sturio/ |date=30 June 2015 }}
* [https://dlap.danubestrategy.eu/organisations/danube-tourist-commission-0 Danube Tourist Commission]
* [https://www.eaa-europe.org/ European Anglers Alliance]
* [http://www.ebu-uenf.org/ European Barge Union] 
* [https://www.ewa-online.eu/ European Water Association]
* [[Friends of Nature]] International
* [[Global Water Partnership]]
* [https://www.danube-iad.eu/ International Association for Danube Research]
* [https://www.iawd.at/ International Association of Water Supply Companies in the Danube River Catchment Area]
* [[International Hydrological Programme]]
* [[International Sava River Basin Commission]]
* [[Ramsar Convention]] on Wetlands
* Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe
* 
* [[via donau]]
* [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] — Central Eastern Europe
{{div col end}}

==Funding==
The ICPDR budget comes from the contributions of the Contracting Parties. According to the Danube River Protection Convention, the Contracting Parties (except for the EU) shall contribute an equal share, unless unanimously decided otherwise by the ICPDR. Some exceptions are currently applied for a transitional period. The total annual budget of the ICPDR is a little more than one million Euros. Much of the ICPDR's work is done directly by Member Countries. Such contributions in staff and material are therefore also considerable, even though this does not show in the ICPDR budget. Costs of participation in the Commission's and Expert bodies’ work are also covered by the parties themselves.

In some cases, the ICPDR engages in projects that have separate sources of funding. These include projects funded by the European Union, the [[United Nations Development Program]], GEF, and individual countries.

==Danube River variety==
<gallery>
File:Donaueschingen Donauzusammenfluss 20080714.jpg|The place where Breg and Brigach unite to form the Danube in [[Donaueschingen]].
File:Ulm2-midsize.jpg|The Danube in [[Ulm]] as seen from the steeple of [[Ulm Minster]], looking southwest.
File:Passau aerial view 1.jpg|The [[confluence]] of the [[Inn river|Inn]] (left), Danube (center), and [[Ilz]] (right) in Passau.
File:Vereinte_Nationen_in_Wien.jpg|The [[Vienna International Centre]], home of the ICPDR's permanent secretariat
File:DonauknieVisegrad.jpg|The Danube Bend is a curve of the Danube in [[Geography of Hungary|Hungary]], near the city of [[Visegrád]].
File:Parliament Budapest Hungary.jpg|The Danube in [[Budapest]]

File:Pelicani din Delta Dunarii.PNG|[[Pelicans]] in the Danube Delta, Romania

</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Internationalization of the Danube River]], for events from earliest times to the Treaty of Paris in 1856
*[[Commissions of the Danube River]], for the international bodies governing the waterway from 1856 to 1940
*[[Danube River Conference of 1948]]
*[[Danube Commission]], for the international agency charged with transportation oversight of the river

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://www.icpdr.org}}
** [http://www.icpdr.org/icpdr-pages/drpc.htm Danube River Protection Convention]
* [https://www.icpdr.org/main/publications/convention-action-25-years-icpdr From Convention to Action: 25 Years of the ICPDR]
* [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2011-0065+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN ''Implementation of the EU Strategy for the Danube Region,'' European Union, 17 February 2011]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Danube]]
[[Category:Environmental agencies]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations established in 1994]]
[[Category:1994 establishments in Europe]]
[[Category:1994 establishments in the European Union]]<!--member-->"
American Heritage Rivers,"[[Image:AHR-logo.png|245px|right]]
'''American Heritage Rivers''' were designated by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] in the 1990s to receive special attention (coordinating efforts of multiple governmental entities) to further three objectives: natural resource and environmental protection, economic revitalization, and historic and cultural preservation.  

==Establishment==
The [[American Heritage Rivers Protection Program]] was created by an [[Executive order (United States)|Executive Order]], Number [[s:Executive Order 13061|13061]], signed by President [[Bill Clinton]] on September 11, 1997. Selection criteria were developed under the Chair of the [[Council on Environmental Quality]] (CEQ), with wide government and expert involvement, and reflected a wide variety of viewpoints, including those representing natural, cultural, and historic resources; scenic, environmental, and recreation interests; tourism, transportation, and economic development interests; and industries such as agriculture, hydropower, manufacturing, mining, and forest management. The recommended rivers were to represent a variety of stream sizes, diverse geographical locations, and a wide range of settings from urban to rural and ensure that relatively pristine, successful revitalization efforts were considered, as well as degraded rivers in need of restoration.

== Criteria for designation ==
Rivers were selected for designation according to the following criteria:

*The characteristics of the natural, economic, agricultural, scenic, historic, cultural, or recreational resources of the river that render it distinctive or unique;
*The effectiveness with which the community has defined its plan of action and the extent to which the plan addresses, either through planned actions or past accomplishments, all three American Heritage Rivers objectives;
*The strength and diversity of community support for the nomination as evidenced by letters from elected officials; landowners; private citizens; businesses; and especially State, local, and tribal governments. Broad community support is essential to receiving the American Heritage River designation; and
*Willingness and capability of the community to forge partnerships and agreements to implement their plan to meet their goals and objectives.

== Designated rivers ==
[[File:American Heritage Rivers Map.PNG|thumbnail|right|Map of the Rivers|400px]]
President Clinton designated the 14 rivers (or river systems) on July 30, 1998.<ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC (1998). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305233547/http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/named/heritage/10-5upda.cfm ""American Heritage River News.""] Vol. 1, No. 1. 1998-10-05.</ref>

* [[Blackstone River|Blackstone]] and [[Woonasquatucket River|Woonasquatucket]] Rivers (MA, RI)
* [[Connecticut River]] (NH, VT, MA, CT)
* [[Cuyahoga River]] (OH)
* [[Detroit River]] (MI, ON)
* [[Hanalei River]] (HI)
* [[Hudson River]] (NY, NJ)
* Lower [[Mississippi River]] (MS, LA, TN, AR) 
** [[Wolf River (Tennessee)|Wolf River]] in metropolitan [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]] is bundled with the Lower Mississippi.
* [[Potomac River]] (DC, MD, VA, WV)
* [[New River (Kanawha River)|New River]] (NC, VA, WV) 
* [[Rio Grande]] (CO, NM, TX)
* [[St. Johns River]] (FL)
* Upper [[Mississippi River]] (IA, IL, MN, MO, WI)
* Upper [[Susquehanna River|Susquehanna]] and [[Lackawanna River|Lackawanna]] Rivers (PA)
* [[Willamette River]] (OR)

==See also==
{{portal|Environment}}
* [[Canadian Heritage Rivers System]], Canada's counterpart to the American Heritage Rivers

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{AHR}}

[[Category:American Heritage Rivers| ]]
[[Category:Establishments by United States executive order]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Clean Ocean Action,"{{Primary sources|date=June 2008}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Clean Ocean Action
| logo = CleanOceanActionLogo.jpg
| type = [[Non-profit organization|Non-profit]], [[Interest group]]
| tax_id = 22-2897204
| headquarters = [[Long Branch, New Jersey]]
| founded = {{start date and age|1984||}}
| leader_title2 = Executive Director
| leader_name2 = Cindy Zipf
| website = https://cleanoceanaction.org/
| fields = Protecting marine waters off the New Jersey/New York coast
| membership = Coalition of 125 businesses, groups and organizations
| leader_title = Trustee President
| leader_name = Tom Fagan
| services = Research, public education, citizen action
}}
'''Clean Ocean Action''' (COA) is a [[nonprofit organization|non-profit organization]] that works to protect the marine water quality in the [[New York Bight]] through extensive scientific analysis, public education, and resident activity endeavors as their core duty.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|last=nasgawebsite|date=2014-06-03|title=NASGA to donate to local New Jersey environmental non-profit, Clean Ocean Action|url=https://seaglassassociation.org/2014/06/03/nasga-to-donate-to-local-new-jersey-environmental-non-profit-clean-ocean-action/|access-date=2020-10-13|website=North American Sea Glass Association official website|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|title=Clean Ocean Action Volunteer Opportunities - VolunteerMatch|url=https://www.volunteermatch.org/search/org11265.jsp#more_info_tab|access-date=2020-10-13|website=www.volunteermatch.org}}</ref><ref name="":1"">U.S. Congress. “TRIBUTE TO CLEAN OCEAN ACTION. Congressional Record Daily Edition.” 2006.</ref><ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|title=Clean Ocean Action: About COA|url=http://www.cleanoceanaction.org/index.php?id=2|access-date=2020-10-13|website=www.cleanoceanaction.org}}</ref><ref name="":11"">{{Cite web|date=2019-08-30|title=Brand Profile|url=https://digitalmarketing.temple.edu/cleanoceanaction/brand-profile/|access-date=2020-11-05|website=Clean Ocean Action|language=en-US}}</ref> It was formed in 1984 by a wide coalition of environmentally conscious businesses, groups, and organizations.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":11"" />

== History ==
New Jersey's Shore was filled with a large amount of trash that resulted in the closing of their beaches and being known as one of the largest ocean-dumping sites in 1984.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|last=Pallone, Jr.|first=Frank, Representative (6th District, New Jersey)|date=2000|title=Clean Ocean Action's Beach|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/legacies/loc.afc.afc-legacies.200003323/|access-date=2020-10-13|website=lcweb2.loc.gov}}</ref> After several concerns took place regarding the rise of trash on the site, Clean Action Ocean was established to help educate, advocate, and take action on cleaning along the coast to restore it to its natural state.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"">U.S. Congress. ""In Honor of Clean Ocean Action. Congressional Record Daily Edition.” 2009.</ref>

Since then, the Clean Ocean Action has shut down 8 ocean-dumping sites and continued to support the Clean Ocean Zone policy and the [[BEACH Act]].<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":11"" /> During Clean Ocean Action's clean-up activities, the organization collects data to understand and identify the cause of harm to the environment by gathering littered trashes.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":6"">{{Cite web|date=September 23, 2020|first=Pat|last=Johnson |title=Register for Clean Ocean Action Beach Sweeps |url=https://www.thesandpaper.net/articles/register-for-clean-ocean-action-beach-sweeps/|access-date=2020-10-13|website=www.thesandpaper.net}}</ref> Their research is displayed to federal and state programs in order to uphold heavier enforcement on protecting the ocean.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":6"" /><ref name="":9"">{{Cite web|title=A hands-on solution to ocean pollution|url=https://bbt.mediaroom.com/clean-ocean-action|access-date=2020-10-26|website=BB&T|language=en}}</ref>

== Objectives ==
The Clean Ocean Action's objective is to prevent any harm that would potentially damage the debased water nature near the shores of New Jersey.<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"" /> The organization advocates for the protection of marine wildlife, clean beaches, and the preservation of all [[natural resource]]s that would harm the environment by establishing several campaigns, programs, interactive events, active rallies, and teachings.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":7"" /><ref name="":11"" /> The Executive Director, Cindy Zipf, suggests that citizens should practice utilizing reusable items, recycling, avoid littering, and participating in local clean-ups.<ref name="":9"" /><ref name="":11"" /> These actions reduces the amount of pollution in the ocean and reduces the risk of endangering marine wildlife.<ref name="":9"" /><ref name="":11"" /> Clean Ocean Action takes additional action by persuading public authorities to ensure the safety of the beaches and marine wildlife.<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":11"" /> Clean Ocean Action influences many citizens, from any age and background, to contribute to beach clean-ups and promotes the conservation of [[natural resource]]s.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":5"" />

== Volunteer ==
Volunteers for Clean Ocean Action clean beaches with the goal of creating a clean environment and saving marine wildlife from danger.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite web|title=Grants Awarded to Date|url=https://www.impact100jerseycoast.org/2018-finalists/grants-awarded-to-date-2/|access-date=2020-11-05|website=Impact 100 Jersey Coast|language=en-US}}</ref> Volunteers consists of students, families, business, other [[Nonprofit organization|non-profit organizations]], and more.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":6"" /><ref name="":7"" /><ref name="":11"" /> Children under the age of 12 are able to volunteer as long as they are accompanied by an adult.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":7"" /> Millions of pieces of harmful debris has been removed from beaches and waterways by the volunteers.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":6"" /><ref name="":7"" />

== Programs ==
There are several programs that Clean Ocean Action organizers to educate citizens on the system of the environment and to take action.<ref name="":11"" /> This includes the Clean Ocean Action's  ""Student Environmental Advocates and Leaders"" (SEAL) program conducts pieces of training where students will brainstorm on how to create solutions through advocacy and campaigns on environmental studies.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":10"">{{Cite web|date=2019-11-26|title=Impact 100 Jersey Coast Awards Four $110,000 Grants|url=https://cfnj.org/impact-100-jersey-coast-awards-four-110000-grants/|access-date=2020-11-05|website=Community Foundation of New Jersey|language=en-US}}</ref> The organizations also organizes annual ""beach sweeps"" where volunteers gather at [[Raritan Bay]] where they clean the beaches, waterways, and underwater sites as they move along towards the [[Delaware Bay]].<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":6"" /><ref name="":7"">{{cite web|title=JCP&L Supports Clean Ocean Action's Annual Fall Beach Sweeps|website=PR Newswire|date=23 October 2019|via=Gale Academic OneFile|url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A603510263/AONE?u=wash_main&sid=AONE&xid=0e68c36b|access-date=12 October 2020}}</ref>

Additionally, Clean Ocean Action's Student Summit program allows middle schoolers to study about marine wildlife and the environment through several hands-on experience activities.<ref name="":2"" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=May 15, 2019|first=Joe |last=Cutter|title=Sandy Hook field trips have been educating kids for 31 years|url=https://nj1015.com/sandy-hook-field-trips-have-been-educating-kids-for-31-years/|access-date=2020-11-05|website=New Jersey 101.5|language=en}}</ref> The Clean Ocean Action Presentations teaches students about the issues of [[marine pollution|ocean pollution]] that arises in the world today.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":11"" /> Lastly, the Clean Ocean Action Education Ambassador Program allows individuals with presentation skills to administer topics on ocean pollution for various communities.<ref name="":2"" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Environmental organizations based in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in New Jersey]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Heritage tree,"{{Short description|Individual tree with unique value}}
[[File:Sugar Maple-Acer saccharum-Comfort Maple Conservation Area-Town of Pelham-Ontario-OHAR5725-20221023 (1).jpg|thumb|[[Comfort Maple]], in [[Pelham, Ontario]]]]
A '''heritage tree''' is typically a large, individual tree with unique value, which is considered irreplaceable. The major criteria for heritage tree designation are age, rarity, and size, as well as aesthetic, botanical, ecological, and historical value.<ref name=""Coates2006"">{{cite book|last=Coates|first=Peter A.|title=American Perceptions of Immigrant And Invasive Species: Strangers on the Land|url=https://archive.org/details/americanpercepti00coat_0|url-access=registration|accessdate=30 June 2012|year=2006|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24930-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanpercepti00coat_0/page/140 140]–}}</ref> Heritage tree ordinances are developed to place limits upon the removal of these trees; the ordinances are oriented towards a specific tree, not a [[woodland]].<ref name=""Giusti2005"">{{cite book|last=Giusti|first=Gregory A.|title=A Planner's Guide For Oak Woodlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T18IDGRSt78C&pg=PA90|accessdate=30 June 2012|year=2005|publisher=ANR Publications|isbn=978-1-879906-75-4|pages=90–91}}</ref> [[Heritage trees in Singapore]] are protected by law under the Heritage Trees Scheme adopted on 17 August 2001. The [[oak]] is depicted as [[England]]'s heritage tree.<ref name=""WatertonWatson2010"">{{cite book|last1=Waterton|first1=Emma|last2=Watson|first2=Steve|title=Culture, Heritage and Representation: Perspectives on Visuality and the Past|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hfw3uJMT43EC&pg=PA152|accessdate=30 June 2012|date=31 May 2010|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-7598-3|pages=152–}}</ref>

In the US, the first state-sponsored heritage tree program began in 1995 in [[Oregon]] with the [[Picea sitchensis|Giant Sitka Spruce]].<ref name=""Barnes2004"">{{cite book|last=Barnes|first=Christine|title=Only in Oregon: Natural and Manmade Landmarks and Oddities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPmlju-T3moC&pg=PA10|accessdate=30 June 2012|date=30 May 2004|publisher=Farcountry Press|isbn=978-1-56037-292-9|pages=10–}}</ref> In [[Iowa]], the [[Living Heritage Tree Museum]] contains descendants of famous trees.<ref name=""JonesCoffey2009"">{{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Eric|last2=Coffey|first2=Dan|last3=Thorkelson|first3=Berit|title=Iowa Curiosities: Quirky Characters, Roadside Oddities & Other Offbeat Stuff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bsk0YKq0fmcC&pg=PA195|accessdate=30 June 2012|date=10 November 2009|publisher=Globe Pequot|isbn=978-0-7627-5419-9|pages=195–}}</ref> In the [[Washington (state)|state of Washington]], there are several categories of heritage trees, such as Historical, Specimen, Rare, or Significant Grove.<ref name=""Nolon2003"">{{cite book|last=Nolon|first=John R.|title=Open Ground: Effective Local Strategies for Protecting Natural Resources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYoFGy1C8_sC&pg=PA441|accessdate=30 June 2012|date=1 May 2003|publisher=Environmental Law Institute|isbn=978-1-58576-055-8|pages=441–}}</ref>

The city of [[Portland, Oregon]] maintains a [[database]] of trees designated as heritage trees. <ref>[https://www.portlandoregon.gov/parks/38294 Urban Forestry | The City of Portland, Oregon<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Cultural heritage]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Individual trees|*]]


{{cultural-studies-stub}}"
Phytosanitary Certificate Issuance and Tracking System,"Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) are responsible for safeguarding agriculture and natural resources from the risks associated with the entry, establishment, or spread of animal and plant pests and noxious weeds.

The '''Phytosanitary Certificate Issuance and Tracking''' (PCIT) system tracks the [[phytosanitary inspection|inspection of agricultural products]] and certifies compliance with plant health standards of importing countries. This capability provides APHIS/PPQ better security, reporting functions, and monitoring capabilities for exported commodities.

The PCIT also provides a link to the PExD. PExD is a repository of phytosanitary [[import]] requirements of U.S. origin commodities to foreign countries. PExD enhances Plant Protection and Quarantine’s
(PPQ’s) ability to maintain the export program for United States exporters. PExD will support PPQ’s Phytosanitary Issues Management (PIM) Export Services (ES) with the task of entering export summaries
for foreign countries. PExD provides reusable text to facilitate uniform entry of export summaries. PExD also provides PPQ staff, State and County cooperators, and exporters’ easy access to export summaries
via direct user queries. PExD interfaces with the Phytosanitary Certificate Issuance & Tracking System (PCIT) application processing.
During application processing, users are provided with pertinent [[export]] summaries based on the consignee country, applicable commodities, and other data contained in an application.

[[Phytosanitary Certificate]] - Certificate patterned after the model certificates of the IPPC [FAO, 1990]. In the U.S., this is an official document (PPQ Form 577) that attests to the [[phytosanitation|phytosanitary condition]]
of commodities and is issued by an Authorized Certification Official.

==See also==
* [[Phytosanitary Certification]]
* [[USDA]]
* [[Plant Protection and Quarantine]]

==External links==
* http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/plant_exports/pcit.shtml
* https://pcit.aphis.usda.gov/pcit/

[[Category:Environmental law in the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]]"
Rights of nature in Ecuador,"{{Short description|none}}
With the adoption of a new constitution in 2008 under president [[Rafael Correa]], [[Ecuador]] became the first country in the world to enshrine a set of codified [[Rights of Nature]] and to inform a more clarified content to those rights. Articles 10 and 71–74 of the Ecuadorian Constitution recognize the inalienable rights of [[ecosystems]] to exist and flourish, give people the authority to petition on the behalf of nature, and requires the government to remedy violations of these rights.

'''''Sumac kawsay''''', in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], meaning ""good living"", rooted in the cosmovisión (or [[worldview]]) of the [[Quechua people|Quechua]] peoples of the [[Andes]], describes a way of life that is community-centric, [[ecological]]ly-balanced and [[culturally-sensitive]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/buen-vivir-philosophy-south-america-eduardo-gudynas|title=Buen vivir: the social philosophy inspiring movements in South America|last=Balch|first=Oliver|date=2013-02-04|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-03-19|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The concept is related to tradition of legal and political scholarship advocating legal standing for the natural environment.<ref name=""Stone CD 1974 p 8"">Stone CD, Should Trees Have Standing? Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects. Southern California Law Review 1972;45:450; W Kaufmann, Los Altos, 1974 p 8</ref> The rights approach is a break away from traditional environmental regulatory systems, which regard nature as property.<ref name=""Celdf"">{{Cite web|url=https://celdf.org/|title=CELDF {{!}} Community Rights Pioneers {{!}} Protecting Nature and Communities|website=CELDF|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-27}}</ref>

Ecuador's Rights of Nature embodies the indigenous ''sumak kawsay'' principles, giving [[Pachamama]] constitutional rights to protect and restore its environment.

==History and context==
{{Further|Plant rights|Environmental movement}}
President [[Rafael Correa]] entered into office in January 2007 with the help of ''La Revolución Ciudadana'' ([[The Citizens' Revolution]]) promising a new anti-neoliberalist Ecuador. A country that would unify and harmonize the broken relationships between the state, the economy, society, and its vital resources.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.institut-gouvernance.org/es/analyse/fiche-analyse-450.html|title=El Contexto Politico de la Asamblea Constituyente en Ecuador|last=Santiago|first=O.C.|date=March 2008|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref> Being the eighth president in 10 years, Correa called for a Constitutional Assembly to create a new constitution for Ecuador.

Ecuador relies heavily on the income gained from exploiting its natural resources. The country's largest export, crude petroleum, represents 29% of Ecuador's GDP, coming in with a total value of $5.63 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/ecu/|title=OEC - Ecuador (ECU) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners|website=oec.world|language=en|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref> This has caused the country to suffer from vast deforestation in the Amazon, contaminated water and widespread illness.

Ecuador is also home to at least eight tribes of indigenous peoples, most of which reside in the Amazon, that have suffered from the negative environmental consequences of the extraction of oil. After several years of worsening economic and environmental conditions, uprisings from various indigenous communities, who found themselves receiving less support from the state, while simultaneously their land was being increasingly encroached upon by oil companies, brought attention to their concerns.<ref name=""Arsel"" /> After historically being excluded from the political process, indigenous groups, especially concerned about the worsening environmental devastation of the extraction business and global [[climate change]], started social movements aimed at creating a new approach to development that would protect the environment and harmonize its relationship with people. [[CONAIE]] (National Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador), the largest federation of indigenous movements focused on social justice began lobbying for a new constitution that incorporated recognition of the nation's indigenous groups, their language, culture, history, and land rights, and inherently their concepts of ''sumak kawsay'' and ''[[Pachamama]]'' (English: ""Mother Nature"").<ref name=""Becker"">Becker, Marc. 2011 Correa, Indigenous Movements, and the Writing of a New Constitution in Ecuador. Latin American Perspectives 38(1):47-62.</ref>

The economy, based on the exportation of the country's raw materials, mainly oil, was also wreaking havoc on the nation's environment, an area with valuable biological and cultural diversity.<ref name=""Arsel"">Arsel, Murat 2012. Between 'Marx and Markets'? The State, The 'Left Turn' And Nature In Ecuador. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie (Journal of Economic & Social Geography) 103(2):150-163.</ref> The global economic crisis of 2008 revealed the vulnerabilities of an extractive economy, and led to a period of political turmoil in the country that made obvious the need for a new more inclusive government that embodied a post-oil, post-neoliberal development paradigm.<ref name=""Becker"" /><ref name=""Acosta"">Acosta, Alberto, Eduardo Gudynas[[]], Esperanza Martínez, and Joseph H. Vogel
2009. Leaving the Oil in the Ground: A Political, Economic, and Ecological Initiative in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Americas Program Policy Report.</ref> In late 2006, the election of leftist Rafael Correa, who ran on an anti-neoliberal platform, showed the emergence of a new political era for Ecuador.<ref name=""Arsel"" />

== Development ==

{{POV section|date=August 2014}}

===''Sumak kawsay'' / ''Buen vivir''===
{{main|Sumak kawsay}}
''Buen vivir'' (""good living"") emerged as a response to the traditional strategies for development and their negative environmental, social, or economic effects. ''Sumak kawsay'', meaning a full life and signifies living in harmony with other people and nature. ''Buen Vivir'' has gained new popularity, spreading throughout parts of [[South America]] and evolving as a multicultural concept. The constitution outlines ''Buen Vivir'' as a set of rights, one of which is the rights of nature.<ref name=""Gudynas"">[[Eduardo Gudynas|Gudynas, Eduardo]]. 2011. Buen Vivir: Today's Tomorrow Development 54(4):441-447.</ref> In line with the assertion of these rights, ''Buen Vivir'' changes the relationship between nature and humans to a more bio-pluralistic view, eliminating the separation between nature and society.<ref name=""Gudynas"" /><ref name=""SENPLADES"">SENPLADES. 2009 National Plan for Good Living. Electronic document, http://plan2009.senplades.gob.ec/web/en/presentation, accessed May, 2012.</ref>

In [[Andes|Andean]] communities in [[Latin America]] development is expressed through the notion of ''sumak kawsay'', the [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] word for ""buen vivir"", has been proposed as an alternative conception of development and has been incorporated into the constitutions of [[Ecuador]]. It connotes a harmonious collective development that conceives of the individual within the context of the social and cultural communities and his or her natural environment.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Cairo/images/RethinkingEducation.pdf|title=Rethinking Education. Towards a Global Common Good?|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100088-1|pages=32}}</ref> Rooted in the indigenous belief system of the Quechua, the concept incorporates western critiques of dominant development models to offer an alternative paradigm based on harmony between human beings ''including'' the natural environment.

=== The idea ===
The rights of nature are not a new concept. Christopher Stone is widely credited with creating its first written work. In his famous book, ""Should Trees Have Standing?"",<ref name=""Stone CD 1974 p 8"" /> Stone presented the case for conferring legal personality and rights on the environment. As Stone explained, the natural object would “have a legally recognized worth and dignity in its own right, and not merely to serve as a means to benefit ‘us’”.<ref name=""Stone CD 1974 p 8"" /> He also pointed out that just like ""streams and forests"" do not have the power to speak for themselves, neither do corporations, or states, infants, municipalities and universities. ""Lawyers speak for them, as they customarily do for the ordinary citizen with legal problems.""<ref name=""Stone CD 1974 p 8"" /><ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last1=Kotze|first1=Louis J.|last2=Calzadilla|first2=Paola Villavicencio|date=2017|title=Somewhere between Rhetoric and Reality: Environmental Constitutionalism and the Rights of Nature in Ecuador|journal=Transnational Environmental Law|volume=6|issue=3|pages=401–433|doi=10.1017/S2047102517000061|s2cid=151721103 }}</ref>

Environmental activist and President of the Constitutional Assembly, [[:es:Alberto Acosta Espinosa|Alberto Acosta]] published ''Nature as a Subject of Rights''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://therightsofnature.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/Espanol/Acosta_DDN_2008.pdf|title=Hacia la Declaracion Universal de los Derechos de la Naturaleza|last=Acosta|first=Alberto|website=Global Alliance for the Rights of Nature|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref> that first brought attention to the idea to the public and the government. Acosta proclaimed the rights of nature as a concept of historical progressivism. He compares it to when women were not thought of as subjects until they in fact became subjects of rights - so nature does not seem palpable in having rights-status until the concept is brought up and realized.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last=Tanasescu|first=Mihnea|date=2013|title=The Rights of Nature in Ecuador: The Making of an Idea|journal=International Journal of Environmental Studies|volume=70|issue=6|pages=846–61|doi=10.1080/00207233.2013.845715|bibcode=2013IJEnS..70..846T |s2cid=95850405 }}</ref> The subject of rights are altogether inconstruable unless the concept is put into perspective and does in fact become a subject that is arguable, agreeable, or simply just talk-able.

===Drafting===
President [[Rafael Correa]] included calling for a Constitutional Assembly in his 2006 campaign. On April 15, 2007, over 80% of Ecuadorians voted in favor of calling a new assembly, thanks in large part to the support of indigenous communities. Indigenous groups had been pressuring for a new, more inclusive constitution for years, and were therefore actively involved in the drafting process. Alberto Acosta, the elected Assembly President, pledged to make the assembly more inclusive and incorporate the concerns of the indigenous into the constitution. In the end, a few indigenous representatives were elected to the assembly.<ref name=""Becker"" /> To create a constitution based on the principles of ''Buen Vivir'', the Constitutional Assembly, with the advice of the [[Pachamama]] Alliance, enlisted the help of the Community Environmental Legal Defense Fund (CELDF) to draft language for the new provisions of the constitution detailing the Rights of Nature.<ref name=""Celdf"" /> Specifically the US lawyers Mari Margil (associate director) and Thomas Linzey (executive director) were asked to use their experience to help the Ecuadorean environmental groups draft the amendments. Indigenous groups also played a role in the drafting process. Fundación Pachamama, in conjunction with leaders in CONAIE, met with members of the assembly to present their ideas for the constitution and gain support. A national media campaign detailing the tenets of the new constitution and the Rights of Nature was also launched to inform and gain support from the public.<ref name=""FP"">Fundación Pachamama (FP). 2011 [http://www.derechosdelanaturaleza.org/website/files/2011/01/Recogniting-Rights-for-Nature-in-the-Ecuadorian-Constitution-Fundacion-Pachamama1.pdf ""Recognizing Rights for Nature in the Ecuadorian Constitution""]</ref>

Multiple roundtables were held in order to discuss the feasibility of adding the Rights of Nature to the constitution. An important argument would be that of ''consent vs consultation.'' The indigenous communities and some members of the Constitutional Assembly advocated for a right to ''consent'', meaning they wanted a clear right to oppose or approve development projects, whereas the government opposed with promoting only ''consultation''. In conclusion, the government stance prevailed and Article 408 confirms that all natural resources are the state's property. The state can decide to exploit any natural resources that it recognizes to be of national importance, solely as long as it consults the affected communities, without having any obligation to an agreement.<ref name="":1"" />

Assembly members Guillem Humberto and Ortiz Alfredo contended for the creation of an [[Ombudsman]] for Pachamama. This would replace the Minister of Environment, who was seen as inadequate, and would act as a legal guardian of nature's rights. In the end, Nature's Ombudsman was not added into the new constitution.<ref name="":1"" />

In the end there were many reasons for wanting the Rights of Nature. As previously mentioned, indigenous groups, specifically the four members of the Pachakutik within the Constitutional Assembly, advocated for judiciary rights of their communities' way of living. A less sincere take would be that illustrated by Rafael Esteves, a member of the populist right. He said that it was greatly known that they would be the first to give nature its legal rights within their constitution, the mere fact of this is what drove some members into agreement with its passing.

===Adoption===
On April 10, 2008, with 91 votes out of 130, the [[Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly|Constitutional Assembly]] approved Article 10 for inclusion in the new constitution. On June 7, the language of Articles 71 through 74, compiling the Rights of Nature, were presented and debated on, before receiving approval for inclusion in the constitution.<ref name=""FP"" />
 
On September 28, 2008, a mandatory [[referendum]] was held to vote on the new constitution, where the adoption of the constitution was approved by 65% of voters.<ref name=""Smith"">Smith, Gar. 2009, ""In Ecuador, Trees Now Have Rights"", ''Earth Island Journal'' 23(4):15-15.</ref>

==Articles of the Rights of Nature==
The following articles are found under Title II: Rights in the Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador published in the Official Register on October 20, 2008.

===Chapter One: Principles for the Enforcement of Rights===

'''Article 10.''' Persons, communities, peoples, nations and communities are bearers of rights and shall enjoy the rights guaranteed to them in the Constitution and in international instruments.
Nature shall be the subject of those rights that the Constitution recognizes for it.

===Chapter Seven: Rights of Nature===

'''Article 71.''' Nature, or Pacha Mama, where life is reproduced and occurs, has the right to integral respect for its existence and for the maintenance and regeneration of its life cycles, structure, functions and evolutionary processes.
All persons, communities, peoples and nations can call upon public authorities to enforce the rights of nature. To enforce and interpret these rights, the principles set forth in the Constitution shall be observed, as appropriate.
The State shall give incentives to natural persons and legal entities and to communities to protect nature and to promote respect for all the elements comprising an ecosystem.

'''Article 72.''' Nature has the right to be restored. This restoration shall be apart from the obligation of the State and natural persons or legal entities to compensate individuals and communities that depend on affected natural systems.
In those cases of severe or permanent environmental impact, including those caused by the exploitation of nonrenewable natural resources, the State shall establish the most effective mechanisms to achieve the restoration and shall adopt adequate measures to eliminate or mitigate harmful environmental consequences.

'''Article 73.''' The State shall apply preventive and restrictive measures on activities that might lead to the extinction of species, the destruction of ecosystems and the permanent alteration of natural cycles.
The introduction of organisms and organic and inorganic material that might definitively alter the nation's genetic assets is forbidden.

'''Article 74.''' Persons, communities, peoples, and nations shall have the right to benefit from the environment and the natural wealth enabling them to enjoy the good way of living.
Environmental services shall not be subject to appropriation; their production, delivery, use and development shall be regulated by the State.<ref name=""PDBA"">[http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Ecuador/english08.html ""2008 Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador. Political Database of the Americas (PDBA)""].</ref>

==Philosophy==
Ecuador's codification of the Rights of Nature is significant as it is the first case where this concept has been evoked at the national level. The articles set out a rights-based system that recognizes Nature, or ''Pachamama'', as a right-bearing entity that holds value in itself, apart from human use. This differs from traditional systems that see nature as property, giving landowners the right to damage or destroy ecosystems that depend on their land. The rights-based approach spelled out in the Rights of Nature expands on previous laws for regulation and conservation by recognizing that nature has fundamental and inalienable rights as a valuable entity in and of itself. The system also assigns liability for damage to the environment and holds the government responsible for the reparation of any damage. Additionally, if an ecosystem's rights are violated, it gives people the authority to petition on behalf of the ecosystem to ensure that its interests are not subverted to the interests of individuals or corporations.<ref name=""Celdf"" /><ref name=""Acosta"" />
 
The inclusion of the Rights of Nature also makes the constitution more democratic and inclusive, as it reflects the indigenes' idea of Nature as a mother that must be respected and celebrated. This is the first constitution that has incorporated indigenous concepts of ''sumak kawsay'' and ''Pachamama'', as well as recognized the [[plurinationality]] of Ecuador. This has broad significance for the recognition of indigenous groups and their right to preserve their land and culture. The combination of human rights with the rights of nature will allow for more effective protection of indigenous communities.<ref name=""FP"" />
 
The Rights of Nature are further incorporated in the updated National Plan for Good Living, which states guaranteeing the Rights of Nature and promoting a healthy and sustainable environment as one of its twelve objectives. Policies under the objective include aims to preserve and manage biodiversity, diversify the national energy matrix with renewable sources, prevent, control and mitigate environmental damage, promote adaptation to and [[mitigation of climate change]], and incorporate environmental approach in all public policies.<ref name=""SENPLADES"" />

=== From anthropocentric to ecocentric ===
The environmental laws that exist in the Anthropocene are geared toward the advantage of the human race. The rules to protect the environment are set for the health and wellness of humanity. Nature is seen as a property to humans.

The Anthropocene is catered to humans of privilege. Throughout history, it is evident that the government and powerful people have specified an ''otherness.'' ""Like women, homosexuals and non-whites, nature is 'othered' by people through privileging law and rights that distinguish between subject and object.""<ref name="":2"" />

Ecuador has taken action towards an ecocentric influenced constitution, giving nature legal, constitutional rights. This means that Ecuador has recognized nature, or Pachamama, as a capable and deserving right-bearing entity that is equal to humans. The Rights of Nature also transforms the relationship between nature and humans by asserting that nature is not just an object.<ref name=""Mychalejko"">Mychalejko, Cyril. 2008 Ecuador's Constitution Gives Rights to Nature. Philadelphia Independent Media Center.</ref> By putting ecosystems on an equal footing with humans, the conception of humans as masters or as separate from nature is dismissed.<ref name=""Gudynas"" /> Instead, this system celebrates nature and recognizes that humans are a part of it.<ref name=""Arsel"" /> Many have thought this to be part of progressivism and related it to other examples of progression such as homosexual rights and the rights of women.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

== Outcomes and implementation ==

===Legal effects===
The Rights of Nature has been applied to several legal disputes and considered in government development initiatives.

====''Wheeler c. Director de la Procuraduria General Del Estado de Loja''====
''Wheeler c. Director de la Procuraduria General Del Estado de Loja'' was the first case in history to vindicate the Rights of Nature. The lawsuit was filed against the local government near Rio Vilcabamba in March 2011, who were responsible for a road expansion project that dumped debris into the river, narrowing its width and thereby doubling its speed. The project was also done without the completion of an [[environmental impact assessment]] or consent of the local residents. The case was filed by two such residents, citing the violation of the Rights of Nature, rather than property rights, for the damage done to the river. The case was important because the court stated that the rights of nature would prevail over other constitutional rights if they were in conflict with each other, setting an important precedent. The proceedings also confirmed that the burden of proof to show there is no damage lies with the defendant. Though the plaintiffs were granted a victory in court, the enforcement of the ruling has been lacking, as the local government has been slow to comply with the mandated reparations.<ref name=""Daly"">Daly, Erin. 2012, [http://celdf.live2.radicaldesigns.org/downloads/The_Ecuadorian_Exemplar_The_First_Ever_Vindications_of_Constitutional_Rights_of_Nature.pdf ""Ecuadorian Exemplar: The First Ever Vindications of Constitutional Rights""], ''Review of European Community & International Environmental Law'' 21(1): 63-66.</ref>

====República del Ecuador Asamblea Nacional, Comisión de la Biodiversidad y Recursos Naturales====
In March 2011, right after the ruling on the ''Wheeler'' case, the government of Ecuador filed a case against illegal gold mining operations in northern Ecuador, in the remote districts San Lorenzo and Eloy Alfaro. The rights of nature were violated by the mining operations, which were argued to be polluting the nearby rivers. This case is different from the previous in that it was the government addressing the violation of the rights of nature. It was also swiftly enforced, as military operation to destroy the machinery used for [[illegal mining]] was ordered and implemented.<ref name=""Daly"" />

====Yasuni ITT initiative====
The Yasuni-Ishpingo, Tambococha, and Tiputini (ITT) Initiative, referring to the corridor of oil reserves within the [[Yasuni National Park]], is the first post-oil development initiative that recognizes that the benefits gained from the [[Amazon rainforest|Amazon]] are greater than the economic benefits from oil extraction. The aim of the initiative is therefore to protect the biodiversity of the area, which UNESCO has declared a biodiversity reserve, by keeping the oil reserves in the ground, in return for compensation from the international community for at least half of the projected benefit Ecuador would receive from the oil extraction (approximately $3.5 billion). These funds would be used to fund other economic initiatives to alleviate poverty and develop the renewable energy sector. The importance of keeping the oil in the ITT area in the ground has been argued as of international importance to mitigate the effects of global climate change by preventing CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and the local environmental devastation the extraction would cause. The Rights of Nature and other articles of the new constitution also make the protection of the park a legal imperative, as the extraction would be a violation of nature's rights.<ref name=""Acosta"" /> Though there originally was some difficulty evoking a sense of international responsibility to fund the initiative, especially with the national constitution requiring this law already, eventually in August 2010 Ecuador came to an arrangement with the UNDP for funding of the initiative through the issue of Yasuní Guarantee Certificates, denoting the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions avoided and their monetary value, which can potentially be used in the [[European Union]] [[European Union Emission Trading Scheme|Emission Trading Scheme]].<ref name=""Arsel"" />

==== Los Cedros ====
In 2021, in a landmark ruling, the constitutional court of Ecuador decided that mining permits for plans to mine for copper and gold in the protected cloud forest in Los Cedros, would harm the biodiversity and violate the rights of nature, and would be unconstitutional.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Greenfield|first=Patrick|date=2021-12-02|title=Plans to mine Ecuador forest violate rights of nature, court rules|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/02/plan-to-mine-in-ecuador-forest-violate-rights-of-nature-court-rules-aoe|access-date=2021-12-05|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

==Reactions==

===Praise===
The adoption of the Rights of Nature by Ecuador has received praise internationally by many countries who see this as a revolutionary way to conceptualize the environment and a way for Ecuador to move beyond the extractive economy of its past.<ref name=""Madden"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.carnegiecouncil.org/publications/archive/policy_innovations/index|title=Policy Innovations Digital Magazine (2006-2016) {{!}} Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs|website=www.carnegiecouncil.org|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-27}}</ref> Initiatives to adopt the concept of ecosystem rights have been taken or are being taken in various parts of the world, including Bolivia, Turkey, Nepal, and various municipalities in the United States.<ref name=""Celdf"" /> In 2010, Bolivia adopted the Law of the Rights of Mother Earth to recognize rights of nature at the national level. The Colombian Constitutional and Supreme Courts recognized rights for the Atrato river and Amazon ecosystem in 2016 and 2018, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chapron|first1=Guillaume|last2=Epstein|first2=Yaffa|last3=López-Bao|first3=José Vicente|date=2019-03-29|title=A rights revolution for nature|journal=Science|language=en|volume=363|issue=6434|pages=1392–1393|doi=10.1126/science.aav5601|issn=0036-8075|pmid=30872530|bibcode=2019Sci...363.1392C|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Criticisms===
Criticisms of the Rights of Nature have generally centered on the mechanisms of enforcement of the provision. One criticism is that though the constitution establishes stronger regulations for the environment, it also gives the state the power to relax these regulations if found to be in the national interest.<ref name=""Arsel"" /> Therefore, much of the enforcement of the ecosystem's rights depends on the will of the government, or an active citizenry.<ref name=""Becker"" /> Indigenous groups have also expressed dissatisfaction that the constitution does not give local communities veto power over projects affecting their land.<ref name=""FP"" /> The amendments only call for ''consultation'' of the projects, rather than ''consent'' by the surrounding communities, which can undermine their ability to uphold the rights of nature.<ref name=""Mychalejko"" /> There are also concerns that the Rights of Nature could negatively affect [[foreign direct investment]] since companies will not want to comply with the more stringent regulations.<ref name=""Madden"" /> On the other hand, people are skeptical of the Correa administration for still approving projects by foreign extraction companies violating the Rights of Nature.<ref name=""Mychalejko"" /> This skepticism comes from the history of corruption within the Ecuadorean government. As well as the facts that Correa is shutting down any environmental groups that stand for the Rights of Nature such as the [[Acción Ecológica|Accion Ecologica]] (AE) as well as the Development Council of the Indigenous Nationalities and Peoples of Ecuador (CODENPE).<ref name="":3"" />

There is much criticism on the text itself of the Rights of Nature, specifically on their content and structure. Some argue the controversy or clashing of articles and the lack of hierarchy between them. There is no clear understanding whether human's constitutional rights or nature's constitutional rights has more power. Another thing would be the vagueness of the text that leaves a lot of important factors without specific definition. Ecuador does not define ""la naturaleza"" or ""Pachamama,"" making the extents of the groups involved unclear. It also leaves to question who is given judicial standing to represent nature, and who is going to enforce those rights. Along those same lines, the extent of protection or remediation is unspecified.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last=Whittemore|first=Mary Elizabeth|date=June 2011|title=The Problem of Enforcing Nature's Rights under Ecuador's Constitution: Why the 2008 Environmental Amendments Have No Bite|journal=Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal|volume=20|pages=659–691}}</ref>

==Sources==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = Rethinking Education. Towards a Global Common Good?
| author = 
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = p32
| source = 
| documentURL = http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Cairo/images/RethinkingEducation.pdf
| license statement URL = 
| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
<!--- After listing your sources please cite them using inline citations and place them after the information they cite. Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:REFB for instructions on how to add citations. --->

==Further reading==
* Rühs, N.; Jones, A (2016) [http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/8/2/174 The Implementation of Earth Jurisprudence through Substantive Constitutional Rights of Nature] ''Sustainability'', 8, 174.
* Tabios Hillebrecht, A. L.; Berros, M. V. [http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2017/6/can-nature-have-rights-legal-and-political-insights ''Can Nature Have Rights? Legal and Political Insights''] ''RCC Perspectives: Transformations in Environment and Society'' 2017, no. 6. doi.org/10.5282/rcc/8164.

{{Rights of nature law}}

[[Category:Environment of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]
[[Category:Environmental law in Ecuador]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Rights of nature]]
[[Category:Environmental philosophy]]
[[Category:Free content from UNESCO]]
[[Category:Environmental personhood]]"
Department of Conservation (New Zealand),"{{Short description|New Zealand government agency}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=June 2015}}
{{Infobox government agency
| agency_name     = Department of Conservation
| native_name     = {{lang-mi|Te Papa Atawhai}}
| logo            = Department of Conservation New Zealand logo.svg
| logo_width      = 
| logo_caption    = 
| formed          = {{start date and age|1 April 1987}}
| preceding1      = 
| jurisdiction    = New Zealand
| headquarters    = Conservation House,<br />18–32 Manners Street,<br />[[Wellington]] 6011
| employees       = 2,413 [[Full-time equivalent|FTE]] staff<br />(30 June 2020)<ref>{{cite web |title=FTE employees by department |work=Workforce data |publisher=Public Service Commission |date=30 June 2020 |accessdate=9 December 2020 |url=https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/our-work/workforce-data/2020-fact-sheet-summary/ |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120085824/https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/our-work/workforce-data/2020-fact-sheet-summary/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| budget          = Total budget for 2019/20<br />{{increase}}$600,588,000<ref>{{cite web| url=https://treasury.govt.nz/publications/summary-tables/summary-tables-estimates-appropriations-2019-20-html#section-9| title=Total Appropriations for Each Vote| work=Budget 2019| date=30 May 2019| publisher=The Treasury}}</ref>
| minister1_name  = Hon [[Tama Potaka]]
| minister1_pfo   = [[Minister of Conservation (New Zealand)|Minister of Conservation]]
| chief1_name     = Penny Nelson
| chief1_position = Director-General
| website         = {{Official URL}}
}}
The '''Department of Conservation''' ('''DOC'''; [[Māori language|Māori]]: ''Te Papa Atawhai'') is the public service department of New Zealand charged with the conservation of New Zealand's natural and historical heritage.

An advisory body, the [[New Zealand Conservation Authority|New Zealand Conservation Authority (NZCA)]] is provided to advise DOC and its ministers.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/statutory-and-advisory-bodies/nz-conservation-authority/| title=New Zealand Conservation Authority - NZCA| publisher=Department of Conservation}}</ref>  In addition there are 15 conservation boards for different areas around the country that provide for interaction between DOC and the public.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/statutory-and-advisory-bodies/conservation-boards/| title=Conservation Boards| publisher=Department of Conservation}}</ref>

==Function==

=== Overview ===
[[File:Fjordland National Park sign.jpg|thumb|DOC signs of this format are commonly seen around New Zealand conservation areas.]]
[[File:DOC Hut On The Rakiura Track Stewart Island.jpg|thumb|DOC operates much of the backcountry tourist infrastructure of the country, such as this overnight hut on the [[Rakiura Track]].]]

The department was formed on 1 April 1987, as one of several reforms of the public service, when the ''[[Conservation Act 1987]]''<ref name=""CA"">{{cite web| url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1987/0065/latest/DLM103610.html| title=Conservation Act 1987| publisher=Parliamentary Counsel Office}}</ref> was passed to integrate some functions of the [[Department of Lands and Survey]], the [[New Zealand Forest Service|Forest Service]] and the [[New Zealand Wildlife Service|Wildlife Service]].<ref name='nathan'>{{cite encyclopedia
|first=Simon |last=Nathan
|title= Conservation – a history - Changing organisations and ideas, 1985–2006
|encyclopedia= Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date= 2 March 2009
|url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/conservation-a-history/10 
|access-date= 31 May 2012}}</ref> This act also set out the majority of the department's responsibilities and roles.

As a consequence of Conservation Act all [[Crown land]] in New Zealand designated for conservation and protection became managed by the Department of Conservation.<ref name='nathan'/> This is about 30% of New Zealand's land area or about 8 million hectares of native forests, tussocklands, alpine areas, wetlands, dunelands, estuaries, lakes and islands, national forests, maritime parks, marine reserves, nearly 4000 reserves, river margins, some coastline, and many offshore islands. All of the land under its control is protected for either conservation, ecological, scenic, [[scientific]], [[historic]] or [[cultural]] reasons, and for recreation.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | first= Ian |last= Popay
|title= Weeds of agriculture - Weeds in water and in ecosystems
|encyclopedia= Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date= 1 March 2009
|url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/weeds-of-agriculture/3  
|access-date= 31 May 2012}}</ref>

Providing for recreation is a major part of its core work, and this covers the management of family picnic sites, as well as maintaining rugged backcountry tracks and over 1000 accompanying [[backcountry hut]]s that are used by hunters and recreational trampers. DOC also administers the [[Nature Heritage Fund]], and is responsible for supporting rural [[fire control]] by acting under the direction of [[Fire and Emergency New Zealand]] when a fire occurs on land it manages.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blog.doc.govt.nz/2017/09/09/fighting-fires-with-docs-dedicated-staff/ | title=Fighting fires with dedicated DOC staff &#124; Conservation blog | date=8 September 2017 }}</ref> Up until June 2017, DOC was the designated fire authority for all land under its control.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blog.doc.govt.nz/2017/09/09/fighting-fires-with-docs-dedicated-staff/ | title=Fighting fires with dedicated DOC staff &#124; Conservation blog | date=8 September 2017 }}</ref>

In addition to its work managing land and providing for recreation in New Zealand, DOC works to preserve its [[natural heritage]]. This includes preservation of historic sites on public conservation land, saving native [[threatened species]], managing threats like [[Pest control|pests]] and [[Weed control|weeds]], [[environmental restoration]], caring for [[marine (ocean)|marine]] life, and assisting landowners to effectively preserve natural heritage.

The methods of achieving these goals have resulted in controversy, where some people claim that the Department of Conservation is overly biased towards environmentalists at the expense of New Zealand's economy. This is particularly a concern amongst some farmers and other industries that are major users of neighbouring land, many of whom have been affected by decisions of the department. However, these criticised DOC efforts have also been lauded for achieving some success, for both conservationists and farmers, [[Common Brushtail Possum (New Zealand)#Control|having led to a significant drop in possum populations]] during the last decades.

The DOC was floated as the agency to supervise the construction of the proposed [[National Cycleway Project|New Zealand Cycleway]],<ref name=""Stuff.co.nz_1759909"">{{cite web |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/archived-stuff-sections/archived-business-sections/business/1759909 | title=Best job ideas in Budget round - English | last = Field | first = Michael |date=2 March 2009 | work = Stuff | publisher = Fairfax | access-date=28 September 2011}}</ref> though this is now being managed primarily by the Ministry of Tourism, in coordination with the DOC where appropriate.

After a number of years of falling budgets, in 2013 the department announced it would be slashing 140 jobs and narrowing its 11-region structure into six.<ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.3news.co.nz/DOC-to-cut-140-jobs/tabid/1160/articleID/291821/Default.aspx|work=3 News NZ |title= DOC to cut 140 jobs| date=26 March 2013}}</ref>

As part of New Zealand's programme of economic recovery post the peak of the Covid-19 pandemic and the following economic downturn DOC is working alongside the Ministry for the Environment, Department of Conservation, Ministry for Primary Industries, Land Information New Zealand and Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment to fund a number of temporary projects with the objective of creating jobs and assisting New Zealand's efforts to further protect the environment.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |date=2023-03-31 |title=Jobs for nature |url=https://environment.govt.nz/what-government-is-doing/areas-of-work/jobs-for-nature/ |access-date=2023-06-22 |website=Ministry for the Environment |language=en-GB}}</ref> As of June 2023 the project, entitled ""[https://www.doc.govt.nz/our-work/jobs-for-nature--mahi-mo-te-taiao/ Jobs For Nature]"", has employed 4,694 individuals over 193 projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jobs for Nature – Mahi mō te Taiao |url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/our-work/jobs-for-nature--mahi-mo-te-taiao/ |access-date=2023-06-22 |website=www.doc.govt.nz |language=en-nz}}</ref> The programme's investment is estimated to be worth approximately NZ$1.19Billion, with the projects undertaken focused on providing temporary employment as well benefit the environment, people, and regional New Zealand.<ref name="":0"" />

===Headquarters===
The Department of Conservation moved into a new headquarters, Conservation House, on Manners Street, [[Wellington]] in 2006. It is the first [[green building]] in New Zealand to be given a 5-star rating, having won numerous environmental awards, including a top 10 placing by [[Grist Magazine]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://thewellingtoncompany.co.nz/press_grist.html| title=No 9 In the World| publisher=The Wellington Company| date=2012| access-date=5 June 2008| archive-date=13 January 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113232535/http://thewellingtoncompany.co.nz/press_grist.html| url-status=dead}}</ref> The site was originally a cinema complex operated by the [[Hoyts|Hoyts Group]] from the mid-1980s until the early 2000s, when it closed down in the face of stiff competition.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://thewellingtoncompany.co.nz/conserv_hse.html| title=Conservation House| publisher=The Wellington Company| date=2012| access-date=5 June 2008}}</ref>

== Conservation land ==
New Zealand has [[National parks of New Zealand|13 national parks]], and a wide number of other conservation lands with varying levels of environmental protection, called the ""conservation estate"" in total.<ref name=""GREENZONE""/> About one third of this estate, generally the land considered most valuable, has been protected from mining since 1997 via being listed in Schedule 4 of the [[Crown Minerals Act 1991]] (though recent (2010) moves by the Fifth National Government have proposed exemption some areas from Schedule 4).<ref name=""GREENZONE"">{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/pollution/news/article.cfm?c_id=281&objectid=10630166&pnum=0|title=Miners press to enter the green zone|date=6 March 2010|work=[[The New Zealand Herald]]|access-date=26 March 2010|first=Geoff|last=Cumming}}</ref>

While much of the conservation land not protected as national parks or Schedule 4 land is much more damaged or human-modified than the core conservation areas, these areas serve as boundary and species buffer zones.<ref name=""GREENZONE""/>

==Incidents ==
===Cave Creek disaster===
{{main|Cave Creek disaster}}

In 1995, 14 people died when a viewing platform maintained by the Department of Conservation collapsed. Immediately following the tragedy, all of the department's 106 viewing platforms throughout New Zealand were checked. Fifteen platforms were closed for repairs.<ref>[http://library.christchurch.org.nz/Kids/NZDisasters/CaveCreek.asp ''New Zealand disasters - Cave Creek''] Christchurch City Council Library website, viewed 5/9/2007</ref>

A Commission of Inquiry that followed the tragedy revealed that the department had acted illegally and negligently in constructing the viewing platform. The commission also stated that the department was seriously underfunded for the tasks with which it was delegated, resulting in a culture of sub-standard safety procedures having been used for the building and maintenance of some of its facilities.<ref>[http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/about-doc/news/issues/commission-of-inquiry-cave-creek-report/ Commission of inquiry Cave Creek report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218084706/http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/about-doc/news/issues/commission-of-inquiry-cave-creek-report/ |date=18 February 2013 }}, Review the Commission of Inquiry into the collapse of a viewing platform at Cave Creek near Punakaiki on the West Coast. Judge Noble's report, Published: 1995. DOC website, accessed 17 December 2012.</ref>

Many people in New Zealand criticised the government for the department's situation, and [[Denis Marshall (politician)|Denis Marshall]], the presiding Minister of Conservation at the time, eventually resigned over the incident. Since the inquiry, radical changes have been made to the department's procedures to prioritise safety, including the implementation of a comprehensive asset management system to catalogue, track and trigger regular inspections of all significant structures and facilities managed by the department.

===Raoul Island eruption===
{{Further|Raoul Island}}

In March 2006, a volcanic eruption at the Green Lake of [[Raoul Island]], administered by the Department of Conservation, was believed to have killed DOC worker Mark Kearney. At the exact time of the eruption, Kearney is thought to have been taking temperature measurements of the lake as part of a programme for monitoring volcanic activity. Five other DOC workers, who were also living on the island, were forced to evacuate back to New Zealand shortly after the eruption. Searches for Kearney, which have been inhibited by the island's remote location and the risks of further volcanic activity, have since failed to find any signs of him.

==List of directors-general==
Directors-General of DOC (Chief Executive) are:
{| class=""wikitable"" style=""text-align:center""
! No.
! Name
! Portrait
! colspan=2 |Term of office
|-
| align=center | '''1''' || Ken Piddington || [[File:Ken Piddington, 1977.jpg|60px]] || April 1987 || March 1988
|-
| align=center | - || Peter Bygate<br><small>''acting''</small> ||  || March 1988 || August 1988
|-
| align=center | '''2''' || David McDowell ||  || August 1988 || October 1989
|-
| align=center | - || Peter Bygate<br><small>''acting''</small> ||  || November 1989 || February 1990
|-
| align=center | '''3''' || Bill Mansfield ||  || February 1990 || May 1997
|-
| align=center | '''4''' || Hugh Logan ||  || May 1997 || May 2006
|-
| align=center | '''5''' || Al Morrison || [[File:Al Morrison (crop).jpg|60px]] || November 2006 || September 2013<ref>{{cite news |url=http://wellington.scoop.co.nz/?p=54803 |title=Al Morrison leaving Conservation Dept, joining State Services Commission |date=24 April 2013 |work=[[Scoop.co.nz]] |access-date=22 September 2020 }}</ref>
|-
| align=center | '''6''' || [[Lou Sanson]]|| [[File:Lou Sanson (crop).jpg|60px]] || September 2013<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/9012381/DOC-appoints-new-chief-executive |title=DOC appoints new chief executive |date=7 August 2013 |work=[[Stuff.co.nz]] |access-date=22 September 2020 |first=Anna |last=Turner }}</ref> || September 2021
|-
| align=center | - || Bruce Parkes<br><small>''acting''</small> ||  || September 2021 || November 2021
|-
| align=center | '''7''' || Penny Nelson ||  || November 2021<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/126240146/penny-nelson-appointed-as-new-directorgeneral-of-department-of-conservation |title=Penny Nelson appointed as new director-general of Department of Conservation |date=1 September 2021 |work=[[Stuff.co.nz]] |access-date=11 September 2021 |first=Kate |last=Green }}</ref> || present
|}

==See also==
*[[Biodiversity of New Zealand]]
*[[Conservation in New Zealand]]
*[[National parks of New Zealand]]
*[[Forest parks of New Zealand]]
*[[New Zealand Great Walks]]
*[[Regional parks of New Zealand]]
*[[Tramping in New Zealand]]
*[[Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council]]
*[[1080 usage in New Zealand]], of which DOC is one of the largest users.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Department of Conservation (New Zealand)}}
* {{Official website}}
** [http://blog.doc.govt.nz/ ''Conservation blog'' The department's blog]

{{NZ Public Service Departments}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1987 establishments in New Zealand]]
[[Category:New Zealand Public Service departments]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organisations based in New Zealand|Department of Conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Forestry agencies|New Zealand]]
[[Category:Environmental agencies]]
[[Category:Forestry in New Zealand]]"
Southeast Rügen Biosphere Reserve,"[[File:Karte Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen.png|thumb|300px|Location]]
[[File:Logo Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen.svg|thumb|Logo]]
[[File:Mönchgut, westliche Steilküste.jpg|thumb|The ''[[bodden]]'' coast]]
[[File:Hudeeiche.jpg|thumb|Core zone]]
[[File:Vilm Wald am Meer.JPG|thumb|Wood on the cliffed coast at Vilm]]

The '''Southeast Rügen Biosphere Reserve''' ({{lang-de|Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen}}) is a [[biosphere reserve]] in the German state of [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], which covers the southeastern part of the island of [[Rügen]] (including [[Granitz]] and [[Mönchgut]]), the lagoon of [[Rügischer Bodden]] between [[Putbus]] and [[Thiessow]], the outer coast between Thiessow and [[Binz]] and the island of [[Vilm]].

In the biosphere reserve all the classic landscape and coastal features of the Mecklenburg-Vorpommern littoral are found within one small area. The land is deeply indented here by the sea. One the one hand, peninsulas and coastal headlands are linked by narrow strips of land, on the other side they are separated by lagoons known as ''[[bodden]]s'' and open bays called ''Wieken'' locally. There are fine-sanded beaches and rugged [[cliffed coast]]lines, at the foot of which are impressive rocky beaches. Broad belts of reed girdle the shores. Beech woods or poor grasslands are found on the sites of [[terminal moraine]]s and meadows and pastures in the depressions formed after the [[Ice age|Ice Ages]]. 
Cultural features include [[megalithic tomb]]s of the [[New Stone Age]], Bronze Age [[tumuli]], medieval churches and village layouts, and the [[resort architecture]] of the [[Modern Era]].

It was made a biosphere reserve in 1990 as part of the [[GDR]]'s national park programme.

* Area: 235&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>
* Its variety of species includes its:
** great importance as a rest and breeding area for migratory birds, mainly various species of goose ([[greylag goose|greylag]], [[bean goose|bean]] and [[greater white-fronted geese]])
** bee species: e.&nbsp;g. [[Anthophora|furry]], apex-furrowed and [[Megachilidae|cone bees]]; [[cuckoo wasp|cuckoo]] and [[social wasp]]s.
** colonies of [[seagrass]], [[red algae|red]] and [[green algae]] in the nearshore areas of the Bay of Greifswald that form [[spawning ground]]s for [[Atlantic herring|Baltic Sea herring]].

The biosphere reserve has several core zones or total reserves. These include the [[Schwarzer See (Granitz)|Schwarzer See]] in the Granitz as well as the islands of [[Vilm]] and parts of the Mönchgut and Zicker peninsulas.

<!--
Von 1995 bis 2009 erhielt das Biosphärenreservat Unterstützung im Rahmen des [[Naturschutzgroßprojekt]]es ''Ostrügensche Boddenlandschaft''<ref>[http://www.bfn.de/0203_ostruegen.html Vorstellung des Naturschutzgroßprojektes ''Ostrügensche Boddenlandschaft''] auf den Seiten des [[Bundesamt für Naturschutz|Bundesamtes für Naturschutz]]</ref>, welches im Mai 2009 abgeschlossen wurde<ref>Artikel vom 13. Mai 2009: [http://www.bfn.de/0401_pressearchiv_2009.html Naturschutzgroßprojekt ""Ostrügensche Boddenlandschaft"" erfolgreich abgeschlossen]</ref>.

Da ein Biosphärenreservat mindestens 30000&nbsp;Hektar umfassen muss<ref>[http://www.unesco.de/fileadmin/medien/Dokumente/Bibliothek/BroschKriterienendfass31.10.07.pdf Deutsches MAB-Nationalkomitee (1996):Kriterien für die Anerkennung und Überprüfung von Biosphärenreservaten der UNESCO in Deutschland (PDF)] siehe S.6, Abschnitt Strukturelle Kriterien: Flächengröße und Abgrenzung</ref>, wird, nach Feststellung dieses Mangels durch die UNESCO-Evaluierung 2005, an einer Gebietsvergrößerung rund um den Jasmunder Bodden gearbeitet.<ref>[http://www.biosphaerenreservat-suedostruegen.de/de/willkommen/presse/insula_rugia_e_v_fordert_ruegen_soll_ein_biosphaerenreservat_werden INSULA RUGIA e.V. fordert: Rügen soll ein Biosphärenreservat werden. Zeitungsartikel vom 25.&nbsp;März 2009]</ref><ref>[http://www.biosphaerenreservat-suedostruegen.de/de/willkommen/presse/biosphaerenreservat_will_wachsen Biosphärenreservat will wachsen. Zeitungsartikel vom 20.Oktober 2008]</ref>

Seit 2008 wird ein [[Pflege- und Entwicklungsplan]] erarbeitet.<ref>[http://www.landschaftskommunikation.de/03_referenzen/referenzen.htm Erarbeitung einer Grundsatzplanung – Leitbild und Ziele – für ein erweitertes Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen. Büro für Landschaftskommunikation.]</ref>
-->

== Nature reserves ==
The seven nature reserves cover an area of 4,084 hectares:
 
* [[Goor-Muglitz Nature Reserve|Goor-Muglitz]] (142 ha)
* [[Granitz Nature Reserve|Granitz]] (1162 ha)
* [[Insel Vilm Nature Reserve|Insel Vilm]] (171 ha)
* [[Mönchgut Nature Reserve|Mönchgut]] (2320 ha)
* [[Neuensiener und Selliner See Nature Reserve|Neuensiener und Selliner See]] (213 ha)
* [[Quellsumpf Ziegensteine bei Groß Stresow Nature Reserve|Quellsumpf Ziegensteine bei Groß Stresow]] (4 ha)
* [[Wreechener See Nature Reserve|Wreechener See]] (72 ha)

<!--
== Entstehung ==
Rügen ist, erdgeschichtlich betrachtet, eine sehr junge Insel, deren Küstenlinie sich auch heute noch ständig verändert. Für die Entstehung von Rügen waren im Wesentlichen die Gletscher der [[Weichsel-Kaltzeit|Weichsel-Eiszeit]] ausschlaggebend, welche von Skandinavien nach Süden vordrangen. Vor etwa 10.000 Jahren, nachdem das letzte Eis der Weichsel-Eiszeit abgeschmolzen war und die Ostsee dadurch einen erheblich höheren Wasserstand aufwies als heute, ragten einzelne Inselgruppen, bestehend aus den Inseln Wittow, Jasmund, Mönchgut und Granitz, aus der Ostsee empor. 
Die Halbinsel Mönchgut wurde durch diese Gletschervorstöße und die anschließende Entwicklung der Ostsee mit ihren küstendynamischen Prozessen (Wind und Wasser) geformt. Während im Raum der heutigen Boddengewässer und [[Nehrung]]en noch große [[Toteis]]blöcke lagen, wurden dazwischenliegende Spalten mit Schmelzwassersanden unterschiedlicher Mächtigkeit gefüllt. Nehrungen sind weit geschwungene, schmale, meistens sandige Landstreifen, die einen flacheren Teil des Meeres vom offenen Wasser abtrennen.
„Spaltenfüllungen“ blieben nach dem Abschmelzen des Eises als Vollformen zurück. Im Wesentlichen bestehen diese heutigen, mehr oder weniger langgestreckten Hügelketten aus geschichteten feinkörnigen Sanden. Die Sande sind häufig von einer geringmächtigen [[Moräne]] lückenhaft bedeckt. Geschiebemergel hat sich in unregelmäßigen Abständen in den liegenden Feinsand aufgepresst. 
Geschiebemergel ist ein als [[Grundmoräne]] abgelagertes, umgeschichtetes und mit Blöcken und [[Geschiebe]]n versetztes Sediment. Dieser Geschiebemergel ist in der Regel kalkhaltig. Heute ist das Mönchgut durch einen charakteristischen Wechsel von reliefreichen Inselkernen und Nehrungen geprägt. 
Beispielsweise ist der „Bakenberg“ mit 66 m die höchste Erhebung des Inselkerns. Mit 43–45m weisen das Nordperd und das Zickersche Höft die höchsten Kliffs des Gebietes auf. Natürliche Fließgewässer fehlen ganz. Kleinflächig finden sich kleine Durchströmungsmoore und auf Groß Zicker auch [[Hangquellmoor]]e.

== Typische Tiere und Pflanzen ==
*Weide-Magerrasen: [[Wiesen-Schlüsselblume]] (''Primula veris''), [[Pechnelke]] (Silene viscaria), [[Schwalbenschwanz (Schmetterling)|Schwalbenschwanz]] 
*Steppen-Trockenrasen: [[Berg-Haarstrang]] (''Peucedanum oreoselinum''), [[Pfirsichblättrige Glockenblume]] (''Campanula persicifolia''), [[Heidelerche]]  
*Enzian-Schillergrasrasen: [[Zierliches Schillergras]] (''Koeleria macrantha''), [[Steifer Augentrost]] (''Euphrasia stricta''), [[Westliche Beißschrecke]] (''Platycleis albopunctata'')

== Abiotische Umweltfaktoren == 
*Wasser: Das Biosphärenreservat liegt im [[Regenschatten]], deshalb ist das Gebiet das niederschlagsärmste in ganz Deutschland. Dadurch sind die Pflanzen langen Trockenperioden ausgesetzt. 	
*Licht: Auf der Halbinsel Mönchgut scheint nach Messungen ca. 1900 Stunden im Jahr die Sonne, soviel wie nirgendwo anders in Deutschland. Demzufolge wird der Prozess der [[Photosynthese]] begünstigt. 	
*Boden: Der Untergrund des Biosphärenreservats besteht aus kalkhaltigem [[Geschiebemergel]]. Deswegen weist der Boden dort einen hohen [[Calciumcarbonat|Kalkgehalt]] auf und ist trocken und nährstoffarm.	
-->

== Literature ==
* {{cite web |publisher=Amt für das Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen|url= http://www.landschaftskommunikation.de/02_produkte/vomlandleben/bsrruegen_poken_und_kollen_ebook.pdf|title=Land und Leute im Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen. |pages=96 |date=2007 |access-date=9 July 2009}}
* http://www.biosphaerenreservat-suedostruegen.de/de/biosphaerenreservat
* Umweltministerium Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Hrsg.) (2003): Die Naturschutzgebiete Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns, Schwerin, Demmler Verlag
* Autorenkollektiv (1990): Mönchgut - eine Landschaftsstudie, Göhren/Greifswald, Ostseedruck Rostock/Bt Putbus© GeoBasis-DE/M-V 2010
* Frey, Hildegard: Rügen, 2. Auflage, Deutscher Wanderverlag, Stuttgart 1996.

== External links ==
* [http://mv.juris.de/mv/gesamt/SORuegenNatSchGV_MV.htm#SORuegenNatSchGV_MV_rahmen Verordnung über die Festsetzung von Naturschutzgebieten und einem Landschaftsschutzgebiet von zentraler Bedeutung mit der Gesamtbezeichnung Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen vom 12. September 1990]
*[http://www.biosphaerenreservat-suedostruegen.de/ Amt für das Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen]
{{commons category|Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen}}

{{Biosphere Reserves of Germany}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|54|24|9|N|13|33|52|E|type:landmark_region:DE-MV|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Southeast Rugen Biosphere Reserve}}
[[Category:Biosphere reserves of Germany]]
[[Category:Geography of Rügen]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1990]]
[[Category:1990 establishments in East Germany]]"
"Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. United States EPA","{{italic title}}
'''''Creating Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. United States EPA: No. 88-1490''''' (First Argued March 6, 1989 – Finally Decided September 25, 1992) was a notable [[United States]] [[Environmental Law]] case involving the required reporting of safety breaches in management facilities along with reporting during interim period and reporting of unknown substances.  The case began when Chemical Waste Management, Inc appealed its fine from the EPA for environmental health hazards to the US court in 1989 and appealed it twice.<ref name=epa1>{{cite web| title =Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. EPA| work =Environmental Law Reporter| date =20 October 2011| url =http://elr.info/litigation/%5Bfield_article_volume-raw%5D/20521/chemical-waste-management-inc-v-epa}}</ref><ref name=epa2>{{cite web| title =Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. EPA: Citation: 19 ELR 20641| work =Environmental Law Reporter| date =21 October 2011| url =http://elr.info/litigation/%5Bfield_article_volume-raw%5D/20641/chemical-waste-management-inc-v-epa}}</ref><ref name=epa3>{{cite web| title =Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. EPA: Citation: 19 ELR 20868| work =Environmental Law Reporter| date =21 October 2011| url =http://elr.info/litigation/%5Bfield_article_volume-raw%5D/20868/chemical-waste-management-inc-v-epa}}</ref>

==Background==
[[US Congress|Congress]] established the [[RCRA]] in 1976 to form an environmental regulation program that allowed for comprehensive involvement and more fluid adjustments to be made especially during interim periods.<ref name=scholar1>{{cite web| title =CHEMICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT, INC. and Waste Management of North America, Inc., Petitioners,v.U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY and Lee M. Thomas, Administrator, Respondents.| work =United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit.| url =https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=17357313564113855781&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr}}</ref>

Chemical Waste Management, Inc was a waste disposal company that was responsible for the safe and environmental management of hazardous materials.  At the time there were several environmental safety standards in place enforced by the [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]].  The EPA at the time required organizations and companies to make reports directly to the agency of any malfunctions or deteriorations of facilities.  In addition in 1988 it established the requirement that facilities must report any materials that had leakages, even of unconfirmed substances, as hazardous materials until testing could further distinguish, and thus should be treated as such.  The EPA also required disclosures of leakages and new hazards during interim periods of facilities' operations.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>

Chemical Waste Management, Inc had an on-site well-check system designed to test for any hazardous material leakage.  It had a two part system check, although the EPA at the time had raised this requirement to three checks.  Chemical Waste Management was in an interim stage where it had not installed the third check yet, but had not reached the required date of installment yet.  Inspectors had found that an unidentified substance had been leaking out of a facility that was unreported and unknown to Chemical Waste Management.  Chemical Waste Management failed to report these inspection findings of this interim period to the EPA.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa3/><ref name=epa2/>

When the EPA eventually found out about these violations, it fined the Chemical Waste Management for improper hazardous waste disposal.  The fines were not significantly large, as the supposed violations had only been occurring for a short interim period.  However, the EPA could fine firms and organizations up to $25,000 a day for the violation.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>

Chemical Waste Management believed that these fines were improper, since: 1. at the time the leakage substance was not considered hazardous, and 2. Chemical Waste Management had been on schedule to update its safety precautions.<ref name=epa3/><ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/>

==Case==
In determining this case, the court brought into question if the EPA had correctly applied its regulations  correctly to the Chemical Waste Management.  The court believed that Chemical Waste Management was surely at fault for failing to report its faulty facilities as noted by inspectors.  It was therefore its duty to report its breaches of environmental standards.  The EPA at the time had a specific requirement that all notes made by inspectors were required to be reported to the agency itself even if the notes are not specifically linked to a malfunction or deterioration of facilities.  It was found that Chemical Waste Management was in a state of non-compliance and violation for under six months.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>

The case was first brought to the US District court and ruled in favor of the EPA and was then sent to the Appellate court.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>

During the appeals, the court questioned whether the time frame of the petitioner's claim had expired, since it had made the standards change and it was no longer a question of enacting standards, but simply arguing past standards were unfairly put upon the organization.  The court did not follow through with this claim, but it did aid in its final decision.<ref name=scholar2>{{cite web| title =Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. USEPA, 869 F. 2d 1526| work =Court of Appeals, Dist. of Columbia| url =https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=11260199862489876670&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr}}</ref>

==Decision==
The court held that the EPA was correct in enforcing these regulations upon Chemical Waste Management.  It was reasonable to expect the firm to report leakage of a substance, although it was not considered hazardous.  It also held that it was reasonable to expect Chemical Waste Management to especially report leakages that had breached the two check system and thus were in violation of the old requirements, regardless of it being in a transitional stage.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/><ref name=scholar1/>

The court ruled in the EPA's favor, although the fine was significantly lower than before at $40,000, since Chemical Waste Management's violation had been minor, had little effect, and had been dealt with appropriately since the violation.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>

Both appeals to higher courts resulted in the same decision by the court, and the decision was made in favor of the EPA, finally resolved in 1992.<ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/><ref name=scholar2/>

==Significance== 
This case outlined many protocols for environmental safety and health enforcement.  It further requires disclosure from organizations as mandatory self-reporting regarding their malfunctions in facilities.  Secondly it does not dismiss firms from environmental standards during interim periods of changing regulations.  It also further solidifies the notion that unknown substance leakages are to be classified as environmental hazards until they can be accurately identified and controlled.<ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>  The question of retroactivity does not strictly constitute retroactive lawmaking, since it was announced beforehand that new regulations would eventually be created and enforced.<ref name=scholar2/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:1992 in the environment]]
[[Category:Environment of the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental law in the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:United States waste law]]
[[Category:Waste management in the United States]]"
Dark-sky preserve,"{{short description|Area that restricts artificial light pollution}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2024}}
[[File:Rise of the Milky Way.jpg|300px|thumb|A dark-sky preserve status enables high-quality astronomical observation in [[Paranal Observatory]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Rise of the Milky Way|url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1521a/|website=Eso.org|access-date=June 8, 2015}}</ref>]]

A '''dark-sky preserve''' ('''DSP''') is an area, usually surrounding a park or [[observatory]], that restricts artificial [[light pollution]]. The purpose of the [[dark-sky movement]] is generally to promote [[astronomy]]. However, astronomy is not the only objective of conserving a dark sky. A dark night sky is associated with many facets of history, philosophy, religion, societal development, poetry, song, mathematics, and science.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last=Sovick |first=Joe |date=2001 |title=Toward an Appreciation of the Dark Night Sky |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43597768 |journal=The George Wright Forum |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=15–19 |jstor=43597768 |issn=0732-4715}}</ref> Different terms have been used to describe the areas as national organizations have worked independently to create their programs. The [[International Dark-Sky Association]] (IDA) uses International Dark Sky Reserve (IDSR) and International Dark Sky Park (IDSP). A third designation, International Dark Sky Sanctuary, was introduced in 2015.

==History==

An International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) was founded in 1988 to reserve public or private land for an exquisite outlook of nocturnal territories and starry night skies. These reserves are specifically conserved for its scientific, natural, educational, cultural, heritage and public enjoyment.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |title=International Dark Sky Reserves |url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/ |access-date=April 18, 2022 |website=International Dark-Sky Association |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[Mont Mégantic Observatory]] in Quebec is the first such site to be recognized (in 2007) as an International Dark Sky Reserve.<ref>{{cite web| title =First International Dark Sky Reserve Is Announced in Québec!| publisher =International Dark-Sky Association| date =September 21, 2007| url =http://data.nextrionet.com/site/idsa/PR_Mont_Megantic_2007.pdf| access-date =November 26, 2008| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20081115023048/http://data.nextrionet.com/site/idsa/PR_Mont_Megantic_2007.pdf| archive-date =November 15, 2008}}</ref> IDA recognized [[Natural Bridges National Monument]] in [[Utah]] as the world's first International Dark Sky Park.<ref>{{cite web| title =Utah's Natural Bridges National Monument Becomes First International Dark Sky Park| publisher =International Dark-Sky Association| date =April 19, 2007| url =http://data.nextrionet.com/site/idsa/PR_Natural_Bridges_2007.pdf| access-date =November 26, 2008| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20081115023700/http://data.nextrionet.com/site/idsa/PR_Natural_Bridges_2007.pdf| archive-date =November 15, 2008}}</ref> In 2015, the IDA introduced the term ""Dark Sky Sanctuary"" and designated the [[Elqui Valley (wine region)|Elqui Valley]] of northern Chile as the world's first International Dark Sky Sanctuary. The [[Gabriela Mistral]] Dark Sky Sanctuary is named after a Chilean poet.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darksky.org/chilean-astronomical-site-becomes-worlds-first-international-dark-sky-sanctuary/ |title=Chilean Astronomical Site Becomes World's First International Dark Sky Sanctuary |date=August 9, 2015 |publisher=IDA |language=en-US |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref>

It is generally understood that a dark-sky preserve, or dark-sky reserve, should be sufficiently dark to promote astronomy. However, this is not always the case. The lighting protocol for a dark-sky preserve is based on the sensitivity of wildlife to [[artificial light]] at night.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rasc.ca/sites/default/files/RASC%20DSP%20GOL%20-%20Summer%202013_0.pdf |title=Royal Astronomical Society of Canada: Guidelines for Outdoor Lighting in Dark-sky Preserves (RASC-DSP-GOL) |website=rasc.ca |access-date=August 8, 2018}}</ref>

Canada has established an extensive and more stringent standard for dark-sky preserves, that addresses lighting within the DSP and influences from [[skyglow]] from urban areas in the region. This was based on the work of the [[Royal Astronomical Society of Canada]].

==Dark Sky Places==
The [[International Dark-Sky Association|IDA]]'s Dark Sky Places program offers five types of designations:
* '''International Dark Sky Communities''' – Communities are legally organised cities and towns that adopt quality outdoor lighting ordinances and undertake efforts to educate residents about the importance of dark skies.
* '''International Dark Sky Parks''' – Parks are publicly or privately owned spaces protected for natural conservation that implement good outdoor lighting and provide dark sky programs for visitors.
* '''International Dark Sky Reserves''' – Reserves consist of a dark ""core"" zone surrounded by a populated periphery where policy controls are enacted to protect the darkness of the core.
* '''International Dark Sky Sanctuaries''' – Sanctuaries are the most remote (and often darkest) places in the world whose conservation state is most fragile.
* '''Dark Sky Developments of Distinction''' – Developments of Distinction recognize subdivisions, master planned communities, and unincorporated neighborhoods and townships whose planning actively promotes a more natural night sky but does not qualify them for the International Dark Sky Community designation. (This designation was retired in 2020).

Further designations include ""Dark Sky Nation"", given to the [[Kaibab Indian Reservation]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darksky.org/the-worlds-first-ida-dark-sky-nation/ |title=The World's First IDA Dark Sky Nation |first=Tim |last=Hunter |date=August 28, 2015 |publisher=IDA |access-date=September 13, 2016}}</ref> and ""Parashant International Night Sky Province-Window to the Cosmos"", given to [[Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/para/learn/news/dark-sky-status.htm |title=Parashant Receives International Dark Sky Status |date=February 21, 2014 |access-date=September 13, 2016 |publisher=[[National Park Service]]}}</ref>

==Dark sky preserves, reserves and parks==
{{see also|International Dark-Sky Association#International Dark Sky Places}}

As of January 2023, there were 201 certified Dark Sky Places globally: 38 Communities, 115 Parks, 20 Reserves, 16 Sanctuaries, 6 Developments of Distinction and 6 Urban Night Sky Places.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/|title=International Dark Sky Places|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date= April 30, 2023}}</ref>

{| class=""wikitable sortable"" 
! Country
! Name
! Location
! Area (in ha) 
! [[Bortle Dark Sky Scale|Bortle scale]]
! Status
! class=""unsortable"" |Notes
|-
| {{flag|Australia}}
| The Jump-Up, [[Australian Age of Dinosaurs]]
| [[Winton, Queensland|Winton]], [[Queensland]]
| 1,400
| 1–2
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
| Designated on April 27, 2019
|-
| {{flag|Australia}}
| [[Warrumbungle National Park]]
| [[New South Wales]]
| 23,312
| 
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated on July 4, 2016
|-
| {{flag|Australia}}
| [[Swan Reach, South Australia|River Murray DSR]]
| [[South Australia]]
| 320,000
| 
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated October 2019 (gold tier) <ref name=""River Murray Dark Sky Reserve"">{{cite web | title=About Us | website=River Murray Dark Sky Reserve | url=https://www.rivermurraydarkskyreserve.org/aboutus.php | access-date=July 1, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) | website=International Dark-Sky Association | date=November 7, 2019 | url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/river-murray/ | access-date=July 1, 2020}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Beaver Hills (Alberta)|Beaver Hills]]
| [[Alberta]]
| 29,300
| 4.5
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated on September 3, 2006
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Cypress Hills (Canada)|Cypress Hills]]
| [[Alberta]] / [[Saskatchewan]]
| 39,600
| 2
|
| Designated on September 28, 2004<ref>{{cite web |title=Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park Designated as a Dark Sky Preserve |publisher=Government of Saskatchewan |date=October 8, 2004 |url=http://www.gov.sk.ca/news?newsId=6c2aabb3-8828-4a5a-9545-df15e33cd77d |access-date=November 17, 2008 |archive-date=June 11, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611012419/http://www.gov.sk.ca/news?newsId=6c2aabb3-8828-4a5a-9545-df15e33cd77d |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Jasper National Park]]
| [[Alberta]]
| 1,122,800
| 1–2
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated on March 11, 2011<ref>{{cite web |title=Jasper National Park named world's largest dark sky preserve |publisher=Parks Canada |date=March 11, 2011 |url=http://www.marketwire.com/press-release/Jasper-National-Park-Becomes-Worlds-Largest-Dark-Sky-Preserve-1410194.htm | access-date=March 15, 2011}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Wood Buffalo National Park]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Wood Buffalo National Park |publisher=Parks Canada |date=August 3, 2013 |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/nt/woodbuffalo/index.aspx |access-date=August 3, 2013}}</ref>
| [[Alberta]] / [[Northwest Territories|NWT]]
| 4,480,700
| 1–2
| [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage]]<br/>Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated on June 28, 2013<ref>{{cite web |last=Thompson |first=Deborah |title=RASC Designates Wood Buffalo National Park as a New Dark Sky Preserve |work=RASC Announcements |publisher=Royal Astronomical Society of Canada |date=August 2, 2013 |url=http://www.rasc.ca/news/rasc-designates-wood-buffalo-national-park-new-dark-sky-preserve |access-date = August 3, 2013}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Uplands Park|Cattle Point]]
| [[Oak Bay, British Columbia|Oak Bay]], [[British Columbia]]
| 5
| 
| Urban Star Park
| Designated March 29, 2013<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bcmeteors.net/index.php/75-news/latest-news/141-cattle-point-park-approved|title=Cattle Point National Urban Star Park Approved, BC Meteor Network news release, March 29, 2013|website=Bcmeteors.net|access-date=August 8, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414081820/http://www.bcmeteors.net/index.php/75-news/latest-news/141-cattle-point-park-approved|archive-date=April 14, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[McDonald Park]]
| [[British Columbia]]
| 5
| 2–3
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2003
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Fundy National Park]]
| [[New Brunswick]]
| 20,700
| 2
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated on October 31, 2011<ref>{{cite web |title=Fundy National Park a Dark Sky Preserve |publisher=Parks Canada |date=June 6, 2009 |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/nb/fundy/natcul/ciel-sky.aspx |access-date=January 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209213739/http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/nb/fundy/natcul/ciel-sky.aspx |archive-date=February 9, 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Irving Nature Park]] Urban Star Park
| [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], [[New Brunswick]]
| 243
| ?
| Urban Star Park
| Designated on July 1, 2011; First RASC-designated Urban Star Park
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Kouchibouguac National Park]]
| [[New Brunswick]]
| 23,920
| 2
|
| Designated on June 6, 2009<ref>{{cite web |title=Kouchibouguac National Park a Dark Sky Preserve |publisher=Parks Canada |date=June 6, 2009 |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?bgid=1096&andor1=bg |access-date=December 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017122035/http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?bgid=1096&andor1=bg |archive-date=October 17, 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Mount Carleton Provincial Park]]
| [[New Brunswick]]
| 17,427
| 2
|
| Designated on July 18, 2009<ref>{{cite web |title=esignation requires limited artificial light to protect night skies from light pollution |website=CanadaEast.com |date=July 18, 2009 |url=http://timestranscript.canadaeast.com/rss/article/732911 |access-date=December 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307121332/http://timestranscript.canadaeast.com/rss/article/732911 |archive-date=March 7, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Kejimkujik National Park]]
| [[Nova Scotia]]
| 40,400
| 2
|
| Designated on August 7, 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Kejimkujik National Park and National Historic Site a Dark Sky Preserve |publisher=Parks Canada |date=August 7, 2010 |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?bgid=1096&andor1=bg |access-date=December 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017122035/http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?bgid=1096&andor1=bg |archive-date=October 17, 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| Bluewater Outdoor Education Centre
| [[Ontario]]
| 129
| 2
|
| Designated on November 3, 2012, by the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Bruce Peninsula Fathom Five National Marine Park]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 16,700
| 2–3
|
| Designated on March 29, 2009
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| Gordon's Park
| [[Ontario]]
| 43.7
| 2–3
|
| Designated on August 15, 2009; designation is only for the Park though Manitoulin Island (276,611 ha) follows dark-sky practices<ref>{{cite web |title=Gordon's Park Dark Sky Preserve |publisher=Royal Astronomical Society of Canada |date=November 2008 |url=http://www.rasc.ca/lpa/manitoulin.shtml |access-date=November 18, 2010 |archive-date=November 28, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128150804/http://rasc.ca/lpa/manitoulin.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 155,600
| 1-2
|
| Designated in July 2018 <ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.ontarioparks.com/parksblog/lake-superior-dark-sky-preserve/ |title = The Lake Superior Provincial Park Dark Sky Preserve|date = July 26, 2019}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Killarney Provincial Park]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 64,500
| 1-2
|
| Designated in May 2018 <ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ontarioparks.com/parksblog/tag/dark-sky-preserve/ |title = Dark sky preserve Archives| date=January 22, 2024 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[North Frontenac|North Frontenac Township]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 116,000
| 1–2
| 
| Designated on August 3, 2013, first Municipality in Canada to achieve Dark Sky Preserve Status.
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Point Pelee National Park]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 2,000
| 3–4
|
| Designated in 2006
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Torrance Barrens]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 1,906
| 3
| 
| Designated in 1999; first Canadian dark sky preserve
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Mont Mégantic Observatory]]
| [[Quebec]]
| 527,500
| 2–3
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated Sept. 2007; first IDA International Dark-Sky Reserve<ref>{{cite web |title= The Mt. Megantic IDSR |publisher=AstroLab du park national du Mt. Megantic |url=http://www.astrolab-parc-national-mont-megantic.org/en/mt_megantic_international_dark_sky_reserve_idsr.the_mt_megantic_idsr.htm |access-date=October 6, 2011}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Grasslands National Park]]
| [[Saskatchewan]]
| 92,100
| 1
|
| Designated on October 2, 2009<ref>{{cite web |title=Dark Sky Preserve designation for Grasslands National Park |publisher=Parks Canada |date=October 2, 2009 |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/sk/grasslands/ne/ne6.aspx |access-date=December 1, 2010}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Chile}}
| Gabriela Mistral
| [[Elqui Valley (wine region)|Elqui Valley]] 
| 36,400
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
|Designated in 2015<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/sanctuaries/aura/|title=Gabriela Mistral (Chile)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}<br/>{{flag|Slovakia}}
| [[Beskydy Protected Landscape Area|Beskydy Dark-Sky Park]]
| [[Moravian-Silesian Region]], [[Czech Republic]] <br /> [[Čadca District]], [[Slovakia]]
| 30,800
| 3–4
| 
| Designated on March 4, 2013; The second world's bilateral dark-sky park<ref>{{cite web |title=Beskydy Dark-Sky Park |year=2013 |url=http://www.boto.cz|website=Boto.cz }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| Manětín Dark-Sky Park
| [[Plzeň Region]]
| 34,600
| 3–5
| 
|Designated on September 15, 2014<ref>{{cite web |title=Manětín Dark-Sky Park |year=2014 |url=http://manetinskatma.cz/|website=Manetinskatma.cz }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}<br/>{{flag|Poland}}
| Izera Dark-Sky Park
| [[Liberec Region]], [[Czech Republic]]<br/>[[Lower Silesia]], [[Poland]]
| 7,500
| 3–4
|
| Designated on November 4, 2009; the first European dark-sky park and the first world's bilateral dark-sky park<ref>{{cite web |title=Izera Dark-Sky Park |year=2009 |url=http://www.izera-darksky.eu|website=Izera-darksky.eu }}</ref>
|-

| {{flag|France}}
| [[Pic du Midi de Bigorre]]
| [[Hautes-Pyrénées]]
| 311,200
| 2–4
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated an IDA International Dark Sky Reserve in December 2013; First IDA International Dark Sky Reserve in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darksky.org/idsp/reserves/|title=International Dark Sky Reserves|date=October 22, 2014|website=Darksky.org|access-date=August 8, 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| Alpes Azur Mercantour
| [[Beuil]]
| 225,000
| 
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/alpes-azur-mercantour-france/|title=Alpes Azur Mercantour (France)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| [[Cévennes National Park]]
| [[Cévennes]]
| 360,000
| 
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/cevennes/|title=Cévennes National Park (France)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| Regional Natural Park of Millevaches in Limousin
| [[Millevaches]]
| 335,000
| 
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated in 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/millevaches-rice/|title=Regional Natural Park of Millevaches in Limousin (France)|access-date=April 30, 2023|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}
| [[Rhön Biosphere Reserve]]
| [[Rhön Mountains]]
| 172,000
| 
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/rhon/|title=Rhön (Germany)|access-date=April 30, 2023|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}
| [[Westhavelland Nature Park]]
| [[Brandenburg]]
| 152,900
| 
| 
| Designated an IDA International Dark Sky Reserve on February 12, 2014<ref name=""Westhavelland"">{{cite web|url=http://www.berliner-zeitung.de/brandenburg/sterne-sehen-ohne-lichtverschmutzung-deutschlands-dunkelkammer,10809312,26150668.html|title=Sterne Sehen Ohne Lichtverschmutzung: Deutschlands Dunkelkammer|access-date=March 3, 2014|website=Berliner-zeitung.de|archive-date=June 17, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140617184417/http://www.berliner-zeitung.de/brandenburg/sterne-sehen-ohne-lichtverschmutzung-deutschlands-dunkelkammer,10809312,26150668.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Hungary}}
| [[Hortobágy National Park|Hortobágy Starry Sky Park]]
| Various counties
| 10,000
| 3
|
| Designated on January 31, 2011; IDA's third international dark-sky park (Silver tier)<ref name=""docs.darksky.org"">{{Cite web |url=http://docs.darksky.org/PR/2011/PRSarkHortobagyFINAL.pdf |title=Sark Island and Hortobágy National Park earn dark sky status from the International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=January 31, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317142350/http://docs.darksky.org/PR/2011/PRSarkHortobagyFINAL.pdf |archive-date=March 17, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Hungary}}
| [[Zselic National Landscape Protection Area]]
| [[Somogy County]] / [[Baranya County]]
| 9,042
| 3–4
|
| Designated on November 16, 2009

|-
| {{flag|India}}
| [[Indian Astronomical Observatory]]
| [[Hanle (village)|Hanle]] in [[Ladakh]]
| 70,000
| 
|
| Designated in September 2022.<ref name=res1>[https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/all-you-need-to-know-about-india-s-first-dark-sky-reserve-in-ladakh-122090900591_1.html All you need to know about India's first dark sky reserve in Ladakh], Business Standard, Karthik Jerome, September 9, 2022.</ref><ref name=mah1>{{Cite web |url = https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/central-wildlife-panel-approves-to-upgrade-iaf-base-near-lac-in-ladakh-122090900685_1.html |title = Central wildlife panel approves to upgrade IAF base near LAC in Ladakh |website = www.business-standard.com |date = September 9, 2022 |access-date = September 12, 2022 }}</ref>

|-
| {{flag|Ireland}}
| [[Kerry International Dark-Sky Reserve]]
| [[Iveragh Peninsula]], [[County Kerry]]
| 70,000
| 1–3
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated an IDA International Dark Sky Reserve on January 27, 2014<ref name=""Kerry"">{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/environment/southwest-kerry-area-receives-dark-skies-designation-1.1669828|title=Southwest Kerry area receives dark skies designation|access-date=March 3, 2014|website=Irishtimes.com}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Israel}}
| [[Makhtesh Ramon]]
| [[Southern District (Israel)|Southern District]]
| 113.2
| 2–3
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated September 14, 2017<ref name=""ida"">{{Cite web |url=http://www.darksky.org/ramon-crater-named-first-international-dark-sky-place-in-the-mideast/ |title=Ramon Crater Named First International Dark Sky Place In The Mideast |date=September 14, 2017 |website=Darksky.org}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|South Korea}}
| Yeongyang Firefly Eco Park
| [[North Gyeongsang Province]], [[Yeongyang County]], [[Subimyeon]]
| 390
| 
|
| Designated on November 1, 2015
|-
| {{flag|Namibia}}
| [[NamibRand Nature Reserve]]
| [[Hardap Region]]
| 202,200
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated in 2012.
|-
| {{flag|The Netherlands}}
| Boschplaat
| [[Terschelling]], [[Friesland]]
| 2,400
| 3
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated on October 7, 2016
|-
| {{flag|The Netherlands}}
| [[Lauwersmeer]]
| [[Groningen]], [[Friesland]]
| 5,000
| ?
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated on June 26, 2015
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| [[Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park]]
| [[Lake Tekapo|Tekapo]]
| 430,000
| 2<ref>{{cite book |url=https://darksky.org/app/uploads/2018/03/Aoraki_Mackenzie_IDSP_Application.pdf |title=An Application to the International Dark-Sky Association for a Starlight Reserve in the Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park and the Mackenzie Basin of the central South Island of New Zealand |date=January 27, 2012 |publisher=Mackenzie District Council, University of Canterbury, Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand, Department of Conservation |page=25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204040113/https://darksky.org/app/uploads/2018/03/Aoraki_Mackenzie_IDSP_Application.pdf |archive-date=February 4, 2024}}</ref>
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated on June 9, 2012<ref>{{cite news |url=http://docs.darksky.org/PR/IDA_Aoraki_Mackenzie_PR.pdf |title=New Zealand's Aoraki Mackenzie Named World's Largest International Dark Sky Reserve |date=June 9, 2012 |publisher=International Dark Sky Association |access-date=June 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710162625/http://docs.darksky.org/PR/IDA_Aoraki_Mackenzie_PR.pdf |archive-date=July 10, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=McCrone |first=John |title=Stars in their eyes |url= http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/7071118/Stars-in-their-eyes |access-date=March 3, 2013 |work=[[The Press]] |date=June 9, 2012 |pages=C1–C3}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| Aotea / Great Barrier Island
| [[Great Barrier Island]] 
| 28,500
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
|Designated in 2017<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/sanctuaries/aotea-great-barrier-island/|title=Aotea / Great Barrier Island (New Zealand)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| Stewart Island/Rakiura
| [[Stewart Island]] 
| 174,600
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
|Designated in 2019<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/sanctuaries/stewart-island-rakiura/|title=Stewart Island/Rakiura (New Zealand)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| [[Wairarapa Dark Sky Reserve]]
| [[Wairarapa]] 
| 366,500
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
|Designated in 2023<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/wairarapa-dark-sky-reserve-new-zealand/|title=Wairarapa Dark Sky Reserve (New Zealand)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Niue}}
| Niue
| [[Niue]] 
| 25,900
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
|Designated in 2020. First whole country to become an International Dark Sky Place.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/niue-is-worlds-first-country-to-become-a-dark-sky-place/|title=Niue is World's First Country to Become a Dark Sky Place|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023|date=March 7, 2020}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Poland}}
| [[Bieszczady National Park|Bieszczady Starry-Sky Park]]
| [[Polish Subcarpathia|Subcarpathia]]
| 113,846
| 2–3
|
| Designated on March 8, 2013<ref>{{cite web |title=Bieszczady Starry-Sky Park |year=2013 |url=http://www.gwiezdnebieszczady.pl |website=Gwiezdnebieszczady.pl |access-date=July 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212022233/http://www.gwiezdnebieszczady.pl/ |archive-date=February 12, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Poland}}<br/>{{flag|Slovakia}}<br/>{{flag|Ukraine}}
| East Carpathian Dark-Sky Tripark
| Bieszczady Starry-Sky Park ([[Poland]])<br/>[[Poloniny Dark-Sky Park]] ([[Slovakia]])<br/>Transcarpathian Dark-Sky Park ([[Ukraine]])
| 208,667
| 2–3
| 
| Designated on September 9, 2016; first world's trilateral dark-sky park
|-
| {{flag|Slovakia}}
| [[Poloniny Dark-Sky Park]]
| [[Poloniny National Park]]
| 48,519
| 2–3
|
| Designated on December 3, 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Poloniny Dark-Sky Park |year=2010 |url=http://poloniny.svetelneznecistenie.sk |website=Poloniny.svetelneznecistenie.sk}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Slovakia}}
| Veľká Fatra Dark-Sky Park
| [[Veľká Fatra National Park]] (part of)
| 325
| 3–4
|
|Designated on June 12, 2015<ref>{{Cite web|title = Park tmavej oblohy Kráľova studňa|url = http://www.fatranskatma.sk|website = www.fatranskatma.sk|access-date = September 17, 2015}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|South Africa}}
| !Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Park
| [[Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park]] 
| 95,000
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
|Designated in 2019<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/sanctuaries/aehai-kalahari-heritage-park-south-africa/|title=!Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Park (South Africa)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Ukraine}}
| Transcarpathian Dark-Sky Park
| Uzhansky National Nature Park
| 46,302
| 2
|
| Designated on June 10, 2016
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Exmoor National Park]]
| [[Devon]] / [[Somerset]], [[England]]
| 18,100
| 3
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated October 10, 2011
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Galloway Forest Park]]
| [[Dumfries and Galloway]], [[Scotland]]
| 75,000
| 3
|
| Designated on November 16, 2009<ref>{{cite news |last=Carrell |first=Severin |title=Astronomers name Scottish park one of world's best stargazing sites |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=November 16, 2009 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2009/nov/16/galloway-forest-dark-skies-stargazing |access-date=November 16, 2009
| location=London}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Sark]]
| [[Guernsey]]
| 545
| 3
|
| Designated on January 31, 2011; IDA's first international dark-sky island (Silver tier)<ref name=""docs.darksky.org""/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2011/02/01/133401367/lights-out-tiny-sark-named-first-dark-sky-island|title=Lights Out: Tiny Sark Named First 'Dark-Sky' Island|website=Npr.org|date=February 2011|access-date=August 8, 2018|last1=Palca|first1=Joe}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Coll|Isle of Coll]]
| [[Inner Hebrides]], [[Scotland]]
| 7,700
| 1
|
| Designated on December 9, 2013<ref name=""Coll"">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-glasgow-west-25300740|title=Isle of Coll secures 'dark isle' status|work=BBC News|date=December 9, 2013|access-date=December 9, 2013}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Northumberland National Park]]
| [[Northumberland]], [[England]]
| 103,000
| 3
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated on December 9, 2013<ref name=""NNP"">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-25260186|title=Dark sky status awarded to Northumberland Park area|work=BBC News|date=December 9, 2013|access-date=December 9, 2013}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Brecon Beacons]]
| [[Wales]]
| 134,700
| 4
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated February 19, 2013
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| Mata ki te Rangi (Eyes To the Sky)
| [[Pitcairn Islands]]
| 4,325
| 1
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
| Designated March 18, 2019<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.visitpitcairn.pn/dark_sky/index.html|title=Dark Sky Sanctuary|website=VisitPitcairn-DarkSky|access-date=December 1, 2019}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Snowdonia National Park]]
| [[Wales]]
|213,200
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated 2015<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/snowdonia/|title=Snowdonia National Park (Wales)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Bardsey Island]] (Ynys Enlli)
| [[Wales]]
| 179
| 2
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
| Designated February 22, 2023<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/ynys-enlli-named-first-international-dark-sky-sanctuary-in-wales-united-kingdom/|title=Ynys Enlli named first International Dark Sky Sanctuary in Wales, United Kingdom|website=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=February 23, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument]]
| [[Arizona (U.S. state)|Arizona]]
| 424,200
| 
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2014
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Death Valley National Park]]
| [[California(U.S. state)|California]]
| 1,374,300
| 
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2013
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Joshua Tree National Park]]
| [[California(U.S. state)|California]]
| 319,600
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated July 26, 2017<ref>Sahagun, Louis (July 29, 2017). [https://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-joshua-tree-stars-20170729-story.html Dark Sky designation puts Joshua Tree National Park in a new light]. Retrieved July 30, 2017.</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park]]
| [[Colorado (U.S. state)|Colorado]]
| 12,440
| 
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2015
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve]]
| [[Colorado (U.S. state)|Colorado]]
| 60,310
| 2
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2019
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Hovenweep National Monument]]
| [[Colorado (U.S. state)|Colorado]] / [[Utah (U.S. state)|Utah]]
| 310
| 2
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2014
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Big Cypress National Preserve]]
| [[Florida (U.S. state)|Florida]]
| 290,000
| 3
| Dark Sky Park <ref name=""news.wgcu.org"">{{Cite web | url=http://news.wgcu.org/post/experience-dark-sky-park-florida |title = Experience A 'Dark Sky Park' in Florida|date = July 13, 2017}}</ref>
| Designated 2016
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Kissimmee Prairie Preserve State Park]]
| [[Florida (U.S. state)|Florida]]
| 21,853<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kissimmee Prairie Preserve State Park|url=https://www.floridastateparks.org/parks-and-trails/kissimmee-prairie-preserve-state-park|access-date=March 15, 2021|website=Florida State Parks|language=en}}</ref>
| 3
| Dark Sky Park<ref name=""news.wgcu.org""/>
| Designated 2016
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Stephen C. Foster State Park]]
| [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
| 32
| 2
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated November 2016<ref name=""wabe"">{{Cite web |url=http://news.wabe.org/post/south-georgia-park-celebrates-dark-sky-stargazing-status |title=South Georgia Park Celebrates 'Dark Sky' Stargazing Status |last=Samuel |first=Molly |date=December 2, 2016 |website=Wabe.org |access-date=April 12, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Central Idaho Dark Sky Reserve]]
| [[Idaho (U.S. state)|Idaho]]
| 366,742
| 1
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated December 2017<ref name=""Central_ID"">{{cite web |title=Central Idaho (U.S.) {{!}} International Dark-Sky Association |url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/centralidaho/ |website=International Dark-Sky Association |access-date=July 9, 2020}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Potawatomi Wildlife Park]]
| [[Indiana]]
| 116
| 4.5
|
|Designated in 2003{{cn|date=April 2023}}
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Lake Hudson State Recreation Area]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 890
| 3
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 1993<ref>{{cite web |title = Lake Hudson Recreation Area |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.dnr.state.mi.us/parksandtrails/Details.aspx?id=464&type=SPRK |access-date = December 1, 2010}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Negwegon State Park]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 1,513
| 
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2016<ref>{{cite web |title = Negwegon State Park |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.michigandnr.com/parksandtrails/Details.aspx?id=476&type=SPRK |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Port Crescent State Park]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 2,400
| 3
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2012<ref>{{cite web |title = Port Crescent State Park |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.michigandnr.com/ParksandTrails/Details.aspx?id=486&type=SPRK |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Rockport State Park (Michigan)|Rockport State Recreation Area]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 4,800
| 
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2016<ref>{{cite web |title = Rockport Recreation Area |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.michigandnr.com/ParksandTrails/Details.aspx?id=729&type=SPRK |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Thompson's Harbor State Park]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 2,068
| 2
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2016<ref>{{cite web |title = Thompson's Harbor State Park |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.michigandnr.com/parksandtrails/Details.aspx?id=500&type=SPRK |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Wilderness State Park]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 4,254
| 2
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2012<ref>{{cite web |title = Wilderness State Park |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.michigandnr.com/parksandtrails/Details.aspx?id=509&type=SPRK |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[The Headlands]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 220
| 3–5
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated in 2011<ref>{{cite web |title = The Headlands |publisher = Emmet County |url = http://www.midarkskypark.org/ |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness]]
| [[Minnesota]]
| 440,000
| 1
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
| Designated in 2020<ref>{{cite web |title = Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (U.S.) |publisher = International Dark-Sky Association |url = https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/sanctuaries/boundary-waters/ |access-date = November 6, 2020}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Great Basin National Park]]
| [[Nevada]]
| 31,230
| 1
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated in 2016<ref>{{cite web |title = Great Basin National Park |publisher = International Dark-Sky Association |url = https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/parks/greatbasin/ |access-date = August 18, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Chaco Culture National Historical Park]]
| [[New Mexico]]
| 13,759
| 2–3<ref name=""bortleccnp"">{{cite web |url=http://www.darksky.org/assets/documents/CCNHP_Intl_Dark_Sky_Park_Application.pdf |title=Chaco Culture National Historical Park International Dark Sky Park Application |publisher=National Park Service |date=July 2013 |access-date=January 9, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131034825/http://darksky.org/assets/documents/CCNHP_Intl_Dark_Sky_Park_Application.pdf |archive-date=January 31, 2015 }}</ref>
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated on August 28, 2013<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.darksky.org/assets/documents/IDAChacoPR.pdf |title=New Mexican Skies Protected with Dark Sky Park Designation (press release) |publisher=International Dark-Sky Association |date=August 28, 2013 |access-date=January 9, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131035129/http://darksky.org/assets/documents/IDAChacoPR.pdf |archive-date=January 31, 2015 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Clayton Lake State Park|Clayton Lake]]
| [[New Mexico]]
| 190
|
|
| Designated June 29, 2010<ref name=""darksky.org"">[http://www.darksky.org/assets/documents/PR/2010/IDSParks2010.pdf International Dark Sky Association Recognizes state parks in New Mexico and Washington for night sky preservation efforts] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819163727/http://darksky.org/assets/documents/PR/2010/IDSParks2010.pdf |date=August 19, 2013 }}, International Dark-Sky Association news release, June 29, 2010</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Geauga Park District|Observatory Park]]
| [[Ohio]]
| 450
| ?
|
| Designated on August 20, 2011<ref>{{cite web| url = http://docs.darksky.org/PR/ObservatoryParkPR.pdf| title = New Ohio Park Commended for Protecting the Nighttime Environment by International Dark-Sky Association (press release)| publisher = International Dark-Sky Association| date = August 22, 2011| access-date = July 18, 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120619183331/http://docs.darksky.org/PR/ObservatoryParkPR.pdf| archive-date = June 19, 2012| url-status = dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Oregon Outback]]
| [[Oregon]]
| 11,400,000
| 
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
| Designated on March 11, 2024<ref>{{cite news |last=Hale |first=Jamie |date=March 11, 2024 |title=Oregon Outback is now the largest Dark Sky Sanctuary in the world |url=https://www.oregonlive.com/travel/2024/03/oregon-outback-is-now-the-largest-dark-sky-sanctuary-in-the-world.html |work=[[The Oregonian]] |accessdate=March 14, 2024}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Cherry Springs State Park]]
| [[Pennsylvania]]
| 430
| 2<ref name = ""bortle"">{{cite web| url = http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/info/wind/documents/cherry-springs-state-park-light-pollution-analysis-05-29-08.pdf| archive-url = https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080615101407/http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/info/wind/documents/cherry-springs-state-park-light-pollution-analysis-05-29-08.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-date = June 15, 2008| title = Cherry Springs State Park: Light Pollution Analysis and Recommendations| publisher = Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources| date = May 27, 2008| author = Clanton & Associates| access-date = March 21, 2009}}</ref>
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated as a State DSP in 2000 by the [[Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources|Pennsylvania DCNR]];<br/>Designated as an International DSP on June 11, 2007, by the IDA.
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Big Bend National Park]]
| [[Texas]]
| 324,219
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated February 11, 2012<ref>[http://earthsky.org/earth/big-bend-national-park-designated-as-an-international-dark-sky-park Big Bend National Park designated as an International Dark Sky Park], Earth Sky, February 11, 2012</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Copper Breaks State Park]]
| [[Texas]]
| 770
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated August 6, 2014<ref name=""texashighways.com"">""[http://www.texashighways.com/blog/item/7543-stars-shine-bright-in-dark-sky-parks Stars Shine Bright in Dark Sky Parks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109080708/http://www.texashighways.com/blog/item/7543-stars-shine-bright-in-dark-sky-parks |date=2017-11-09 }}"". ''Texas Highways'', August 6, 2014.</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Dripping Springs, Texas|Dripping Springs]]
| [[Texas]]
| 30,300
|
| Dark-sky Community
| Designated February 11, 2014<ref>""[http://txhillcountrytrail.com/public/upload/users/u96/March%202014%20Newsletter.pdf Dripping Springs Named The First International Dark Sky Community In Texas]"". ''Texas Hill Country Trail newsletter'', March 2014.</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Enchanted Rock]]
| [[Texas]]
| 665
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated August 6, 2014<ref name=""texashighways.com""/>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| UBarU Camp & Retreat Center
| [[Texas]]
| 57.5
| 2–3
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated in 2015; only DSP in the USA on private land
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Canyonlands National Park]]
| [[Utah (U.S. state)|Utah]]
| 136,500
| 
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2015
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Capitol Reef National Park]]
| [[Utah (U.S. state)|Utah]]
| 98,000
| 
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2015
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Natural Bridges National Monument]]
| [[Utah]]
| 3,090
| 2
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated in 2007; first international dark-sky park
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Goldendale Observatory State Park|Goldendale Observatory]]
| [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]
| 2
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated June 29, 2010<ref name=""darksky.org""/>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Newport State Park]]
| [[Wisconsin]]
| 960
|
|
| Designated in 2017<ref>Lee Bergquist. ""[http://www.jsonline.com/story/news/local/wisconsin/2017/06/07/newport-state-park-designated-dark-sky-park/375936001 Newport State Park designated as Wisconsin's first 'dark sky' park/]"". ''Milwaukee Journal Sentinel'', June 7, 2017.</ref><ref>International Dark Sky Association. [http://www.darksky.org/idsp/parks/newport/ Newport State Park (U.S.)].</ref>
|}

==Protected zones==

===Around observatories===

{| class=""wikitable sortable"" 
! Name
! Country
! Radius (in km)
|-
| [[Mount John University Observatory]]
| New Zealand
| 37
|-
| [[Kitt Peak]]
| US
| 56
|-
| [[Mont Mégantic Observatory]]
| Canada
| 50
|-
| [[Palomar Observatory]]
| US
| 48
|-
| [[Mount Hopkins (Arizona)|Mount Hopkins]]
| US
| 40
|-
| [[Cima Ekar Observing Station|Monte Ekar Observatory]]
| Italy
| 30
|-
| [[Asiago Astrophysical Observatory]]
| Italy
| 30
|-
| [[Mount Laguna, California|Mount Laguna]]
| US
| 24
|-
| [[Haute-Provence Observatory|Observatoire de Haute-Provence]]
| France
| 15
|-
| [[Ondřejov Observatory]]
| Czech Republic
| 10
|-
| [[Kleť]]
| Czech Republic
| 10
|-
| [[Dominion Astrophysical Observatory]]
| Canada
| 5
|-
| [[McDonald Observatory]]
| US
| 92
|-
| [[Molėtai Astronomical Observatory]]
| Lithuania
| 3.5
|}

===Other===
Some regions, like the following, are protected without any reference to an observatory or a park.
* Regions of [[Coquimbo]], [[Atacama]], and [[Antofagasta]] in northern [[Chile]]
* The island of [[La Palma]] of the [[Canary Islands]]
* The [[Hawaii (island)|Big Island]] of [[Hawaii]]
* [[Florida]] beach communities restrict lighting on beaches, to preserve hatchling [[Sea Turtles]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/managed/sea-turtles/protection/|title=Marine Turtle Protection|website=Myfwc.com|access-date=August 8, 2018}}</ref>

==By country==
{{globalise|section|date=February 2024}}
===Canada===
In the Canadian program, lighting within the area must be strictly controlled to minimize the impact of artificial lighting on wildlife. These guidelines are more stringent than in other countries that lack the extensive wilderness areas that still exist in Canada. The management of a Canadian DSP extends their outreach programs from the public that visit the site to include the promotion of better lighting policies in surrounding urban areas. Currently, dark-sky preserves have more control over internal and external lighting than other programs.

With the increase in regional [[light pollution]], some observatories have actively worked with cities in their region to establish protection zones where there is controlled light pollution. These areas may not yet have been declared dark-sky preserves.

Although dark-sky preserve designations are generally sought by astronomers, it is clear that preserving natural darkness has positive effects on the health of nocturnal wildlife within the parks. For example, the nocturnal [[black-footed ferret]] was reintroduced to the [[Grasslands National Park]] dark-sky preserve and the success of the reintroduction is enhanced by the pristine natural darkness maintained within the park by the DSP agreement.<ref>{{cite web| title =Government of Canada reintroduces lost species to the prairie wilderness| publisher =Parks Canada| date =October 2, 2009| url =http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?id=1443&andor1=nr| access-date =December 1, 2010| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131017121008/http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?id=1443&andor1=nr| archive-date =October 17, 2013}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Noctcaelador]]
* [[Scotobiology]]
* [[United States National Radio Quiet Zone]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=Sovick, Joe. “Toward an Appreciation of the Dark Night Sky.” The George Wright Forum, vol. 18, no. 4, 2001, pp. 15–19, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43597768. Accessed April 18, 2022.[1]

International Dark Sky Reserves. International Dark-Sky Association. (January 14, 2022). Retrieved April 18, 2022, from https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/ [2]}}

==External links==
{{wikivoyage|Dark Sky Parks in the United States}}
* [http://www.izera-darksky.eu Izera Dark-Sky Park]
* [http://poloniny.svetelneznecistenie.sk Poloniny Dark-Sky Park]
* [https://www.rasc.ca/torrance-barrens-dark-sky-preserve Torrance Barrens Dark-Sky Preserve] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717212737/https://www.rasc.ca/torrance-barrens-dark-sky-preserve |date=July 17, 2018 }}. Essay by Michael Silver. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
* [http://www.fatranskatma.sk/ Veľká Fatra Dark-Sky Park]
*[https://www.northfrontenac.com/en/open-for-business/dark-sky-preserve.aspx North Frontenac Dark Sky Preserve]

{{Portal bar|Geography|Astronomy|Outer space|Science}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dark-Sky Preserve}}
[[Category:Dark-sky preserves| ]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]
[[Category:Protected areas]]
[[Category:Darkness]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:1993 introductions]]"
C.I.Agent Solutions,"{{use mdy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox company
| name             = C.I.Agent Solutions
| logo             = CIAgentSolutions.png
| caption          = 
| type             = [[Privately held company|Private]]
| genre            =
| fate             =
| predecessor      =
| successor        =
| foundation       = [[Louisville, Kentucky]], [[United States|U.S.]] ({{Start date|2000|01|01}})
| founder          = Dan Parker
| defunct          =
| location_city    = [[Louisville, Kentucky]]
| location_country = [[United States|U.S.]]
| location         =
| locations        = 16 (2010)
| area_served      = Worldwide
| key_people       = Dan Parker, <small>[[Entrepreneur|Founder]]</small>
| industry         = [[Waste Management]], Environmental Services
| products         = [[Boom (containment)|Oil Booms]], [[Secondary spill containment|Secondary Containment Systems]], [[Spill containment|Spill Containment Systems]]
| services         = Oil spill containment<br />Oil spill cleanup
| revenue          = [[United States dollar|US$]] 4.9 million (2009), {{increase}} 88% from 2008<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reynolds |first=Rachel |title=Business specializes in cleaning up spills, sees potential in serving military bases |journal=Business First of Louisville|date=October 2009 |page=13}}</ref>
| operating_income =
| net_income       =
| aum              =
| assets           =
| equity           =
| owner            = Dan Parker
| num_employees    = 25
| parent           = Immediate Response Spill Technologies
| divisions        =
| subsid           =
| homepage         = [http://ciagent.com/ ciagent.com]
| footnotes        =
| intl             =
}}

'''C.I.Agent Solutions''' is a [[Louisville, Kentucky]]-based company that specializes in environmental protection services. The company develops products to clean up [[hydrocarbon]] (fuel and oil) spills on land and water. Their main product is called C.I.Agent,<ref>{{cite web|author=C.I.Agent Solutions |url=http://www.ciagent.com/ciagent-solidifies-fuel-and-oil-for-spill-control |title=C.I.Agent solidifies fuel and oil for spill control |accessdate=July 21, 2010}}</ref> a proprietary blend of USDA food-grade [[polymers]] that solidifies hydrocarbons.

==History==
C.I.Agent Solutions was founded in 2000 by Dan Parker. He has served as president and a member of the board of directors since its inception.
According to Dan Parker, the company was initially founded to effectively assist businesses to minimize their [[hazardous waste]], reduce their legal liabilities, increase employee productivity and save money at the same time.


[[Image:CIAgentQuart.jpg|thumb|left|C.I.Agent granules]]


[[Image:BarrierWall.jpg|thumb|right|Barrier wall on Dauphin Island, Alabama (May 2010)]]

==Deepwater Horizon oil spill==
C.I.Agent Solutions was approached by [[BP]] (at request of the [[Alabama Department of Emergency Management]]) to aid in shoreline protection efforts during the [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Ben Adkins, Business First of Louisville |url=http://louisville.bizjournals.com/louisville/stories/2010/05/10/story7.html?b=1273464000^3321001 |title=Louisville's C.I. Agent Solutions tapped for oil-spill cleanup in Gulf of Mexico |date= May 7, 2010 |accessdate=July 21, 2010}}</ref> On [[Dauphin Island]], the Alabama [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] built a five-mile (eight-kilometer) barricade filled with C.I.Agent that officials called ""the longest oil-water separator in the world"".<ref>{{Cite news
  | last = Duffy
  | first = Jack
  | title = Oil Leak Inspires Novel Ideas
  | newspaper = The New York Times
  | date = June 3, 2010
  | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/04/business/energy-environment/04iht-rbogoil.html
}}</ref>

==United States Senate Committee hearing==
C.I.Agent Solutions founder Dan Parker and business partner Dan Koons appeared before the U.S. Senate Committee on Small Business & Entrepreneurship in Washington on June 17, 2010.<ref>{{cite web|author=U.S. Senate Committee on Small Business & Entrepreneurship |url=http://sbc.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?p=Hearings&ContentRecord_id=ae73761e-92e0-4cbc-a9ba-b703fa2ffbcc&ContentType_id=14f995b9-dfa5-407a-9d35-56cc7152a7ed&Group_id=43eb5e02-e987-4077-b9a7-1e5a9cf28964 |title=Harnessing Small Business Innovation: Navigating the Evaluation Process for Gulf Coast Oil Cleanup Proposals |date= 17 June 2010}}</ref> The hearing, dubbed ''Harnessing Small Business Innovation: Navigating the Evaluation Process for Gulf Coast Oil Cleanup Proposals'', focused on small businesses obtaining contracts from the federal government to support clean up of the Gulf Coast oil spill. Dan Parker and Dan Koons were invited to explain the efforts C.I.Agent Solutions has had to go through to get attention to innovative oil spill cleanup technologies.

==See also==
* [[Oil Spill]]
* [[Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill]]
* [[Hydrocarbon]]
* [[Polymers]]
* [[Hazardous waste]]
* [[BP]]
* [[Environmental Protection Agency]]
* [[Secondary spill containment]]
* [[Boom (containment)]]
* [[National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan]]

==References and notes==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Companies based in Louisville, Kentucky]]
[[Category:Specialty chemical companies]]
[[Category:Waste management companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:American companies established in 2000]]
[[Category:2000 establishments in Kentucky]]"
Poloniny Dark-Sky Park,"'''Poloniny Dark-Sky Park''' ({{lang-sk|Park tmavej oblohy Poloniny}}) is the first [[dark sky park]] in [[Slovakia]]. It became the 20th [[dark sky park]] in the world.

Natural total night darkness, which would be unaffected by artificial light, no longer exists in [[Slovakia]] because of [[light pollution]], but there are still places where this influence is minimal. Such a place is the [[Poloniny National Park]], which is in terms of [[light pollution]] the darkest area in Slovakia. Therefore, the Slovak Union of Astronomers started an initiative to establish a dark sky park there.

==Location and area==
Poloniny Dark-Sky Park is located in the northeast of the Slovak Republic on the border with [[Poland]] and [[Ukraine]]. The territory of the park itself is defined by area of the [[Poloniny National Park]] (298.05&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) and a buffer zone (109.73&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) and municipal territories of [[Kolonica]], [[Ladomirov]], [[Kalná Roztoka]], [[Klenová (Snina District)|Klenová]], [[Ruská Volová]] (77.41&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>). The total area is 485.19&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. Area of the park is characterized by having an exceptionally small population density (6 inhabitants per km<sup>2</sup>). It is also the least visited national park in [[Slovakia]], so the [[human impact on the environment]] is minimal.

In terms of [[light pollution]], [[Poloniny National Park]] is the darkest area in [[Slovakia]]. Natural night darkness and night biorhythms of all living organisms are disturbed the least there.

==Poloniny National Park==
{{main|Poloniny National Park}}
Poloniny National Park ({{lang-sk|Národný park Poloniny}}) is a [[national park]] in north eastern [[Slovakia]] at the Polish and Ukrainian borders, in the [[Bukovské vrchy]] mountain range, which belongs to the [[Divisions of the Carpathians#Eastern Beskids .28PL.29 .2F .28.3F.29Wooded Carpathians .28SK.29 .2F .28.3F.29Ukrainian Carpathians .28UA.29 .28area.29|Eastern Carpathians]]. It was created on 1 October 1997 with a protected area of 298.05&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> and a buffer zone of 109.73&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. Selected areas of the park are included into [[Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians]] UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]].

==Establishment==
Poloniny Dark-Sky Park was officially declared on December 3, 2010, in [[Snina]]. It was established on the occasion of the International Year of Biodiversity 2010 as the first dark sky area in [[Slovakia]]. Poloniny Dark-Sky Park was declared by agreement of six partner organizations.

==Goals==
Poloniny Dark-Sky Park was created to inform the public about the exceptionally preserved night environment in this area, to educate on the issue of protection of the environment against [[light pollution]], to promote and protect the dark night sky, which is the basis of protecting the natural environment from [[light pollution]].

The [[Milky Way]] is perfectly visible, without a telescope nearly 2,000 stars can be seen. Mountains preclude direct visibility of lights from the surrounding towns and villages. There is also a professional astronomical observatory located within the park.

==See also==
*[[Poloniny National Park]]
*[[Dark-sky preserve]]

==External links==
*[http://poloniny.svetelneznecistenie.sk Poloniny Dark-Sky Park]
*[http://www.darksky.org/ International Dark-Sky Association]

{{coord missing|Slovakia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dark-Sky Preserve}}
[[Category:Dark-sky preserves]]
[[Category:Astronomy in Slovakia]]
[[Category:Darkness]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 2010]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Slovakia]]"
Pneumatic non-return valve,"{{unreferenced|date=August 2009}}
'''Pneumatic non-return valves''' are used where a normal [[check valve|non-return valve]] would be ineffective. This is for example where there is a risk of [[flood water]] entering a site but an equal risk of pollution or a [[chemical spills]] leaving a site and polluting the environment.

Pneumatic non-return valves are installed below ground and can be used to pneumatically lock the non-return valve closed thus containing a site in the event of a spill.

It is common practice to lock sites using pneumatic non-return valves during the loading or transferring of chemicals or hazardous waste. Pneumatic non-return valves have a longer service life when compared to [[pneumatic bladder]] systems.

[[Category:Valves]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
GreenEvo,"'''GreenEvo - Accelerator of Green Technologies''' is a project of the [[Poland]]’s [[Ministry of Environment (Poland)|Ministry of Environment]] aimed at international transfer of [[Environmental technology|environmentally friendly technologies]] developed in Poland.<ref>[http://energetyka.wnp.pl/korolec-zielone-technologie-wspieraja-rozwoj-gospodarczy,209731_1_0_0.html Korolec: zielone technologie wspierają rozwój gospodarczy, wnp.pl]</ref> Within the project, the best Polish [[company|companies]] are selected and awarded with promotional and financial support.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecoap/about-eco-innovation/policies-matters/poland/exporting-eco-innovation_en.htm European Commission: Exporting eco-innovation]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.paiw.pl/en/news/1/greenevo-green-technology-accelerator-programme |title=US-Poland: Innovation Week: GreenEvo – Green Technology Accelerator Programme |access-date=2015-02-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210015237/http://www.paiw.pl/en/news/1/greenevo-green-technology-accelerator-programme |archive-date=2015-02-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> There have already been 62 innovative Polish companies awarded, in such areas of technologies for [[wastewater]] and [[hazardous waste]] treatment and solutions that support the use of [[renewable energy source]]s, for example [[agricultural machinery]] for the manufacture of [[wood briquette]]s and [[solar panel]]s.<ref>[http://www.naukawpolsce.pap.pl/aktualnosci/news,395502,ms-wyloniono-osmiu-laureatow-iv-edycji-programu-greenevo.html MŚ: wyłoniono ośmiu laureatów IV edycji programu GreenEvo], [[Polish Press Agency]]</ref>

GreenEvo - Green Technology Accelerator is organized by the Ministry of the Environment with other partners, namely: [[National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management]], [[Ministry of Economy (Poland)|Ministry of Economy]], [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Poland)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]], [[Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland)|Ministry of Science and Higher Education]], [[Polish Agency for Enterprise Development]], Polish Confederation of Private Employers ‘Lewiatan’, Faculty of Management, [[University of Warsaw]]. GreenEvo was nominated to the finals of the European Public Sector Award 2013.<ref>[http://www.tvp.info/12572887/informacje/technologie/greenevo-w-finale-unijnego-konkursu/ GreenEvo w finale unijnego konkursu]</ref><ref>[http://epsa2013.eu/en/content/show/&tid=185 EPSA 2013 Nominee Presentations]</ref>

In 2015, the 6th edition of GreenEvo was announced, with main topic to be technologies for [[waste management]], especially supporting local level authorities.<ref>[http://energetyka.wnp.pl/ruszyl-nabor-projektow-do-kolejnej-edycji-greenevo,241649_1_0_0.html Ruszył nabór projektów do kolejnej edycji GreenEvo]</ref><ref>[http://www.wspolnota.org.pl/aktualnosci/aktualnosc/ruszyl-nabor-do-6-edycji-programu-greenevo Ruszył nabór do 6. edycji GreenEvo]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Ministry of Environment (Poland)|Ministry of Environment]] 
* [[Green technology]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.greenevo.gov.pl/ GreenEvo website]

[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental technology]]
[[Category:Sustainable technologies]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Poland]]
[[Category:Economy of Poland]]
[[Category:Environment of Poland]]"
Protocol on Heavy Metals,"The '''Protocol on Heavy Metals''', a protocol to the [[Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution]], was adopted in [[Aarhus]], [[Denmark]], in 1998. As of 2004, it had 36 signatories.{{sfn|Hulme|2004|p=223}} As of 2016, it had 35 signatories and 33 parties, with no country having become a signatory since 1998.<ref>[https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-1-f&chapter=27&clang=_en United Nations Treaty Collection, status of Protocol on Heavy Metals.]</ref> The protocol addresses the reduction of [[cadmium]], [[lead]] and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] emissions in the interests of [[environmental protection]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/hm_h1.html|title=Protocol on Heavy Metals|publisher=UNECE |access-date=10 August 2014}}</ref> Amendments to the Protocol were agreed in 2012<ref>[http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2012/EB/Decision_2012_5.pdf Decision 2012/5.]</ref> to introduce more stringent emission limits<ref>[http://www.unece.org/index.php?id=31845 UNECE press release, 19 Dec 2012.]</ref> but are not yet in force.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

;Bibliography
*{{cite book|last=Hulme|first=Karen|title=War Torn Environment: Interpreting The Legal Threshold|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKoXIleS8g4C&pg=PA233|date=January 2004|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-04-13848-X}}

[[Category:Politics in Aarhus]]
[[Category:1998 in law]]
[[Category:1998 in Denmark]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Toxic effects of metals]]


{{Denmark-stub}}"
Environmental stewardship,"{{Short description|Core principle of social ecology}}
'''Environmental stewardship''' refers to the responsible use and protection of the [[natural environment]] through active participation in [[Conservation movement|conservation]] efforts and [[Sustainability|sustainable]] practices by individuals, small groups, nonprofit organizations, federal agencies, and other collective networks. [[Aldo Leopold]] (1887–1949) championed environmental stewardship in [[land ethic|land ethics]], exploring the ethical implications of ""dealing with man's relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it.""<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leopold |first=Aldo |title=A Sand County Almanac: And Sketches Here and There |title-link=A Sand County Almanac |year=1949}}</ref>

==Resilience-based ecosystem stewardship==
Resilience-based ecosystem stewardship emphasizes [[Resilience (ecology)|resilience]] as an integral feature of responding to and interacting with the environment in a constantly changing world. Resilience refers to the ability of a system to recover from [[Disturbance (ecology)|disturbance]] and return to its basic function and structure. For example, [[ecosystems]] do not serve as singular resources but rather are function-dependent in providing an array of [[ecosystem services]]. Additionally, this type of [[stewardship]] recognizes [[Resource management|resource managers]] and management systems as influential and informed participants in the natural systems that are serviced by humans.

==Roles of environmental stewards==
{{tone|Section|date=January 2018}}
Based on pro-organizational [[stewardship theory]] principles, environmental stewards can be categorized into three roles: doers, donors, and practitioners.{{Cn|date=December 2022}}

Doers actively engage in environmental aid, such as volunteering for hands-on work like cleaning up oil spills. Donors support causes financially or through [[gifts in kind]], including fundraising or personal donations. Practitioners work daily in environmental stewardship, acting as advocates in collaboration with various environmental agencies and groups. All three roles contribute to promoting [[Environmental Literacy Plan|environmental literacy]] and encouraging participation in conservation efforts.<ref>[[National Research Council (United States)|National Research Council]]. (2008). ''Increasing Capacity for Stewardship of Oceans and Coasts.'' The National Academic Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington DC 20001.</ref>

From a biocultural conservation perspective, [[Ricardo Rozzi]] and collaborators propose participatory intercultural approaches to earth stewardship.<ref> Ricardo Rozzi, Stuart F. Chapin, J.Baird Callicott, Steward T.A. Pickett, Mary Power Juan J. Armesto, Roy H. May Jr (eds). 2015. ''Earth Stewardship: Linking Ecology and Ethics in Theory and Praxis. Series Ecology and Ethics.'' Springer, Dordrecht: The Netherlands.</ref> This perspective emphasizes the role of long-term [[Socio-ecological system|socio-ecological]] research (LTSER) sites in coordinating local initiatives with global networking and implementing culturally diverse earth stewardship forms.<ref>Ricardo Rozzi and collaborators. 2012. Integrating ecology and environmental ethics: Earth stewardship in the southern end of the Americas. [BioScience 62(3): 226-236 https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/62/3/226/358404]</ref>

== Examples of environmental stewardship ==
Many programs, partnerships, and funding initiatives have tried to implement environmental stewardship into the workings of society. Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program (PESP),<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OCSPP |date=2015-09-30 |title=Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program (PESP) |url=https://www.epa.gov/pesp |access-date=2022-05-29 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref> a partnership program overseen by the [[US Environmental Protection Agency]], provides pesticide-user consultation to reduce the use of hazardous chemicals and identify the detrimental impact these chemicals can have on social and environmental health.

In 2006, England placed environmental stewardship at the center of an agricultural incentives mechanism, encouraging cattle farmers to better manage their land, crops, animals, and material use.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Stewardship explained |url=https://www.inbrief.co.uk/agricultural-law/environmental-stewardship/ |access-date=2022-05-30 |website=InBrief.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> The Environmental Stewardship Award was created as part of this initiative to highlight members whose actions exemplify alignment with environmental stewardship.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Stewardship - About |url=https://www.environmentalstewardship.org/about |access-date=2022-05-29 |website=Environmental Stewardship |language=en}}</ref>

== Social science implications ==
Studies have explored the benefits of environmental stewardship in various contexts such as the evaluation, modeling, and integration into policy, system management, and urban planning. One study examined how social attributes of environmental stewardship can be used to reconfigure local conservation efforts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bennett |first1=Nathan J. |last2=Whitty |first2=Tara S. |last3=Finkbeiner |first3=Elena |last4=Pittman |first4=Jeremy |last5=Bassett |first5=Hannah |last6=Gelcich |first6=Stefan |last7=Allison |first7=Edward H. |date=April 2018 |title=Environmental Stewardship: A Conceptual Review and Analytical Framework |journal=Environmental Management |language=en |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=597–614 |doi=10.1007/s00267-017-0993-2 |issn=0364-152X |pmc=5849669 |pmid=29387947 |bibcode=2018EnMan..61..597B }}</ref> Social ties to environmental stewardship are emphasized by the [[National Recreation and Park Association]]'s efforts to place environmental stewardship at the forefront of childhood development and youths' consciousness of the outdoors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cultivating Environmental Stewardship {{!}} National Recreation and Park Association |url=https://www.nrpa.org/publications-research/park-pulse/cultivating-environmental-stewardship/ |access-date=2022-05-29 |website=www.nrpa.org |language=en}}</ref> Practicing environmental stewardship has also been suggested as an effective mental health treatment and natural therapy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Gina K. |last2=Brooks |first2=Vicki |date=2022-02-01 |title=Nature-based therapeutics: A collaborative research agenda promoting equitable access and environmental stewardship |journal=Collegian |language=en |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=119–124 |doi=10.1016/j.colegn.2021.03.001 |pmid=35125907 |pmc=8797382 |issn=1322-7696|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==See also==
*{{annotated link|Ecotheology}}
*{{annotated link|Eco hotel}}
*{{annotated link|Environmental personhood}}
*{{annotated link|Environmental protection}}
*{{annotated link|Environmental stewardship (England)}}
*{{annotated link|Evangelical environmentalism}}
*{{annotated link|Indigenous Australian traditional custodianship}}
*{{annotated link|Stewardship}}
*{{annotated link|Stewardship (theology)}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Sustainability}}
{{Environmental science}}
{{Environmental social science}}
{{Portal bar|Environment}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics|Stewardship]]
[[Category:Sustainability and environmental management]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Natural resources]]"
International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations,"{{Infobox organization
| name                = IUAPPA (International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations)
| formation           = 1964–65, Buenos Aires
| extinction          = 
| type                = [[Non-governmental organization]]
| status              = 
| purpose             = [[Environmentalism]], [[air pollution]], [[sustainable development]]
| headquarters        = [[Burgess Hill]], [[West Sussex]], [[United Kingdom]]
| location            = 
| coords              = 
| region_served       = Worldwide
| membership          = 
| language            = 
| general             = 
| leader_title        = [[President (corporate title)|President]]
| leader_name         = [[Kil-Choo Moon]]
| leader_title2       = [[Director General]]
| leader_name2        = Richard Mills
| leader_title3       = 
| leader_name3        = 
| leader_title4       = 
| leader_name4        = 
| key_people          = 
| main_organ          = International Board
| parent_organization = <!-- if one -->
| affiliations        = <!-- if any -->
| website             = {{URL|http://www.iuappa.org/}}
}}

The '''International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations''' ('''IUAPPA''') is an international federation of civil society organisations concerned with [[air pollution]]. IUAPPA, founded 1964 at the urging of the US Air Pollution Control Association,<ref name=""Wiley"">Joachim Radkau: The Age of Ecology. Wiley, 2014</ref> has 40 national organisations from countries such as the United States ([[Air and Waste Management Association]]), Germany ([[Verein Deutscher Ingenieure]]) and Japan (Japan Environmental Management Association for Industry) and has networks and representatives in most others countries. The Foundation is seen as one milestone in the ""Ecological Revolution"" in and around 1970.<ref name=""Wiley""/>

==Focus==
The focus of IUAPPA is ""the development and implementation of more effective policies for the prevention and control of air pollution, the protection of the environment and the adoption of sustainable development"".<ref>{{cite web |url= http://iuappa.org/Statutes.html/ |title= Statutes IUAPPA |accessdate= 2015-03-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150215155304/http://iuappa.org/Statutes.html |archive-date= 2015-02-15 |url-status= dead }}</ref> IUAPPA wants to achieve the adoption and effective implementation of policies which can secure a clean and healthy atmospheric environment, together with scientists, policy-makers, regulators, business and citizen groups with this same objective.

The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum was initiated by IUAPPA and the [[Stockholm Environment Institute]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sei-international.org/rapidc/gapforum/html/index.php |title=Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum |publisher=Stockholm Environment Institute|accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> [[European Federation of Clean Air and Environmental Protection Associations]] (EFCA) was founded by the core of European members of the International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations, IUAPPA <ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.efca.net/efca2/index.php?page=about-efca |title= About EFCA |publisher= European Federation of Clean Air and Environmental Protection Associations |date=  |accessdate= 2015-03-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150107081536/http://www.efca.net/efca2/index.php?page=about-efca |archive-date= 2015-01-07 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

==Governance==
The IUAPPA secretariat is in Burgess Hill, West Sussex, United Kingdom. The president is [[Kil-Choo Moon]] of the [[Korea Institute of Science and Technology]] and the director general is Richard Mills.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hellodd.com/news/article.html?no=43964 |title=New IUAAPA President (korean) |publisher=Hello DD, Koreas Nr. 1 in Science and Media |date=2013-10-03 |accessdate=2015-03-16 |archive-date=2015-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525222544/http://www.hellodd.com/news/article.html?no=43964 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>http://www.jsme-fed.org/events/2011/AJK2011/documents/Biography_Dr.KC.Moon.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> IUAPPA is governed by an International Board which consists of the President, Vice-Presidents, Immediate Past President and Honorary Treasurer, together with one authorised representative from each Full Member of the Union.

==Partners and Members==
IUAPPA is a partner of [[UNEP]] Climate and Clean Air Coalition<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/ccac/Partners/Non-StatePartners/IUAPPA/tabid/131860/language/en-US/Default.aspx|title=Clean Climate and Air Colaition |publisher=UNEP |date= |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> and has worked close together over the past decades with UNEP and [[WHO]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://forecast.uoa.gr/awards/iuappa_newletter_nov04.pdf |title= Klaus Töpfer, Executive Director Speech|publisher= IUAPPA Newsletter 2004|date= |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Health program of the 10th World Clean Air Congress |journal = Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health|volume = 21|issue = 6|pages = 527–530|jstor = 40966454|last1 = Salonen|first1 = Raimo O.|year = 1995}}</ref>

'''Selected Members'''
*[[Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand]]
*Commission on Air Pollution Prevention of VDI and DIN – KRdL, Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft im VDI und DIN - Normenausschuss KRdL<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.vdi.de/technik/fachthemen/reinhaltung-der-luft/europaeische-und-internationale-normung/ |title= Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft im VDI und DIN - Normenausschuss KRdL |publisher = VDI|date= |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref>
*Japanese Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations (JUAPPA), Nihon Taiki Kougai Boushi Dantai Rengoukai<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.jemai.or.jp/#2/ |title= JAPANESE UNION OF AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION ASSOCIATIONS |publisher= JEMAI|date= |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref>
*[[Environmental Protection UK]], formerly National Society for Clean Air and Environmental Protection - NSCA<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk | title=Home}}</ref>
*Air & Waste Management Association<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.awma.org/|title=Home|work=Air & Waste Management Association}}</ref>
*Cercl'Air, Switzerland, Service de l'environnement<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cerclair.ch/cmsv2/index.php?news-1 |title=Cercl'Air &#124; News |access-date=2015-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805105211/http://www.cerclair.ch/cmsv2/index.php?news-1 |archive-date=2014-08-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*The Swedish Clean Air Society<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emtf.se/|title=Energi- & Miljötekniska Föreningen}}</ref>

==World Clean Air Congress==
The World Clean Air Congress, first organized by IUAPPA in 1966, is held every two or three years. It is one of the major international gatherings on atmospheric sciences and policy with 1,500 participants. Some of the more recent congresses are:
* the 16th IUAPPA World Clean Air Congress, ''Many Nations – One Atmosphere: Plotting the Path to Sustainability'' was held at the Cape Town, with a call on South African industry to show leadership and comply with emission standards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iuappa2013.com/|title=IUAPPA 2013 - Home|access-date=2015-05-25|archive-date=2022-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201034040/https://www.iuappa2013.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Delegates at the 16th congress heard mostly poor South Africans were exposed to pollutants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enca.com/south-africa/molewa-addresses-air-pollution-conference |title=Poor hurt most by pollution: Molewa |publisher=eNews Channel Africa|accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> ""The people that are exposed to the smog are almost always the people that cannot afford to pay the doctors' bills for bronchitis, asthma or, worse, lung cancer,"" Environmental Affairs Minister Edna Molewa said in a speech.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news24.com/Green/News/Conference-calls-on-SA-to-clean-up-over-air-pollution-20130930|title=Conference calls on SA to clean up over air pollution |publisher=news24.com |date= 2013-09-30|accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref>
* the 17th IUAPPA World Clean Air Congress, ''Mega Cities Perspective, Healthier and Greener Future'', held in Busan, Korea in 2016<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iuappa2016.org/|title=17th IUAPPA World Clean Air Congress 2016|access-date=2015-05-25|archive-date=2018-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024074914/http://www.iuappa2016.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Resolutions and declarations==
Ever since it was founded in 1964 the Union has had a long-term interest in the relationship between [[air pollution]] and the Earth's climate. Policy declarations in 1989 were one of the first to focus on [[Climate Change|climate change]]. The focus in 1995 was on the changing [[Arctic]] landscape and pollution. In 2001 it was worldwide action on long-range transport of air pollution. 2010's focus was ''One Atmosphere''.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Press release|title=IUAPPEPA calls for absracts for World Congress|url=http://iuappa-seeks-abstracts-for-2010-world-clean-air-congress-569111|website=news, thomasnet.com|publisher=Thomasnet.com|accessdate=21 March 2015}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Awards==
In collaboration with the International Academy of Science, Munich the Union offers the [[Thomas Kuhn]] Award for a new understanding of problems of sustainability or the applied transfer of such new solutions and the [[Yuan T. Lee]] Award for multi-disciplinary or cross-disciplinary work which relates to the natural and psycho-sciences in pursuit of sustainability.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ias-icsd.org/awards.html |title=Hope for the Future for a Sustainable World Award |publisher=International Academy of Science|accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iuappa.org/AwardsHonours.html|title=Awards & Honours|work=IUAPPA}}</ref>

==Publications==
*Ranjeet Sokhi (ED.): World Atlas of Atmospheric Pollution. The World Atlas was developed in conjunction with the International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations (IUAPPA) and the Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum.
*IUAPPA Three Year Review: 2007 - 2010 ([http://www.iuappa.org/newsletters/Three%20year%20review%202010.pdf PDF])
*Over 1000 IUAPPA related publications ([https://scholar.google.de/scholar?hl=de&q=IUAPPA+&btnG=&lr= Google scholar]).

==References==
{{Reflist}}
<!--- After listing your sources please cite them using inline citations and place them after the information they cite. Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:REFB for instructions on how to add citations. --->

==External links==
*[http://www.iuappa.org/ IUAPPA]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Air pollution]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:International sustainability organizations]]
[[Category:Organisations based in West Sussex]]
[[Category:Science and technology in West Sussex]]
[[Category:Supraorganizations]]"
Industrial stormwater,"{{Short description|Runoff from precipitation that lands on industrial sites}}
'''Industrial stormwater''' is [[surface runoff|runoff]] from precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, freezing rain, or hail) that lands on industrial sites (e.g. manufacturing facilities, mines, airports). This runoff is often [[water pollution|polluted]] by materials that are handled or stored on the sites, and the facilities are subject to regulations to control the discharges.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=Alexandra |last2=Österlund |first2=Heléne |last3=Marsalek |first3=Jiri |last4=Viklander |first4=Maria |title=The pollution conveyed by urban runoff: A review of sources |date=2020-03-20 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |publisher=Elsevier |volume=709 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136125|doi-access=free |pmid=31905584 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.709m6125M }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stormwater Discharges from Industrial Activities |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater-discharges-industrial-activities |date=2022-11-28 |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>

==Regulation in the United States==
[[File:A U.S. Army C-37B aircraft transporting Army Chief of Staff Gen. Raymond T. Odierno, gets de-iced before it departs Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska.jpg|thumb|[[De-ice|Deicing]] of aircraft. All U.S. airports are required to obtain stormwater permits]]
In the United States, facilities that discharge industrial stormwater to surface waters must obtain a permit under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), pursuant to the [[Clean Water Act]].<ref>United States. Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972. [http://www.epw.senate.gov/water.pdf Pub.L. 92-500], October 18, 1972; as amended by the Water Quality Act of 1987, Pub.L. 100-4, February 4, 1987. Section 402(p), {{USC|33|1342(p)}}.</ref> Stormwater permit regulations issued by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) govern the permit process.<ref>EPA. ""Storm water discharges."" ''EPA Administered Permit Programs: The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System.'' ''Code of Federal Regulations,'' {{USCFR|40|122.26}}.</ref> EPA published its ""Phase I"" stormwater rule, which covers industrial dischargers, in 1990.<ref>EPA (1990-11-16). [http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/documents/stormwater_phase1_rule.pdf ""National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit Application Regulations for Storm Water Discharges""]. ''Federal Register,'' 44 FR 47990.</ref>

Most stormwater permits in the U.S. are issued by the agencies in 47 states that have been given authority by EPA. EPA regional offices issue the stormwater permits in the remaining parts of the country.<ref name=""EPA state program info"">{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes-state-program-authority |title=NPDES State Program Authority |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2023-01-03 |website=National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) |publisher=EPA}}</ref>

===Multi-sector general permit===
EPA published its ''Multi-Sector General Permit'' (MSGP) initially in 1995 to govern how industrial stormwater should be managed, and periodically it has updated and reissued the permit. The 2021 MSGP covers 30 industrial and commercial sectors:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater-discharges-industrial-activities-epas-2021-msgp |title=Stormwater Discharges from Industrial Activities-EPA's 2021 MSGP |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2022-12-22 |website=NPDES |publisher=EPA}}</ref>
<ol type=""A"">
<li>[[Forest product|Timber Products]] Facilities (including [[wood preservation]])</li>
<li>[[Paper]] and Allied Products Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>[[Chemical plant|Chemical and Allied Products]] Manufacturing and Refining</li>
<li>[[Asphalt concrete|Asphalt]] Paving and [[Asphalt shingle|Roofing Materials]] and Manufacturers and Lubricant Manufacturers</li>
<li>[[Glass]], [[Clay]], [[Cement]], [[Concrete]], and [[Gypsum]] Product Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>[[Smelting|Primary Metals]] Facilities</li>
<li>[[Mining|Metal Mining]] (Ore Mining and Dressing) Facilities</li>
<li>[[Coal mining|Coal Mines]] and Coal Mining-Related Facilities</li>
<li>[[Extraction of petroleum|Oil and Gas]]Extraction Facilities</li>
<li>[[Mining|Mineral Mining]] and Processing Facilities</li>
<li>[[Hazardous Waste]] Treatment, Storage, or Disposal Facilities</li>
[[File:Junk yard, Jacksonville, FL.jpg|thumb|[[Wrecking yard|Scrap yards]] must obtain stormwater permits and control [[stormwater runoff]]]]
<li>[[Landfill]]s and Land Application Sites</li>
<li>[[Wrecking yard|Automobile Salvage Yards]]</li>
<li>Scrap [[Recycling]] and Waste Recycling Facilities</li>
<li>[[Fossil fuel power station|Steam Electric Power Generating Facilities]], including Coal Handling Areas</li>
<li>[[Freight terminal|Motor Freight Transportation Facilities]], Passenger Transportation Facilities, Petroleum Bulk Oil Stations and Terminals, Rail Transportation Facilities, and United States Postal Service Transportation Facilities</li>
<li>Water Transportation Facilities with Vehicle Maintenance Shops and/or Equipment Cleaning Operations</li>
<li>Ship and Boat Building or Repair Yards</li>
<li>Vehicle Maintenance Areas, Equipment Cleaning Areas, or Deicing Areas Located at Air Transportation Facilities</li>
<li>[[Sewage treatment]] plants</li>
<li>Food and Kindred Products Facilities</li>
<li>Textile Mills, Apparel, and Other Fabric Products Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>Wood and Metal Furniture and Fixture Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>Printing and Publishing Facilities</li>
<li>Rubber, Miscellaneous Plastic Products, and Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries</li>
<li>Leather Tanning and Finishing Facilities</li>
<li>Fabricated Metal Products Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>Transportation Equipment, Industrial, or Commercial Machinery Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>Electronic and Electrical Equipment and Components, Photographic, and Optical Goods Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>Other industrial facilities not in the above categories that are designated by the permit authority as needing a permit</li>
</ol>

The permit is applicable to facilities in [[Massachusetts]], [[New Hampshire]], [[New Mexico]], the [[District of Columbia]] and federal [[insular area]]s (territories). The other states have developed their own state-specific industrial stormwater permits (e.g. California's Industrial General Permit).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/stormwater/industrial.shtml |title=Industrial Storm Water Program |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2016-03-22 |website=State Water Resources Control Board |publisher=California Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> State-issued general permits often include the same requirements as EPA's permit, but some states have additional requirements.<ref name=""EPA state program info""/>

[[File:Silt fence illus EPA.jpg|thumb|150px|A [[silt fence]] is a type of [[sediment control]] used on construction sites.]]

===Construction site stormwater===
Under EPA regulations, stormwater runoff from construction sites is also classified as industrial stormwater, however these discharges are covered by a separate set of permits. EPA periodically publishes its ''Construction General Permit'' and the approved state agencies publish similar permits, to regulate discharges from construction sites of 1 acre (4,000 m<sup>2</sup>) or more. (Also covered are sites that are less than one acre in size, that are part of a larger common plan of development that will disturb more than 1 acre.)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater-discharges-construction-activities |title=Stormwater Discharges from Construction Activities |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2023-02-27 |website=NPDES |publisher=EPA}}</ref> In addition to implementing the NPDES requirements, many states and local governments have enacted their own stormwater management laws and ordinances, and some have published stormwater treatment design manuals.<ref name=""Washington Manual"">Washington State Department of Ecology (August 2012). Olympia, WA. [https://ecology.wa.gov/Regulations-Permits/Guidance-technical-assistance/Stormwater-permittee-guidance-resources/Stormwater-manuals ""Stormwater Management Manual for Western Washington.""] Publication No. 12-10-030.</ref><ref>{{cite report |date=2009 |title=Maryland Stormwater Design Manual |url=https://mde.maryland.gov/programs/Water/StormwaterManagementProgram/Pages/stormwater_design.aspx |publisher=Maryland Department of the Environment |location=Baltimore, MD}}</ref> Some of these state and local requirements have expanded coverage beyond the federal requirements. For example, the State of [[Maryland]] requires [[Erosion control|erosion]] and [[sediment control]]s on construction sites of 5,000 sq ft (460 m<sup>2</sup>) or more.<ref>State of Maryland. ''Code of Maryland Regulations (COMAR).'' [http://www.dsd.state.md.us/comar/comarhtml/26/26.17.01.05.htm ''Activities for Which Approved Erosion and Sediment Control Plans are Required.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227034750/http://www.dsd.state.md.us/comar/comarhtml/26/26.17.01.05.htm |date=2020-02-27 }} Sec. 26.17.01.05.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Industrial wastewater treatment]]
* [[Stormwater]]
* [[United States regulation of point source water pollution]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Stormwater management]]
[[Category:Water pollution in the United States]]"
Secondary spill containment,"[[File:Big fuel bladder -- Antarctica -- Byrd Field Camp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Fuel bladder with secondary spill containment]]
'''Secondary spill containment'''  is the containment of [[hazardous liquid]]s in order to prevent [[soil pollution|pollution of soil]] and [[water pollution|water]]. Common techniques include the use of [[Oil spill|spill]] [[berm]]s to contain [[oil]]-filled equipment, [[fuel tank]]s, truck washing decks, or any other places or items that may leak hazardous liquids.

==Definition==
Secondary spill containment involves the sequestration of [[hazardous waste]] to prevent the contamination of local soils and water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/40/267.195|title=40 CFR 267.195 - What are the secondary containment requirements?|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-03-28}}</ref>

==In the electrical utility industry==
[[File:Secondary-Oil-Containment-Installation.jpg|thumb|Adaptable Secondary Oil Containment around a Transformer.[http://ciagent.com/secondary-containment/#Wiki]]]
[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure (SPCC) guidelines require that facilities that store large quantities of [[petroleum]] ([[petroleum product|products]]) must have a plan in place to contain a spill.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/oil-spills-prevention-and-preparedness-regulations |title=Oil Spills Prevention and Preparedness Regulations |date= March 7, 2017 |publisher=EPA}}</ref> The purpose of the SPCC rule is to establish requirements for facilities to prevent a discharge of oil into navigable waters or adjoining shorelines. Within the [[electric utility industry]], oil-filled [[transformer]]s are often in need of secondary containment.{{cn|date=March 2017}} Outdated secondary containment techniques such as concrete catch-basins are quickly losing ground to solutions that offer more cost-effective cleanup in case of a spill or leak.{{cn|date=March 2017}} One example of a more cost-effective method involves placing a [[geotextile]] boom filled with oil solidifying [[polymers]] around a transformer. These geotextile barriers allow for flow of water, but completely solidify oil in the event of a leak and effectively seal the spill.{{cn|date=March 2017}} Many electrical utility companies are switching to this method because it saves them significant amounts of money when a spill occurs, because there is no need to employ [[vacuum truck|vac-trucks]] afterwards to clean up a spill inside a catch-basin.{{cn|date=March 2017}}

==Portable spill containment==
[[File:Spill Berms AIRE Industrial.jpg|thumb|Portable spill containment around fracking equipment]]

Portable containment berms are essentially a basin that can catch many different types of hazardous liquids and chemicals. They are a form of secondary spill containment useful for containing mobile equipment such as [[drum (container)|oil drums]], trucks, [[tank truck|tankers]] and trailers. Unlike [[geotextile]] berms, portable berms usually do not solidify oil.{{cn|date=March 2017}}
Many companies involved in [[fracking]] use spill containment berms to capture contaminated water that is a by-product of the operation.{{cn|date=March 2017}} Each well site has multiple trucks that transport water used in [[deep well drilling]] procedure.{{cn|date=March 2017}}

==See also==
* [[Bunding]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://www.epa.gov U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) ]

==External links==
*{{commonscat-inline|Secondary spill containment}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Secondary spill containment}}
[[Category:United States Environmental Protection Agency]]
[[Category:Chemical safety]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Environmental law,"{{Short description|Branch of law concerning the natural environment}}
{{For|the journal|Environmental Law (journal){{!}}''Environmental Law'' (journal)}}
{{Lead too short|date=May 2022}}
<noinclude>{{Environmental law}}</noinclude>

'''Environmental laws''' are laws that protect the environment.<ref>Phillipe Sands (2003) Principles of International Environmental Law. 2nd Edition. p. xxi Available at [http://182.160.97.198:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/928/Introductory%20Page.pdf?sequence=1] Accessed 19 February 2020</ref> Environmental law is the collection of laws, [[Regulation|regulations]], agreements and common law that governs how humans interact with their environment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Environmental Law? {{!}} Becoming an Environmental Lawyer |url=https://legalcareerpath.com/what-is-environmental-law/ |access-date=2023-06-28 |language=en-US}}</ref> This includes '''environmental regulations'''; laws governing management of [[natural resources]], such as [[forest]]s, [[mineral]]s, or fisheries; and related topics such as [[environmental impact assessment|environmental impact assessments]]. Environmental law is seen as the body of laws concerned with the protection of living things (human beings inclusive) from the harm that human activity may immediately or eventually cause to them or their species, either directly or to the media and the habits on which they depend.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NOUN {{!}} National Open University of Nigeria |url=https://nou.edu.ng/ |access-date=2023-06-29 |website=nou.edu.ng}}</ref>

==History==
{{See also|{{CURRENTYEAR}} in the environment and environmental sciences#Environmental policy}}
Early examples of laws designed to preserve the environment for its own sake or for human enjoyment are found throughout history. In the [[common law]], the primary protection was found in the law of [[Nuisance in English law|nuisance]], but this only allowed for private actions for damages or injunctions if there was harm to land. Thus, smells emanating from [[pig sty|pigsties]],<ref>''[[Aldred's Case]]'' (1610) 9 Co Rep 57b; (1610) 77 ER 816</ref> [[strict liability]] against dumping rubbish,<ref>''[[R v Stephens]]'' (1866) LR 1 QB 702</ref> or damage from exploding dams.<ref>''[[Rylands v Fletcher]]'' [1868] UKHL 1</ref> Private enforcement, however, was limited and found to be woefully inadequate to deal with major environmental [[Threat|threats]], particularly threats to common resources. During the ""[[Great Stink]]"" of 1858, the dumping of sewerage into the [[River Thames]] began to smell so ghastly in the summer heat that Parliament had to be evacuated. Ironically, the [[Metropolitan Commission of Sewers Act 1848]] had allowed the Metropolitan Commission for Sewers to close [[cesspit]]s around the city in an attempt to ""clean up"" but this simply led people to pollute the river. In 19 days, [[Parliament]] passed a further Act to build the [[London sewerage system]]. London also suffered from terrible [[air pollution]], and this culminated in the ""[[Great Smog]]"" of 1952, which in turn triggered its own legislative response: the [[Clean Air Act 1956]]. The basic regulatory structure was to set limits on emissions for households and businesses (particularly burning of [[coal]]) while an inspectorate would enforce compliance.

== Pollution control ==
=== Air quality ===
[[File:Alfred Palmer Smokestacks.jpg|thumb|Industrial air pollution now regulated by [[air quality law]]]]
{{excerpt|Air quality law|only=paragraph}}
=== Water quality ===
[[File:Discharge pipe.jpg|thumb|alt=A typical stormwater outfall.|A typical stormwater outfall, subject to [[water quality law]]]]
{{excerpt|Water quality law|only=paragraph}}
=== Waste management ===
[[File:Landfill.jpg|thumb|alt=A landfill.|A municipal landfill, operated pursuant to [[waste management law]]]]
{{excerpt|Waste management law|only=paragraph}}

=== Contaminant cleanup ===
[[File:Rena oil spill cleanup.jpg|thumb|alt=Oil spill cleanup.|Oil spill emergency response, governed by [[environmental cleanup law]]]]
{{excerpt|Environmental cleanup law|only=paragraph}}

=== Chemical safety ===
Chemical safety laws govern the use of [[chemical]]s in human activities, particularly human-made chemicals in modern industrial applications. As contrasted with media-oriented environmental laws (e.g., air or water quality laws), chemical control laws seek to manage the (potential) pollutants themselves. Regulatory efforts include banning specific chemical constituents in consumer products (e.g., [[Bisphenol A controversy|Bisphenol A]] in plastic bottles), and regulating [[pesticides]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Law - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/environmental-law |access-date=2023-06-29 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>

== Resource sustainability ==
=== Impact assessment ===
{{excerpt|Environmental impact assessment|only=paragraph}}

=== Water resources ===
[[File:Irrigation ditch.JPG|thumb|An irrigation ditch, operated in accordance with [[water law|water resources law]]]]
{{Main|Water law}}
Water resources laws govern the ownership and use of [[water resources]], including [[surface water]] and [[ground water]]. Regulatory areas may include [[water conservation]], use restrictions, and ownership regimes.

=== Mineral resources ===
{{excerpt|Mining law|only=paragraph}}

=== Forest resources ===
[[File:John Deere 2054 DHSP forestry swing machine, Kaibab National Forest 1.jpg|thumb|alt=A timber operation.|A timber operation, regulated by [[forestry law]]]]
{{Main|Forestry law}}
{{excerpt|Forestry law|only=paragraph|paragraphs=1,2}}

=== Wildlife and plants ===
Wildlife laws govern the potential impact of human activity on wild animals, whether directly on individuals or populations, or indirectly via habitat degradation. Similar laws may operate to protect plant species. Such laws may be enacted entirely to protect [[biodiversity]], or as a means for protecting species deemed important for other reasons. Regulatory efforts may include the creation of special [[conservation status]]es, prohibitions on killing, harming, or disturbing protected species, efforts to induce and support species recovery, establishment of wildlife refuges to support conservation, and prohibitions on trafficking in species or animal parts to combat [[poaching]].

=== Fish and game ===
{{Main|Game law}}
{{Further|Fisheries law}}

Fish and game laws regulate the right to pursue and take or kill certain kinds of [[fish]] and [[wild animal]] ([[game (food)|game]]). Such laws may restrict the days to harvest fish or game, the number of animals caught per person, the species harvested, or the weapons or fishing gear used. Such laws may seek to balance dueling needs for preservation and harvest and to manage both [[Natural environment|environment]] and [[Population biology|populations]] of fish and game. Game laws can provide a legal structure to collect [[license]] fees and other [[Federal Duck Stamp|money]] which is used to fund [[Wildlife conservation|conservation]] efforts as well as to obtain harvest information used in [[wildlife management]] practice.

== Principles ==
Environmental law has developed in response to emerging awareness of and concern over issues impacting the entire world. While laws have developed piecemeal and for a variety of reasons, some effort has gone into identifying key concepts and guiding principles common to environmental law as a whole.<ref>For example, the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) has identified eleven ""emerging principles and concepts"" in international environmental law, derived from the [[Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment|1972 Stockholm Conference]], the [[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development|1992 Rio Declaration]], and more recent developments. UNEP, [http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf Training Manual on International Environmental Law] (Chapter 3).</ref> The principles discussed below are not an exhaustive list and are not universally recognized or accepted. Nonetheless, they represent important principles for the understanding of environmental law around the world.

=== Sustainable development ===
{{Main|Sustainable development}}
Defined by the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) as ""development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,"" [[sustainable development]] may be considered together with the concepts of ""integration"" (development cannot be considered in isolation from sustainability) and ""interdependence"" (social and economic development, and environmental protection, are interdependent).<ref>[http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf UNEP Manual], ¶¶ 12-19.</ref>  Laws mandating [[environmental impact assessment]] and requiring or encouraging development to minimize environmental impacts may be assessed against this principle.

The modern concept of sustainable development was a topic of discussion at the 1972 [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] (Stockholm Conference), and the driving force behind the 1983 [[World Commission on Environment and Development]] (WCED, or Bruntland Commission). In 1992, the first UN [[Earth Summit]] resulted in the [[Rio Declaration]], Principle 3 of which reads: ""The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations."" Sustainable development has been a core concept of international environmental discussion ever since, including at the [[Earth Summit 2002|World Summit on Sustainable Development]] (Earth Summit 2002), and the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]] (Earth Summit 2012, or Rio+20).

=== Equity ===
{{Further|Intergenerational equity}}
Defined by UNEP to include intergenerational equity – ""the right of future generations to enjoy a fair level of the common patrimony"" – and intragenerational equity – ""the right of all people within the current generation to fair access to the current generation's entitlement to the Earth's natural resources"" – environmental equity considers the present generation under an obligation to account for long-term impacts of activities, and to act to sustain the global environment and resource base for future generations.<ref>[http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf UNEP Manual], ¶¶ 20-23.</ref> Pollution control and resource management laws may be assessed against this principle.

=== Transboundary responsibility ===
Defined in the international law context as an obligation to protect one's own environment, and to prevent damage to neighboring environments, UNEP considers transboundary responsibility at the international level as a potential limitation on the rights of the [[sovereign state]].<ref>[http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf UNEP Manual], ¶¶ 24-28.</ref>  Laws that act to limit [[externalities]] imposed upon human health and the environment may be assessed against this principle.

=== Public participation and transparency ===
Identified as essential conditions for ""accountable governments,...  industrial concerns,"" and organizations generally, public participation and transparency are presented by UNEP as requiring ""effective protection of the human right to hold and express opinions and to seek, receive and impart ideas,... a right of access to appropriate, comprehensible and timely information held by governments and industrial concerns on economic and social policies regarding the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment, without imposing undue financial burdens upon the applicants and with adequate protection of privacy and business confidentiality,"" and ""effective judicial and administrative proceedings."" These principles are present in [[environmental impact assessment]], laws requiring publication and access to relevant environmental data, and [[administrative procedure]].

=== Precautionary principle ===
{{Main|Precautionary principle}}
One of the most commonly encountered and controversial principles of environmental law, the [[Rio Declaration]] formulated the precautionary principle as follows:<blockquote>In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent [[environmental degradation]].</blockquote>The principle may play a role in any debate over the need for environmental regulation.

=== Prevention ===
:The concept of prevention ... can perhaps better be considered an overarching aim that gives rise to a multitude of legal mechanisms, including prior assessment of environmental harm, licensing or authorization that set out the conditions for operation and the consequences for violation of the conditions, as well as the adoption of strategies and policies. Emission limits and other product or process standards, the use of best available techniques and similar techniques can all be seen as applications of the concept of prevention.<ref>[http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf UNEP Manual], ¶¶ 58.</ref>

=== Polluter pays principle ===
{{Main|Polluter pays principle}}
The polluter pays principle stands for the idea that ""the environmental costs of economic activities, including the cost of preventing potential harm, should be internalized rather than imposed upon society at large.""<ref>[[Rio Declaration]] Principle 16; [http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf UNEP Manual] ¶ 63.</ref>  All issues related to responsibility for cost for [[environmental remediation]] and compliance with pollution control regulations involve this principle.

== Theory ==
Environmental law is a continuing source of controversy. Debates over the necessity, fairness, and cost of environmental regulation are ongoing, as well as regarding the appropriateness of regulations vs. market solutions to achieve even agreed-upon ends.

[[Allegation|Allegations]] of scientific uncertainty fuel the [[Global warming controversy|ongoing debate]] over greenhouse gas regulation, and are a major factor in debates over whether to ban particular pesticides.<ref>See, e.g., [[DDT]].</ref> In cases where the science is well-settled, it is not unusual to find that corporations intentionally hide or distort the facts, or sow confusion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/Books/Book-Reviews/2010/0622/Merchants-of-Doubt|title=Merchants of Doubt|author=The Christian Science Monitor|date=22 June 2010|work=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref>

It is very common for regulated industry to argue against environmental regulation on the basis of cost.<ref>In the United States, estimates of environmental regulation total costs reach 2% of [[GDP]]. See [http://www.rff.org/Documents/RFF-DP-03-06.pdf Pizer & Kopp, Calculating the Costs of Environmental Regulation, 1 (2003 Resources for the Future)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326170136/http://www.rff.org/Documents/RFF-DP-03-06.pdf |date=2009-03-26 }}.</ref> Difficulties arise in performing [[cost–benefit analysis]] of environmental issues.  It is [[ecosystem valuation|difficult to quantify]] the value of an environmental value such as a healthy ecosystem, clean air, or species diversity. Many environmentalists' response to pitting economy vs. ecology is summed up by former Senator and founder of [[Earth Day]] [[Gaylord Nelson]], ""The economy is a wholly owned subsidiary of the environment, not the other way around.""<ref>{{cite book|title=Beyond Earth Day: Fulfilling the Promise|first=Gaylord|last=Nelson|date=November 2002|publisher=Wisconsin Press|url=https://archive.org/details/beyondearthdayfu00nels_0|isbn=978-0-299-18040-9|access-date=2016-03-14|url-access=registration}}</ref> Furthermore, environmental issues are seen by many as having an [[environmental ethics|ethical or moral]] dimension, which would transcend financial cost. Even so, there are some efforts underway to systemically recognize environmental costs and assets, and account for them properly in economic terms.

While affected industries spark controversy in fighting regulation, there are also many environmentalists and public interest groups who believe that current regulations are inadequate, and advocate for stronger protection.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/can-world-really-set-aside-half-planet-wildlife-180952379/|title=Can the World Really Set Aside Half of the Planet for Wildlife?|magazine=Smithsonian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/news/2016/03/09/climate-coalition-vows-peaceful-escalated-actions-until-we-break-free-fossil-fuels|title=Climate Coalition Vows 'Peaceful, Escalated' Actions Until 'We Break Free from Fossil Fuels'|work=Common Dreams}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2006/03/guide-environmental-non-profits|title=A Guide to Environmental Non-Profits|work=Mother Jones}}</ref> Environmental law conferences – such as the annual [[University of Oregon School of Law#Public Interest Environmental Law Conference|Public Interest Environmental Law Conference]] in Eugene, Oregon – typically have this focus, also connecting environmental law with class, race, and other issues.

An additional debate is to what extent environmental laws are fair to all regulated parties. For instance, researchers Preston Teeter and Jorgen Sandberg highlight how smaller organizations can often incur disproportionately larger costs as a result of environmental regulations, which can ultimately create an additional barrier to entry for new firms, thus stifling competition and innovation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Teeter|first1=Preston|last2=Sandberg|first2=Jorgen|date=2016|title=Constraining or Enabling Green Capability Development? How Policy Uncertainty Affects Organizational Responses to Flexible Environmental Regulations|journal=British Journal of Management|volume=28|issue=4|pages=649–665|doi=10.1111/1467-8551.12188| s2cid=157986703 |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/93826/1/WRAP-constraining-enabling-green-policy-flexible-Sandberg-2017.pdf}}</ref>

== International environmental law ==
{{See also|List of international environmental agreements}}
{{Further|Environmental protocol}}
Global and regional environmental issues are increasingly the subject of [[international law]]. Debates over environmental concerns implicate core principles of international law and have been the subject of numerous international agreements and declarations.

[[Customary international law]] is an important source of international environmental law.  These are the norms and rules that countries follow as a matter of custom and they are so prevalent that they bind all states in the world.  When a principle becomes customary law is not clear cut and many arguments are put forward by states not wishing to be bound.  Examples of customary international law relevant to the environment include the duty to warn other states promptly about icons of an environmental nature and environmental damages to which another state or states may be exposed, and Principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration ('good neighborliness' or sic utere).

Given that customary international law is not static but ever evolving and the continued increase of air pollution (carbon dioxide) causing climate changes, has led to discussions on whether basic customary principles of international law, such as the jus cogens (peremptory norms) and erga omnes principles could be applicable for enforcing international environmental law.<ref>Jesper Jarl Fanø (2019).  Enforcing International Maritime Legislation on Air Pollution through UNCLOS. Hart Publishing. Part IV (Ch. 16-18)</ref>

Numerous [[List of international environmental agreements|legally binding international agreements]] encompass a wide variety of issue-areas, from terrestrial, marine and atmospheric pollution through to wildlife and biodiversity protection. International environmental agreements are generally [[Multilateral treaty|multilateral]] (or sometimes [[Bilateral treaty|bilateral]]) [[Treaty|treaties]] (a.k.a. convention, agreement, protocol, etc.). [[Treaty#Protocols|Protocols]] are subsidiary agreements built from a primary treaty. They exist in many areas of international law but are especially useful in the environmental field, where they may be used to regularly incorporate recent scientific knowledge. They also permit countries to reach an agreement on a framework that would be contentious if every detail were to be agreed upon in advance.  The most widely known protocol in international environmental law is the [[Kyoto Protocol]], which followed from the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]].

While the bodies that proposed, argued, agreed upon, and ultimately adopted existing international agreements vary according to each agreement, certain conferences, including 1972's [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]], 1983's [[Brundtland Commission|World Commission on Environment and Development]], 1992's [[Earth Summit (1992)|United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]], and 2002's [[Earth Summit 2002|World Summit on Sustainable Development]] have been particularly important. [[Multilateral environmental agreement]]s sometimes create an International Organization, Institution or Body responsible for implementing the agreement. Major examples are the [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] (CITES) and the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN).

International environmental law also includes the opinions of international courts and tribunals. While there are few and they have limited authority, the decisions carry much weight with legal commentators and are quite influential on the development of international environmental law. One of the biggest challenges in international decisions is to determine an adequate compensation for environmental damages.<ref>Hardman Reis, T., ''Compensation for Environmental Damages Under International Law'', Kluwer Law International, The Hague, 2011, {{ISBN|978-90-411-3437-0}}.</ref> The courts include the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), the [[European Court of Justice]], [[European Court of Human Rights]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/0C818E19-C40B-412E-9856-44126D49BDE6/0/FICHES_Environment_EN.pdf |title=ECtHR case-law factsheet on environment |access-date=2012-11-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110114815/http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/0C818E19-C40B-412E-9856-44126D49BDE6/0/FICHES_Environment_EN.pdf |archive-date=2012-11-10 }}</ref> and other regional treaty tribunals.

== Around the world ==
{{See also|List of environmental laws by country|List of international environmental agreements}}

=== Africa ===
According to the [[International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement]] (INECE), the major [[environmental issues in Africa]] are ""drought and [[flood]]ing, air pollution, [[deforestation]], [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]], freshwater availability, degradation of soil and vegetation, and widespread poverty.""<ref name=INECE>{{cite web |title=INECE Regions- Africa |url=http://www.inece.org/region_africa.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020820012452/http://www.inece.org/region_africa.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 August 2002 |access-date=18 October 2012 }}</ref>  The [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) is focused on the ""growing urban and industrial pollution, water quality, [[electronic waste]] and indoor air from cookstoves.""<ref name=EPA>{{cite web|title=Africa International Programs|url=http://www.epa.gov/international/regions/Africa/|publisher=Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=October 18, 2012}}</ref> They hope to provide enough aid on concerns regarding pollution before their impacts contaminate the African environment as well as the global environment.  By doing so, they intend to ""protect human health, particularly vulnerable populations such as children and the poor.""<ref name=""EPA""/>  In order to accomplish these goals in Africa, EPA programs are focused on strengthening the ability to enforce environmental laws as well as public compliance to them.  Other programs work on developing stronger environmental laws, regulations, and standards.<ref name=""EPA""/>

=== Asia ===
The Asian Environmental Compliance and Enforcement Network (AECEN) is an agreement between 16 Asian countries dedicated to improving cooperation with environmental laws in Asia. These countries include Cambodia, China, Indonesia, India, Maldives, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, and Lao PDR.<ref>{{Cite web|title = AECEN|url = http://www.aecen.org/|website = www.aecen.org|access-date = 2015-08-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150906020258/http://www.aecen.org/|archive-date = 2015-09-06|url-status = dead}}</ref>

=== European Union ===
The [[European Union]] issues secondary legislation on environmental issues that are valid throughout the EU (so called regulations) and many directives that must be implemented into national legislation from the 27 member states (national states). Examples are the Regulation (EC) No. 338/97 on the implementation of CITES; or the Natura 2000 network the centerpiece for nature & biodiversity policy, encompassing the bird Directive (79/409/EEC/ changed to 2009/147/EC)and the habitats directive (92/43/EEC). Which are made up of multiple SACs (Special Areas of Conservation, linked to the habitats directive) & SPAs (Special Protected Areas, linked to the bird directive), throughout Europe.

EU legislation is ruled in Article 249 Treaty for the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). Topics for common EU legislation are:

* [[Climate change]]
* [[Air pollution]]
* [[Water protection]] and management
* [[Waste management]]
* [[Soil protection]]
* [[Protection of nature]], species and [[biodiversity]]
* [[Noise pollution]]
* Cooperation for the environment with third countries (other than EU member states)
* [[Civil protection]]

In February 2024, the European Parliament adopted a law making a big, intentionally caused, environmental damage “comparable to [[ecocide]]” a crime that can be punished by up to 10 years in prison. The members of the Union should enter it to their national law, during 2 years.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mølgaard Henriksen |first1=Mette |title=‘Revolutionary’: EU Parliament votes to criminalise most serious cases of ecosystem destruction |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/02/27/revolutionary-eu-criminalises-the-most-serious-cases-of-ecosystem-destruction |access-date=28 February 2024 |agency=Euronews |date=27 February 2024}}</ref> The Parliament also approved a nature restoration law which obligate members to restore 20% of degraded ecosystems (including 30% of drained peatland) by 2030 and 100% by 2050.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Niranjan |first1=Ajit |title=European parliament votes for watered-down law to restore nature |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/feb/27/european-parliament-votes-for-watered-down-law-to-restore-nature-farmers-protests |access-date=28 February 2024 |agency=The Guardian |date=27 February 2024}}</ref>

=== Middle East ===
Environmental law is rapidly growing in the Middle East. The U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]] is working with countries in the [[Middle East]] to improve ""environmental governance, water pollution and water security, clean fuels and vehicles, public participation, and pollution prevention.""<ref name=""Middle East"">{{cite web|title=EPA Middle East|url=http://www.epa.gov/oia/regions/Mideast/index.html|publisher=Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>

=== Oceania ===
The main concerns about environmental issues in Oceania are ""illegal releases of air and water [[pollutant]]s, [[illegal logging]]/timber trade, illegal shipment of [[hazardous waste]]s, including [[e-waste]] and ships slated for destruction, and insufficient institutional structure/lack of enforcement capacity"".<ref name=""INECE Asia"">{{cite web |title=INECE Regions - Asia and the Pacific |url=http://www.inece.org/region_asia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021217145241/http://inece.org/region_asia.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 17, 2002 |access-date=October 18, 2012 }}</ref> The Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP)<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.sprep.org/| title = Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP)}}</ref>  is an international organization between Australia, the Cook Islands, FMS, Fiji, France, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Island, Tonga, Tuvalu, US, and Vanuatu. The SPREP was established in order to provide assistance in improving and protecting the environment as well as assure sustainable development for future generations.<ref name=SPREP>{{cite web|title=Agreement Establishing SPREP|url=http://www.sprep.org/Legal/agreement-establishing-sprep|access-date=October 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025050438/http://www.sprep.org/Legal/agreement-establishing-sprep|archive-date=2012-10-25|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Prue|title=Multilateral Environmental Agreement Negotiator's Handbook: Pacific Region 2013|date=2013|publisher=Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme / New Zealand Centre for Environmental Law, University of Auckland|location=Samoa / New Zealand|isbn=978-982-04-0475-5|url=http://www.sprep.org/attachments/Publications/EMG/MEA_Handbook_2013.pdf|author2=Stroud, Lucy |author3=Peteru, Clark }}</ref>

=== Australia ===
''[[Commonwealth v Tasmania]]'' (1983), also known as the ""Tasmanian Dam Case"", was a highly significant case in Australian environmental law.<ref>[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1983/21.html Commonwealth v Tasmania] (1983) 158 CLR 1 (1 July 1983)</ref>

The ''[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]'' is the centerpiece of environmental legislation in Australia. It sets up the ""legal framework to protect and manage nationally and internationally important flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places"" and focuses on protecting world heritage properties, national heritage properties, [[wetlands]] of international importance, nationally threatened species and ecological communities, migratory species, Commonwealth marine areas, [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]], and the environment surrounding nuclear activities.<ref name=Australia>{{cite web|title=EPBC Act|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/index.html|access-date=October 18, 2012}}</ref> However, it has been subject to numerous reviews examining its shortcomings, the latest taking place in mid-2020.<ref name=2020reviewabout>{{cite web | title=About the review | website=Independent review of the EPBC Act | date=23 June 2020 | url=https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/about-review | access-date=27 June 2020}}</ref> The interim report of this review concluded that the laws created to protect unique species and habitats are ineffective.<ref name=interim>{{cite web | title=Australia's environment in unsustainable state of decline, major review finds | website=the Guardian|first=Lisa|last=Cox | date=20 July 2020 | url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/20/australias-environment-in-unsustainable-state-of-decline-major-review-finds | access-date=27 July 2020}}</ref>

=== Brazil ===
The Brazilian government created the [[Ministry of the Environment (Brazil)|Ministry of Environment]] in 1992 in order to develop better strategies for protecting the environment, using natural resources sustainably, and enforcing public environmental policies.  The Ministry of Environment has authority over policies involving environment, water resources, preservation, and environmental programs involving the Amazon.<ref name=Brazil>{{cite web|title=Apresentação|url=http://www.mma.gov.br/o-ministerio/apresentacao|access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>

=== Canada ===
The [[Department of the Environment Act]] establishes the [[Department of the Environment (Canada)|Department of the Environment]] in the Canadian government as well as the position [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister of the Environment]].  Their duties include ""the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and [[soil quality]]; renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna; water; meteorology;""<ref name=""Department of the Environment Act"">{{cite web|title=Department of the Environment Act|date=31 December 2002|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/E-10/page-1.html|access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>  The [[Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999|Environmental Protection Act]] is the main piece of Canadian environmental legislation that was put into place March 31, 2000. The Act focuses on ""respecting pollution prevention and the protection of the environment and human health in order to contribute to sustainable development.""<ref name=""CEPA Canada"">{{cite web|title=Environment Canada|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/lcpe-cepa/default.asp?lang=En|access-date=23 October 2012|date=2007-01-09}}</ref> Other principle federal statutes include the [[Canadian Environmental Assessment Act]], and the [[Species at Risk Act]]. When provincial and federal legislation are in conflict federal legislation takes precedence, that being said individual provinces can have their own legislation such as Ontario's [[Environmental Bill of Rights]], and [[Clean Water Act (Ontario)|Clean Water Act]].<ref>See [https://slmc.uottawa.ca/?q=laws_canada_legal Canada's Legal System Overview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822000216/https://slmc.uottawa.ca/?q=laws_canada_legal |date=2017-08-22 }}.</ref>

=== China ===
{{See also|Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China}}
According to the U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]], ""China has been working with great determination in recent years to develop, implement, and enforce a solid environmental law framework. Chinese officials face critical challenges in effectively implementing the laws, clarifying the roles of their national and provincial governments, and strengthening the operation of their legal system.""<ref>EPA, [http://www.epa.gov/ogc/china/initiative_home.htm China Environmental Law Initiative].</ref> Explosive economic and industrial growth in China has led to [[Environmental issues in China|significant environmental degradation]], and China is currently in the process of developing more stringent legal controls.<ref>Vermont Law School, [http://www.vermontlaw.edu/academics/environmental_law_center/institutes_and_initiatives/us-china_partnership_for_environmental_law/overview.htm China Partnership for Environmental Law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720164123/http://www.vermontlaw.edu/academics/environmental_law_center/institutes_and_initiatives/us-china_partnership_for_environmental_law/overview.htm |date=2012-07-20 }}; C. McElwee, [https://www.amazon.com/Environmental-Law-China-Mitigating-Compliance/dp/0195390016 Environmental Law in China: Mitigating Risk and Ensuring Compliance].</ref> The harmonization of Chinese society and the natural environment is billed as a rising policy priority.<ref>NRDC, [http://www.nrdc.org/international/ochinalaw.asp Environmental Law in China].</ref><ref name=""Sustainable Legitimacy"">{{cite journal |ssrn=2128167 |title=The Search for Sustainable Legitimacy: Environmental Law and Bureaucracy in China |volume=37 |page=365 |journal=[[Harvard Environmental Law Review]] |first=Alex |last=Wang |date=2013}}</ref><ref>Rachel E. Stern, Environmental Litigation in China: A Study in Political Ambivalence (Cambridge University Press 2013)</ref>

Environmental lawsuits have been available in China since the early 2000s.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite book |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=Ashley |location=Seattle |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=Mary Alice |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Joanna I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=Stevan}}</ref>{{Rp|page=15}} Public protest, however, plays a greater role in shaping [[Environmental policy in China|China's environmental policy]] than litigation does.<ref name="":9"" />{{Rp|page=15}}

=== Congo (RC) ===
In the [[Republic of the Congo|Republic of Congo]], inspired by the African models of the 1990s, the phenomenon of constitutionalization of environmental law appeared in 1992, which completed an historical development of environmental law and policy dating back to the years of independence and even long before the colonization.<ref name=""2016_nzaou_kongo"">{{cite journal |last1= Nzaou-Kongo |first1=Aubin|title= L'ambivalence du droit de l'environnement en République du Congo. |date=2016|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3444682|access-date=15 January 2021}}</ref> It gives a constitutional basis to environmental protection, which traditionally was part of the legal framework.<ref name=""2016_nzaou_kongo""/> The two Constitutions of 15 March 1992 and 20 January 2002 concretize this paradigm,<ref name=""2016_nzaou_kongo""/> by stating a legal obligation of a clean environment,<ref name=""2016_nzaou_kongo""/> by establishing a principle of compensation and a foundation of criminal nature.<ref name=""2014_nzaou_kongo"">{{cite journal |last1= Nzaou-Kongo |first1=Aubin|title= La constitutionnalisation du droit de l'environnement au Congo-Brazzaville. |date=2014|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3444689|access-date=15 January 2021}}</ref> By this [[phenomenon]], Congolese environmental law is situated between non-regression and the search for efficiency.""<ref name=""2014_nzaou_kongo""/>

=== Ecuador ===
With the enactment of the [[2008 Constitution of Ecuador|2008 Constitution]], [[Ecuador]] became the first country in the world to codify the [[Rights of Nature]]. The Constitution, specifically Articles 10 and 71–74, recognizes the inalienable rights of [[ecosystem]]s to exist and flourish, gives people the authority to petition on the behalf of ecosystems, and requires the government to remedy violations of these rights. The rights approach is a break away from traditional environmental regulatory systems, which regard nature as property and legalize and manage degradation of the environment rather than prevent it.<ref name=""Celdf"">{{Cite web|url=https://celdf.org/|title=CELDF {{!}} Community Rights Pioneers {{!}} Protecting Nature and Communities|website=CELDF|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-23}}</ref>

The Rights of Nature articles in Ecuador's constitution are part of a reaction to a combination of political, economic, and social phenomena. Ecuador's abusive past with the [[oil industry]], most famously the [[Chevron Corporation#Environmental damage in Ecuador|class-action litigation]] against [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]], and the failure of an extraction-based economy and [[neoliberal]] reforms to bring economic prosperity to the region has resulted in the election of a New Leftist regime, led by President [[Rafael Correa]], and sparked a demand for new approaches to development. In conjunction with this need, the principle of ""Buen Vivir,"" or good living – focused on social, environmental and spiritual wealth versus material wealth – gained popularity among citizens and was incorporated into the new constitution.<ref name=""Gudynas"">[[Eduardo Gudynas|Gudynas, Eduardo]]. 2011. Buen Vivir: Today's Tomorrow Development 54(4):441-447.</ref>

The influence of indigenous groups, from whom the concept of ""Buen Vivir"" originates, in the forming of the constitutional ideals also facilitated the incorporation of the Rights of Nature as a basic tenet of their culture and conceptualization of ""Buen Vivir.""<ref name=""Becker"">Becker, Marc. 2011 Correa, Indigenous Movements, and the Writing of a New Constitution in Ecuador. ''Latin American Perspectives'' 38(1):47-62.</ref>

=== Egypt ===
The [[Environmental Protection Law (Egypt)|Environmental Protection Law]] outlines the responsibilities of the Egyptian government to ""preparation of draft legislation and decrees pertinent to environmental management, collection of data both nationally and internationally on the state of the environment, preparation of periodical reports and studies on the state of the environment, formulation of the national plan and its projects, preparation of environmental profiles for new and urban areas, and setting of standards to be used in planning for their development, and preparation of an annual report on the state of the environment to be prepared to the President.""<ref name=Egypt>{{cite web|title=Law 4|url=http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/English/main/law4.asp|access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>

=== India ===
{{Main|Indian environmental law}}
In [[India]], Environmental law is governed by the Environment Protection Act, 1986.<ref>{{Cite web|title = THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986|url = http://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html|website = envfor.nic.in|access-date = 2015-08-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020613044316/http://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html|archive-date = 2002-06-13|url-status = dead}}</ref> This act is enforced by the Central Pollution Control Board and the numerous State Pollution Control Boards. Apart from this, there are also individual legislation specifically enacted for the protection of Water, Air, Wildlife, etc. Such legislations include :
* The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
* The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
* The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
* The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
* Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) (Union Territories) Rules, 1983
* The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972
* Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001
* Recycled Plastics, Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999
* The National Green [[Tribunal]] established under the National Green Tribunal Act of 2010<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/NGT-fin.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810151851/http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/NGT-fin.pdf |archive-date=2013-08-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> has jurisdiction over all environmental cases dealing with a substantial environmental question and acts covered under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
* Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978
* Ganga Action Plan, 1986
* The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
* Wildlife protection Act, 1972
* The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 and the Biological Diversity Act, 2002. The acts covered under Indian Wild Life Protection Act 1972 do not fall within the jurisdiction of the National Green Tribunal.<ref>{{Cite web|title = THE INDIAN WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972|url = http://envfor.nic.in/legis/wildlife/wildlife1.html|website = envfor.nic.in|access-date = 2015-08-27}}</ref> Appeals can be filed in the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India.<ref>Rhuks Temitope, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228184440_The_Judicial_Recognition_and_Enforcement_of_the_Right_to_Environment_Differing_Perspectives_from_Nigeria_and_India ""THE JUDICIAL RECOGNITION AND ENFORCEMENT OF THE RIGHT TO ENVIRONMENT:DIFFERING PERSPECTIVES FROM NIGERIA AND INDIA""], ''NUJS LAW REVIEW'',March 11, 2020</ref>
* Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary Movements on Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, 1989 and Its Protocols
* [[Hazard|Hazardous]] Wastes (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2003<ref>{{cite book|author1=Surendra Malik, Sudeep Malik|title=Supreme Court on Environment Law| year=2015 |publisher=EBC|location=India|isbn=9789351451914|edition=2015}}</ref>

=== Japan ===
The [[Basic Environmental Law]] is the basic structure of Japan's environmental policies replacing the [[Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control]] and the [[Nature Conservation Law]]. The updated law aims to address ""global environmental problems, urban pollution by everyday life, loss of accessible natural environment in urban areas and degrading environmental protection capacity in forests and farmlands.""<ref name=Japan>{{cite web|title=The Basic Environment Law|url=http://www.env.go.jp/en/laws/policy/basic/leaflet2.html|access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>

The three basic environmental principles that the Basic Environmental Law follows are ""the blessings of the environment should be enjoyed by the present generation and succeeded to the future generations, a sustainable society should be created where environmental loads by human activities are minimized, and Japan should contribute actively to global environmental conservation through international cooperation.""<ref name=""Japan""/>
From these principles, the Japanese government have established policies such as ""environmental consideration in policy formulation, establishment of the Basic Environment Plan which describes the directions of long-term environmental policy, environmental impact assessment for development projects, economic measures to encourage activities for reducing environmental load, improvement of social infrastructure such as sewerage system, transport facilities etc., promotion of environmental activities by corporations, citizens and NGOs, environmental education, and provision of information, promotion of science and technology.""<ref name=""Japan""/>

=== New Zealand ===
{{Main|New Zealand environmental law}}

The [[Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand)|Ministry for the Environment]] and [[Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment|Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment]] were established by the [[Environment Act 1986]]. These positions are responsible for advising the Minister on all areas of environmental legislation.  A common theme of [[New Zealand|New Zealand's]] environmental legislation is sustainably managing natural and physical resources, fisheries, and forests.  The [[Resource Management Act 1991]] is the main piece of environmental legislation that outlines the government's strategy to managing the ""environment, including air, water soil, [[biodiversity]], the coastal environment, noise, subdivision, and land use planning in general.""<ref name=""New Zealand"">{{cite web|title=Ministry for the Environment|url=http://www.mfe.govt.nz/laws/|access-date=23 October 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130140120/http://www.mfe.govt.nz/laws/|archive-date=30 November 2012}}</ref>

=== Russia ===
The [[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment]] of the Russian Federation makes regulation regarding ""conservation of natural resources, including the subsoil, water bodies, forests located in designated conservation areas, fauna and their habitat, in the field of hunting, [[hydrometeorology]] and related areas, [[environmental monitoring]] and pollution control, including [[radiation monitoring]] and control, and functions of public environmental policy making and implementation and [[Statute|statutory]] regulation.""<ref name=Russia>{{cite web|title=Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.mnr.gov.ru/english/|access-date=27 June 2015}}</ref>

=== Singapore ===
Singapore is a signatory of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]; with most of its CBD obligations being overseen by the National Biodiversity Reference Centre, a division of its National Parks Board ([[NParks]]).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Unit|first=Biosafety|date=2006-06-20|title=Singapore|url=https://www.cbd.int/programmes/outreach/awareness/celebration-singapore.shtml|access-date=2020-10-27|website=www.cbd.int|language=en}}</ref> Singapore is also a signatory of the [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Animals]], with its obligations under that treaty also being overseen by NParks.<ref>{{Cite web|title=National Parks Board (CITES)|url=https://customs.gov.sg/businesses/national-single-window/tradenet/competent-authorities-requirements/Nparks-Cites|access-date=2020-10-27|website=customs.gov.sg|language=en}}</ref> The [[Parliament of Singapore]] has enacted numerous pieces of legislation to fulfil its obligations under these treaties, such as the Parks and Trees Act,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Parks and Trees Act - Singapore Statutes Online|url=https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/PTA2005|access-date=2020-10-27|website=sso.agc.gov.sg|language=en}}</ref> Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act - Singapore Statutes Online|url=https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/ESIEA2006|access-date=2020-10-27|website=sso.agc.gov.sg|language=en}}</ref> and Wildlife Act.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wildlife Act - Singapore Statutes Online|url=https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/WA1965|access-date=2020-10-27|website=sso.agc.gov.sg|language=en}}</ref> The new Wildlife (Protected Wildlife Species) Rules 2020 marks the first instance in [[Singapore]]'s history that direct legal protection has been offered for specific named species, as listed in Parts 1-5 of the Rules' schedule.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wildlife (Protected Wildlife Species) Rules 2020 - Singapore Statutes Online|url=https://sso.agc.gov.sg/SL/WA1965-S411-2020?DocDate=20200529|access-date=2020-10-27|website=sso.agc.gov.sg|language=en}}</ref>

=== South Africa ===
{{Main|South African environmental law}}

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|UK environmental law}}

=== United States ===
{{Main|United States environmental law}}

=== Vietnam ===
Vietnam is currently working with the U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]] on [[dioxin]] remediation and technical assistance in order to lower [[methane emissions]]. In March 2002, the U.S and Vietnam signed the U.S.-Vietnam Memorandum of Understanding on Research on Human Health and the Environmental Effects of Agent Orange/Dioxin.<ref name=""EPA Vietnam"">{{cite web|title=Vietnam International Programs|url=http://www.epa.gov/international/regions/Asia/vietnammain.html|publisher=Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=October 18, 2012}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Climate target]]
* [[Environmental health]]
* [[Environmental justice]]
* [[Environmental racism]]
* [[Environmental racism in Europe]]
* [[Indigenous rights]]
* [[International law]]
* [[List of environmental law journals]]
* [[List of international environmental agreements]]
* [[UK enterprise law]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* [[Aydar Akhatov|Akhatov, Aydar]] (1996). ''Ecology & International Law''. Moscow: АST-PRESS. 512 pp. {{ISBN|5-214-00225-4}} {{in lang|en|ru}}
* Bimal N. Patel, ed. (2015). MCQ on Environmental Law. {{ISBN|9789351452454}}
* Farber & Carlson, eds. (2013). ''Cases and Materials on Environmental Law, 9th''. West Academic Publishing. 1008 pp. {{ISBN|978-0314283986}}.
* Faure, Michael, and Niels Philipsen, eds. (2014). ''Environmental Law & European Law''. The Hague: Eleven International Publishing. 142 pp. {{ISBN|9789462360754}} {{in lang|en}}
* Malik, Surender & Sudeep Malik, eds. (2015). Supreme Court on Environment Law. {{ISBN|9789351451914}}
* Martin, Paul & Amanda Kennedy, eds. (2015). ''Implementing Environmental Law''. Edward Elgar Publishing

== Further reading ==
* [https://theconversation.com/around-the-world-environmental-laws-are-under-attack-in-all-sorts-of-ways-77590 Around the world, environmental laws are under attack in all sorts of ways] (30 May 2017), ''[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]''

== External links ==
;International
* [https://www.unep.org/ United Nations Environment Programme]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120125134603/http://www.ecolex.org/start.php ECOLEX] (Gateway to Environmental Law)
* [https://www.elaw.org/ Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide (E-LAW)]
* [https://www.ciel.org/ Centre for International Environmental Law]
* [http://www.internationalwildlifelaw.org/ Wildlife Interest Group, American Society of International Law]
* [http://www.earthrights.org/legal/ EarthRights International]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110110013207/http://www.aida-americas.org/front Interamerican Association for Environmental Defense]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140921045423/http://www.ukela.org/ United Kingdom Environmental Law Association]
* [http://www.lexadin.nl/wlg/legis/nofr/legis.php Lexadin global law database]
* [https://www.adb.org/features/12-things-know-2012-green-justice-asia-and-pacific Upholding Environmental Laws in Asia and the Pacific]

;United States
*[https://www.americanbar.org/groups/environment_energy_resources/ American Bar Association Section of Environment, Energy and Resources]
*[https://www.epa.gov/ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]
*[https://www.eli.org/ Environmental Law Institute (ELI)]
*[https://earthjustice.org/ EarthJustice]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060307221833/http://lawlib.wlu.edu/LJ/index.aspx ""Law Journals: Submission and Ranking, 2007-2014""], [[Washington and Lee University]], Lexington, Virginia

;Canada
*[https://www.wcel.org/ West Coast Environmental Law] (non-profit law firm)
*[https://ecojustice.ca/ Ecojustice]
*[https://cela.ca/ Canadian Environmental Law Association]
*[https://elc.ab.ca/ Environmental Law Centre (of Alberta)]

;European Union
* [http://europa.eu/youreurope/business/doing-business-responsibly/keeping-to-environmental-rules/index_en.htm Europa: Environmental rules of the European Union]
* [http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/environment/index_en.htm Europa: Summaries of Legislation - Environment]

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[[Category:Environmental law| ]]
[[Category:Environmental law schools]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Environmental globalization,"[[File:Ed20-peace-climb-logo-web.jpg|thumb|150px|The official logo of the [[Mount Everest]] [[Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb]]. Initiatives like [[Earth Day]] promote international cooperation on pro-environmental initiatives, or in other words – promote environmental globalization.]]
'''Environmental globalization''' refers to the internationally coordinated practices and regulations (often in the form of [[international treaties]]) regarding [[environmental protection]].<ref name=""Zimmerer2006-1""/><ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-54""/> An example of environmental globalization would be the series of International Tropical Timber Agreement treaties ([[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983|1983]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994|1994]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 2006|2006]]), establishing [[International Tropical Timber Organization]] and promoting [[sustainable management]] of [[Tropical forest|tropical forests]]. Environmental globalization is usually supported by [[non-governmental organization]]s and governments of [[developed countries]], but opposed by governments of [[developing countries]] which see pro-environmental initiatives as hindering their economic development.

==Definitions and characteristics==
[[Karl S. Zimmerer]] defined it as ""the increased role in globally organized management institutions, knowledge systems and monitoring, and coordinated strategies aimed at resource, energy, and [[conservation issues]].""<ref name=""Zimmerer2006-1"">{{cite book|author=Karl S. Zimmerer|title=Globalization & New Geographies of Conservation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdLK-UGj7YkC&pg=PA1|year=2006|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-98344-8|page=1}}</ref> [[Alan Grainger]] in turn wrote that it can be understood as ""an increasing spatial uniformity and contentedness in regular environmental management practices"".<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-54"">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=54}}</ref> [[Steven Yearley]] has referred to this concept as ""globalization of environmental concern"".<ref name=""Ritzer2008-246"">{{cite book|author=Steve Yearly|chapter=Globalization and the Environment|editor=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA246|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=246}}</ref> Grainger also cited a study by Clark (2000), which he noted was an early treatment of the concept, and distinguished three aspects of environmental globalization: ""global flows of energy, materials and organisms; formulation and global acceptance of ideas about global environment; and [[environmental governance]]"" (a growing web of institutions concerned with global environment).<ref name=Grainger/>

Environmental globalization is related to [[economic globalization]], as [[economic development]] on a global scale has environmental impacts on such scale, which is of concern to numerous organizations and individuals.<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-54""/><ref name=""BenyonDunkerley2014"">{{cite book|author1=John Benyon|author2=David Dunkerley|title=Globalization: The Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=doB9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54|date=1 May 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-78240-4|page=54}}</ref> While economic globalization has environmental impacts, those impacts should not be confused with the concept of environmental globalization.<ref name=Grainger>{{Cite book|last=Grainger|first=Alan|date=1 January 2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|isbn=9780470670590|language=en|doi=10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog170|title = The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization|chapter = Environmental Globalization}}</ref>  In some regards, environmental globalization is in direct opposition to economic globalization, particularly when the latter is described as encouraging trade, and the former, as promoting pro-environment initiatives that are an impediment to trade.<ref name=""Ritzer2008-240""/> For that reason, an environmental activist might be opposed to economic globalization, but advocate environmental globalization.<ref name=""DobratzWaldner2015"">{{cite book|author1=Betty Dobratz|author2=Lisa K Waldner|author3=Timothy Buzzell|title=Power, Politics, and Society: An Introduction to Political Sociology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoK9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA346|date=14 October 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-34529-9|page=346}}</ref>

==History==
Grainger has discussed that environmental globalization in the context of international agreements on pro-environmental initiatives. According to him, precursors to modern environmental globalization can be found in the [[Early modern period|colonial era]] [[forestry|scientific forestry]] (research into how to create and restore forests).<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-57"">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=57}}</ref> Modern initiatives contributing to environmental globalization include the 1972 [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]],<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-58"">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=58}}</ref> came from the [[World Bank]] 1980s requirements that development projects need to protect indigenous peoples and conserve biodiversity.<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-59"">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA59|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=59}}</ref> Other examples of such initiative include treaties such as the series of International Tropical Timber Agreement treaties ([[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983|1983]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994|1994]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 2006|2006]]).<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-58""/><ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-61"">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=61}}</ref> Therefore, unlike other main forms of globalization [[economic globalization|economic]], [[political globalization|political]] and [[cultural globalization|cultural]] which were already strong in the 19th century, environmental globalization is a more recent phenomena, one that begun in earnest only in the later half of the 20th century.<ref name=""Stearns2009"">{{cite book|author=Peter N. Stearns|title=Globalization in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVOOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA159|date=20 October 2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-25993-8|page=159}}</ref> Similarly, Steven Yearley states that it was around that time that the [[environmental movement]] started to organize on the international scale focus on the global dimension of the issues (the first [[Earth Day]] was celebrated on 1970).<ref name=""Ritzer2008-240"">{{cite book|author=Steve Yearly|chapter=Globalization and the Environment|editor=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA240|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=240}}</ref>

==Supporters and opponents==
According to Grainger, environmental globalization (in the form of pro-environmental international initiatives) is usually supported by various [[non-governmental organization]]s<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-61""/><ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-60"">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA60|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=60}}</ref> and governments of [[developed countries]], and opposed by governments of [[developing countries]] ([[Group of 77]]), which see pro-environmental initiatives as hindering their economic development.<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-59""/><ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-62"">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA62|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=62}}</ref><ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-63"">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA62|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=63}}</ref> Governmental resistance to environmental globalization takes form or policy ambiguity (exemplified by countries which sign international pro-environmental treaties and pass domestic pro-[[environmental law]]s, but then proceed to not enforce them<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-59""/><ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-60""/>) and collective resistance in forums such as [[United Nations]] to projects that would introduce stronger regulations or new institutions policing environmental issues worldwide (such as opposition to the [[forest protection]] agreement during the [[Earth Summit]] in 1992, which was eventually downgraded from a binding to a non-binding set of [[Forest Principles]]).<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-62""/><ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-63""/>

[[World Trade Organization]] has also [[Criticism of the World Trade Organization|been criticized]] as focused on economic globalization (liberalizing trade) over concerns of environmental protection, which are seen as impeding the trade.<ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-61""/><ref name=""OosthoekGills2013-62""/><ref name=""Ritzer2008-247"">{{cite book|author=Steve Yearly|chapter=Globalization and the Environment|editor=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA247|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=247}}</ref><ref name=""Ritzer2008-248"">{{cite book|author=Steve Yearly|chapter=Globalization and the Environment|editor=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA248|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=248}}</ref> Steven Yearley states that WTO should not be described as ""anti-environmental"", but its decisions have major impact on environment worldwide, and they are based primarily on economic concerns, with environmental concerns being given secondary weight.<ref name=""Ritzer2008-250"">{{cite book|author=Steve Yearly|chapter=Globalization and the Environment|editor=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA250|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=250}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[United Nations Climate Change conference]]
* [[Biological globalization]]
* [[:Category:International environmental organizations|International environmental organizations (category)]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}



{{Globalization}}

[[Category:Globalization]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:International environmental law|*]]
[[Category:International environmental organizations|*]]"
Category:Protected areas,"{{Portal|Ecology|Environment}}
{{Cat main|Protected area}}
{{Commons category|Protected areas}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions]]"
Category:Environmental management schemes,"[[Category:Environmental protection|Schemes]]
[[Category:Land management]]"
Corporate environmental responsibility,"[[File:CO2_responsibility_1950-2000.svg|thumb|This image is a map of the global [[Greenhouse gas emissions|carbon emissions]] from 1950-2000.]]
'''Corporate environmental responsibility''' ('''CER''') refers to a company's duties to abstain from damaging [[natural environment]]s. The term derives from [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mazurkiewicz|first1=Piotr|title=Corporate Environmental Responsibility: Is a common CSR framework possible?|url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDEVCOMSUSDEVT/Resources/csrframework.pdf|website=siteresources.worldbank.org|accessdate=2016-12-12}}</ref>

==Background==
The environmental aspect of corporate social responsibility has been debated over the past few decades, as stakeholders increasingly require organizations to become more environmentally aware and socially responsible.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:727457/FULLTEXT01.pdf|website=diva-portal.org|title=CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITIES (CER): A Case of Logistic Companies in Sweden|author1=John Duker |author2= Michael Olugunna }}</ref> In the traditional business model, [[environmental protection]] was considered only in relation to the ""[[public interest]]"". Hitherto, governments had maintained principal responsibility for ensuring environmental management and conservation.

The [[public sector]] has been focused on the development of regulations and the imposition of sanctions as a means to facilitating environmental protection. Recently, the [[private sector]] has adopted the approach of co-responsibility towards the prevention and alleviation of environmental damage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDEVCOMSUSDEVT/Resources/csrframework.pdf|website=siteresources.worldbank.org|title=Corporate environmental responsibility: Is a common CSR framework possible?|author=Piotr Mazurkiewicz }}</ref> The sectors and their roles have been changing, with the private sector becoming more active in the protection of the environment. Many governments, corporations, and big companies are now providing strategies for environmental protection and economic growth.

The [[World Commission on Environment and Development|World Commission on Environment]] published the [[Brundtland Report]] in 1987 to address sustainable development. Since then, managers, [[scholars]], and business owners have tried to determine why and how big corporations should incorporate environmental aspects into their own policies. In recent years, an increasing number of companies have pledged to protect natural environments.

==Relations to corporate social responsibility==
There are different perceptions of corporate social responsibility between government, the private sector, [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs) and society in general, and thus, the concept has no single definition.

'''Corporate social responsibility may cover: '''

* A company running its business responsibly in relation to internal [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholder]]s ([[shareholder]]s, [[Employment|employees]], customers and suppliers)
* The role of business in relation to the state (locally and nationally) as well as to inter-state institutions or standards
* Business performance as a responsible member of the society in which it operates and the global community.""{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

The [[European Union]] defines corporate social responsibility as ""...the concept that an enterprise is accountable for its impact on all relevant stakeholders. It is the continuing commitment by a business to behave fairly and responsibly and contribute to economic development while
improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/soc-dial/csr/greenpaper_en.pdf|website=europa.eu.int|title=Promoting a European framework for Corporate Social Responsibility|type=Green paper|publisher=European Commission |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030311011327/http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/soc-dial/csr/greenpaper_en.pdf|archivedate=March 11, 2003}}</ref> According to this definition, a CSR strategy is more focused on social aspects, particularly the interests of stakeholders.

Corporate environmental responsibility (CER) is, in many ways, connected to CSR, as both of them influence environmental protection. CER, however, is strictly about the consideration of environmental implications and protection within corporate strategy. The understanding of CER cannot be separated from CSR&mdash;both are interconnected and based on environmental protection. There are three major areas related to these two concepts&mdash;economic, environmental and social. CER is focused more on economic and environmental while CSR relates to social and environmental aspects. Economy, society, and environment all play significant roles in the development of an efficient and effective company strategy.

==Main elements==
These cover the environmental implications of a company's operations:
* Eliminate waste and emissions
* Maximize the efficient use of resources and productivity
* Minimize activities that might impair the enjoyment of resources by future generations.

==Drivers and challenges==
Among the main drivers for CER are government policies and regulations. Many states provide their own legislation, regulations and policies, which are important in creating a positive environmental attitude within companies. Subsidies, tariffs and taxes play a vital role in the implementation of these policies. Another significant factor is the competitive environment among companies generated by media, public, shareholder and NGO awareness, which are also major drivers of CER. Another significant driver of corporate responsibility is that the private sector is largely responsible for the development of green technology and renewable energy sources meaning they are contributing towards climate change mitigation while still operating as a business.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hormio |first1=Sade |title=Can Corporations have(moral) responsibility regarding climate change mitigation? |date=2017-10-18}}</ref>

Challenges include the cost of regulation and difficulties in predicting economic gains, which could become problematic for a company's management. Additionally, new technologies are frequently too expensive for a lot of companies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Przychodzen|first1=J.|last2=Przychodzen|first2=W.|title=Corporate sustainability and shareholder wealth. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|date=2013|pages=474–493}}</ref> Another challenge is the lack of harmonization of regulations among different states&mdash;often there is a mosaic of propositions, leading to unclear strategies for environmental behavior, especially in [[multinational corporation]]s. Further challenges of CES are whether corporations have a responsibility to go further than the current governmental legislation and Corporation a firstly responsible to produce profit for shareholders and producing goods for customers. Furthermore Companies work within the framework of the society and country that they operate in meaning that corporations cannot be held solely responsible for lack of legislation on pollution and emissions.
Corporations emissions are also fractured between different sectors such as supply and outsourcing which can make it unclear what emissions the corporation is responsible. Further challenges is the argument of whether corporations should be held responsible for past emissions when the negative impacts were not known.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hormio |first1=Sade |title=Can corporation have(moral) responsibility regarding climate change mitigation? |date=2017-10-18}}</ref>

== Worldwide perspectives on corporate environmental responsibility ==
The majority of international CSR studies focus on business practices and its aspects, such as business economics and the legality of [[environmental law]]. Most companies are noticing the importance of taking into account one of its most important stakeholders: employees and customers and their commitment to sustainability. Studies have demonstrated that once companies place sustainability practices they can be directly linked to financial success and customer satisfaction, which in turn can be used as a marketing tool.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|title=Safety and sustainability nexus: A review and appraisal|journal = Journal of Cleaner Production|volume = 216|pages = 74–87|last=Waqas Nawaz, Patrick Linke, Muammer Koҫ|date=2019|doi = 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.167| s2cid=159054464 }}</ref> Although every country has a different culture, and each country determines their own scale of environmental responsibility, research has shown that there is a standard global human values that drive customer needs and wants. Companies have taken initiatives to take sustainability and align it with each company's economic goals. Managers and other people at the top, play the key role in decision-making and implementing the firm's sustainability practices.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|title=The perception of socially and environmentally responsible practices based on values and cultural environment from a customer perspective|last1=González-Rodríguez|first1=M. Rosario|last2=Díaz-Fernández|first2=M. Carmen|last3=Biagio|first3=Simonetti|date=2019|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=216|pages=88–98|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.189|s2cid=159362122 }}</ref>

== Benefits of corporate environmental responsibility ==
Corporate social responsibility can prove to be more profitable for companies and to extend it survivability in markets because greater awareness on this topic, in both social and business markets, has been in higher demand. Customers have responded with overall satisfaction and loyalty when companies have a better CSR, especially in countries like Spain and Brazil. Culture has an impact on the CSR ratings and studies, as well as human values across different nations.<ref name="":0"" />

This topic can also be found under [[sustainable development]]. This area is concerned with not only protecting the environment but maintaining economical growth. There were several agreements internationally to help adopt new business practices that held these standards, but they were considered individual and there was no law-abiding body to regulate nor implement them.<ref name="":2"" />

One of the other factors that is considered an integral part of sustainable development are human beings, and specific groups and their habitat. Counties and companies that more developed would lead, and other small countries and business would slowly make gains. It is important to recognize that just because corporate environmental responsibility is being recognized that consumption is something that is not discouraged.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652619302021|title=Which policy is more effective, carbon reduction in all industries or in high energy-consuming Industries?——From dual perspectives of welfare effects and economic effects|last=Zhang|first=Tongbin|date=2019|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=216 |pages=184–196 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.183 |s2cid=159112717 |access-date=2019-04-02}}</ref>

The idea of corporate environmental responsibility is for humans to be more aware of the environmental impact and counteract their pollution/[[carbon footprint]] on the natural resources.<ref name="":0"" /> One of the main factors is to reduce carbon footprint and carbon emissions.<ref name="":1"" /> Many of the studies focus on trying to find a balance between economic growth and reducing waste and cleaner environments.<ref name="":1"" />

Furthermore, many firms are discovering that there is an advantage to advocating for environmental regulations and preparing for them to be implemented before they become law. In a recent study, the researcher found that firms support climate change legislation as a means of gaining power over their competitors. Essentially, even if a new regulation hurts a firm in the short term, the firm may embrace it because they know that it will hurt their competitors even more. This allows them to come out on top in the long run.<ref>Kennard, Amanda. ""The Enemy of My Enemy: When Firms Support Climate Change Regulation."" International Organization 74.2 (2020): 187-221.</ref>

==Summary==
The environmental aspects of security have increasingly become a major issue being considered by states. The process of [[securitization]] has had a big impact in creating a new understanding of security.
[[Globalization]] also plays a key role in the adoption of new environmental strategies as a multi-faceted process influencing modern societies, and creating interconnected and multidimensional environments.

Corporate environmental responsibility is used by multinational corporations as well as small, local organizations. It is highlighted and more institutionalized because of stakeholders' awareness of the huge impacts of business activities on the environment. To understand CER, its relations with CSR strategies need to be recognized. CER and CSR are the main strategies that help in the creation of efficient and environmentally sustainable businesses.

==See also==
*[[Triple bottom line]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Corporate social responsibility]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Indian environmental law,"{{Short description|Broad information of Indian environmental law}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Multiple issues|{{Lead too short|date=February 2020}}{{More citations needed|date=February 2020}}}}
'''Indian environmental law''' concerns the [[law]] and [[Environmental policy of India|policy]] of [[India]] concerning the protection of the [[Natural environment|environment]], measures taken to reverse [[climate change]] and achieve a [[zero carbon economy]].

Since the sixties concern over the state of environment has grown the world over. There has been substantive decline in environment quality due to increasing pollution, loss of vegetal cover and biological diversity, excessive concentration of harmful chemicals in the ambient atmosphere and in food chains, growing risks of environment accidents and threats to life support systems. The Decision which were taken at united nation conference on the human conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in June 1972 were based on the world community's resolve to protect and enhance the environmental concerns. Although several measures had been taken for environmental Protection both before and after the Conference it was found necessary to enact a comprehensive law on the subject to implement the decision of the 
conference. Accordingly the Environment (Protection) Bill passed was introduced in the Parliament Various different areas of environmental protection have been covered by different laws, drawn up at different times.

Some of the areas covered include :-
* Air pollution 
* Water pollution 
* Forest and wildlife protection 
* Waste management 
* Wild Life

As with environmental protection legislation in many countries, the regulations are only effective if they are properly enforced, which hasn't always been the case in India, for a number of reasons, some of which are down to local administrative authorities.

Because of the huge population of India, there have been enormous demands placed on the environment, with the regulations not proving to be entirely satisfactory in dealing with the tremendous pressures.

==History==
{{Main|Bhopal gas disaster}}

==General protection==
The [[Environment Protection Act, 1986]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986|url = http://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html|website = envfor.nic.in|accessdate = 2015-08-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020613044316/http://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html|archive-date = 2002-06-13|url-status = dead}}</ref> is enforced by the Central Pollution Control Board and the numerous State Pollution Control Boards.
*The National Green Tribunal established under the National Green Tribunal Act of 2010<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/NGT-fin.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2017-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810151851/http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/NGT-fin.pdf |archive-date=2013-08-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> has jurisdiction over all environmental cases dealing with a substantial environmental question and acts covered under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
*The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 
*[[National Green Tribunal Act]]

#Air pollution
*The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
*Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) (Union Territories) Rules, 1983

==Water==
Legislation to protect water quality include: 
*The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
*The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
*Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978
*Ganga Action Plan, 1986
*[[National Water Policy]]
*[[Coastal Regulation Zone]]
*[[Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal]]
*[[Interstate River Water Disputes Act]]
*[[Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal]]

==Forests and wildlife==
*[[Indian Forest Act, 1927]]
*[[Wildlife Protection Act, 1972|Wild life protection act, 1972]]
*Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
*[[National Forest Policy, 1988]]
*''[[M. C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath]]'' (1997) 1 SCC 388
*[[Biological Diversity Act, 2002]] 
*[[Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001]]
*[[Wild Life Protection Act, 1972]], which does not fall within the jurisdiction of the National Green Tribunal.<ref>{{Cite web|title = THE INDIAN WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972|url = http://envfor.nic.in/legis/wildlife/wildlife1.html|website = envfor.nic.in|accessdate = 2015-08-27}}</ref> Appeals can be filed in the Supreme Court of India.<ref>Rhuks Temitope, [http://nujslawreview.org/pdf/articles/2010_4/rhuks.pdf ""THE JUDICIAL RECOGNITION AND ENFORCEMENT OF THE RIGHT TO ENVIRONMENT:DIFFERING PERSPECTIVES FROM NIGERIA AND INDIA""]{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''NUJS LAW REVIEW'', 2 January 2015</ref>
*[[Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act]] 1960
*
*
*[[CAMPA bill]]

==Waste management==
*Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001
*Recycled Plastics, Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999
*Basel Convention on Control of TransboundaryMovements on Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, 1989 and Its Protocols
*Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2003<ref>{{cite book|author1=Surendra Malik, Sudeep Malik|title=Supreme Court on Environment Law|year=2015 |publisher=EBC|location=India|isbn=9789351451914|edition=2015}}</ref>
*Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016
*

==See also==
*[[Environmental policy of the European Union]]
*[[Environmental law]]
*[[United Kingdom environmental law]]
*[[United States environmental law]]
*[[Environmental policy in China]]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TD_qTWv8r2k ASME’s 2019 Advanced Clean Energy Summit - Nuclear Power’s Role in Combating Climate Change]

==[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TD_qTWv8r2k Notes]==

{{Empty section|date=February 2022}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Saravanan, Velayutham. ''Environmental History of Modern India: Land, Population, Technology and Development'' (Bloomsbury Publishing India, 2022) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58163 online review][

[[Category:Environmental law]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental law in India]]"
Environmental protection,"{{Short description|Practice of protecting the natural environment}}
{{Update|date=April 2022}}
[[File:Zephyr Dredging.jpg|thumb|Wetlands [[environmental remediation|remediation]] at a former oil refinery is just one example of environmental protection]]
[[File:Horská Kvilda Středisko envir. výchovy 03.jpg|thumb]]
'''Environmental protection''' is the practice of protecting the [[natural environment]] by individuals, groups and governments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.yourdictionary.com/environmental-protection|title=Environmental-protection dictionary definition {{!}} environmental-protection defined|website=yourdictionary.com|access-date=21 November 2018}}</ref> Its objectives are to conserve natural resources and the existing natural environment and, where it is possible, to repair damage and reverse trends.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thelawdictionary.org/environmental-protection/|title=What is Environmental Protection? definition of Environmental Protection (Black's Law Dictionary)|date=19 October 2012|work=The Law Dictionary|access-date=21 November 2018}}</ref>

Due to the pressures of [[overconsumption]], [[population growth]] and technology, the [[environment (biophysical)|biophysical environment]] is being degraded, sometimes permanently. This has been recognized, and governments have begun placing restraints on activities that cause [[environmental degradation]]. Since the 1960s, [[environmental movement]]s have created more awareness of the multiple [[environmental problem]]s. There is disagreement on the extent of the [[Human impact on the environment|environmental impact of human activity]], so protection measures are occasionally debated.

== Approaches to environmental protection ==

===Voluntary environmental agreements===
In industrial countries, voluntary environmental agreements often provide a platform for companies to be recognized for moving beyond the minimum regulatory standards and thus support the development of the best environmental practice. For instance, in India, Environment Improvement Trust (EIT) has been working for environmental and [[forest protection]] since 1998.<ref>Karamanos, P., Voluntary Environmental Agreements: Evolution and Definition of a New Environmental Policy Approach. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2001. 44(1): p. 67-67-84.</ref> In developing countries, such as Latin America, these agreements are more commonly used to remedy significant levels of non-compliance with mandatory regulation.

===Ecosystems approach===
An [[ecosystem]]s approach to resource management and environmental protection aims to consider the complex interrelationships of an entire ecosystem in decision-making rather than simply responding to specific issues and challenges. Ideally, the decision-making processes under such an approach would be a collaborative approach to planning and decision-making that involves a broad range of stakeholders across all relevant governmental departments, as well as industry representatives, environmental groups, and community. This approach ideally supports a better exchange of information, development of conflict-resolution strategies and improved regional conservation. Religions also play an important role in the conservation of the environment.<ref>{{cite web|title=An ecosystem approach to natural resource conservation in California|url=http://www.interenvironment.org/cipa/ecosystemapproach.htm|work=CIPA Publication No. 106|publisher=InterEnvironment Institute|access-date=10 July 2012|author=The California Institute of Public Affairs (CIPA)|date=August 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402223955/http://www.interenvironment.org/cipa/ecosystemapproach.htm|archive-date=2 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===International environmental agreements===
[[File:Kyoto Protocol Commitment map 2010.png|thumb|Kyoto Protocol Commitment map 2010|321x321px]]
Many of the earth's resources are especially vulnerable because they are influenced by human impacts across different countries. As a result of this, many attempts are made by countries to develop agreements that are signed by multiple governments to prevent damage or manage the impacts of human activity on natural resources. This can include agreements that impact factors such as climate, oceans, rivers and [[air pollution]]. These international environmental agreements are sometimes legally binding documents that have legal implications when they are not followed and, at other times, are more agreements in principle or are for use as codes of conduct. These agreements have a long history with some multinational agreements being in place from as early as 1910 in Europe, America and [[Africa]].<ref>Mitchell, R.B., International Environmental Agreements: A Survey of Their Features, Formation, and Effects. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 2003. 28(1543-5938, 1543-5938): p. 429-429-461.</ref>

Many of the international technical agencies formed after 1945 addressed environmental themes. By the late 1960s, a growing environmental movement called for coordinated and institutionalized international cooperation. The landmark [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] was held in Stockholm in 1972, establishing the concept of a [[right to a healthy environment]]. It was followed by the creation of the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] later that year.<ref>Iriss Borowy, ""Before UNEP: who was in charge of the global environment? The struggle for institutional responsibility 1968–72."" ''Journal of Global History'' 14.1 (2019): 87-106.</ref> Some of the most well-known international agreements include the [[Kyoto Protocol]] of 1997 and the [[Paris Agreement]] of 2015.

On 8 October 2021, the [[United Nations Human Rights Council|UN Human Rights Council]] passed a resolution recognizing access to a healthy and sustainable environment as a universal right. In the resolution 48/13, the Council called on States around the world to work together, and with other partners, to implement the newly recognized right.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The right to a clean and healthy environment: 6 things you need to know|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/10/1103082|website=UN News|date=15 October 2021|access-date=15 October 2021}}</ref>

On 28 July 2022, the United Nations General Assembly voted to declare the ability to live in ""a clean, healthy and sustainable environment"" a universal human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2022 |title=Bachelet Calls For Urgent Action To Realize Human Right To Healthy Environment Following Recognition By UNGA |url=https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO2207/S00234/bachelet-calls-for-urgent-action-to-realize-human-right-to-healthy-environment-following-recognition-by-unga.htm |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=www.scoop.co.nz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bachelet calls for urgent action to realize human right to healthy environment following recognition by UN General Assembly |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/07/bachelet-calls-urgent-action-realize-human-right-healthy-environment |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=OHCHR |language=en |via=Press Release}}</ref>

==Government==
[[File:Top 5 Countries by biological diversity.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Top five countries by biological diversity]]
Discussion concerning environmental protection often focuses on the role of government, legislation, and law enforcement. However, in its broadest sense, environmental protection may be seen to be the responsibility of all the people and not simply that of government. Decisions that impact the environment will ideally involve a broad range of stakeholders including industry, indigenous groups, environmental group and community representatives. Gradually, environmental decision-making processes are evolving to reflect this broad base of stakeholders and are becoming more collaborative in many countries.<ref>Harding, R., Ecologically sustainable development: origins, implementation and challenges. Desalination, 2006. 187(1-3): p. 229-239</ref>

=== Tanzania ===
Many constitutions acknowledge [[Tanzania]] as having some of the greatest biodiversity of any African country. Almost 40% of the land has been established into a network of protected areas, including several national parks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biodiversity and Protected Areas-- Tanzania|url=http://www.vub.ac.be/klimostoolkit/sites/default/files/documents/tanzania_bd.pdf|work=Earth Trends Country Profiles|publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Earth Trends|year=2003|archive-date=3 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503021844/https://www.vub.ac.be/klimostoolkit/sites/default/files/documents/tanzania_bd.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The concerns for the natural environment include damage to ecosystems and loss of habitat resulting from population growth, expansion of [[subsistence agriculture]], [[pollution]], [[timber extraction]] and significant use of timber as fuel.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tanzania – Environmental Policy Brief|url=http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/uploads/media/SIDA_env_pol_brief.pdf|publisher=Development Partners Group Tanzania|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Jessica Andersson|author2=Daniel Slunge|date=16 June 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710183811/http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/uploads/media/SIDA_env_pol_brief.pdf|archive-date=10 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Environmental protection in Tanzania began during the German occupation of East Africa (1884–1919)—colonial conservation laws for the protection of game and forests were enacted, whereby restrictions were placed upon traditional indigenous activities such as hunting, firewood collecting, and cattle grazing.<ref>Goldstein, G., Legal System and Wildlife Conservation: History and the Law's Effect on Indigenous People and Community Conservation in Tanzania, The. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 2005. Georgetown University Law Center (Spring).</ref> In 1948, Serengeti has officially established the first national park for wild cats in East Africa. Since 1983, there has been a more broad-reaching effort to manage environmental issues at a national level, through the establishment of the National Environment Management Council (NEMC) and the development of an environmental act.<ref name=TanLaw>Pallangyo, D.M. (2007). ""Environmental Law in Tanzania; How Far Have We Gone?"".LEAD: Law, Environment & Development Journal 3 (1).</ref>
[[File:Zebras, Serengeti savana plains, Tanzania.jpg|thumb|right|Zebras at the [[Serengeti]] savana plains in northern part of Tanzania]]
Division of the biosphere is the main government body that oversees protection. It does this through the formulation of policy, coordinating and monitoring environmental issues, [[environmental planning]] and policy-oriented environmental research. The National Environment Management Council (NEMC) is an institution that was initiated when the National Environment Management Act was first introduced in year 1983. This council has the role to advise governments and the international community on a range of environmental issues. The NEMC the following purposes: provide technical advice; coordinate technical activities; develop enforcement guidelines and procedures; assess, monitor and evaluate activities that impact the environment; promote and assist environmental information and communication; and seek advancement of scientific knowledge.<ref name=TanGov>Tanzania Government. ""Environment Tanzania"". Tanzania Government. Retrieved 20 September 2011.</ref>

The National Environment Policy of 1997 acts as a framework for environmental decision making in Tanzania. The policy objectives are to achieve the following:
* Ensure sustainable and equitable use of resources without degrading the environment or risking health or safety.
* Prevent and control degradation of [[land degradation|land]], water, vegetation and air.
* Conserve and enhance natural and man-made heritage, including biological diversity of unique ecosystems.
* Improve condition and productivity of degraded areas.
* Raise awareness and understanding of the link between environment and development.
* Promote individual and community participation.
* Promote international cooperation.<ref name=TanGov />
* Use [[ecofriendly]] resources.

Tanzania is a signatory to a significant number of international conventions including the Rio Declaration on Development and Environment 1992 and the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] 1996. The Environmental Management Act, 2004, is the first comprehensive legal and institutional framework to guide environmental-management decisions. The policy tools that are parts of the act include the use of environmental-impact assessments, strategics environmental assessments, and taxation on pollution for specific industries and products. The effectiveness of shifting of this act will only become clear over time as concerns regarding its implementation become apparent based on the fact that, historically, there has been a lack of capacity to enforce environmental laws and a lack of working tools to bring environmental-protection objectives into practice.

===China===
[[File:Longwanqun national forest park creek 2011 07 25.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Longwanqun National Forest Park]] is a nationally protected nature area in Huinan County, Jilin, China.]]
Formal environmental protection in China House was first stimulated by the 1972 [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] held in Stockholm, Sweden. Following this, they began establishing environmental protection agencies and putting controls on some of its industrial waste. China was one of the first developing countries to implement a sustainable development strategy. In 1983 the State Council announced that environmental protection would be one of China's basic national policies and in 1984 the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) was established. Following severe flooding of the Yangtze River basin in 1998, NEPA was upgraded to the State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) meaning that environmental protection was now being implemented at a ministerial level. In 2008, SEPA became known by its current name of [[Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China]] (MEP).<ref name=zhang08>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Kunmin|last2=Wen|first2=Peng|title=Review on environmental policies in China: Evolvement, features, and evaluation|journal=Environ. Sci. Engin. China|year=2008|volume=2|issue=2|pages=129–141|doi=10.1007/s11783-008-0044-6}}</ref>

{| class=""wikitable""
|-
! Command-and-control !! Economic incentives !! Voluntary instruments !! Public participation
|-
| Concentration-based pollution discharge controls || Pollution levy fee || Environmental labeling system || Clean-up campaign
|-
| Mass-based controls on total provincial discharge || Non-compliance fines || ISO 14000 system || Environmental awareness campaign
|-
| Environmental impact assessments (EIA) || Discharge permit system || Cleaner production || Air pollution index
|-
| Three synchronization program || Sulfur emission fee || NGOs || Water quality disclosure
|-
| Deadline transmission trading|| || Administrative permission hearing
|-
| Centralized pollution control || Subsidies for energy saving products || ||
|-
| Two compliance policy || Regulation on refuse credit to high-polluting firms || ||
|-
| Environmental compensation fee || || ||
|+ Pollution control instruments in China
|}

Environmental [[pollution]] and ecological degradation has resulted in economic losses for China. In 2005, economic losses (mainly from air pollution) were calculated at 7.7% of China's GDP. This grew to 10.3% by 2002 and the economic loss from water pollution (6.1%) began to exceed that caused by air pollution.<ref name=zhangwen08>{{cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Kun-min|author2=Wen, Zong-guo.|title=Review and challenges of policies of environmental protection and sustainable development in China|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|year=2008|volume=88|issue=4|pages=1249–1261|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.06.019|pmid=17767999}}</ref>
China has been one of the top performing countries in terms of GDP growth (9.64% in the past ten years).<ref name=""zhangwen08""/> However, the high economic growth has put immense pressure on its environment and the environmental challenges that China faces are greater than most countries. In 2021 it was noted that China was the world’s largest greenhouse gas emitter, while also facing additional environmental challenges which included illegal logging, wildlife trafficking, plastic waste, ocean pollution, environmental-related mismanagement, unregulated fishing, and the consequences associated with being the world’s largest mercury polluter.<ref>{{cite web |title=China's Environmental Abuses - United States Department of State |url=http://2017-2021.state.gov/chinas-environmental-abuses/ |website=U.S. Department of State |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> All these factors contribute to climate change and habitat loss. In 2022 China was ranked 160th out of 180 countries on the [[Environmental Performance Index]] due to poor air quality and high GHG emissions.

Ecological and environmental degradation in China have health related impacts; for example, if current pollution levels continue, Chinese citizens will lose 3.6 billion total life years.<ref>{{cite web |title=China |url=http://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/country-spotlight/china/ |website=AQLI |publisher=Air Quality Life Index |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> Another issue is that non-transmittable diseases among Chinese, which cause at least 80% of 10.3 million annual deaths, are worsened by air pollution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Report Recommends Deeper Healthcare Reforms in China |url=http://www.who.int/hongkongchina/news/detail/22-07-2016-report-recommends-deeper-healthcare-reforms-in-china |website=WHO |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref>

China has taken initiatives to increase its protection of the environment and combat environmental degradation:
* China's investment in renewable energy grew 18% in 2007 to $15.6 billion, accounting for ~10% of the global investment in this area;<ref name=chunmei10>{{cite journal|last=Chunmei|first=Wang|author2=Zhaolan, Lin.|title=Environmental Policies in China over the Past 10 Years: Progress, Problems and Prospects|journal=Procedia Environmental Sciences|year=2010|volume=2|pages=1701–1712|doi=10.1016/j.proenv.2010.10.181|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* In 2008, spending on the environment was 1.49% of GDP, up 3.4 times from 2000;<ref name=chunmei10 />
* The discharge of CO (carbon monoxide) and SO2 (sulfur dioxide) decreased by 6.61% and 8.95% in 2008 compared with that in 2005;<ref name=chunmei10 />
* China's protected nature reserves have increased substantially. In 1978 there were only 34 compared with 2,538 in 2010. The protected nature reserve system now occupies 15.5% of the country; this is higher than the world average.<ref name=chunmei10 />

Rapid growth in GDP has been China's main goal during the past three decades with a dominant development model of inefficient resource use and high pollution to achieve high GDP. For China to develop sustainably, environmental protection should be treated as an integral part of its economic policies.<ref name=Liu08>{{cite journal|author1-link=Jianguo Liu|author2-link=Jared Diamond|last=Liu|first=Jianguo|author2=Diamond, Jared.|title=Revolutionizing China's Environmental Protection|journal=Science|year=2008|volume=319|issue=5859|doi=10.1126/science.1150416|pages=37–38|pmid=18174421|s2cid=2903206}}</ref>

Quote from Shengxian Zhou, head of MEP (2009): ""Good economic policy is good environmental policy and the nature of environmental problem is the economic structure, production form and develop model.""<ref name=chunmei10 />

Since around 2010 China appears to be placing a greater emphasis on environmental and ecological protection. For example, former [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|General Secretary]] [[Hu Jintao]]’s report at the 2012 Party Congress added a section focusing on party policy on ecological issues.<ref name=""hoover.org"">{{cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Alice |title=How to Read Xi Jinping's 19th Party Congress Political Report |url=http://www.hoover.org/research/how-read-xi-jinpings-19th-party-congress-political-report |website=Hoover Institution |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jintao |first1=Hu |title=Full Text of Hu Jintao's Report at 18th Party Congress (2) |url=http://gen.people.cn/102774/8024779.html |website=People’s Daily Online |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref>

[[Xi Jinping]]’s report at the 19th CPC National Congress in 2017 noted recent progress in ecological and environmental conservation and restoration, the importance of ecologically sustainable development and global ecological security, and the need to provide ecological goods to meet people’s growing demands.<ref name=""xinhuanet.com"">{{cite web |last1=Jinping |first1=Xi |title=Full Text of Xi Jinping's Report at 19th CPC National Congress |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/special/2017-11/03/c_136725942.htm |website=Xinhua |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> Most importantly, Xi Jinping has suggested clearly identifiable methods to meet the ecological demands of the country. Some of the solutions he notes are the need for the development and facilitation of: ecological corridors, biodiversity protection networks, redlines for protecting ecosystems, market-based mechanisms for ecological compensation in addition to afforestation, greater crop rotation, recycling, waste reduction, stricter pollution standards, and greener production and technology.<ref name=""xinhuanet.com""/> The report at the 19th CPC National Congress isn’t simply the personal thoughts from Xi Jinping, it’s a product of a long process of compromise and negotiation among competing party officials and leaders.<ref name=""hoover.org""/>

Additionally, the Third Plenum of the CCP in 2013 included a manifesto that placed extreme emphasis on reforming management of the environment, promising to create greater transparency of those polluting, and placing environmental criteria above GDP growth for local official evaluations.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rosen |first1=Daniel |title=Executive Summary Avoiding the Blind Alley - Asia Society |url=http://asiasociety.org/files/pdf/AvoidingtheBlindAlley_ES.pdf |website=AsiaSociety |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref>

Reform hasn’t come cheap for China. In 2016, it was noted that in response to pollution and oversupply, China laid off around six million workers in [[state-owned enterprises]] and spent $23 billion to cover layoffs specifically for coal and steel companies between 2016 and 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lim |first1=Kang |title=Reuters |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-economy-layoffs-exclusive-idUSKCN0W33DS |website=Exclusive: China to Lay off Five to Six Million Workers, Earmarks at Least $23 Billion |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> While expensive, other benefits of environmental protection have been noticed beyond impacting citizens’ health. For example, in the long run, environmental protection has been found to generally improve job quality of migrant workers by reducing their work intensity, while increasing social security and job quality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhi |first1=Huang |title=Environmental Regulation and Rural Migrant Workers' Job Quality: Evidence from China Migrants Dynamic Surveys |journal=Economic Analysis and Policy |date=2023 |volume=78 |pages=845–858|doi=10.1016/j.eap.2023.04.034 |s2cid=258469218 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0313592623000838 |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref>

Different local governments in China implement different approaches to solving the issue of ecological protection, sometimes with negative consequences for the citizens. For example, a prefecture in the [[Shanxi]] province imposed bans, and potential legal detentions or steep fines for violations, on coal-burning by villagers.<ref name=""Beijing’s Green Fist"">{{cite web |last1=Wang |first1=Yaqiu |title=Beijing's Green Fist |url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/29/beijings-green-fist |website=Human Rights Watch |date=29 March 2022 |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> Although the government provided free gas-heaters often the villagers were unable to afford to run them.<ref name=""Beijing’s Green Fist""/> In [[Wuhan]], automated surveillance technology and video is used to catch illegal fishing, and in some cities not recycling results in negative social credit points. It is unclear in some of these instances if citizens have any potential routes for recourse.<ref name=""Beijing’s Green Fist""/>

News in 2023 has found that the Chinese Communist Party’s recent war on pollution has already brought substantial and measurable impacts, including China’s particulate pollution levels dropping 42% from 2013 levels and increasing the average lifespan expectancy of citizens by an estimated 2.2 years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aqli Policy Impacts-China: National Air Quality Action Plan (2014) |url=http://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/policy-impacts/china-national-air-quality-action-plan-2014/# |website=AQLI |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Yeung |first1=Jessie |title=Chinese People Are Living Two Years Longer Thanks to 'war on Pollution,' Report Says |url=http://news.yahoo.com/chinese-people-living-two-years-052416834.html?fr=sycsrp_catchall |website=CNN |date=30 August 2023 |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref>

===European Union===
Environmental protection has become an important task for the institutions of the [[European Community]] after the [[Maastricht Treaty]] for the [[European Union]] ratification by all of its member states. The EU is active in the field of environmental policy, issuing directives such as those on [[environmental impact assessment]] and on [[access to environmental information]] for citizens in the member states.

====Ireland====
The [[Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland]] (EPA) has a wide range of functions to protect the environment, with its primary responsibilities including:<ref>{{cite web |title=What We Are Responsible For |url=https://www.epa.ie/about/roles/ |website=Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref>
* Environmental licensing
* Enforcement of environmental law
* Environmental planning, education, and guidance
* Monitoring, analyzing and reporting on the environment
* Regulating Ireland's greenhouse gas emissions
* Environmental research development
* Strategic environmental assessment
* [[Waste management]]
* [[Nuclear waste|Radiological]] protection

===Middle East===
The Middle Eastern countries become part of the joint Islamic environmental action, which was initiated in 2002 in [[Jeddah]]. Under the [[Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]], the member states join the Islamic Environment Ministers Conference in every two years, focusing on the importance of environment protection and [[sustainable development]]. The Arab countries are also awarded the title of best environment management in the Islamic world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isesco.org.ma/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/final-report-7icem.pdf|title=7th Islamic Conference of Environment Ministers|access-date=25 October 2017|publisher=ISESCO|archive-date=28 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828131348/https://www.isesco.org.ma/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/final-report-7icem.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In August 2019, the [[Oman|Sultanate of Oman]] won the award for 2018–19 in [[Saudi Arabia]], citing its project ""Verifying the Age and Growth of Spotted Small Spots in the Northwest Coast of the Sea of Oman"".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://muscatdaily.com/Archive/Oman/Oman-wins-award-for-environment-management-in-Islamic-world-5fgg|title=Oman wins award for environment management in Islamic world|access-date=26 August 2019|newspaper=Muscat Daily|archive-date=14 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914113543/https://muscatdaily.com/Archive/Oman/Oman-wins-award-for-environment-management-in-Islamic-world-5fgg|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Russia===
In [[Russia]], environmental protection is considered an integral part of national [[safety]]. The Federal Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology is the authorized state body tasked with managing environmental protection. However, there are a lot of [[environmental issues in Russia]].

===Latin America===
The [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) has identified 17 [[megadiverse countries]]. The list includes six Latin American countries: [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]] and [[Venezuela]]. [[Mexico]] and [[Brazil]] stand out among the rest because they have the largest area, population and number of species. These countries represent a major concern for environmental protection because they have high rates of deforestation, ecosystems loss, pollution, and population growth.

====Brazil====
[[File:Foz de Iguaçu 27 Panorama Nov 2005.jpg|thumb|right|Panorama of the [[Iguazu falls]] in Brazil]]
[[Brazil]] has the largest amount of the world's tropical forests, 4,105,401&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (48.1% of Brazil), concentrated in the Amazon region.<ref>Ministério do Meio Ambiente (MMA) Secretaria de Biodiversidade e Florestas (2002), ' Biodiversidade Brasileira', http://www.biodiversidade.rs.gov.br/arquivos/BiodiversidadeBrasileira_MMA.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416165953/http://www.biodiversidade.rs.gov.br/arquivos/BiodiversidadeBrasileira_MMA.pdf |date=2015-04-16 }}, retrieved September 2011</ref> Brazil is home to vast biological diversity, first among the [[megadiverse countries]] of the world, having between 15%-20% of the 1.5 million globally described species.<ref>Lewinsohn, T. M.; Prado, P. I. (2004) 'Biodiversidade Brasileira: Síntese do Estado Atual do Conhecimento', Contexto Academico</ref>

The organization in charge of environment protection is the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment (in Portuguese: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, MMA).<ref>{{cite web|title=Ministério do Meio Ambiente|url=http://www.mma.gov.br/sitio/|publisher=Ministério do Meio Ambiente|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Ministério do Meio Ambiente|language=Portuguese|year=2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302154545/http://www.mma.gov.br/sitio/|archive-date=2 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was first created in the year 1973 with the name Special Secretariat for the Environment (Secretaria Especial de Meio Ambiente), changing names several times, and adopting the final name in the year 1999. The Ministry is responsible for addressing the following issues:
* A national policy for the environment and for water resources;
* A policy for the preservation, conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems, biodiversity, and forests;
* Proposing strategies, mechanisms, economic and social instruments for improving environmental quality, and sustainable use of natural resources;
* Policies for integrating production and the environment;
* Environmental policies and programs for the Legal Amazon;
* Ecological and economic territorial zoning.

In 2011, protected areas of the Amazon covered 2,197,485&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (an area larger than Greenland), with conservation units, like national parks, accounting for just over half (50.6%) and indigenous territories representing the remaining 49.4%.<ref>Veríssimo, A., Rolla, A., Vedoveto, M. & de Furtada, S.M. (2011) Áreas Protegidas na Amazônia Brasileira: avanços e desafios, [[Imazon]]/ISA</ref>

====Mexico====
[[File:Axolote.jpg|thumb|right|The [[axolotl]] is an endemic species from the central part of Mexico.]]
With over 200,000 different species, [[Mexico]] is home to 10–12% of the world's biodiversity, ranking first in [[reptile]] biodiversity and second in [[mammals]]<ref>Mittermeier, R. y C. Goettsch (1992) 'La importancia de la diversidad biológica de México', Conabio, México</ref>—one estimate indicates that over 50% of all animal and plant species live in Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|title=Principal ecosystems in Mexico|url=http://www.vivanatura.org/Maps%20Mexican%20ecosystems.html|work=Viva Natura|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Viva Natura}}</ref>

The history of environmental policy in Mexico started in the 1940s with the enactment of the Law of Conservation of Soil and Water (in Spanish: Ley de Conservación de Suelo y Agua). Three decades later, at the beginning of the 1970s, the Law to Prevent and Control Environmental Pollution was created (Ley para Prevenir y Controlar la Contaminación Ambiental).

In the year 1972 was the first direct response from the federal government to address eminent health effects from environmental issues. It established the administrative organization of the Secretariat for the Improvement of the Environment (Subsecretaría para el Mejoramiento del Ambiente) in the Department of Health and Welfare.

The Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, [[SEMARNAT]]<ref>Official site: http://www.semarnat.gob.mx/</ref>) is Mexico's environment ministry. The Ministry is responsible for addressing the following issues:
* Promote the protection, restoration, and conservation of ecosystems, natural resources, goods, and environmental services and facilitate their use and sustainable development.
* Develop and implement a national policy on natural resources
* Promote environmental management within the national territory, in coordination with all levels of government and the private sector.
* Evaluate and provide determination to the [[environmental impact statement]]s for development projects and prevention of ecological damage
* Implement national policies on climate change and protection of the ozone layer.
* Direct work and studies on national meteorological, climatological, hydrological, and geohydrological systems, and participate in international conventions on these subjects.
* Regulate and monitor the conservation of waterways

In November 2000 there were 127 [[protected areas]]; currently there are 174, covering an area of 25,384,818 hectares, increasing federally protected areas from 8.6% to 12.85% of its land area.<ref>Official site: http://www.conanp.gob.mx/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404000441/http://www.conanp.gob.mx/ |date=2015-04-04 }}</ref>

===Oceania===
====Australia====
[[File:GreatBarrierReef-EO.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Great Barrier Reef]] in Australia is the largest barrier reef in the world.]]
In 2008, there was 98,487,116 [[Hectare|ha]] of terrestrial protected area, covering 12.8% of the land area of [[Australia]].<ref name=""DB 2008"">{{cite web|title=Collaborative Australian Protected Areas Database 2008|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/parks/nrs/science/capad/2008/index.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> The 2002 figures of 10.1% of terrestrial area and 64,615,554 ha of protected marine area<ref name=""DB 2002"">{{cite web|title=Collaborative Aus tralian Protected Areas Database 2002|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/parks/nrs/science/capad/2002/index.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> were found to poorly represent about half of Australia's 85 bioregions.<ref name=""bio asses 2002"">{{cite web|title=Australian Terrestrial Biodiversity Assessment 2002|url=http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/vegetation/pubs/biodiversity/bio_assess_contents.html|work=National Land and Water Resources Audit|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011|author=Paul Sattler and Colin Creighton|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911163908/http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/vegetation/pubs/biodiversity/bio_assess_contents.html|archive-date=11 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Environmental protection in Australia could be seen as starting with the formation of the first national park, [[Royal National Park]], in 1879.<ref name=""royal"">{{cite web|title=Royal National Park|url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/NationalParks/parkHome.aspx?id=N0030|publisher=NSW Office of Environment and Heritage|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> More progressive environmental protection had it start in the 1960s and 1970s with major international programs such as the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] in 1972, the Environment Committee of the [[OECD]] in 1970, and the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] of 1972.<ref name=""AUS achieve"">{{cite book|title=Australian achievements in environment protection and nature conservation 1972-1982|year=1982|publisher=Australian Environment Council and Council of Nature Conservation Ministers|location=Canberra|isbn=0-642-88655-5|pages=1–2}}</ref> These events laid the foundations by increasing public awareness and support for regulation. State environmental legislation was irregular and deficient until the Australian Environment Council (AEC) and Council of Nature Conservation Ministers (CONCOM) were established in 1972 and 1974, creating a forum to assist in coordinating environmental and conservation policies between states and neighbouring countries.<ref name=""council BG"">{{cite web|title=Background to the Councils|url=http://www.mincos.gov.au/background|publisher=Australian Government Primary Industries Ministerial Council and Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822171721/http://www.mincos.gov.au/background|archive-date=22 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> These councils have since been replaced by the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) in 1991 and finally the Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) in 2001.<ref name=""EPHC"">{{cite web|title=ANZECC|url=http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/81|publisher=Environment Protection and Heritage Council|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927155500/http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/81|archive-date=27 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

At a national level, the ''[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]'' is the primary environmental protection legislation for the Commonwealth of Australia. It concerns matters of national and international environmental significance regarding flora, fauna, ecological communities and cultural heritage.<ref name=""EPBC 1"">{{cite web|title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> It also has jurisdiction over any activity conducted by the Commonwealth, or affecting it, that has significant environmental impact.<ref name=""EPBC 2"">{{cite web|title=About the EPBC Act
|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/about/index.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref>
The act covers eight main areas:<ref name=""EPBC 3"">{{cite web|title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) fact sheet|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/publications/epbc-act-fact-sheet.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref>
* [[National Heritage Site]]s
* [[World Heritage Site]]s
* [[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar]] [[wetland]]s
* Nationally endangered or [[threatened species]] and ecological communities
* Nuclear activities and actions
* [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]]
* Migratory species
* Commonwealth marine areas

There are several Commonwealth protected lands due to partnerships with traditional native owners, such as [[Kakadu National Park]], extraordinary biodiversity such as [[Christmas Island National Park]], or managed cooperatively due to cross-state location, such as the [[Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves]].<ref name=""CW parks"">{{cite web|title=Protected areas|url=http://australia.gov.au/topics/environment-and-natural-resources/environmental-protection/protected-areas|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-date=27 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227110324/http://australia.gov.au/topics/environment-and-natural-resources/environmental-protection/protected-areas|url-status=dead}}</ref>

At a state level, the bulk of environmental protection issues are left to the responsibility of the state or territory.<ref name=""council BG"" /><ref name=""EPBC 2"" /> Each state in Australia has its own environmental protection legislation and corresponding agencies. Their jurisdiction is similar and covers [[point source pollution]], such as from industry or commercial activities, land/water use, and waste management. Most protected lands are managed by states and territories<ref name=""CW parks"" /> with state legislative acts creating different degrees and definitions of protected areas such as wilderness, national land and marine parks, state forests, and conservation areas. States also create regulation to limit and provide general protection from air, water, and sound pollution.

At a local level, each city or regional council has responsibility over issues not covered by state or national legislation. This includes non-point source, or diffuse pollution, such as sediment pollution from construction sites.

Australia ranks second place on the UN 2010 [[Human Development Index]]<ref name=""HDI"">{{cite web|title=Human Development Index (HDI) - 2010 Rankings|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/Lets-Talk-HD-HDI_2010.pdf |publisher=Human Development Report Office; United Nations Development Programme|access-date=24 September 2011}}</ref> and one of the lowest debt to [[GDP]] ratios of the developed economies.<ref name=""AUS budget"">{{cite web|title=Overview of the Australian Government's Balance Sheet|url=http://www.budget.gov.au/2011-12/content/bp1/html/bp1_bst7-01.htm|work=Budget Strategy and Outlook 2011-12|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|access-date=24 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406155019/http://budget.gov.au/2011%2D12/content/bp1/html/bp1_bst7-01.htm|archive-date=6 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> This could be seen as coming at the cost of the environment, with Australia being the world leader in coal exportation<ref name=""AUS coal"">{{cite web|title=The Australian Coal Industry - Coal Exports |url=http://www.australiancoal.com.au/the-australian-coal-industry_coal-exports.aspx |publisher=Australian Coal Association |access-date=25 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002194553/http://www.australiancoal.com.au/the-australian-coal-industry_coal-exports.aspx |archivedate=2 October 2011}}</ref> and species extinctions.<ref name=""Jour extin"">{{cite journal|first1=Jeff |last1=Short |first2=Andrew |last2=Smith|title=Mammal Decline and Recovery in Australia|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|year=1994|volume=75|issue=2|pages=288–297|doi=10.2307/1382547|jstor=1382547}}</ref><ref name=""Extinction book"">{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Chris|title=Australia's Mammal Extinctions|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Melbourne|isbn=0-521-84918-7|pages=vii}}</ref> Some have been motivated to proclaim it is Australia's responsibility to set the example of environmental reform for the rest of the world to follow.<ref name=""Env lecture"">{{cite web|last=Murphy|first=Cameron|title=Australia as International Citizen - From past failure to future Distinction|url=http://lionelmurphy.anu.edu.au/22%20lecture%20by%20Cameron%20Murphy.doc|work=22nd Lionel Murphy Memorial Lecture|publisher=The Lionel Murphy Foundation|access-date=26 September 2011}}</ref><ref name=""AUS Greens"">{{cite web|title=Climate Change and Energy|url=http://greens.org.au/policies/climate-change-and-energy/climate-change-and-energy|publisher=The Australian Greens|access-date=26 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916205616/http://greens.org.au/policies/climate-change-and-energy/climate-change-and-energy|archive-date=16 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====New Zealand====
At a national level, the [[Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand)|Ministry for the Environment]] is responsible for environmental policy and the [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] addresses [[conservation ethic|conservation issues]]. At a regional level the [[Regions of New Zealand|regional councils]] administer the legislation and address regional [[environmental issues]].

===Switzerland===
{{excerpt|Environmental protection in Switzerland}}
The environmental protection in Switzerland is mainly based on the measures to be taken against global warming. The pollution in Switzerland is mainly the pollution caused by vehicles and the litteration by tourists.{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}}

===United States===
[[File:YosemitePark2 amk.jpg|thumb|[[Yosemite National Park]] in [[California]], one of the first protected areas in the United States]]
Since 1970, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has been working to protect the environment and human health.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/epahome/aboutepa.htm The United States Environmental Protection Agency.] Retrieved on (23 August 2008). ""About Us (section)"". U.S. EPA.</ref>

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent executive agency of the United States federal government tasked with environmental protection matters.

All US states have their own state-level departments of environmental protection,<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/epahome/state.htm ""State Environmental Agencies""]. [http://www.epa.gov United States Environmental Protection Agency]. Accessed May 2010.</ref> which may issue regulations more stringent than the federal ones.

In January 2010, EPA Administrator [[Lisa P. Jackson]] published via the official EPA blog her ""Seven Priorities for EPA's Future"", which were (in the order originally listed):<ref name=""priorities"">[http://blog.epa.gov/administrator/2010/01/12/seven-priorities-for-epas-future/ ""Seven Priorities for EPA's Future""] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818135203/http://blog.epa.gov/administrator/2010/01/12/seven-priorities-for-epas-future/ |date=18 August 2012}}. [http://www.epa.gov United States Environmental Protection Agency]. Accessed May 2010.</ref>
* Taking action on [[climate change]]
* Improving [[air quality index|air quality]]
* Assuring the safety of [[chemical]]s
* Cleaning up [US] communities
* Protecting America's waters
* Expanding the conversation on environmentalism and working for [[environmental justice]]
* Building strong state and [[Indian tribe|tribal]] partnerships
{{As of|2019|post=,}} it is unclear whether these still represent the agency's active priorities, as Jackson departed in February 2013, and the page has not been updated in the interim.

===India===
The Constitution of India has a number of provisions demarcating the responsibility of the Central and State governments towards Environmental Protection. The state's responsibility with regard to environmental protection has been laid down under article 48-A of the constitution which stated that ""The states shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country"".<ref>{{Cite wikisource
 | title = Constitution of India/Part IV
 | last = '''The Government of India'''
}}</ref>

Environmental protection has been made a fundamental duty of every citizen of India under Article 51-A (g) of the constitution which says ""It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures"".<ref>{{Cite Wikisource
 | title = Constitution of India/Part IVA
 | last = The Government of India
}}</ref>

Article 21 of the constitution is a fundamental right, which states that ""No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law"".<ref>{{Cite wikisource
 | title = Constitution of India/Part III
 | last = The Government of India
}}</ref>

==In literature==
There are numerous works of literature that contain the themes of environmental protection but some have been fundamental to its evolution. Several pieces such as ''[[A Sand County Almanac]]'' by [[Aldo Leopold]], ""[[Tragedy of the commons]]"" by [[Garrett Hardin]], and ''[[Silent Spring]]'' by [[Rachel Carson]] have become classics due to their far reaching influences.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practices |date=4 March 2019 |publisher=Bankston Cotton |isbn=9781839474088 |page=310 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XuTEDwAAQBAJ&q=pieces+such+as+A+Sand+County+Almanac+by+Aldo+Leopold,+%22Tragedy+of+the+commons%22+by+Garrett+Hardin,+and+Silent+Spring+by+Rachel+Carson+have+become+classics+due+to+their+far+reaching+influences&pg=PA310}}</ref> The conservationist and Nobel laureate [[Wangari Maathai|Wangari Muta Maathai]] devoted her 2010 book Replenishing the Earth to the Green Belt Movement and the vital importance of trees in protecting the environment.

The subject of environmental protection is present in fiction as well as non-fictional literature. Books such as ''[[Antarctica (novel)|Antarctica]]'' and ''[[Blockade (novel)|Blockade]]'' have environmental protection as subjects whereas ''[[The Lorax]]'' has become a popular metaphor for environmental protection. ""The Limits of Trooghaft""<ref name=troog>{{cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Desmond|title=The Limits of Trooghaft|journal=Encounter|date=February 1972|volume=38|issue=2|pages=3–7|url=http://www.animal-rights-library.com/texts-m/stewart01.htm|access-date=24 September 2011|location=London}}</ref> by Desmond Stewart is a short story that provides insight into human attitudes towards animals. Another book called ''[[The Martian Chronicles]]'' by [[Ray Bradbury]] investigates issues such as bombs, wars, government control, and what effects these can have on the environment.

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences}}
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Anti-consumerism]]
* [[Anti-environmentalism]]
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Biocentrism (ethics)]]
* [[Carbon offset]]
* [[Citizen science#Plastics and pollution|Citizen Science]], cleanup projects that people can take part in.
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation movement]]
* [[Earth Day]]
* [[Environmentalism]]
* [[Environmental education]]
* [[Environmental globalization]]
* [[Environmental governance]]
* [[Environmental law]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Environmental organizations]]
* [[Environmental personhood]]
* [[Environmental racism]]
* [[Green politics]]
* [[Green solutions]]
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[List of environmental topics]]
* [[List of international environmental agreements]]
* [[Natural capital]]
* [[Natural resource management]]
* [[Nature conservation]]
* [[Proforestation]]
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[World Environment Day]]
* [[Climate change mitigation]]
* [[Greening]]{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Environmental protection}}

{{Conservation of species}}{{Environmentalism}}{{Social democracy}}
{{Christian Democracy}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Environmental Protection}}
[[Category:Environmental protection| ]]

[[ltg:Apleicsardzeiba]]
[[hu:Természetvédelem]]"
Action plan,"{{Short description|Document describing the strategy, the steps, and the resources necessary to reach a goal}}
An '''action plan''' is a detailed [[plan]] outlining actions needed to reach one or more [[goal]]s.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Alternatively, it can be defined as a ""sequence of steps that must be taken, or activities that must be performed well, for a [[strategy]] to succeed"".<ref>{{cite web
 | url = http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/action-plan.html
 | title = What is action plan? definition and meaning
 | year = 2016
 | publisher = WebFinance Inc.
 | access-date = 2016-10-14
 | quote = action plan[:] A sequence of steps that must be taken, or activities that must be performed well, for a strategy to succeed.
 | archive-date = 2019-10-03
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191003035423/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/action-plan.html
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref>

== Process ==

=== Origin ===
An action plan is a tool in social planning. It is an organizational strategy to identify necessary steps towards a goal. It considers details, may help limit setting for an organization, and is efficient in that it saves resources over trial and error. A written action plan also serves as a token for an organization's accountability.<ref name=commtool>{{cite book|title=Community Toolbox|year=2013|publisher=University of Kansas|url=http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/structure/strategic-planning/develop-action-plans/main|chapter=Chapter 8. Developing a Strategic Plan}}</ref>

=== Setting goals ===
A goal is the primary objective of an action plan. Setting goals gives the possibility of your dreams and prospects being brought to life. It creates motivation and provides you with a certainty that the final outcome will be worthwhile, preventing any wasted time and effort. This is achieved by being fully dedicated to the process and using the structured guide to accomplishing it. Although hard work may be produced, without a successful end goal the ideal result you set to achieve, will not prevail.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Susan B. Wilson|author2=Michael S. Pmp Dobson|title=Goal Setting: How to Create an Action Plan and Achieve Your Goals|date=12 March 2008|pages=3–21|edition=Second}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=1.4 Creating an action plan and setting achievable goals|url=http://pathwaystowork.eu/en/?page_id=208|accessdate=26 October 2014|archive-date=24 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524151916/http://pathwaystowork.eu/en?page_id=208|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Creation ===
When creating action plans there are guided steps that need to be followed to ensure success, however the structure can be altered in the process. Firstly, you will need to outline what you want to achieve from the project, by doing this you set  yourself targets. After this the specific roles will need to be allocated ensuring sufficient amount of training, resources and issues have been considered to ensure solving any problems that may occur. The next stage allows members of the group to analyse the progress by outlining milestones, solving any issues and making any necessary changes. Lastly once the project has come to an end the final stage can be examined to ensure future success.<ref>{{cite web|title=Guidance to making an action plan|url=http://www.wmc.ac.uk/public/freedom/human_resources/Guidance%20to%20making%20Action%20Plans.doc|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327054108/http://www.wmc.ac.uk/public/freedom/human_resources/Guidance%20to%20making%20Action%20Plans.doc|archivedate=27 March 2014|accessdate=23 October 2014}}</ref>

=== Execution ===
Mike Desjardins has suggested the following<ref>{{cite web|title=How to execute corporate action plans effectively|url=http://www.biv.com/article/20111213/BIV0315/312139955/-1/BIV/how-to-execute-corporate-action-plans-effectively|publisher=Business In Vancouver|accessdate=22 March 2014|author=Mike Desjardins|date=13 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322084046/http://www.biv.com/article/20111213/BIV0315/312139955/-1/BIV/how-to-execute-corporate-action-plans-effectively|archive-date=22 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

*Ownership: one person must be responsible and accountable for tracing the progress, keeping team informed, ensuring timely action steps are occurring and adjusting the actions.
*Action steps should be clear and actionable versus vague ideas or thoughts.
*Responsibility: each action step needs to have one person responsible.
*Support: For each action step, determine who will support the person responsible. This can be multiple people. The key is that they're not responsible for the action or outcome.
*Informed: keeping the right people in the communication loop for each action is critically important. Key people might need to understand the state of progress around your actions to see how they affect other actions and objectives.
*Metrics and budget: each action step must have a metric that tells us that the action is complete. For example, if you needed to survey your customers and don't have the internal resources to run the survey or want to protect anonymity, using an outside resource will require money that might not be included in your current operating budget
*Completion date

== Context ==

=== Advantages ===
Producing an action plan can be beneficial not only for individual basis but also for businesses. For example, it allows project managers or any member of a group to monitor their progress and take each task step-by-step, therefore allowing them to handle the project efficiently. The advantage of doing this is, it allows you to execute a structured plan for the end goal you intend to achieve. Furthermore, it provides the team with appropriate foundations, therefore prioritising the amount of time you spend on each task. This will then prevent any sidetracking that may occur. Lastly, it creates a bond within a team, as each member is aware of their individual role, as well as providing necessary information to ensure success of the project.<ref>{{cite web|title=diffundo |url=http://www.diffundo.com/instructions/resource18.pdf |accessdate=19 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020200347/http://www.diffundo.com/instructions/resource18.pdf |archivedate=20 October 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Smriti Chand|title=What are the Advantages and Potential Disadvantages of Planning under Management?|date=25 June 2013|url=http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/management/what-are-the-advantages-and-potential-disadvantages-of-planning-under-management/3501/|accessdate=23 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Brenda Horton|title=5 Reasons Why Your Business Idea Needs An Action Plan|url=http://www.hware.com/2010/09/5-reasons-why-your-business-idea-needs-an-action-plan/|website=hware|date=24 September 2010|accessdate=27 October 2014}}</ref>

=== Issues ===
When using action plans limitations will need to be considered. Firstly, each member of the team will need to be allocated individual roles and tasks which will require completion by a set date. This can be demanding for some, due to coping with the stress and distractions that may occur.
Another issue is not being guided thoroughly and effectively, leading to the lack of effort and passion a member has for the project. In addition to this, if the communication throughout the team is non-existent, key information will not reach members of the group, causing lack of confidence. Lastly failing to obtain the goal you set to reach can lead to frustration and in turn the planning would have been a waste of time. There can be more addition to this article.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Leigh Ann Morgan|title=Advantages and Disadvantages of Goal Setting|url=http://www.livestrong.com/article/217375-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-goal-setting/-|accessdate=23 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Action Plan|url=http://www.itseducation.asia/action.htm|website=ITS|accessdate=25 October 2014}}</ref>

=== Risk management ===
To benefit from risk management action plans, you need to examine certain possibilities that could affect the process, such as observing any threats and correcting them. For example, key aspects of risk management are to ensure you allocate members specific roles and monitor the risks throughout, to ensure tasks are completed with efficiency. This being a major factor, as evaluating what happens during and after the project, will allow finding the positive and negative elements of each stage in the planning,  providing you the ability to develop on the risks further.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Jean Scheid|author2=Marlene Gundlach|title=Why You Need a Risk Management Action Plan|url=http://www.brighthubpm.com/risk-management/31709-why-you-need-a-risk-management-action-plan/|website=Bright Hub PM|date=7 April 2009|accessdate=27 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-link=Paul K. Moser|title=Rationality in Action|isbn=0-521-38598-9|pages=11–26|last1=Moser|first1=Paul K.|date=26 October 1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref>

== Examples ==

=== Council of Europe ===
The [[Council of Europe]] has organized some action plans for helping its member states. An example of this is the [[Council of Europe Action Plan for the Republic of Moldova 2021–2024]], created with the purpose of improving [[Moldova]]'s situation on [[democracy]], [[Human rights in Moldova|human rights]] and [[rule of law]] and its state [[institution]]s and [[legislation]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/new-council-of-europe-action-plan-for-the-republic-of-moldova-launched-in-strasbourg|title=New Council of Europe Action Plan for the Republic of Moldova launched in Strasbourg|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|date=19 April 2021}}</ref>

=== European Union ===
Some [[Directive (European Union)|European Union directive]]s describe action plans in order to reach a defined target in [[air quality]] or [[noise reduction]]. If the target cannot be reached by a member state, the member needs to write a report. Sometimes action plans contain deadlines by which the plan must be ready to start the action(s) and the targets are to be reached.

== See also ==
* [[Climate Action Plan]]
* [[Biodiversity action plan]]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Action plans| ]]"
Rama dama,"{{short description|Organized public space cleanup in Bavaria}}

'''Rama dama''' or '''ramadama''' ([[Bavarian language|Bavarian]]: ""We are cleaning!"" from {{lang-de|Räumen tun wir!}}) is a volunteer cleanup movement in [[Bavaria]], collecting waste from urban and natural public spaces. The organization is run by communities, schools, associations and citizens' initiatives.<ref>Abfallwirtschaftsbetrieb München: [https://www.awm-muenchen.de/wir-ueber-uns/engagement/ramadama.html ''Ramadama - Aufräumen für München''].</ref>

[[Thomas Wimmer (politician)|Thomas Wimmer]], the then-Mayor of [[Munich]], called for people to ''""rama dama""'' for the first time on 29 October 1949, addressing the damage done to the city during the [[Second World War]]. More than 7500 volunteers joined the project, with Wimmer working with a shovel. In total, more than 15,000 cubic meters of rubble were collected that day. The term remained as designation for common, honorary tidying up.<ref>Kerstin Lottritz: [https://www.merkur.de/lokales/muenchen/stadt-muenchen/jahren-erste-rama-dama-513397.html ''Vor 60 Jahren: Das erste „Rama Dama“'', 4. November 2009]</ref>

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Volunteering by country]]
[[Category:Culture of Bavaria]]
[[Category:Events in Bavaria]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:German-language idioms]]
[[Category:Cleaning and the environment]]"
Plant for Pakistan,"{{short description|Environmental protection project}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=April 2022}}
{{Essay-like|date=July 2021}}
}}

{{Imran Khan sidebar}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
'''Plant for Pakistan''' (Plant4Pakistan), also known as '''10 Billion Tree Tsunami''', is a five-year project to plant 10 billion trees across Pakistan from 2018 to 2023.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-incoming-government-to-plant-10-billion-trees-/4516212.html|title=Pakistan to Plant '10 Billion Trees'|last=Gul|first=Ayaz|work=VOA|access-date=2018-09-15|language=en}}</ref> Prime Minister [[Imran Khan]] started the drive on 2 September 2018 with approximately 1.5 million trees planted on the first day.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1793014/1-plant-pakistan-drive-kicks-off-tomorrow/|title='Plant for Pakistan' campaign kicks off across the country {{!}} The Express Tribune|date=2018-09-01|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=2018-09-15|language=en-US}}</ref> The campaign was based on the successful [[Billion Tree Tsunami]] campaign of the former [[Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf]] government, also led by Imran Khan, in the province of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/07/pakistan-s-billion-tree-tsunami-is-astonishing/|title=Pakistan has planted over a billion trees|website=World Economic Forum|access-date=2018-09-15}}</ref> This different initiative is often confused with the initiative of the Prime Minister Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif who launched a national campaign of Green Pakistan and also allocated budget funding from the PSDP.

In 2020, the program tripled its number of workers to 63,600 after being momentarily halted following the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan]], aiming to enlist those left unemployed by its economic consequences.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pakistan Hires Thousands of Newly-Unemployed Laborers for Ambitious 10 Billion Tree-Planting Initiative|url=https://www.goodnewsnetwork.org/pakistan-hires-laborers-for-planting-10-billion-tree/|agency=thegoodnewsnetwork|website=Good News Network|language=en|date=30 April 2020|access-date=2 May 2020}}</ref> Most of the work, which pays between 500 and 800 rupees (US$3–5) a day, takes place in rural areas, with people setting up nurseries, planting saplings, and serving as [[forest protection]] guards. The plan was awarded 7.5 billion rupees ($46m) in funding.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pakistan's virus-idled workers hired to plant trees|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/04/pakistan-virus-idled-workers-hired-plant-trees-200429070109237.html|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|access-date=30 April 2020|publication-date=}}.</ref>
Saplings planted during the initiative included mulberry, acacia, moringa and other indigenous species.

==Planting Billions of Trees== 
While Pakistan's [[economy]] is 135th in terms of [[greenhouse gas]] emissions, it is among the top ten countries in the world to be affected by [[global warming]] according to the annual report of [[Climate Change Performance Index|Global Climate Risk Index]] of German Watch, which ranks Pakistan as eighth among the countries most at risk of climate change.<ref>Eckstein, David, et al. [https://www.germanwatch.org/sites/germanwatch.org/files/20-2-01e%20Global%20Climate%20Risk%20Index%202020_16.pdf ""Global climate risk index 2020.""] (PDF) ''Germanwatch'' (2019).</ref> As of November 2021, Lahore is the number one in the world in terms of [[air pollution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lahore Air Quality Index (AQI) and Pakistan Air Pollution &#124; AirVisual |url=https://www.iqair.com/pakistan/punjab/lahore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pakistan: 'Find a solution,' say Lahore residents choking in smog |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/17/pakistan-lahore-smog-air-pollution-aqi-health |website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 November 2021 |title=Hazy Lahore declared most polluted city in the world |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1655402}}</ref> Major cities have experienced major heat waves and high levels of pollution in the 21st century, including [[Karachi]]<ref name=""bloomberg"">{{cite news |last1=Haider |first1=Kamran |last2=Anis |first2=Khurrum |date=24 June 2015 |title=Heat Wave Death Toll Rises to 2,000 in Pakistan's Financial Hub |publisher=Bloomberg News |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-06-24/heat-wave-death-toll-rises-to-2-000-in-pakistan-s-financial-hub |accessdate=3 August 2015}}</ref> and [[Islamabad]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kamal |first=Shahid |date=2018-04-02 |title=Quality of air in Islamabad declining |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1399014 |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |language=en}}</ref>

Pakistan has a wide variety of [[ecosystem]]s within its borders, including the [[Arabian Sea|Arabian sea]], several [[List of deserts of Pakistan|deserts]] and major [[List of rivers of Pakistan|rivers]], and more than seven thousand [[List of glaciers of Pakistan|glaciers]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Craig|first=Tim|date=2016-08-12|title=Pakistan has more glaciers than almost anywhere on Earth. But they are at risk.|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/pakistan-has-more-glaciers-than-almost-anywhere-on-earth-but-they-are-at-risk/2016/08/11/7a6b4cd4-4882-11e6-8dac-0c6e4accc5b1_story.html|access-date=2020-09-04|issn=0190-8286|quote=With 7,253 known glaciers, including 543 in the Chitral Valley, there is more glacial ice in Pakistan than anywhere on Earth outside the polar regions, according to various studies.}}</ref> Pakistan is also at the confluence of three great mountain ranges; the [[Hindu Kush]], the [[Himalayas]] and the [[Karakoram]]. Areas such as [[Sindh|Sindh province]] are at increased risk of flooding due to the melting of glaciers and the eruption of glacial lakes, while also being at risk of drought due to an increasingly warm [[dry season]].  Threats such as [[hurricane]]s also pose an increasing threat to open populations.

The PTI-led government, under its political campaign on Green Agenda, have introduced projects like Billion Tree Tsunami and Ten Billion Tree Tsunami to tackle and raise awareness about forestry and afforestation across the country in response.

==International Acceptance== 
The Billion Tree Tsunami, or the planting of one billion trees, was started by the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] government in 2014. One billion trees were planted on 35,000 hectares of forest and barren land.

Regional 'Billion Tree Tsunami' project, which started seven years ago in 2014, started a revolution with great silence. The 'Billion Tree Tsunami' soon reverberated not only across the country but also globally, thanks to its performance in environmental organizations such as the [[Bonn Challenge]], the [[World Bank]] and [[IUCN]]. Foreign diplomats in the diplomatic enclave of Islamabad also turned their attention to it and then the world became aware of their observations and observations. Shortly afterwards, international broadcasters began to take notice, and it was interpreted by a developing country as an important step in the context of climate change. After the successful completion of the Billion Tree Tsunami Project at the provincial level, as soon as the [[Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf]] (PTI) gets the responsibility to take over the central government in 2018 Due to the personal interest of Prime Minister [[Imran Khan]], he initiated a green environmental revolution by rehabilitating, promoting and large-scale afforestation of one million hectares of forests across the country under the mega project of 10 billion tree [[tsunami]] (10 billion tree tsunami). Raised to do. Apparently this is a difficult goal to pursue, but in the last two years, despite all the adversity, the project is moving forward. During this period, not only did the [[United Nations]] and the [[World Economic Forum]] warmly appreciate Pakistan's commitment, but many other countries, including [[South Africa]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], have launched similar projects in their countries. Announced to start. Two and a half years of the present government have passed and about one billion trees have been planted so far, so the question arises whether it is possible to plant 9 billion trees in the next two and a half years. [[Malik Amin Aslam]], Special Adviser to the Prime Minister on Climate Change, answers this question by saying, ""Our goal is to plant three billion trees in the next five years, which we will easily achieve. We hope that the next government will be ours and we will achieve this goal with the prayers of these trees. Environmentalist and botanist [[Rafi-ul-Haq]] says, ""This program has gained so much attention and importance at the national and international levels that even if the next PTI does not come to power, the government will be the one to complete the project There will be global pressure and it will not be possible for any government to end or ignore this project in view of climate change.

==The 'Safe Areas' system ==

Apart from tree planting, the government of Pakistan have also taken other eco-friendly measures, including increasing the number of [[Protected areas of Pakistan|protected areas]]; as of December 2022, there are currently 398 wildlife conservation areas in Pakistan. Of these, 31 have [[national park]] status. The total protected land area represents 13% of Pakistan's landmass as of 2020, with the government of Pakistan announcing plans to increase this amount to 15% by 2023.

A [[National Park Academy]] has been planned for [[Ziarat]] and [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] national parks, where young people will be given jobs after special training, with plans to give least 5,000 young people employment.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/urdu/pakistan-57340275|title=ماحولیات کا عالمی دن: وزیراعظم عمران خان کا '10 بلین ٹری سونامی منصوبہ، پاکستان کے ماحول دوست اقدامات کا عالمی سطح پر اعتراف|date=3 June 2021|work=[[BBC Urdu (news channel)|BBC Urdu]]}}</ref>

==Other Green Projects==

===Green energy===
The government has immediately abandoned 2600 MW coal burning projects and focused on new 3700 MW [[hydropower]] projects instead and such power projects should be given priority in the country now. There are no [[oil]] or [[coal]] burning in them. ""Efforts are being made to generate [[electricity]] using [[Solar power|solar]], [[Water power|water]] and [[wind energy]]. Currently, more than a third of Pakistan's electricity comes from projects where no oil or coal is burned. Efforts are being made to generate two-thirds of the electricity in the same decade without burning oil or coal.""

===Electric Vehicles===
{{Main|Electric vehicles in Pakistan}}
Another eco-friendly project of this government is the promotion of [[electric vehicle]]s. [[Smoke]] from vehicles is a major cause of [[urban pollution]]. To address this, the government has announced a new policy to promote the use of electric vehicles. Under this policy, duties and taxes on electric vehicles have been made nominal. Significant progress is being made in this regard. German car company [[BMW]] has set up its charging station at [[Kohsar Market]] in Islamabad. PSO is also going to build another charging station in [[Jinnah Supermarket]]. In Karachi, three charging stations are planned in partnership with [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[Karachi Electric]], which will be installed in Defense, Gulshan and Gadap areas.At present, at least half a dozen companies in the country are installing assembly plants for electric vehicles, which will reduce the cost of these vehicles even more than the current petrol-powered vehicles. The government hopes that by the end of this decade, the share of e-vehicles will reach 30% and 90% by 2030  and 2040 respectively. The first locally produced e-bike was launched along with 6 other models on 8 July 2021.

===Green diplomacy===
These trees have opened many closed doors and played the role of green diplomat. ""Recently, our relations with [[Saudi Arabia]] have been somewhat strained, but when Saudi Arabia launched the Billion Tree project in their country, they wrote a letter to Prime Minister Imran Khan inviting him to visit and restore relations. Done. ' ""The [[United States]] did not invite us to the [[climate summit]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/urdu/world-56547975|title=ماحولیاتی سمٹ: امریکی صدر جو بائیڈن کی 40 عالمی رہنماؤں کو شرکت کی دعوت، پاکستان کا نام شامل نہیں|date= 27 March 2021|work=[[BBC Urdu (News channel)|BBC Urdu]]}}</ref> two months ago, but obviously our work could not be ignored, so we had to invite. The word billion tree has become the identity of Pakistan after Saudi Arabia, the [[UK]] and [[New Zealand]] started working on similar projects.

== See also ==
* [[Billion Tree Tsunami]], a [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], Pakistan reforestation project
* [[Trillion Tree Campaign]], a [[UNEP]] call to plant 1 trillion (1,000,000,000,000 or 10,00,00,00,00,000) trees.

== References ==
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{{reflist}}

{{Imran Khan}}

[[Category:Imran Khan administration]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Reforestation]]
[[Category:Climate change in Pakistan]]"
"Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment","{{Short description|German Commission}}
{{Expand German|Kommission für Wachstum, Strukturwandel und Beschäftigung|date=January 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019|cs1-dates=y}}
'''Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment''' (German: {{lang|de|Kommission für Wachstum, Strukturwandel und Beschäftigung}} (WSB), originally {{lang|de|Kommission für Wachstum, Strukturwandel und Regionalentwicklung}}, commonly just called ''Kohlekommission'', that is ''coal commission'', in Germany) is a commission created by the [[Federal Republic of Germany|German federal government]] on 6{{nbsp}}June 2018, after the governing coalition of the Christian Democrats ([[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union of Bavaria|CSU]]) with the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democrats]] (SPD) in February 2018.<ref name=""R1""/><ref name=""R2""/>

The committee was supposed to submit its final report to the federal government on 1 February 2019. Submission of the recommended measures on social and structural development and financing of States, in which [[brown coal]] is extracted, was expected by the end of October 2018. These measures should include [[climate change mitigation]] policy measures, especially a [[fossil fuel phase-out]] plan with a target phase-out date and measures to achieve the [[greenhouse gas emission]] reduction goal by 2020 Germany has committed to.<ref name=""R3""/><ref name=""R4""/>

The commission's report was published in January 2019 recommending Germany to entirely phase out and shut down the 84 remaining coal-fired plants on its territory by 2038.<ref name=""R5""/> While this was applauded as a success by some, others, including scientists and climate experts, argued that this still would not be fast enough, and that to prevent the climate from reaching an irreversible [[tipping point (climate change)|tipping point]], the phase out must have happened by 2030 already.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Germany|Energy|Global warming}}
* [[Hambach Forest]]
* [[Ende Gelände 2018]]
* [[Ende Gelände 2019]]
* {{ill|Rhenish lignite mining area|de|Rheinisches Braunkohlerevier}}
* {{ill|Lusatian lignite mining area|de|Lausitzer Braunkohlerevier}}
* {{ill|Middle German lignite mining area|de|Mitteldeutsches Braunkohlerevier}}
* [[School strike for climate]] / [[Fridays for Future]] (FFF)
* [[September 2019 climate strikes]]

== References ==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=""R1"">{{Cite web |url=https://www.bmu.de/ME7918-1 |title=Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment takes up work - BMU-Report |work=Report Climate |publisher=[[Federal Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety]] (BMU), [[Federal Republic of Germany]] |date=2018-06-06 |location=Germany |language=en |access-date=2019-01-22}}</ref>
<ref name=""R2"">{{cite web |language=fr |title=La fin du charbon au menu du gouvernement allemand ? Traduction et décryptage de l'accord de coalition |url=https://theshiftproject.org/article/la-fin-du-charbon-au-menu-de-la-coalition-allemande/ |date=2018-03-06 |access-date=2019-01-21 |publisher=The Shift Project}}</ref>
<ref name=""R3"">{{cite web |language=de |title=Antwort der Bundesregierung: Zukunft und Begünstigungen der Braunkohlewirtschaft in Deutschland |url=http://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/19/030/1903074.pdf |website=dip21.de}}</ref>
<ref name=""R4"">{{cite web |language=de |title=Kohleausstiegskommission: Umweltverbände stellen Bedingungen |url=http://www.zeit.de/news/2018-03/27/kohleausstiegskommission-umweltverbaende-stellen-bedingungen-180327-99-654424 |publisher=[[Die Zeit]] |date=2018-03-27 |access-date=2018-03-28 |archive-date=28 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328231448/http://www.zeit.de/news/2018-03/27/kohleausstiegskommission-umweltverbaende-stellen-bedingungen-180327-99-654424 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name=""R5"">{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-germany-coal-power-20190126-story.html |title=Germany to close all 84 of its coal-fired power plants, will rely primarily on renewable energy |author-last=Kirschbaum |author-first=Erik |date=2019-01-26 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=2019-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130002321/https://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-germany-coal-power-20190126-story.html |archive-date=2019-01-30 |url-status=live |quote=Germany, one of the world’s biggest consumers of coal, will shut down all 84 of its coal-fired power plants over the next 19 years to meet its international commitments in the fight against climate change, a government commission said Saturday.}}</ref>
}}

== Further reading ==
* https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/hambacher-forst-kohleausstieg-rettung-1.4304442
* http://www.taz.de/!5568305/

{{Global warming|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Energy policy of Germany]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Coal phase-out]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Category:Environmental conservation,"{{Portal|Ecology|Environment}}
{{Cat more|Nature conservation}}
[[Category:Nature conservation|.]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]

{{CatAutoTOC}}

{{CatTrack}}"
Management of the Rhine Basin,"'''International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine''' (ICPR) and its contract shows alignment with the UN Convention on international watercourses and has proven effective in its goals for the [[Rhine]] and the Rhine Basin. It was necessary for a treaty to come through the countries in the Rhine basin as it provides water based on industrial and agricultural needs and provides drinking water to over 20 million people.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last=Moellenkamp|first=S.|date=2007-06-07|title=The ""WFD-effect"" on upstream-downstream relations in international river basins &ndash; insights from the Rhine and the Elbe basins|url=https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/hessd-2007-0049/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions|language=English|volume=4|issue=3|pages=1407–1428|doi=10.5194/hessd-4-1407-2007|bibcode=2007HESSD...4.1407M|issn=1027-5606 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Management of international waters==
Water is a resource that when shared between neighboring nations requires negotiation not to prevent conflict, but in order to help conserve it for future use. Studies have shown that dispute over water use does not historically follow a pattern of conflict as much as a pattern of cooperation when negotiations shift from water rights to water needs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wolf |first=Aaron T. |date=2007 |title=Shared Waters: Conflict and Cooperation |journal=[[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] |language=en |volume=32|issue=1 |pages=241–269 |doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.32.041006.101434| doi-access=free |issn=1543-5938}}</ref> A major step towards developing standardized rules for managing waters was the [[Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses]], which called for equitable, reasonable, and protective use of waters shared internationally.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=0800000280025697&clang=_en |title=UNTC |website=treaties.un.org|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> This requires countries who agreed to these terms to provide a framework for these principles that could be applied to their respective and shared waters.

==Background==
Located west of central Europe, with an area of {{cvt|163609|km2}}, the basin holds nine countries: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Netherlands]], and [[Switzerland]] (figure 1).<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|url=http://twap-rivers.org/indicators/|title=TWAP Rivers Portal - Indicators application|website=twap-rivers.org|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> These countries are all involved in the Convention on the Protection of the Rhine (CPR), an agreement that helps to address the issues of the Rhine basin following the UN Convention on watercourses.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|url=http://gis.nacse.org/tfdd/treaties.php?page=full&origin=river&tn=589|title=Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database|website=gis.nacse.org|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> There have been historical actions that targeted industrial pollution and flooding concerns which the CPR could take on and gain foundation from.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last1=van der Keur|first1=Peter |last2=Brugnach|first2=M. |last3=Dewulf|first3=A. |last4=Refsgaard|first4=J. C. |last5=Zorilla|first5=P. |last6=Poolman|first6=M. |last7=Isendahl|first7=N. |last8=Raadgever|first8=G. T. |last9=Henriksen|first9=H. J. |date=2010 |title=Identifying Uncertainty Guidelines for Supporting Policy Making in Water Management Illustrated for Upper Guadiana and Rhine Basins |journal=Water Resources Management |language=en |volume=24|issue=14 |pages=3901–3938 |doi=10.1007/s11269-010-9640-x |bibcode=2010WatRM..24.3901V |s2cid=73528411 |issn=0920-4741|url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/6600536/Keur_10.1007_s11269-010-9640-x.pdf }}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last1=Wieriks|first1=Koos |last2=Schulte-Wülwer-Leidig|first2=Anne |date=1997 |title=Integrated water management for the Rhine river basin, from pollution prevention to ecosystem improvement |journal=Natural Resources Forum |language=en |volume=21|issue=2 |pages=147–156 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-8947.1997.tb00686.x |issn=1477-8947}}</ref>
[[File:Map Rhine and catchment area deutsch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|Figure 1: Map of the Rhine basin and major countries that share it]]
The Rhine Basin holds a population of 48,831,090 people that require water for irrigation, livestock, electricity, manufacturing, domestic, and per Capita use.<ref name="":1"" /> Total water withdrawals are highest for Germany, Netherlands, and France in that order with 100 percent of their population living in urban city centers. Major hydrological modifications were made to the upper basin to provide flood control, and navigability of the Rhine as well as arable land.<ref name="":3"" /> There are major industrial sites at various points along the Rhine that pose hazards to the Rhine basin and the ecosystem it holds (figure 2).<ref name="":3"" />	

==Agreement on the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine 1963==
The modifications to the basin and the existence of industrial sites discharging pollutants culminated in the degradation of ecological value of the basin itself, making the Rhine basin the most polluted it had ever been in the mid 20th century.<ref name="":2"" /> This spurred the Agreement on the International Commission for the protection of the Rhine against pollution of 1963 which set up the ICPR to address the issue of the basin’s deterioration. The cooperation on the main goal of ecological enhancement was very high as the countries, or furthermore riparians, saw that the quality of their resource was at risk of being lost. The pollution levels did reduce as a result of decreases in factory discharges, and implementation of water treatment plants.<ref name="":3"" />

A toxic spill, the [[Sandoz chemical spill]] of 1986, upended the work involved to clean the basin and the ICPR were required to integrate more tasks into their plan which provided the framework for the Rhine Action Programme.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last=Raith |first=Sarah |date=1999 |title=The Rhine Action Program: Restoring Value to the Rhine River |hdl=11299/59277 |publisher=University of Minnesota, Department of Horticultural Science |via=University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy}}</ref> The existing institutional framework of the ICPR allowed for the additional regulations required for the spill to be incorporated. Improving the Rhine ecosystem and drinking water for future use were already in place, the reduction of river sediment pollution,  and rehabilitation of efforts—removal of concrete structures and small dams for better fish migration, removal of contaminated sediment—were added.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/hydrotheek/1924576|title=Erosion, transport and deposition of sediment : case study Rhine : Jos Brils ... [et al.] {{!}} Hydrotheek|website=library.wur.nl|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref><ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":3"" />  
[[File:Rhine area analisys.svg|thumb|upright=1.75|Figure 2: inventory of industrial sites in the Rhine circa 1997.]]

Flood reduction plans and strategies were incorporated into further increasing the ICPR role.<ref name="":2"" /> This brought into question the ability of the ICPR to address flooding and toxic discharges and upstream and downstream relations all in one. Switzerland and France are the main upstream, Germany is middle, and the Netherlands is the main downstream riparian which proves to be a complex relationship among the countries as to how tasks were to be delegated throughout their own water management infrastructures.<ref name="":0"" /> What stands above all these adjustments to the ICPR’s plans was that there was cooperation and relative ease in putting the new additions in.	

The UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses in 1997 provided additional framework by which the ICPR could fully realize its goals and in 1998 saw the finalized form of what had been formulating since the 70s which was the Convention on the Protection of the Rhine (CPR).<ref name="":5""/> While the restoration projects from 1963 and the Rhine Action Programme were in place, there was already a convention to protect to Rhine that had been revised from initial protection from chemical pollution in the 70s to encompass all that the riparian and those involved in the commission had witnessed throughout the 20th century (e.g. habitat restoration, flood control). Again, the ICPR had historical strategy and cooperation to build off of and finalize the CPR.

==Alignment of the ICPR with the UN Convention on international watercourses==
Any sense of equitable and reasonable utilization is found subtly throughout the CPR as parties involved must follow overarching statements that contract them to “ensure the use of the Rhine water for drinking purposes,” (CPR 1998, Art. 3) and to “...reinforce their co-operation and mutually inform one another of measure carried out on their territories aimed at protecting the Rhine” (CPR 1998, Art. 5).<ref name="":5""/> There is no explicit requiring of equitable and reasonable utilization, but given the past cooperation on the ecological recovery of the Rhine, this goes without explicitly saying. There has been uncertainty with upstream-downstream relations in this regard however. Netherlands' stakeholders in the past have believed that upstream parties must take on more adaptive measures for battling transboundary incidences flowing downstream.<ref name="":2"" /> Again, the cooperation of upstream parties seems to answer this as their past agreements including other international relations outside of water resource co-management have made it so they are obliged to work towards a better end.<ref name="":0"" />

The CPR is also effective in notification, consultation and negotiation. These actions and certain obligations in the CPR help to address and keep the cooperation seen throughout the Rhine Basin. If there are any chances of accidents or spills in the future, other parties must be informed of it and if discharges are necessary, consent must be allowed (CPR, 1997, Art. 5).<ref name="":5"" /> Article 14 requires cooperation with “external” experts and organizations that can provide consulting and information that can help enhance the goals of the CPR. An example of this is the ICPR has created a model with help from local universities that estimates accidental spill outcomes and help them fit the right measure to avert or mitigate them.<ref name="":3"" />

The ICPR has proven their ability to cooperation and exchange information from the 60s, to the Rhine Action Programme, and through to the 1998 CPR. Even with higher government (i.e. European Parliament and Council) adopting the 2000 Water framework Directive, a collection of targets and principles that further protect all European river districts bringing them to a good status, the CPR and commission already fit into this (ICPR 2018, European Water Framework Directive, para. 1).<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iksr.org/en/eu-directives/|title=ICPR: EU Directives|website=www.iksr.org|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> Further evidence of channeling the UN conventions principle of cooperation is their dispute section. If any disputes arises, the commission can settle among themselves, or if incapable of coming to a solution, they can go to the International Court of Justice and appoint a third party to help in the process (CPR, 1997, Annex, Arbitration).<ref name="":5"" />

The uncertainty about the CPR falling short will only unfold with time. Climate change is a concern as increasing risk of flooding during rainy months and issues of allocating water during dry summer months begin to appear more often.<ref name="":2"" /> As mentioned before, Netherland is a downstream party and has been vocal about being open any flooding and release of fertilizers from farms along the Rhine rivers, bringing up the upstream-downstream issue.<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":0"" /> Fortunately, the Rhine sits right next to the Elbe Basin, which makes Germany the downstream party to the Czech Republic.<ref name="":0"" /> This relationship provides Germany with experience in dealing with these issues which can be applied to its relationship with Netherland. The International Commission for the Protection of the Elbe is modeled after the ICPR framework, strives for the same goals as the ICPR, and incorporates the 2000 Water Framework Directive that the ICPR took on.<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ikse-mkol.org/en/eu-directives/water-framework-directive/|title=Water Framework Directive - IKSE|website=www.ikse-mkol.org|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> From this experience, Germany has an understanding of being a downstream party and has been able to provide solutions and consent when Netherland and other riparians needed it.

The ICPR’s ability to adapt to a variety of challenges over the years, to add more to their list of tasks, and make the most reasonable and equitable decisions for the Rhine Basin is most likely why the Rhine Basin has overall low relative risk as reported by the Transboundary Waters Assessment programme.<ref name="":1"" /> This has been a build up from the CPRs past cooperation in the mid 20th century, to their ecological efforts to restore the Rhine in the 1980s and 1990s. The Convention on the Protection for the Rhine demonstrates the ability of several countries holding millions of people to align their water needs with the UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses and with world goals.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Rhine]]
[[Category:Rhine basin]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Beach cleaning,"{{short description|Coastline care}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2019}}
[[File:Opérations nettoyage de plage.jpg|thumb|Two children cleaning beach debris in [[Ivory Coast]]]]
[[File:Mechanical Beach Debris Removal.jpg|thumb|A mechanical beach cleaner with tractor attached removing unwanted beach debris]]

'''Beach cleaning''' or '''clean-up''' is the process of removing solid litter, dense chemicals, and organic debris deposited on a beach or coastline by the tide, local visitors, or tourists. Humans pollute beaches with materials such as [[plastic bottles]] and [[Plastic bag|bags]], [[Drinking straw|plastic straws]], [[Fishing line|fishing gear]], [[cigarette filter]]s, [[six-pack rings]], [[surgical mask]]s and many other items that often lead to [[environmental degradation]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last1=Krelling|first1=Allan Paul|last2=Williams|first2=Allan Thomas |last3=Turra |first3=Alexander|date=2017 |title=Differences in perception and reaction of tourist groups to beach marine debris that can influence a loss of tourism revenue in coastal areas|journal=Marine Policy| volume=85|pages=87–99 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.021}}</ref> Every year hundreds of thousands of [[Volunteering|volunteers]] comb beaches and coastlines around the world to clean this debris. These materials are also called “[[marine debris]]” or ""[[marine pollution]]"" and their quantity has been increasing due to [[Global warming|anthropocentric activities]].<ref name="":9"">{{Cite journal|last1=Hartley|first1=Bonny L.|last2=Thompson|first2=Richard C.|last3=Pahl|first3=Sabine|date=2015|title=Marine litter education boosts children's understanding and self-reported actions|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=90|issue=1–2|pages=209–217|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.10.049|pmid=25467869|issn=0025-326X|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015MarPB..90..209H }}</ref>

There are some major sources of beach debris such as [[Tourism|beach users]], [[ocean]]s, [[sea]] drifts, and [[river]] flow. Many beach users leave their litter behind on the beaches after activities. Also, marine debris or chemicals such as raw oil drift from oceans or seas and accumulate on beaches. Additionally, many rivers bring some [[Megacity|cities]]' trashes to beaches. These pollutants harm [[marine life]] and [[ecology]], [[Health|human health]], and [[Tourism|coastal tourism]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rayon-Viña|first1=Fernando|last2=Miralles|first2=Laura|last3=Fernandez-Rodríguez|first3=Sara|last4=Dopico|first4=Eduardo|last5=Garcia-Vazquez|first5=Eva|date=2019|title=Marine litter and public involvement in beach cleaning: Disentangling perception and awareness among adults and children, Bay of Biscay, Spain|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=141|pages=112–118|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.02.034|pmid=30955715|bibcode=2019MarPB.141..112R |s2cid=91873980 |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> Hartley et al.’s (2015) study shows that [[environmental education]] is important to eliminate many beach pollutants on beaches and the marine environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rees|first1=Gareth|last2=Pond|first2=Kathy|date=1995|title=Marine litter monitoring programmes—A review of methods with special reference to national surveys|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=30|issue=2|pages=103–108|doi=10.1016/0025-326x(94)00192-c|bibcode=1995MarPB..30..103R |issn=0025-326X}}</ref>
[[File:Beach cleaning.jpg|thumb|Beach cleaning, Santo António Church in Mozambique Island. 11 August 2009. |224x224px]]

== Marine debris ==
[[File:A walk on a dirty beach.JPG|thumb|A dirty beach in Bombay, India]]
[[File:Various Packaging Waste In Water Systems.jpg|thumb|Plastic food packages in Bangkok, Thailand. 8 May 2010.|224x224px]]

There are two causes of the degradation of marine ecology and marine debris: the direct forces ([[population growth]], [[Technology|technological development]], and [[economic growth]]) and proximity forces [[Land use, land-use change, and forestry|(land transformation]] and [[Industrialisation|industrial processes]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Turner|first1=B. L.|last2=Butzer|first2=Karl W.|date=1992|title=The Columbian Encounter and Land-Use Change|journal=Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development|volume=34|issue=8|pages=16–44|doi=10.1080/00139157.1992.9931469|bibcode=1992ESPSD..34h..16T |issn=0013-9157}}</ref><ref name="":5"" /> We can think of the direct forces as underlying causes of why we consume an excessive amount of goods by industry process. The excessive consumption of goods causes marine debris because the goods have been packaged by manufactured cheap non-recycle materials such as [[plastic]].<ref name="":8"">{{Citation|last1=Bergmann|first1=M.|title=LITTERBASE: An Online Portal for Marine Litter and Microplastics and Their Implications for Marine Life|date=2017|work=Fate and Impact of Microplastics in Marine Ecosystems|pages=106–107|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-812271-6|last2=Tekman|first2=M.B.|last3=Gutow|first3=L.|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-812271-6.00104-6}}</ref> [[Municipal solid waste|Solid waste]] plastics cannot [[Decomposition|decompose]] easily in nature and their decomposition process takes thousands of years to million years but plastic breaks down into continuously smaller pieces (>5&nbsp;mm) forming that is called [[Microplastics|micro-plastics]].<ref name="":19"">{{Cite journal|last1=Asensio-Montesinos|first1=F.|last2=Anfuso|first2=G.|last3=Ramírez|first3=M. Oliva|last4=Smolka|first4=R.|last5=Sanabria|first5=J. García|last6=Enríquez|first6=A. Fernández|last7=Arenas|first7=P.|last8=Bedoya|first8=A. Macías|date=2020|title=Beach litter composition and distribution on the Atlantic coast of Cádiz (SW Spain)|journal=Regional Studies in Marine Science|volume=34|pages=101050|doi=10.1016/j.rsma.2020.101050|bibcode=2020RSMS...3401050A |s2cid=212968340 |issn=2352-4855}}</ref><ref name="":29"">{{Cite journal|last1=Loizidou|first1=Xenia I.|last2=Loizides|first2=Michael I.|last3=Orthodoxou|first3=Demetra L.|date=2018-06-20|title=Persistent marine litter: small plastics and cigarette butts remain on beaches after organized beach cleanups|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|volume=190|issue=7|pages=414|doi=10.1007/s10661-018-6798-9|pmid=29926242|bibcode=2018EMnAs.190..414L |s2cid=49415636|issn=0167-6369}}</ref> Thus, such solid waste products are called marine debris that can be seen all through coastlines and on many beaches through the world.<ref name="":19"" /><ref name="":27"">{{Cite journal|last1=de Scisciolo|first1=Tobia|last2=Mijts|first2=Eric N.|last3=Becker|first3=Tatiana|last4=Eppinga|first4=Maarten B.|date=2016|title=Beach debris on Aruba, Southern Caribbean: Attribution to local land-based and distal marine-based sources|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=106|issue=1–2|pages=49–57|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.03.039|pmid=27039956|bibcode=2016MarPB.106...49D |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> There can be many sources of marine debris such as land-based, marine-based, and other anthropocentric activities.

Million tons of land-based waste products such as plastics, papers, woods, and metals end up in seas, oceans, and beaches through the wind, [[Ocean current|oceans currents]] (five major [[The Gyres|gyres]]), [[sewage]], [[Surface runoff|runoff]], [[Storm drain|storm-water drains]] and rivers.<ref name="":19"" /> Massive amount of marine debris has become a severe menace to the marine environment, aquatic life and [[human]]kind.<ref name="":8"" /> Most land-based sources are [[illegal dumping]], [[landfill]]s, and [[petrochemical]] and other industry disposals.<ref name="":19"" /> Also, other marine-based sources originate from [[Anthropocentrism|anthropocentric]] marine activities that are drifted fishing lines, nets, [[Rope|plastic ropes]] or other petrochemical products from remote islands or lands, [[Freight transport|shipping]] vessels or [[fishing]] boats by wind and oceanic currents.<ref name="":27"" /><ref name="":19"" /><ref name="":8"" /> Marine debris source is also anthropocentric activities of local populations such as beach goers, [[Tourism|tourists]] and city or town sewage.
[[File:Oceanic gyres.png|thumb|Five major ocean-wide gyres. 25 March 2008. |225x225px]]
Montesinos et al., (2020)<ref name="":19"" /> study of the total amount of 16,123 beach litter items to determine the source of marine debris at 40 bathing areas along the coast of [[Cádiz|Cádiz, Spain]]. The study displays that the sources of 88.5% of plastics, 67% cigarette butts, and cloth litters are related to the activity of beach-goers and tourists, 5.5% of [[cotton swab]]s, [[wet wipe]]s, [[Sanitary napkin|sanitary towels]], [[tampon]]s, and [[condom]]s are related to wastewater discharges at places close to rivers and tidal creeks mouths.<ref name="":19"" /> Besides, the sources of 2.1% fishing lines, nets, and 0.6% [[Foam food container|Styrofoam]] are related to fishing activities and marine sources.<ref name="":19"" /> Besides, some marine debris indicates that they are dumped directly by some international ships or by tourists into the sea on the beach from different countries such as hard food container (from [[Portugal]]), a bottle cap ([[Morocco]]), a cleaner bottle ([[Turkey]]), a food wrapper and other items related to navigation ([[Germany]]). Montesinos et al.’s study (2020)<ref name="":19"" /> demonstrate that some marine debris can travel hundreds of kilometers and end up very far from its source because of the ocean and [[Ocean current|sea currents]].

Also, [[Island|tropical and subtropical islands]] are marine pollution hot spots as their relatively [[Ecosystem|vulnerable ecosystems]] are being severely affected by both local and foreign marine debris.<ref name="":27"" /> de Scisciolo et al. (2016)<ref name="":27"" /> study on ten beaches along the leeward and windward coastlines of [[Aruba]] that is one of the [[Lesser Antilles|Lesser Antilles islands]] located in the [[Caribbean Sea|Southern Caribbean Sea]]. They try to determine differences of marine debris in macro (>25&nbsp;mm), meso-debris (2–25&nbsp;mm) and micro-debris (<2&nbsp;mm) densities. The result of their study shows that meso-debris which are rounded plastic products are found on the [[Windward and leeward|windward]] coastlines because the windward coastlines experience higher pressure from distal marine-based debris. [[Nature|Natural]] factors such as wind and oceanic currents cause the accumulation and distribution of plastic meso-debris to windward coastlines. And, macro-debris that contains a larger proportion of originating from eating, drinking and smoking and [[Recreation|recreational activities]] are found [[Windward and leeward|leeward]] sites of the island because the leeward sites experience higher pressures from local land-based debris such as plastic plates, bottles and [[Drinking straw|plastic straws]].<ref name="":27"" />

=== Ghost gear ===
Marine debris consists of millions of tons of abandoned plastic fishing gear. Nearly 640,000 tons of plastic gear is dumped or abandoned in the oceans every year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/ghost-fishing-gear-greenpeace-report-2641246990.html?rebelltitem=1#rebelltitem1|title=Plastic pollution. Zombie in the water: New Greenpeace Report Warns of Deadly Ghost Fishing Gear|last=Rosane|first=Olivia|date=2019|website=Eco Watch|access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref> According to Unger and Harrison, 6.4 tons of pollutant dumps the oceans every year, and the most of them are consist of by durable synthetic fishing gear, packaging, materials, raw plastic, and convenience items. Such extremely durable plastic gear cannot decompose in the seawater and marine environment and they wash up on beaches driven by inshore currents and wind.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unger|first1=Antonia|last2=Harrison|first2=Nancy|date=2016|title=Fisheries as a source of marine debris on beaches in the United Kingdom|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=107|issue=1|pages=52–58|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.04.024|pmid=27156038|bibcode=2016MarPB.107...52U |s2cid=12098424 |issn=0025-326X|url=https://arro.anglia.ac.uk/700583/1/Unger_Harrison%202016.pdf}}</ref> Such discarded gear such as plastic fishing lines, nets, and floats are called “ghost gear”. About 46% of the 79 thousand of ghost gear that is the size of many football fields has been found at the [[Great Pacific garbage patch]] constituted in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seashepherdglobal.org/latest-news/marine-debris-plastic-fishing-gear/|title=The most dangerous single source of ocean plastic no one wants to talk about. Seashepherd online.|last=no name|first=no name|date=2019|website=Sea Shepherd|access-date=22 August 2019}}</ref> The discarded fishing nets and lines kill or inflict myriad marine animals such as fish, sharks, whales, dolphins, sea turtles, seals, and marine birds every year. And about 30% of fishing populations have been declining and %70 other marine animals suffer by abandoned gear each year. Besides, the huge fishing industry is an important driver of declines marine ecology by overfishing activities. Overfishing causes when big fishing vessels catch tons of fish faster than stock refills.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing|title=Over fishing|last=no name|first=no name|date=2020|website=World Wildlife|access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref> Moreover, overfishing impacts 4.5 billion people who depend on at least 15% of fish for protein, and fishing is the principal livelihood.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Béné|first1=Christophe|last2=Barange|first2=Manuel|last3=Subasinghe|first3=Rohana|last4=Pinstrup-Andersen|first4=Per|last5=Merino|first5=Gorka|last6=Hemre|first6=Gro-Ingunn|last7=Williams|first7=Meryl|date=2015-03-10|title=Feeding 9 billion by 2050 – Putting fish back on the menu|journal=Food Security|volume=7|issue=2|pages=261–274|doi=10.1007/s12571-015-0427-z|issn=1876-4517|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Benefits ==

=== Public health ===
Clean beaches have many benefits for human health because the polluted beaches  imperil human lives by beach [[accident]]s. Many [[Litter|items left on beaches]] such as broken glasses, [[Metal|sharp metals]], or hard [[Plastic pollution|plastics]] may injure beach-goers physically. Also, marine debris such as fishing gear or nets may [[Risk management|risk]] human life on the beaches. Such pollutants may be a trap for beach users and cause very serious injuries or [[drowning]] accidents for [[Tourism|tourists]].<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=Marnie L.|last2=Slavin|first2=Chris|last3=Grage|first3=Anna|last4=Kinslow|first4=Amber|date=2016|title=Human health impacts from litter on beaches and associated perceptions: A case study of 'clean' Tasmanian beaches|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=126|pages=22–30|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.04.002|bibcode=2016OCM...126...22C |issn=0964-5691}}</ref>

=== Ecology ===
[[File:Surfers Against Sewage Beach Clean Perranporth.jpg|thumb|285x285px|Surfers Against Sewage (SAS) beach clean. 14 November 2014.]]
Researches on marine debris have substantially increased our [[knowledge]] of the amount and composition of marine debris as well as its impacts on the marine environment, [[Aquatic ecosystem|aquatic life]] and people.<ref name="":8"" /> Marine debris is very harmful to [[Marine life|marine organisms]] such as plants, [[invertebrate]]s, [[fish]], [[seabird]]s, sea turtles and other [[Whale|large marine mammals]].<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal|last1=Vanhooren|first1=Sofie|last2=Maelfait|first2=Hanneore|last3=Belpaeme|first3=Kathy|date=2011|title=Moving Towards an Ecological Management of the Beaches|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|volume=61|pages=81–86|doi=10.2112/SI61-001.70|issn=0749-0208|jstor=41510780|s2cid=130645857}}</ref><ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal|last1=Sheavly|first1=S. B.|last2=Register|first2=K. M.|date=2007-10-01|title=Marine Debris & Plastics: Environmental Concerns, Sources, Impacts and Solutions|journal=Journal of Polymers and the Environment|language=en|volume=15|issue=4|pages=301–305|doi=10.1007/s10924-007-0074-3|s2cid=136943560|issn=1572-8900}}</ref> Marine debris contains plastic liters that are composed of industrial chemicals or [[toxin]]s.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mmc.gov/letters-and-reports/reports/annual-reports/|title=Marine Mammal Commission Annual Report to Congress. Effects of Pollution on Marine Mammals|date=1996|website=mmc.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Derraik|first=José G.B|title=The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|year=2002 |volume=44|issue=9|pages=842–852|doi=10.1016/s0025-326x(02)00220-5|pmid=12405208|issn=0025-326X|doi-access=free|bibcode=2002MarPB..44..842D }}</ref> These chemicals can be destructive to aquatic organisms because toxins accumulate in the tissues of marine organisms and they cause specific effects such as behavioral changes and alterations in [[Metabolism|metabolic]] processes.<ref name="":27"" /><ref name="":46"">{{Cite journal|last1=Zettler|first1=Erik R.|last2=Mincer|first2=Tracy J.|last3=Amaral-Zettler|first3=Linda A.|date=2013-06-19|title=Life in the ""Plastisphere"": Microbial Communities on Plastic Marine Debris|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=47|issue=13|pages=7137–7146|doi=10.1021/es401288x|pmid=23745679|bibcode=2013EnST...47.7137Z|s2cid=10002632 |issn=0013-936X}}</ref> Also, a combination of plastic and seawater materials such as [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s (PAHs), [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|poly-chlorinated biphenyls]] (PCBs) and [[heavy metals]] can be fatal for marine life.<ref name="":19"" /> Moreover, consumption of micro-plastics by larger marine organisms cause obstructions of the [[Gastrointestinal tract|intestinal tract]] that leads to [[starvation]] and death because of reduced energy fitness.<ref name="":29"" /> According to the U.S. Marine Mammal Commission, 111 out of the world's 312 species of seabirds, 26 species of marine mammals, and six out of seven of the words species of sea turtles have experienced issues with beach litter ingestion.<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":6"" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bugoni|first1=Leandro|last2=Krause|first2=Lígia|last3=Virgínia Petry|first3=Maria|date=2001|title=Marine Debris and Human Impacts on Sea Turtles in Southern Brazil|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=42|issue=12|pages=1330–1334|doi=10.1016/s0025-326x(01)00147-3|pmid=11827120|bibcode=2001MarPB..42.1330B |issn=0025-326X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bjorndal|first1=Karen A.|last2=Bolten|first2=Alan B.|last3=Lagueux|first3=Cynthia J.|date=1994|title=Ingestion of marine debris by juvenile sea turtles in coastal Florida habitats|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=28|issue=3|pages=154–158|doi=10.1016/0025-326x(94)90391-3|bibcode=1994MarPB..28..154B |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> Studies reveal that micro-plastics negatively impact human health due to consumption of marine organisms by humans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/06/plastic-planet-waste-pollution-trash-crisis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516224226/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/06/plastic-planet-waste-pollution-trash-crisis/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 May 2018 |title=We Depend on Plastic. Now We're Drowning in It. |author=Laura Parker |date=June 2018 |website=[[NationalGeographic.com]] |access-date=25 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.plastichealthcoalition.org/microplastics/ |title=Potential health effects of microplastics and pathogens |publisher=Plastic Health Coalition |access-date=December 31, 2022}}</ref>

In addition to all these impacts, the marine debris and beach litter pose dangers to [[wildlife]] on the beaches and marine ecology.<ref name="":46"" /> Many beach pollutants such as fishing gears and nets or oil spills jeopardize many sea animals including [[sea turtle]]s, [[seabird]]s, and [[dolphin]]s, and can cause serious injuries or [[death]].<ref name="":2"" /> Marine animals can become trapped by contaminants such as fishing lines or nets.<ref name="":5"" />

The present issue with all of the aforementioned ailments are only made possible from human impacts, and could be ultimately prevented without human and marine interaction. It was reported by the United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) that pollution originating from land was said to make up 80% of the world's marine pollution.<ref name="":5"" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pravdic|first1=V.|last2=Fao|first2=Rome (Italy) eng|last3=Unep|first3=Geneva (Switzerland) eng|date=1981|title=GESAMP (Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution): the first dozen years (1969-1981)|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=XF2016002235}}</ref>

=== Sustainability ===
Clean beaches are indicators of the [[environmental quality]] and [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development]] level of a country. The Beach Cleaning Health Index is a cleaning classification method of [[European Union|European]] countries and their environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Semeoshenkova|first1=Vera|last2=Newton|first2=Alice|last3=Contin|first3=Andrea|last4=Greggio|first4=Nicolas|date=2017|title=Development and application of an Integrated Beach Quality Index (BQI)|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=143|pages=74–86|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.08.013|bibcode=2017OCM...143...74S |issn=0964-5691}}</ref> The index determines the level of sustainability and cleanness of the countries and their beaches through classification notes such as A for excellent, B for good, C for regular, and D for bad.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last1=Barbosa de Araújo|first1=Maria Christina|last2=da Costa|first2=Monica Ferreira|date=2008|title=Environmental Quality Indicators for Recreational Beaches Classification|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|volume=246|pages=1439–1449|doi=10.2112/06-0901.1|s2cid=198150463 |issn=0749-0208}}</ref>

There are numerous sustainability indices that have been created in the name of beach health and general appearance. These indexes are dependent on a wide range of variables that are used to assess both the anthropocentric as well as natural changes to beaches.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal|last1=Alkalay|first1=Ronen|last2=Pasternak|first2=Galia|last3=Zask|first3=Alon|date=2007-01-01|title=Clean-coast index—A new approach for beach cleanliness assessment|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|language=en|volume=50|issue=5|pages=352–362|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2006.10.002|bibcode=2007OCM....50..352A |issn=0964-5691}}</ref><ref name="":12"">{{Cite journal|last1=Ariza|first1=Eduard|last2=Jimenez|first2=Jose A.|last3=Sarda|first3=Rafael|last4=Villares|first4=Miriam|last5=Pinto|first5=Josep|last6=Fraguell|first6=Rosa|last7=Roca|first7=Elisabet|last8=Marti|first8=Carolina|last9=Valdemoro|first9=Herminia|last10=Ballester|first10=Ramon|last11=Fluvia|first11=Modest|date=2010-05-01|title=Proposal for an Integral Quality Index for Urban and Urbanized Beaches|journal=Environmental Management|language=en|volume=45|issue=5|pages=998–1013|doi=10.1007/s00267-010-9472-8|pmid=20383636|bibcode=2010EnMan..45..998A|s2cid=9163954|issn=1432-1009|citeseerx=10.1.1.457.5250}}</ref><ref name="":13"">{{Cite journal|last1=Micallef|first1=Anton|last2=Williams|first2=Allan T.|date=2004-01-01|title=Application of a novel approach to beach classification in the Maltese Islands|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|language=en|volume=47|issue=5|pages=225–242|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2004.04.004|bibcode=2004OCM....47..225M |issn=0964-5691}}</ref> These indexes’ variables often merge the goals of both environmental preservation and that of the region to which the beach belongs. In addition to the heath index used in many European countries, in 2005 Israel generated its own beach analysis, their clean coast index (CCI).<ref name="":7"" /> The goal since the start of this program has been to maintain cleanliness of all Israel's coastline, as well as educate the public on the importance of migrating marine litter.<ref name="":7"" /> This is one of the first Indexes to determine more than just the amount of waste removed from a beach, as has been done in the past.<ref>{{Cite book|last=<!-- No Author -->|title=Marine debris: where does it come from? The International Coastal Cleanup|publisher=The Ocean Conservancy|year=2004|pages=2–5}}</ref><ref name="":7"" />

The CCI evaluated beach cleanliness every 2 weeks for a period of 7 months.<ref name="":7"" /> By using this index on a periodic basis they were able to determine what processes worked well and which one did not. Other countries in the Caribbean are employing a different form of beach health index, called the Beach Quality Index (BQI).<ref name="":12""/> The BQI assesses many aspects of beaches, not just litter or overall cleanliness, but anthropocentric impacts and long term effects to act somewhat as a checklist for environmental quality issues.<ref name="":12""/> The BQI classifies beaches as both urban and urbanized, in the hopes of assessing them to their best ability, and including all factors that may impact varying beaches. The BQI helps by establishing various components and categories to help with this classification, something that not all beach indexes include.<ref name="":13""/>

=== Tourism ===
[[File:Oil-spill.jpg|thumb|Oils spill cleaning. 5 November 2004.|240x240px]]
Beaches are [[Recreation area|recreational areas]] and attract many local and international visitors through [[sunbathing]], [[swimming]], [[walking]] or [[surfing]] activities. This coastal tourism is important for many countries because tourism activities contribute to a large facet of their economy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Loomis|first1=John|last2=Santiago|first2=Luis|date=2013|title=Economic Valuation of Beach Quality Improvements: Comparing Incremental Attribute Values Estimated from Two Stated Preference Valuation Methods|journal=Coastal Management|volume=41|issue=1|pages=75–86|doi=10.1080/08920753.2012.749754|bibcode=2013CoasM..41...75L |s2cid=153807049|issn=0892-0753}}</ref> Therefore, a polluted beach or coastline may substantially impact a country's economy negatively. Contaminated beaches have become a global concern since the beginning of [[Industrialisation|industrialization]].<ref name="":1"">{{Citation|last1=Newman|first1=Stephanie|title=The Economics of Marine Litter|date=2015|work=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|pages=367–394|publisher=Springer International Publishing|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_14|isbn=978-3-319-16509-7|last2=Watkins|first2=Emma|last3=Farmer|first3=Andrew|last4=Brink|first4=Patrick ten|last5=Schweitzer|first5=Jean-Pierre|doi-access=free}}</ref> Contaminated beaches are unattractive for international and local tourists due to [[Aesthetics|aesthetic value]] or [[Disease|health concerns]]. Hutchings et al.'s (2000) study shows that a clean beach is a very important determinant of many local and international tourists in South Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hutchings|first1=K.|last2=Lamberth|first2=S. J.|last3=Turpie|first3=J. K.|date=2002|title=Socio-economic characteristics of gillnet and beach-seine fishers in the Western Cape, South Africa|journal=South African Journal of Marine Science|volume=24|issue=1|pages=243–262|doi=10.2989/025776102784528646|s2cid=83496345|issn=0257-7615}}</ref> According to the study, local and international tourists choose to visit the country because of the beauty of beaches and the proper climate conditions of the country. If the tourists do not find their expectation met on a beach, they can travel to other beaches to find a better one in the country. So, beach cleanliness is very important for countries and the tourism industry nowadays.

=== Public engagement and awareness, education, and behavior change ===
Participation in beach cleaning is associated with a better understanding of the issue of marine litter and its impacts.<ref name="":14"">{{Cite journal|last1=Hartley|first1=Bonny L.|last2=Thompson|first2=Richard C.|last3=Pahl|first3=Sabine|date=January 2015|title=Marine litter education boosts children's understanding and self-reported actions|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=90|issue=1–2|pages=209–217|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.10.049|pmid=25467869|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015MarPB..90..209H }}</ref><ref name="":15"">{{Cite journal|last1=Rayon-Viña|first1=Fernando|last2=Miralles|first2=Laura|last3=Fernandez-Rodríguez|first3=Sara|last4=Dopico|first4=Eduardo|last5=Garcia-Vazquez|first5=Eva|date=2019-04-01|title=Marine litter and public involvement in beach cleaning: Disentangling perception and awareness among adults and children, Bay of Biscay, Spain|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=141|pages=112–118|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.02.034|pmid=30955715|bibcode=2019MarPB.141..112R |s2cid=91873980 |issn=0025-326X}}</ref><ref name="":16"">{{Cite journal|last=Owens|first=Katharine A.|date=February 2018|title=Using experiential marine debris education to make an impact: Collecting debris, informing policy makers, and influencing students|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=127|pages=804–810|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.10.004|pmid=29017724|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018MarPB.127..804O }}</ref><ref name="":17"">{{Cite journal|last1=Wyles|first1=Kayleigh J.|last2=Pahl|first2=Sabine|last3=Holland|first3=Matthew|last4=Thompson|first4=Richard C.|date=June 2017|title=Can Beach Cleans Do More Than Clean-Up Litter? Comparing Beach Cleans to Other Coastal Activities|journal=Environment and Behavior|language=en|volume=49|issue=5|pages=509–535|doi=10.1177/0013916516649412|issn=0013-9165|pmc=5431367|pmid=28546642|bibcode=2017EnvBe..49..509W }}</ref><ref name="":18"">{{Cite journal|last1=Bravo|first1=Macarena|last2=de los Ángeles Gallardo|first2=Mª|last3=Luna-Jorquera|first3=Guillermo|last4=Núñez|first4=Paloma|last5=Vásquez|first5=Nelson|last6=Thiel|first6=Martin|date=November 2009|title=Anthropogenic debris on beaches in the SE Pacific (Chile): Results from a national survey supported by volunteers|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=58|issue=11|pages=1718–1726|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.06.017|pmid=19665738|bibcode=2009MarPB..58.1718B }}</ref><ref name="":22"">{{Cite journal|last1=Hidalgo-Ruz|first1=Valeria|last2=Thiel|first2=Martin|date=June 2013|title=Distribution and abundance of small plastic debris on beaches in the SE Pacific (Chile): A study supported by a citizen science project|journal=Marine Environmental Research|language=en|volume=87-88|pages=12–18|doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.02.015|pmid=23541391|bibcode=2013MarER..87...12H }}</ref> Beach cleaning volunteers demonstrated more accurate knowledge of the amount and type of waste in the local environment, as well as greater awareness of the causes and consequences of marine litter.<ref name="":14"" /><ref name="":15"" /><ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":17"" /><ref name="":18"" /><ref name="":22""/> For example, Hartley et al. (2015) found that students that volunteered to clean a local beach with their school could more accurately identify the primary origins of marine litter and estimate the lifespan of plastic.<ref name="":14"" /> By highlighting the connection between human behavior and marine litter, beach cleaning increases the likelihood that participants will habitually remove and appropriately dispose of coastal trash, as well as engage in prevention and mitigation efforts.<ref name="":14"" /><ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":17"" /><ref name="":18"" /><ref name="":23"" /> By comparing beach cleaning to other coastal activities- walking on the beach and rock pooling- Wyles et al. (2017) aimed to identify the benefits unique to beach cleaning. In doing so, Wyles et al. (2017) discovered that individuals that participated in beach cleaning reported a significantly greater increase in their intention to live an environmentally-friendly lifestyle and their awareness of marine issues compared to other test groups after the intervention.<ref name="":17"" />

=== Wellbeing ===
Beach cleaning has been shown to cultivate a positive mood and feeling of fulfillment.<ref name="":17"" /> Wyles et al. (2017) compared the effect various coastal activities- beach cleaning, rock pooling, and walking on the beach- had on well being. The study found that participants experienced an improvement in mood across all three activities, although individuals who participated in beach cleaning reported a statistically significant difference in the sense of meaning they derived from beach cleaning compared to walking on the beach and rock pooling.<ref name="":17"" />

Additional research on the effects of beach cleaning on personal well being has not been conducted. However, the two core components of beach cleaning- spending time by the ocean and volunteering to advance environmental stewardship- have been associated with improved well being, mood, and outlook on life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ashbullby|first1=Katherine J.|last2=Pahl|first2=Sabine|last3=Webley|first3=Paul|last4=White|first4=Mathew P.|date=September 2013|title=The beach as a setting for families' health promotion: A qualitative study with parents and children living in coastal regions in Southwest England|journal=Health & Place|language=en|volume=23|pages=138–147|doi=10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.06.005|pmid=23906586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hipp|first1=J. Aaron|last2=Ogunseitan|first2=Oladele A.|author-link2=Dele Ogunseitan|date=December 2011|title=Effect of environmental conditions on perceived psychological restorativeness of coastal parks|url=https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/brown_facpubs/4|journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology|language=en|volume=31|issue=4|pages=421–429|doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2011.08.008|s2cid=19384291 }}</ref><ref name="":24"">{{Cite journal|last1=Bramston|first1=Paul|last2=Pretty|first2=Grace|last3=Zammit|first3=Charlie|date=November 2011|title=Assessing Environmental Stewardship Motivation|journal=Environment and Behavior|language=en|volume=43|issue=6|pages=776–788|doi=10.1177/0013916510382875|bibcode=2011EnvBe..43..776B |s2cid=143693421|issn=0013-9165|url=http://eprints.usq.edu.au/19999/3/Bramston_Pretty_Zammit_EB_v43n6_SV.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=White|first1=Mathew P.|last2=Pahl|first2=Sabine|last3=Ashbullby|first3=Katherine|last4=Herbert|first4=Stephen|last5=Depledge|first5=Michael H.|date=September 2013|title=Feelings of restoration from recent nature visits|journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology|language=en|volume=35|pages=40–51|doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.04.002}}</ref><ref name="":25"">{{Cite journal|last1=Evans|first1=Celia|last2=Abrams|first2=Eleanor|last3=Reitsma|first3=Robert|last4=Roux|first4=Karin|last5=Salmonsen|first5=Laura|last6=Marra|first6=Peter P.|date=June 2005|title=The Neighborhood Nestwatch Program: Participant Outcomes of a Citizen-Science Ecological Research Project|journal=Conservation Biology|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=589–594|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00s01.x|bibcode=2005ConBi..19..589E |s2cid=20055984 |issn=0888-8892}}</ref><ref name="":26"">{{Cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Robert L.|last2=Kaplan|first2=Rachel|last3=Grese|first3=Robert E.|date=September 2001|title=Predicting Volunteer Commitment in Environmental Stewardship Programmes|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|language=en|volume=44|issue=5|pages=629–648|doi=10.1080/09640560120079948|bibcode=2001JEPM...44..629R |s2cid=154911545|issn=0964-0568}}</ref><ref name="":20"">{{Cite journal|last1=Koss|first1=Rebecca Sarah|last2=Kingsley|first2=Jonathon ‘Yotti’|date=August 2010|title=Volunteer health and emotional wellbeing in marine protected areas|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|language=en|volume=53|issue=8|pages=447–453|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2010.06.002|bibcode=2010OCM....53..447K }}</ref> For example, Koss and Kingsley (2010) found that individuals who volunteered at protected marine areas in Australia experienced greater mental and emotional well being and enhanced connection with the natural environment.<ref name="":20"" />

While beach cleaning can improve well being, Wyles et al. (2017) discovered that participants reported a statistically significant lower level of rejuvenation and relaxation when beach cleaning compared to rock pooling and walking on the beach.<ref name="":17"" />

Lastly, the well being benefits associated with beach cleaning are not only limited to the individuals actively removing trash from the coast but can be enjoyed by community members and beach goers as a whole.<ref name="":21"">{{Cite journal|last1=Wyles|first1=Kayleigh J.|last2=Pahl|first2=Sabine|last3=Thomas|first3=Katrina|last4=Thompson|first4=Richard C.|date=November 2016|title=Factors That Can Undermine the Psychological Benefits of Coastal Environments: Exploring the Effect of Tidal State, Presence, and Type of Litter|journal=Environment and Behavior|language=en|volume=48|issue=9|pages=1095–1126|doi=10.1177/0013916515592177|issn=0013-9165|pmc=5066481|pmid=27807388}}</ref> Wyles et al. (2016) claims that the presence of litter can diminish the psychological benefits of beaches. Beach goers in Wyles et al. (2016) even described feelings of sadness or anger when confronted with litter, explaining that these emotions emerged because the trash negatively impacts the environment and distracts from the beauty of the landscape.<ref name="":21"" />

== Methods ==
[[File:Weston-super-Mare beach cleaning.JPG|thumb|A depiction of both mechanical and manual beach cleaning methods being utilized to clean the Weston-super-Mare beach in Somerset, England.|279x279px]]
The process of beach cleaning requires good management methods, adequate human resources, and funds.<ref name="":0"" /> Solid litters cleaning methods are very different than oil spill cleaning methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhu|first1=Ke|last2=Shang|first2=Yuan-Yuan|last3=Sun|first3=Peng-Zhan|last4=Li|first4=Zhen|last5=Li|first5=Xin-Ming|last6=Wei|first6=Jin-Quan|last7=Wang|first7=Kun-Lin|last8=Wu|first8=De-Hai|last9=Cao|first9=An-Yuan|last10=Zhu|first10=Hong-Wei|date=2013-05-06|title=Oil spill cleanup from sea water by carbon nanotube sponges|journal=Frontiers of Materials Science|volume=7|issue=2|pages=170–176|doi=10.1007/s11706-013-0200-1|bibcode=2013FrMS....7..170Z|s2cid=85458873|issn=2095-025X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=Jinyou|last2=Shang|first2=Yanwei|last3=Ding|first3=Bin|last4=Yang|first4=Jianmao|last5=Yu|first5=Jianyong|last6=Al-Deyab|first6=Salem S.|date=2012|title=Nanoporous polystyrene fibers for oil spill cleanup|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=64|issue=2|pages=347–352|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.11.002|pmid=22136762|bibcode=2012MarPB..64..347L |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> The beach cleaning process may be done using machinery such as [[sand cleaning machine]]s that rake or sift the sand or/and other chemicals such as [[oil dispersants]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Frampton|first=Alan P. R.|date=2010|title=A Review of Amenity Beach Management|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|volume=26|pages=1112–1122|doi=10.2112/jcoastres-d-09-00008.1|s2cid=140690245|issn=0749-0208}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fingas|first=Merv|date=2012-12-05|title=The Basics of Oil Spill Cleanup|doi=10.1201/b13686|isbn=9780429108020}}</ref> This beach cleaning may be done by professionals company, civic organizations, the military or volunteers such as the [[Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup]] and [[Marine Conservation Society]].

=== Mechanical vs. manual cleaning ===
There are two types of beach cleaning- mechanical and manual. These methods are also referred to as mechanical grooming and nonmechanical grooming. Mechanical beach cleaning is defined as litter and/or organic material removal that relies on the work of automatic or push machinery that rakes or sieves the most superficial layer of sand. Manual cleaning involves individuals picking up trash exclusively by hand.<ref name="":10"">{{Cite journal|last1=Zielinski|first1=Seweryn|last2=Botero|first2=Camilo M.|last3=Yanes|first3=Andrea|date=February 2019|title=To clean or not to clean? A critical review of beach cleaning methods and impacts|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=139|pages=390–401|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.12.027|pmid=30686442|bibcode=2019MarPB.139..390Z |hdl=11323/2009|s2cid=59306989 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="":30"">{{Cite journal|last1=Griffin|first1=Caroline|last2=Day|first2=Nicola|last3=Rosenquist|first3=Hanna|last4=Wellenreuther|first4=Maren|last5=Bunnefeld|first5=Nils|last6=Gilburn|first6=André S.|date=March 2018|title=Tidal range and recovery from the impacts of mechanical beach grooming|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|language=en|volume=154|pages=66–71|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.01.004|bibcode=2018OCM...154...66G |hdl=1893/26732|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="":31"">{{Cite journal|last1=Morton|first1=J. K.|last2=Ward|first2=E. J.|last3=de Berg|first3=K. C.|date=November 2015|title=Potential Small- and Large-Scale Effects of Mechanical Beach Cleaning on Biological Assemblages of Exposed Sandy Beaches Receiving Low Inputs of Beach-Cast Macroalgae|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|language=en|volume=38|issue=6|pages=2083–2100|doi=10.1007/s12237-015-9963-1|bibcode=2015EstCo..38.2083M |s2cid=85019673|issn=1559-2723}}</ref> The suggested beach cleaning approach incorporates manual and mechanical cleaning as this combination is most cost effective and environmentally sound.<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":31"" /><ref name="":32"">{{Cite journal|last1=Stelling-Wood|first1=Talia P.|last2=Clark|first2=Graeme F.|last3=Poore|first3=Alistair G.B.|date=May 2016|title=Responses of ghost crabs to habitat modification of urban sandy beaches|journal=Marine Environmental Research|language=en|volume=116|pages=32–40|doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2016.02.009|pmid=26970686|bibcode=2016MarER.116...32S }}</ref>

=== Environmental concerns ===
[[File:Cloudy beach with wrack and crashing waves.jpg|thumb|Piles of wrack on a sandy beach. While not visually appealing, these collections of plants and organic material from the sea are central to beach ecosystems and food chains.]]

==== Wrack cover and biodiversity ====
Mechanical cleaning removes organic materials, like seaweed, algae, and plants, alongside anthropogenic waste, such as plastic bottles, cigarette butts, and [[food packaging]], leading to disturbances in the ecosystem and food chain.<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":33"">{{Cite journal|last1=Del Vecchio|first1=Silvia|last2=Jucker|first2=Tommaso|last3=Carboni|first3=Marta|last4=Acosta|first4=Alicia T.R.|date=January 2017|title=Linking plant communities on land and at sea: The effects of Posidonia oceanica wrack on the structure of dune vegetation|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=184|pages=30–36|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2016.10.041|bibcode=2017ECSS..184...30D}}</ref><ref name="":34"">{{Cite journal|last1=Defeo|first1=Omar|last2=McLachlan|first2=Anton|last3=Schoeman|first3=David S.|last4=Schlacher|first4=Thomas A.|last5=Dugan|first5=Jenifer|last6=Jones|first6=Alan|last7=Lastra|first7=Mariano|last8=Scapini|first8=Felicita|date=January 2009|title=Threats to sandy beach ecosystems: A review|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=81|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.022|bibcode=2009ECSS...81....1D}}</ref><ref name="":30"" /><ref name="":35"">{{Cite journal|last1=Dugan|first1=Jenifer E|last2=Hubbard|first2=David M|last3=McCrary|first3=Michael D|last4=Pierson|first4=Mark O|date=October 2003|title=The response of macrofauna communities and shorebirds to macrophyte wrack subsidies on exposed sandy beaches of southern California|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=58|pages=25–40|doi=10.1016/S0272-7714(03)00045-3|bibcode=2003ECSS...58...25D}}</ref><ref name="":36"">{{Cite journal|last1=Malm|first1=Torleif|last2=Råberg|first2=Sonja|last3=Fell|first3=Sabine|last4=Carlsson|first4=Per|date=June 2004|title=Effects of beach cast cleaning on beach quality, microbial food web, and littoral macrofaunal biodiversity|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=60|issue=2|pages=339–347|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2004.01.008|bibcode=2004ECSS...60..339M}}</ref> Organic materials naturally found on beaches, also known as [[Wrack (seaweed)|wrack]], provide critical nutrients and compose the foundation of the food chain. The elimination of this food source impacts organisms ranging from [[Fauna|meiofauna]] to predator birds, resulting in a [[loss of biodiversity]] and a decrease in [[species abundance]].<ref name="":30"" /><ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":33"" /><ref name="":34"" /><ref name="":35"" /><ref name="":37"">{{Cite journal|last1=Davenport|first1=John|last2=Davenport|first2=Julia L.|date=March 2006|title=The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: A review|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=67|issue=1–2|pages=280–292|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2005.11.026|bibcode=2006ECSS...67..280D}}</ref> For example, Dugan et al.<ref name="":35"" /> studied the relationship between wrack abundance and the richness, abundance, and biomass of [[Fauna|macrofauna]] of fifteen sandy beaches in Southern California and found that ungroomed beaches with relatively low levels of wrack had a mean abundance of [[Fauna|macrofauna]] that thrive in the presence of wrack that was almost nine times greater than groomed beaches. Additionally, ungroomed beaches with relatively large amounts of wrack supported more than thirteen species of [[Fauna|macrofauna]] that live in and around wrack while groomed beaches supported less than three. Furthermore, the presence of two shorebirds was positively correlated with the presence of wrack-associated [[Fauna|macrofauna]], indicating that beaches with more extensive wrack cover support vertebrates higher in the food chain and create a more rich, biodiverse ecosystem. Overall, the presence of wrack allows for detritivores, like isopods and talitrid amphipod, invertebrates like beetles, foraging birds, and scavenging vertebrates like mice, rats, foxes, and badgers to live and feed in that environment.<ref name="":36"" /><ref name="":34"" /><ref name="":33"" /><ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":37"" /><ref name="":35"" />

==== Wrack removal and public health ====
While removing wrack from beaches can harm the environment,<ref name="":35"" /><ref name="":34"" /><ref name="":33"" /><ref name="":10"" /> the presence of excessive wrack can threaten beach goers’ health.<ref name="":38"">{{Cite journal|last1=Whitman|first1=Richard L.|last2=Harwood|first2=Valerie J.|last3=Edge|first3=Thomas A.|last4=Nevers|first4=Meredith B.|last5=Byappanahalli|first5=Muruleedhara|last6=Vijayavel|first6=Kannappan|last7=Brandão|first7=João|last8=Sadowsky|first8=Michael J.|last9=Alm|first9=Elizabeth Wheeler|last10=Crowe|first10=Allan|last11=Ferguson|first11=Donna|date=September 2014|title=Microbes in beach sands: integrating environment, ecology and public health|journal=Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|pages=329–368|doi=10.1007/s11157-014-9340-8|issn=1569-1705|pmc=4219924|pmid=25383070|bibcode=2014RESBT..13..329W }}</ref><ref name="":39"">{{Cite journal|last1=Alves|first1=Bruna|last2=Benavente|first2=Javier|last3=Ferreira|first3=Óscar|date=2014-04-28|title=Beach users' profile, perceptions and willingness to pay for beach management in Cadiz (SW Spain)|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|language=en|volume=70|pages=521–526|doi=10.2112/SI70-088.1|s2cid=130491861|issn=0749-0208}}</ref><ref name="":37"" /><ref name="":40"">{{Cite journal|last1=Kinzelman|first1=Julie L.|last2=McLellan|first2=Sandra L.|date=2009-05-27|title=Success of science-based best management practices in reducing swimming bans—a case study from Racine, Wisconsin, USA|journal=Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=187–196|doi=10.1080/14634980902907466|bibcode=2009AqEHM..12..187K |s2cid=85191313|issn=1463-4988}}</ref><ref name="":35"" /><ref name="":41"">{{Cite journal|last1=Bonilla|first1=Tonya D.|last2=Nowosielski|first2=Kara|last3=Cuvelier|first3=Marie|last4=Hartz|first4=Aaron|last5=Green|first5=Melissa|last6=Esiobu|first6=Nwadiuto|last7=McCorquodale|first7=Donald S.|last8=Fleisher|first8=Jay M.|last9=Rogerson|first9=Andrew|date=September 2007|title=Prevalence and distribution of fecal indicator organisms in South Florida beach sand and preliminary assessment of health effects associated with beach sand exposure|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=54|issue=9|pages=1472–1482|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.04.016|pmid=17610908|bibcode=2007MarPB..54.1472B }}</ref> Collections of wrack decompose quickly which generates a foul odor.<ref name="":37"" /><ref name="":39"" /> This environment attracts unpleasant, and even dangerous microbes and animals.<ref name="":41"" /><ref name="":40"" /><ref name="":39"" /><ref name="":35"" /><ref name="":37"" /><ref name="":42"">{{Cite journal|last1=Imamura|first1=Gregory J.|last2=Thompson|first2=Rachelle S.|last3=Boehm|first3=Alexandria B.|last4=Jay|first4=Jennifer A.|date=July 2011|title=Wrack promotes the persistence of fecal indicator bacteria in marine sands and seawater: Beach wrack: FIB reservoir|journal=FEMS Microbiology Ecology|language=en|volume=77|issue=1|pages=40–49|doi=10.1111/j.1574-6941.2011.01082.x|pmid=21385189|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="":38"" /> Flies and buzzards are drawn to the smell of the decomposing wrack.<ref name="":40"" /><ref name="":37"" /><ref name="":41"" /> While a large bird population increases biodiversity, the birds leave their droppings which also increase the density of potentially harmful microbes in the sand.<ref name="":42"" /><ref name="":41"" /><ref name="":40"" /> Additionally, microbes that thrive in the presence of feces, called fecal indicator organisms, can reproduce in the conditions created by decomposing wrack.<ref name="":38""/><ref name="":41"" /><ref name="":42"" /> Wrack can sustain potentially harmful bacteria and fecal indicator organisms like Escherichia coli and enterococci, which can cause gastrointestinal illness.<ref name="":42"" /><ref name="":41"" /><ref name="":38"" /> In fact, a positive relation between time spent on wet sandy beaches and the incidence of contracting a gastrointestinal illness has been identified.<ref name="":41"" /><ref name="":38"" /><ref name="":42"" />

==== Topographic and vegetation alterations ====
Groomed beaches are wider, sustain substantially less vegetation, and have fewer and flatter topographic features, like dunes and hummocks, than ungroomed beaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dugan|first1=Jenifer E.|last2=Hubbard|first2=David M.|date=January 2010|title=Loss of Coastal Strand Habitat in Southern California: The Role of Beach Grooming|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|language=en|volume=33|issue=1|pages=67–77|doi=10.1007/s12237-009-9239-8|bibcode=2010EstCo..33...67D |s2cid=83502090|issn=1559-2723}}</ref><ref name="":43"">{{Cite journal|last1=Nordstrom|first1=Karl F.|last2=Jackson|first2=Nancy L.|last3=Hartman|first3=Jean Marie|last4=Wong|first4=Mark|date=January 2007|title=Aeolian sediment transport on a human-altered foredune|journal=Earth Surface Processes and Landforms|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=102–115|doi=10.1002/esp.1377|bibcode=2007ESPL...32..102N|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="":44"">{{Cite journal|last=Nordstrom|first=Karl F.|date=2000-01-01|title=Reestablishing Naturally Functioning Dunes on Developed Coasts|journal=Environmental Management|volume=25|issue=1|pages=37–51|doi=10.1007/s002679910004|pmid=10552101|s2cid=24849753|issn=0364-152X}}</ref><ref name="":45"">{{Cite journal|last1=Nordstrom|first1=Karl F.|last2=Jackson|first2=Nancy L.|last3=Klein|first3=Antonio H. F.|last4=Sherman|first4=Douglas J.|last5=Hesp|first5=Patrick A.|date=September 2006|title=Offshore Aeolian Transport across a Low Foredune on a Developed Barrier Island|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|language=en|volume=225|pages=1260–1267|doi=10.2112/06A-0008.1|s2cid=130005558|issn=0749-0208}}</ref> Naturally beaches should have a narrow stretch of sand closest to the ocean that is flattened by the tide below the extreme high tide line. Beyond this zone, the land should be composed of vegetated dunes that are infrequently touched by tides. However, mechanical beach cleaning has converted many beaches into much wider expanses of flat sand, most of which remains undisturbed by the tide and void of vegetation.<ref name="":45"" /><ref name="":44"" /><ref name="":43"" /><ref name="":35"" /> Mechanical beach cleaning destroys vegetation, hummocks, and newly-formed dunes, leading to an immediate flattening of the landscape.<ref name="":35"" /><ref name="":45"" /><ref name="":44"" /> Mechanical cleaning not only damages existing vegetation but deters the growth of future vegetation.<ref name="":35"" /> Dugan and Hubbard found that the groomed portions of a beach experienced significantly lower rates of plant survival and reproduction after germination than the ungroomed sections of the same beach.<ref name="":35"" />

As vegetation abundance and the height and presence of dunes and hummocks decrease, sand transport patterns change in a way that furthers the extent of flattened topography.<ref name="":45"" /><ref name="":44"" /><ref name="":43"" /><ref name="":35"" /> Hummocks, dunes, and vegetation act as obstacles that slow sand movement triggered by the wind. When these features disappear, the formation of future hummocks and dunes becomes more difficult and unlikely.<ref name="":35"" /><ref name="":45"" /><ref name="":44"" /><ref name="":43"" />

As beaches grow flatter and wider, the abundance and diversity of vegetation decreases further because vegetation requires stable sand dunes to take root and grow.<ref name="":45"" /><ref name="":44"" /><ref name="":43"" /><ref name="":35"" />

In this way, mechanical beach cleaning triggers a positive feedback loop that exacerbates the flattening and widening of beaches alongside the loss of vegetation abundance and diversity. Halting mechanical beach cleaning stops this cycle and can rebuild the damaged topography and lost vegetation.<ref name="":35"" /><ref name="":44"" /><ref name="":43"" /> For example, Dugan and Hubbard observed that four years after stopping mechanical grooming, the San Buenaventura State Beach recovered 20 to 40 meters of vegetation, formed new hummocks and the beginning stages of sand dunes, improved sand stability, and increased the number of plants that survived beyond germination.<ref name="":35"" />

=== Best practices ===
A number of best practices for carrying out beach cleaning have been discussed in the literature.

====Combination of mechanical and manual cleaning methods====
This method allows urban and more intensely used beaches to manage larger quantities of litter while minimizing the environmental impact of mechanical cleaning.<ref name="":31"" /><ref name="":10"" /> In fact, beaches cleaned less than three times a week sustain a level of biodiversity and [[species abundance]] that is similar or only slightly lower than beaches that are strictly cleaned by hand.<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":31"" /><ref name="":32"" /> For example, Morton et al. (2015) found that mechanical beach cleaning did not affect biodiversity but concede that this likely due to the fact that the beach only underwent mechanical cleaning once to twice a week and had moved wrack from popular sections of the beaches to less commonly visited sites.<ref name="":31"" /> Additionally, Stelling-Wood et al. (2016) studied ghost crab populations as an indicator species for overall biodiversity on sandy beaches and discovered that the frequency of mechanical beach cleaning was the most influential factor on population size. Beaches that were mechanically cleaned less than three times a week housed the highest number of ghost crabs.<ref name="":32"" />

====Reduction of quantity of beach litter through educational programs====
Educational programs and volunteering effectively catalyze behavior change and awareness around marine pollution, leading to a reduction in marine debris and a willingness to clean that is present on beaches.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":9"" /><ref name="":18"" /> More information can be found about the benefits of educational and volunteer programs under the Public Engagement and Beach Cleaning header of this page. Decreasing the quantity of marine litter makes manual beach cleaning an easier, more effective option, even for urban, frequently used beaches.

====Relocation of collections of wrack to ungroomed or less popular areas of a beach====
In doing so, the critical nutrient provided by wrack remains in the ecosystem, limiting disruptions to the food chain and ecosystem.<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":31"" /><ref name="":30"" /> Oftentimes, the nutrients from wrack will be redistributed to groomed portions of the beaches through wind and waves.<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":31"" /> For this reason, it is most important that this suggestion be implemented on beaches with consistently low tides.<ref name="":30"" />

== Public engagement and beach cleaning ==

There are three primary ways the public can learn about or participate in beach cleaning: educational programs, awareness campaigns, and volunteering. All modes of public engagement can increase awareness of the issue of marine litter, educate participants about marine litter and ocean conservation, and motivate behavior change.<ref name="":14"" /><ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":17"" /><ref name="":18"" /><ref name="":22""/><ref name="":23"" /><ref name="":4"" /> When volunteers participate in beach cleaning, they can use mechanical or manual methods.

=== Educational programs and awareness campaigns ===
Educational and awareness campaigns can be developed by schools<ref name="":14"" /><ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":17"" /><ref name="":18"" /> or promoted by government.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vanhooren|first1=Sofie|last2=Maelfait|first2=Hanneore|last3=Belpaeme|first3=Kathy|date=December 2011|title=Moving Towards an Ecological Management of the Beaches|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|language=en|volume=61|pages=81–86|doi=10.2112/SI61-001.70|s2cid=130645857|issn=0749-0208}}</ref> Both have effectively enhanced their target audience's knowledge of marine litter, perception of the extent of the issue, and catalyzed behavior change.

Multiple studies research the impact of [[service learning programs]] on students’ level of knowledge accumulation and awareness of both marine litter and broader marine conservation issues.<ref name="":14"" /><ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":17"" /><ref name="":18"" /> For example, Owens (2018) studied the self-reported change in student's perception of their knowledge about ocean conservation and environmental behavior. The study compared the responses of two groups: an undergraduate class enrolled in a seminar course supplemented by a [[Service-learning|service learning]] opportunity cleaning beaches and an undergraduate class enrolled in a traditional laboratory-based environmental science course. Students who participated in beach cleaning reported a significantly greater perception of knowledge and environmentally-friendly behavior compared to the students in the laboratory-based class. The students who participated in beach cleaning also saw a significantly greater increase in their scores for perceived knowledge and environmentally-friendly behavior compared to the other cohort.<ref name="":16"" />

Educational campaigns can spread knowledge and incite behavior change beyond the target audience. For example, Hartley et al. (2015) explains that students who participated in beach cleaning with their school encouraged their friends and family to join them in adopting mitigation and prevention behaviors.<ref name="":14"" />
[[File:Beach Cleaning Volunteers.jpg|thumb|Group of students from University of Vermont volunteering with the North Carolina Beach Buggy Association to clean Cape Hatteras National Seashore in North Carolina|287x287px]]

=== Volunteering ===
Volunteering improves participants’ awareness and knowledge about marine litter and increases the likelihood that individuals will take continued action to address the issue.<ref name="":14"" /><ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":17"" /><ref name="":18"" /><ref name="":22""/><ref name="":23"">{{Cite journal|last1=Uneputty|first1=Prulley|last2=Evans|first2=S.M.|last3=Suyoso|first3=Elshinta|date=June 1998|title=The effectiveness of a community education programme in reducing litter pollution on shores of Ambon Bay (eastern Indonesia)|journal=Journal of Biological Education|language=en|volume=32|issue=2|pages=143–147|doi=10.1080/00219266.1998.9655611|issn=0021-9266}}</ref> For example, Hartley et al. (2015) claims that after volunteering to clean a local beach with their school, children reported engaging in mitigation and prevention behavior more frequently, such as purchasing fewer, single-use plastic items, appropriately disposing of their waste, and recycling.<ref name="":14"" /> Uneputty et al. (1998) found that individuals who had volunteered to clean beaches continued to remove trash from beaches and not litter months after they had participated in a volunteer program.<ref name="":23"" /> Furthermore, surveys and interviews have revealed that once individuals begin volunteering in marine conservation efforts, they want to continue.<ref name="":22"" /><ref name="":20"" />

Multiple studies have determined that volunteers, whether organized through schools and universities or individual interest, can significantly reduce the quantity of solid waste on beaches.<ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":18"" /><ref name="":23"" /><ref name="":4"" />

Numerous volunteer beach cleaning programs have been facilitated by schools that promote [[Service-learning|service learning]] opportunities.<ref name="":14"" /><ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":18"" /> These studies, in conjunction with research conducted with participants that joined programs entirely voluntarily,<ref name="":22""/><ref name="":15"" /><ref name="":23"" /> have demonstrated that groups that were and were not previously concerned about marine litter can experience an increase in awareness and knowledge, as well as positive behavior change through the hands on experience and learning involved in volunteering.

Beach cleaning volunteers reap the same, if not more, benefits from their participation as individuals who participate in other coastal activities.<ref name="":17"" /> Wyles et al. (2017) studied the impact various coastal activities- beach cleaning, rock pooling, and walking on the beach- had on well being and discovered that all three led to a similar betterment in mood. However, individuals who participated in beach cleaning described a more intense sense of fulfillment when compared to the groups.<ref name="":17"" />

While further research has not been completed on the mental and emotional benefits of beach cleaning, volunteers who promote environmental stewardship have reported improvements in their well being.<ref name="":24"" /><ref name="":25"" /><ref name="":26"" /><ref name="":20"" />

=== Public engagement and collection methods ===
A study conducted in Catalonia in the late 1990s found that, on the beaches of the [[Llobregat Delta]], engaging with the public through manual methods of beach cleanup improved citizen participation as compared to mechanical methods. Moving towards manual cleaning by citizens can benefit both the environment and aid in the local municipalities work of keeping the beaches clean.<ref name="":11"">{{Cite journal|last1=Domínguez|first1=H.|last2=Belpaeme|first2=K.|date=2006|title=Manual beach cleaning in Belgium: an ecological alternative|url=http://www.vliz.be/nl/datasets-belgische-kust-en-zee?module=ref&refid=102723|journal=EuroCoast - Littoral 2006|language=nl}}</ref><ref name="":4"" /> Dominguez's 2005 study found a correlation between citizens and the use of manual beach cleaning methods.<ref name="":11"" /> This study also found that the amount of manual labor as well as employees required to manually clean stretches of beaches to be much less than anticipated.<ref name="":11"" />

== Most polluted and cleanest beaches in the world ==
===Most polluted beaches===
Many researchers report that the ocean currents transfer floating litter by the five subtropical gyres.<ref name="":27"" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eriksen|first1=Marcus|last2=Maximenko|first2=Nikolai|last3=Thiel|first3=Martin|last4=Cummins|first4=Anna|last5=Lattin|first5=Gwen|last6=Wilson|first6=Stiv|last7=Hafner|first7=Jan|last8=Zellers|first8=Ann|last9=Rifman|first9=Samuel|date=2013|title=Plastic pollution in the South Pacific subtropical gyre|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=68|issue=1–2|pages=71–76|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.12.021|pmid=23324543|bibcode=2013MarPB..68...71E |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> Thus, anthropocentric marine debris is present in all oceans, beaches and at the sea surface, even the Arctic sea ice contains small plastics particles or micro-plastics.<ref name="":8"" /> According to Bhatia (2019),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thetravel.com/dirtiest-beaches-in-the-world/|title=10 Dirtiest Beaches In The World|date=2019-08-18|website=TheTravel|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-27}}</ref> the ten most polluted beaches in the world are:<mapframe latitude=""12.554564"" longitude=""-33.398438"" zoom=""2"" width=""306"" height=""268"" align=""right"">
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# [[Phú Quốc|Phu Quoc]], [[Vietnam]].
# Maya Bay, [[Thailand]].
# Kamilo Beach, [[Hawaii]], [[United States|USA]].
# [[Kuta|Kuta Beach]], [[Indonesia]].
# [[Juhu|Juhu Beach]], [[India]].
# [[Kota Kinabalu]], [[Malaysia]].
# [[Guanabara Bay]], Brazil.
# Serendipity Beach, [[Cambodia]].
# Haina, [[Dominican Republic]].
# [[San Clemente, California|San Clemente Pier]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]].

=== Cleanest beaches ===

According to Nguyen (2019),<ref name="":28"">{{Cite web|url=https://ecophiles.com/2019/06/15/cleanest-beaches-in-the-world/|title=The Cleanest Beaches In The World for a Clear Water Dip|last=Nguyen Eileen|date=2019-06-15|website=Ecophiles|language=en|access-date=2020-03-27}}</ref> there are still some clean beaches around the world. To find out if a beach is clean or not is to look for a blue flag.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueflag.global/|title=Blue Flag|website=Blue Flag|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-27}}</ref> [[Blue Flag beach|The Blue Flag]] is the world's most recognized voluntary eco-labels awarded to beaches, marinas, and sustainable boating tourism operators.<ref name="":29"" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mir-Gual|first1=M.|last2=Pons|first2=G.X.|last3=Martín-Prieto|first3=J.A.|last4=Rodríguez-Perea|first4=A.|date=2015|title=A critical view of the Blue Flag beaches in Spain using environmental variables|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=105|pages=106–115|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.01.003|bibcode=2015OCM...105..106M |issn=0964-5691}}</ref> The blue flag shows when a beach has high environmental and quality standards.<ref name="":28"" /> The six the cleanest Blue Flag awarded beaches are:<mapframe latitude=""4.214943"" longitude=""-27.421875"" zoom=""2"" width=""306"" height=""247"" align=""right"">
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</mapframe>
# Victoria Beach, [[Canada]].
# Santa Maria Beach, Los Cabos.
# Dado Beach, [[Israel]].
# Mellieha Bay, [[Malta]].
#  Palmestranden Beach, [[Denmark]].
# Zona Balnear da Lagoa, [[Portugal]].

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Tulum beach cleaning.JPG|Beach cleaning vehicles
File:Tenerife beach cleaning C.jpg|Beach cleaning vehicles
File:Tenerife beach cleaning D.jpg|After beach cleaning by a cleaning vehicle
File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg|Oil beach cleaning
File:Micro Ocean Plastic.jpg|Micro-plastic
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Commons category|Beach cleanup|Beach cleaning}}
* [[Global warming]]
* [[Anthropocene]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Marine ecosystem]]
* [[Oil spill]]
* [[Earth Day]]
* [[Exploding whale]]
* [[Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup]]
* [[Marine Conservation Society]]
* [[Ocean Conservancy]]

==References==
{{reflist |refs=
<!--unused<ref name=ECC>{{citation |pages=235–236 |work=Encyclopedia of Coastal Science |title=Cleaning |editor=Maurice Schwartz |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2006 |isbn=9781402038808}}</ref>

<ref name=BM>{{citation |title=Beach Management: Principles and Practice |first1=Allan Thomas |last1=Williams |first2=Anton |last2=Micallef |publisher=Earthscan |year=2009 |isbn=9781849770033 |page=93}}</ref>

<ref name=BPM>{{citation |title=Rehabilitation of metropolitan beaches by local administrations in Catalonia: New trends in sustainable coastal management |journal=Journal of Coastal Conservation |volume=6 |number=1 |pages=97–106 |date=12 January 2000 |doi=10.1007/BF02730473 |last1=Breton |first1=Françoise |last2=Pau |first2=Esteban |last3=Miralles |first3=Eulàlia}}</ref>

<ref name=coastal>{{cite journal  |last1=Vanhooren |first1=Sofie|last2=Maelfait|first2=Hanneore|last3=Belpaeme|first3=Kathy |title=Moving Towards an Ecological Management of the Beaches |jstor=41510780|date=2011|pages=81–86  |publisher=Journal of Coastal Research |access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref>-->
}}

{{portalbar|Ecology|Environment}}

[[Category:Beaches|Cleaning]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Marine conservation]]"
Kalee Kreider,"{{Infobox person
| name               = Kalee Kreider
| native_name        = Amy Kalee Kreider
| birth_date         = 1971
| education          = History
| alma_mater         = [[Rollins College]] (BS)
| employer           = [[National Geographic Society]] <br> [[Al Gore]]'s Office <br> [[Fenton Communications]]
}}

'''Kalee Kreider''' (born 1971) is an American public affairs and environmental adviser. She is President of Ridgely Walsh, a boutique public affairs agency based in Washington, D.C. She was the Chief of Content at The National Geographic Society. She was the former environmental adviser and spokesperson for [[Al Gore]]. In this role, she helped develop the materials for ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]''. She is a senior adviser for the [[United Nations Foundation]].

== Education and early career ==
Kreider was born in [[Columbus, Ohio]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=https://psmag.com/magazine/women-saving-the-planet-kalee-kreider-of-the-united-states|title=Women Saving the Planet: Kalee Kreider of the United States|last=Graves|first=Lucia|website=Pacific Standard|date=23 September 2018 |language=en|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref> She studied [[history]] at [[Rollins College]], which she graduated in 1992.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rollins.edu/magazine/archive/spring2009/profiles/kreider.html|title=Kalee Kreider '92 {{!}} Alumni Profile {{!}} Spring 2009 {{!}} Rollins Magazine|website=www.rollins.edu|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref> She joined [[Rollins College]] because of Pedro Pequeño, an [[anthropologist]].<ref name="":1"" /> She began her career as a [[Harry S. Truman Scholarship|Truman Fellow]] in the [[Clinton Administration]].<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|url=https://unfoundation.org/who-we-are/our-people/kalee-kreider/|title=Kalee Kreider|date=2019-04-02|website=unfoundation.org|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://live.worldbank.org/experts/kalee-kreider-moderator|title=Kalee Kreider (Moderator)|date=2015-08-26|website=World Bank Live|language=en|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref> She was selected as the [[White House]] Scholar-in-Residence, where she worked on the Clinton Crime Bill.<ref name="":1"" /> She left the [[White House]] to set up a [[non-governmental organization]] called Ozone Action.<ref name="":1"" /> She worked for [[Greenpeace]] and the National Environment Trust (now one of [[The Pew Charitable Trusts]]).<ref name="":1"" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0105/29/nr.00.html|title=CNN.com - Transcripts|website=www.cnn.com|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref> During her time at [[Greenpeace]], Kreider negotiated the [[Kyoto Protocol]].<ref name="":1"" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB877548984232451000|title=Clinton Unveils Plan to Reduce Emissions of Greenhouse Gases|last=Journal|first=John J. Fialka and Jackie CalmesStaff Reporters of The Wall Street|website=WSJ|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref>

== Career ==
After the [[2000 United States presidential election]], it became obvious that the [[Kyoto Protocol]] was not going to be ratified.<ref name="":1"" />  Kreider left climate policy, and started a position at [[Fenton Communications]].<ref name="":1"" /> She was recruited to [[Al Gore]]'s team to help write a speech about the [[Iraq War]].<ref name="":1"" />

Kreider moved to [[Nashville, Tennessee]], where she moved in 2006 to join the Office for [[Al Gore]].<ref name="":0"" /> She served as Gore's environmental adviser.<ref name="":0"" /> During this time, she researched and marketed [[Al Gore]]'s best-selling books and the film [[An Inconvenient Truth]].<ref name="":2"" /> The work she did with Gore contributed to his [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref name="":1"" />

In 2013 Kreider established her own consultancy, Kreider Strategies LLC. The consultancy provided information about [[climate change]] and technology. In 2019 she was made Chief of Content at the [[National Geographic Society]], where she will lead corporate communications and public affairs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2019/06/03/national-geographic-society-names-kalee-kreider-chief-of-content-communications-and-public-affairs/|title=National Geographic Society Names Kalee Kreider Chief of Content, Communications and Public Affairs|date=2019-06-03|website=National Geographic Society Newsroom|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref>

She is a Senior Adviser for the [[United Nations Foundation]] and [[Vulcan Inc.]]<ref name="":2"" /> She has called for more women to be involved with monitoring and mitigating [[climate change]].<ref name="":0"" />

=== Personal life ===
Kreider is married to [[Jack Pratt (politician)|Jack Pratt]], a farmer turned politician.<ref name="":1"" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kreider, Kalee}}
[[Category:People from Columbus, Ohio]]
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Rollins College alumni]]
[[Category:United Nations Foundation]]
[[Category:Living people]]"
Coral reefs of Jamaica,"[[File:DSC00264 - recifes de coral - Naufrágio e recifes de coral no Nilo.jpg|thumb|Healthy coral reefs]]
[[Jamaica]], an island located within the [[Caribbean Sea]], known for being a popular tourist destination because of its pristine white sand beaches, is now faced with the issue of mass coral depletion. Both environmental and human factors contribute to the destruction of these corals, which inevitably affect Jamaica's [[Environmental Sustainability|environmental sustainability]] and [[economy]]. Actions have been put in place to counteract the negative consequences associated with the loss of the corals, which act as a symbol of hope for the revival of Jamaica's environment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/destinations/2019/09/19/jamaicas-coral-reefs-comeback-gardeners-help-fishermen-adapt/2372475001/|title='The coral are coming back': Reviving Jamaica's elegant and essential coral reefs|website=USA TODAY|language=en|access-date=2019-10-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/jamaican-coral-reefs-get-a-helping-hand/a-17864466|title=Jamaican coral reefs get a helping hand {{!}} DW {{!}} 21.08.2014|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-10-22}}</ref>

Human behavior has a large impact on Jamaica's 479 square miles of [[coral reef]]s, which hosts 60 different species of coral.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://traveltips.usatoday.com/coral-reefs-jamaica-1380.html|title=Coral Reefs in Jamaica|last=Charpentier|first=Will|work=USA Today|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":1a"">{{Cite journal|last=Hughes|first=Terence P.|date=1994|title=Catastrophes, Phase Shifts, and Large-Scale Degradation of a Caribbean Coral Reef|jstor=2884556|journal=Science|volume=265|issue=5178|pages=1547–1551|doi=10.1126/science.265.5178.1547|pmid=17801530|bibcode=1994Sci...265.1547H|s2cid=43204708 }}</ref> These reefs are a major tourist attraction for the country, accounting for 27 percent of its [[Gross domestic product|GDP]].<ref name="":0a"">{{Cite web|url=http://climateandreefs.org/jamaica/|title=Jamaica|website=ClimateandReefs|language=en-US|access-date=2017-08-06}}</ref> Due to Jamaica's economic reliance on its coastal reserves, the degradation of the coral reefs is much higher because of continuous habitat destruction.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Status of coral reefs in the northern Caribbean and Atlantic node of the GCRMN|last=Linton|first=D|publisher=Australian Institute of Marine Science|year=2002|pages=277–302}}</ref>

==Extent==
Along Jamaica's {{cvt|894|km|mi}} of coastline are {{cvt|763|km2|mi2}} of coral reefs as of 2014.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/caribbean_coral_reefs___status_report_1970_2012.pdf| page=248| title=Status and Trends of Caribbean Coral Reefs: 1970-2012|editor1-first=Jeremy|editor1-last=Jackson|editor2-first=Mary| editor2-last=Donovan| editor3-first=Katie|editor3-last=Cramer| editor4-first=Vivian|editor4-last=Lam|publisher=Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network|year=2014}}</ref> However, the reefs were once much larger. About 85% of Jamaica's coral reefs were lost between 1980&ndash;2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/nov/04/restoring-jamaicas-lost-coral-reefs-photo-essay| website=The Guardian| title=Restoring Jamaica's lost coral reefs – photo essay| first=Christina| last=Larson|date=4 November 2019| access-date=4 November 2019}}</ref> Coral reef distribution on the northern coast of Jamaica extends from [[Morant Point]] in the east to [[Negril]] in the west. On the southern coast, the reefs are more restricted, occurring mostly on the eastern part of the continental shelf near [[Old Harbour Bay, Jamaica|Old Harbour]] and [[Port Royal]]. Reefs on the southern coast outside this area are small with a patchy distribution.<ref name=""Goreau"">{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/1929924|jstor=1929924|title=The Ecology of Jamaican Coral Reefs I. Species Composition and Zonation|journal=Ecology|volume=40|issue=1|pages=67–90|year=1959|last1=Goreau|first1=Thomas F.|bibcode=1959Ecol...40...67G }}</ref>

==Coral diversity==
Various species of [[Scleractinia|hard coral]] are found in Jamaican reefs, including the following families:<ref name=""Goreau""/>
{{div col}}
*[[Acroporidae]] (staghorn corals)
*[[Agariciidae]] (cactus and lettuce corals)
*[[Astrocoeniidae]]
*[[Caryophylliidae]]
*[[Dendrophylliidae]]
*[[Meandrinidae]]
*[[Mussidae]]
*[[Oculinidae]]
*[[Pocilloporidae]]
*[[Poritidae]]
*[[Rhizangiidae]]
*[[Siderastreidae]]
{{div col end}}

== Causes of decline ==
The coral reefs are under threat due to environmental issues such as [[overfishing]], pollution, hurricanes, and disease. Since the 1970s, Jamaica's coral reef cover has declined more than 50 percent.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/02/caribbean-coral-reef-lost-fishing-pollution-report|title=Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection|last=Aldred|first=Jessica|date=2014-07-02|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In 2005, up to 95 percent of the coral was bleached in some locations.<ref name="":0a"" />

=== Coral bleaching ===
[[File:Bleached coral, Acoropora sp.jpg|thumb|Example of coral bleaching phenomenon]]
Rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere directly link to increases in [[Sea surface temperature|sea temperatures]], which have been seen to have adverse effects on coral health.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|title=Coastal and Estuarine Studies|last=Phinney|first=Jonathan}}</ref> Climate change is a driver of [[coral bleaching]] which results from sea surface temperatures rising above normal levels, thus forcing coral polyps to discharge the algae they shared an [[endosymbiotic]] relationship with.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/02/190221110425.htm|title=How coral bleaching threatens Caribbean communities: Analysis reveals Caribbean communities that are most at risk from the social and ecological effects of coral bleaching|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=2019-10-22}}</ref> Tropical corals prefer warmer waters and usually reside close to the surface at their maximum thermal limit, therefore when sea temperatures begin to rise above the normal scale corals become stressed.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book|title=Coral Reefs Under Climate Change and Ocean Acidification: Challenges and Opportunities for Management and Policy|last=Anthony|first=Kenneth}}</ref> Once environmental conditions become unfavorable, the corals undergo this process as a short-term solution of survival, but prolonged exposure to said conditions can lead to mass coral deaths. Without their main energy provider, corals will experience starvation and then lose their coloration, resulting in beds of white ""bleached"" corals.

===Pollution===
Sewage pollution has led to [[eutrophication]] which results in an abundance of nutrients for microalgal populations to bloom.<ref name="":2a"">{{Cite journal|last1=Lapointe|first1=B. E.|last2=Thacker|first2=K.|last3=Hanson|first3=C.|last4=Getten|first4=L.|date=2011-07-01|title=Sewage pollution in Negril, Jamaica: effects on nutrition and ecology of coral reef macroalgae|journal=Chinese Journal of Oceanology and Limnology|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|pages=775–789|doi=10.1007/s00343-011-0506-8|bibcode=2011ChJOL..29..775L|s2cid=84875443 |issn=0254-4059}}</ref> The United Nations Environmental Program determined that 85 percent of the sewage entering the Caribbean ocean is untreated.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last1=Wear|first1=Stephanie L.|last2=Thurber|first2=Rebecca Vega|date=2015-10-01|title=Sewage pollution: mitigation is key for coral reef stewardship|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=1355|issue=1|pages=15–30|doi=10.1111/nyas.12785|pmid=25959987|issn=1749-6632|pmc=4690507|bibcode=2015NYASA1355...15W}}</ref> This raw sewage contains dissolved inorganic nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals, and toxins that can cause coral bleaching, disease, increased mortality, and decreased coral growth.<ref name="":3"" /> A study concluded that increased nutrients such as, inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, doubled the probability of coral diseases and tripled the probability of bleaching.<ref name="":3"" /> An increase of inorganic nitrogen was also linked to the presence of pathogens which can lead to coral mortality.<ref name="":3"" /> The heavy metals prevent respiration and nerve communication within the coral which also leads to coral mortality.<ref name="":3"" />

==== Ocean acidification ====
Another consequence of global warming is [[ocean acidification]]. CO<small>2</small> dissolves into the seawater thus changing its chemical composition; this new addition of [[carbonic acid]] shifts the [[pH]] value lower, making it more acidic.<ref name="":0"" />  Ocean acidification adversely affects corals by affecting the rate at which they can generate their skeletal structures. The basic constituent in a coral's skeleton structure is [[calcium carbonate]] which breaks down in the presence of acid. The [[carbon cycle]] then becomes disrupted and as a result there is a reduction in the concentration of carbonate ions in the seawater. Marine calcification is now inversely affected which impacts calcifying organisms such as corals as it now becomes harder to build and form their calcium carbonate structures. Without a supportive skeleton, corals will naturally be more frail and easily damaged during [[storm surge]]s, while the rate of growth and recovery are both slowed. The corals also become weaker, and more susceptible to disease which significantly takes a toll on the resilience of the reefs.<ref name="":1"" />

=== Hurricanes ===
As sea surface temperatures rise, low pressure systems that pass over areas of warmer water are fueled by the excess heat, forming into [[tropical depressions]] and then further into high intensity [[hurricanes]]. These systems affect wave patterns and seawater movements which can cause severe damage to shallow water corals. Reefs consisting of more fragile coral structures will be more vulnerable to the destructive strengths of currents generated from storm surge swells, and result in mass coral colony wipeouts when high category hurricanes hit the island. During storms, sediments and debris can also gather in areas that could have been perfect for coral settlements, but instead become unsuitable and remain barren.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/caribbean_rpt/SCRBH2005_03.pdf|title=Hurricanes and their effects on coral reefs|last=Heron}}</ref>

Major hurricane events include Hurricane Allen in 1980, [[Hurricane Gilbert]] in 1988, and Hurricane Ivan in 2004.<ref name="":4a"" /> In 2005, there were a record breaking 26 storms recorded that caused 26 events of bleaching in 16 of Jamaica's coral reef sites.<ref name="":4a"" /> The hurricanes affected 68 percent of Jamaica's coral reefs and 38 percent of those corals later died.<ref name="":4a"" /> In September 2005, up to 95 percent of Jamaica's corals had bleached, but only 50 percent recovered later.<ref name="":4a"" /> As a result of the 2005 hurricane, microalgal blooms took over where the corals once were.<ref name="":4a"" />

=== Invasive species ===
[[File:Common lionfish at Shaab El Erg reef.JPG|thumb|232x232px|Invasive species of lion-fish threatens coral reefs]]
The [[invasive species]] of [[Pterois|lion-fish]] pose a serious threat to the sustainability of Jamaica's coral reefs as [[marine ecosystem]]s become compromised with their rapid growth in population.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.wri.org/atlantic-and-caribbean-lionfish-invasion-threatens-reefs|title=Atlantic and Caribbean: Lionfish Invasion Threatens Reefs|date=2013-09-23|website=World Resources Institute|language=en|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref><ref name="":3a"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/impacts-invasive-lionfish|title=Impacts of Invasive Lionfish {{!}} NOAA Fisheries|last=Fisheries|first=NOAA|date=2018-07-30|website=www.fisheries.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> These species of lion-fish, more specifically the [[Red lionfish|Pterois volitans]] and [[Pterois miles]], are not native to the Caribbean sea waters but instead originated in the [[Indo-Pacific]].<ref name="":2"" /> The very first reported sightings of the invasion of lion-fish in the Caribbean occurred in the 1980s off the coast of Florida.<ref name="":3a"" /> It is speculated that these fish entered Atlantic and Caribbean waterways due to aquarium releases, where people would set the species free in the sea after growing too big for the tank and rapidly multiplying.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.plantingpeace.org/2015/07/lionfish/|title=Lionfish Are Destroying Our Coral Reefs|date=2015-07-24|website=Planting Peace|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref>

Due to the fact that Jamaican reefs aren't the lion-fishes' natural habitat there are no known predators in the area, thereby contributing to their increasing population and inevitably affecting the [[ecosystem]].<ref name="":4"" /> The lion-fishes' diet is not limited to any one species of fish and their carnivorous eating habits are detrimental to Jamaica's coral reefs as they feed upon the [[herbivore]]s responsible for keeping [[algae]] growth levels in check.<ref name="":3a"" /><ref name="":4"" /> Without proper algae regulation there could be a massive overgrowth of algae which blocks out sunlight thus preventing reefs from in turn producing oxygen through photosynthesis. Even the presence of one lone lion-fish was found to cause a 79% reduction in the recruitment of the area's native reef fishes, and its impact is further amplified by the fact that they also breed at a much faster rate than native fish, with females laying up to 2 million eggs per year each.<ref name="":3a"" /><ref name="":4"" /> In as little as 5 weeks, one lion-fish also has the ability to wipeout 80% of young reef fish, thereby preventing the flourishing of species of fish that are essential to maintaining healthy corals.<ref name="":4"" />

=== Aqua tourism ===
[[Tourism]] is an essential aspect of Jamaica's economy, but can also be unintentionally harmful to the environment when tourists aren't taught how to properly care for the island's ecosystems. [[Snorkeling]] and [[recreational diving]] are just some of the few activities tourists normally take part in and sometimes their actions can become detrimental to the corals.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|url=https://earthjustice.org/blog/2016-april/coral-reefs-and-the-unintended-impact-of-tourism|title=Coral Reefs and the Unintended Impact of Tourism|date=2016-04-18|website=Earthjustice|language=en|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> Without knowing any better, people swim up to the corals to touch them or snap off pieces for keep sakes which can lead to coral bleaching, as the corals become stressed and expel their algae.<ref name="":5"" /> By swimming too close the reefs, tourists can also stir up sand and sediments with their [[Swimfin|flippers]] thus depositing them on the corals and inevitably hindering the process of [[photosynthesis]].<ref name="":5"" />

=== Overfishing ===
[[File:Eilat Scuba Parrotfish.JPG|thumb|Parrotfish eating algae off of coral reef]]
Jamaica's coral reefs house 135 different species of fish.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klomp|first=Kristi|date=2003|title=Condition of Reef Fish on Jamaica's North Coast Signals Late Stages of Over Exploitation|url=http://aquaticcommons.org/13590/1/gcfi_54-49.pdf|journal=54th Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute|pages=592–606}}</ref> Between 1995 and 1998, fishing licenses increased by 68 percent for the Montego Bay Marine Park where 69 percent of fishers rely on fishing as their full-time income.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bunce|first1=L.|last2=Gustavson|first2=K.|last3=Williams|first3=J.|last4=Miller|first4=M.|date=1999-12-01|title=The human side of reef management: a case study analysis of the socioeconomic framework of Montego Bay Marine Park|journal=Coral Reefs|language=en|volume=18|issue=4|pages=369–380|doi=10.1007/s003380050215|s2cid=25062627 |issn=0722-4028}}</ref> In 1970 on Jamaica's north coast, trap fishermen set 1800 traps which was at least two times above estimated sustainability levels.<ref name="":1a"" /> Fish density dwindled to 9.8 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup> between 2001 and 2006.<ref name="":4a"">{{Cite book|title=Status of Caribbean Coral Reefs after Bleaching and Hurricanes in 2005|last=Jones|first=Loureene|publisher=Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network|year=2008|location=Townsville, Australia|pages=73–84}}</ref> Overfishing has reduced the herbivorous fish that keep algae populations in check and it has caused a phase shift from coral reefs to algae reefs.<ref name="":0a"" /> Today, algae covers 24 percent of the reefs where corals once stood.<ref name="":0a"" /> By 1960, fish biomass was reduced by 80 percent due to overfishing.<ref name="":1a"" /> Fish that are vital to coral reef survival, such as the parrot fish, have been driven to near extinction in some regions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.iucn.org/content/despair-repair-dramatic-decline-caribbean-corals-can-be-reversed|title=From despair to repair: Dramatic decline of Caribbean corals can be reversed|date=2014-06-30|work=IUCN|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en}}</ref> In addition, overfishing has also been linked to the disappearance of the black sea urchin, ''[[Diadema antillarum]],'' which also helped to reduce microalgal presence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|date=September 16, 2009|title=Disaster and Recovery of the Fringing Reefs of North Jamaica|magazine=CO<sub>2</sub> Science|volume=12|issue=37|url=http://co2science.org/articles/V12/N37/C1.php}}</ref>

[[Overfishing]] causes an unacceptable reduction in the population of fish which are essential to the proper maintenance of the reefs, such as grazers.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/02/caribbean-coral-reef-lost-fishing-pollution-report|title=Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection|last=Aldred|first=Jessica|date=2014-07-02|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-10-24|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Fish such as the native [[Parrotfish|parrot fish]] help keep algae levels down so that the corals aren't completely encased in their bloom.<ref name="":02"" /> It has been found that there is a direct link between thriving parrotfish populations and thriving coral populations in Caribbean reefs, with islands which have imposed parrotfish fishing bans having the healthiest reefs like Bermuda, and those without which have witnessed major coral declines like Jamaica.<ref name="":02"" /><ref name="":6"">{{Cite web|url=https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2014/07/02/to-save-coral-reefs-start-with-parrotfish/|title=To Save Coral Reefs, Start With Parrotfish|date=2014-07-02|website=National Geographic Society Newsroom|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> Without these essential species of fish, Jamaica's reefs run the risk of having total coral decimation.<ref name="":02"" /> As a result, it is imperative that bans should be put in place to protect the parrotfish, but that's easier said than done when so many local fishermen rely on catching and selling them to make a livelihood.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.caribbeanclimate.bz/parrotfish-ban/|title=Parrotfish ban|date=2014-07-10|website=Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref>

=== Disease ===
The Caribbean's coral reefs have been increasingly becoming diseased by 20 percent.<ref name="":3a"" /> Coral diseases can cause tissue damage or it could even destroy the entire colony.<ref name="":3a"" /> In 1980, white-band disease killed 95 percent of the ''[[Acroporid palmata]]'' and ''Acroporid cervicornis'' colonies which placed them on the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973|Endangered Species Act]].<ref name="":3"" /> A 2010 study concluded that sewage runoff was correlated to the [[white pox coral disease]] that destroyed the ''Acroporid palmata'' species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=Kathryn Patterson|last2=Porter|first2=James W.|last3=Turner|first3=Jeffrey W.|last4=Thomas|first4=Brian J.|last5=Looney|first5=Erin E.|last6=Luna|first6=Trevor P.|last7=Meyers|first7=Meredith K.|last8=Futch|first8=J. Carrie|last9=Lipp|first9=Erin K.|date=2010-05-01|title=Human sewage identified as likely source of white pox disease of the threatened Caribbean elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata|journal=Environmental Microbiology|language=en|volume=12|issue=5|pages=1122–1131|doi=10.1111/j.1462-2920.2010.02152.x|pmid=20132278|bibcode=2010EnvMi..12.1122S |issn=1462-2920}}</ref>

== Rehabilitation efforts ==
With all of these different factors coming into play, Jamaican (and more generally Caribbean) reefs have been affected substantially. Around 9% of the Earth's total coral population resides in the Caribbean, and it is truly saddening that over 50% of that original coral in the region has been destroyed since the 1970s with [[algal bloom]]s at an all-time high since the 1990s.<ref name="":02"" /><ref name="":6"" /> Jamaica in particular has lost 85% of its coral reefs between 1980 and 1990 mainly due to the chain of unfortunate human and natural disasters that struck the island during that time frame. The state of the corals didn't go unnoticed and spurred locals to take action to reverse the damage caused to the reefs. As a result, many new (grassroots-run) fisheries and coral nurseries have been established across Jamaica since around 2009, in an effort to bring back the island's marine ecosystem.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/destinations/2019/09/19/jamaicas-coral-reefs-comeback-gardeners-help-fishermen-adapt/2372475001/|title='The coral are coming back': Reviving Jamaica's elegant and essential coral reefs|website=USA TODAY|language=en|access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/article/20190918/ARTICLE/190919723/1606|title=Jamaica Observer Limited|website=Jamaica Observer|access-date=2019-10-28}}</ref>

In Ocho Rios, Jamaica a group of local divers have teamed up to start this restoration process and rebuild the reefs through coral gardening.<ref name="":7"" /><ref name="":8"">{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/0d388588dd6b4424b62166b3b31a0524|title=Coral gardeners bring back Jamaica's reefs, piece by piece|date=2019-09-18|website=AP NEWS|access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref> Firstly, corals are broken off into small fragments and then attached to 'underwater clotheslines' where they are left to grow.<ref name="":7"" /><ref name="":8"" /> These simplistic gardening structures allow the corals to regenerate in optimal conditions as their availability to food and sunshine is maximized. During this regrowth period, the corals are frequently cleaned and any creatures that may feed on the immature coral (such as sea snails and fire-worms) are manually removed.<ref name="":7"" /><ref name="":8"" /> Once the coral bit grows to about the size of a human hand, that is a sign that it is ready to my transplanted onto a rocky reef to instigate natural coral reef restoration.<ref name="":7"" /><ref name="":8"" /> This process is extremely labor-intensive and requires patience, but has been seen as effective upon sightings of tropical fish returning to the reefs.<ref name="":8"" />

Thanks to this effort, coral populations and fish populations are rising.<ref name="":7"" /><ref name="":8"" />

== See also ==
* [[Environmental issues with coral reefs]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{corals}}

[[Category:Geography of Jamaica]]
[[Category:Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Urgenda,"{{Short description|Dutch nonprofit environmental foundation}}
{{Infobox organization
| name                = urgenda
| full_name           = Stichting Urgenda
| native_name         = 
| native_name_lang    = 
| logo                = Stichting Urgenda.png
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| pronounce 2         = 
| named_after         = 
| predecessor         = 
| merged              = 
| successor           = 
| formation           = 2007<!-- use {{start date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} -->
| founder             = Jan Rotmans, [[Marjan Minnesma]]
| founding_location   = [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]
| extinction          = <!-- use {{end date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} -->
| merger              = 
| type                = Stichting ([[Foundation (nonprofit)|Foundation]] under netherlands law)
| tax_id              = <!-- or | vat_id = (for European organizations) -->
| registration_id     = <!-- for non-profit org -->
| status              = 
| purpose             = [[Climate change mitigation]], environmental protection, sustainability
| focus               = 
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| headquarters        = 
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| coordinates         = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LON|display=inline, title}} -->
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| website             = {{URL|urgenda.nl}}
| remarks             = 
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}}

'''Urgenda''' is a nonprofit foundation ([[stichting]]) in the [[Netherlands]] which aims to help enforce national, [[Europe]]an and international environment treaties. In 2013, Urgenda filed a lawsuit against the state of the Netherlands – respectively also against the government – at the court of [[The Hague]], to force them to make more effective policies that reduce the amount of emissions, with the aim to protect the people of the Netherlands against the effects of climate change and pollution.

==History==
The name ''Urgenda'' is a portmanteau of the words ''[[wikt:nl:urgente|urgente]]'' ([[wikt:urgent|urgent]]) and ''[[wikt:nl:agenda|agenda]]''. It was founded in 2007 by Jan Rotmans (professor at the [[Erasmus University Rotterdam|Erasmus University]] ([[Rotterdam]]) and Marjan Minnesma (lawyer, economic scientist and philosopher).{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

==Success in court case against the government==
{{excerpt|State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation}}

==Awards==
* [[Doctor honoris causa]] of [[Saint-Louis University, Brussels]], 2019<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lalibre.be/planete/environnement/marjan-minnesma-a-fait-condamner-le-gouvernement-aux-pays-bas-le-gouvernement-a-le-devoir-de-proteger-ses-citoyens-5d922f6ad8ad584f7c0b0be9|title=Elle fait condamner le gouvernement néerlandais pour sa politique climatique : ""Il a le devoir de protéger ses citoyens""|last=Libre.be|first=La|date=2019-10-01|website=www.lalibre.be|language=fr|access-date=2020-01-26}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2007 establishments in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 2007]]
[[Category:Climate change organizations]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Amsterdam]]
[[Category:Foundations based in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Category:Environmental personhood,"{{cat main}}
[[Category:Legal entities]]
[[Category:Corporate personhood]]
[[Category:Personhood]]
[[Category:Environmental law]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]"
Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive,"{{Short description|European Union directive restricting ten hazardous materials}}
{{Redirect|RoHS||ROHS (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{anchor|RoHS 1}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2018}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox EU legislation
|type=Directive
|number=2002/95/EC
|title=Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment
|madeby=[[European Council|Council]] & [[European Parliament|Parliament]]
|madeunder=Art. 95 EC
|OJrefurl=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32002L0095:EN:HTML eur-lex.europa.eu
|OJref=L37, 13 February 2003, pp. 19–23
|made=27 January 2003
|commenced=13 February 2003
|implementation=13 August 2004
|CommProp=C365E, 19 December 2000, p. 195,<br/>C240E, 28 August 2001, p. 303.
|ESCOpin=C116, 20 April 2001, p. 38.
|CROpin=C148, 18 May 2001, p. 1.
|ParlOpin=C34E, 7 February 2002, p. 109.
|Reports=
|replaces=
|amends=
|amendedby={{nobr|Directive 2008/35/EC}}; {{nobr|Decision 2005/618/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2005/717/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2005/747/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2006/310/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2006/690/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2006/691/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2006/692/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2008/385/EC}}.
|replacedby=Directive 2011/65/EU, 3 January 2013<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1399998664957&uri=CELEX:02011L0065-20140129 |title=EURLex – 02011L0065-20140129 – EN – EUR-Lex |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107005501/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1399998664957&uri=CELEX:02011L0065-20140129 |archive-date=7 January 2016}}</ref>
|status=Recast
}}
The '''Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive''' 2002/95/EC ('''RoHS 1'''), short for '''Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment''', was adopted in February 2003 by the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:037:0019:0023:EN:PDF |format=PDF |title=DIRECTIVE 2002/95/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref>

The initiative was to limit the amount of hazardous chemicals in electronics.

The RoHS 1 [[European Union directive|directive]] took effect on 1 July 2006, and is required to be enforced and became a law in each member state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assentcompliance.com/rohs/ |title=Turnkey RoHS & RoHS II Module |website=assentcompliance.com |access-date=17 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528201136/http://www.assentcompliance.com/rohs/ |archive-date=28 May 2016}}</ref> This directive restricts (with [[#Restriction Exemptions|exceptions]]) the use of ten hazardous materials in the manufacture of various types of electronic and electrical equipment.  In addition to the exceptions, there are [[#Scope exclusions|exclusions]] for products such as solar panels.  It is closely linked with the [[Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive]] (WEEE) 2002/96/EC (now superseded<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/search.html?lang=en&text=2002%2F96%2FEC&qid=1575306757180&type=quick&scope=EURLEX&FM_CODED=DIR|title=Search results - EUR-Lex}}</ref>) which sets collection, recycling and recovery targets for electrical goods and is part of a legislative initiative to solve the problem of huge amounts of toxic [[electronic waste]]. In speech, RoHS is often spelled out, or pronounced{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}} {{IPAc-en|r|ɒ|s}}, {{IPAc-en|r|ɒ|ʃ}}, {{IPAc-en|r|oʊ|z}}, or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|oʊ|h|ɒ|z}}, and refers to the EU standard, unless otherwise qualified.

== Details ==
Each European Union member state will adopt its own enforcement and implementation policies using the directive as a guide.

'''RoHS''' is often referred to as the ""lead-free directive"", but it restricts the use of the following ten substances:

# [[Lead]] (Pb)
# [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] (Hg)
# [[Cadmium]] (Cd)
# [[Hexavalent chromium]] (Cr<sup>6+</sup>)
# [[Polybrominated biphenyls]] (PBB)
# [[PBDE|Polybrominated diphenyl ether]] (PBDE)
# [[DEHP|Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate]] (DEHP)
# [[Benzyl butyl phthalate|Butyl benzyl phthalate]] (BBP)
# [[Dibutyl phthalate]] (DBP)
# [[Diisobutyl phthalate]] (DIBP)

'''Maximum Permitted Concentration: 0.1%'''<ref name=""Eur-lex.europa.eu"">{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:JOL_2015_137_R_0003 |title=EURLex – 32015L0863 – EN – EUR-Lex |date=4 June 2015 |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |access-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209151244/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:JOL_2015_137_R_0003 |archive-date=9 February 2016}}</ref>

'''Max for Cadmium: 0.01%'''<ref name=""Eur-lex.europa.eu""/>

DEHP, BBP, DBP and DIBP were added as part of DIRECTIVE (EU) 2015/863 which was published on 31 March 2015.<ref name=""Eur-lex.europa.eu""/>

PBB and PBDE are [[flame retardant]]s used in several plastics. [[Hexavalent chromium]] is used in [[chrome plating]], chromate coatings and [[primer (paint)|primer]]s, and in [[chromic acid]].

The maximum permitted concentrations in non-[[#Restriction Exemptions|exempt products]] are 0.1% or 1000&nbsp;[[Parts per million|ppm]] (except for [[cadmium]], which is limited to 0.01% or 100&nbsp;ppm) by weight. The restrictions are on each  ''homogeneous material'' in the product, which means that the limits do not apply to the weight of the finished product, or even to a component, but to any single material that could (theoretically) be separated mechanically&nbsp;– for example, the sheath on a cable or the [[tinning]] on a component lead.

As an example, a [[radio]] is composed of a case, [[screws]], [[washer (hardware)|washers]], a circuit board, speakers, etc. The screws, washers, and case may each be made of homogenous materials, but the other components comprise multiple sub-components of many different types of material. For instance, a circuit board is composed of a bare [[printed circuit board]] (PCB), [[integrated circuit]]s (IC), [[resistors]], [[capacitors]], switches, etc. A [[switch]] is composed of a case, a lever, a spring, contacts, pins, etc., each of which may be made of different materials. A contact might be composed of a copper strip with a surface coating. A [[loudspeaker]] is composed of a permanent magnet, copper wire, paper, etc.

Everything that can be identified as a homogeneous material must meet the limit. So if it turns out that the case was made of plastic with 2,300&nbsp;ppm (0.23%) PBB used as a flame retardant, then the entire radio would fail the requirements of the directive.

In an effort to close RoHS 1 loopholes, in May 2006 the European Commission was asked to review two currently excluded product categories (monitoring and control equipment, and medical devices) for future inclusion in the products that must fall into RoHS compliance.<ref>[http://www.edn.com/article/CA6333546.html?partner=enews]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927174054/http://www.edn.com/article/CA6333546.html?partner=enews|date=27 September 2007}}</ref> In addition the commission entertains requests for deadline extensions or for exclusions by substance categories, substance location or weight.<ref>[http://www.reed-electronics.com/semiconductor/article/CA6333371?spacedesc=news&industryid=3026&nid=2301]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704234124/http://www.reed-electronics.com/semiconductor/article/CA6333371?spacedesc=news&industryid=3026&nid=2301|date=4 July 2015}}</ref> New legislation was published in the official journal in July 2011 which supersedes this exemption.

Note that batteries are not included within the scope of RoHS. However, in Europe, batteries are under the European Commission's 1991 Battery Directive (91/157/EEC<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31991L0157:EN:NOT |title=EURLex – 31991L0157 – EN – EUR-Lex |date=18 March 1991 |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref>), which was recently{{when|date=August 2023}} increased in scope and approved in the form of the new [[battery directive]], version 2003/0282 COD,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32006L0066:EN:NOT |title=EURLex – 32006L0066 – EN – EUR-Lex |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |date=26 September 2006 |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref> which will be official when submitted to and published in the EU's Official Journal. While the first Battery Directive addressed possible trade barrier issues brought about by disparate European member states' implementation, the new directive more explicitly highlights improving and protecting the environment from the negative effects of the waste contained in batteries. It also contains a programme for more ambitious recycling of industrial, automotive, and consumer batteries, gradually increasing the rate of manufacturer-provided collection sites to 45% by 2016. It also sets limits of 5&nbsp;ppm mercury and 20&nbsp;ppm cadmium to batteries except those used in medical, emergency, or portable power-tool devices.<ref>[http://www.conformity.com/artman/publish/printer_25.shtml] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302101640/http://www.conformity.com/artman/publish/printer_25.shtml|date=2 March 2008}}</ref> Though not setting quantitative limits on quantities of lead, lead–acid, nickel, and nickel–cadmium in batteries, it cites a need to restrict these substances and provide for recycling up to 75% of batteries with these substances. There are also provisions for marking the batteries with symbols in regard to metal content and recycling collection information.

The directive applies to equipment as defined by a section of the WEEE directive. The following numeric categories apply:
# Large household appliances
# Small household appliances
# IT & telecommunications equipment (although infrastructure equipment is exempt in some countries)
# Consumer equipment
# Lighting equipment – including light bulbs
# Electronic and electrical tools
# Toys, leisure, and sports equipment
# Medical devices (exemption removed in July 2011)
# Monitoring and control instruments (exemption removed in July 2011)
# Automatic dispensers
#Other EEE not covered by any of the categories above.

It does not apply to fixed industrial plant and tools. Compliance is the responsibility of the company that puts the product on the market, as defined in the Directive; components and sub-assemblies are not responsible for product compliance. Of course, given the fact that the regulation is applied at the homogeneous material level, data on substance concentrations needs to be transferred through the supply chain to the final producer. An IPC standard has recently been developed and published to facilitate this data exchange, IPC-1752.<ref>[http://www.ipc.org/ipc-175x]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315161952/http://www.ipc.org/ipc-175x|date=15 March 2006}}</ref> It is enabled through two PDF forms that are free to use.

RoHS applies to these products in the EU whether made within the EU or imported. Certain exemptions apply, and these are updated on occasion by the EU.

===Examples of product components containing restricted substances===
RoHS restricted substances have been used in a broad array of consumer electronics products. Examples of components that have contained lead include:
* paints and pigments
* PVC (vinyl) cables as a stabiliser (e.g., power cords, USB cables)
* [[solder]]s
* printed circuit board finishes, leads, internal and external interconnects
* glass in television and photographic products (e.g., CRT television screens and camera lenses)
* metal parts
* lamps and bulbs
* batteries
* [[integrated circuits]] or microchips

Cadmium is found in many of the components above; examples include plastic pigmentation, [[nickel–cadmium battery|nickel–cadmium (NiCd) batteries]] and [[cadmium sulfide|CdS]] photocells (used in night lights). Mercury is used in lighting applications and automotive switches; examples include [[fluorescent lamp]]s and [[mercury switch|mercury tilt switches]] (these are rarely used nowadays). Hexavalent chromium is used for metal finishes to prevent corrosion. Polybrominated biphenyls and diphenyl ethers/oxides are used primarily as flame retardants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/newsroom/Presentations/11.pdf |title=Elimination of RoHS Substances in Electronic Products |publisher=Thor.inemi.org |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003535/http://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/newsroom/Presentations/11.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>

=== Hazardous materials and the high-tech waste problem ===
RoHS and other efforts to reduce hazardous materials in electronics are motivated in part to address the global issue of consumer electronics waste. As newer technology arrives at an ever-increasing rate, consumers are discarding their obsolete products sooner than ever. This waste ends up in landfills and in countries like China to be ""recycled"".<ref name=es071873x/>

<blockquote>In the fashion-conscious mobile market, 98 million U.S. cell phones took their last call in 2005. All told, the EPA estimates that in the U.S. that year, between 1.5 and 1.9&nbsp;million tons of computers, TVs, VCRs, monitors, cell phones, and other equipment were discarded. If all sources of electronic waste are tallied, it could total 50&nbsp;million tons a year worldwide, according to the UN Environment Programme.<ref name=""nationalgeographic1"">{{cite web |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/01/high-tech-waste/carroll-text |title=High-Tech Waste – National Geographic Magazine |work=National Geographic |date=2013-04-25 |access-date=2015-07-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325045021/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/01/high-tech-waste/carroll-text |archive-date=2018-03-25}}</ref></blockquote>

American electronics sent offshore to countries like Ghana in West Africa under the guise of recycling may be doing more harm than good. Not only are adult and child workers in these jobs being poisoned by heavy metals, but these metals are returning to the U.S. ""The U.S. right now is shipping large quantities of leaded materials to China, and China is the world's major manufacturing center,"" [[Jeffrey Weidenhamer|Dr. Jeffrey Weidenhamer]] says, a chemistry professor at Ashland University in Ohio. ""It's not all that surprising things are coming full circle and now we're getting contaminated products back.""<ref name=es071873x>{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/es071873x |title=Heavy Metals Concentrations of Surface Dust from e-Waste Recycling and Its Human Health Implications in Southeast China |year=2008 |last1=Leung |first1=Anna O. W. |last2=Duzgoren-Aydin |first2=Nurdan S. |last3=Cheung |first3=K. C. |last4=Wong |first4=Ming H. |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=42 |issue=7 |pages=2674–80 |pmid=18505015|bibcode=2008EnST...42.2674L |doi-access=}}
*{{cite news |author=Martin LaMonica |date=15 April 2008 |title=Study: E-waste recycling poisons people with heavy metals |work=CNET News |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-11128_3-9919304-54.html}}</ref>

=== Changing toxicity perceptions ===
In addition to the high-tech waste problem, RoHS reflects contemporary research over the past 50 years in biological toxicology that acknowledges the long-term effects of low-level chemical exposure on populations. New testing is capable of detecting much smaller concentrations of environmental toxicants. Researchers are associating these exposures with neurological, developmental, and reproductive changes.

RoHS and other environmental laws are in contrast to historical and contemporary law that seek to address only acute toxicology, that is direct exposure to large amounts of toxic substances causing severe injury or death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rohswell.com/News/Genl037-New-Toxicity.php |title=Archive |publisher=Rohswell.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131125233538/http://rohswell.com/News/Genl037-New-Toxicity.php |archive-date=25 November 2013}}</ref>

=== Life-cycle impact assessment of lead-free solder ===
The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has published a [[life-cycle assessment]] (LCA) of the environmental impacts of lead-free and tin–lead [[solder]], as used in electronic products.<ref name=""EPALifecycle"">[http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/dfe/pubs/solder/lca/index.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314205628/http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/dfe/pubs/solder/lca/index.htm|date=14 March 2014}}</ref> For bar solders, when only lead-free solders were considered, the tin/copper alternative had the lowest (best) scores. For paste solders, [[bismuth]]/[[tin]]/silver had the lowest impact scores among the lead-free alternatives in every category except [[non-renewable resource]] consumption. For both paste and bar solders, all of the lead-free solder alternatives had a lower (better) LCA score in toxicity categories than tin/lead solder. This is primarily due to the toxicity of lead, and the amount of lead that leaches from printed wiring board assemblies, as determined by the leachability study conducted by the partnership. The study results are providing the industry with an objective analysis of the life-cycle environmental effects of leading candidate alternative lead-free solders, allowing industry to consider environmental concerns along with the traditionally evaluated parameters of cost and performance. This assessment is also allowing industry to redirect efforts toward products and processes that reduce solders' environmental footprint, including energy consumption, releases of toxic chemicals, and potential risks to human health and the environment. Another life-cycle assessment by IKP, University of Stuttgart, shows similar results to those of the EPA study.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://leadfree.ipc.org/files/RoHS_15.pdf |title=IKP, Department of Life-Cycle Engineering |publisher=Leadfree.ipc.org |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225155540/http://leadfree.ipc.org/files/RoHS_15.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009}}</ref>

===Life-cycle impact assessment of BFR-free plastics===
The ban on concentrations of [[brominated flame retardant]]s (BFR) above 0.1% in plastics has affected plastics recycling. As more and more products include recycled plastics, it has become critical to know the BFR concentration in these plastics, either by tracing the origins of the recycled plastics to establish the BFR concentrations, or by measuring the BFR concentrations from samples. Plastics with high BFR concentrations are costly to handle or to discard, whereas plastics with levels below 0.1% have value as recyclable materials.

There are a number of analytical techniques for the rapid measurement of BFR concentrations. [[X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy]] can confirm the presence of bromine (Br), but it does not indicate the BFR concentration or specific molecule. [[Ion attachment mass spectrometry]] (IAMS) can be used to measure BFR concentrations in plastics. The BFR ban has significantly affected both upstream (plastic material selection) and downstream (plastic material recycling).{{citation needed|date=March 2014}}

=== {{anchor|RoHS 2}}2011/65/EU (RoHS 2) ===
The RoHS 2 directive (2011/65/EU) is an evolution of the original directive and became law on 21&nbsp;July 2011 and took effect on 2&nbsp;January 2013. It addresses the same substances as the original directive while improving regulatory conditions and legal clarity. It requires periodic re-evaluations that facilitate gradual broadening of its requirements to cover additional electronic and electrical equipment, cables and spare parts.<ref name=""HP-RoHS2"">{{cite web |author=United States |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/environment/pdf/RoHS2Addendum.pdf |title=Living Progress &#124; HP® Official Site |publisher=Hp.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917032105/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/environment/pdf/RoHS2Addendum.pdf |archive-date=17 September 2012}}</ref> The CE logo now indicates compliance and RoHS 2 declaration of conformity is now detailed (see below).{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}

In 2012, a final report from the [[European Commission]] revealed that some EU Member States considered all toys under the scope of the primary RoHS 1 Directive 2002/95/EC, irrespective of whether their primary or secondary functions were using electric currents or electromagnetic fields. From the implementation of RoHS 2 or RoHS Recast Directive 2011/65/EU on, all the concerned Member States will have to comply with the new regulation.

The key difference in the recast is that it is now necessary to demonstrate conformity in a similar way to the LVD and EMC directives.  Not being able to show compliance in sufficiently detailed files, and not ensuring it is implemented in production is now a criminal offence.  Like the other CE marking directives it mandates production control and traceability to the technical files.  It describes two methods of achieving presumption of conformity (Directive 2011/65/EU Article 16.2), either technical files should include test data for all materials or a standard accepted in the official journal for the directive, is used.  Currently the only standard is EN IEC 63000:2018 (based on IEC 63000:2016 superseded EN 50581:2012), a risk based method to reduce the amount of test data required (Harmonised Standards list for RoHS2, OJEU C363/6).

One of the consequences of the requirement to demonstrate conformity is the requirement to know the exemption use of each component, otherwise it is not possible to know compliance when the product is placed on the market, the only point in time the product must be 'compliant'.  Many do not understand that 'compliance' varies depending on what exemptions are in force and it is quite possible to make a non-compliant product with 'compliant' components.  Compliance must be calculated on the day of placing on the market.  In reality this means knowing the exemption status of all components and using up stock of old status parts before the expire date of the exemptions (Directive 2011/65/EU Article 7.b referring to Decision 768/2008/EC Module A Internal production control).   Not having a system to manage this could be seen as a lack of diligence and a criminal prosecution could occur (UK Instrument 2012 N. 3032 section 39 Penalties).

RoHS 2 also has a more dynamic approach to exemptions, creating an automatic expiration if exemptions are not renewed by requests from industry.  Additionally new substances can be added to the controlled list, with 4 new substances expected to be controlled by 2019.  All these mean greater information control and update systems are required. {{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

Other differences include new responsibilities for importers and distributors and markings to improve traceability to the technical files.  These are part of the NLF for directives and make the supply chain a more active part of the policing (Directive 2011/65/EU Articles 7, 9, 10).

There has been a recent additional amendment 2017/2102 to 2011/65

=== 2015/863 (RoHS 2 amendment) ===

The RoHS 2 directive (2011/65/EU) contains allowance to add new materials and 4 materials are highlighted for this attention in the original version, the amendment 2015/863 adds four additional substances to Annex II of 2011/65/EU (3/4 of the new restrictions are recommended for investigation in the original directive, ref Para 10 of preamble).   This is another reason that simple component RoHS compliance statements are not acceptable as compliance requirements vary depending on the date the product is placed on the market (ref IEC 63000:2016).   The additional four substances restriction and evidence requirements shall be applied for products placed on the market on or after 22 July 2019 except where exemptions permit as stated in Annex III.,<ref name=""Eur-lex.europa.eu""/> although at the time of writing no exemptions exist or have been applied for, for these materials.   
The four additional substances are
# Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)
# Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP)
# Dibutyl phthalate (DBP)
# Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP)
The maximum permitted concentrations in non-exempt products are 0.1%.

The new substances are also listed under the REACH Candidate list, and DEHP is not authorised for manufacturing (use as a substance) in the EU under Annex XIV of REACH.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://echa.europa.eu/candidate-list-table |title=Candidate List of substances of very high concern for Authorisation – ECHA |publisher=Europa (web portal) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712130156/https://echa.europa.eu/candidate-list-table |archive-date=12 July 2017}}</ref>

==Scope exclusions==
With the recast of the original RoHS (I) Directive (2002/95/EC), the scope of the directive was decoupled from the scope of the WEEE Directive and an open scope was introduced. The RoHS (II) Directive (2011/65/EU) was applicable to all electrical and electronic equipment. Scope limitations and exclusions were specifically introduced in Article 2(4) a) – j) of the recast Directive. All other EEE was in scope of the Directive, unless specific exemptions have been granted through Commission delegated acts (see next paragraph).

The scope exclusions are listed below <ref>{{cite web |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2011/65/2014-01-29 |title=Directive 2011/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2011 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (recast) (Text with EEA relevance)}}</ref>

This Directive does not apply to:

<ol type=""a"">
<li>equipment which is necessary for the protection of the essential interests of the security of Member States, including arms, munitions and war material intended for specifically military purposes;</li>
<li>equipment designed to be sent into space;</li>
<li>equipment which is specifically designed, and is to be installed, as part of another type of equipment that is excluded or does not fall within the scope of this Directive, which can fulfil its function only if it is part of that equipment, and which can be replaced only by the same specifically designed equipment;</li>
<li>large-scale stationary industrial tools;</li>
<li>large-scale fixed installations;</li>
<li>means of transport for persons or goods, excluding electric two-wheel vehicles which are not type-approved;</li>
<li>non-road mobile machinery made available exclusively for professional use;</li>
<li>active implantable medical devices;</li>
<li>photovoltaic panels intended to be used in a system that is designed, assembled and installed by professionals for permanent use at a defined location to produce energy from solar light for public, commercial, industrial and residential applications;</li>
<li>equipment specifically designed solely for the purposes of research and development only made available on a business-to-business basis.</li>
</ol>

==Restriction exemptions==<!--WARNING: Do not break internal links: Do not rename without renaming internal links to this section as well!-->
{{anchor|Restriction Exemptions}}
There are over 80 exemptions, some of which are quite broad.  Exemptions will automatically expire after 5 or 7 years unless renewed.<ref name=""HP-RoHS2""/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.electronicsweekly.com/directive-decoder/exemptions/2-new-additions-to-the-rohs-ex-2011-09 |title=2 new additions to RoHS exemption list |date=13 September 2011 |publisher=Electronicsweekly.com|access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705160628/http://www.electronicsweekly.com/directive-decoder/exemptions/2-new-additions-to-the-rohs-ex-2011-09/ |archive-date=5 July 2015}}</ref>

According to [[Hewlett-Packard]]: ""The European Union is gradually narrowing the scope of and expiring many of the current RoHS exemptions. In addition, it is likely that new substance restrictions will be introduced in the next several years.""<ref name=""HP-RoHS2""/>

Some exemptions:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/10/pe00/pe00062.en10.pdf |title=Directive of the European Parliament and of the council on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (Recast) |publisher=The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=22 May 2013 |page=14 et. seq |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224082534/http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/10/pe00/pe00062.en10.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2012}}</ref>

* Lead as an alloying element in steel containing up to 0.35% lead by weight, aluminium containing up to 0.4% lead by weight, and copper alloy containing up to 4% lead by weight is permitted.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.diecastingdesign.org/rohs |title=RoHS |work=NADCA Design |access-date=8 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309064738/http://www.diecastingdesign.org/rohs |archive-date=9 March 2017}}</ref> (Category 6c)
* Lead in high melting temperature type solders (i.e. lead-based solder alloys containing 85% or more lead by weight). (Category 7a)
* ""Lead in solders for servers, storage and storage array systems, network infrastructure equipment for switching, transmission, and network management for telecommunications."" (Category 7b)
* Limited amounts of mercury in fluorescent and other [[light bulbs]] where it is essential to their functioning comprise RoHS 2 Categories 1, 2, 3, and 4

Medical devices were exempt in the original directive.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://medtechinsider.com/archives/28384 |title=Blog Archive "" Why Medical Device Manufacturers Must Practise Future-Minded Purchasing Today |publisher=medtechinsider |date=16 July 2012 |access-date=22 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821155937/http://medtechinsider.com/archives/28384 |archive-date=21 August 2013}}</ref> RoHS 2 narrowed the exemption's scope to ''active implantable'' medical devices only (Category 4h). In vitro diagnostic devices (IVDD) and other medical devices are now included.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emdt.co.uk/article/medical-devices-under-recast-rohs-regime |title=Medical Devices under Recast RoHS Regime |publisher=Emdt.co.uk |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705060811/http://www.emdt.co.uk/article/medical-devices-under-recast-rohs-regime |archive-date=5 July 2015}}</ref>

Automotive vehicles are exempt (Category 4f). Vehicles instead are addressed in the [[End of Life Vehicles Directive]] (Directive 2000/53/EC).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.circuitnet.com/experts/40087.shtml |title=Automotive RoHS Exemptions |publisher=Circuitnet.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704174704/http://www.circuitnet.com/experts/40087.shtml |archive-date=4 July 2015}}</ref>

== Labeling and documentation ==
[[Image:Conformité Européenne (logo).svg|thumb|right|50px|The CE logo]]
[[File:Car charger, 2 automobile auxiliary power outlets and 2 USB sockets-9827.jpg|thumb|RoHS and CE mark on a car charger]]
Products within scope of the RoHS 2 directive must display the [[CE mark]], the manufacturers name and address and a serial or batch number. Parties needing to know more detailed compliance information can find this on the EU Declaration of Conformity for the product as created by the manufacturer (Brand owner) responsible for the design or the EU representative. The regulation also requires most actors in the supply chain for the product (importer and distributors) to keep and check this document, as well as ensuring a conformance process has been followed and the correct language translation for instructions are provided. The manufacturer must keep certain documentation to demonstrate conformity, known as a technical file or technical records. The directive requires the manufacturer to demonstrate conformity by the use of test data for all materials or by following a harmonised standard (IEC 63000:2016 is the only standard at the time of writing). Regulators may request this file or, more likely, specific data from it as it will likely be very large.<ref>2011/65/EU Article 16.2</ref>{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

=== History ===
[[Image:RoHS-2.jpg|thumb|right|50px|A RoHS mark]]
RoHS did not require any specific product labelling, but many manufacturers have adopted their own compliance marks to reduce confusion. Visual indicators have included explicit ""RoHS compliant"" labels, green leaves, check marks, and ""PB-Free"" markings. Chinese RoHS labels, a lower case ""e"" within a circle with arrows, can also imply compliance.

[[Image:WEEE 2.svg|thumb|right|50px|The WEEE directive logo]]
RoHS 2 attempts to address this issue by requiring the aforementioned CE mark whose use is policed by the Trading Standards enforcement agency.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2009/01/08/45225/rohs2-is-coming-will-it-work-better-than-rohs.htm |title=RoHS2 is coming – will it work better than RoHS? |work=Electronics Weekly |date=8 January 2009 |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208235745/http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2009/01/08/45225/rohs2-is-coming-will-it-work-better-than-rohs.htm |archive-date=8 February 2009}}</ref> It states that the ''only'' permitted indication of RoHS compliance is the CE mark.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/rohs_eee/pdf/faq.pdf |title=Official EU RoHS 2 FAQ |publisher=European Commission |page=24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717074237/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/rohs_eee/pdf/faq.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>
The closely related WEEE ([[Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive]]), which became law simultaneously with RoHS, depicts a waste-can logo with an ""X"" through it and often accompanies the CE mark.

==Future possible additions==
New substance restrictions being considered for introduction in the next few years include phthalates, brominated flame retardants (BFRs), chlorinated flame retardants (CFRs), and PVC.<ref name=""HP-RoHS2""/>

==Other regions==
===Asia / Pacific===
;China Order No. 39: Final Measures for the ''Administration of the Control and Electronic Information Products'' (often referred to as ''[[China RoHS]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kuschnik |first1=Bernhard |title=The European Union's Energy Using Products – EuP – Directive 2005/32 EC: Taking Transnational Eco – Product Design Regulation One Step Further |volume=27 |journal=Temple Journal of Science Technology & Environmental Law |issue=1 |year=2008 |pages=1–33 |url=http://www.temple.edu/law/tjstel/2008/spring/v27no1-Kuschnik.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127142222/http://www.temple.edu/law/tjstel/2008/spring/v27no1-Kuschnik.pdf |archive-date=27 November 2014}}</ref>) has the stated intent to establish similar restrictions, but in fact takes a very different approach. Unlike EU RoHS, where products in specified categories are included unless specifically excluded, there will be a list of included products, known as the ''catalogue'' – see Article 18 of the regulation – which will be a subset of the total scope of Electronic Information Products, or EIPs, to which the regulations apply. Initially, products that fall under the covered scope must provide markings and disclosure as to the presence of certain substances, while the substances themselves are not (yet) prohibited. There are some products that are EIPs, which are not in scope for EU RoHS, ''e.g.'' radar systems, semiconductor-manufacturing equipment, photomasks, etc. The list of EIPs is available in Chinese and English.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinarohs.com |title=China ROHS Solutions by Design Chain Associates |publisher=Chinarohs.com |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref> The marking and disclosure aspects of the regulation were intended to take effect on 1 July 2006, but were postponed twice to 1 March 2007. There is no timeline for the catalogue yet.
;Japan: Japan does not have any direct legislation dealing with the RoHS substances, but its recycling laws have spurred Japanese manufacturers to move to a lead-free process in accordance with RoHS guidelines. A [[Cabinet of Japan#Powers|ministerial ordinance]]  ''Japanese industrial standard for Marking of Specific Chemical Substances'' (J-MOSS), effective from 1 July 2006, directs that some electronic products exceeding a specified amount of the nominated toxic substances must carry a warning label.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.meti.go.jp/policy/recycle/main/english/law/promotion.html |title=METI Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry |publisher=Meti.go.jp |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150730183122/http://www.meti.go.jp/policy/recycle/main/english/law/promotion.html |archive-date=30 July 2015}}</ref>
;South Korea: South Korea promulgated the ''Act for Resource Recycling of Electrical and Electronic Equipment and Vehicles'' on 2 April 2007. This regulation has aspects of RoHS, WEEE, and ELV.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.korearohs.com |title=Design Chain Associates, LLC: Environmental and Design/Supply Chain Consulting |publisher=Korearohs.com |date=18 May 2015 |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706011134/http://www.korearohs.com/ |archive-date=6 July 2015}}</ref>

===United States===
The [[Consumer Product Safety Act]] was enacted in 1972 followed by the [[Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act]] in 2008.

California has passed the [[California Electronic Waste Recycling Act|Electronic Waste Recycling Act of 2003]] (EWRA). This law prohibits the sale of electronic devices after 1 January 2007, that are prohibited from being sold under the EU RoHS directive, but across a much narrower scope that includes LCDs, CRTs, and the like and only covers the four heavy metals restricted by RoHS. EWRA also has a restricted material disclosure requirement.

Effective 1 January 2010, the California Lighting Efficiency and Toxics Reduction Act applies RoHS to general purpose lights, i.e. ""lamps, bulbs, tubes, or other electric devices that provide functional illumination for indoor residential, indoor commercial, and outdoor use.""<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hktdc.com/info/mi/a/psls/en/1X066HG5/1/Product-Safety-Laws-and-Standards/California-RoHS-Lighting-Requirements-to-Become-Effective-on-January-1--2010.htm |title=California RoHS Lighting Requirements to Become Effective on January 1, 2010 |publisher=HKTDC |date=27 August 2009 |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref>

Other US states and cities are debating whether to adopt similar laws, and there are several states that have mercury and PBDE bans already.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

=== United Kingdom ===
On January 31, 2020, the United Kingdom completed its withdrawal from the European Union and subsequently entered a transition phase spanning from February 1 to December 31, 2020. This event is commonly referred to as Brexit. During this transitional period, the United Kingdom conducted a comprehensive assessment of various regulations, including RoHS. UK RoHS stays well aligned with EU RoHS, with similar scopes, restricted substances, thresholds, and exemptions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK RoHS VS EU RoHS - Comparison - UKCA - Enviropass |url=https://getenviropass.com/uk-rohs/ |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=Enviropass Expertise Inc. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment Regulations 2012 (as amended): Great Britain |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/restriction-of-hazardous-substances-rohs-regulations/restriction-of-the-use-of-certain-hazardous-substances-in-electrical-and-electronic-equipment-regulations-2012-as-amended-great-britain |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>

===Ireland===
Worldwide standards and certification are available under the [[QC 080000]] standard, governed by the [[National Standards Authority of Ireland]], to ensure the control of hazardous substances in industrial applications.

===Sweden===
{{anchor|Compliance}} <!--Previous section name -->
In 2012 Sweden's Chemicals Agency (Kemi) and Electrical Safety Authority tested 63 consumer electronics products and found that 12 were out of compliance. Kemi claims that this is similar to testing results from prior years. ""Eleven products contained prohibited levels of lead, and one of polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants. Details of seven companies have been passed to Swedish prosecutors. Kemi says that levels of non-compliance with RoHS are similar to previous years, and remain too high.""<ref>{{cite web |url=http://chemicalwatch.com/14330/sweden-says-rohs-non-compliance-is-too-high |title=News Item &#124; Sweden says RoHS non-compliance is too high |publisher=Chemicalwatch.com |date=3 April 2013 |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref>

== Other standards ==
RoHS is not the only environmental standard of which electronic product developers should be aware. Manufacturers will find that it is cheaper to have only a single [[bill of materials]] for a product that is distributed worldwide, instead of customising the product to fit each country's specific environmental laws. Therefore, they develop their own standards, which allow only the strictest of all allowable substances.

For example, [[IBM]] forces each of their suppliers to complete a Product Content Declaration<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibm.com/ibm/environment/products/ecpquest.shtml |title=IBM and the Environment – Product Content Declaration for IBM Suppliers |publisher=Ibm.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704200951/http://www.ibm.com/ibm/environment/products/ecpquest.shtml |archive-date=4 July 2015}}</ref> form to document compliance to their environmental standard 'Baseline Environmental Requirements for Materials, Parts and Products for IBM Logo Hardware Products'.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibm.com/ibm/environment/products/especs.shtml |title=IBM Engineering Specification 46G3772: Baseline Environmental Requirements for Supplier Deliverables to IBM |publisher=Ibm.com |date=26 May 2015 |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704213955/http://www.ibm.com/ibm/environment/products/especs.shtml |archive-date=4 July 2015}}</ref> Thus, IBM banned [[decabromodiphenyl ether|DecaBDE]], even though there was formerly a RoHS exemption for this material<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2005:271:0048:0050:EN:PDF |journal=Official Journal of the European Union |title=COMMISSION DECISION: 13 October 2005: amending for the purposes of adapting to the technical progress the Annex to Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref> (overturned by the European Court in 2008).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX%3A62006J0014%3AEN%3AHTML|title=Joined Cases C-14/06 and C-295/06 European Parliament and Kingdom of Denmark v Commission of the European Communities|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709094120/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX%3A62006J0014%3AEN%3AHTML|url-status=dead|date=9 July 2012|archive-date=9 July 2012|website=archive.is}}</ref>

Similarly, here is [[Hewlett-Packard]]'s environmental standard.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/environment/supplychain/gen_specifications.html |format=PDF |title=HP's General Specification for the environment (GSE) |publisher=Hp.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814145417/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/environment/supplychain/gen_specifications.html |archive-date=14 August 2015}}</ref>

== Criticism ==
Adverse effects on product quality and reliability, plus high cost of compliance (especially to small business) are cited as criticisms of the directive, as well as early research indicating that the life cycle benefits of lead-free [[solder]] versus traditional solder materials are mixed.<ref name=""EPALifecycle""/>

Criticism earlier on came from an industry resistant to change and a misunderstanding of solders and soldering processes. Deliberate misinformation was espoused to resist what was perceived as a ""non-tariff barrier created by European bureaucrats."" Many believe the industry is stronger now through this experience and has a better understanding of the science and technologies involved.<ref name=""Fact and fiction in lead-free soldering"">{{cite journal |url=http://www.solderrecovery.com/pdf/Lead%20Free%20Article%202.pdf |title=Fact and fiction in lead-free soldering |first1=Keith |last1=Sweatman |journal=Global SMT & Packaging |date=April 2006 |pages=26–8 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107005500/http://www.solderrecovery.com/pdf/Lead%20Free%20Article%202.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2016}}</ref>

One criticism of RoHS is that the restriction of lead and cadmium does not address some of their most prolific applications, while being costly for the electronics industry to comply with {{citation needed|date=November 2019}}. Specifically, the total lead used in electronics makes up only 2% of world lead consumption, while 90% of lead is used for batteries (covered by the battery directive, as mentioned above, which requires recycling and limits the use of mercury and cadmium, but does not restrict lead). Another criticism is that less than 4% of lead in landfills is due to electronic components or circuit boards, while approximately 36% is due to leaded glass in [[cathode ray tube]] monitors and televisions, which can contain up to 2&nbsp;kg per screen. This study was done right after the [[tech boom]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epsma.org/pdf/Report%20on%20Lead%20free%20Electronics_June%2030%202003_summary%20article.pdf |publisher=European Power Supply Manufacturers Association |title=The Status of Lead-Free Electronics and its Impact on Power Electronics Summary |date=26 February 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726033700/http://www.epsma.org/pdf/Report%20on%20Lead%20free%20Electronics_June%2030%202003_summary%20article.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref>

The more common lead-free solder systems have a higher melting point, e.g. a 30&nbsp;°C typical difference for tin-silver-copper alloys, but wave soldering temperatures are approximately the same at ~255&nbsp;°C;<ref name=""Fact and fiction in lead-free soldering""/> however at this temperature most typical lead-free solders have longer wetting times than [[eutectic]] Pb/Sn 37:63 solder.<ref name=""wet1"">{{cite journal |url=http://www.solderconnection.co.uk/lead_free_tech_articles/C_A_Lead-Free.pdf |title=Temperature selection for wave soldering with Lead-Free alloys |journal=Circuits Assembly |date=May 2001 |first1=Al |last1=Schneider |first2=Sanju |last2=Arora |first3=Bin |last3=Mo |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=46–51 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311125906/http://www.solderconnection.co.uk/lead_free_tech_articles/C_A_Lead-Free.pdf |archive-date=11 March 2011}}</ref> Additionally wetting force is typically lower,<ref name=""wet1""/> which can be disadvantageous (for hole filling), but advantageous in other situations (closely spaced components).

Care must be taken in selection of RoHS solders as some formulations are harder with less ductility, increasing the likelihood of [[Fracture|cracks]] instead of [[plastic deformation]], which is typical for lead-containing solders.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} Cracks can occur due to thermal or mechanical forces acting on components or the circuit board, the former being more common during manufacturing and the latter in the field. RoHS solders exhibit advantages and disadvantages in these respects, dependent on packaging and formulation.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.microrel.2006.09.034 |title=Thermal cycling reliability of SnAgCu and SnPb solder joints: A comparison for several IC-packages |year=2007 |last1=Vandevelde |first1=Bart |last2=Gonzalez |first2=Mario |last3=Limaye |first3=Paresh |last4=Ratchev |first4=Petar |last5=Beyne |first5=Eric |journal=Microelectronics Reliability |volume=47 |issue=2–3 |pages=259–65|citeseerx=10.1.1.90.6881 |s2cid=13419537 }}</ref>

The editor of Conformity Magazine wondered in 2005 if the transition to lead-free solder would affect long-term reliability of electronic devices and systems, especially in applications more mission-critical than in consumer products, citing possible breaches due to other environmental factors like oxidation.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.kentec.net/pdf/leadless/conformity.pdf |journal=Conformity Magazine |title=Removal of Lead Shakes Up the Manufacturing Chain |date=August 2005 |pages=28–35 |author=Premier Farnell plc}}</ref> The 2005 Farnell/Newark InOne ""''RoHS Legislation and Technical Manual''"",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newark.com/pdfs/RohsTechManual_v2.pdf |title=RoHS Legislation and technical Manual |publisher=Newark.com |year=2005 |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053749/http://www.newark.com/pdfs/RohsTechManual_v2.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> cites these and other ""lead-free"" solder issues, such as:

# Warping or delamination of printed circuit boards;
# Damage to through-holes, ICs and components on circuit boards; and,
# Added moisture sensitivity, all of which may compromise quality and reliability.

=== Effect on reliability ===
Potential reliability concerns were addressed in Annex item #7 of the RoHS directive, granting some specific exemptions from regulation until 2010. These issues were raised when the directive was first implemented in 2003 and reliability effects were less known.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32002L0095:EN:NOT |title=Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref>

Another potential problem that some lead-free, high tin-based solders may face is the growth of [[Whisker (metallurgy)|tin whiskers]]. These thin strands of tin can grow and make contact with an adjacent trace, developing a [[short circuit]]. Lead in the solder suppresses the growth of tin whiskers. Historically tin whiskers have been associated with a handful of failures, including a [[Millstone Nuclear Power Plant#Events|nuclear power plant shutdown]] and [[Artificial cardiac pacemaker|pacemaker]] incident where pure tin plating was used. However, these failures pre-date RoHS. They also do not involve consumer electronics, and therefore may employ RoHS-restricted substances if desired. Manufacturers of electronic equipment for mission-critical aerospace applications have followed a policy of caution and therefore resisted the adoption of lead-free solders.

To help mitigate potential problems, lead-free manufacturers are using a variety of approaches such as tin-zinc formulations that produce non-conducting whiskers or formulations that reduce growth, although they do not halt growth completely in all circumstances.<ref>{{cite journal |title=New Sn-Zn Solder Bonds at Under 200 Celsius |url=http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/NEA/archive/200211/214612/ |date=November 2002 |first1=Taiki |last1=Itoh |first2=Yasuo |last2=Tanokura |journal=Nikkei Electronics Asia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505085142/http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/NEA/archive/200211/214612/ |archive-date=5 May 2013}}</ref> Fortunately, experience thus far suggests deployed instances of RoHS compliant products are not failing due to whisker growth. Dr. Ronald Lasky of Dartmouth College reports: ""RoHS has been in force for more than 15 months now, and ~$400B RoHS-compliant products have been produced. With all of these products in the field, no significant numbers of tin whisker-related failures have been reported.""<ref>{{cite web |title=Frome One Engineer to Another – RoHS|url=http://blogs.indium.com/blog/rohs |publisher=Blogs.indium.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110706144229/http://blogs.indium.com/blog/rohs |archive-date=6 July 2011}}</ref> Whisker growth occurs slowly over time, is unpredictable, and not fully understood, so time may be the only true test of these efforts. Whisker growth is even observable for lead-based solders, albeit on a much smaller scale.

Some countries have exempted medical and telecommunication infrastructure products from the legislation.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Digital Control Systems, Inc. meets the European Union's RoHS Directive |publisher=Digital Control Systems |url=http://www.dcs-inc.net/RoHS.htm |access-date=12 March 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028173729/http://www.dcs-inc.net/RoHS.htm |archive-date=28 October 2012}}</ref> However, this may be a moot point, since as electronic component manufacturers convert their production lines to producing only lead-free parts, conventional parts with [[Eutectic point|eutectic]] tin-lead solder will simply not be available, even for military, aerospace and industrial users. To the extent that only solder is involved, this is at least partially mitigated by many lead-free components' compatibility with lead-containing solder processes. [[Leadframe]]-based components, such as [[Quad Flat Package]]s (QFP), [[Small Outline Integrated Circuit]]s (SOIC), and [[Small outline package]]s (SOP) with [[gull wing lead]]s, are generally compatible since the finish on the part leads contributes a small amount of material to the finished joint. However, components such as [[Ball grid array]]s (BGA) which come with lead-free solder balls and leadless parts are often not compatible with lead-containing processes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.st.com/stonline/products/literature/an/10791.pdf |url-status=unfit |title=Soldering Compatibility |date=2004 |language=en |access-date=24 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311125906/http://www.st.com/stonline/products/literature/an/10791.pdf |archive-date=Mar 11, 2011}}</ref>

=== Economic effect ===
There are no ''[[de minimis]]'' exemptions, e.g., for micro-businesses. This economic effect was anticipated and at least some attempts at mitigating the effect were made.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://application.doeni.gov.uk/doe_foi/document.asp?doc=6353 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929202448/http://application.doeni.gov.uk/doe_foi/document.asp?doc=6353 |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 September 2007 |title=Part VII – RoHS RIA: July 2004: PARTIAL REGULATORY IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE DRAFT STATUTORY INSTRUMENT TO IMPLEMENT THE EUROPEAN DIRECTIVE ON THE RESTRICTION OF THE USE OF CERTAIN HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref>

Another form of economic effect is the cost of product failures during the switch to RoHS compliance. For example, tin whiskers were responsible for a 5% failure rate in certain components of Swiss Swatch watches in 2006, prior to the July implementation of RoHS, reportedly triggering a US$1&nbsp;billion recall.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/apr/03/research.engineering |title=Within a whisker of failure |work=The Guardian |date=3 April 2008 |first1=Kurt |last1=Jacobsen |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022130830/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/apr/03/research.engineering |archive-date=22 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |url=http://nepp.nasa.gov/whisker/reference/tech_papers/2008-Brusse-Japan-Metal%20Whiskers.pdf |title=Metal Whiskers: Failure Modes and Mitigation Strategies |first1=Jay |last1=Brusse |first2=Henning |last2=Leidecker |first3=Lyudmyla |last3=Panashchenko |date=24 April 2008 |publisher=NASA |conference=2nd International Symposium on Tin Whiskers |page=9 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218100014/http://nepp.nasa.gov/whisker/reference/tech_papers/2008-Brusse-Japan-Metal%20Whiskers.pdf |archive-date=18 February 2013}}</ref> Swatch responded to this by applying for an exemption to RoHS compliance, but this was denied.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/rohs_report.pdf |title=Adaptation to scientific and technical progress under Directive 2002/95/EC |date=28 July 2006 |page=83 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221123707/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/rohs_report.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orgalime.org/issues/RoHS_EU%20Overview%20Exemption_Jan07.pdf |title=Overview on Exemptions and Pending Requests at EU Level |publisher=Orgalime |date=23 January 2007 |page=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727152837/http://www.orgalime.org/issues/RoHS_EU%20Overview%20Exemption_Jan07.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2011}}</ref>

== Benefits ==
===Health benefits===
RoHS helps reduce damage to people and the environment in third-world countries where much of today's ""high-tech waste"" ends up.<ref name=""nationalgeographic1""/><ref>{{cite web |last=Greenemeier |first=Larry |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=laws-waste-epa-waste&print=true |title=Laws Fail to Keep up with Mounting E-Trash – Scientific American |publisher=Sciam.com |date=29 November 2007 |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2007/12/20/technologys-morning-after.html |title=Technology's Morning After |publisher=US News |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625004234/http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2007/12/20/technologys-morning-after.html |archive-date=25 June 2009}}</ref>
The use of lead-free solders and components reduces risks to electronics industry workers in prototype and manufacturing operations. Contact with solder paste no longer represents the same health hazard as it used to.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ogunseitan|first1=Oladele A.|author-link=Dele Ogunseitan|year=2007|title=Public health and environmental benefits of adopting lead-free solders|journal=JOM|volume=59|issue=7|page=12|bibcode=2007JOM....59g..12O|doi=10.1007/s11837-007-0082-8|s2cid=111017033}}</ref>

===Reliability concerns unfounded===
Contrary to the predictions of widespread component failure and reduced reliability, RoHS's first anniversary (July 2007) passed with little fanfare.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lasky |first=Ron |url=http://www.ventureoutsource.com/contract-manufacturing/benchmarks-best-practices/rohs-environment/rohs-one-year-later-the-good-news-is-the-bad-news-was-wrong |title=RoHS one year later: The good news is…the bad news was wrong; Contract Electronics Services Directory Listings |publisher=Ventureoutsource.com |access-date=12 January 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114020233/https://www.ventureoutsource.com/contract-manufacturing/benchmarks-best-practices/rohs-environment/rohs-one-year-later-the-good-news-is-the-bad-news-was-wrong |archive-date=14 January 2018}}</ref> Most contemporary consumer electronics are RoHS compliant. As of 2013, millions of compliant products are in use worldwide.

Many electronics companies keep ""RoHS status"" pages on their corporate websites. For example, the AMD website states:

<blockquote>Although lead containing solder cannot be completely eliminated from all applications today, AMD engineers have developed effective technical solutions to reduce lead content in microprocessors and chipsets to ensure RoHS compliance while minimizing costs and maintaining product features. There is no change to fit, functional, electrical or performance specifications. Quality and reliability standards for RoHS compliant products are expected to be identical compared to current packages.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amd.com/us-en/0,,3715_13530_4040,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611053209/http://www.amd.com/us-en/0%2C%2C3715_13530_4040%2C00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-06-11 |title=RoHS Compliance |access-date=2017-03-05}}</ref></blockquote>

RoHS printed circuit board finishing technologies are surpassing traditional formulations in fabrication thermal shock, solder paste printability, contact resistance, and aluminium wire bonding performance and nearing their performance in other attributes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sunstone.com/pcb-capabilities/lead-free-rohs/material-comparison.aspx |title=Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive in PCBs &#124; RoHS – Sunstone Circuits |publisher=Sunstone.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830090559/http://www.sunstone.com/pcb-capabilities/lead-free-rohs/material-comparison.aspx |archive-date=30 August 2013}}</ref>

The properties of lead-free solder, such as its high temperature resilience, has been used to prevent failures under harsh field conditions. These conditions include [[operating temperature]]s with test cycles in the range of −40&nbsp;°C to +150&nbsp;°C with severe vibration and shock requirements. Automobile manufacturers are turning to RoHS solutions now as electronics move into the engine bay.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/rohs_report.pdf |title=Adaptation to scientific and technical progress under Directive 2002/95/EC |date=28 July 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221123707/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/rohs_report.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2008}}{{Page needed|date=March 2013}}</ref>

===Flow properties and assembly===
One of the major differences between lead-containing and lead-free solder pastes is the ""flow"" of the solder in its liquid state. Lead-containing solder has a lower surface tension, and tends to move slightly to attach itself to exposed metal surfaces that touch any part of the liquid solder. Lead-free solder conversely tends to stay in place where it is in its liquid state, and attaches itself to exposed metal surfaces only where the liquid solder touches it.

This lack of ""flow"" – while typically seen as a disadvantage because it can lead to lower quality electrical connections – can be used to place components more tightly than they used to be placed due to the properties of lead-containing solders.

For example, Motorola reports that their new RoHS wireless device assembly techniques are ""...enabling a smaller, thinner, lighter unit."" Their Motorola Q phone would not have been possible without the new solder. The lead-free solder allows for tighter pad spacing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.indium.com/blog/an-interview-with-the-professor/motorola-q-not-possible-without-lead-free-assembly |title=Motorola Q: Not Possible without Lead-free Assembly &#124; Indium Corporation Blogs |publisher=Blogs.indium.com |date=24 August 2006 |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20150705034044/http://blogs.indium.com/blog/an-interview-with-the-professor/motorola-q-not-possible-without-lead-free-assembly |archive-date=5 July 2015}}</ref>

===Some exempt products achieve compliance===
Research into new alloys and technologies is allowing companies to release RoHS products that are currently exempt from compliance, ''e.g.'' computer servers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dell.com/content/topics/global.aspx/corp/environment/en/rohs?c=us&l=en&s=corp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213192430/http://www.dell.com/content/topics/global.aspx/corp/environment/en/rohs?c=us&l=en&s=corp |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 February 2008 |title=Dell RoHS |date=13 February 2008 |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref> IBM has announced a RoHS solution for high lead solder joints once thought to remain a permanent exemption. The lead-free packaging technology ""...offers economical advantages in relation to traditional bumping processes, such as solder waste reduction, use of bulk alloys, quicker time-to-market for products and a much lower chemical usage rate.""<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.edn.com/article/CA6461863.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012180401/http://www.edn.com/article/CA6461863.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 October 2008 |title=IBM launches production of lead-free packaging technology |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indium.com/drlasky/entry.php?id=618|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424032736/http://www.indium.com/drlasky/entry.php?id=618 |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 April 2008 |title=IBM Announces Shipment of Lead-Free C4 Joints – Dr. Lasky's Blog |date=23 July 2007 |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref>

Test and measurement vendors, such as [[National Instruments]], have also started to produce RoHS-compliant products, despite devices in this category being exempt from the RoHS directive.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tmworld.com/article/CA6346229.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304025318/http://www.tmworld.com/article/CA6346229.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 March 2009 |title=NI premiers RoHS-compliant products |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref>

==Practical==

RoHS compliance can be misleading because RoHS3 (EU) allows exemptions, ex. up to 85% lead content for high-temperature soldering alloys.<ref name=""Eur-lex.europa.eu""/>

Therefore good companies should clearly define their level of compliance in their product main datasheets (DS); ideally, they should provide a product content sheet (PCS) with full substance declaration by mass. Similarly, good developers (and users) should carefully validate the product info to make sure they get the exact material safety expected.

Industry Examples:

* RoHS3 compliant without exemptions
* RoHS3 compliant with all applicable exemptions
* RoHS3 compliant with exemption 7a
* RoHS3 compliant, lead-free
* RoHS3 compliant, green (where the term green is a company-specific standard, ex. lead-free and halogen-free)
* RoHS3 compliant with exemptions, lead-free finish

Ideal: RoHS3 compliant without exemptions

Good Minimum Standard: RoHS3 compliant with exemption for lead-content on internal-only material (to help prevent lead-exposure on touch, lead-leakage in water)

== See also ==
* [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals|REACH]]
* [[Battery Directive]]
* [[Electronic waste]]
* [[Green computing]]
* [[Ion attachment mass spectrometry]] – used to enforce RoHS limits on banned substances
* [[Lead safe work practices]] in the US
* [[List of European Union directives]]
* [[Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title=Introduction to Implementing Lead-Free Electronics |last=Hwang |first=Jennie S. |year=2004 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional |isbn=978-0-07-144374-6 }}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071125193741/http://www.rohs.eu/ RoHS Compliance in the EU – www.rohs.eu]
* [http://www.rohs.gov.uk/ Official United Kingdom site on RoHS]
* [http://willowmedical.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/rohs_enforcement_guidance_document_-_v_1_may_2006.pdf EU RoHS Enforcement Guidance Document, V.1; EU RoHS Enforcement Authorities Informal Network; May 2006 ]
* [http://www.metallurgy.nist.gov/solder/NIST_LeadfreeSolder_v4.pdf Properties of Lead-Free Solders] National Institute of Standards and Technology
* [https://www.nist.gov/mml/csd/inorganic/rohs.cfm Support of Industry Compliance with the EU Directive on Restriction of Certain Hazardous Substances (RoHS)] on nist.gov
* [http://www.bomcheck.net/assets/docs/Carestream%20Health%20achieving%20RoHS2%20compliance%20for%20Medical%20Devices%20with%20EN%2050581%20and%20BOMcheck.pdf Case study on RoHS2 compliance]

{{Portal bar|European Union|Law}}
{{Waste}}

[[Category:European Union directives]]
[[Category:Environmental chemistry]]
[[Category:Regulation of chemicals in the European Union]]
[[Category:Waste legislation in the European Union]]
[[Category:Waste legislation in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:2003 in law]]
[[Category:2003 in the European Union]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Electronic waste in Europe]]
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[[Category:Mercury (element)]]"
Forest protection,"{{Short description|Branch of forestry}}
{{Expand German|Waldschutz|date=December 2013}}
[[File:Forest protection in LT.JPG|thumb|Forest security in [[Lithuania]]]]
'''Forest protection''' is  a branch of forestry which is concerned with the preservation or improvement of a [[forest]]  and prevention and control of damage to forest by natural or man made causes like [[forest fire]]s, [[plant pest]]s, and adverse climatic conditions ([[global warming]]).
 
Forest protection also has a legal status and rather than protection from only people damaging the forests is seen to be broader and include [[forest pathology]] too. Due to the different emphases there exist widely different methods forest protection.

In German-speaking countries, forest protection would focus on the biotic and abiotic factors that are non-crime related. A [[protected forest]] is not the same as a [[protection forest]]. These terms can lead to some confusion in English, although they are clearer in other languages. As a result, reading English literature can be problematic for non-experts due to localization and conflation of meanings.

The types of man-induced abuse that forest protection seeks to prevent include:
* Aggressive or unsustainable [[intensive farming]] and [[logging]]
* [[Soil pollution|Pollution]] of the forest soil
* Expanding city development caused by [[population explosion]] and the resulting [[urban sprawl]]

There is considerable debate over the effectiveness of forest protection methods. Enforcement of laws regarding purchased forest land is weak or non-existent in most parts of the world. In the increasingly dangerous South America, home of major [[rainforest]]s, officials of the [[Brazil]]ian [[IBAMA|National Agency for the Environment]] (IBAMA) have recently been shot during their routine duties.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = Schmitt  | first1 = C.  | last2 = Burgess  | first2 = N.  | title = Global analysis of the protection status of the world's forests  | journal = Biological Conservation  | year = 2009  | volume = 142  | issue = 10  | pages = 2122–2130 | doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2009.04.012 | bibcode = 2009BCons.142.2122S }}</ref>

==Land purchase==
One simple type of forest protection is land acquisition by the state or conservation organisations in order to secure it, or for [[reforestation]] / [[afforestation]]. It can also mean [[forest management]] or the designation of areas such as natural reservoirs which are intended to be left to themselves.<ref name=usn>{{cite book |author=Lund, H. Gyde|title=Definitions of Forest, Deforestation, Afforestation, and Reforestation |year=2006 |publisher=Forest Information Services |location=Gainesville, VA }}</ref> However, merely purchasing a piece of land does not prevent it from being used by others for [[poaching]] and [[illegal logging]].

==On site monitoring==
A better way to protect a forest, particularly [[old growth forest]]s in remote areas, is to obtain a part of it and to live on and monitor the purchased land. Even in the United States, these measures sometimes do not suffice because [[arson]] can burn a forest to the ground, leaving burnt areas free for different use.<ref name=paradox>{{cite journal | title=Forest protection paradox | journal=New Scientist | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=203 | issue=2716 | year=2009 | issn=0262-4079 | doi=10.1016/s0262-4079(09)61802-9 | page=6 | ref={{sfnref | Elsevier BV | 2009}}}}</ref>

Another issue about living on purchased forest-land is that there may not be a suitable site for a standard home without clearing land, which defies the purpose of protection. Alternatives include building a [[tree house|treehouse]] or an [[earthhouse]]. This is being done currently by [[indigenous people]] in South America to protect large [[reservoir (water)|reservoirs]]. In former times, North American [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] used to live in [[tipie]]s or [[earth house|mandan earthhouses]], which also require less land. An undertaking to develop modern treehouses is being taken by a company from Germany called ""TrueSchool treehouses"".

==Other methods of protection==
A number of less successful methods of forest protection have been tried, such as the trade in [[certified wood]]. Protecting a small section of land in a larger forest may also have limited value. For example, [[tropical rainforest]]s can die if they decrease in size, since they are dependent on the moist [[microclimate]] which they create. There is an excellent article in National Geographic October issue concerning redwood forest in California and their effort to maintain forest and rainforest.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = Allen| first1 = CD | last2 = Savage| first2 = M| title = Ecological restoration of southwestern ponderosapine ecosystems: A broad perspective| publisher = Ecological Applications| year = 2002| volume = 12}}</ref>

A compromise is to conduct agriculture and stock farming, or [[Sustainable forestry|sustainable]] [[wood management]]. This ascribes different values to forest land and farmland, for which many areas are clear felled.

==Neighborhood leakage==
Two conflicting studies on the idea that protecting forests only relocates deforestation. This is called 'neighborhood leakage'. According to the paradox of forest protection<ref name=paradox/> protected areas such as rural settlements near protected zones grew at twice the rate of those elsewhere.  The [[IUCN]] implements such protocols that protect  over 670 eco-regions. 46% of the eco-regions had less than 10% forest protection. Which means that these areas are not being monitored as they should and the protection is not working. Considering forest protection within global priority areas was unsatisfactory. An example given was that the average protection of 8.4% in biodiversity hotspots. Results have policy relevance in terms of the target of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], reconfirmed in 2008, to conserve in an effective manner that “at least 10% of each of the world’s forest types”.<ref>{{Cite journal  | title = FSM 2000-National forest resourcemanagement  | journal = USDA Forest Service   | date = October 2008  | url = http://www.fs.fed.us/im/directives/fsm/2000/id 2020-2008-Ldoc}}</ref>


==See also==
{{Portal|Trees|Environment|Ecology}} 
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation ethic]]
* [[Conservation movement]]
* [[Conservation reliant species]]
* [[Deep ecology]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Ecology movement]]
* [[Environmentalism]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Forest conservation]]
* [[Forest Principles]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Natural capital]]
* [[Natural landscape]]
* [[Natural resource]]
* [[Protection forest]]
* [[Renewable resource]]
* [[Sustainable development]]
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Urban forest]]
* [[Water conservation]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.barrameda.com.ar/ecology/forests-in-danger.htm Forests in danger] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090228120817/http://www.intactforests.org/publications/publications.htm Roadmap to Recovery: The World's Last Intact Forest Landscapes] *[http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a0400e/a0400e00.htm Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080124171741/http://www.coolforests.org/ CoolForests.org - Conservation Cools the Planet]

{{Forestry}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Forest Protection}}
[[Category:Forest conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Green supply chain management,"'''Green supply chain management (GSCM)'''  is the consideration of environmental issues in [[supply chain management]]. 

== Definitions and scope ==
GSCM has been defined as the following:

*“GSCM encompasses a set of environmental practices that encourage improvements to the environmental practices of two or more organizations within the same supply chain”<ref name=""Vachon"">{{cite journal |last1=Vachon |first1=Stephan |last2=Klassen |first2=Robert D. |title=Extending green practices across the supply chain: The impact of upstream and downstream integration |journal=International Journal of Operations & Production Management |date=1 January 2006 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=795–821 |doi=10.1108/01443570610672248}}</ref>
*“GSCM is the process of incorporating environmental concerns into supply chain management including product design, material sourcing and selection, manufacturing, delivery of final products, and the management of product’s end-of-life”<ref name=""Srivastava"">{{cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=Samir K. |title=Green supply-chain management: A state-of-the-art literature review |journal=International Journal of Management Reviews |date=2007 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=53–80 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2370.2007.00202.x|s2cid=9836531 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*“GSCM can be achieved by considering environmental issues at the purchasing, product design and development, production, transportation, packaging, storage, disposal, and end of product life cycle management stages.”<ref name=""Min"">{{cite journal |last1=Min |first1=Hokey |last2=Kim |first2=Ilsuk |title=Green supply chain research: past, present, and future |journal=Logistics Research |date=1 March 2012 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=39–47 |doi=10.1007/s12159-012-0071-3|s2cid=207395773 }}</ref>
*“GSCM is the integration of environmental concerns in the inter-organizational practices of supply chain management”<ref name=""Sarkis"">{{cite journal |last1=Sarkis |first1=Joseph |last2=Zhu |first2=Qinghua |last3=Lai |first3=Kee-hung |title=An organizational theoretic review of green supply chain management literature |journal=International Journal of Production Economics |date=1 March 2011 |volume=130 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpe.2010.11.010|hdl=10397/17229 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
Srivastava (2007) defines GSCM’s scope as ranging ""from reactive monitoring of general environmental management programs to more proactive practices implemented through various Rs (Reduce, Re-use, Rework, Refurbish, Reclaim, Recycle, Remanufacture, Reverse logistics, etc.).”<ref name=""Srivastava"" /> From an entrepreneurial perspective, entrepreneurial GSCM is a new approach to environmental management executed by green entrepreneurs across whole supply chains instead of thinking in terms of individual non-environmental firms. This new holistic view can integrate individuals, companies, and supply-chains of different entrepreneurs from various countries together in an environmental friendly way.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adel |first1=H. M. |title=Mapping and Assessing Green Entrepreneurial Performance: Evidence from a Vertically Integrated Organic Beverages Supply Chain |journal=Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Emerging Economies |date=2021 |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=78-98 |doi=10.1177/2393957520983722|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== GSCM criteria ==
A nonexhaustive list of GSCM criteria from D. Kannan et al. (2014) is given below. 
; GSCM Criteria 1 : '''“Commitment of senior management to GSCM”<ref name=""Kannan"">{{cite journal |last1=Kannan |first1=Devika |last2=Jabbour |first2=Ana Beatriz Lopes de Sousa |last3=Jabbour |first3=Charbel José Chiappetta |title=Selecting green suppliers based on GSCM practices: Using fuzzy TOPSIS applied to a Brazilian electronics company |journal=European Journal of Operational Research |date=1 March 2014 |volume=233 |issue=2 |pages=432–447 |doi=10.1016/j.ejor.2013.07.023|url=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/39758/1/Selecting%20green%20suppliers%20based%20on%20GSCM%20practice.pdf }}</ref>'''
: “The support of senior management is crucial in GSCM adoption, as there will be an eventual need for process adjustments or cultural changes”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 2 : '''“Inter-functional cooperation for environmental improvement”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “Inter-functional cooperation (e.g., purchases and sustainability, research and development in sustainability, or marketing and stability, etc.) is important in implementing changes in the day-today activities of the functional areas. This type of cooperation can therefore promote environmental requirements externally via upstream suppliers, or internally via consumer demand”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 3 : '''“Compliance with legal environmental requirements and auditing programs”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “Addressing environmental legal requirements and auditing programs demonstrates that the company is attempting to meet environmental regulation for their sector internally”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 4 : '''“ISO 14001 Certification”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “The company has an ISO 14001 certified EMS”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 5 : '''“Selection of suppliers includes environmental criteria”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: Explanation – “The selection process for suppliers considers environmental variables (e.g., ISO 14001) in addition to traditional criteria (e.g., cost, quality, reliability, etc.)”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 6 : '''“Work with suppliers to meet environmental goals”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “Suppliers are asked to support initiatives and measures within their company to improve the environment”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 7 : '''“Evaluations of the internal environmental management of suppliers”<ref name=""Kannan"" />''' 
: “Inspections of supplier installations provide a way to check the environmental performance of the supplier and ensure that they comply with environmental management standards”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 8 : '''“Evaluation of the environmental management of 2nd-tier suppliers”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “Suppliers of basic raw materials are also monitored to extend environmental concern beyond the direct relationship”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 9 : '''“Work with clients for eco-design”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “Utilizing the close relationships that traditional supply chain management allows, companies seek to develop products together with clients to improve the products’ environmental impact”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 10 : '''“Work with clients to make production cleaner”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “Utilizing the close relationships that traditional supply chain management allows, companies seek to manufacture more cleanly with cooperation from the client”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 11 : '''“Work with clients to use environmentally friendly packaging”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “Utilizing the close relationships that traditional supply chain management allows, companies seek to use environmentally friendly packaging with cooperation from clients”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 12 : '''“Acquisition of the cleanest technologies by the company”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “The company buys equipment that allows it to make products as cleanly as possible”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 13 : '''“Product designs that reduce, reuse, recycle, or reclaim materials, components, or energy”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “The company observes policies on material reduction, parts reuse, recycling of the product after use, and recuperation of materials, components, or energy throughout the product’s life”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 14 : '''“Product designs that avoid or reduce toxic or hazardous material use”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “In developing products, the company incorporates ways to avoid or reduce the use of dangerous or toxic products”<ref name=""Kannan"" />]1
; GSCM Criteria 15 : '''“Sale of excess stock or materials”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “The company seeks to sell obsolete stock to recuperate its investment”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 16 : '''“Sale of scrap and used materials”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “The company seeks to sell waste and used materials (i.e., materials that do not have value in the production line) to recuperate its investment”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
; GSCM Criteria 17 : '''“Sale of used equipment (after buying new equipment)”<ref name=""Kannan"" />'''
: “The company sells used equipment to recuperate its investment”<ref name=""Kannan"" />

=== Relative importance of criteria ===
Instead of concentrating equally on every criterion, more attention should be given to the most important criteria. D. Kannan et al. (2014) calculated the importance of criteria by taking the preferences of 3 decision-makers:<ref name=""Kannan"" />
{| class=""wikitable""
|+
|-
! Criteria !! Decision Maker 1 !! Decision Maker 2 !! Decision Maker 3
|-
| 1 || Very High || Very High || Very High
|-
| 2 || High || High || Very High
|-
| 3 || High || Very High || Very High
|-
| 4 || Very High || High || Medium
|-
| 5 || High || Very High || High
|-
| 6 || High || High || Very High
|-
| 7 || High || High || Medium
|-
| 8 || High || Medium || Medium
|-
| 9 || Very High || High || High
|-
| 10 || High || Medium || Medium
|-
| 11 || High || High || High
|-
| 12 || High || High || Very High
|-
| 13 || Very High || Very High || Very High
|-
| 14 || Very High || High || Very High
|-
| 15 || High || Medium || Medium
|-
| 16 || High || Medium || Low
|-
| 17 || High || Medium || Very Low
|}
In this table, the preferences of criteria are given in terms of linguistic variables. From these linguistic variables, calculations were done to find out the ranking of the importance of criteria. 
[[File:Chart of Percentage importance of GSCM criteria.png|thumb|Chart of Percentage importance of GSCM criteria]]
Form the above graph; it is clear that the top 4 most important GSCM criteria are	
* GSCM Criteria 1 : “Commitment of senior management to GSCM”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
* GSCM Criteria 13 : “Product designs that reduce, reuse, recycle, or reclaim materials, components, or energy”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
* GSCM Criteria 3 : “Compliance with legal environmental requirements and auditing programs”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
* GSCM Criteria 14 : “Product designs that avoid or reduce toxic or hazardous material use”<ref name=""Kannan"" />
This result was obtained when the authors considered the GSCM criteria for choosing a supplier for an electronics company in Brazil (a developing country). Depending on the situation, it is possible that other GSCM criteria are deemed to be more important by the decision-makers. (For example, if the same research were done in a developed country instead of a developing country, other criteria might have received a higher ranking).
== Barriers ==
Tumpa et al., 2019<ref name=""Tumpa"" /> conducted a study to find the hurdles faced while implementing GSCM practices. The study was conducted in the textile industry of Bangladesh (a developing country). Some of the most important hurdles were found out to be
* low demand from customers due to lack of awareness
* financial constraint
* lack of government regulations<ref name=""Tumpa"">{{cite journal |last1=Tumpa |first1=Tasmia Jannat |last2=Ali |first2=Syed Mithun |last3=Rahman |first3=Md. Hafizur |last4=Paul |first4=Sanjoy Kumar |last5=Chowdhury |first5=Priyabrata |last6=Rehman Khan |first6=Syed Abdul |title=Barriers to green supply chain management: An emerging economy context |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=1 November 2019 |volume=236 |pages=117617 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117617|hdl=10453/134937 |s2cid=199311094 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
Other hurdles may be more important in different situations (Example – if the study were done in a developed country instead of a developing country)

Another considerable hurdle for firms trying to implement GSCM practices is the fact that many suppliers along the complete supply chain reside outside of any direct organizational control from the firm. Supply chains are often built upon a network of individual suppliers and a firm's ability to meet their Corporate Sustainability Standards can be hindered by suppliers with which they do not directly interact. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grimm |first1=Jörg H. |last2=Hofstetter |first2=Joerg S. |last3=Sarkis |first3=Joseph |date=2016-01-20 |title=Exploring sub-suppliers' compliance with corporate sustainability standards |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652614012165 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |series=Embedding Sustainability Dynamics in Supply Chain Relationship Management and Governance Structures |language=en |volume=112 |pages=1971–1984 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.11.036 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref>
== Relevance ==
; '''Increase in publications'''
: The number of publications on GSCM has been increasing for the past few years. The figure below shows the number of publications on GSCM from the year 2006 to 2016. By observing the figure, we can find an increasing trend in the number of publications in GSCM. This increase is likely the effect of the rising significance of environmental concerns in the area of supply chain management.

: Figure of Increase in publications is mentioned (data from de Oliveira (2018) et al.)<ref name=""de Oliveira"" />
[[File:Increase in Publications in gscm.png|thumb|Increase in Publications in gscm]]
: “It is expected to see the GSCM publication increase trend perceivable for the next years.”<ref name=""de Oliveira"">{{cite journal |last1=de Oliveira |first1=Ualison Rébula |last2=Espindola |first2=Luciano Souza |last3=da Silva |first3=Isabele Rocha |last4=da Silva |first4=Iaslin Nostório |last5=Rocha |first5=Henrique Martins |title=A systematic literature review on green supply chain management: Research implications and future perspectives |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=20 June 2018 |volume=187 |pages=537–561 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.083|s2cid=158697981 }}</ref>

; '''Both developed and developing countries are doing research on GSCM.'''
: Research on GSCM is being done by both developed and developing countries. The figure below shows the number of publications from the top 10 countries 

: Figure of publications from various countries is mentioned (data from de Oliveira (2018) et al.)<ref name=""de Oliveira"" />
[[File:Chart of Publications in gscm from various countries.png|thumb|Chart of Publications in gscm from various countries]]
: From the figure, it is clear that both developed countries like the U.S.A. and developing countries like India and China are conducting research on GSCM. This is also due to the rising importance of environmental issues in the context of supply chain management.

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Supply chain management]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Category:Air pollution organizations,"Category for organizations involved with [[air pollution]], and its reduction

{{Seealso|:Category:Air pollution by country}}

[[Category:Air pollution|Org]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Category:Parks services,"[[Category:Government agencies]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental policy]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Heritage interpretation organizations]]
[[Category:Parks|*]]"
Sea rewilding,"{{Short description|Environmental conservation activity}}
[[File:Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris), from a raft of about 15, (8625968237).jpg|thumb|[[Sea otter]]s are a [[keystone species]] needed to control the population of [[sea urchin]]s which makes their reintroduction to the Pacific coast of Canada a successful case of rewilding.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gregr|first=Edward|date=2021-07-07|title=Sea otters: how welcome should a recovering top predator be?|url=https://www.thesciencebreaker.org/breaks/evolution-behaviour/sea-otters-how-welcome-should-a-recovering-top-predator-be|journal=TheScienceBreaker|volume=07|issue=3|language=en|doi=10.25250/thescbr.brk563|s2cid=237986623|issn=2571-9262|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
'''Sea rewilding''' (also known as '''marine rewilding''') is an area of [[Environmental protection|environmental conservation]] activity which focuses on [[Rewilding (conservation biology)|rewilding]], restoring ocean life and returning seas to a more natural state. Sea rewilding projects operate around the world, working to repopulate a wide range of organisms, including giant clams, sharks, skates, sea sturgeons, and many other species.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-04|title=A drop in the ocean: rewilding the seas|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/04/rewilding-the-seas-overfishing-oceans|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[the Guardian]]|language=en}}</ref> Rewilding marine and [[coastal ecosystems]] offer potential ways to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate]] [[climate change]] and [[Carbon sequestration|sequester carbon]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Reports|url=https://www.bluemarinefoundation.com/about/reports/|access-date=2022-01-20|website=[[Blue Marine Foundation]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-11-02|title=COP 26: Ocean action is climate action and the time to act is now!|url=https://seas-at-risk.org/|access-date=2022-01-20|website=Seas at Risk|language=en}}</ref> Sea rewilding projects are currently less common than those focusing on rewilding land, and seas are under increasing stress from the [[blue economy]] – commercial activities which further stress the marine environment.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-12-21|title=Ocean protection and Marine Directive review: past present future. Interview with Monica Verbeek, Executive Director of Seas At Risk|url=https://seas-at-risk.org/|access-date=2022-01-20|website=Seas at Risk|language=en}}</ref>  Rewilding projects held near costal communities can economically benefit local businesses as well as individuals and communities a whole.<ref> https://www.mossy.earth/rewilding-knowledge/marine-rewilding</ref>

== Seagrass ==
[[File:Posidonia oceanica (L).jpg|alt=Long wide leaved grass under clear light blue water|thumb|Seagrass at [[La Ciotat]], France]]
[[Seagrass meadow|Seagrass meadows]] store [[Carbon dioxide removal|carbon dioxide]]. More than 90% of the United Kingdom's historic seagrass meadows have been lost.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Assessing the impact of environmental pressures on seagrass Blue Carbon stocks in the British Isles|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10104698/|publisher=UCL (University College London)|date=2020-07-28|degree=Doctoral|first=Alix Evelyn|last=Green}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Advancing the conservation of seagrass through education influence research and action|url=https://www.projectseagrass.org/seagrass-ocean-rescue/|access-date=2022-01-17|website=Project Seagrass|language=en}}</ref> Restoring meadows could [[carbon offset|offset carbon emissions]] and  provide habitat for numerous fish and shellfish species.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Dickie|first=Mure|date=2021-09-04|title=Coastal rewilding: restoring Scotland's seagrass meadows|work=[[Financial Times]]|url=https://www.ft.com/content/cab65bda-005b-4186-8bda-1b5173155759|access-date=2022-01-17}}</ref>  Research into seagrass, which covers about one percent of the sea floor suggests that it may be delivering 15–18% of carbon storage in the ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of Blue Carbon Resources in Scotland's Inshore Marine Protected Area Network|url=https://www.nature.scot/doc/naturescot-commissioned-report-957-assessment-blue-carbon-resources-scotlands-inshore-marine|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[NatureScot]]|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|date=2021-11-05|title=The problem with blue carbon: can seagrass be replanted … by hand?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/05/seagrass-meadows-could-turn-tide-of-climate-crisis-aoe|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[the Guardian]]|language=en}}</ref> Meadows have been declining since the 1930s and are being lost at an alarming rate.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2020-06-04|title=Out of the Blue: The Value of Seagrasses to the Environment and to People|url=http://www.unep.org/resources/report/out-blue-value-seagrasses-environment-and-people|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[UN Environment Programme]]|language=en}}</ref> Due to their scarcity they have been designated a UK habitat of principal importance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIFE 3.0 – LIFE Project Public Page|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/life/publicWebsite/index.cfm?fuseaction=search.dspPage&n_proj_id=7321|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[European Commission]] LIFE public database}}</ref> In the United States, a project at [[Chesapeake Bay]] is considered a success.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Unsworth|first1=Richard K. F.|last2=Callaway|first2=Ruth|title=How underwater gardening can rewild the Atlantic Ocean|url=http://theconversation.com/how-underwater-gardening-can-rewild-the-atlantic-ocean-85794|access-date=2022-01-23|website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]|language=en}}</ref>

== Native oysters ==
[[File:Green grass marsh with oyster beds.jpg|alt=Green grass marsh with oyster beds and water in the foreground|thumb|Oyster beds]]
[[Oyster|Oysters]] filter water, recycle nutrients and help to protect against [[coastal erosion]].<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|date=2021-08-05|title=Helping Oyster Growers and Marine Ecosystems in Rhode Island|url=https://www.farmers.gov/blog/helping-oyster-growers-and-marine-ecosystems-in-rhode-island|access-date=2022-02-17|website=Farmers.gov|language=en}}</ref> Oyster stocks have declined by 95 per cent in Europe due to over-harvesting, habitat loss, [[Marine pollution|pollution]] and disease.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Essex Native Oyster Restoration Initiative|url=https://essexnativeoyster.com/|access-date=2022-01-17|website=Essex Native Oysters|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="":1"" />

In [[Rhode Island]], US, ""wild oyster populations are at an all-time low"", according to Eric Schneider, the principal marine biologist with the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management's Division of Marine Fisheries. He also states: ""oysters provide a number of essential [[ecosystem services]], from [[Water filter|water filtration]] to fish habitat and shoreline protection. By having oyster reef habitat absent from these systems, those services can be significantly depressed.""<ref name="":1"" />

It has been demonstrated that restoring historic oyster beds improves water quality.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Restoring oysters on the Humber|url=https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/blog/guest/restoring-oysters-humber|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[The Wildlife Trusts]]}}</ref>

== Kelp forests ==
[[File:Kelp forest at Taranga pinnacles Hen and Chicken Islands PA232359.JPG|thumb|Kelp forest at the Taranga pinnacles of the [[Hen and Chicken Islands]], New Zealand|alt=Large light green fronds under water]]
[[Kelp forest]]s are important habitats which have been lost over time in coastal waters.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sussex Kelp Restoration Project|url=https://sussexwildlifetrust.org.uk/helpourkelp|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[Sussex Wildlife Trust]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Paradigm Shift On How To Restore Kelp Forests|url=https://sea-trees.org/blogs/in-the-news/paradigm-shift-on-how-to-restore-kelp-forests|access-date=2022-01-17|website=Sea Trees|language=en}}</ref> Kelp forests provide habitat for fish, protect coastlines from erosion and trap carbon dioxide from the ocean. They grow fast and absorb large amounts of carbon.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-17|title=Plantwatch: kelp – forgotten forests that help tackle climate crisis|url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/mar/17/plantwatch-kelp-forgotten-forests-that-help-tackle-climate-crisis|access-date=2022-01-20|website=[[the Guardian]]|language=en}}</ref> Restoring kelp forests is a strategy to [[climate change mitigation|address climate change]] and enrich ocean livestock.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kelp Forest Restoration Project|url=https://www.santamonicabay.org/what-we-do/projects/kelp-forest-restoration-project/|access-date=2022-01-17|website=The Bay Foundation|language=en}}</ref>

== Marine protected areas ==
[[Marine protected area]]s are areas protected from certain activity. They are used to preserve and conserve areas where marine life has been disrupted or disturbed. Such disturbances could be [[overfishing]], [[Marine pollution|ocean pollution]], and other similar disturbances. 

In [[Chile]], environmental groups such as Rewilding Chile are campaigning to create new protected areas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Marine Program|url=https://www.rewildingchile.org/en/projects/marine-program/|access-date=2022-01-23|website=Fundación Rewilding Chile|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Carbon capture ==
Rewilding the sea has been described as ""the new way to capture carbon"".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-24|title=Rewilding the sea is the new way to capture carbon, says Eustice|url=https://www.bluemarinefoundation.com/2020/06/24/rewilding-the-sea/|access-date=2022-01-23|website=Blue Marine Foundation|language=en-US}}</ref> 

== Organisations ==
*Seawilding, a Scottish charity work with communities<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Seawilding – an entity, and an idea that was born out of the hopes, aspirations and motivations of a community association called CROMACH|url=http://www.decadeonrestoration.org/stories/seawilding-entity-and-idea-was-born-out-hopes-aspirations-and-motivations-community|access-date=2022-01-17|website=UN Decade on Restoration|language=en}}</ref>
* [[NatureScot]] 
* [[Rewilding Britain]]
<!-- 
[https://www.arrancoast.com/ COAST]

[https://www.santamonicabay.org/ The Bay Foundation]

[https://www.bluemarinefoundation.com/ Blue Marine Foundation]

[https://seas-at-risk.org/ Seas at Risk]-->

== See also ==
*[[Rewilding (conservation biology)|Rewilding]]
*[[Salmon conservation]]
*[[Blue carbon]]
*[[Reef burials]]

== Further reading ==
*{{Cite book|last=Clover|first=Charles|title=Rewilding the Sea|url=https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/1446596/rewilding-the-sea/9781529144031|date=2022-06-09|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|language=en}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{conservation of species}}

[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Marine conservation]]
[[Category:Climate action plans]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Rewilding]]
[[Category:Blue carbon]]
[[Category:Natural resources]]
[[Category:Aquatic ecology]]"
Category:Rights of nature,"{{cat main}}
[[Category:Environmental law]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental justice]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]
[[Category:Environmental philosophy‎]]"
Pacific Regional Environment Programme,"{{Short description|Organization}}
{{Infobox organization
|name = Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme
|image = Secretariat_of_the_Pacific_Regional_Environment_Programme.jpg
|image_border =
|size = <!-- default 200 -->
|alt = <!-- alt text; see [[WP:ALT]] -->
|caption =
|map = <!-- optional -->
|msize = <!-- map size, optional, default 200px -->
|malt = <!-- map alt text -->

|mcaption = <!-- optional -->
|abbreviation = SPREP
|motto =
|formation = 16 June 1993
|extinction = <!-- date of extinction, optional -->
|type = independent inter-governmental organization
|status = Agreement Establishing SPREP
|purpose = promote cooperation in the South Pacific Region and to provide assistance in order to protect and improve the environment and to ensure sustainable development for present and future generations (Art.2).
|headquarters = [[Apia]], [[Samoa]]
|location = 
|coords = <!-- Coordinates of location using a coordinates template -->
|region_served = Pacific
|membership =
|language = <!-- official languages -->
|leader_title = Director General
|leader_name = [[Leota Kosi Latu]]
|main_organ = Intergovernmental Meetings (IGM), SPREP Meetings (SM) and Regional Convention COPs
|parent_organization = <!-- if one -->
|affiliations = <!-- if any -->
|num_staff =90+
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|website = https://www.sprep.org/
|remarks =
}}

The '''Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme''' ('''SPREP''') is an [[intergovernmental organisation]] based in [[Apia]], [[Samoa]] with more than 90 staff members. The organisation is held accountable by the governments and administrations of the Pacific region to ensure the protection and sustainable development of the region's natural resources. The organisation actively promotes the understanding of the connection between Pacific island people and their [[natural environment]] and the impact that these have on their sustenance and livelihoods. The organisation was established in 1982.<ref>{{cite web | title = South Pacific Regional Environment Programme | work = Australian Government. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade | url = http://dfat.gov.au/geo/pacific/regional_orgs/index.html | accessdate = 2015-01-20}}</ref> Previously '''South Pacific Regional Environment Programme''', the word ""South"" was replaced with ""Secretariat"" in 2004, in recognition of the members north of the equator. The French equivalent name is ''Programme régional océanien de l’environnement'' (PROE).<ref>[http://www.sprep.org/attachments/Legal/Files_updated_at_2014/Amendement_SPREP_agreement.pdf SPREP Agreement]</ref>

==Members==
SPREP Members comprise 21 Pacific island countries and territories, and five developed countries* with direct interests in the region:
{| class=""wikitable""
|-
| {{ASM}} || {{AUS}}* || {{COK}}
|-
| {{FSM}} || {{FJI}} || {{FRA}}*
|-
| {{PYF}} || {{GUM}} || {{KIR}}
|-
| {{MHL}} || {{NRU}} || {{NCL}}
|-
| {{NZL}}* || {{NIU}} || {{MNP}}
|-
| {{PLW}} || {{PNG}} || {{WSM}}
|-
| {{SLB}} || {{TKL}} || {{TON}}
|-
| {{TUV}} || {{GBR}}* || {{USA}}*
|-
| {{VUT}} || {{WLF}} || 
|}

==Conventions==
SPREP oversees the following agreements, conventions and protocols, each of which is enacted by [[International treaty]]:

*''Agreement establishing the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme'' Apia, 1993<ref>[http://www3.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1995/24.html ""Agreement establishing the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) &#91;as an intergovernmental organisation&#93; ATS 24 of 1995”]. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved on 15 April 2017.</ref>
** ''Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific'' (Apia Convention) 1976<ref>[http://www3.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1990/31.html ""Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP) ATS 31 of 1990”]. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved on 15 April 2017.</ref> (Suspended in 2006)<ref>{{cite web|last1=Canessa|first1=Carolin|title=Conventions Secretariat {{!}} Legal|url=http://www.sprep.org/legal/convention-secretariat|website=www.sprep.org|accessdate=18 June 2017|language=en-gb}}</ref>
** ''Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region'' (Noumea Convention) 1986<ref>[http://www3.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1990/31.html ""Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP) ATS 31 of 1990”]. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved on 15 April 2017.</ref>
*** ''Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the South Pacific Region by Dumping'' (Dumping Protocol of the Noumea Convention) 1986
*** ''Protocol concerning Co-operation in Combating Pollution Emergencies in the South Pacific Region'' (Emergencies Protocol of the Noumea Convention) 1986<ref>[http://www3.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1990/32.html ""Protocol concerning Co-operation in Combating Pollution Emergencies in the South Pacific Region &#91;under SPREP&#93; ATS 32 of 1990”]. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved on 15 April 2017.</ref>
** ''Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region'' (Waigani Convention) 1995

==Governance==
The SPREP Annual General Meeting is the main governance mechanism of the organisation. SPREP Members meet once every year to discuss the workplan and budget and other matters relating to administration and corporate affairs. The 25th SPREP Meeting was held in the Republic of the Marshall Islands in October 2014.<ref>[http://www.sprep.org/sprep-meeting/25th-sprep-meeting-of-officials SPREP Meeting of Officials]</ref>

SPREP began life in the late 1970s as a joint initiative of SPC, SPEC, ESCAP and UNEP - eventually functioning as a component of UNEP's Regional Seas Programme. The Programme received further impetus as a result of the  1982 Conference on the Human Environment in the South Pacific. Following a period of expansion and long deliberations, SPREP left SPC in Nouméa in 1992 and relocated to Samoa. It achieved autonomy as an independent inter-governmental organisation with the signing of the Agreement Establishing SPREP in Apia on 16 June 1993.

SPREP (the  Secretariat) is the region’s key inter-governmental organisation for environment and sustainable development, and is one of several inter-governmental agencies comprising the Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific (CROP). Under the Agreement Establishing SPREP, the purposes of SPREP are to promote cooperation in the South Pacific Region and to provide assistance in order to protect and improve the environment and to ensure sustainable development for present and future generations (Art.2). SPREP's vision is: the Pacific environment - sustaining our livelihoods and natural heritage in harmony with our cultures. SPREP also functions as the Secretariat of 2 (formerly 3) regional conventions: the Nouméa Convention, the Waigani Convention and the Apia Convention (suspended).

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.sprep.org/ SPREP]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Intergovernmental environmental organizations]]
[[Category:International organizations based in Oceania]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Apia]]
[[Category:Politics of American Samoa]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Australia]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Fiji]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of France]]
[[Category:Politics of French Polynesia]]
[[Category:Politics of Guam]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Kiribati]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Marshall Islands]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Nauru]]
[[Category:Politics of New Caledonia]]
[[Category:New Zealand–Pacific relations]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Niue]]
[[Category:Politics of the Northern Mariana Islands]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Palau]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Papua New Guinea]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Samoa]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Solomon Islands]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Tokelau]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Tonga]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Tuvalu]]
[[Category:United Kingdom–Oceanian relations]]
[[Category:United States–Oceanian relations]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Vanuatu]]
[[Category:Politics of Wallis and Futuna]]"
First Nations Australian traditional custodianship,"{{Update|date=February 2024|reason=needs broader contextual definitions of ""custodian"", ""Country"", ""Caring for Country"", ""native title"" and ""Acknowledgement of Country""<ref>{{cite web | url=https://narvis.com.au/the-region/aboriginal-custodianship-background-information/ | title=Aboriginal Custodianship – Background Information – NARvis }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.blackpeoplesunion.org/our-demands | title=Our Demands }}</ref>}}
[[File:Rocks at Imaluk Beach.jpg|thumb|Imaluk Beach on [[Darwin Harbour]]. While these lands and seas are widely recognised as [[Larrakia people|Larrakia]] Country, some sources also list the [[Belyuen]] and [[Wadjiginy]] people as traditional custodians.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/33623/1/459535.pdf|chapter=8. ‘No vacancies at the Starlight Motel’: Larrakia identity and the native title claims process|first=Benedict|last=Scambary|date=2007|title=The Social Effects of Native Title: Recognition, Translation, Coexistence|editor-first1=Benjamin R.|editor-last1=Smith|editor-first2=Frances|editor-last2=Morphy|publisher=ANU E Press|pages=154|quote=The area is predominantly occupied by the ‘Belyuen’ who have a custodial relationship with the Larrakia in relation to their residence on Larrakia country}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ian.umces.edu/blog/engaging-with-the-belyuen-people-and-larrakia-people-traditional-owners-of-darwin-harbour-australia/|title=Engaging with the Belyuen people and Larrakia people, Traditional Owners of Darwin Harbour, Australia|first1=Bill|last1=Dennison|first2=Lorraine|last2=Williams|date=10 April 2020|website=University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science Integration and Application Network|quote=Belyuen people live in the Belyuen Community, the are made up of three language groups, Batjamalh, Emmiyangal, Mendheyangal. Their traditional lands are further down south of the west coast, but maintain custodial responsibilities for the area of Belyuen Community on the Cox Peninsula.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.drbilldayanthropologist.com/resources/Larrakia%20Family%20groups.pdf|title=Larrakia Family groups|first=Bill|last=Day|date=2012|website=Dr Bill Day Anthropologist|quote=Larrakia knowledge of country and rituals flourished on the Cox Peninsula, albeit through intermarriage with the Wadjiginy people as custodians.}}</ref>]]
The concept of '''First Nations Australian traditional custodianship''' derives from [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander]] peoples' strong traditional connection with the lands and seas they reside on, known collectively as ""[[Country (Indigenous Australians)|Country]]"".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/downloads/approach2/indigenous_res005_0803.pdf|title=Relationships to country: Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islander people|date=March 2008|author=Queensland Studies Authority|website=Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority}}</ref><ref name=""spirituality""/><ref name=""standpoint""/> The term ""traditional custodian"" is often used interchangeably with ""[[traditional owner]]"" in the context of [[native title in Australia]], including in [[Acknowledgement of Country|acknowledgements of Country]].<ref name=""SOE""/><ref name=""moondani""/> The role of a [[wikt:custodian|custodian]], however, implies a responsibility to care for Country, reflecting a worldview that is not necessarily compatible with the Western concepts of [[Property|land ownership]] and the [[right to property]].<ref name=""researchers"" /><ref name=""amnesty""/>

While specific practices and interpretations of custodianship may differ among the hundreds of distinct [[Aboriginal Australian]] and [[Torres Strait Islander]] groups, they all seemingly share a close affiliation with the land and a responsibility to look after it.<ref name=""tonkinson""/><ref name=""beginning""/><ref name=""biocultural""/> Since the 1980s,<ref name=""pleshet""/> First Nations and non-First Nations Australian academics have developed an understanding of a deeply rooted custodial obligation, or custodial ethic, that underpins Aboriginal Australian culture, and could offer significant benefits for [[sustainable land management]] and [[reconciliation in Australia]].<ref name=""graham""/><ref name=""ecological""/><ref name=""royal""/>

==Definitions in Australian literature==
Aboriginal Australian academics Joann Schmider ([[Mamu people|Mamu]]), Samantha Cooms ([[Nunukul]]) and Melinda Mann ([[Darumbal]]) offer the following simple definition for traditional custodians: ""the direct descendants of the Indigenous people of a particular location prior to [[Colonisation of Australia|colonisation]]"". However, they add the caveat that ""western worldviews are encapsulated within the English language and using western terminology to illuminate Indigenous ways of knowing, being and doing is inevitability fraught with misinterpretations and imperfect understandings"".<ref name=""researchers"">{{cite journal|url=https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/informit.692954533528776|title=Our Experiences of Researching with our Mob on our Country: Traditional Custodians as Researchers|first1=Joann|last1=Schmider|first2=Samantha|last2=Cooms|first3=Melinda|last3=Mann|date=2022|journal=Journal of Australian Indigenous Issues|volume=25|issue=1–2|pages=38–58}}</ref> As noted by [[Wiradjuri]] scholar Yalmambirra and [[European Australians|European Australian]] archaeologist [[Dirk Spennemann]]: ""before the onset of European administration, there was no collective concept for the original custodians of this continent, and each community, culturally divergent from its neighbours, had its own identity"".<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.anzrsai.org/assets/Uploads/PublicationChapter/171-YalmambirraandSpennemann.pdf|title=GAWAIMBANNA-GU WIRADJURI NHURRANBAANG (WELCOME TO WIRADJURI COUNTRY)|last1=Yalmambirra|first2=Dirk H.R.|last2=Spennemann|date=2006|journal=Australasian Journal of Regional Studies|volume=12|issue=3|pages=383–393}}</ref>

The English-language term ""traditional custodians"" is not unique to First Nations Australians,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://toolbox.iccaconsortium.org/meanings-and-more/custodians-stewards-guardians/|chapter=Custodians/Stewards/Guardians|title=Meanings and more… Policy Brief of the ICCA Consortium no. 7|date=25 November 2019|first1=G.|last1=Sajeva|first2=G.|last2=Borrini-Feyerabend|first3=T.|last3=Niederberger|publisher=ICCA Consortium}}</ref> and has been used to refer to local communities' relationships with land and resources in West Africa, Southern Africa, and Canada.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/43347245/Langdon_and_Larweh_-AR-2013-PAR_knowledge_democracy-revision-final.pdf|title=Moving with the movement: Collaboratively building a participatory action research study of social movement learning in Ada, Ghana|first1=Jonathan|last1=Langdon|first2=Kofi|last2=Larweh|journal=Action Research|date=2015|volume=13|issue=3|pages=281–297|doi=10.1177/1476750315572447 |s2cid=147965723 |quote=a constant threat from outside forces aiming to seize the resource from the Ada, or “Okor,” people who have been its custodians}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326201607|title=Traditional agriculture in transition: examining the impacts of agricultural modernization on smallholder farming in Ghana under the new Green Revolution|first1=Moses|last1=Kansanga|first2=Peter|last2=Andersen|first3=Daniel|last3=Kpienbaareh|first4=Sarah A.|last4=Mason-Renton|first5=K|last5=Atuoye|first6=Y|last6=Sano|first7=R|last7=Antabe|first8=I|last8=Luginaah|journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology|date=4 July 2018|volume=26|issue=1|pages=11–24|doi=10.1080/13504509.2018.1491429 |s2cid=159024556 |quote=The traditional custodian of the land who in consultation with the gods, ancestors and chief administers customary land and adjudicates land disputes}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354718664|chapter=Sacred Spaces, Legal Claims: Competing Claims for Legitimate Knowledge and Authority over the Use of Land in Nharira Hills, Zimbabwe|first1=Shannon|last1=Morreira|first2=Fiona|last2=Iliff|title=Challenging Authorities: Ethnographies of Legitimacy and Power in Eastern and Southern Africa|date=September 2021|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|editor-first1=A.S.|editor-last1=Steinforth|editor-first2=S.|editor-last2=Klocke-Daffa|quote=the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe also formally recognised the Moyo Ziruvi Nyamweda clan as the traditional custodians of the site}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/bitstreams/5a0698c4-1f29-4a63-9fda-62273d824ce5/download|title=Custodians of the past: archaeology and Indigenous best practices in Canada|first=April|last=Chabot|website=University of Manitoba|date=2017|quote=Another theme that this group seemed to share with some others was a desire to move from a concept of ownership toward a concept of custodianship in an effort to build stronger, positive relationships between archaeologists and Indigenous communities}}</ref> It has been applied in an Australian context since 1972 at the latest, when sections 4 and 9 of the [[Western Australia]]n ''[[Aboriginal Heritage Act 1972]]'' defined them as ""a representative body of persons of Aboriginal descent [that] has an interest in a place or object to which this Act applies that is of traditional and current importance to it"".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.legislation.wa.gov.au/legislation/prod/filestore.nsf/FileURL/mrdoc_9590.pdf/$FILE/Aboriginal%20Heritage%20Act%201972%20-%20%5B00-00-00%5D.pdf?OpenElement|title=ABORIGINAL HERITAGE|date=1972|website=Western Australian Legislation, Parliamentary Counsel's Office, Department of Justice, Government of Western Australia}}</ref>

Following progress on [[Indigenous land rights in Australia|First Nations land rights]], European Australian understanding of traditional custodianship improved in the 1980s. In 1981, journalist [[Jack Waterford]] wrote of [[Indigenous Australian customary law|Aboriginal law]] as a system of ""religious obligations, duties of kinship and relationship, caring for country and the acquisition and passing on of the community's store of knowledge"".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/126828210?searchTerm=aboriginal%20%22care%20for%20country%22|title=Aborigines move between different kinds of law|first=Jack|last=Waterford|date=18 March 1981|work=The Canberra Times}}</ref> Geographer Elspeth Young, in 1987, elaborated on the concept of ""caring for country"" as ""a set of practices that articulated primary rights to land, which were based on spiritual custodianship, with secondary land use rights"".<ref name=""pleshet"">{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/57269038/ocea.5188.pdf|title=Caring for Country: history and alchemy in the making and management of Indigenous Australian land|first=Noah|last=Pleshet|date=2018|journal=Oceania|volume=88|issue=2|pages=183–201|doi=10.1002/ocea.5188 }}</ref><ref name=""yanama"">{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332620203|title=''Yanama budyari gumada'': reframing the urban to care as Darug Country in western Sydney|first1=Darug|last1=Ngurra|first2=Lexodious|last2=Dadd|first3=Paul|last3=Glass|first4=Rebecca|last4=Scott|first5=Marnie|last5=Graham|first6=Sara|last6=Judge|first7=Paul|last7=Hodge|first8=Sandie|last8=Suchet-Pearson|journal=Australian Geographer|date=22 April 2019|volume=50 |issue=3 |page=279 |doi=10.1080/00049182.2019.1601150 |bibcode=2019AuGeo..50..279N |s2cid=150980191 }}</ref> By 1992, handing down their judgment on the landmark [[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)|''Mabo'' case]], High Court Justices [[William Deane]] and [[Mary Gaudron]] acknowledged that ""[u]nder the laws or customs of the relevant locality, particular tribes or clans were, either on their own or with others, custodians of the areas of land from which they derived their sustenance and from which they often took their tribal names. Their laws or customs were elaborate and obligatory.""<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/cth/HCA/1992/23.html|title=Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (""Mabo case"") [1992] HCA 23; (1992) 175 CLR 1|date=3 June 1992|website=AustLII|first1=William|last1=Deane|first2=Mary|last2=Gaudron}}</ref>

In a 2021 report, the Australian federal [[Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water]] defined traditional custodians as ""Indigenous people or nations who have responsibilities in caring for their Country"". This contrasted with traditional owners, defined as ""an Indigenous owner of their traditional Country, as determined through the purchase of [[Freehold (law)|freehold]], as granted by government or as determined through [[Native title in Australia|the native title process]]"".<ref name=""SOE"">{{cite web|url=https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/about-soe/glossary/T|title=Glossary|website=Australia: State of the Environment 2021|author=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water|date=2021}}</ref> Since 2022 the [[Australian Public Service]] has advised capitalising the first letters in each word when referring to traditional custodians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.apsc.gov.au/working-aps/diversity-and-inclusion/diversity-inclusion-news/first-nations-vocabulary-using-culturally-appropriate-language-and-terminology|title=First Nations Vocabulary – using culturally appropriate language and terminology|date=27 July 2022|author=Australian Public Service Commission}}</ref>

==First Nations understandings of custodianship==
[[File:Koomal Dreaming- Cultural Experiences - Josh Whiteland edited 0.webm|thumb|[[Wardandi]] man Josh Whiteland (2015) sharing a traditional [[Dreamtime]] story, offering an explanation for how humans came to bear the custodial responsibility of caring for the natural environment around them]]
First Nations Australians have expressed their interpretations of traditional custodianship through academic writing, political advocacy, traditional stories, poetry and music.

Numerous Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures share an understanding that, contrary to Western views on [[land ownership]], the land ""owns us"". Elders including [[Quandamooka]] woman [[Oodgeroo Noonuccal]], [[Gai-mariagal]] and [[Wiradjuri]] man Dennis Foley, and [[Yankunytjatjara ]] man [[Bob Randall (Aboriginal Australian elder)|Bob Randall]] discuss this theme at length, often in [[Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology|a spiritual context]], referring to Country as an owner or a maternal figure, and a core component of cultural identity.<ref name=""overland"">{{cite journal|url=https://overland.org.au/previous-issues/issue-240/feature-oodgeroo-breaking-the-iron-cycle-of-settler-colonialism/|title=Oodgeroo: Breaking the iron cycle of settler colonialism|first=Victoria|last=Grieve-Williams|date=2020|journal=Overland|volume=240}}</ref><ref name=""standpoint"">{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/31450001/Indigenous_Epistemology_and_Indigenous_Standpoint_Theory.pdf|title=Indigenous epistemology and Indigenous standpoint theory|date=2003|first=Dennis|last=Foley|journal=Social Alternatives|volume=22|issue=1|pages=44–52}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalonenessproject.org/library/interviews/we-are-caretakers|title=We Are Caretakers|first=Bob|last=Randall|date=27 February 2009|website=Global Oneness Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://janemcgeough.wordpress.com/2014/06/02/aboriginal-spirituality-and-the-land/|title=Aboriginal Spirituality and The Land|date=2 June 2014|first=Jane|last=McGeough|website=WordPress.com}}</ref> Noonuccal assigns particular importance to the following maxim: ""We cannot own the land for the land owns us"".<ref name=""overland""/>

Drawing on this important relationship with Country, many First Nations Australians — including [[Aboriginal Australians]] across the continent and [[Torres Strait Islanders]] alike<ref name=""tonkinson"">{{cite journal|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/jso_0300-953x_1999_num_109_2_2110|title=The pragmatics and politics of Aboriginal tradition and identity in Australia|first=Robert|last=Tonkinson|journal=Journal de la Société des Océanistes|volume=109|issue=2|date=1999|quote=today many indigenous people invoke values such as 'caring and sharing' as fundamental elements of a pan-Aboriginal identity|pages=133–147|doi=10.3406/jso.1999.2110 |pmid=21970010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/55857319/2016-McNamaraWestoby-TorresStrait.pdf|chapter=Intergenerational Sharing of Indigenous Environmental Knowledge in the Torres Strait|first1=Karen Elizabeth|last1=McNamara|first2=Ross|last2=Westoby|title=Geographies of Global Issues: Change and Threat|date=2016|publisher=Springer|quote=For this [Torres Strait Islander] Elder, such environmental knowledge and traditional laws, based around leaving enough for tomorrow, needed to be passed on to the young people so that they too could listen to, and read, their country... reading country is part of “ways of knowing,” which can then be applied to care for and provide custodianship of local environments}}</ref> — identify a sense of responsibility or obligation to care for Country as a central tenet of traditional custodianship. [[Yolŋu]] woman Djuwalpi Marika outlined this sense of responsibility within her community in a 1993 report: ""The Yolngu people belong to a number of separate clan groups, each consisting of individual families. Each clan is spiritually connected to their own particular ancestral homeland place (wanga), and being the traditional custodians are responsible for the care and management of their wanga. Living in their own lands make people feel happy and brings the relationship of the land, its people and their ancestors together.""<ref>{{cite book|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-491293196/view?sectionId=nla.obj-516818586&partId=nla.obj-493484846#page/n502/mode/1up|chapter=COMMUNITY LIVING FOR ABORIGINAL PEOPLE|first=Djuwalpi|last=Marika|date=1993|title=New South Wales Coastal Conference proceedings}}</ref> 

[[Aboriginal Tasmanians|Turbuna]] man Jim Everett and [[Barkandji]] woman Zena Cumpston both identify a custodial obligation to care for Country as a shared foundation of First Nations communities across Australia, embedding a sense of deep respect and accountability for the natural world.<ref name=""spirituality"">{{cite journal|url=https://www.mhyfvic.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Aboriginal_spirituality_Aboriginal_philo.pdf|title=Aboriginal Spirituality: Aboriginal Philosophy, The Basis of Aboriginal Social and Emotional Wellbeing|first=Vicki|last=Grieves|date=2009|journal=Cooperative Research Centre for Aboriginal Health Discussion Paper Series|volume=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.adelaidereview.com.au/latest/opinion/2019/12/02/first-nations-knowledge-deeper-conversation/|title=First Nations knowledge is in vogue, but needs to be part of a deeper conversation|first=Zena|last=Cumpston|date=2 December 2019|journal=The Adelaide Review|volume=478}}</ref><ref name=""ecological"">{{cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/to-address-the-ecological-crisis-aboriginal-peoples-must-be-restored-as-custodians-of-country-108594|title=To address the ecological crisis, Aboriginal peoples must be restored as custodians of Country|date=31 January 2020|first=Zena|last=Cumpston|website=The Conversation}}</ref> According to this view, being on Country is not considered a right, but a privilege;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nit.com.au/05-05-2023/5860/indigenous-musicians-shine-light-on-caring-for-country|title=Indigenous musicians shine light on caring for country|first=Eelemarni|last=Close-Brown|date=5 May 2023|website=National Indigenous Times}}</ref> as [[Warrwa]]-[[Noongar]] woman Louise O'Reilly explains: ""it is not about our right to own land, it is about our right to protect that land. Our right to ensure that land is looked after in a way that will ensure its healthy, sustainable existence. It is a deeply imprinted sense of connection and responsibility that Aboriginal people feel to the land and not about having land as a possession.""<ref name=""amnesty"">{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org.au/three-things-eddie-mabo-taught-me/|title=THREE THINGS EDDIE MABO TAUGHT ME|first=Louise|last=O'Reilly|date=28 June 2018|website=Amnesty International Australia}}</ref>

First Nations poets and musicians often express their affinity with Country and associated custodial responsibility through their works: 
{{Quote box
 |quote  = I am a child of the Dreamtime People<br/>Part of the land, like the gnarled gumtree<br/>I am the river, softly singing<br/>Chanting our songs on my way to the sea...<br/>I am this land<br/>And this land is me
 |author = [[Hyllus Maris]]
 |source = ''Spiritual Song of the Aborigine'', 1983<ref>{{cite web|url=https://echucahistoricalsociety.org.au/poetry-trail/maris-hyllus/|title=Spiritual Song of the Aborigine: Hyllus Maris|author=Echuca Historical Society|date=2019}}</ref>
 |align  = center
 |width  = 35%
}}
{{Quote box
 |quote  = We know that the earth is our mother who created us all.<br/>We cannot own her, she owns us.<br/>So we are the custodians of our Earth Mother, whom we must protect and respect at all times.
 |author = [[Oodgeroo Noonuccal]]
 |source = ''Legends and Landscapes'', 1990<ref>{{cite book|url=https://sites.google.com/site/poetrypoliticsplace/3-making-maps/3-5-1-claiming-the-land|chapter=3.5.1 CLAIMING THE LAND|title=Poetry, politics & place|first=Kelly|last=Gardiner|date=1998}}</ref>
 |align  = center
 |width  = 35%
}}
{{Quote box
 |quote  = This land is me<br/>Rock, water, animal, tree<br/>They are my song<br/>My being’s here where I belong<br/>This land owns me<br/>From generations past to infinity
 |author = [[Kev Carmody]]
 |source = ''[[One Night the Moon#One Night the Moon: Original Soundtrack|This Land is Mine]]'', 2001<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.qagoma.qld.gov.au/this-land-is-mine-this-land-is-me-australia/|title=MY COUNTRY: THIS LAND IS MINE / THIS LAND IS ME|first=Bruce|last=McLean|date=3 September 2013|website=Queensland Art Gallery}}</ref>
 |align  = center
 |width  = 35%
}}

Custodians may be referred to by different names in the hundreds of distinct [[Australian Aboriginal languages]]. These include ""nguraritja"" in [[Pitjantjatjara dialect|Pitjantjatjara]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263389708|title=A BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ANANGU PITJANTJATJARA LANDS SOUTH AUSTRALIA 1991 - 2001|author=Biodiversity Survey and Monitoring Section, Science and Conservation Directorate, Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia|date=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/33623/1/459535.pdf#page=227|chapter=12. History, oral history, and memoriation in native title|first=James F.|last=Weiner|date=2007|title=The Social Effects of Native Title: Recognition, Translation, Coexistence|editor-first1=Benjamin R.|editor-last1=Smith|editor-first2=Frances|editor-last2=Morphy|publisher=ANU E Press|pages=215–223}}</ref> ""kwertengerle"" in [[Arrernte language|Arrernte]],<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://scholar.archive.org/work/wudwoxa56rbwrhz2sfnxeiq6ti/access/wayback/http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol18/iss3/art18/ES-2012-5501.pdf|title=Anpernirrentye: a Framework for Enhanced Application of Indigenous Ecological Knowledge in Natural Resource Management|first1=Fiona J.|last1=Walsh|first2=Perrurle V.|last2=Dobson|first3=Josie C.|last3=Douglas|journal=Ecology & Society|volume=18|issue=3|date=2013|doi=10.5751/ES-05501-180318 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327600072|title=Ethnographic sound collections and Australian Aboriginal Heritage: Kaytetye song traditions remembered|first=Jason M.|last=Gibson|date=11 September 2018|journal=International Journal of Heritage Studies}}</ref> ""kurdungurlu"" in [[Warlpiri language|Warlpiri]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/handle/2123/20390/BarwickTurpin2016_smaller.pdf?sequence=1|chapter=Chapter 5 Central Australian Women’s Traditional Songs Keeping Yawulyu/Awelye Strong|first1=Linda|last1=Barwick|first2=Myfany|last2=Turpin|date=2016|title=Sustainable Futures for Music Cultures|editor-first1=Huib|editor-last1=Schippers|editor-first2=Catherine|editor-last2=Grant|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/202188/1/Nash-1982-kurdungurlu-OCR.pdf|chapter=AN ETYMOLOGICAL NOTE ON WARLPIRI: kurdungurlu|first=David|last=Nash|date=1982|title=Languages of Kinship in Aboriginal Australia|publisher=University of Sydney|editor-first1=Jeffrey|editor-last1=Heath|editor-first2=Francesca|editor-last2=Merlan|editor-first3=Alan|editor-last3=Rumsey}}</ref> and ""djungkay"" in [[Kuninjku dialect|Kuninjku]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.johnmawurndjul.com/resources/students-and-teachers/djungkay/|title=Learn: Djungkay (cultural manager)|author1=Museum of Contemporary Art Australia|author2=Art Gallery of South Australia|website=JohnMawurndjul.com|date=2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bawinanga.com/what-we-do/bawinanga-rangers/what-we-do/|title=What we do - Bawinanga Rangers – Land and Sea|author=Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation|date=2022}}</ref> – although these words may refer more specifically to familial roles within traditional kinship networks that bestow a particular custodial responsibility. In the [[Dharug language]], the related phrase ""yanama budyari gumada"" means ""walk with good spirit"".<ref name=""yanama""/>

===Custodianship and ownership===
{{See also|Native title in Australia#Traditional owner}}
The distinction between traditional custodians and traditional owners is made by some, but not all, First Nations Australians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://content.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-11/Traditional-owner-voices-improving-government-relationships-and-supporting-strong-foundations.pdf|title=Traditional Owner voices: improving government relationships and supporting strong foundations|author=State Government of Victoria|date=August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/61395/1/61395_Scott_1992_thesis.pdf|title=The state of the art: issues concerning ownership, management and conservation of Australian Aboriginal rock images, with special reference to painted images in the Townsville region, North Queensland|first=Marcelle Marea|last=Scott|date=21 August 1992|website=James Cook University}}</ref> On one hand, [[Yuwibara]] man Philip Kemp states that he would ""prefer to be identified as a Traditional Custodian and not a Traditional Owner as I do not own the land but I care for the land.""<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/spirituality/welcome-to-country-acknowledgement-of-country|title=Welcome to Country & Acknowledgement of Country|first=Jens|last=Korff|date=28 August 2023|website=Creative Spirits}}</ref> [[Wurundjeri]] man Ron Jones shared this sentiment, claiming that the words ""traditional owners"" are not typically used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/epdf/10.1021/acssensors.9b00780|title=Editors as Custodians of Your Journal|date=24 May 2019|first=J. Justin|last=Gooding|journal=American Chemical Society Sensors|volume=4|issue=5|page=1118 |doi=10.1021/acssensors.9b00780 |pmid=31122022 }}</ref> In 2017, the [[Referendum Council]] received several submissions expressing a desire to have First Nations Australians [[Constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians|recognised]] as traditional custodians or guardians in the [[Constitution of Australia#Preamble|preamble of the Constitution of Australia]], although [[Uluru Statement from the Heart|the Council's final report]] recommended prioritising a [[Indigenous Voice to Parliament|Voice to Parliament]] and [[Makarrata Commission]] rather than symbolic recognition of this status.<ref name=""uluru"">{{cite web|url=https://ulurustatemdev.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Referendum_Council_Final_Report.pdf|title=Final Report of the Referendum Council|date=30 June 2017|author=Referendum Council|website=Uluru Statement from the Heart}}</ref> 

Conversely, advocates for [[Australian Indigenous sovereignty]] may prefer to emphasise their status as traditional owners rather than solely traditional custodians. Addressing the 2018 [[Barunga Festival]], deputy chair of the [[Northern Land Council]] John Christophersen proclaimed: ""We're not custodians, we're not caretakers. We weren't looking after [the land] for somebody else to come and take away. We were the owners. And occupiers. And custodians. And caretakers.""<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/treaty-yeah-a-renewed-hope-hovers-over-the-barunga-festival-20180629-h121qa.html|title=Treaty yeah? A renewed hope hovers over the Barunga festival|first=Andrew|last=Stafford|date=29 June 2018|website=The Sydney Morning Herald}}</ref> [[Wurundjeri]], [[Yorta Yorta]] and [[Taungurung]] man Andrew Peters expressed the view that ""using the phrase ‘traditional owners’ indicates an Indigenous definition of ownership that has never involved monetary payments, title, or exclusive rights, but rather the recognition of thousands of years of respect, rights and responsibilities shared among many.""<ref name=""moondani"">{{cite web|url=https://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/file/da96e93e-1731-4a09-86e1-4c2cea5cd665/1/Andrew%20John%20Peters%20Thesis%20pdfa.pdf|title=MOONDANI YULENJ: An examination of Aboriginal culture, identity and education|first=Andrew|last=Peters|date=February 2017|website=Swinburne University of Technology}}</ref>

Proposals to amend the constitution to acknowledge Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as [[First Peoples]], whether framed as owners, custodians, or otherwise, have not been successful. [[1999 Australian republic referendum#Preamble question|The failed 1999 referendum]] would have added a preamble to the Constitution that included ""honouring Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, the nation's first people, for their deep kinship with their lands and for their ancient and continuing cultures which enrich the life of our country"";<ref>{{Cite web |last=The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia |date=1999 |title=Schedule—Preamble to the Constitution |url=https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/legislation/bills/r900_first-reps/toc_pdf/99160B01.pdf|website=Parliament of Australia}}</ref> while [[2023 Australian Indigenous Voice referendum|the failed 2023 referendum]] would have established a Voice to Parliament ""in recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as the First Peoples of Australia"".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press Conference – Parliament House |website=Prime Minister of Australia |url=https://www.pm.gov.au/media/press-conference-parliament-house |access-date=2023-03-24 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330153146/https://www.pm.gov.au/media/press-conference-parliament-house}}</ref>

==Custodial ethic==
[[File:The Land and its Laws of Obligation.webm|thumb|Adjunct Associate Professor Mary Graham (2021) presenting a [[webinar]] on the laws of obligation to land and her interpretation of the custodial ethic]]
Mary Graham, a [[Kombumerri clan|Kombu-merra]] and [[Wakka Wakka]] woman, developed the philosophical concept of a unique Aboriginal ""custodial ethic"". Acknowledging that different people and cultures develop different theories on the ""[[Meaning of life|question of existence]]"", Graham posits that Aboriginal Australians identified land or nature as ""the only constant in the lives of human beings"", to such an extent that the physical and spiritual worlds were regarded as inherently interconnected. This emphasises the importance of the custodial ethic, effectively an obligatory system for people to play a role in following natural wisdom, looking after the land on which they live, and renewing its [[flora and fauna]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p38881/pdf/book.pdf#page=183|title=Some Thoughts about the Philosophical Underpinnings of Aboriginal Worldviews|first=Mary|last=Graham|journal=Australian Humanities Review|volume=45|date=2008|pages=181–194}}</ref>

Elaborating further, Graham identifies two principles that together comprise the custodial ethic: ""1. the ethical principle of maintaining a respectful, nurturing relationship with Land, Place and community, and 2. the organising governance principle based on autonomy and identity of Place"". These two principles can complement and balance each other to permit ""a non-[[Egoism|ego-based]] society"", and a unique mode of thinking expressed in the following four basic assumptions: that we are not alone in the world; that our needs are more than just physical; a deep reflective motive of long-term strategic thought; and a rejection of self-oriented survivalist thinking that ultimately normalises [[competitiveness]].<ref name=""graham"">{{cite journal|url=https://www.futuredreaming.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Graham_Mary-law_of_obligation.pdf|title=the law of obligation, aboriginal ethics: australia becoming, australia dreaming|first=Mary|last=Graham|journal=Parrhesia|volume=37|date=2023}}</ref>

Other First Nations authors have adopted the concept of a custodial ethic. [[Wiradjuri]] man Glenn Loughrey suggests that it may offer a more accurate understanding of Aboriginal alternatives to the Western concepts of [[spirituality]], [[justice]] and [[rights]]: ""In Aboriginal ways of being [these are] not needed as it is taken for granted we will care for each other, in whatever shape and form the other comes in. It can be described as the custodial ethic and is the reason there are no owners of country, only custodians.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethos.org.au/site/Ethos/filesystem/documents/Loughrey_A_Custodial_Ethic.pdf|title=A Custodial Ethic: an Aboriginal way of wholeness and reciprocity|first=Glenn|last=Loughrey|date=2019|website=Ethos EA Centre for Christianity & Society}}</ref> [[Noonuccal]] woman Samantha Cooms concurs that the custodial ethic is ""a profound concept rooted in the belief that all things are considered equal, autonomous, and protected through the wisdom of the collective"".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Decolonising disability: weaving a Quandamooka conceptualisation of disability and care|journal=Disability & Society|date=29 November 2023|first=Samantha|last=Cooms|pages=1–24 |doi=10.1080/09687599.2023.2287409 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The importance of commitment to a custodial ethic has also been acknowledged by some elements of non-First Nations Australian society. The Royal Societies of Australia (a national group representing the scientific academies of [[Royal Society of New South Wales|New South Wales]], [[Royal Society of Victoria|Victoria]], [[Royal Society of Queensland|Queensland]], [[Royal Society of Western Australia|Western Australia]], [[Royal Society of South Australia|South Australia]] and [[Royal Society of Tasmania|Tasmania]]) in 2021 proposed that: ""This custodianship approach has to be the foundation of our stewardship of country, with priority for support for country on ethical and pragmatic grounds (it is the right 
thing to do; we rely on it for daily living). We must be looking to the long term, thinking strategically. A society with a custodial ethic must do this.""<ref name=""royal"">{{cite journal|url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/rs/pdf/rs21007|title=New stewardship of Country|first=Nelson|last=Quinn|journal=The Royal Society of Victoria|date=2021|volume=133|pages=36–38|doi=10.1071/RS21007 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Custodianship of knowledge==
In being responsible for Country, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people's traditional custodians typically serve as custodians of accompanying systems of [[traditional knowledge]]; they bear a ""cultural imperative for protecting, maintaining and creating knowledge"".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://aiatsis.gov.au/publication/116493|title=Traditional Custodians as researchers: Experiences of researching with our Mob on our Country|date=2 July 2019|first1=Melinda|last1=Mann|first2=Samantha|last2=Cooms|first3=Joann|last3=Schmider|website=The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies}}</ref> Much, but not all, of this knowledge relates to [[Land management|land]] and [[environmental management]], including [[Fire-stick farming|controlled burning]], [[wildlife observation]], [[pest control]], [[water conservation]], and [[erosion control]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Developing a two-way learning monitoring program for ''Mankarr'' (Greater Bilby) in the Western Desert, Western Australia|date=2022|journal=Ecological Management & Restoration|first1=Anja|last1=Skroblin|first2=Tracy|last2=Carboon|first3=Gladys|last3=Bidu|first4=Muuki|last4=Taylor|first5=Ngamaru|last5=Bidu|first6=Waka|last6=Taylor|first7=Karnu|last7=Taylor|first8=Minyawu|last8=Miller|first9=Leah|last9=Robinson|first10=Carol|last10=Williams|first11=Nganjapayi|last11=Chapman|first12=Mulyatingki|last12=Marney|first13=Carl|last13=Marney|first14=Jakayu|last14=Biljabu|first15=Pamela|last15=Jeffries|first16=Heather|last16=Samson|first17=Phillipa|last17=Charles|first18=Edward T.|last18=Game|first19=Brendan|last19=Wintle|volume=23 |issue=S1 |pages=129–138 |doi=10.1111/emr.12543 |bibcode=2022EcoMR..23S.129S |display-authors=6|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/sitecollectiondocuments/natural-resources/landcare/submissions/ilm-report.pdf|title=Indigenous Land Management in Australia: Extent, Scope, Diversity, Barriers and Success Factors|date=May 2013|first1=Rosemary|last1=Hill|first2=Petina L.|last2=Pert|first3=Jocelyn|last3=Davies|first4=Catherine J.|last4=Robinson|first5=Fiona|last5=Walsh|first6=Fay|last6=Falco-Mammone|website=Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry|publisher=CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.strive2thrive.earth/caring-for-country-indigenous-custodians-in-australia/|title=CARING FOR COUNTRY: INDIGENOUS CUSTODIANS IN AUSTRALIA|first=Jasmin|last=Osinsao|date=29 August 2022|website=THRIVE Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257836980|title=Aborigines and Fire in the Wet Tropics of Queensland, Australia: Ecosystem Management Across Cultures|first1=Rosemary|last1=Hill|first2=Adelaide|last2=Baird|first3=David|last3=Buchanan|date=1999|journal=Society & Natural Resources|volume=12|issue=3 |pages=205–223|doi=10.1080/089419299279704 |bibcode=1999SNatR..12..205R }}</ref>

European Australian journalist [[Jeff McMullen]] cites [[Gurindji people|Gurindji]] stockman and land rights activist [[Vincent Lingiari]] as an example of a custodian of knowledge: ""As a senior lawman, Vincent Lingiari was drawing on his grandfatherʼs knowledge and connection to Gurindji country, reclaiming and asserting the core responsibility of custodianship. Like the very strongest [[Earth science]], this foundational concept of the Aboriginal system of knowledge gives every man, woman and child some responsibility to help maintain the balance of the living system of life, the source of well-being for all creatures now and into the future.""<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.crikey.com.au/2015/08/07/what-vincent-lingiari-taught-us-about-the-value-of-aboriginal-custodianship/|title=What Vincent Lingiari taught us about the value of Aboriginal custodianship|first=Jeff|last=McMullen|date=7 August 2015|website=Crikey}}</ref>

First Nataions Australians' knowledge of Country, and the practices underpinning traditional custodianship, have been incorporated into some [[Education in Australia|Australian education]] programs.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/informit.141897355348635|title=It's a hands on, turn on experience|first=David|last=Tribe|journal=The Journal for Education|date=February 1990|volume=9|issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263684182|title=Sea Country: navigating Indigenous and colonial ontologies in Australian environmental education|first1=Hilary|last1=Whitehouse|first2=Felecia Watkin|last2=Lui|first3=Juanita|last3=Sellwood|first4=M.J.|last4=Barrett|first5=Philemon|last5=Chigeza|journal=Environmental Education Research|date=5 February 2014|volume=20|issue=1|pages=56–69|doi=10.1080/13504622.2013.852655 |s2cid=144487444 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A9A2FD44E4EDDF23CD9915CD5E3A3A05/S0814062623000289a.pdf/indigenous-philosophy-in-environmental-education.pdf|title=Indigenous philosophy in environmental education|first1=Anne|last1=Poelina|first2=Yin|last2=Paradies|first3=Sandra|last3=Wooltorton|first4=Laurie|last4=Guimond|first5=Libby|last5=Jackson-Barrett|first6=Mindy|last6=Blaise|journal=Australian Journal of Environmental Education|date=22 August 2023|volume=39|issue=3 |pages=269–278|doi=10.1017/aee.2023.28 }}</ref>

==Challenges to custodianship==
Some First Nations groups in Australia have spoken out about their struggles to receive recognition as traditional custodians within Australia's current political and legal frameworks.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Developing an Exploratory Framework Linking Australian Aboriginal Peoples' Connection to Country and Concepts of Wellbeing|date=7 February 2013|first1=Jonathan|last1=Kingsley|first2=Mardie|last2=Townsend|first3=Claire|last3=Henderson-Wilson|first4=Bruce|last4=Bolam|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=10|issue=2|pages=678–698|doi=10.3390/ijerph10020678 |doi-access=free |pmid=23435590 |pmc=3635170 |hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30058738|hdl-access=free}}</ref> [[Traditional knowledge]] had historically been passed down via the [[oral tradition]] through [[Australian Aboriginal kinship|kinship networks]], and despite some progress, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples allege that more work needs to be done to protect their custodial knowledge.<ref name=""biocultural"">{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/39416393/2015_AIBK_Biological_Conservation.pdf|title=Indigenous biocultural knowledge in ecosystem science and management: Review and insight from Australia|date=2015|first1=Emilie J.|last1=Ens|first2=Petina|last2=Pert|first3=Philip A.|last3=Clarke|first4=Marita|last4=Budden|first5=Lilian|last5=Clubb|first6=Bruce|last6=Doran|first7=Cheryl|last7=Douras|first8=J|last8=Gaikwad|first9=B|last9=Gott|first10=S|last10=Leonard|first11=J|last11=Locke|display-authors=6|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=181|pages=133–149|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2014.11.008 |bibcode=2015BCons.181..133E }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245587717|title=Biological diversity and Indigenous knowledge|first=Michael|last=Davis|date=29 June 1998|publisher=Science, Techology, Environment and Resources Group}}</ref>

According to [[Kamilaroi]] man Marcus Waters, attempts to form a broad pan-Aboriginal political community of scholars in Australian academia, even if well-intentioned, may end up sacrificing the nuance and context of the different custodial governance systems in different First Nations cultures.<ref name=""beginning"">{{cite journal|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/143874315.pdf|title=Nurturing the ""beginning"" in protecting our traditional practices from the end: family, kinship and Kamilaroi Aboriginal First Nation knowledge in Australia|first=Marcus|last=Waters|date=2013|journal=The Journal of the European Association for Studies of Australia|volume=4|issue=1}}</ref> There is also some concern that the term ""traditional custodianship"" lacks specificity. In 2017, the Final Report of the [[Referendum Council]] noted that custodianship is one of several concepts that are currently ""legally ambiguous"".<ref name=""uluru""/>

==See also==
*[[Australian Aboriginal identity]]
*[[Australian Aboriginal sacred site]]
*{{section link|Counter-mapping|Perspectives on the Land (United States)}}
*[[Corporate environmental responsibility]]
*[[Earth jurisprudence]]
*[[Environmental stewardship]]
*[[History of Indigenous Australians]]
*[[Land ethic]]
*[[Tangata whenua]]
*[[Traditional ecological knowledge]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Aboriginal land rights in Australia]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Indigenous Australian culture]]
[[Category:Traditional knowledge]]"
"Environment, health and safety","{{Short description|Balance of occupational safety and environmental protection}}
'''Environment, health and safety''' ('''EHS'''; or '''health, safety and environment''' –HSE–, or '''safety, health and environment''' –'''SHE'''–) is an interdisciplinary field focused on the study and implementation of practical aspects environmental protection and safeguard of people's health and safety, especially at company level and in an occupational context. It is what organizations must do to make sure that their activities do not cause harm. Commonly, ''quality'' - [[quality assurance]] and [[quality control]] - is adjoined to form a company division referred to as HSQE or equivalent initialisms.

From a '''safety''' standpoint, EHS involves creating organized efforts and procedures for identifying workplace hazards and reducing accidents and exposure to harmful situations and substances. It also includes training of personnel in accident prevention, accident response, emergency preparedness, and use of protective clothing and equipment.

Better '''health''' at its heart, should have the development of safe, high-quality, and environmentally friendly processes, working practices and systemic activities that prevent or reduce the risk of harm to people in general, operators, or patients.

From an '''environmental''' standpoint, EHS involves creating a systematic approach to complying with environmental regulations, such as managing waste or air emissions all the way to helping site's reduce the company's [[carbon footprint]].


The activities of an EHS working group might focus on:<ref>Compare: {{cite web |last1=TEPPFA |title=Structure of Working Groups and Application Groups |url=http://www.teppfa.eu/structure/ |access-date=2016-07-19 |website=TEPPFA, The European Plastic Pipes and Fittings Association |quote=Concentrates on: [...] exchange of know-how regarding health- safety- and environmental aspects of plastic pipes and fittings; [...] promotion of good working practices, such as post use material collection for recycling. |archive-date=2019-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114210303/https://www.teppfa.eu/structure/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

* Exchange of know-how regarding health, safety and environmental aspects of a material
* Promotion of good working practices, such as post-use material collection for recycling

Regulatory requirements play an important role in EHS discipline and EHS managers must identify and understand relevant EHS regulations, the implications of which must be communicated to executive management  so the company can implement suitable measures. Organizations based in the United States are subject to EHS regulations in the [[Code of Federal Regulations]], particularly CFR 29, 40, and 49. Still, EHS management is not limited to legal compliance and companies should be encouraged to do more than is required by law, if appropriate.<ref>Kavianian, Hamid R. ""Occupational and Environmental Safety Engineering and Management"", Van Norstrand Reinhold Company, New York (1990), {{ISBN|0-442-23822-3}}</ref>

== Other names ==
Notwithstanding the individual importance of these attributes, the various institutions and authors have accented the acronyms differently. Successful HSE programs also include measures to address ergonomics, [[air pollution|air quality]], and other aspects of workplace safety that could affect the health and well-being of employees and the overall community. Another researcher transformed it as '''SHE''' in 1996, while exploring the ""concept of 'human quality' in terms of living standards that must follow later than the health.....[as per the] paradigm of SHEQ, ....raising up the importance of environment to the 'safety of people as a prime consideration'"".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311711328 |title= Editorial in ''J. Adv. Res. Prod. Ind. Eng.'' 2016; 3(2). |date=2016-10-14}}</ref> It is because ""Safety First"" is called in for the commitment to transform the safety culture of countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.safetyfirst.co.nz/
|title= Safety First|date=2016-10-14}}</ref> Quality is ""fitness for purpose"",<ref>Joseph M Juran, Joseph Defeo. ''Juran's Quality Handbook: The Complete Guide to Performance Excellence'', Mcgraw Hill, 2000</ref> and without it, each and every endeavour will be futile. 

Abbreviations used include:<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-14 |title=HS, OHS, HSE, HSSE, HSSEQ, HSSEQ/CSR … Alphabet Soupization |url=http://www.redlogenv.com/general/alphabet-soupization |access-date=2016-06-08 |website=Redlog Environmental Ltd.}}</ref>
{| class=""wikitable""
!Acronym
!Name
!Group
|-
|OHS
|Occupational health and safety
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Occupational safety and health]]
|-
|WHS
|Work health and safety<ref>{{cite web |date=2017-11-03 |title=Model WHS Laws |url=https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/law-and-regulation/model-whs-laws |access-date=2018-06-12 |publisher=Safe Work Australia}}</ref>
|-
|HSE
|Health, safety and environment
| rowspan=""3"" |Health, safety and environment
|-
|EHS
|Environment, health and safety
|-
|SHE
|Safety, health and environment
|-
|QHSE
|Quality, health, safety, and environment
| rowspan=""2"" |Quality, health, safety, and environment
|-
|HSEQ
|Health, safety, environment and quality
|-
|HSSE
|Health, safety, security and environment
|Health, safety, [[security]] and environment
|-
|QHSSE
|Quality, health, safety, security, and environment
| rowspan=""2"" |Quality, health, safety, security, and environment
|-
|HSSEQ
|Health, safety, security, environment, and quality
|}

== History ==
The [[chemical industry]] introduced the first formal [https://www.gensuite.com/ EHS management] approach in 1985 as a reaction to several catastrophic accidents (like the [[Seveso disaster]] of July 1976 and the [[Bhopal disaster]] of December 1984). This worldwide voluntary initiative, called ""[[Responsible Care]]"", started by the Chemistry Industry Association of Canada (formerly the Canadian Chemical Producers' Association - CCPA), operates in about 50 countries, with central coordination provided by the [[International Council of Chemical Associations]] (ICCA). It involves eight fundamental features which ensure plant and product safety, occupational health and environmental protection, but which also try to demonstrate by [[image-building]] campaigns that the chemical industry acts in a responsible manner. Being an initiative of the ICCA, it is restricted to the chemical industry.

Since the 1990s, general approaches to EHS management that may fit any type of organisation have appeared in international standards such as:
The Valdez Principles,<ref>Sanyal, R. N. and J. S. Neves: 1991, 'The Valdez Principles: Implications for Corporate Social Responsibility', Journal of Business Ethics 10, 883- 890.</ref> that have been formulated to guide and evaluate corporate conduct towards the environment. 
* The [[Eco-Management and Audit Scheme]] (EMAS), developed by the [[European Commission]] in 1993
* [[ISO 14001]] for environmental management in 1996
* [[ISO 45001]] for occupational health and safety management in 2018, preceded by [[OHSAS 18001]] 1999
In 1998 the [[International Finance Corporation]] established EHS guidelines.

== Topics ==
General topics covered by EHS include:

* Environmental
** [[Air pollution|Air emissions and ambient air quality]]
** [[Energy conservation]]
** [[Wastewater]] and [[Water quality|ambient water quality]]
** [[Water conservation]]
** [[Waste management]]
** [[Noise pollution|Noise]]
** [[Contaminated land]]
* Occupational health and safety
** [[Occupational hazard#Physical hazards|Physical hazards]]
** [[Occupational hazard#Chemical hazards|Chemical hazards]]
** [[Occupational hazard#Biological hazards|Biological hazards]]
** [[Ionizing radiation#Health effects|Radiological hazards]]
** Special hazard environments
** Personal protective equipment (PPE)
** Communication and training
** Monitoring
* Community health and safety
** [[Water quality]] and [[Water resources|availability]]
** [[Structural integrity and failure|Structural safety]] of project infrastructure
** Life and fire safety (LFS)
** [[Road traffic safety|Traffic safety]]
** [[Dangerous goods|Transport of hazardous materials]]
** [[Preventive healthcare|Disease prevention]]
** [[Emergency management|Emergency preparedness and response]]

== Regulatory agencies ==
{{See also|Occupational safety and health#National legislation and public organizations|label 1=Occupational safety and health - National legislation and public organizations}}

=== Canada ===

*[[Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety]] (CCOHS)

=== United Kingdom ===
* The [[Health and Safety Executive]]
* The [[Environment Agency]]
* Local authorities

=== United States ===
{{Main article|List of health and environmental agencies in the United States}}

*  Federal / international
**  [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA)
**  [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA)
**  [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission]] (NRC)
**  [[Mine Safety and Health Administration]] (MSHA)
**  [[Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement]] (BSEE)
*  State
**  [[California Division of Occupational Safety and Health]], [[New York Department of Health]], [[Safety and Health Council of North Carolina]], etc.
*  Local
**  Municipal fire departments (building code inspections)

=== Zambia ===
* [[Zambia Environmental Management Agency|Environmental Management Agency]] (ZEMA)
* [[Zambia Radiation Protection Authority|Radiation Protection Authority]]
* [[Occupational Health and Safety Institute]]
* [[Mines Safety Department]]

==Publications==
* ''[[EHS Today]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ehstoday.com/|title=EHS Today|website=EHS Today|language=en|access-date=2017-04-07}}</ref>
* ''Environmental Leader''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environmentalleader.com/|title=Environmental Leader Is Your Source For Energy, Environment and Sustainability News|website=Environmental Leader|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-07}}</ref>
* ''ISHN''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ishn.com/|title=ISHN.com - the magazine for safety and health professionals who direct safety and health programs in high-hazard workplaces.|website=www.ishn.com|language=en|access-date=2017-04-07}}</ref>
* OHS<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ohsonline.com/home.aspx|title=Occupational Health and Safety|website=[[Occupational Health and Safety Online]]|language=en|access-date=2017-04-07}}</ref>
* ''Safety+Health Magazine'' – [[National Safety Council]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=What you need to Know to Prepare Your Organization for Electrical Compliance |url=http://www.safetyandhealthmagazine.com/ |access-date=2017-04-07 |website=Safety+Health Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Environmental security]]
* [[Occupational safety and health]]
* [[National Safety Council]]
* [[Robert W. Campbell Award]], an Award for Business Excellence through EHS Management.
* [[Safety engineering]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.naem.org/?page=What_is_EHS NAEM, the premier Association for EHS Management: What is EHS?]
*[http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuidelines International Finance Corporation: World Bank Group Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines]
*[http://www.inem.org International Network for Environmental Management]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Health]]
[[Category:Safety]]"
Nature conservation,"{{Short description|Movement to protect the biosphere}}
{{redirect|Natural conservation|the study of biodiversity management|Conservation biology||Conservation (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2009}}
[[File:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG|thumb|right|Satellite photograph of industrial deforestation in the Tierras Bajas project in eastern Bolivia, using [[skyline logging]] and replacement of forests by agriculture]]
[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|right|Much attention has been given to preserving the natural characteristics of [[Hopetoun Falls]], Australia, while allowing access for visitors]]
'''Nature conservation''' is the moral philosophy and [[conservation movement]] focused on protecting species from [[extinction]], maintaining and restoring [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]], enhancing [[ecosystem services]], and protecting [[biological diversity]]. A range of values underlie conservation, which can be guided by [[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentrism]], [[anthropocentrism]], [[ecocentrism]], and [[sentientism]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newman, Varner, Lunquist |title=Defending Biodiversity |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139024105 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/defending-biodiversity/9B7C54CA64EB0F71072AD4C80E505F5A}}</ref> environmental ideologies that inform ecocultural practices and identities.<ref>Milstein, T. & Castro-Sotomayor, J. (2020). Routledge Handbook of Ecocultural Identity. London, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351068840</ref> There has recently been a movement towards [[evidence-based conservation]] which calls for greater use of scientific evidence to improve the effectiveness of conservation efforts. As of 2018 15% of land and 7.3% of the oceans were protected. Many environmentalists set a target of protecting 30% of land and marine territory by 2030.<ref>{{cite web |last1=MARRIS |first1=EMMA |title=To keep the planet flourishing, 30% of Earth needs protection by 2030 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/conservation-groups-call-for-protecting-30-percent-earth-2030 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303031917/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/conservation-groups-call-for-protecting-30-percent-earth-2030 |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 March 2021 |website=National Geographic |date=31 January 2019 |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=New Australian Marine Parks Protect an Area Twice the Size of the Great Barrier Reef |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/australia-marine-parks-conservation-2652985201.html |access-date=18 May 2021 |agency=Ecowatch |publisher=Mongabay |date=14 May 2021}}</ref> In 2021, 16.64% of land and 7.9% of the oceans were protected.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 May 2021 |title=Governments achieve target of protecting 17% of land globally |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/may/19/governments-achieve-10-year-target-of-protecting-17-percent-land-aoe |access-date=22 April 2022 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 December 2021 |title=2021's top ocean news stories (commentary) |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/12/2021s-top-ocean-news-stories-commentary/ |access-date=22 April 2022 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref> The 2022 IPCC report on climate impacts and adaptation, underlines the need to conserve 30% to 50% of the Earth's land, freshwater and ocean areas – echoing the 30% goal of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity|U.N.'s Convention on Biodiversity]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Januta |first=Andrea |date=1 March 2022 |title=Key takeaways from the IPCC report on climate impacts and adaptation |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/03/key-takeaways-ipcc-report-climate-impacts-adaptation/ |access-date=2 March 2022 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 December 2022 |title=Negotiators agree to historic biodiversity deal at COP15 |url=https://www.euronews.com/2022/12/19/negotiators-agree-to-historic-biodiversity-deal-at-cop15 |access-date=19 December 2022 |website=euronews |language=en}}</ref> Ultimately, these movements should be further promoted to encourage biodiversity and to conserve a functional [[ecosystem]].

== Introduction ==
Conservation goals include [[habitat conservation|conserving habitat]], preventing [[deforestation]], maintaining [[soil organic matter]], halting species [[extinction]], reducing [[overfishing]], and mitigating [[climate change]]. Different philosophical outlooks guide conservationists towards these different goals.

The principal value underlying many expressions of the conservation ethic is that the natural world has intrinsic and intangible worth along with utilitarian value &ndash; a view carried forward by parts of the scientific [[conservation movement]] and some of the older [[Romanticism|Romantic]] schools of the [[ecology movement]]. Philosophers have attached intrinsic value to different aspects of nature, whether this is individual organisms ([[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentrism]]) or ecological wholes such as species or ecosystems (ecoholism).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gardiner and Thompson |title=The Oxford Handbook of Environmental Ethics |date=2017 |publisher=OUP }}</ref>

More [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]] schools of conservation have an anthropocentric outlook and seek a proper valuation of [[Human impact on the environment|local and global impacts of human activity]] upon nature in their effect upon human [[measuring well-being|wellbeing]], now and to posterity. How such values are assessed and exchanged among people determines the social, political and personal restraints and imperatives by which conservation is practiced. This is a view common in the modern [[environmental movement]]. There is increasing interest in extending the responsibility for human wellbeing to include the welfare of [[Sentience|sentient]] animals. In 2022 the United Kingdom introduced the [[Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022|Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act]] which lists all vertebrates, decapod crustaceans and cephalopods as sentient beings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Animals to be formally recognised as sentient beings in domestic law |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/animals-to-be-formally-recognised-as-sentient-beings-in-domestic-law |access-date=1 December 2022 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> Branches of conservation ethics focusing on sentient individuals include [[ecofeminism]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hawkins|first=Ronnie Zoe|date=1998|title=Ecofeminism and Nonhumans: Continuity, Difference, Dualism, and Domination|journal=Hypatia|volume=13|issue=1|pages=158–197|doi=10.1111/j.1527-2001.1998.tb01356.x|jstor=3810611|s2cid=145174389 |issn=0887-5367}}</ref> and [[compassionate conservation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wallach|first1=Arian D.|last2=Batavia|first2=Chelsea|last3=Bekoff|first3=Marc|last4=Alexander|first4=Shelley|last5=Baker|first5=Liv|last6=Ben‐Ami|first6=Dror|last7=Boronyak|first7=Louise|last8=Cardilini|first8=Adam P. A.|last9=Carmel|first9=Yohay|last10=Celermajer|first10=Danielle|last11=Coghlan|first11=Simon|title=Recognizing animal personhood in compassionate conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|year=2020|volume=34|issue=5|language=en|pages=1097–1106|doi=10.1111/cobi.13494|pmid=32144823|pmc=7540678|issn=1523-1739|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In the United States of America, the year 1864 saw the publication of two books which laid the foundation for Romantic and Utilitarian conservation traditions in America. The posthumous publication of [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s ''[[Walden]]'' established the grandeur of unspoiled nature as a citadel to nourish the spirit of man. A very different book from [[George Perkins Marsh]], ''[[Man and Nature]]'', later subtitled ""The Earth as Modified by Human Action"", catalogued his observations of man exhausting and altering the land from which his sustenance derives.

The consumer conservation ethic has been defined as the attitudes and behaviors held and engaged in by individuals and families that ultimately serve to reduce overall societal consumption of energy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=HALDEMAN |first1=VIRGINIA A. |last2=PETERS |first2=JEANNE M. |last3=TRIPPLE |first3=PATRICIA A. |date=1987 |title=Measuring a Consumer Energy Conservation Ethic: An Analysis of Components |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23859354 |journal=The Journal of Consumer Affairs |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=70–85 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-6606.1987.tb00188.x |jstor=23859354 |issn=0022-0078}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leonard-Barton |first=Dorothy |date=1981 |title=Voluntary Simplicity Lifestyles and Energy Conservation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2488881 |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=243–252 |doi=10.1086/208861 |jstor=2488881 |issn=0093-5301}}</ref> The conservation movement has emerged from the advancements of moral reasoning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=VERNEY |first=RALPH |title=Towards a Conservation Ethic |date=1984 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41373777 |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Arts |volume=132 |issue=5336 |pages=501–512 |jstor=41373777 |issn=0035-9114}}</ref> Increasing numbers of philosophers and scientists have made its maturation possible by considering the relationships between human beings and organisms with the same rigor.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017 |title=BIOPHILIA 2017 |journal=Biophilia |volume=2017 |issue=3 |pages=v |doi=10.14813/ibra.2017.v |issn=2186-8433|doi-access=free }}</ref> This social ethic primarily relates to [[local purchasing]], [[moral purchasing]], the [[sustainability|sustained]], and efficient use of [[renewable resource]]s, the moderation of destructive use of finite resources, and the prevention of harm to common resources such as [[air pollution|air]] and [[water pollution|water]] quality, the natural functions of a living earth, and cultural values in a [[built environment]]. These practices are used to slow down the accelerating rate in which [[extinction]] is occurring at. The origins of this ethic can be traced back to many different philosophical and religious beliefs; that is, these practices has been advocated for centuries. In the past, conservationism has been categorized under a spectrum of views, including [[Anthropocentrism|anthropocentric]], [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]] conservationism, and radical [[Ecocentrism|eco-centric]] green eco-political views.

More recently, the three major movements has been grouped to become what we now know as conservation ethic. The person credited with formulating the conservation ethic in the United States is former president, [[Theodore Roosevelt]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://alphasteward.com/forests/who-is-credited-for-articulating-the-conservation-ethic-and-for-founding-the-us-forest-service/ |title = The Conservation Ethic & The Founding the US Forest Service |publisher = Alpha Steward |date = 10 April 2020 |access-date = 21 June 2020 }}</ref>

== Terminology ==
{{quote box
|quote=The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others.|source=[[Theodore Roosevelt]]<ref>Theodore Roosevelt, Address to the Deep Waterway Convention
Memphis, TN, October 4, 1907</ref>
|width=25%
|align=right}}

In common usage, the term refers to the activity of systematically protecting natural resources such as forests, including biological diversity. [[Carl F. Jordan]] defines biological conservation as:<ref>{{cite book|last=Jordan|first=Carl|title=Replacing Quantity With Quality As a Goal for Global Management|publisher=Wiley|date=1995|isbn=0-471-59515-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/conservationrepl00jord}}</ref>

{{quote|a philosophy of managing the environment in a manner that does not despoil, exhaust or extinguish.}}

While this usage is not new, the idea of biological conservation has been applied to the principles of ecology, [[biogeography]], [[anthropology]], economy, and sociology to maintain [[biodiversity]].

The term ""conservation"" itself may cover the concepts such as [[cultural diversity]], [[genetic diversity]], and the concept of movements [[Environmental protection|environmental conservation]], [[seedbank]] curation (preservation of seeds), and [[gene bank]] coordination (preservation of animals' genetic material). These are often summarized as the priority to respect diversity.

Much recent movement in conservation can be considered a resistance to [[commercialism]] and [[globalization]]. [[Slow Food]] is a consequence of rejecting these as moral priorities, and embracing a [[voluntary simplicity|slower and more locally focused lifestyle]].

[[Sustainable living]] is a lifestyle that people are beginning to adopt, promoting to make decisions that would help protect [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cities |first=Sustainable Development Solutions Network Thematic Group on Sustainable |date=2013 |title=Resiliency and Environmental Sustainability |journal=The Urban Opportunity |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep15871.7 |pages=28–34}}</ref> The small lifestyle changes that promote [[sustainability]] will eventually accumulate into the proliferation of biological diversity. Regulating the ecolabeling of products from fisheries, controlling for [[Sustainable food system|sustainable food production]], or keeping the lights off during the day are some examples of sustainable living.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kaiser |first1=Michel J. |last2=Edwards-Jones |first2=Gareth |date=2006 |title=The Role of Ecolabeling in Fisheries Management and Conservation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3591347 |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=392–398 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00319.x |jstor=3591347 |pmid=16903100 |hdl=1912/843 |s2cid=30842161 |issn=0888-8892|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bale |first1=J.S |last2=van Lenteren |first2=J.C |last3=Bigler |first3=F |date=6 September 2007 |title=Biological control and sustainable food production |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2182 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=363 |issue=1492 |pages=761–776 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2007.2182 |pmid=17827110 |pmc=2610108 |issn=0962-8436}}</ref> However, sustainable living is not a simple and uncomplicated approach. A 1987 Brundtland Report expounds on the notion of sustainability as a process of change that looks different for everyone: ""It is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs. We do not pretend that the process is easy or straightforward.""<ref>{{Cite book |last=Development. |first=World Commission on Environment and |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/732496026 |title=Our common future |date=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-282080-X |oclc=732496026}}</ref> Simply put, sustainable living does make a difference by compiling many individual actions that encourage the protection of [[biological diversity]].

== Practice ==
[[File:Daintree Rainforest.JPG|thumb|[[Daintree Rainforest]] in [[Queensland]], Australia]]
Distinct trends exist regarding conservation development. The need for conserving land has only recently intensified during what some scholars refer to as the [[Capitalocene]] epoch. This era marks the beginning of [[colonialism]], [[globalization]], and the [[industrial revolution]] that has led to global land change as well as [[climate change]].

While many countries' efforts to preserve [[species]] and their [[habitats]] have been government-led, those in the North Western Europe tended to arise out of the middle-class and aristocratic interest in [[natural history]], expressed at the level of the individual and the national, regional or local [[learned society]]. Thus countries like Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, etc. had what would be called [[non-governmental organization]]s – in the shape of the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]], [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] and County Naturalists' Trusts (dating back to 1889, 1895, and 1912 respectively) Natuurmonumenten, Provincial Conservation Trusts for each Dutch province, Vogelbescherming, etc. – a long time before there were [[national parks]] and [[national nature reserve]]s.<ref name=Webb>{{Citation | author1=Webb, L. J. (Leonard James) | author-link=Leonard Webb (academic) | title=Nature protection in Europe | year=1970 | publication-date=1968 | publisher=Wildlife Preservation Society of Australia | isbn=978-0-909971-01-4}}</ref> This in part reflects the absence of wilderness areas in heavily cultivated Europe, as well as a longstanding interest in [[laissez-faire]] government in some countries, like the UK, leaving it as no coincidence that [[John Muir]], the Scottish-born founder of the National Park movement (and hence of government-sponsored conservation) did his sterling work in the US, where he was the motor force behind the establishment of such national parks as [[Yosemite]] and [[Yellowstone]]. Nowadays, officially more than 10 percent of the world is legally protected in some way or the other, and in practice, private fundraising is insufficient to pay for the effective management of so much land with protective status.

Protected areas in developing countries, where probably as many as 70–80 percent of the species of the world live, still enjoy very little effective management and protection. Some countries, such as Mexico, have non-profit civil organizations and landowners dedicated to protecting vast private property, such is the case of Hacienda Chichen's Maya Jungle Reserve and Bird Refuge in [[Chichen Itza]], [[Yucatán (state)|Yucatán]].<ref>[http://www.haciendachichen.com/eco-design.htm Haciendachichen.com], ""The Importance of Eco-Design""</ref> The Adopt A Ranger Foundation has calculated that worldwide about 140,000 rangers are needed for the protected areas in developing and transition countries. There are no data on how many rangers are employed at the moment, but probably less than half the protected areas in developing and transition countries have any rangers at all and those that have them are at least 50% short. This means that there would be a worldwide ranger deficit of 105,000 rangers in the developing and transition countries.{{Cn|date=October 2022}}

The terms ''conservation'' and ''preservation'' are frequently conflated outside the academic, scientific, and professional kinds of literature. The United States' [[National Park Service]] offers the following explanation of the important ways in which these two terms represent very different conceptions of [[environmental protection]] [[Environmental ethics|ethics]]:

{{quote|Conservation and preservation are closely linked and may indeed seem to mean the same thing. Both terms involve a degree of protection, but how that protection is carried out is the key difference. Conservation is generally associated with the protection of natural resources, while preservation is associated with the protection of buildings, objects, and landscapes. Put simply, ''conservation seeks the proper use of nature, while preservation seeks protection of nature from use''.|United States National Park Service<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/teachers/classrooms/conservation-preservation-and-the-national-park-service.htm | title=Conservation, Preservation, and the National Park Service - Teachers (U.S. National Park Service) }}</ref>}}

During the [[environmentalism|environmental movement]] of the early 20th century, two opposing factions emerged: conservationists and preservationists. Conservationists sought to regulate human use while preservationists sought to eliminate [[Human impact on the environment|human impact]] altogether.""<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/klgo/learn/education/classrooms/conservation-vs-preservation.htm National Park Service: Conservation versus preservation]</ref>

C. Anne Claus presents a distinction for conservation practices.<ref name="":0"">{{cite book |last1=Claus |first1=C. Anne |title=Drawing the sea near : satoumi and coral reef conservation in Okinawa |date=2020 |location=Minneapolis |isbn=978-1-5179-0662-7}}</ref> Claus divides conservation into conservation-far and conservation-near. Conservation-far is the means of protecting nature by separating it and safeguarding it from humans.<ref name="":0"" /> Means of doing this include the creation of preserves or national parks. They are meant to keep the flora and fauna away from human influence and have become a staple method in the west. Conservation-near however is conservation via connection. The method of reconnecting people to nature through traditions and beliefs to foster a desire to protect nature.<ref name="":0"" /> The basis is that instead of forcing compliance to separate from nature onto the people, instead conservationists work with locals and their traditions to find conservation efforts that work for all.<ref name="":0"" /> 

===Evidence-based conservation ===
{{Main|Evidence-based conservation}}
Evidence-based conservation is the application of evidence in conservation management actions and policy making. It is defined as systematically assessing scientific information from published, [[peer-review]]ed publications and texts, practitioners' experiences, independent expert assessment, and local and [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] knowledge on a specific conservation topic.  This includes assessing the current effectiveness of different management interventions, threats and emerging problems, and economic factors.<ref>{{cite web |title = The Basics|publisher = Conservation Evidence|url=http://www.conservationevidence.com/faq/index |access-date = 7 March 2015}}</ref>

[[Evidence-based]] conservation was organized based on the observations that [[decision making]] in conservation was based on [[:wikt:intuition|intuition]] and/or practitioner experience often disregarding other forms of evidence of successes and failures (e.g. scientific information). This has led to costly and poor outcomes.<ref name=Sutherland>{{cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=William J|last2=Pullin|first2=Andrew S.|last3=Dolman|first3=Paul M.|last4=Knight|first4=Teri M.|title=The need for evidence-based conservation|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|date=June 2004|volume=19|issue=6|pages=305–308|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.018|pmid=16701275}}</ref> Evidence-based conservation provides access to information that will support decision making through an evidence-based framework of ""what works"" in conservation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=William J.|title= Evidence-based Conservation|journal= Conservation in Practice|date=July 2003|volume=4|issue=3|pages=39–42|doi=10.1111/j.1526-4629.2003.tb00068.x}}</ref>

The evidence-based approach to conservation is based on evidence-based practice which started in [[Evidence-based medicine|medicine]] and later spread to [[Evidence Based Nursing|nursing]], [[Evidence based education|education]],<ref>[[David G. Hebert]], (2022), [https://cjee.lakeheadu.ca/article/view/1708/1061 ""Nature Conservation and Music Sustainability: Fields with Shared Concerns""], ''Canadian Journal of Environmental Education'', 25, p.175–189.</ref> [[psychology]], and other fields. It is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]].

== See also ==
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation community]]
* [[Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources]]
* [[Dark green environmentalism]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Forest conservation]]
* [[Index of environmental articles]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[Natural capital]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Natural resource]]
* [[Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Trail ethics]]
* [[Water conservation]]
* [[Wildlife conservation]]
* [[30 by 30]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last1=Frankel |first1=O. H. |last2=Soulé |first2=Michael E.|title=Conservation and evolution |date=1981 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England |isbn=0-521-23275-9}}
* Glacken, C.J. (1967) Traces on the Rhodian Shore. University of California Press. Berkeley
* Grove, R.H. (1992) 'Origins of Western Environmentalism', [[Scientific American]] 267(1): 22–27.
* {{cite book |last1=Grove |first1=Richard |title=Ecology, climate, and empire : colonialism and global environmental history, 1400-1940 |date=1997 |publisher=White Horse Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=9781874267188}}
* Grove, R.H. (1995) ''Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens, and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600–1860'' New York: [[Cambridge University Press]]
* Leopold, A. (1966) ''A Sand County Almanac'' New York: [[Oxford University Press]]
* Pinchot, G. (1910) ''The Fight for Conservation'' New York: [[Harcourt Brace]].
* ''""Why Care for Earth's Environment?""'' (in the series ''""The Bible's Viewpoint""'') is a two-page article in the December 2007 issue of the magazine [[Awake!]].
* {{cite book
| author= Sutherland, W.
|editor4-first=Rebecca K
|editor4-last=Smith
|editor3-first=Nancy
|editor3-last=Ockendon
|editor2-first=Lynn V
|editor2-last=Dicks
|editor1-first=William J
|editor1-last=Sutherland
|year=2015
|title= What Works in Conservation
|publisher= Open Book Publishers
|doi=10.11647/OBP.0060
|isbn=978-1-78374-157-1
|url=http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/347/what-works-in-conservation|display-authors=etal
|doi-access=free
}} A  '''free''' textbook for download.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote|Conservation}}
{{commons category|Nature conservation}}
* [https://ourworldindata.org/protected-areas-and-conservation Protected Areas and Conservation] at [[Our World in Data]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060909070826/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-59 ''Dictionary of the History of ideas'':] Conservation of Natural Resources
* [http://nfb.ca/film/For_Future_Generations/ ''For Future Generations'', a Canadian documentary on how the conservation ethic influenced national parks]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100612201702/http://religion-online.org/listbycategory.asp?Cat=45 Category List  --- Religion-Online.org] ""Ecology/Environment""

{{conservation of species}}
{{World topic|prefix=Conservation in|title=Conservation by country|noredlinks=y}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Nature conservation| ]]
[[Category:Natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]"
Category:Nature conservation,"{{Commons category|Conservation}}
{{portal|Environment}}
{{cat main|Nature conservation}}
: This category is for articles relating to [[nature conservation]], [[conservation biology]] and the [[conservation movement]].
{{For|non-environmental conservation|Category:Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage}}
{{CatTrack}}

[[Category:Natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]"
Blue-listed,"'''Blue-listed''' species are species that belong to the '''Blue List''' and includes any indigenous species or subspecies ([[taxa]]) considered to be vulnerable in their locale in order to provide early warning to federal and regional governments'''.''' Vulnerable taxa are of special concern because of characteristics that make them particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events.  Blue-listed taxa are at risk, but are not [[local extinction|extirpated]], [[endangered species|endangered]] or [[threatened species|threatened]].

== History ==
The concept of a '''Blue List''' was derived in 1971 by Robert Arbib from the National Audubon Society in his article, ""Announcing-- The Blue List: an 'early warning' system for birds"". The article stated that the list  was made up for species that appear to be locally common in North America, but is undergoing non-cyclic declines.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=October 1910 |title=The A. O. U. Check-List of North American Birds. Third Edition Check-List of North American Birds American Ornithologists' Union Abridged Check-List of North American Birds American Ornithologists' Union |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4070921 |journal=The Auk |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=466–472 |doi=10.2307/4070921 |jstor=4070921 |issn=0004-8038}}</ref> Starting from 1971, it was utilized to list vulnerable bird species throughout North America. Unlike the US Fish and Wildlife Endangered Species List, the Blue List was made to identify '''patterns''' of population losses for regional bird populations before they could be listed as endangered.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Blue List |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/The_Blue_List.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=web.stanford.edu}}</ref> Every decade after its release, the list is revisited and revised based on regional editors and species get ""nominated"" to be added to the list. From then on, species that are part of the Blue List were referred to as '''Blue-listed species.'''

== Status Ranks ==
Initially, in order to identify the types of risks that each Blue-Listed species have, the Blue List has identified various categories for Blue-Listed species based on the following alphabets:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=García |first=Eusebio Alonso |date=2018 |title=JAMES STIRLING Y EL PROYECTO DE LA TATE GALLERY EN ALBERT DOCK, LIVERPOOL, 1982–88 / JAMES STIRLING AND THE TATE GALLERY PROJECT IN ALBERT DOCK, LIVERPOOL, 1982–88 |journal=Proyecto, Progreso, Arquitectura |issue=19 |pages=134–149 |doi=10.12795/ppa.2018.i19.08 |issn=2171-6897|doi-access=free }}</ref>

""A"" :  the species population is ""greatly down in numbers""

""B"" :  the species population is ""down in numbers""

""C"" : the species population is experiencing no change

""D"" : the species population is ""up in numbers""

""E"" : the species population is ""greatly up in numbers""

Using this metric reginal editors were able to report on the species along with their status ranks in order to identify the patterns of population growth that each species is facing. Later on, the Government of British Columbia has revised the status ranks such that Blue-Listed species are listed based on the following '''modifier codes'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Strategy |first=Ministry of Environment and Climate Change |title=Conservation Status Ranks - Province of British Columbia |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/plants-animals-ecosystems/conservation-data-centre/explore-cdc-data/status-ranks |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www2.gov.bc.ca}}</ref>''':''' 
{| class=""wikitable""
|+
!Modifier Codes 
!Meaning 
|-
|1
|The population is greatly at risk of being put at harm 
|-
|2
|The population is at risk of being put at harm 
|-
|3 
|The population is of special concern and is vulnerable to extinction
|-
|4
|The population is apparently safe but some concern is still needed
|-
|5
|The population is completely safe and abundant
|}

==See also==
*[[Biodiversity Action Plan]]
*[[Red-listed]]

== References ==
<references />

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060428022737/http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/sry/fwh/wildlife/blue.htm British Columbia]

{{threatened species by region|state=expanded}}
{{threatened species}}

[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]


{{ecology-stub}}"
Cross-boundary subsidy,"[[Image:borealforest.JPG|thumb|240px|right|Alaskan boreal forest in Yukon National Wildlife Refuge]]

'''Cross-boundary subsidies''' are caused by organisms or materials that cross or traverse habitat [[landscape ecology#Patch and mosaic|patch]] boundaries, subsidizing the resident [[populations]]. The transferred organisms and materials may provide additional predators, prey, or nutrients to resident species, which can affect [[community]] and [[food web]] structure. Cross-boundary subsidies of materials and organisms occur in landscapes composed of different habitat patch types, and so depend on characteristics of those patches and on the boundaries in between them. Human alteration of the landscape, primarily through [[Habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]], has the potential to alter important cross-boundary subsidies to increasingly isolated habitat patches. Understanding how processes that occur outside of habitat patches can affect populations within them may be important to habitat management.

==Introduction and development of the concept==
The concept of cross-boundary subsidies developed out of a merging of ideas from the studies of [[landscape ecology]] and [[food web]] ecology. The ideas from landscape ecology allow the study of population, community, and food web dynamics to incorporate spatial relationships between landscape elements into an understanding of such dynamics (Polis et al. 1997).

Janzen (1986) first defined cross-boundary subsidies as a process whereby organisms that disperse from one patch into another impact resident organisms by providing increased food resources or opportunities for reproduction, thus serving as a subsidy to the residents. By this definition, only the cross-boundary movement of organisms is considered, but broader definitions of cross-boundary subsidies can also include materials such as nutrients and [[detritus]] (i.e. Marburg et al. 2006, Facelli and Pickett 1991).

Cross-boundary subsidies are a subset of the more general process of spatial subsidies (see Polis et al. 1997). Cross-boundary subsidies acknowledge the presence and role of the boundary between different habitat patches in mediating flows of organisms and materials. In contrast, spatial subsidies require only that external inputs of materials and organisms originate from outside the patch of interest.

===Conceptual models===
Few attempts have been made to combine landscape and [[food web]] ecology in such a way that explicitly recognizes the importance of cross-boundary subsidies and spatial features of the landscape on food web dynamics. Often, spatial subsidies are treated as subsidies that simply arrive from outside the patch of interest, not addressing the landscape patterns and processes that may affect the movement of these inputs, such as boundary characteristics and patch connectivity. Polis et al. (1997) published a thorough review of spatially subsidized food web dynamics, focusing on the effect of subsidies on population, [[community]], consumer-resource, and food web dynamics. One of the main conclusions was that subsidies of consumer species (organisms that eat other organisms to obtain energy) resulted in declines of food resources in the recipient patch. Callaway and Hastings (2002) built off Polis et al.’s conclusion with a model to show that subsidized consumers may not always drive down the resource in the recipient patch if consumers move between patches frequently. This might occur because consumers often move for reasons other than food resource acquisition.

Cadenasso et al. (2003) developed a framework for studying ecological boundaries, which has implications for understanding the dynamics of specific cross-boundary subsidies. The boundary is defined as the zone of the steepest gradient of change in some characteristic from one patch to another, such as rapidly decreasing light levels as habitat transitions from a field to a forest. In this framework, flows across variable landscapes are characterized by the type of flow (materials, energy, organisms, etc.), patch contrast (architecture, composition, process), and boundary structure (architecture, composition, symbolic and perceptual features). Considering a cross-boundary subsidy in terms of this framework shows how the boundary itself can mediate the subsidy. For example, Cadenasso and Pickett (2001) found that the decreased lateral vegetation at the boundary between a forest and field increased the amount of seeds transferred into the forest interior.

Another conceptual model that specifically considers cross-boundary subsidies is a model developed by Rand et al. (2006) of spillover from agriculture to wildland patches by predatory insects. The edge is permeable to insects that are habitat generalists and therefore capable of easily crossing the boundary between agriculture and wildland patches, whereas it is considered impermeable to insects that specialize on a particular patch type and cannot cross the boundary. In this model, edge permeability (habitat specialists vs. generalists), patch [[productivity]], and complementary resource use (use of resources obtained in both agriculture and wildland patches) determine the expected impact of cross-boundary subsidies by predatory insects (Fig. 1).

[[Image:Rand2006 adapted.JPG|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Conceptual model of cross-boundary subsidies of insect predators from agricultural to adjacent wildland patches. '''a.''' Habitat specialization, the boundary is a hard edge to predators such that they do not disperse to the wildland patch. '''b.''' Differences in [[productivity]], increased productivity in the agricultural patch allows a generalist insect predator to disperse to the lower productivity wildland patch. This is an example of a directional positive edge response. '''c.''' Complementary resource use, insect predator abundance is highest near the edge because they need resources present in both patches. This is an example of a reciprocal positive edge response. Redrawn from Rand et al. 2006.]]

==Relation to selected ecological concepts==

===Landscape ecology===
A spatial subsidy, in the context of landscape ecology, is a doner-mediated resource (nutrient, detritus, prey) which is passed from one habitat to a recipient (consumer) in a second habitat. As a result, the productivity of the recipient is increased (Polis et al., 1997). For example, a bear eats a salmon and acquires the resources that have passed through the marine environment across the habitat boundary and into a terrestrial environment.

===Source sink dynamics===
The idea of a subsidy of materials or organisms across a patch boundary affecting resident populations has clear parallels with [[source-sink dynamics]] (Fagan et al. 1999). In this theory, local populations are connected by dispersal, and the extinction of local populations can be prevented through immigration from neighboring patches (Pulliam 1988). In source-sink dynamics, it is assumed that individuals from more productive patches will move to less productive patches with unsustainable populations (Pulliam 1988). Many examples of cross-boundary subsidies can be thought of as exhibiting source-sink dynamics. Rand et al. (2006) found that insects in a high productivity agricultural patch were able to sustain local populations in a lower productivity wildland patch through continued dispersal from the agricultural patch. The effect of these subsidies to local patches can also impact populations of other species in the recipient [[food web]], because the subsidized population may compete with or prey upon other species more effectively than they would be able to without such an influx (Fagan et al. 1999).

===Biotic interactions and trophic structure===
Cross-boundary subsidies have important impacts on species interactions and food web dynamics. Subsidies of materials and organisms can affect all trophic, or feeding, levels of food webs either directly or indirectly. Inputs of nutrient and [[detritus]] from another patch generally increase the population growth of the resident producers (plants) and [[detritus|detritivores]] (Polis et al. 1997). Increased growth at the producer level can result in a bottom-up trophic effect, in which increases in [[populations]] at lower [[trophic level]]s support a higher population of consumers than would otherwise be possible in a closed system (Polis et al. 1997). [[allochthonous]] detrital inputs can also have strong impacts on food web dynamics over a variety of temporal scales, ranging from seconds to millennia, as in the case of [[fossil fuel]] formation from build-up of detritus over millennia (Moore et al. 2004).

====Coarse woody debris====
Many food webs rely on cross-boundary subsidies of detritus for sources of energy and nutrients (Huxel and McCann 1998). For example, a series of lakes in Wisconsin were examined for the presence of [[Coarse woody debris]] (CWD) and the characteristics of the surrounding landscape that might control its input to lakes. Coarse woody debris in these lakes is important for providing habitat and food resources for a variety of organisms including small fish (Werner and Hall 1988), algae, and detritivores (Bowen et al. 1998). Marburg et al. (2006) compared variation within and among lakes in CWD. They found that subsidies of CWD to lakes were lower when the lakes had human development along the shore. Development along the lakeshore can be thought of as an alteration to the characteristics of the patch boundary between the lake and forest. In this case, development decreased both forest density that is the source of CWD and also the permeability of the boundary to flows of CWD (Marburg et al. 2006).

====Predator-prey====
In addition to bottom-up effects, top-down effects may also occur due to cross-boundary subsidies. In top-down effects, subsidies of consumers at the top level of the food web control populations at lower levels more so than would be expected by only the action of resident consumers (Polis et al. 1997). Consumers that cross boundaries may have a greater effect on the recipient patch population if prey in the recipient patch have a lower population growth rate than prey in the source patch (Fagan et al. 1999, Rand et al. 2006). Thus, cross-boundary subsidies may alter predator-prey/competitive interactions that can result in a disproportionate impact on the communities of the recipient patch.

====Trophic cascade====
In subsidizing top trophic levels, effects may also be felt at all lower trophic levels in a phenomenon known as a [[trophic cascade]]. An example of a trophic cascade that also acted as a cross-boundary subsidy is illustrated in a study by Knight et al. (2005) in which changes in the trophic structure of one ecosystem resulted in an effect that cascaded to the adjacent ecosystem. In ponds containing fish, dragonfly larvae were kept to a minimum by fish predation. The resulting low density of adult dragonfly predators led to a high density of bee pollinators. With fish present in adjacent ponds, bees were able to pollinate more flowers in the adjacent upland ecosystem than they were when fish were absent. The dragonfly population could be thought of as subsidized by the absence of fish predation. That subsidy was then transferred across the pond-upland boundary by adult dragonfly movement to affect the interaction between bee pollinators and plants.

===Subsidy cascade===
Native species that forage on resources that don't originate in their same habitat. This may increase their local abundances thereby affecting other species in the ecosystem.  For example, Luskin ''et al.'' (2017) found that native animals living protected primary rainforest in Malaysia found food subsidies in neighboring [[oil palm]] plantations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luskin |first1=Matthew |title=Cross-boundary subsidy cascades from oil palm degrade distant tropical forests |journal=Nature Communications |date=2017 |volume=8 |issue=9 |page=2231 |doi=10.1038/s41467-017-01920-7 |pmid=29263381 |pmc=5738359 |bibcode=2017NatCo...8.2231L }}</ref>  This subsidy allowed native animal populations to increase, which then triggered powerful secondary ‘cascading’ effects on forest tree community.  Specifically, crop-raiding wild boar ({{lang|la|[[Sus scrofa]]}}) built thousands of nests from the forest understory vegetation and this caused a 62% decline in forest tree sapling density over a 24-year study period.  Such cross-boundary subsidy cascades may be widespread in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems and present significant conservation challenges.

==Human activities affecting cross-boundary subsidies==

===Agriculture ===
Native species that forage in farmland may increase their local abundances thereby affecting adjacent ecosystems within their landscape. For example, Luskin et al (2017) used two decades of ecological data from a protected primary rainforest in Malaysia to illustrate how subsidies from neighboring oil palm plantations triggered powerful secondary ‘cascading’ effects on natural habitats located >1.3&nbsp;km away.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luskin |first1=Matthew |title=Cross-boundary subsidy cascades from oil palm degrade distant tropical forests |journal=Nature Communications |date=2017 |volume=8 |issue=8 |page=2231 |doi=10.1038/s41467-017-01920-7 |pmid=29263381 |pmc=5738359 |bibcode=2017NatCo...8.2231L }}</ref> They found that (i) oil palm fruit drove 100-fold increases in crop-raiding native wild boar (Sus scrofa), (ii) wild boar used thousands of understory plants to construct birthing nests in the pristine forest interior, and (iii) nest building caused a 62% decline in forest tree sapling density over the 24-year study period. The long-term, landscape-scale indirect effects from agriculture suggest its full ecological footprint may be larger in extent than is currently recognized. Cross-boundary subsidy cascades may be widespread in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems and present significant conservation challenges.

===Fragmentation===
As landscapes become increasingly fragmented due to human activity, the influence of patch boundaries on individual patches becomes relatively more important (Murcia 1995). [[Habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] can both cut off necessary subsidies to patches and increase the magnitude of subsidies from adjacent patches. For example, in a study of fragmentation of wildlands in an agriculturally dominated landscape, subsidies of habitat specialist insects to wildland patches were prevented by surrounding small, wildland patches with inhospitable agricultural land. This isolation reduced the potential for [[gene flow]] and long-term persistence of the population. Subsidies of other insects that specialized on agricultural crops were increased to wildland [[populations]], increasing their effect on the resident wildland species (Duelli 1990).

===Alteration of patch and boundary characteristics===
Changing the internal structure and composition of a patch may substantially alter cross-boundary subsidies. [[Logging]] may temporarily increase subsidies of nutrients and detritus to adjacent streams (Likens et al. 1970). [[Invasive species]] introduced to agricultural patches may act as a subsidy to adjacent wildland invasive populations, preventing native species establishment, even within the protected area (Janzen 1983).

====Marine systems====
Human alterations of patch characteristics may also curtail cross-boundary subsidies such as [[overfishing]] in marine systems, which may drastically reduce potentially crucial marine subsidies of organisms to freshwater and riparian systems (Zhang et al. 2003). For example, Helfield and Naiman (2002) found that riparian trees in [[Alaska]] obtain 24–26% of their nitrogen from marine sources, transferred from migrating [[salmon]]. In this system, [[salmon]] that feed in the ocean, incorporating marine nitrogen into their biomass, later return to their natal small streams where they spawn and die. [[Salmon]] carcasses transferred across the stream-riparian zone boundary by terrestrial predators or flooding events subsidized growth of terrestrial plants. Thus, marine overfishing may affect the productivity of Alaskan forests that depend on subsidies of marine-derived nitrogen.

As discussed above, cross-boundary subsidies depend on the characteristics of the patch boundary. Human-induced changes in these characteristics can affect boundary permeability to certain organisms or materials. For example, a cross-boundary subsidy of leaf litter from forest to an adjacent open field may be attenuated at the boundary if a road is present, making the boundary less permeable to flows of leaf litter (Facelli and Pickett 1991).

==Implications for management and future research needs==
Habitat management might benefit from recognizing the effect that humans may have on both individual patches and on the dynamics between patches. In such cases, managers may need to focus on patterns and processes that occur outside of their patch of interest, as these factors may also be important to internal [[population dynamics]]. An understanding of boundary features that influence the various flows of interest is necessary in managing for those flows.

=== Invasive species ===
The implications of [[invasive species]] and the use of [[biological control]] agents may also be closely related to the idea of cross-boundary subsidies. Introducing species into one patch for [[biocontrol]] may have [[unforeseen consequence]]s on dynamics within adjacent patches.

Other fields, such as public policy, can also benefit from considering cross-boundary subsidies. For example, governments often provide [[subsidy|financial subsidies]] to [[fisheries]], which have a negative effect on those ecosystems by encouraging overfishing (Munro and Sumaila 2002). Understanding what processes affect how those financial resources flow across that particular government-industry boundary is important to the maintenance of marine [[food web]]s. Considering cross-boundary effects will be essential to a complete understanding of potential consequences of human action on the landscape.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{refbegin|2}}
* Aizen, M. A. and P. Feinsinger. 1994. Forest fragmentation, pollination, and plant reproduction in a Chaco Dry Forest, Argentina. Ecology 75: 330-351.
* Belisle, M., A. Descrochers, and M. Fortin. 2001. Influence of forest cover on movements of forest birds: A homing experiment. Ecology 82: 1893-1904.
* Ben-David, H., T. A. Hanley, D. M. Schell. 1998. Fertilization of terrestrial vegetation by spawning Pacific salmon: the role of flooding and predator activity. Oikos 83: 47-55.
* Bowen, K. L., N. K. Kaushik, A. M. Gordon. 1998. Macroinvertebrate communities and biofilm chlorophyll on woody debris in two Canadian oligotrophic lakes. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 141: 257-281.
* Cadenasso, M. L. and S. T. A. Pickett. 2001. Effects of edge structure on flux of species into forest interiors. Conservation Biology 15: 91-97.
* Cadenasso, M. L., S. T. A. Pickett, K. C. Weathers, and C. G. Jones. 2003. A framework for a theory of ecological boundaries. BioScience 53: 750-758.
* Callaway, D. S. and A. Hastings. 2002. Consumer movement through differentially subsidized habitats creates a spatial food web with unexpected results. Ecology Letters 5: 329-332.
* Duelli, P. 1990. Population movements of arthropods between natural and cultivated areas. Biological Conservation 54: 193-207.
* Facelli, J. M. and S. T. A. Pickett. 1991. Plant litter: its dynamics and effects on plant community structure. The Botanical Review 57: 1-32.
* Fagan, W.F., R. S. Cantrell, and C. Cosner. 1999. How habitat edges change species interactions. The American Naturalist 153: 165-182.
* Freeland, J. A., J. L. Richardson, and L. A. Foss. 1999. Soil indicators of agricultural impacts on northern prairie wetlands: Cottonwood Lake Research Area, North Dakota, USA. Wetlands 19: 56-64.
* Helfield, J. A. and R. J. Naiman. 2001. Effects of salmon-derived nitrogen on riparian forest growth and implications for stream productivity. Ecology 82: 2403-2409.
* Helfield, J. M. and R. J. Naiman. 2002. Salmon and alder as nitrogen sources to riparian forest in a boreal Alaskan watershed. [[Oecologia]] 133: 573-582.
* Huxel, G. R. and K. S. McCann. 1998. Food web stability: the influence of trophic flows across habitats. The American Midland Naturalist 152: 460-469.
* Janzen, D. H. 1983. No park is an island: increased interference from outside as park size decreases. Oikos 41: 402-410.
* Janzen, D. H. 1986. The eternal external threat. Pages 286-303 in M. E. Soule, editor. Conservation Biology: the science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA.
* Knight, T. M., M. W. McCoy, J. M. Chase, K. A. McCoy, R. D. Holt. 2005. Trophic cascades across ecosystems. Nature 437: 880-883.
* Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, N. M. Johnson, D. W. Fisher, R. S. Pierce. 1970. Effects of forest cutting and herbicide treatment on nutrient budgets in the Hubbard Brook Watershed-Ecosystem. Ecological Monographs 40: 23-47.
* Marburg, A. E., M. G. Turner, and T. K. Kratz. 2006. Natural and anthropogenic variation in coarse wood among and within lakes. Journal of Ecology 94: 558-568.
* Moore, J. C., E. L. Berlow, D. C. Coleman, P. C. de Ruiter, Q. Dong, A. Hastings, N. C. Johnson, K. S. McCann, K. Melville, P. J. Morin, K. Nadelhoffer, A. D. Rosemond, D. M. Post, J. L. Sabo, [[Kate Scow|K. M. Scow]], M. J. Vanni, D. H. Wall. 2004. Detritus, trophic dynamics, and biodiversity. Ecology Letters 7: 584-600.
* Munro, G. and U. R. Sumaila. 2002. The impact of subsidies upon fisheries management and sustainability: The case of the North Atlantic. Fish and Fisheries 3: 233-250.
* Murcia, C. 1995. Edge effects in fragmented forests: implications for conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10: 58-62.
* Polis, G. A. and S. D. Hurd. 1996. Linking marine and terrestrial food webs: allochthonous inputs from the ocean supports high secondary productivity on small islands and coastal land communities. American Naturalist 147: 396-423.
* Polis, G. A., W. B. Anderson, and R. D. Holt. 1997. Toward an integration of landscape ecology and food web ecology: the dynamics of spatially subsidized food webs. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28: 289-316.
* Pulliam, H. R. 1988. Sources, sinks, and population regulation. The American Naturalist 132: 652-661.
* Rand, T. A., J. M. Tylianakis, T. Tscharntke. 2006. Spillover edge effects: the dispersal of agriculturally subsidized insect natural enemies into adjacent natural habitats. Ecology Letters 9: 603-614.
* Turner, M. G. 2005. Landscape ecology: what is the state of the science? Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 36: 319-344.
* Werner, E. E. and D. J. Hall. 1988. Ontogenic habitat shifts in bluegill: the foraging rate – predation risk trade-off. Ecology 69: 1352-1366.
* Zhang, Y., J. N. Negishi, J. S. Richardson, and R. Kolodziejczyk. 2003. Impacts of marine-derived nutrients on stream ecosystem functioning. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 270: 2117-2123.
{{refend}}

{{modelling ecosystems|expanded=other}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cross-Boundary Subsidy}}
[[Category:Landscape ecology]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Habitat management equipment and methods]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]"
Global 200,"{{Short description|none}}
{{For|the record chart|Billboard Global 200}}

The '''Global 200''' is the list of [[ecoregion]]s identified by the World Wide Fund for Nature ([[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]]), the global conservation organization, as priorities for conservation. According to WWF, an ecoregion is defined as a ""relatively large unit of land or water containing a characteristic set of natural communities that share a large majority of their species dynamics, and environmental conditions"".<ref>Olson, D. M. & E. Dinerstein. 1998. The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions. ''Conservation Biol.'' 12:502–515.[http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Biodiversity/pdf/OlsonDinerstein1998.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007001330/http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Biodiversity/pdf/OlsonDinerstein1998.pdf|date=2016-10-07}}.</ref><ref>Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E. 2002. The Global 200: Priority ecoregions for global conservation. ''Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden'' 89(2):199-224, [http://coastalforests.tfcg.org/pubs/Global%20200%20ecoregion.pdf].</ref><ref>The Nature Conservancy. 1997. ''Designing a geography of hope: guidelines for ecoregion-based conservation in The Nature Conservancy''. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia</ref> For example, based on their levels of [[endemism]], Madagascar gets multiple listings, ancient [[Lake Baikal]] gets one, and the [[North American Great Lakes]] get none. 

The WWF assigns a conservation status to each ecoregion in the Global 200: '''critical or endangered'''; '''vulnerable'''; and '''relatively stable or intact'''. Over half of the ecoregions in the Global 200 are rated endangered.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Background==
The WWF has identified 867 [[terrestrial ecoregion]]s across the Earth's land surface, as well as [[freshwater ecoregion|freshwater]] and [[marine ecoregion]]s. The goal of this classification system is to ensure that the full range of [[ecosystem]]s will be represented in regional conservation and development strategies. Of these ecoregions, the WWF selected the Global 200 as the ecoregions most crucial to the [[Conservation ethic|conservation]] of global [[biodiversity]]. The Global 200 list actually contains 238 ecoregions, made up of 142 terrestrial, 53 freshwater, and 43 marine ecoregions.

[[conservation movement|Conservationist]]s interested in preserving biodiversity have generally focused on the preservation of [[tropical moist broadleaf forests]] (commonly known as tropical rainforests) because it is estimated that they harbor one half of Earth's species. On the other hand, the WWF determined that a more comprehensive strategy for conserving global biodiversity should also consider the other half of species, as well as the [[ecosystem]]s that support them.

Several habitats, such as [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]] [[biome]], were determined to be more threatened than tropical rain forests, and therefore require concerted conservation action. WWF maintains that ""although conservation action typically takes place at the country level, patterns of biodiversity and ecological processes (e.g., migration) do not conform to political boundaries"", which is why ecoregion-based conservation strategies are deemed essential.

===Classification===
Historically, zoologists and botanists have developed various classification systems that take into account the world's plant and animal communities. Two of the worldwide classification systems most commonly used today were summarized by [[Miklos Udvardy]] in 1975.

The Earth's land surface can be divided into eight [[biogeographic realm]]s (formerly called kingdoms, and which the BBC calls ecozones) that represent the major terrestrial communities of animals and plants, and are a synthesis of previous systems of [[floristic province]]s and faunal regions. The biome system classifies the world into ecosystem types (i.e. forests, grasslands, etc.) based on climate and vegetation. Each biogeographical realm contains multiple biomes, and biomes occur across several biogeographical realms. A system of [[biogeographical provinces]] was developed to identify specific geographic areas in each biogeographical realm that were of a consistent biome type, and shared distinct plant and animal communities. The WWF system represents a further refinement of the system of biomes (which the WWF calls ""major habitat types""), biogeographical realms, and biogeographical provinces (the WWF scheme divides most biogeographical provinces into multiple smaller ecoregions).

===Selection process===
Based on a comprehensive list of [[ecoregion]]s, The Global 200 includes all major habitat types (biomes), all [[ecosystem]] types, and [[species]] from every major habitat type. It focuses on each major habitat type of every continent (such as [[tropical forest]]s or [[coral reef]]s). It uses [[ecoregion]]s as the unit of scale for comparison. WWF say ecoregions could be considered as conservation units at regional scale because they meet similar biological communities.

Some ecoregions were selected over other ecoregions of the same major habitat type (biome) or realm. Selection of the Global 200 relied on extensive studies of 19 terrestrial, freshwater, and marine major habitat types. Selection of the ecoregions was based on analyses of species richness, species [[endemic (ecology)|endemism]], unique higher [[taxon|taxa]], unusual ecological or evolutionary phenomena, and global rarity of major habitat type.

Global 200 ecoregion list is most helpful to conservation efforts at a regional scale: local [[deforestation]], destruction of swamp habitats, degradation of soils, etc. However, certain phenomena, such as bird or whale [[Fish migration|migration]], depend on more complex parameters not used to define the current [[database]], such as atmospheric currents and dynamic [[pelagic]] ecosystems. These would require gathering more information, and co-ordination of efforts between multiple ecoregions. However, the Global 200 ecoregions can help these efforts by identifying habitat sites and resting sites for migratory animals. It may also help identify the origin of [[invasive species]], and offer insights for slowing down or stopping their intrusion.

==Global 200: [[Terrestrial ecoregion|Terrestrial]]==

===[[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]]===
{{main|Tropical rainforest}}
{{main|Tropical seasonal forest}}

====[[Afrotropical]]====
*[[Guinean moist forests]]
**AT0111 [[Eastern Guinean forests]]
**AT0114 [[Guinean montane forests]]
**AT0130 [[Western Guinean lowland forests]]
*[[Congolian coastal forests]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/congolian_coastal_forests.cfm |title=Congolian Coastal Forests - A Global Ecoregion |access-date=2017-01-10 |archive-date=2017-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111003509/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/congolian_coastal_forests.cfm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
**AT0102 [[Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests]]
**AT0107 [[Cross–Sanaga–Bioko coastal forests]]
**AT0127 [[São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón forests]]
*[[Cameroon Highlands forests]]
**AT0103 [[Cameroonian Highlands forests]]
**AT0121 [[Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests]]
*[[Northeastern Congolian lowland forests]]
**AT0124 [[Northeastern Congolian lowland forests]]
*Central Congo Basin Moist Forests
**AT0104 [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]
**AT0110 [[Eastern Congolian swamp forests]]
*Western Congo Basin Moist Forests
**AT0126 [[Northwestern Congolian lowland forests]]
**AT0129 [[Western Congolian swamp forests]]
*Albertine Rift montane forests
**AT0101 [[Albertine Rift montane forests]]
*[[East African Coastal Forests]]
**AT0125 [[Northern Zanzibar–Inhambane coastal forest mosaic]]
**AT0128 [[Southern Zanzibar–Inhambane coastal forest mosaic]]
*Eastern Arc Montane Forests ([[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]])
**AT0109 [[Eastern Arc forests]]
*Madagascar lowlands and subhumid forests
**AT0117 [[Madagascar lowland forests]]
**AT0118 [[Madagascar subhumid forests]]
*[[Seychelles]] and [[Mascarene Islands]] moist forests
**AT0113 [[Granitic Seychelles forests]]
**AT0120 [[Mascarene forests]]

====[[Australasian realm|Australasia]]====
*[[Sulawesi]] moist forests
**AA0123 [[Sulawesi lowland rain forests]]
**AA0124 [[Sulawesi montane rain forests]]
*[[Maluku Islands|Moluccas]] moist forests ([[Indonesia]])
**AA0106 [[Halmahera rain forests]]
*Southern New Guinea lowland forests
**AA0122 [[Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests]]
*New Guinea montane forests
**AA0116 [[Northern New Guinea montane rain forests]]
*[[Solomons–Vanuatu–Bismarck moist forests]]
**AA0101 [[Admiralty Islands lowland rain forests]]
**AA0111 [[New Britain–New Ireland lowland rain forests]]
**AA0112 [[New Britain–New Ireland montane rain forests]]
**AA0119 [[Solomon Islands rain forests]]
**AA0126 [[Vanuatu rain forests]]
*Queensland tropical rain forests
**AA0117 [[Queensland tropical rain forests]]
*New Caledonia moist forests
**AA0113 [[New Caledonia rain forests]]
*[[Lord Howe Island|Lord Howe]]&ndash;[[Norfolk Island]]s forests
**AA0109 [[Lord Howe Island subtropical forests]]

====[[Indomalaya]]====
*South Western Ghats montane rain forests and moist deciduous forests
**IM0150 [[South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests]]
**IM0151 [[South Western Ghats montane rain forests]]
*[[Sri Lanka]] moist forests
**IM0154 [[Sri Lanka lowland rain forests]]
**IM0155 [[Sri Lanka montane rain forests]]
*Northern [[Indochina]] Subtropical moist forests
**IM0137 [[Northern Indochina subtropical forests]]
*Southeast China-Hainan moist forests
**IM0149 [[South China–Vietnam subtropical evergreen forests]]
**IM0169 [[Hainan Island monsoon rain forests]]
*[[Taiwan]] montane forests
**IM0172 [[Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests]]
*[[Annamite Range]] moist forests ([[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]])
**IM0136 [[Northern Annamites rain forests]]
**IM0152 [[Southern Annamites montane rain forests]]
*Sumatran Islands lowland and montane forests
**IM0157 [[Sumatran freshwater swamp forests]]
**IM0158 [[Sumatran lowland rain forests]]
**IM0159 [[Sumatran montane rain forests]]
**IM0160 [[Sumatran peat swamp forests]]
*[[Ecoregions of the Philippines|Philippines moist forests]]
**IM0114 [[Greater Negros–Panay rain forests]]
**IM0122 [[Luzon montane rain forests]]
**IM0123 [[Luzon rain forests]]
**IM0128 [[Mindanao montane rain forests]]
**IM0129 [[Mindanao–Eastern Visayas rain forests]]
**IM0130 [[Mindoro rain forests]]
**IM0156 [[Sulu Archipelago rain forests]]
*[[Palawan]] moist forests
**IM0143 [[Palawan rain forests]]
*[[Kayah State|Kayah]]-Karen/[[Tanintharyi Region|Tenasserim]] moist forests
**IM0119 [[Kayah–Karen montane rain forests]]
**IM0163 [[Tenasserim–South Thailand semi-evergreen rain forests]]
*Peninsular Malaysian lowland and montane forests
**IM0144 [[Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests]]
**IM0145 [[Peninsular Malaysian peat swamp forests]]
**IM0146 [[Peninsular Malaysian rain forests]]
*[[Borneo]] lowland and montane forests
**IM0102 [[Borneo lowland rain forest]]s
**IM0103 [[Borneo montane rain forests]]
**IM0104 [[Borneo peat swamp forests]]
*[[Nansei Shoto Archipelago forests]] (Japan)
**IM0170 [[Nansei Islands subtropical evergreen forests]]
*Eastern [[Deccan Plateau]] moist forests (India)
**IM0111 [[Eastern highlands moist deciduous forests]]
*[[Naga-Manupuri-Chin hills moist forests]] ([[Bangladesh]], India, [[Myanmar]])
**IM0109 [[Chin Hills–Arakan Yoma montane forests]]
**IM0120 [[Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests]]
**IM0131 [[Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests]]
*Cardamom Mountains moist forests
**IM0106 [[Cardamom Mountains rain forests]]
*Western Java montane forests
**IM0167 [[Western Java montane rain forests]]
*Maldives–Lakshadweep–Chagos Archipelago tropical moist forests
**IM0125 [[Maldives–Lakshadweep–Chagos Archipelago tropical moist forests]]

====[[Neotropic]]====
*[[Greater Antilles|Greater Antillean]] moist forests
**NT0120 [[Cuban moist forests]]
**NT0127 [[Hispaniolan moist forests]]
**NT0131 [[Jamaican moist forests]]
**NT0155 [[Puerto Rican moist forests]]
*Talamancan-Isthmian Pacific forests
**NT0167 [[Talamancan montane forests]]
*Choco–Darien moist forests
**NT0115 [[Chocó–Darién moist forests]]
*Northern Andean montane forests
**NT0145 [[Northwestern Andean montane forests]]
*Coastal [[Venezuela]] montane forests
**NT0147 [[Orinoco Delta swamp forests]]
**NT0169 [[Tepuis]]
**NT0171 [[Trinidad and Tobago moist forests]]
*Guianan moist forests
**NT0125 [[Guianan moist forests]]
*Napo moist forests
**NT0142 [[Napo moist forests]]
*Rio Negro - Juruá moist forests
**NT0132 [[Japurá–Solimões–Negro moist forests]]
**NT0133 [[Juruá–Purus moist forests]]
**NT0158 [[Rio Negro campinarana]]
*[[The Guyanas|Guayana]] Highlands moist forests
**NT0124 [[Guayanan Highlands moist forests]]
*Central Andean [[yungas]]
**NT0105 [[Bolivian Yungas]]
**NT0153 [[Peruvian Yungas]]
*Southwestern Amazonian moist forests
**NT0166 [[Southwest Amazon moist forests]]
*[[Atlantic forests]]
**NT0103 [[Bahia coastal forests]]
**NT0151 [[Pernambuco coastal forests]]
**NT0160 [[Serra do Mar coastal forests]]

====[[Oceanian realm|Oceania]]====
*South Pacific Islands forests ([[American Samoa]] - United States, [[Cook Islands]] - New Zealand, [[Fiji]], [[French Polynesia]] - France, [[Niue]] - New Zealand, [[Samoa]], [[Tonga]], [[Wallis and Futuna Islands]] - France)
**OC0102 [[Central Polynesian tropical moist forests]]
**OC0103 [[Cook Islands tropical moist forests]]
**OC0104 [[Eastern Micronesia tropical moist forests]]
**OC0105 [[Fiji tropical moist forests]]
**OC0112 [[Samoan tropical moist forests]]
**OC0114 [[Tongan tropical moist forests]]
**OC0117 [[Western Polynesian tropical moist forests]]
*[[Hawaii]] moist forests
**OC0106 [[Hawaiian tropical rainforests]]

===[[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests]]===

====Afrotropic====
*[[Madagascar]] dry deciduous forests
**AT0202 [[Madagascar dry deciduous forests]]

====Australasia====
*[[Lesser Sunda Islands|Nusa Tenggara]] Dry Forests ([[Indonesia]])
**AA0201 [[Lesser Sundas deciduous forests]]
**AA0203 [[Sumba deciduous forests]]
**AA0204 [[Timor and Wetar deciduous forests]]
*[[New Caledonia]] dry forests
**AA0202 [[New Caledonia dry forests]]

====Indomalaya====
*[[Indochina]] dry forests
**IM0202 [[Central Indochina dry forests]]
*Chhota - Nagpur dry forests
**IM0203 [[Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests]]

====Neotropic====
*[[Mexican dry forests]]
**NT0204 [[Bajio dry forests]]
**NT0205 [[Balsas dry forests]]
**NT0227 [[Sierra de la Laguna dry forests]]
*Tumbesian - Andean valleys dry forests ([[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]])
**NT0201 [[Apure–Villavicencio dry forests]]
**NT0214 [[Ecuadorian dry forests]]
**NT0221 [[Magdalena Valley dry forests]]
**NT0223 [[Marañón dry forests]]
**NT0232 [[Tumbes–Piura dry forests]]
*Chiquitano dry forests
**NT0212 [[Chiquitano dry forests]]
*Atlantic dry forests
**NT0202 [[Atlantic dry forests]]

====Oceania====
*[[Hawaii]] dry forests
**OC0202 [[Hawaiian tropical dry forests]]

===[[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]]===

====[[Nearctic]]====
*Sierra Madre Oriental and Occidental pine-oak forests
**NA0302 [[Sierra Madre Occidental pine–oak forests]]
**NA0303 [[Sierra Madre Oriental pine–oak forests]]

====Neotropic====
*Greater Antillean pine forests
**NT0304 [[Cuban pine forests]]
**NT0305 [[Hispaniolan pine forests]]
*[[Mesoamerican pine–oak forests]] ([[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]], [[Nicaragua]])
**NT0308 [[Sierra Madre de Oaxaca pine–oak forests]]
**NT0309 [[Sierra Madre del Sur pine–oak forests]]
**NT0310 [[Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine–oak forests]]

===[[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]]===

====Australasia====
*Eastern Australia temperate forests
**AA0402 [[Eastern Australian temperate forests]]
*Tasmanian temperate rain forests
**AA0413 [[Tasmanian temperate rain forests]]
*New Zealand temperate forests
**AA0403 [[Fiordland temperate forests]]
**AA0404 [[Nelson Coast temperate forests]]
**AA0405 [[Northland temperate forests]]
**AA0406 [[Northland temperate kauri forests]]
**AA0407 [[Rakiura Island temperate forests]]
**AA0410 [[Southland temperate forests]]
**AA0414 [[Westland temperate forests]]

====Indomalaya====
*Eastern Himalayan broadleaf and conifer forests
**IM0401 [[Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests]]
*Western Himalayan temperate forests
**IM0403 [[Western Himalayan broadleaf forests]]

====Nearctic====
*Appalachian and mixed mesophytic forests
**NA0402 [[Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests]]

====Neotropic====
*[[Valdivian temperate rain forests]] - [[Juan Fernández Islands]]
**NT0401 [[Juan Fernández Islands temperate forests]]
**NT0404 [[Valdivian temperate forests]]

====[[Palearctic]]====
*Southwest China temperate forests
**PA0417 [[Daba Mountains evergreen forests]]
**PA0434 [[Qin Ling Mountains deciduous forests]]
**PA0437 [[Sichuan Basin evergreen broadleaf forests]]
*Russian Far East temperate forests
**PA0426 [[Manchurian mixed forests]]
**PA0443 [[Ussuri broadleaf and mixed forests]]

===[[Temperate coniferous forests]]===

====Nearctic====
*[[Pacific temperate rain forests]]
**NA0510 [[Central Pacific coastal forests]]
**NA0512 [[Eastern Cascades forests]]
**NA0520 [[Northern Pacific coastal forests]]
*Klamath - Siskiyou forests
**NA0516 [[Klamath-Siskiyou forests]]
*Sierra Nevada forests
**NA0527 [[Sierra Nevada forests]]
*Southeastern coniferous and broadleaf forests
**NA0529 [[Southeastern conifer forests]]

====Palearctic====
*[[European-Mediterranean montane mixed forest|European - Mediterranean montane mixed forests]]
**PA0501 [[Alps conifer and mixed forests]]
**PA0513 [[Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests]]
*[[Caucasus-Anatolian-Hyrcanian temperate forest]] ([[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Iran]], [[Russia]], [[Turkey]], [[Turkmenistan]])
**PA0407 [[Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests]]
**PA0408 [[Caucasus mixed forests]]
**PA0507 [[Elburz Range forest steppe]]
**PA0515 [[Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests]]
*Altai - Sayan montane forests
**PA0502 [[Altai montane forest and forest steppe]]
**PA0519 [[Sayan montane conifer forests]]
*Hengduan Shan coniferous forests
**PA0509 [[Hengduan Mountains subalpine conifer forests]]

===[[Boreal forests/taiga]]===

====Nearctic====
*Muskwa / Slave Lake boreal forests
**NA0610 [[Muskwa–Slave Lake forests]]
*Canadian Boreal Forests
**NA0606 [[Eastern Canadian Shield taiga]]

====Palearctic====
*Ural Mountains taiga
**PA0610 [[Urals montane tundra and taiga]]
*East Siberian taiga
**PA0601 [[East Siberian taiga]]
*[[Kamchatka]] taiga and grasslands
**PA0603 [[Kamchatka–Kurile meadows and sparse forests]]
**PA0604 [[Kamchatka–Kurile taiga]]

===[[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]===

====Afrotropic====
*[[Horn of Africa]] acacia savannas
**AT0715 [[Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]]
*East African acacia savannas
**AT0711 [[Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]]
*Central and Eastern miombo woodlands
**AT0704 [[Central Zambezian miombo woodlands]]
**AT0706 [[Eastern miombo woodlands]]
*[[Sudanian savannas]]
**AT0705 [[East Sudanian savanna]]
**AT0722 [[West Sudanian savanna]]

====Australasia====
*Northern Australia and Trans-Fly savannas
**AA0701 [[Arnhem Land tropical savanna]]
**AA0702 [[Brigalow tropical savanna]]
**AA0703 [[Cape York tropical savanna]]
**AA0704 [[Carpentaria tropical savanna]]
**AA0705 [[Einasleigh upland savanna]]
**AA0706 [[Kimberley tropical savanna]]
**AA0708 [[Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands]]

====Indomalaya====
*Terai-Duar savannas and grasslands
**IM0701 [[Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands]]

====Neotropic====
*Llanos savannas
**NT0709 [[Llanos]]
*Cerrado woodlands and savannas
**NT0704 [[Cerrado]]

===[[Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]===

====Nearctic====
*Northern [[prairie]]
**NA0810 [[Northern mixed grasslands]]
**NA0811 [[Northern short grasslands]]
**NA0812 [[Northern tall grasslands]]

====Neotropic====
*Patagonian steppe
**NT0805 [[Patagonian steppe]]

====Palearctic====
*Daurian steppe
**PA0804 [[Daurian forest steppe]]

===[[Flooded grasslands and savannas]]===

====Afrotropic====
*[[Sudd]] - Sahelian flooded grasslands and savannas ([[Cameroon]], [[Chad]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Sudan]], [[Uganda]])
**AT0903 [[Inner Niger Delta flooded savanna]]
**AT0904 [[Lake Chad flooded savanna]]
**AT0905 [[Saharan flooded grasslands]]
*Zambezian flooded savannas
**AT0907 [[Zambezian flooded grasslands]]

====Indomalaya====
*[[Rann of Kutch]] flooded grasslands
**IM0901 [[Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh]]

====Neotropic====
*[[Everglades]] flooded grasslands
**NT0904 [[Everglades]]
*[[Pantanal]] flooded savannas
**NT0907 [[Pantanal]]

===[[Montane grasslands and shrublands]]===

====Afrotropic====
*Ethiopian Highlands
**AT1007 [[Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]]
**AT1008 [[Ethiopian montane moorlands]]
*Southern Rift montane woodlands
**AT1015 [[Southern Rift montane forest–grassland mosaic]]
*East African moorlands
**AT1005 [[East African montane moorlands]]
*[[Drakensberg]] montane shrublands and woodlands
**AT1003 [[Drakensberg alti-montane grasslands and woodlands]]
**AT1004 [[Drakensberg montane grasslands, woodlands and forests]]

====Australasian====
* New Guinea Central Range subalpine grasslands
** AA 1002 [[Central Range subalpine grasslands]]

====Indomalaya====
*Kinabalu montane shrublands
**IM1001 [[Kinabalu montane alpine meadows]]

====Neotropic====
*Northern Andean [[páramo]]
**NT1006 [[Northern Andean páramo]]
*Central Andean dry [[puna grassland|puna]]
**NT1001 [[Central Andean dry puna]]

====Palearctic====
*Tibetan Plateau steppe
**PA1020 [[Tibetan Plateau alpine shrublands and meadows]]
*Middle Asian montane steppe and woodlands ([[Afghanistan]], China, [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]])
**PA1011 [[North Tibetan Plateau–Kunlun Mountains alpine desert]]
**PA1015 [[Qilian Mountains subalpine meadows]]
**PA1013 [[Ordos Plateau steppe]]
*Eastern Himalayan alpine meadows
**PA1003 [[Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows]]

===[[Tundra]]===

====[[Nearctic]]====
*Alaskan North Slope coastal tundra (Canada, United States)
**NA1103 [[Arctic coastal tundra]]
**NA1104 [[Arctic foothills tundra]]
**NA1108 [[Brooks–British Range tundra]]
*Canadian low arctic tundra (Canada)
**NA1114 [[Low Arctic tundra]]
**NA1116 [[Ogilvie–MacKenzie alpine tundra]]
**NA1118 [[Torngat Mountain tundra]]

====[[Palearctic]]====
*Fenno - Scandia alpine tundra and taiga (Finland, Norway, Russia, Sweden)
**PA1106 [[Kola Peninsula tundra]]
**PA1110 [[Scandinavian montane birch forest and grasslands]]
*Taimyr and Siberian coastal tundra
**PA1107 [[Northeast Siberian coastal tundra]]
**PA1111 [[Taimyr–Central Siberian tundra]]
*Chukote coastal tundra (Russia)
**PA1104 [[Chukchi Peninsula tundra]]

===[[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]]===

====Afrotropic====
*[[Fynbos]]
**AT1202 [[Lowland fynbos and renosterveld]]
**AT1203 [[Montane fynbos and renosterveld]]

====Australasia====
*[[Southwestern Australia]] forests and scrub
**AA1201 [[Coolgardie woodlands]]
**AA1202 [[Esperance mallee]]
**AA1209 [[Southwest Australia savanna]]
**AA1210 [[Southwest Australia woodlands]]
*Southern Australia mallee and woodlands
**AA1203 [[Eyre and York mallee]]
**AA1206 [[Mount Lofty woodlands]]
**AA1208 [[Naracoorte woodlands]]

====Nearctic====
*[[California chaparral and woodlands]]
**NA1201 [[California coastal sage and chaparral]]
**NA1202 [[California interior chaparral and woodlands]]
**NA1203 [[California montane chaparral and woodlands]]

====Neotropic====
*Chilean Matorral
**NT1201 [[Chilean Matorral]]

====Palearctic====
*[[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]]
**PA1214 [[Mediterranean woodlands and forests]]

===[[Deserts and xeric shrublands]]===

====Afrotropic====
*Namib - Karoo - Kaokoveld deserts ([[Angola]], [[Namibia]], [[South Africa]])
**AT1310 [[Kaokoveld desert]]
**AT1314 [[Nama Karoo]]
**AT1315 [[Namib desert]]
**AT1322 [[Succulent Karoo]]
*Madagascar spiny thicket
**AT1311 [[Madagascar spiny thickets]]
*[[Socotra Island]] desert ([[Yemen]])
**AT1318 [[Socotra Island xeric shrublands]]
*Arabian Highland woodlands and shrublands ([[Oman]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Yemen]])
**AT1320 [[Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna]]
**AT1321 [[Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands]]

====Australasia====
*Carnavon xeric scrub
**AA1301 [[Carnarvon xeric shrublands]]
*Great Sandy - Tanami deserts
**AA1304 [[Great Sandy-Tanami desert]]

====Nearctic====
*Sonoran - Baja deserts
**NA1301 [[Baja California desert]]
**NA1310 [[Sonoran Desert]]
*Chihuahuan - Tehuacan deserts
**NA1303 [[Chihuahuan Desert]]

====Neotropic====
*[[Galápagos Islands]] scrub
**NT1307 [[Galápagos Islands xeric scrub]]
*Atacama - Sechura deserts
**NT1303 [[Atacama Desert]]
**NT1315 [[Sechura Desert]]
*Brazilian Atlantic Dry Forests
**NT1304 [[Caatinga]] 

====Palearctic====
*Central Asian deserts ([[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]])
**PA1310 [[Central Asian northern desert]]
**PA1312 [[Central Asian southern desert]]

===[[Mangroves]]===

====Afrotropic====
*East African mangroves
**AT1402 [[East African mangroves]]
*Gulf of Guinea mangroves
**AT1403 [[Guinean mangroves]]
*Madagascar mangroves
**AT1404 [[Madagascar mangroves]]

====Australasia====
*New Guinea mangroves
**AA1401 [[New Guinea mangroves]]

====Indomalaya====
*Greater Sundas mangroves
**IM1405 [[Sunda Shelf mangroves]]
*Sundarbans mangroves
**IM1406 [[Sundarbans mangroves]]

====Nearctic====
*Northwest Mexican coast mangroves
**NA1401 [[Northwest Mexican coast mangroves]]

====Neotropic====
*Guianan - Amazon mangroves
**NT1401 [[Alvarado mangroves]]
**NT1402 [[Amapá mangroves]]
**NT1406 [[Belizean reef mangroves]]
**NT1411 [[Guianan mangroves]]
**NT1427 [[Pará mangroves]]
*[[Panama Bight mangroves]]
**NT1414 [[Gulf of Panama mangroves]]
**NT1409 [[Esmeraldas–Pacific Colombia mangroves]]
**NT1418 [[Manabí mangroves]]
**NT1413 [[Gulf of Guayaquil–Tumbes mangroves]]

==Global 200: [[Freshwater ecoregion]]s==

===Large rivers===

====Afrotropic====
*[[Congo River]] and flooded forests ([[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Republic of Congo]])

====Indomalaya====
*[[Mekong River]] (Cambodia, China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam)

====Nearctic====
*[[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]] (Mexico, United States)
*Lower [[Mississippi River]] (United States)

====Neotropic====
*[[Amazon River]] and flooded forests (Brazil, Colombia, Peru)
*[[Orinoco River]] and flooded forests (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela)

====Palearctic====
*[[Yangtze River]] and lakes (China)

===Large river headwaters===

====Afrotropic====
*[[Congo River|Congo]] basin piedmont rivers and streams (Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Sudan)

====Nearctic====
*[[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] [[Piedmont (United States)|piedmont]] rivers and streams (United States)

====Neotropic====
*Upper [[Amazon River|Amazon]] rivers and streams (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana (France), Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela)
*Upper [[Paraná River|Paraná]] rivers and streams (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay)
*Brazilian Shield [[Amazon River|Amazonian]] rivers and streams (Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay)

===Large [[river delta]]s===

====Afrotropic====
*[[Niger River delta]] ([[Nigeria]])

====Indomalaya====
*[[Indus River Delta]] (India, Pakistan)

====Palearctic====
*[[Volga Delta|Volga River Delta]] (Kazakhstan, Russia)
*[[Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh|Mesopotamian delta and marshes]] (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait)
*[[Danube Delta|Danube River delta]] (Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, Ukraine, Yugoslavia)
*[[Lena River]] delta (Russia)

===Small rivers===

====Afrotropic====
*Upper Guinea rivers and streams (Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone)
*Madagascar freshwater ([[Madagascar]])
*[[Gulf of Guinea]] rivers and streams (Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of Congo)
*Cape rivers and streams ([[South Africa]])

====Australasia====
*[[New Guinea rivers and streams]] ([[Indonesia]], [[Papua New Guinea]])
*[[New Caledonia rivers and streams]] ([[New Caledonia]])
*Kimberley rivers and streams (Australia)
*[[Southwest Australia]] rivers and streams (Australia)
*Eastern Australia rivers and streams (Australia)

====Indomalaya====
*Xi Jiang rivers and streams (China, Vietnam)
*[[Western Ghats]] Rivers and Streams (India)
*[[Southwestern Sri Lanka rivers and streams]] ([[Sri Lanka]])
*[[Salween River]] (China, Myanmar, Thailand)
*[[Sundaland]] rivers and swamps (Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore)

====Nearctic====
*Southeastern rivers and streams (United States)
*[[Pacific Northwest]] coastal rivers and streams (United States)
*[[Gulf of Alaska]] coastal rivers and streams (Canada, United States)

====Neotropic====
*Guianan freshwater (Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela)
*Greater Antillean freshwater (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico)

====Palearctic====
*Balkan rivers and streams (Albania, Bosnia and Herzogovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, Turkey, Yugoslavia)
*Russian Far East rivers and wetlands (China, Mongolia, Russia)

===Large lakes===

====Afrotropic====
*[[Rift Valley lakes]] (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia)

====Neotropic====
*High Andean lakes (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru)

====Palearctic====
*[[Lake Baikal]] (Russia)
*[[Lake Biwa]] (Japan)

===Small lakes===

====Afrotropic====
*Cameroon crater lakes (Cameroon)

====Australasia====
*Lakes [[Lake Kutubu|Kutubu]] and Sentani (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea)
*Central [[Sulawesi]] lakes (Indonesia)

====Indomalaya====
*Philippines freshwater (Philippines)
*[[Inle Lake]] (Myanmar)
*[[Yunnan]] lakes and streams (China)

====Neotropic====
*Mexican highland lakes (Mexico)

===Xeric basins===

====Australasia====
*Central Australian freshwater (Australia)

====Nearctic====
*[[Chihuahuan Desert|Chihuahuan]] freshwater (Mexico, United States)

====Palearctic====
*Anatolian freshwater (Syria, Turkey)

==Global 200 Marine ecoregions==

===Polar===

====[[Antarctic Ocean]]====
*[[Antarctic Peninsula & Weddell Sea]]

====[[Arctic Ocean]]====
*[[Bering Sea]] (Canada, Russia, United States)
*[[Barents-Kara Sea]] (Norway, Russia)

===Temperate shelves and seas===

====[[Mediterranean Sea]]====
*Mediterranean (Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Serbia & Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey)

====[[Temperate Northern Atlantic]]====
*[[Northeast Atlantic Shelf Marine]] (Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, United Kingdom)
*[[Grand Banks]] (Canada, St. Pierre and Miquelon (France), United States)
*[[Chesapeake Bay]] (United States)

====[[Temperate Northern Pacific]]====
*[[Yellow Sea]] (China, North Korea, South Korea)
*[[Sea of Okhotsk]] (Japan, Russia)

====[[Southern Ocean]]====
*[[Patagonian Southwest Atlantic]] (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay)
*[[Southern Australian Marine]] (Australia)
*[[New Zealand Marine]] (New Zealand)

===[[upwelling|Temperate upwelling]]===

====North Temperate Indo-Pacific====
*[[California Current]] (Canada, Mexico, United States)

====South Temperate Atlantic====
*[[Benguela Current]] (Namibia, South Africa)

====South Temperate Indo-Pacific====
*[[Humboldt Current]] (Chile, Ecuador, Peru)
*[[Agulhas Current]] (Mozambique, South Africa)

===[[Upwelling|Tropical upwelling]]===

====Central Indo-Pacific====
*[[Western Australian Marine]] (Australia)

====Eastern Indo-Pacific====
*[[Panama Bight]] (Colombia, Ecuador, Panama)
*[[Gulf of California]] (Mexico)
*[[Galápagos Marine]] (Ecuador)

====Eastern Tropical Atlantic====
*[[Canary Current]] (Canary Islands, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Morocco, Senegal, Western Sahara)

===[[Coral reef|Tropical coral]]===

====Central Indo-Pacific====
*[[Nansei Shoto]] (Ryukyu Islands) (Japan)
*[[Sulu-Sulawesi Seas]] (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines)
*[[Bismarck-Solomon Seas]] (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands)
*[[Banda-Flores Sea]] (Indonesia)
*[[New Caledonia Barrier Reef]] (New Caledonia)
*[[Great Barrier Reef]] (Australia)
*[[Lord Howe-Norfolk Islands Marine]] (Australia)
*[[Palau Marine]] (Palau)
*[[Andaman Sea]] (Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand)

====Eastern Indo-Pacific====
*[[Tahitian Marine]] (Cook Islands, French Polynesia)
*[[Hawaiian Marine]] (Hawaii)
*[[Rapa Nui]] (Easter Island)
*[[Fiji Barrier Reef]] (Fiji)

====Western Indo-Pacific====
*[[Maldives]], [[Chagos Archipelago|Chagos]], and [[Lakshadweep]] atolls (Chagos Archipelago (United Kingdom), India, Maldives, Sri Lanka)
*[[Red Sea]] (Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen)
*[[Arabian Sea]] (Djibouti, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen)
*[[East African Marine]] (Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia, Tanzania)
*[[West Madagascar Marine]] (Comoros, Madagascar, Mayotte and Iles Glorieuses (France), Seychelles)

====Western Tropical Atlantic====
*[[Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System]] (Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico)
*[[Greater Antillean Marine]] (Bahamas, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States)
*[[Southern Caribbean Sea]] (Aruba, Colombia, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela)
*[[Northeast Brazil Shelf Marine]] (Brazil)

== Global Priority Places ==
WWF has identified 35 global priority places around the world (terrestrial, freshwater and marine) as either being home to irreplaceable and threatened biodiversity, or representing an opportunity to conserve the largest and most intact representative of their ecosystem.<ref>[http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/roadmap_sign_off_fin.pdf WWF's Strategic Plan for Conservation]</ref>
# African Rift Lakes Region - Include the 3 largest lakes in Africa: Victoria, Tanganyika and Malawi, as well as lakes Turkana, Albert, Edward, Kivu and others.
# [[Altai-Sayan region|Altai-Sayan Montane Forests]] - One of the last remaining untouched areas of the world 
# Amazon Guianas - World's largest tropical rain forest and river basin with a mosaic of mountains, coniferous forests, steppe and alpine meadows. 
# Amur-Heilong - Refuge for Amur leopard and tiger.
# Arctic Seas & Associated Boreal/Tundra - Protecting Arctic Environments
# [[Atlantic Forests]] - Forest stretches from the Atlantic coast of Brazil, south along the Brazilian Atlantic coastline and inland into northeast Argentina and eastern Paraguay.
# Borneo and Sumatra - Priceless forests harbor untold species
# [[Cerrado]]-[[Pantanal]]
# [[Chihuahuan Desert]] - Protecting the balance of a desert
# [[Chocó–Darién]]
# Coastal East Africa - Improving livelihoods by conserving nature
# Congo Basin - Protecting Africa's tropical forests
# [[Coral Triangle]] - Home to the world's most abundant variety of corals and sea life
# Eastern Himalayas - Empowering communities to protect sacred lands
# [[Fynbos]]
# The Galápagos - The world's most treasured islands
# Greater Black Sea Basin
# Lake Baikal
# [[Madagascar]] - Safeguarding one of Earth's most captivating islands
# [[Mediterranean Sea]]
# Mekong Complex - Protecting the river of life from source to sea
# [[Miombo woodland]]s
# Namib-Karoo-Kaokoveld
# New Guinea & Offshore Islands
# Northern Great Plains
# Orinoco River & Flooded Forests
# Southeastern Rivers and Streams
# Southern Chile - A land of ancient forests and abundant oceans
# [[Southern Ocean]]
# [[Southwest Australia]]
# Southwest Pacific
# Sumatra
# West Africa Marine
# [[Western Ghats]]
# Yangtze Basin - Sustaining a valley of life

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Ecoregions.png|WWF Global 200 ecoregions.
Image:Wwfeco.png|WWF terrestrial ecoregions.
Image:Ucayalirivermap.png|Map of the Amazon Basin. Urubamba - Ucayali River.
Image:Lijiang_Lage.jpg|Lijiang City, Yunnan, China.
Image:Indiahills.png|Hills of India.
Image:Ocean drainage.png|Major endorheic basins of the world. Basins are shown in dark gray; major endorheic lakes are shown in black.
Image:Vegetation-no-legend.PNG|Terrestrial biomes classified by vegetation.
</gallery>

== See also ==
*[[Biodiversity hotspots]]
*[[Megadiverse countries]]
*[[Arid Forest Research Institute]] (AFRI)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
**[http://www.biodiversitya-z.org/areas/14/ A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Global 200 Ecoregions]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20020108162653/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/global.html?detail=undefined&size=undefined&id=0&cMinx=-180&cMaxx=180&cMiny=-90&cMaxy=90 Map of the Global 200]
*[http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/maps/index.cfm Conservation status map of the global 200]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060712165839/http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/ecoregion_list/index.cfm List of the Global 200]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20010123214200/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/terrestrial.html Map of Ecoregions]
*[http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/ Global Priority Places]

{{WWFN}}
{{Biomes}}

{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date=November 2017}}

[[Category:WWF ecoregions]]
[[Category:Ecology lists]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Lists of places]]
[[Category:Top lists]]"
Natural heritage,"{{short description|Elements of biodiversity, including flora and fauna, ecosystems and geological structures}}
'''Natural heritage''' refers to the sum total of the elements of biodiversity, including flora and fauna, ecosystems and geological structures. It forms part of our [[natural resources]].

== Definition ==
Definitions:
* Natural heritage refers to natural features, geological and physiographical formations and delineated areas that constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants and natural sites of value from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty.                  
* Heritage is that which is ''inherited'' from past generations, maintained in the present, and bestowed to [[future generations]].<ref> Ann Marie Sullivan, Cultural Heritage & New Media: A Future for the Past, 15 J. MARSHALL REV. INTELL. PROP. L. 604 (2016) https://repository.jmls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1392&context=ripl</ref> The term ""natural heritage"", derived from ""natural inheritance"", pre-dates the term ""[[biodiversity]]"". It is a less scientific term and more easily comprehended in some ways by the wider audience interested in [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]]. 

The term was used in this context in the United States when [[Jimmy Carter]] set up the Georgia Heritage Trust <ref>http://maps.csc.noaa.gov/RoisDatabaseEntry/lawDetails.jsp?lawID=107{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The creation of the Heritage Trust Commission, Georgia Heritage Trust Act, Official Code of Georgia (O.C.G.A.) Section 12-3-70</ref> while he was governor of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]];<ref>[http://www.legis.state.ga.us/legis/2005_06/house/kids/famous/jimmycarter.htm President Jimmy Carter<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030215101/http://www.legis.state.ga.us/legis/2005_06/house/kids/famous/jimmycarter.htm |date=2007-10-30 }}</ref> Carter's trust dealt with both natural and cultural heritage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://alumnus.tennessee.edu/issues/contents/spring-2007/ |title=Tennessee Alumnus Magazine - Spring 2007 |access-date=2008-06-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807165140/http://alumnus.tennessee.edu/issues/contents/spring-2007/ |archive-date=2008-08-07 }} Paul Pritchard, founder and president of the National Park Trust</ref><ref>p. 311, The Governors of Georgia, 1754-2004
 By James F. Cook, {{ISBN|0-86554-954-0}}, 2005 Mercer University Press</ref> It would appear that Carter picked the term up from [[Lyndon Johnson]],<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-07-11-lady-bird-obit_N.htm | work=USA Today | title=Lady Bird Johnson dies at 94 | first=Kathy | last=Kiely | date=2009-01-22 | access-date=2010-05-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127160848/https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-07-11-lady-bird-obit_N.htm |archive-date= Jan 27, 2011 }}</ref> who used it in a 1966 Message to [[United States Congress|Congress]].  (He may have gotten the term from his wife [[Lady Bird Johnson]] who was personally interested in conservation.)  President Johnson signed the [[Wilderness Act|Wilderness Act of 1964]]. 

The term ""Natural Heritage"" was picked up by the Science Division of [[The Nature Conservancy]] (TNC) when, under Robert E. Jenkins, Jr., it launched in 1974 what ultimately became the network of state natural heritage programs—one in each state, all using the same [[methodology]] and all supported permanently by state governments because they scientifically document conservation priorities and facilitate science-based environmental reviews.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Adams |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/58563371|title=The Future of the Wild: Radical Conservation for a Crowded World |date=2006|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=0-8070-8510-3|location=Boston|oclc=58563371}}</ref> When this network was extended outside the United States, the term ""Conservation Data Center (or Centre)"" was suggested by Guillermo Mann and came to be preferred for programs outside the US{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}.  Despite the name difference, these programs, too, use the same core methodology as the 50 state natural heritage programs. In 1994 The network of natural heritage programs formed a membership association to work together on projects of common interest: the Association for Biodiversity Information (ABI). In 1999, Through an agreement with The Nature Conservancy, ABI expanded and assumed responsibility for the scientific databases, information, and tools developed by TNC in support of the network of natural heritage programs. In 2001, ABI changed its name to [[NatureServe]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our History |url=http://www.natureserve.org/about-us/our-history |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730043152/http://www.natureserve.org/about-us/our-history |archive-date=Jul 30, 2021 |website=NatureServe}}</ref> NatureServe continues to serve as the hub of the NatureServe Network, a collaboration of 86 governmental and non-governmental programs including natural heritage programs and conservation data centers located in the United States, Canada, and Latin America.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NatureServe Network |url=http://www.natureserve.org/natureserve-network |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022035939/https://www.natureserve.org/natureserve-network |archive-date=Oct 22, 2023 |website=NatureServe}}</ref>

==Legal status==

An important site of natural heritage or [[cultural heritage]] can be listed as a [[World Heritage Site]] by the [[World Heritage Committee]] of [[UNESCO]].  The UNESCO programme, catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity.  As of July 2023, there are 257 natural World Heritage sites (including 39 mixed sites) in 111 countries. This represents a total of more than 3.5 million km2 of protected areas, 60% of which are marine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Natural World Heritage |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/natural-world-heritage/ |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>

The 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention established that biological resources, such as plants, were the [[common heritage of mankind]] or as was expressed in the preamble: ""need to be preserved as part of the world heritage of mankind as a whole"". These rules probably inspired the creation of great public banks of [[genetic resources]], located outside the source-countries.

New global agreements (e.g., the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]), national rights over biological resources (not property). The idea of static  conservation of biodiversity is disappearing and being replaced by the idea of dynamic conservation, through the notion of resource and  innovation.

The new agreements commit countries to conserve biodiversity, develop resources for sustainability and share the benefits resulting from their use. Under new rules, it is expected  that [[bioprospecting]] or collection of natural products has to be allowed by  the biodiversity-rich country, in exchange for a share of the  benefits.

In 2005, the [[World Heritage Marine Programme]] was established to protect marine areas with Outstanding Universal Values.

== See also ==
*[[Geoheritage]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Navboxes
|list =
{{Lists of World Heritage Sites}}
}}

{{Natural resources}}

[[Category:Natural resources]]
[[Category:Cultural heritage]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental science]]
[[Category:Environmental education]]"
Population fragmentation,"{{Short description|Form of population segregation}}
[[File:2010 New York City Central Park aerial.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Central Park in New York City]]

'''Population fragmentation''' is a form of population segregation.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Proctor |first1=Michael F. |last2=McLellan |first2=Bruce N. |name-list-style=amp |last3=Strobeck |first3=Curtis |year=2002 |title=Population Fragmentation of Grizzly Bears in Southeastern British Columbia, Canada |journal=Ursus |volume=8 |pages=153–160 |jstor=3873196 }}.</ref> It is often caused by [[habitat fragmentation]].

==Causes of Fragmentation==
Fragmentation can be the cause of natural forces or human actions, although in modern times, human activity is the most common cause.<ref>Disrupting evolutionary processes: The effect of habitat fragmentation on collared lizards in the Missouri Ozarks Alan R. Templeton, Robert J. Robertson, Jennifer Brisson, Jared Strasburg Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences May 2001, 98 (10) 5426-5432; {{doi|10.1073/pnas.091093098}}</ref> Some general causes of fragmentation are:

* the development of land around a protected area, even through the addition of a single road lane or fence line,
* the captivity, capture or killing of species in an area that links populations,
* the movement of a population away from other individuals of that species, such as the natural introduction of [[wolves and moose on Isle Royale]],
* geologic processes, such as landslides or volcanoes, dividing a habitat
* [[sea level rise|rising sea levels]] separating islands from what was once a common landmass,
* global warming, especially when coupled with mountains, reducing movement from one habitat to another.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hermes|first1=Claudia|last2=Keller|first2=Klaus|last3=Nicholas|first3=Robert E.|last4=Segelbacher|first4=Gernot|last5=Schaefer|first5=H. Martin|date=2018-01-24|title=Projected impacts of climate change on habitat availability for an endangered parakeet|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=13|issue=1|pages=e0191773|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0191773|pmid=29364949|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5783391|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1391773H|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Genetic effects==
Population fragmentation causes [[inbreeding depression]], which leads to a decrease in genetic variability in the species involved.<ref name=""ProctorMcLellan"">{{Citation |last1=Proctor |first1=M. F. |last2=McLellan |first2=B. N. |last3=Strobeck |first3=C. |name-list-style=amp |last4=Barclay |first4=R. M. R. |year=2005 |title=Genetic analysis reveals demographic fragmentation of grizzly bears yielding vulnerably small populations |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=272 |issue=1579 |pages=2409–2416 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3246 |pmid=16243699 |pmc=1559960 }}.</ref> This decreases the fitness of the population for several reasons. First, inbreeding forces competition with relatives, which decreases the [[evolutionary fitness]] of the species.<ref name=""ProctorMcLellan""/> Secondly, the decrease in genetic variability causes an increased possibility a lethal homozygous recessive trait may be expressed; this decreases the average litter size reproduced, indirectly decreasing the population.<ref name=""KrebsCJ"">{{Citation |last=Krebs |first=C. J. |year=2009 |title=Ecology: The Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance |edition=6th |publisher=Benjamin Cummings |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-321-50743-3 }}.</ref> When a population is small, the influence of [[genetic drift]] increases, which leads to less and/or random fixation of alleles. In turn, this leads to increased homozygosity, negatively affecting individual fitness. The performance of plants may be compromised by less effective selection which causes an accumulation of deleterious mutations in small populations. Since individuals in small populations are more likely to be related, they are more likely to inbreed. A reduction in fitness may occur in small plant populations because of mutation accumulation, reduced genetic diversity, and increased inbreeding.<ref>Young, A., Boyle, T., & Brown, T. (1996). The population genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plants. ''Trends in Ecology & Evolution,'' ''11''(10), 413-418. {{doi|10.1016/0169-5347(96)10045-8}}</ref> Over time, the evolutionary potential and a species's ability to adapt to a changing environment, such as climate change, is decreased.<ref>Leimu, R., Vergeer, P., Angeloni, F., & Ouborg, N. J. 2010. Habitat fragmentation, climate change, and inbreeding in plants. The Year in Ecology and Conservation Biology 1195:84-98.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Metapopulation]]
* [[Wildlife corridor]]

==References==
<references/>

<br />

[[Category:Ecological connectivity| Fragmentation]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]


{{habitat-stub}}"
Threatened species,"{{Short description|IUCN conservation category}}
{{Redirect|Threatened|the Michael Jackson song|Invincible (Michael Jackson album)}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2008}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Conservation status}}

'''Threatened species''' are any [[species]] (including [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s and [[fungus|fungi]]) which are vulnerable to [[extinction]] in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the [[population dynamics]] measure of ''[[critical depensation]]'', a mathematical measure of [[biomass]] related to [[population growth rate]]. This quantitative metric is one method of evaluating the degree of endangerment without direct reference to human activity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liermann|first=Martin|year=2001|title=Depensation: evidence, models and implications|url=http://www.seaturtle.org/PDF/LiermannM_2001_FishFish.pdf|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=2|issue=1 |pages=33–58|doi=10.1046/j.1467-2979.2001.00029.x|bibcode=2001AqFF....2...33L }}</ref>

==IUCN definition==
The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) is the foremost authority on threatened species, and treats threatened species not as a single category, but as a group of three categories, depending on the degree to which they are threatened:<ref>{{cite web|title=Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, version 15.1|date=July 2022|author=IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature|access-date=2 January 2023}}</ref>{{rp|8–11}}

*[[Vulnerable species]]
*[[Endangered species]]
*[[Critically endangered species]]

Less-than-threatened categories are [[near threatened]], [[least concern]], and the no longer assigned category of [[conservation dependent]]. Species that have not been evaluated (NE), or do not have sufficient data ([[data deficient]]) also are not considered ""threatened"" by the IUCN.

[[File:Status iucn3.1 threatened.svg|thumb|left|The three categories of the threatened species on [[IUCN Red List]].]]

Although ''threatened'' and ''vulnerable'' may be used interchangeably when discussing IUCN categories, the term ''threatened'' is generally used to refer to the three categories (critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable), while ''vulnerable'' is used to refer to the least at risk of those three categories. They may be used interchangeably in most contexts however, as all vulnerable species are threatened species (''vulnerable'' is a category of ''threatened species''); and, as the more at-risk categories of threatened species (namely ''endangered'' and ''critically endangered'') must, by definition, also qualify as vulnerable species, all threatened species may also be considered vulnerable.

Threatened species are also referred to as a [[red-listed]] species, as they are listed in the [[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]].

[[Subspecies]], populations and stocks may also be classified as threatened.

==By country==
===Australia===
{{see also|Threatened fauna of Australia|List of threatened flora of Australia}}

====Federal====
The [[Commonwealth of Australia]] (federal government) has legislation for categorising and protecting endangered species, namely the ''[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]'', which is known in short as the ''EPBC Act''. This Act has six categories: extinct, extinct in the wild, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, and conservation dependent, as defined in Section 179 of the Act.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species.html#categories |title=Threatened species under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999|publisher=Australian Government. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221072705/http://environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species.html |archive-date=21 February 2009 }}</ref> These could be summarised as:<ref name=epbc>{{cite web | title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 | website=Federal Register of Legislation|publisher=Australian Government | date=18 September 2019 | url=https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2019C00275  | access-date=22 April 2020}}</ref>
*""Extinct"" – ""no reasonable doubt that the last member of the species has died"";
*""Extinct in the wild"" – ""known only to survive in cultivation"" and ""despite exhaustive surveys"" has not been seen in the wild;
*""Critically endangered"" – ""extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future"";
*""Endangered"" – ""very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future"";
*""Vulnerable"" – ""high risk of extinction in the wild in medium-term future""; and
*""Conservation dependent"" – ""focus of a specific conservation program"" without which the species would enter one of the above categories.

The ''EPBC Act'' also recognises and protects threatened ecosystems such as plant communities, and [[Ramsar Convention]] wetlands used by [[migratory bird]]s.<ref name=epbc/>

Lists of threatened species are drawn up under the Act and these lists are the primary reference to threatened species in Australia. The ''Species Profile and Threats Database'' (SPRAT) is a searchable [[online database]] about species and ecological communities listed under the ''EPBC Act''. It provides information on what the species looks like, its population and distribution, habitat, movements, feeding, reproduction and taxonomic comments.<ref>{{cite web | title=Species Profiles (SPRAT) | website=Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, Australian Government  | url=https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/sprat.pl | access-date=27 June 2020}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under an [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/ Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU)] licence.</ref>

A ''Threatened Mammal Index'', publicly launched on 22 April 2020 and combined {{as of|lc=yes|June 2020}} with the ''Threatened Bird Index'' (created 2018<ref name=tmiabc/>) as the ''Threatened Species Index'', is a research collaboration of the National Environmental Science Program's Threatened Species Recovery Hub, the [[University of Queensland]] and [[BirdLife Australia]]. It does not show detailed data of individual species, but shows overall trends, and the data can be downloaded via a [[web-app]] ""to allow trends for different taxonomic groups or regions to be explored and compared"".<ref name=tsxabout>{{cite web | title=About – TSX | website=TSX – A threatened species index for Australia | date=20 May 2020 | url=https://tsx.org.au/about/ | access-date=28 June 2020}}</ref> The Index uses [[data visualisation]] tools to show data clearly in graphic form, including a graph from 1985 to present of the main index, geographical representation, monitoring consistency and time series and species accumulation.<ref name=tsx>{{cite web | title=Australian Threatened Species Index | website=Threatened Species Recovery Hub | url=https://tsx.org.au/tsx/#/ | access-date=28 June 2020}}</ref> In April 2020 the Mammal Index reported that there had been a decline of more than a third of threatened mammal numbers in the 20 years between 1995 and 2016, but the data also show that targeted conservation efforts are working. The ''Threatened Mammal Index'' ""is compiled from more than 400,000 individual surveys, and contains population trends for 57 of Australia's threatened or near-threatened terrestrial and marine mammal species"".<ref name=tmiabc>{{cite web | last=Kilvert | first=Nick | title=Australia's threatened mammals decline by more than a third since 1990s, but there's a silver lining | website=ABC News|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation | date=22 April 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2020-04-22/native-mammals-decline-over-one-third/12163838 | access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref>

====States and territories====
{{further|Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999#State acts}}
Individual [[states and territories of Australia]] are bound under the EPBC Act, but may also have legislation which gives further protection to certain species, for example [[Western Australia]]'s ''[[Wildlife Conservation Act 1950]]''.  Some species, such as [[Lewin's rail]] (''Lewinia pectoralis''), are not listed as threatened species under the EPBC Act, but they may be recognised as threatened by individual states or territories.

Pests and weeds, climate change and habitat loss are some of the key threatening processes faced by native plants and animals listed by the [[Department of Planning, Industry and Environment]] of [[New South Wales]].<ref>{{cite web  | title=Key threatening processes | website=NSW Government. Department of Planning, Industry and Environment | url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/threatened-species/about-threatened-species/key-threatening-processes | access-date=22 April 2020}}</ref>

=== Germany ===
[[File:BFN Kategorien Rote Liste.svg|thumb|300px|Red-List-Categories of the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation of Germany.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Gerhard Ludwig, Heiko Haupt, Horst Gruttke und Margret Binot-Hafke|editor-surname1= [[Bundesamt für Naturschutz]]|periodical=Naturschutz und Biologische Vielfalt|title=Methodik der Gefährdungsanalyse für Rote Listen|location=Münster|date=2009|language=de|url=https://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/themen/roteliste/Methodik_2009.pdf
}}</ref>]]
The [[Germany|German]] [[Federal Agency for Nature Conservation]] ({{lang-de|Bundesamt für Naturschutz}}, BfN) publishes a regional Red List for Germany of at least 48000 animals and 24000 plants and fungi. The scheme for categorization is similar to that of the IUCN, but adds a ""warning list"", includes species endangered to an unknown extend, and rare species that are not endangered, but are highly at risk of extinction due to the small population.<ref>{{cite web|title=BfN: Rote Liste (Verzeichnis)|periodical=BFN.de|url=https://www.bfn.de/themen/rote-liste.html|access-date=27 December 2019|language=de}}</ref>

===Philippines===
{{main|List of threatened species of the Philippines}}

===United States===
[[File:Status ESA LT.svg|left|thumb|""Threatened"" in relation to ""endangered"" under the [[Endangered Species Act|ESA]].]]

====Federal====
Under the [[Endangered Species Act]] in the United States, ""threatened"" is defined as ""any species which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range"".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/section-3.html|title=Endangered Species Program – Laws & Policies – Endangered Species Act – Section 3 Definitions|first=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service/Endangered Species|last=Program|website=www.fws.gov|access-date=8 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429155642/https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/section-3.html|archive-date=29 April 2017}}</ref> It is the less protected of the two protected categories. The [[Bay checkerspot butterfly]] (''Euphydryas editha bayensis'') is an example of a threatened subspecies protected under the [[Endangered Species Act]].

====States====
Within the U.S., state wildlife agencies have the authority under the ESA to manage species which are considered endangered or threatened within their state but not within all states, and which therefore are not included on the national list of endangered and threatened species.  For example, the [[trumpeter swan]] (''Cygnus buccinator'') is threatened in the state of [[Minnesota]], while large populations still remain in [[Canada]] and [[Alaska]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://files.dnr.state.mn.us/natural_resources/ets/endlist.pdf|title=Minnesota Endangered & Threatened Species List|website=state.mn.us|access-date=8 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519114000/http://files.dnr.state.mn.us/natural_resources/ets/endlist.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Biodiversity Action Plan]]
*[[IUCN Red List]]
*[[Illegal logging]]
*[[Rare species]]
*[[Red-listed|Red]] and [[blue-listed]]
*[[Slash-and-burn]]
*[[Threatened fauna of Australia]]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite web|author=Sharrock, S. & Jones, M.|date=2009|url=http://www.bgci.org/files/Worldwide/Publications/euro_report.pdf|title=Conserving Europe's threatened plants|publisher=Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI)}}

{{Threatened species|state=expanded}}
{{Threatened species by region|state=collapsed}}
{{Conservation of species}}
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Biology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:International Union for Conservation of Nature]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Population dynamics]]"
Threats to sea turtles,"[[File:logger ted 01.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A loggerhead sea turtle escapes a circular fisherman's net via a TED.|Loggerhead sea turtle escapes from fishing net through a [[turtle excluder device]] (TED)]]

'''Threats to sea turtles''' are numerous and have caused many [[sea turtle]] species to be endangered. Of the seven extant species of sea turtles, six in the family Cheloniidae and one in the family Dermochelyidae, all are listed on the [[IUCN Red List of Endangered Species]]. The list classifies six species of sea turtle as ""threatened"", two of them as ""critically endangered"", one as ""endangered"" and three as ""vulnerable"". The [[flatback sea turtle]] is classified as ""data deficient"" which means that there is insufficient information available for a proper assessment of conservation status.<ref>IUCN 2018. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 3.1. <http://www.iucnredlist.org>. 11 August 2018</ref> Although sea turtles usually lay around one hundred eggs at a time, on average only one of the eggs from the nest will survive to adulthood.<ref>Wright, Sara. ""Hilton Head Island sees record sea turtle nesting season."" Bluffton Today (2010): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010. <http://www.blufftontoday.com/news/2010-08-06/hilton-head-island-sees-record-sea-turtle-nesting-season>.</ref> While many of the things that endanger these hatchlings are natural, such as predators including sharks, raccoons, foxes, and seagulls,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bolton|first=Naomi|date=|title=What Animals Eat Turtles?|url=https://sciencing.com/animals-eat-turtles-8478734.html|access-date=2021-02-06|website=Sciencing|language=en}}</ref> many new threats to the sea turtle species are anthropogenic.<ref>Heithaus, Michael, Aaron Wirsing, Jordan Thomson, and Derek Burkholder. ""A review of lethal and non-lethal effects of predators on adult marine turtles."" ''Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology'' 356.1-2 (2008): 43-51. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref>

==Artificial lighting==

[[Lighting|Artificial lighting]] is a threat to adult and hatchling sea turtles. Sea turtles use the brightest horizon as a guide to the ocean. This was created by celestial lights reflecting off the ocean’s surface. With human development along the coast, artificial light sources are growing in abundance. Unfortunately, these human-made lights are brighter than celestial lights, causing sea turtles to move toward them. A sea turtle not going in the direction of the ocean is referred to as a disorientation event. Disorientations lead to an increased risk of predation, exhaustion, dehydration, and/or injury. These events are often fatal. Disorientations can be caused by any light source that is directly or indirectly seen from the beach. Also, heavily lit beaches may cause an adult to have a false crawl. This is when the female decides the beach is not suitable for her nest and goes back to the water. False crawls cause exhaustion for the adult and may lead to her releasing her eggs in the ocean. This would be fatal to all the eggs.

As awareness of the negative impact artificial lighting has on sea turtles has grown, there have been several large-scale conservation efforts by Marine Life programs and conservation groups to educate the public on turtle conservation. Communities situated on or near a beach have been warned of the effects excessive lighting has on sea turtles and there have been substantial attempts to darken beaches and replace harmful artificial lighting with turtle-safe lights. Coastal communities have also been creating and updating their lighting ordinances with the common goal to help save sea turtles. Lighting ordinances allow local governments to enforce safer lighting for sea turtles.

==Magnetic interference==

Ferrous metal wire mesh screens are commonly used to protect sea turtle nests from predators' excavating and devouring the eggs and hatchlings. A new concern is that nestlings' delicate magnetic sense may not develop normally in the presence of the magnetic field interference from these steel mesh cages. The effects of the use of steel mesh as a cage material may not be known for many years until assessments can be made of the success rate of the first adult populations that developed within such cages begin attempting landfall for nest-making. Gravid turtles or their hatchlings may also be affected by the presence of magnetic fields arising from power cables, iron debris, steel seawalls or other human activities that locally modify [[Earth's magnetic field]].<ref name=""Lohmann, Catherine 2006"">Lohmann, Catherine, and Kenneth Lohmann. ""Sea turtles ."" ''Current Biology'' 16.18 (2006): R784-R786. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref>

==Oil spills and marine pollution==
[[File:Turtle Rescue and Rehabilitation.jpg|thumb|An oiled Kemp's ridley sea turtle]]
[[Marine pollution]] is both directly harmful to sea turtles as well as indirectly, through the deterioration of their natural habitats.  Some of the most dangerous ocean pollutants include [[toxic metal]]s, [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]]s, [[fertilizer]]s, untreated waste, [[chemical substance|chemicals]], and a variety of [[petroleum]] products. [[Oil spill]]s are particularly dangerous to sea turtles.<ref name=""conserveturtles"">""Sea Turtle Threats: Oil Spills."" ''Sea Turtle Conservancy'' (2010): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010. <http://www.conserveturtles.org/seaturtleinformation.php?page=oilspills {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121040209/http://conserveturtles.org/seaturtleinformation.php?page=oilspills |date=2010-11-21 }}>.</ref>  Although oil does not tend to stick to them as it does to other marine life, sea turtles are still at risk when they surface for air, where oil can get in their eyes, skin, and lungs, which can lead to significant health problems.  Even if they are not directly in contact with marine pollution, sea turtles can still ingest harmful chemicals through the food they eat.  Oil is also a cause for the death of [[seagrass]], which is a staple in the diet of the green turtle.  The diets of the [[hawksbill sea turtle]], [[loggerhead sea turtle]], and [[Kemp's ridley sea turtle]] species have also been affected by the oil's role in the reduction of certain [[sponges]] and [[invertebrates]].  Extended exposure has been found to deteriorate the health of a sea turtle in general, making it more weak and vulnerable to a variety of other threats.<ref name=""Milton, Sarah 2010"">Milton, Sarah, and Peter Lutz. United States. ''Oil and Sea Turtles Biology, Planning, and Response''.  2010. Web. 8 Dec 2010.</ref>

According to the [[Sea Turtle Conservancy]], formerly known as the Caribbean Conservation Program, the [[animal migration|migration]] habits of sea turtles increase their exposure to marine pollution at each of the stages of their lives including eggs, hatchlings, juveniles, sub adults, or nesting adults.  In a 1994 study off of Florida's Atlantic coast, 63% of hatchlings surveyed were found to have ingested tar.  Loggerheads in particular have been shown to have the most problems with [[tarball (oil)|tarball]] ingestion, leading to [[esophagus|esophageal]] swelling that can dislocate the intestines and liver leading to serious [[buoyancy]] issues as well as excessive swelling.<ref name=""conserveturtles"" /> Many regions heavily associated with oil, either exploration, transportation, or processing, are also significant sea turtle environments, including the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the [[Caribbean]], and particularly the coasts of Texas and Florida.<ref name=""Milton, Sarah 2010"" /> Sea turtles existing in the exact areas where oil spills occur are not the only ones at risk due to the strong and far reaching ocean currents which can move pollution to great distances from its derivation.<ref>Witherington, B.E. ""Ecology of neonate loggerhead turtles inhabiting lines of downwelling near a Gulf Stream front."" ''Sea Turtle Conservancy '' (2002): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010.</ref>

Breeding season is in particular a dangerous time for sea turtles due to the pollution of beach nesting sites.<ref>Antworth, Rebecca, David Pike, and John Stiner. ""Nesting ecology, current status, and conservation of sea turtles on an uninhabited beach in Florida, USA."" ''Biological Conservation'' 130.1 (2006): 10-15. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref>  Contamination of their diet can lead to disruption of digestion as well as physical injury to the sea turtles' digestive tracts.  The nesting of female sea turtles is often deterred due to the potential of oily effluence.<ref name=""conserveturtles"" />  If the female does lay eggs, the development of the eggs is at risk due to either oil in the sand or contamination from the mother turtle that was oiled while nesting.  If the eggs in the nest have contact with oil while in the last half of their [[egg incubation|incubation phase]], the rate of hatchling survival sharply decreases and those that do survive have a greater chance of physical deformities.<ref>United States. ''Impacts of Oil on Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles'', 2010. Web. 8 Dec 2010.</ref>

==Ocean plastic==
Eight million tons of plastic make their way to the ocean every year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/04/plastic-straws-ocean-trash-environment/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804034722/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/04/plastic-straws-ocean-trash-environment/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 4, 2019|title=Straw Wars: The Fight to Rid the Oceans of Discarded Plastic|date=2018-02-23|website=National Geographic News|language=en|access-date=2019-11-16}}</ref> For many marine species, including sea turtles, plastics in our oceans can lead to threats of entanglement, habitat degradation, and ingestion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bjorndal |first1=Karen A. |last2=Bolten |first2=Alan B. |last3=Lagueux |first3=Cynthia J. |date=1994-03-01 |title=Ingestion of marine debris by juvenile sea turtles in coastal Florida habitats |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X%2894%2990391-3 |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=154–158 |doi=10.1016/0025-326X(94)90391-3 |bibcode=1994MarPB..28..154B |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> Discarded plastic bags floating in the ocean resemble jellyfish, a common food of sea turtles. If a turtle eats a plastic bag, it tends to clog the turtle's digestive system and result in the animal dying. There have been many cases of dissection showing plastic and other debris inside turtles' stomachs and intestines.<ref>
[http://www.seaturtle.org/imagelib/?cat=663&thumb=1 Pictures of plastic items eaten by turtles]</ref>  Marine debris has caused mortality in all species of sea turtles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Franzen-Klein |first1=Dana |last2=Burkhalter |first2=Brooke |last3=Sommer |first3=Rachel |last4=Weber |first4=Marika |last5=Zirkelbach |first5=Bette |last6=Norton |first6=Terry |date=2020-06-11 |title=Diagnosis and Management of Marine Debris Ingestion and Entanglement by Using Advanced Imaging and Endoscopy in Sea Turtles |url=https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-herpetological-medicine-and-surgery/volume-30/issue-2/17-09-126/Diagnosis-and-Management-of-Marine-Debris-Ingestion-and-Entanglement-by/10.5818/17-09-126.full |journal=Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=74 |doi=10.5818/17-09-126 |s2cid=225754213 |issn=1529-9651}}</ref> There have also been cases where sea turtles have been found with plastic straws in their noses, plastic bags or toothbrushes in their stomachs, or fish hooks stuck on their flippers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/animals/how-did-sea-turtle-get-a-straw-up-its-nose.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619063810/http://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/animals/how-did-sea-turtle-get-a-straw-up-its-nose.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 19, 2018|title=How Did Sea Turtle Get a Straw Up Its Nose?|website=www.nationalgeographic.com.au|access-date=2019-11-16}}</ref>  Plastic straws can be dangerous to sea turtles, too, because they are often mistaken for food.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.greenmatters.com/p/how-plastic-straws-affect-ocean-turtles|title=How Plastic Straws Affect the Ocean and Sea Turtles|website=Green Matters|date=14 August 2019 |language=en|access-date=2019-11-16}}</ref>  This can cause the sea turtle to choke or die of starvation because they feel full and do not eat, when they are actually full of plastic.<ref name="":02"" />  Despite being small, plastic straws are among the top items that pollute the ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strawlessocean.org/faq|title=Why This Matters|website=For A Strawless Ocean|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-16}}</ref> As previously mentioned, ingestion is also more likely to occur if the plastic resembles their typical food. Studies have found that turtles had a 50% chance of dying if they ingested more than fourteen pieces of plastic<ref>{{Cite journal| title= A Quantitative Analysis Linking Sea Turtle Mortality and Plastic Debris Ingestion| journal= Scientific Reports| year= 2018| doi= 10.1038/s41598-018-30038-z| last1= Wilcox| first1= Chris| last2= Puckridge| first2= Melody| last3= Schuyler| first3= Qamar A.| last4= Townsend| first4= Kathy| last5= Hardesty| first5= Britta Denise| volume= 8| issue= 1| page= 12536| pmid= 30213956| pmc= 6137038| bibcode= 2018NatSR...812536W| s2cid= 52273648| doi-access= free}}</ref>

==Tourism==
Owing to the popularity of numerous sea turtle species, people often travel to areas where the turtles nest, live to observe and photograph them.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gunawardana|first=Maleesha|date=|title=Sea turtle conservation: Is it up to the hatcheries? {{!}} Daily FT|url=http://www.ft.lk/columns/Sea-turtle-conservation--Is-it-up-to-the-hatcheries-/4-684619|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.ft.lk|language=en}}</ref> This has resulted in numerous deaths of the turtles through boat collisions, tourists attempting to catch or steal individuals, and other incidents. In [[Costa Rica]], tourists have recently been criticised for interfering with the nesting habits of the resident [[olive ridley sea turtle]]s, disrupting and confusing the animals by attempting to take [[selfie]]s with them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/trending/selfie-taking-tourists-threaten-sea-turtle-population-in-costa-rica-1.3237329 |title=Selfie-taking tourists threaten sea turtle population in Costa Rica - CBC News|website=cbc.ca |access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref>

== Boats ==
[[File:Manatee_bearing_scars_on_back_from_boat_propeller.jpg|thumb|Image of a manatee with boat strike injuries. Similar injuries occur on turtle with parallel cuts (as shown in the image) or by blunt force trauma.]]
There are numerous threats to sea turtles associated with boats, including [[oil spill]]s, [[habitat degradation]], and vessel collisions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Biology of Sea Turtles|last=Lutcavage|first=ME|publisher=CRC Press|year=2003|pages=388–404}}</ref> Boat strike injuries result in two types of injuries: blunt force trauma and [[propeller]] slices in the [[carapace]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heinrich|first=George|date=2012|title=Boat strikes: A threat to the Suwannee Cooter (Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis)|journal=Herpetological Conservation and Biology|volume=7|pages=349–357}}</ref> Blunt force trauma is from the hull of the boat hitting the turtle and results in a cracking, less obvious, injury on the turtle's carapace. Propeller strikes form clear cut, parallel lines on the carapace of the turtle. The propeller wounds can cut into the spinal cord or lungs if deep enough, as these are located dorsally on the animal attached to the underside of the carapace.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Anatomy of Sea Turtle|last=Wyneken|first=J|publisher=U.S. Departments of Commerce NOAA Technnical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-470|year=2001}}</ref> Sea turtle stranding data is the primary method of quantifying boat strike injuries, which has increased by 20% in [[Florida]] between 1985 and 2005.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Singel|first=K|date=2007|title=Navigating Florida's waterways: boat related strandings of marine turtles in Florida|journal=Proceeding of the 27th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.}}</ref> In general, sea turtles are not able to avoid boat collisions when boats are travelling too quickly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hazel|first=Julia|date=2007|title=Vessel speed increases collision risk for the green turtle Chelonia mydas|journal=Endangered Species Research|volume=3|pages=105–113|doi=10.3354/esr003105|doi-access=free}}</ref> Also, the faster a boat is travelling the more damage is done to the turtle, making incidents more lethal.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last1=Work|first1=Paul A.|last2=Sapp|first2=Adam L.|last3=Scott|first3=David W.|last4=Dodd|first4=Mark G.|date=2010|title=Influence of small vessel operation and propulsion system on loggerhead sea turtle injuries|journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology|volume=393|issue=1–2|pages=168–175|doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2010.07.019|issn=0022-0981}}</ref> When sea turtles surface to breathe they continue swimming in the water column just below the surface; this allows them to get a few breaths in at a time, and then dive into deeper water to hunt or [[forage]]. This depth is the ideal depth for the propeller of the boat to hit the turtle, it also makes it even more difficult for boaters to try to avoid the turtles, since they cannot be seen.

There are ways to mitigate the problem. Speed reduction zones have been beneficial for species such as the [[Florida manatee]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Laist|first1=David W.|last2=Shaw|first2=Cameron|date=2006 |title=Preliminary Evidence That Boat Speed Restrictions Reduce Deaths of Florida Manatees|journal=Marine Mammal Science |language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=472–479|doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2006.00027.x|bibcode=2006MMamS..22..472L |issn=0824-0469}}</ref> These zones would be especially important implemented in shallow, [[coast]]al regions near popular nesting beaches during nesting season. Vessel modification are another way that boaters can reduce their influence on marine life. Jet board motors have an impeller that eliminates the threat of propeller damage to marine turtles. The motor rests only a few inches from the [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]] of the boat, meaning it is less likely to hit turtles that are not surfacing to breathe. Propeller guards are slightly helpful at idle speeds, but once a boat begins to reach higher planning speeds they are ineffective in protecting the turtle from the propeller.<ref name="":0"" />

Sea turtles that strand alive with boat injuries can be treated at rehabilitation facilities. Treatment is not always successful, but there are turtles that do survive boat strike injuries.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Brulliard|first=Karin|date=|title=For injured turtles, a return to the sea|work=|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2020/06/30/wayward-turtles-return-sea/|access-date=}}</ref>

==Fishing==
According to a study published in ''[[Conservation Letters]]'', over 8 million sea turtles died between 1990 and 2010 due to injuries caused by being accidentally caught by fishing boats.<ref name=""news.sciencemag.org"">Stokstad, Erik. ""Sea Turtles Suffer Collateral Damage From Fishing."" ''Science AAAS'' 07 Apr 2010: n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010.{{cite web |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2010/04/sea-turtles-suffer-collateral-da.html |title=Sea Turtles Suffer Collateral Damage from Fishing - ScienceNOW |access-date=2012-05-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310111027/http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2010/04/sea-turtles-suffer-collateral-da.html |archive-date=2012-03-10 }}</ref> [[Fisheries]] often use large-scale nets and hook systems that are indiscriminate and catch whatever comes along, be it sea turtle, dolphin, or even shark.  What is known as ""[[bycatch]]"" is a large contributor to sea turtle deaths, as seen in [[Baja California]].<ref name=""news.sciencemag.org""/> [[longline fishing|Longline]], [[trawling|trawl]],<ref>Sasso, Christopher, and Sheryan Epperly. ""Seasonal sea turtle mortality risk from forced submergence in bottom trawls."" ''Fisheries Research'' 81.1 (2006): 86-88. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref> and [[gillnet]] fishing are three types of fishing with the most sea turtle accidents.  Deaths occur often because of drowning, where the sea turtle was ensnared and could not come up for air.<ref>Haas, Heather, Erin LaCasella, Robin LeRoux, Henry Miliken, and Brett Hayward. ""Characteristics of sea turtles incidentally captured in the U.S. Atlantic sea scallop dredge fishery."" ''Fisheries Research'' 93.3 (2008): 289-295. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref> Another dangerous aspect of fishing that is common is when sea turtles inadvertently swallow sharp hooks, which can get stuck within the soft tissue of the throat and stomach, or damage vital organs and intestines.<ref>Viegas, Jennifer. ""Millions of Sea Turtles Captured, Killed by Fisheries."" ''Discovery News'' (2010): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010.[http://news.discovery.com/animals/turtles-bycatch-fishing.html]</ref>

==Poaching==
[[File:Animal Cruelty Sea Turtle.jpg|thumb|Captured sea turtle waiting to be slaughtered for meat at the Jamestown Fishing Harbor, [[Accra]], [[Ghana]]|alt=]]
In many countries sea turtles are captured, killed, and traded for their meat, shells and leather flippers. Eggs are also at risk of [[poaching]] for consumption, and are considered a delicacy in certain cultures. Other cultures believe sea turtle eggs to be [[aphrodisiac]]s, while others claim that eating them yields longevity.<ref>Butler, Rhett. ""Sex sells sea turtle conservation in Mexico."" Environmental News August 19, 2005: n. pag. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <http://news.mongabay.com/2005/0819-turtles.html>.</ref> In some islands, parts of the sea turtle are used in ceremonies and are considered sacred. Other times, the carcasses harvested are made into jewelry, instruments, souvenirs, sunglasses, or wall decorations, especially hawksbill sea turtles, which are desired for the striking details of the shell.<ref>Le Guern Lytle, Claire. ""Sea Turtle Egg Poaching Legalized in Costa Rica: The Debate ."" Coastal Care. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <http://coastalcare.org/2011/07/legalized-poaching-turtles-eggs-and-playa-ostional-costa-rica/>.</ref>

==Global warming==
[[File:Climate March 0841 (34210334302).jpg|thumb|Placard ""I speak for the sea turtles"", at the [[People's Climate March (2017)]]]]

[[Global warming]] is estimated to have serious effects on wildlife over the next few decades. There is evidence that sea turtles have already been affected. With the increase of temperature, [[polar ice cap|polar ice]] has melted and has led to the rise of sea levels. This rise in sea levels has been a factor in the loss of beach, which for sea turtles means less nesting area. Global warming has been associated with severe weather, which could mean harsh and numerous storms that [[coastal erosion|erode beaches]] and flood nests.<ref>""Global Warming."" SEE Turtles. N.p., 2007. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <http://www.seeturtles.org/1380/global-warming.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224021856/http://www.seeturtles.org/1380/global-warming.html |date=2010-12-24 }}>.</ref> As the overall temperature of the Earth rises, so does the temperature of the sand, which diminishes the rate of hatchling survival. The temperature of the sand also affects gender, as higher temperatures have been shown to yield more female hatchlings. Changes in climate also influence currents and change the number and location of prey species. Water that is too warm can also cause [[coral bleaching]], which is detrimental to [[reefs]] that are essential to certain species, such as the hawksbill sea turtle.<ref>Markey, Sean. ""Global Warming Has Devastating Effect on Coral Reefs, Study Shows."" National Geographic News 28 Oct 2010: n. pag. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <[https://web.archive.org/web/20060614171831/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/05/warming-coral.html]>.</ref>

==Disease==
[[File:Turtlewithfptumors0149026.jpg|thumb|right|A sea turtle with [[Turtle fibropapillomatosis|fibropapillomatosis]]]]
A disease known as [[Turtle fibropapillomatosis|fibropapillomatosis]] manifests itself in turtles through external [[tumor]]s.  These tumors often grow to be so large that they hinder a sea turtle's ability to see, eat, and swim, therefore rendering the sea turtle unable to survive.  Inexplicably, the majority of the cases of fibropapillomatosis have been diagnosed in the [[green sea turtle]] (''Chelonia mydas'') while none have been in the [[leatherback sea turtle]] (''Dermochelys coriacea'').  Cases of this disease have been found in all major oceans.  Although the causes of this disease are not clear, many believe the source to be [[virus|viral]].  These tumors are either smooth or contain pointed projections and they are red, pink, grey, black, or purple in color. These tumors are usually located anywhere on the soft skin tissue of the sea turtle, either the neck, eyes, or bottom of the flippers and range in size anywhere from a pea to a grapefruit.<ref>Florida. ''Fibropapillomatosis and its effect on green turtles'', 2010. Web. 8 Dec 2010.
</ref>

==Conservation efforts and rehabilitation centers==

A study by Discovery News targets the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], the Eastern [[Pacific]], the Southwest [[Atlantic]], and the Northwest Atlantic as the regions in the direst need of preservation endeavors.  In 1963, the Marine Turtle Group was created by the chairman of the Survival Service Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources as the first international forum for sea turtle research and conservation.<ref>Davis, Frederick. ""Saving sea turtles: the evolution of the IUCN Marine Turtle Group."" ''Endeavour'' 29.3 (2005): 114-118. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref> In the United States in 1973, the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973]] was passed, providing protection for all sea turtle species, and in 1977, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between the [[NOAA|NOAA Fisheries]] and the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] (USFWS) to enforce the ESA with regards to sea turtles.  USFWS is responsible for all sea turtle conservation on nesting beaches and NOAA Fisheries are responsible for the marine conservation of sea turtles. The conservation of sea turtles on an international scale has been led by two major environmental agreements: the [[Indian Ocean]] – South-East Asian Marine Turtle Memorandum of Understanding and the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles.<ref name=""nmfs.noaa"">""Marine Turtles."" Office of Protected Resources. NOAA Fisheries, 11 Nov 2010. Web. 8 Dec 2010. <http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/>.</ref>  In an attempt to lessen the number of turtles killed by fishing incidents, several new types of turtle-safe fishing equipment have been introduced such as the [[circle hook]]s,<ref>Read, Andrew. ""Do circle hooks reduce the mortality of sea turtles in pelagic longlines? A review of recent experiments."" ''Biological Conservation'' 135.2 (2007): 155-169. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref> [[fish bait]], and [[turtle excluder device]]s.<ref>""Bycatch - So what's the answer?."" WWF Global. N.p., 2009. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <http://www.smartgear.org/smartgear_bycatch/bycatch_{{Dead link|date=June 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}</ref>  [[Poaching]] has been outlawed in most countries and turtle conservation education has been growing in both in size and efficiency.

Rehabilitation centers have been established as well, such as the Marine Life Center in [[Juno Beach, Florida]],<ref>""Our Mission."" ''Loggerhead Marinelife Center''. N.p., 2010. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <http://www.marinelife.org/mission>.</ref> and the Karen Beasley Sea Turtle Rescue and Rehabilitation Center located on [[Topsail Island, North Carolina]].<ref>""The Karen Beasley Sea Turtle Rescue and Rehabilitation Center Mission Statement."" ''Topsail Turtle Project''. N.p., 2011. Web. 4 Oct 2011. <http://seaturtlehospital.org/whoweare.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020162655/http://www.seaturtlehospital.org/whoweare.htm |date=2011-10-20 }}>.</ref> The purpose of these centers is to help protect the local and [[endangered sea turtles|endangered sea turtle]] population by: a) rescuing sick or injured turtles and taking them to the treatment facility, b) rehabilitating these turtles through various types of treatment and/or surgery, and c) releasing turtles back into the ocean once they have been successfully nursed back to health. Although some sea turtles' injuries are so severe that they can never become healed to the extent of being able to survive on their own outside of the facilities, hundreds of the patients from both the Gordon and Patricia Gray Veterinary Hospital in Juno Beach and the Sea Turtle Hospital in Topsail Island have been successfully rehabilitated and released in the last couple of decades.

Evaluating the progress of conservation programs is difficult, because many sea turtle populations have not been assessed adequately.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Bjorndal |first1= Karen |last2= Bowen |first2= Brian |year= 2011 |title= Better Science Needed for Restoration in the Gulf of Mexico |journal= Science |volume= 331 |pages= 537–538 |doi= 10.1126/science.1199935 |issue=6017 |pmid=21292956 |last3= Chaloupka |first3= M. |last4=Crowder |first4= L. B. |last5= Heppell |first5= S. S. |last6= Jones |first6= C. M. |last7= Lutcavage |first7= M. E. |last8= Policansky |first8= D. |last9= Solow |first9= A. R.|last10= Witherington |first10= B. E. |display-authors= 8|bibcode= 2011Sci...331..537B |s2cid= 33994573 }}</ref> Most information on sea turtle populations comes from counting nests on beaches, but this does not provide an accurate picture of the whole sea turtle population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Witherington |first1=B.E. |last2=Kubilis |first2=Anne |last3=Brost |first3=Beth |last4=Meylan |year=2009 |title=Decreasing annual nest counts in a globally important loggerhead sea turtle population |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=30–54 |doi=10.1890/08-0434.1 |pmid=19323172 |first4=Anne|bibcode=2009EcoAp..19...30W }}</ref> A 2010 United States National Research Council report concluded that more detailed information on sea turtles' life cycles, such as birth rates and mortality, is needed.<ref>{{ Cite journal
 | last1=The National Research Council
 | title=Assessment of Sea Turtle Status and Trends: Integrating Demography and Abundance
 | publisher=National Academies Press
 | place=Washington, DC
 | year=2010
 | url=http://dels.nas.edu/Report/Assessment-Turtle-Status/12889
}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Memorandum of Understanding concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa]]
* [[Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their Habitats of the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Testudines}}

[[Category:Sea turtles]]
[[Category:Turtle conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Category:Biota by conservation status,"{{Commons category|Species by IUCN Red List category}}
* '''Biota''' classified by '''[[conservation status]]''' — in the [[IUCN Red List]] and/or [[NatureServe conservation status]] systems.
{{clear}}
{|
|{{IUCN_3.1_navmap/full}}
{{C|IUCN Red List|All IUCN Red List categories}}
| width =""100%"" align=""right""|
|}
{{-}}
[[Category:Organisms| ]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Environmental issues]]"
Category:Conservation biology,"{{Commons cat|Conservation biology}}
{{Cat main|Conservation biology}}
{{-}}

[[Category:Branches of biology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
{{CatAutoTOC}}"
Category:Ecological restoration,"{{Cat main|Restoration ecology}}
{{Commons category}}

[[Category:Ecology|Restor]]
[[Category:Subfields of ecology|Restor]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Environmental engineering]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Landscape architecture]]"
Category:Invasive species,"{{Commons cat|Invasive species}}
{{Invasive species category}}

[[Category:Biological globalization]]
[[Category:Biological invasions]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Forest pathology]]
[[Category:Global environmental issues]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Introduced species]]
[[Category:Pest control]]
[[Category:Pests (organism)]]"
Environmentally Endangered Lands Programs,"{{Short description|Bond funded wildland conservation efforts in Florida}}
'''Environmentally Endangered Lands Programs''' are bond funded wildland conservation efforts in Florida, USA.

The programs in more than 27 Florida counties include:
*[[Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program]] (ELAPP), Hillsborough County
*[[Environmentally Endangered Lands]] protection program, Brevard County
*[[Environmentally Sensitive Lands Protection Program]] (ESLPP), Sarasota County
* Environmentally Endangered Lands (EEL) [[Miami-Dade County]]
*[[Environmentally Sensitive Lands]], [[Hernando County]]'s program
*Land Preservation Bond Program, [[Broward County]]
*Palm Beach County land acquisition program

==History==
Miami-Dade County voters approved a tax for Environmentally Endangered Lands in 1990 and $40 million more $40 million in 2004 through the Building Better Communities Bond.<ref name=counties/>

[[Broward County]] approved its Land Preservation Bond Program in 2000 and purchased 83 sites for a totalof 850 acres as of 2007, using $152 million of its $200 million.<ref name=counties/>

Palm Beach County started its land acquisition program in 1991 with a $100 million bond. Through 2006 the country had protected 35,063 acres. A volunteer program helps with restoration and maintenance.<ref name=counties>[https://archive.today/20130128134901/http://www.miamiherald.com/2007/06/17/140849/counties-spend-millions-on-acquiring.html%23storylink=cpy Counties spend millions on acquiring land] June 17, 2007Miami Herald</ref>

In 1987, voters in Hillsborough County, Florida, overwhelmingly chose to increase taxes and create the Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program (ELAPP).<ref>[https://usflibrary.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=f620c1b74f624fa982414db2391b290a ELAPP History Project]</ref> Through this program, environmentally sensitive areas were preserved and/or restored. Again in 1990 and 2008, voters opted to increase taxes in order to expand ELAPP.

On November 6, 2008 Florida voted for an amendment to the [[Florida Constitution]] requiring the state legislature to exempt land permanently set aside for conservation from all property taxes beginning in 2010.<ref>[http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/green/Florida_Voters_Lift_Property_Taxes_for_Conservation_Lands.html Florida Voters Lift Property Taxes for Conservation Lands] Janaryu 7, 2010 NBC4</ref>

==Evergreen forest==
Twenty-seven endangered and threatened plants live in the evergreen forests called hammocks. Several species originated in the [[West Indies]] including ''[[Ficus]]'', [[gumbo-limbo]], [[Nectandra coriacea|lancewood]] and [[paradise-tree]]s. Temperate [[live oak]] grows in the forests. [[Hattie Bauer Hammock]] is one preserve with this type of habitat and was acquired in 1996. Vines are a problem outcompeting the native [[goatsfoot]] (''[[Passiflora sexflora]]''). The threatened broad [[halberd fern]] (''[[Tectaria heracleifolia]]'') and [[maidenhair ferns]]. [[Cuban nakedwood]], ''[[Colubrina cubensis]]'' var. ''floridana'' is highly endangered. ''[[Colubrina]]''. It is also known as [[Cuban snakebark]].<ref name=endangered/>

==Southern glade==
Plants protected in Southern glades include wildflowers like ''[[Samolus parviflorus]]'' (water pimpernel), [[yellowtop]], [[lavender thistle]], [[marsh pink]]s, and [[Calopogon tuberosus|grass pink]] orchids (''[[Calapogon tuberosus]]''). Bird inhabitants include [[double-crested cormorant]]s, [[great blue heron]], [[little blue heron]], [[tricolored heron]], [[snowy egret]], [[osprey]], [[kingfisher]] and [[grebe]]. Native [[poisonwood]] grows in these areas. Other species include [[white-crowned pigeon]], [[Spike rush]], [[Cladium|sawgrass]], [[crayfish]], [[marsh rabbit]], [[deer]] and [[Florida panther]]; as well as colicroot (''[[Aletris bracteata]]''), the lavender ground orchid ''[[Bletia purpurea]]'' and ''[[Pinguicula pumila]]'', a dwarf [[butterwort]].<ref name=endangered/>

==Scrub==
Florida's oldest ecosystem is scrub. One area is of it protected in a fenced 15-acre plot called [[County Line Scrub]] on the [[Miami-Dade County, Florida|Dade County]]/ [[Broward County]] border boundary and at the four acre [[Dolphin Center Park]] Addition. Inhabitants include [[live oak]], [[Chapman's oak]], [[myrtle oak]] and a natural [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] known as [[Rolf's oak]]. [[Winged sumac]], which provides red fruit for small [[warbler]]s and other wildlife in the fall, pawpaws (''[[Asimina]]''), [[Saw palmetto]]s, [[cocoplum]], [[wax myrtle]], [[tarflower]] (''[[Befaria racemosa]]'') as well as the endangered [[quailberry]] (''[[Crossopetalum ilicifolium]]''). [[Blueberry]] and [[rusty lyonia]]. Animals such as [[gopher tortoise]], [[scrub lizard]], [[burrowing owl]] and [[indigo snake]]. Even smaller parcels can host [[coontie]], [[sabal palm]], [[partridge pea]] and a native cactus: ''[[Opuntia humifusa]]''.
These can be seen at [[Arch Creek, Florida|Arch Creek]] or [[Greynolds Park]].<ref name=endangered/>

==Pine Rockland==
Pine rockland is a rare ecosystem, with only about 4,000 acres of the original 185,000 acres, remaining. This type of habitat developed around limestone and fire. [[Swallow-tailed kite]], [[osprey]]. [[Rockdale Pineland]] is one preserve, home to endangered [[Redland sandmat]] (deltoid spurge). The land conservation programs have protected an additional 850 acres. [[locustberry]] [[saw palmetto]], [[coontie]], a native [[cycad]] used by pioneers to make starch, [[wild poinsettia]] and [[lantana]]. [[Opuntia humifusa|Prickly pear]] (''[[Opuntia humifusa]]'').<ref name=endangered>GEORGIA TASKER [http://www.miamiherald.com/2007/06/17/v-fullstory/140835/exploring-south-floridas-endangered.html Exploring South Florida's endangered natural areas] June 17, Miami Herald</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?E22 University of South Florida Libraries: Environmental Lands Acquisition Protection Program Collection]
*[http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?E21 University of South Florida Libraries: Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program Oral History Project]

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program,"'''Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program''' abbreviated as '''ELAPP''' is a taxpayer funded land acquisition and conservation strategy in [[Hillsborough County, Florida|Hillsborough County]], [[Florida]]. The program began in January 1987 when the Hillsborough County [[Commissioner]]s approved ordinance with $21 million in acquisition funding over four years. In 1990 voters approved a 20-year bond issuance for additional land purchases. Again in November 2008 another bond program was approved by voters for up to $200 million.<ref>[http://www.hillsboroughcounty.org/parks/resources/publications/elapp.pdf ELAPP] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116020115/http://hillsboroughcounty.org/parks/resources/publications/elapp.pdf |date=2011-11-16 }} Resources publications Hillsborough County</ref> In the 20 years up to 2008, more than 50 land purchases had been made including several in the [[Hillsborough River (Florida)|Hillsborough River]] [[drainage basin|watershed]]. Approximately $200 million had been spent with an estimated 38 percent coming from outside sources.<ref>[http://www.theplanningcommission.org/newsletter/year/issues-in-2008/fall-2008-partners-in-planning/elapp-plays-key-role-in-protecting-natural-resources-in-hillsborough-county.html ELAPP plays key role in protecting natural resources in Hillsborough County] issues in 2008 Hillsborough Planning Commission</ref>

==Land acquisitions==
*[[Cypress Creek Preserve]], 2,547 acres (in Pasco County)
*[[Temple Terrace Riverfront Park]], 118-acre

==See also==
*[[Environmentally Endangered Lands Programs]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Protected areas of Hillsborough County, Florida]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environment of Florida]]
[[Category:1987 establishments in Florida]]

==External links==
*[https://usflibrary.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=f620c1b74f624fa982414db2391b290a ELAPP History Project]
*[http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?E22 University of South Florida Libraries: Environmental Lands Acquisition Protection Program Collection] Images documenting ELAPP's work in protecting over 61,000 acres of rare and important habitat in Hillsborough County, Florida.
*[http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?E21 University of South Florida Libraries: Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program Oral History Project] Oral histories from people who were directly involved in ELAPP's beginnings and successful growth."
Category:Urban forestry,"{{Commons category|Urban forestry}}
This category includes articles related to '''[[urban forest]]s''', '''[[urban forestry|forestry]]''', '''[[Urban reforestation|reforestation]]''', and related topics.

[[Category:Forestry]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Forestry and the environment]]
[[Category:Urban agriculture]]"
Elephant hunting in Chad,"{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2013}}
[[File:Cd-map.png|thumb|200px|Map of Chad]]
'''Elephant hunting''' or '''elephant [[poaching]]''' and exploitation of the [[ivory trade]] are illegal in [[Chad]] and pose a major threat to elephant populations. The profitable [[ivory]] industry is also a threat to the lives of rangers, even in the national parks, such as [[Zakouma National Park]], the worst-affected area.

==History==
Chad's elephant population was reduced to around 20,000 in the mid-1980s and was roughly 3,000 as of 2010, according to Stephanie Vergniault, head of SOS Elephants in Chad.<ref>[https://news.mongabay.com/2010/05/a-nation-of-tragedies-the-unseen-elephant-wars-of-chad/ ""A Nation of Tragedies""], news.mongabay.com. Accessed 12 January 2024.</ref> The animals were subject to massacre by herds in and around the parks by organized poachers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.co.uk/news/2006/08/060830-elephants-chad.html|title=African Elephants Slaughtered in Herds Near Chad Wildlife Park|first=Brian|last=Handwerk|work=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]|date=30 August 2006|accessdate=17 October 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017173341/http://news.nationalgeographic.co.uk/news/2006/08/060830-elephants-chad.html|archivedate=17 October 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers.<ref name=""NYT"">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/01/world/africa/central-africas-wildlife-rangers-face-deadly-risks.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1382003098-yauBx4MSdHcb4DxeUgSrUw|title=Rangers in Isolated Central Africa Uncover Grim Cost of Protecting Wildlife|first=Jeffrey|last=Gettleman|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=31 December 2012|accessdate=17 October 2013}}</ref> Consequently, since the mid-1980s the elephant population has declined in the 20th century from 150,000 to a reported low of just 2,000 in the Chad-[[Cameroon]] region according to ''The Guardian''.<Ref name=Guard>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/mar/19/86-elephants-chad-poaching-massacre|title= 86 elephants killed in Chad poaching massacre|first=Celeste|last=Hicks|date=19 March 2013|accessdate=18 October 2013|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> and 500 in Chad alone in 2013 according to the [[Born Free Foundation]]<ref name = IvoryCurse>Vera, Varun and Ewing, Thomas (April 2014) [http://www.bornfreeusa.org/downloads/pdf/Ivorys-Curse-2014.pdf Ivory's Curse], BornFreeUSA.org. Retrieved 16 May 2014.</ref> due to intense poaching. American journalist [[Lisa Ling]] has visited Chad to explore the country's elephant poaching problem and spoke at the [[University of Missouri–St. Louis]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nocostl.com/2012/03/journalist-lisa-ling-speaking-the-touhill/ |title=Renowned journalist Lisa Ling speaking at University of Missouri–St. Louis |first=Shannon |last=Howard |date=March 3, 2012 |publisher=NOCO ~ The online magazine of North St. Louis County |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194325/https://nocostl.com/2012/03/journalist-lisa-ling-speaking-the-touhill/ |archivedate=October 29, 2013 }}</ref>

In a July 2012 attack by mounted poachers near the SOS Elephants camp in the [[Chari-Baguirmi Region]], 28 elephants were slaughtered and most of their tusks were removed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enn.com/wildlife/article/44721/print|title=Dozens of elephants massacred in Chad|first=Laurel|last=Neme|publisher=Environmental News Network|date=27 July 2012|accessdate=17 October 2013|archive-date=28 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628144411/http://www.enn.com/wildlife/article/44721/print|url-status=dead}}</ref> In another attack in September 2012, about {{convert|50|mi}} from the boundaries of the Zakouma National Park, five rangers were killed; one is still missing and presumed dead. The [[Sudanese Armed Forces|Sudanese military]] have been blamed for the attacks and the slaughtering of elephants not only in Zakouma and elsewhere in Chad, but also in other African nations, including Cameroon.<ref name=""NYT""/> As of 2012, a small team was responsible for battling to protect the remaining 450 elephants in Zakouma. One of the worst massacres took place in 14–15 March 2013 when 89 elephants, including 33 pregnant females and 15 calves, were slaughtered by poachers near the town of [[Gamba, Chad|Gamba]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldwildlife.org/press-releases/poachers-kill-at-least-89-elephants-in-chad|title=Poachers Kill at Least 89 Elephants in Chad|publisher=[[World Wildlife Fund]]|date=19 March 2013|accessdate=17 October 2013|archive-date=18 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718000548/https://www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/poachers-kill-at-least-89-elephants-in-chad|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Conservation efforts==
Stephanie Vergniault, a French lawyer, screenwriter, and conservationist who has been working in Chad since 2009, founded the SOS Elephants organization to protect the elephant population. In an interview in 2010, Vergniault stated that the population of elephants in Chad had declined by 85 percent in the previous three decades, and that if the same rate of poaching continues, ""not a single elephant"" would be alive in Chad within three years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2010/0512-hance_chad.html#Ll676J36vAfPYtVV.99|title=A nation of tragedies: the unseen elephant wars of Chad |first=Jeremy |last=Hance|date=12 May 2010|accessdate=18 October 2013|publisher= Mongabay.com}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Elephant hunting in Kenya]]
*[[Hunting license]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Africa topic|Elephant hunting in}|countries_only=yes}}
[[Category:Environmental issues in Chad]]
[[Category:Economy of Chad]]
[[Category:Elephant hunting]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Hunting by country]]"
Cobthorn Trust,"{{One source|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox organization
| name   = Cobthorn Trust
| logo   = 
| type   =
| founded_date      = 1986
| founder           = Andrew J. Sheppy FLS FSB
| location          = [[Congresbury]], [[North Somerset]], England
| origins           =
| key_people        = 
| area_served       = International
| product           =
| focus             = Rare breeds and conservation
| method            =
| revenue           = 
| endowment         =
| num_volunteers    =
| num_employees     = 
| num_members       =
| owner             =
| Non-profit_slogan =
| homepage          = http://www.cobthorn.org/
| dissolved         =
| footnotes         =
}}

The '''Cobthorn Trust''' is a private non-profit trust in the United Kingdom that is dedicated to furthering conservation and preserving rare domestic animal breeds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cobthorn.org/about-cobthorn.html|publisher=Cobthorn Trust|title=Cobthorn|accessdate=December 2, 2013}}</ref> 

The Trust was formed in 1986 by its former Director, Andrew Sheppy.  Until his death in  2017, the Trust was involved in the conservation of several rare breeds, initiation of the National Poultry Collection, genetic research on [[Dexter cattle]], and the development of [[conservation grazing]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Animal breeding]]
[[Category:Breeder organizations]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organisations based in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Conservation Priority Breeds of the Livestock Conservancy]]
[[Category:Endangered animals]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Rare breed conservation]]
[[Category:Charities based in Somerset]]"
Category:Agroecology,"{{cat main|Agroecology}}
{{Commons category|Agroecology}}

[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Agricultural science]]
[[Category:Subfields of ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Agroecology,"{{short description|Study of ecological processes in agriculture}}

'''Agroecology''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ˌæ.ɡroʊ.i.ˈkɑː.lə.dʒi/}}) is an [[academic discipline]] that studies [[Applied ecology|ecological processes]] applied to [[agriculture|agricultural]] production systems. Bringing [[ecology#Fundamental principles of ecology|ecological principles]] to bear can suggest new management approaches in [[agroecosystem]]s. The term can refer to a science, a movement, or an agricultural practice.<ref name=Wezel2009>Wezel, A., Bellon, S., Doré, T., Francis, C., Vallod, D., David, C. (2009). [https://www.socla.co/wp-content/uploads/2014/wezel-agroecology.pdf Agroecology as a science, a movement or a practice] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030002645/https://www.socla.co/wp-content/uploads/2014/wezel-agroecology.pdf |date=2019-10-30 }}. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development</ref> Agroecologists study a variety of agroecosystems. The field of agroecology is not associated with any one particular method of [[farming]], whether it be [[Organic farming|organic]], [[regenerative farming|regenerative]], [[Integrated farming|integrated]], or [[Industrial agriculture|industrial]], [[Intensive farming|intensive]] or [[Extensive farming|extensive]], although some use the name specifically for alternative agriculture.

==Definition==
Agroecology is defined by the [[OECD]] as ""the study of the relation of agricultural crops and environment.""<ref>{{cite web|url = http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=81 |title = Agro-ecology|website = Glossary of Statistical Terms|publisher = OECD|date = February 22, 2003}}</ref> Dalgaard ''et al''. refer to agroecology as the study of the interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment within agricultural systems.<ref name=dalgaard>Dalgaard, Tommy, and Nicholas Hutchings, John Porter. ""[https://www.academia.edu/12996644 Agroecology, Scaling and Interdisciplinarity]."" Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 100(2003): 39-51.</ref> Francis ''et al''. also use the definition in the same way, but thought it should be restricted to growing food.<ref name=francis>{{cite journal |last=Francis |date=2003 |title=Agroecology: the ecology of food systems |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233138094 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Agriculture |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=99–118 |doi=10.1300/J064v22n03_10|s2cid=4138242 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

Agroecology is a holistic approach that seeks to reconcile agriculture and local communities with natural processes for the common benefit of nature and livelihoods.

Agroecology is inherently multidisciplinary, including sciences such as [[agronomy]], [[ecology]], [[environmental science]], [[sociology]], [[economics]], [[history]] and others.<ref name=""dalgaard"" /> Agroecology uses different sciences to understand elements of ecosystems such as soil properties and plant-insect interactions, as well as using social sciences to understand the effects of farming practices on rural communities, economic constraints to developing new production methods, or cultural factors determining farming practices.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}} The system properties of agroecosystems studied may include: [[Crop yield|productivity]], [[Ecological stability|stability]], [[sustainability]] and [[equitability]].<ref>Conway, Gordon R. 1985. Agroecosystem analysis. Agricultural Administration, 20, 31-55.</ref> Agroecology is not limited to any one scale; it can range from an individual gene to an entire population, or from a single field in a given farm to global systems.<ref name=""dalgaard"" />

Wojtkowski differentiates the ecology of natural ecosystems from agroecology inasmuch as in natural ecosystems there is no role for economics, whereas in agroecology, focusing as it does on organisms within planned and managed environments, it is human activities, and hence economics, that are the primary governing forces that ultimately control the field.<ref name=Wojtkowski2002>Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2002) Agroecological Perspectives in Agronomy, Forestry and Agroforestry. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, New Hampshire, 356p.</ref><ref>Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2006) Introduction to Agroecology: Principles and Practices. Haworth Press, Binghamton, NY, 404p.</ref> Wojtkowski discusses the application of agroecology in [[agriculture]], [[forestry]] and [[agroforestry]] in his 2002 book.<ref name=Wojtkowski2002/>

===Varieties===
Buttel identifies four varieties of agroecology in a 2003 conference paper. The main varieties he calls ''ecosystem agroecology'' which he claims derives from the [[ecosystem ecology]] of [[Howard T. Odum]] and focuses less on the rural sociology, and ''agronomic agroecology'' which he identifies as being oriented towards developing knowledge and practices to agriculture more sustainable. The third long-standing variety Buttel calls ''ecological political economy'' which he defines as critiquing the politics and economy of agriculture and weighted to radical politics. The smallest and newest variety Buttel coins ''agro-population ecology'', which he says is very similar to the first, but is derived from the science of ecology primarily based on the more modern theories of [[population ecology]] such as [[population dynamics]] of constituent species, and their relationships to [[climate]] and [[biogeochemistry]], and the role of [[genetics]].<ref name=buttel>{{cite conference |url=https://www.dphu.org/uploads/attachements/books/books_2044_0.pdf |title=Envisioning the Future Development of Farming in the USA: Agroecology between Extinction and Multifunctionality? |last=Buttel |first=Frederick H. |date=2003 |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |book-title=New Directions in Agroecology Research and Education |pages=1–14 }}</ref>
 
Dalgaard ''et al''. identify different points of view: what they call early ""integrative"" agroecology, such as the investigations of [[Henry Gleason]] or [[Frederic Clements]]. The second version they cite Hecht (1995) as coining ""hard"" agroecology which they identify as more reactive to environmental politics but rooted in measurable units and technology. They themselves name ""soft"" agroecology which they define as trying to measure agroecology in terms of ""soft capital"" such as culture or experience.<ref name=dalgaard/>

The term agroecology may used by people for a science, movement or practice.<ref name=Wezel2009/><ref name=wezel>Wezel, A., Soldat, V. (2009). [https://wp.ufpel.edu.br/consagro/files/2010/09/WEZEL-Historical-analysis-Scientific-Agroecology.pdf A quantitative and qualitative historical analysis of the scientific discipline agroecology]. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 7 (1): 3-18. |doi=10.3763/ijas.2009.040</ref> Using the name as a movement became more common in the 1990s, especially in the Americas.<ref name=wezel/><ref>Wibblemann et al. (2013) Mainstreaming Agroecology: Implications for Global Food and Farming Systems. {{cite web |url=http://futureoffood.org/pdfs/Coventry_University_2013_Maintstreaming_Agroecology.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-05-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522154628/http://futureoffood.org/pdfs/Coventry_University_2013_Maintstreaming_Agroecology.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-22}}</ref><ref>Vandermeer, J. 1995. The ecological basis of alternative agriculture. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 26: 201-224</ref> [[Miguel Altieri]], whom Buttel groups with the ""political"" agroecologists,<ref name=buttel/> has published prolifically in this sense.<ref name=wezel/> He has applied agroecology to [[sustainable agriculture]],<ref>[http://www.agroecology.org Agroecology.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060422150352/http://www.agroecology.org/ |date=2006-04-22 }}</ref> [[alternative agriculture]]<ref>Altieri, M.A. 1987. Agroecology: the scientific basis of alternative agriculture. Boulder: Westview Press</ref><ref>Altieri, M.A. 1992. Agroecological foundations of alternative agriculture in California. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 39: 23-53</ref> and [[traditional knowledge]].<ref>Miguel Altieri [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226799563 Applying Agroecology to Enhance the Productivity of Peasant Farming Systems in Latin America]</ref>

==History==
=== Overview ===
The history of agroecology depends on whether you are referring to it as a body of thought or a method of practice, as many indigenous cultures around the world historically used and currently use practices we would now consider utilizing knowledge of agroecology. Examples include [[Māori people|Maori]], [[Nahuatl]], and many other indigenous peoples.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.maramatanga.ac.nz/project/indigenous-agroecology|title = Indigenous Agroecology|website = Maramatanga}}</ref>
The [[Mexica]] people that inhabited [[Tenochtitlan]] pre-colonization of the Americas used a process called [[chinampas]] that in many ways mirrors the use of composting in sustainable agriculture today.<ref>{{cite web|url =  http://www.fao.org/3/I9159EN/i9159en.pdf |title = Chinampa Agricultural System of Mexico City|date = July 7, 2017|publisher = FAO.org}}</ref> The use of agroecological practices such as nutrient cycling and intercropping occurs across hundreds of years and many different cultures.<ref name = gari2001>{{cite journal|last = Garí|first= Josep|date= 2001|title = Biodiversity and Indigenous Agroecology in Amazonia: The Indigenous Peoples of Pastaza|journal = Etnoecologica|volume= 5|pages= 21–37|url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284034435}}</ref> Indigenous peoples also currently make up a large proportion of people using agroecological practices, and those involved in the movement to move more farming into an agroecological paradigm.<ref>Suárez-Torres, J., Suárez-López, J. R., López-Paredes, D., Morocho, H., Cachiguango-Cachiguango, L. E., & Dellai, W. (2017, June 1). Agroecology and Health: Lessons from Indigenous Populations. Current Environmental Health Reports. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-017-0146-z</ref>

===Pre-WWII academic thought===
According to Gliessman and Francis ''et al''., agronomy and ecology were first linked with the study of crop ecology by Klages in 1928. This work is a study of where crops can best be grown.<ref name=francis/><ref name=gliess>Gliessman, Stephen. R Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture. Ann Arbor: Sleeping Bear Press, 1998.</ref><ref>Klages, K.H.W. 1928. [https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/?page=123914&search_field=all_fields Crop ecology and ecological crop geography in the agronomic curriculum]. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 20:336-353.</ref>

Wezel ''et al''. say the first mention of the term agroecology was in 1928, with the publication of the term by Basil Bensin.<ref name=wezel/> Dalgaard ''et al''. claim the German zoologist Friederichs was the first to use the name in 1930 in his book on the [[zoology]] of agriculture and forestry,<ref name=dalgaard/><ref>Friederichs, K. (1930) Die Grundfragen und Gesetzmäßigkeiten der land- und forstwirtschaftlichen Zoologie. Vol. 1: Ökologischer Teil, Vol. 2: Wirtschaftlicher Teil. Verlagsbuchhandlung Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany, 417 and 443 pp.</ref> followed by American crop physiologist Hansen in 1939, both using the word for the application of ecology within agriculture.<ref name=dalgaard/>

===Post-WWII academic thought===
Tischler's 1965 book ''Agrarökologie'' may be the first to be titled 'agroecology'. He analyzed the different components (plants, animals, soils and climate) and their interactions within an agroecosystem as well as the impact of human [[agricultural management]] on these components.<ref>Tischler, W. (1965). Agrarökologie. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, Germany, 499 pp.</ref>

Gliessman describes that post-WWII ecologists gave more focus to experiments in the natural environment, while [[agronomist]]s dedicated their attention to the cultivated systems in agriculture, but in the 1970s agronomists saw the value of ecology, and ecologists began to use the agricultural systems as study plots, studies in agroecology grew more rapidly.<ref name=gliess/> More books and articles using the concept of agroecosystems and the word agroecology started to appear in 1970s.<ref name=wezel/> According to Dalgaard ''et al''., it probably was the concept of ""process ecology"" such as studied by [[Arthur Tansley]] in the 1930s which inspired Harper's 1974 concept of [[agroecosystem]]s, which they consider the foundation of modern agroecology.<ref name=dalgaard/> Dalgaard ''et al''. claim [[Frederic Clements]]'s investigations on ecology using social sciences, [[community ecology]] and a ""landscape perspective"" is agroecology, as well as [[Henry Gleason]]'s investigations of the [[population ecology]] of plants using different scientific disciplines.<ref name=dalgaard/> [[Ethnobotanist]] Efraim Hernandez X.'s work on [[traditional knowledge]] in [[Mexico]] in the 1970s led to new education programs in agroecology.<ref name=francis/>

Works such as ''[[Silent Spring]]'' and ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'' caused the public to be aware of the environmental costs of agricultural production, which caused more research in sustainability starting in the 1980s.<ref name=dalgaard/> The view that the socio-economic context are fundamental was used in the 1982 article ''Agroecologia del Tropico Americano'' by Montaldo, who argues that this context cannot be separated from agriculture when designing agricultural practices.<ref name=francis/> In 1985 [[Miguel Altieri]] studied how the consolidation of the farms and cropping systems impact pest populations, and Gliessman how socio-economic, technological, and ecological components gave rise to producer choices of food production systems.<ref name=francis/>

In 1995, Edens ''et al''. in ''Sustainable Agriculture and Integrated Farming Systems'' considered the economics of systems, ecological impacts, and ethics and values in agriculture.<ref name=francis/>

=== Social movements ===
Several social movements have adopted agroecology as part of their larger organizing strategy. Groups like [[Via Campesina|La Via Campesina]] have used agroecology as a method for achieving [[food sovereignty]].<ref name = territory>{{Cite journal|last1=Giraldo|first1=Omar Felipe|last2=Rosset|first2=Peter M.|date=2018-03-19|title=Agroecology as a territory in dispute: between institutionality and social movements|journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies|volume=45|issue=3|pages=545–564|doi=10.1080/03066150.2017.1353496 |s2cid=149061121|issn= 0306-6150}}</ref> Agroecology has also been utilized by farmers to resist global agricultural development patterns associated with the [[Green Revolution|green revolution]].<ref name = territory/>

== By region ==
=== Latin America ===
{{Excerpt|Agroecology in Latin America}}

=== Africa ===
Garí wrote two papers for the FAO in the early 2000s about using an agroecological approach which he called ""agrobiodiversity"" to empower farmers to cope with the impacts of the AIDS on rural areas in Africa.<ref>Garí, Josep A. (2003). [https://www.popline.org/node/249980 Agrobiodiversity strategies to combat food insecurity and HIV/AIDS impact in rural Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730213104/https://www.popline.org/node/249980 |date=2019-07-30 }}. FAO / Population and Development Service, Rome.</ref><ref>Garí, Josep A. (2004). Plant diversity, sustainable rural livelihoods and the HIV/AIDS crisis. Bangkok: UNDP & FAO, 2004. Published in English and Chinese. {{ISBN|974-92021-4-7}}.</ref>

In 2011, the first encounter of agroecology trainers took place in Zimbabwe and issued the Shashe Declaration.

===Europe===
The [[European Commission]] supports the use of sustainable practices, such as [[precision agriculture]], [[organic farming]], agroecology, [[agroforestry]] and stricter [[animal welfare]] standards through the [[European Green Deal|Green Deal]] and the [[Farm to Fork]] Strategy.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EUR-Lex - 52019DC0640 - EN - EUR-Lex|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1576150542719&uri=COM:2019:640:FIN|access-date=2020-06-24|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref>

== Debate ==
Within those academic research areas that focus on topics related to agriculture or ecology such as agronomy, veterinarian science, environmental science, and others, there is much debate regarding what model of agriculture or agroecology should be supported through policy. Agricultural departments of different countries support agroecology to varying degrees, with the UN being perhaps its biggest proponent.

==See also==
{{Portal|Agriculture and agronomy|Ecology}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Agricultural biodiversity]] 
* [[Agriculture in Concert with the Environment]] 
* [[Agriculture effluent]]
* [[Agroecological restoration]] 
* [[Agroecology in Latin America]]
* [[Agroecology in West Africa]]
* [[Agroecosystem]] 
* [[Agrophysics]] 
* [[Effects of climate change on agriculture]]
* [[Community development]] 
* [[Conventional agriculture]] 
* [[Climate change adaptation]] 
* [[Edaphology]] 
* [[Ecological economics]]
* [[Ecosystem services]]
* [[Environmental economics]] 
* [[Environmental impact of agriculture]]
* [[Food-feed system]]
* [[Genetic erosion]] 
* [[Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture]]
* [[International volunteering]]
* [[Landscape ecology]] 
* [[Life cycle analysis]] 
* [[Nutrient management]] 
* [[Pollinator decline]] 
* [[Regenerative agriculture]]
* [[Rural development]]
* [[Soil science]] 
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Sustainable development]]}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|2}}
*Buttel, F.H. and M.E. Gertler 1982. Agricultural structure, agricultural policy and environmental quality. Agriculture and Environment 7: 101–119.
*Carrol, C. R., J.H. Vandermeer and P.M. Rosset. 1990. Agroecology. McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New York.
*Paoletti, M.G., B.R. Stinner, and G.G. Lorenzoni, ed. Agricultural Ecology and Environment. New York: Elsevier Science Publisher B.V., 1989.
*Robertson, Philip, and Scott M Swinton. ""Reconciling agricultural productivity and environmental integrity: a grand challenge for agriculture."" [[Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment]] 3.1 (2005): 38–46.
*Monbiot, George. 2022. ""Regenesis: Feeding the World without Devouring the Planet."" 

'''Advances in Agroecology Book Series'''
*Soil Organic Matter in Sustainable Agriculture (Advances in Agroecology) by Fred Magdoff and Ray R. Weil (Hardcover - May 27, 2004)
*Agroforestry in Sustainable Agricultural Systems (Advances in Agroecology) by Louise E. Buck, James P. Lassoie, and Erick C.M. Fernandes (Hardcover - Oct 1, 1998)
*Agroecosystem Sustainability: Developing Practical Strategies (Advances in Agroecology) by Stephen R. Gliessman (Hardcover - Sep 25, 2000)
*Interactions Between Agroecosystems and Rural Communities (Advances in Agroecology) by Cornelia Flora (Hardcover - Feb 5, 2001)
*Landscape Ecology in Agroecosystems Management (Advances in Agroecology) by Lech Ryszkowski (Hardcover - Dec 27, 2001)
*Integrated Assessment of Health and Sustainability of Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) by Thomas Gitau, Margaret W. Gitau, David Waltner-ToewsClive A. Edwards June 2008 | Hardback: 978-1-4200-7277-8 (CRC Press)
*Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis of Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) by [[Mario Giampietro]] 2003 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-1067-6 (CRC Press)
*Soil Tillage in Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) edited by Adel El Titi 2002 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-1228-1 (CRC Press)
*Tropical Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) edited by John H. Vandermeer 2002 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-1581-7 (CRC Press)
*Structure and Function in Agroecosystem Design and Management (Advances in Agroecology) edited by Masae Shiyomi, Hiroshi Koizumi 2001 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-0904-5 (CRC Press)
*Biodiversity in Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) edited by Wanda W. Collins, Calvin O. Qualset 1998 | Hardback: 978-1-56670-290-4 (CRC Press)
*Sustainable Agroecosystem Management: Integrating Ecology, Economics and Society. (Advances in Agroecology) edited by Patrick J. Bohlen and Gar House 2009 | Hardback: 978-1-4200-5214-5 (CRC Press)
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{div col}}

===Topic===
* [https://agroeco.org/ Agroecology]
* [https://regeneration.org/nexus/agroecology/ Agroecology by Project Regeneration]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170709093605/http://www.iaean.org/ International Agroecology Action Network]
* [http://www.agroecologia.net/ Spain]
*[http://www.fao.org/3/i9037en/i9037en.pdf The 10 elements of Agroecology]

===Organisations===
* [https://www.agroecology-europe.org/ Agroecology Europe - A European association for Agroecology]
* [https://agroecologymap.org/ Agroecology Map]
* [https://onemillionvoices.agroecologymap.org One Million Voices of Agroecology]

===Courses===
* [https://agroecology.wisc.edu/ University of Wisconsin–Madison]
* [http://www.agropolis.org/agronomy/seminar-agroecology.php Montpellier, France] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224144523/http://www.agropolis.org/agronomy/seminar-agroecology.php |date=2021-02-24 }}
* [https://agroecology.nres.illinois.edu/ University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]
* [http://www.agroecos.fr/ European Master Agroecology]
* [https://www.nmbu.no/en/studies/study-options/master/master_of_science_in_agroecology Norwegian University of Life Sciences]
* [https://agroecology.ucsc.edu/index.html UC Santa Cruz Center for Agroecology & Sustainable Food Systems]
{{div col end}}

{{Agriculture footer}}
{{Environmental social science}}
{{Branches of ecology}}{{Soil science topics}}{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Agroecology| ]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Agronomy]]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Agricultural soil science]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Organic farming]]
[[Category:Habitat management equipment and methods]]
[[Category:Sustainable food system]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Category:Habitat management equipment and methods,"This category groups together articles on equipment and methods of managing '''[[Habitat]]s''' for '''[[Nature conservation]]'''.

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Forestry and the environment]]
[[Category:Gardening tools]]
[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Techniques]]"
Wildlife corridor,"{{Short description|Connecting wild territories for animals}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
[[File:Corredor Florestal - Pontal do Paranapanema.jpg|thumb|right|A wildlife Corridor in [[Brazil]].|alt=A green forest corridor in Brazil]]

A '''wildlife corridor''', '''habitat corridor''', or '''green corridor'''<ref>{{cite web|url-status=dead|url=https://www.planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115310689250.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201180024/https://www.planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115310689250.html|archive-date=1 December 2008|title=Planning Portal - Glossary: G }}</ref> is an area of [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] connecting [[wildlife]] populations separated by human activities or structures (such as roads, development, or logging). This allows an exchange of individuals between populations, which may help prevent the negative effects of [[inbreeding]] and reduced [[genetic diversity]] (via [[genetic drift]]) that often occur within isolated populations. Corridors may also help facilitate the re-establishment of populations that have been reduced or eliminated due to [[Stochastic process|random events]] (such as fires or disease). This may moderate some of the worst effects of [[habitat fragmentation]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Bond, M.|date=2003|title=Principles of Wildlife Corridor Design. Center for Biological Diversity|url=http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/publications/papers/wild-corridors.pdf|publisher=Biologivaldiversity.org|access-date=2015-08-11|archive-date=6 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606143617/https://biologicaldiversity.org/publications/papers/wild-corridors.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> whereas [[urbanization]] can split up habitat areas, causing animals to lose both their natural habitat and the ability to move between regions to access resources. Habitat fragmentation due to [[Human development theory|human development]] is an ever-increasing threat to [[biodiversity]],<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Lenore|last=Fahrig|date=2003-11-28|title=Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Biodiversity|journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]] |volume=34|pages=487–515|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419}}</ref> and habitat corridors serve to manage its effects.

==Purpose==
[[File:GreenCorridorEcologicalDesignLilleLMCU2010.JPG|thumb|An urban green corridor in [[Lille]].]]
Habitat corridors can be considered a management tool in places where the destruction of a natural area has greatly affected [[native species]], whether it's a result of human development or natural disasters. When areas of land are broken up, [[population]]s can become unstable or [[Habitat fragmentation|fragmented]]. Corridors can reconnect fragmented populations and reduce population fluctuations by contributing to three factors that can help to stabilize a population:  
* '''[[Colonisation (biology)|Colonization]]'''—animals are able to move and occupy new areas when food sources or other natural resources are lacking in their core habitat.
* '''[[Animal migration|Migration]]'''—species that relocate seasonally can do so more safely and effectively when it does not interfere with human development barriers.
* '''[[Interbreeding]]'''—animals can find new mates in neighboring regions, increasing [[genetic diversity]].

Daniel Rosenberg et al.<ref name=""Rosenberg 1995"">{{cite journal |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Daniel K. |last2=Noon |first2=Barry R. |last3=Meslow |first3=E. Charles |title=Towards a definition of wildlife corridor |journal=Integrating People and Wildlife for a Sustainable Future |date=1995 |pages=436–9 |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/3662 |access-date=14 September 2018 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331220816/https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/3662 |url-status=live }}</ref> were among the first to define what constitutes a wildlife corridor, developing a [[conceptual model]] that emphasized the role of a wildlife corridor as a facilitator of movement that is not restricted by requirements of [[native vegetation]] or intermediate target patches of habitat.<ref>{{cite web|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-08-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813015552/https://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20Background/What%20is%20a%20Landscape/What%20is%20a%20Landscape.htm|url=https://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20Background/What%20is%20a%20Landscape/What%20is%20a%20Landscape.htm|title=What is a landscape?}}</ref>

[[File:Camel underpass in Qatar.jpg|thumb|Sign on a highway in Qatar, indicating an underpass that allows [[camel]]s to safely cross.]]

Wildlife corridors also have strong indirect effects on plant populations by increasing pollen and [[seed dispersal]] from animals, facilitating movement of disparate taxa between isolated patches.<ref name="":4"">{{cite journal |last1=Tewksbury |first1=Joshua |date=October 1, 2002 |title=Corridors affect plants, animals, and their interactions in fragmented landscapes |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=99 |issue=20 |pages=12923–6 |bibcode=2002PNAS...9912923T |doi=10.1073/pnas.202242699 |pmc=130561 |pmid=12239344 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Corridors must be large enough to support minimum critical populations, reduce migration barriers, and maximize connectivity between populations.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal |author1=Allison M. Fleury|author2= Robert D. Brown |year=1997 |title=A framework for the design of wildlife conservation corridors With specific application to southwestern Ontario |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169204697800023 |journal=[[Landscape and Urban Planning]] |language=en |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=37 |issue=3–4 |pages=163–186 |doi=10.1016/S0169-2046(97)80002-3 |access-date=2022-10-28 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10214/4617 |archive-date=28 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028095343/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169204697800023 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Wildlife corridors may also encompass aquatic habitats (often called riparian ribbons<ref>{{Cite web |last=Repayment"" |first=""Debt |date=2021-08-30 |title=The Riparian Ribbon |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/537a6541676241b1979ad54dfcc65763 |access-date=2023-05-20 |website=ArcGIS StoryMaps |language=en-us |archive-date=20 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520234641/https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/537a6541676241b1979ad54dfcc65763 |url-status=live }}</ref>) and usually come in the form of rivers and streams. Terrestrial corridors can come in the form of wooded strips connecting woodland areas or an urban hedge.<ref name="":5"" />

== Users ==
Most species can be categorized in one of two groups; passage users and corridor dwellers.

Passage users occupy corridors for brief periods of time. These animals use corridors for such events as [[wikt:migration|seasonal migration]], [[Biological dispersal|dispersal]] of juveniles, or moving between parts of a large home range. Animals such as large [[Herbivory|herbivores]], medium to large [[carnivore]]s, and migratory species are passage users.{{r|Beier & Loe 1992}}

Corridor dwellers can occupy the passage anywhere from several days to several years. Species such as [[plants]], [[reptiles]], [[amphibians]], [[birds]], [[insects]], and small [[mammals]] can spend their entire lives in linear habitats. In this case, the corridor must provide sufficient resources to support such species.{{r|Beier & Loe 1992}}

== Types ==
Habitat corridors can be categorized according to their width, with wider corridors generally encouraging more use.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1993 |title=Wildlife, forest, and forestry. Principles of managing forests for biological diversity |journal=[[Biological Conservation]] |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=271 |doi=10.1016/0006-3207(93)90732-g |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> However, overall corridor quality depends more on design when creating an effective corridor.<ref name="":5"" /> The following are three divisions in corridor widths: 
* '''Regional''' – (>{{convert|500|m}} wide); connect major ecological gradients such as migratory pathways.
* '''Sub-regional''' – (>{{convert|300|m}} wide); connect larger vegetated landscape features such as [[ridge ]]lines and valley floors.
* '''Local''' – (some <{{convert|50|m}}); connect remnant patches of [[Gully|gullies]], [[wetland]]s, ridge lines, etc.

Habitat corridors can also be divided according to their continuity. Continuous corridors are strips that are not broken up, while ""stepping stone"" corridors are small patches of suitable habitat. However, stepping-stone corridors may be more susceptible to [[edge effects]].

[[File:Wildlife overpass in Singapore.jpeg|thumb|[[Singapore]]|alt=[[Singapore]] highway]]

Corridors can also take the form of [[wildlife crossings]], [[underpass]]es or [[overpass]]es used for crossing man-made feature such as roads, reducing [[Human–wildlife conflict|human-wildlife conflict]] such as roadkill. Observations have shown that underpasses are actually more successful than overpasses because many times animals are too timid to cross over a bridge in front of traffic and would prefer to be more hidden.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Sandra J. Ng|author2=Jim W. Dole| author3=Raymond M. Sauvajot |author4=Seth P.D Riley |author5=Thomas J. Valone |date=2004 |title=Use of highway undercrossings by wildlife in southern California |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320703001666 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=499–507 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00166-6 |bibcode=2004BCons.115..499N |access-date=2022-10-31 |archive-date=31 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031100008/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320703001666 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Monitoring use ==
{{Tone|section|date=March 2008}}
Researchers can use [[Mark and recapture|mark-recapture techniques]] and hair snares in order to evaluate [[Gene flow|genetic flow]] to observe how a corridor is being used.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dixon |first1=Jeremy D. |last2=Oli |first2=Madan K. |last3=Wooten |first3=Michael C. |last4=Eason |first4=Thomas H. |last5=McCown |first5=J. Walter |last6=Paetkau |first6=David |date=2006 |title=Effectiveness of a Regional Corridor in Connecting Two Florida Black Bear Populations |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3591161 |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=155–162 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00292.x |jstor=3591161 |pmid=16909668 |bibcode=2006ConBi..20..155D |s2cid=15106420 |issn=0888-8892 |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519234334/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3591161 |url-status=live }}</ref> Marking and recapturing animals is more useful when keeping a close eye on individual movement.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last1=Mech |first1=Stephen G. |last2=Hallett |first2=James G. |date=April 2001 |title=Evaluating the Effectiveness of Corridors: a Genetic Approach |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x |journal=Conservation Biology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=467–474 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x |bibcode=2001ConBi..15..467M |s2cid=84520743 |issn=0888-8892 |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813182628/https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x |url-status=live }}</ref> However, tagging does not give any insight into whether the migrating individuals are successfully breeding with other populations.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

Genetic techniques can be more effective when evaluating migration and [[mating]] patterns. By looking at a population's [[gene flow]], researchers can understand the genetic consequences of corridors using information about the migration patterns of a population over time.<ref name="":1"" />

==Design==
Wildlife corridors are most effective when they are designed with the ecology of their target species in mind. Other factors like seasonal movement, avoidance behavior, dispersal, and habitat requirements can be considered.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Newmark |first=William D. |date=1993 |title=The Role and Design of Wildlife Corridors with Examples from Tanzania |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4314138 |journal=Ambio |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=500–504 |jstor=4314138 |issn=0044-7447 |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519234333/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4314138 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Corridors are best built with a certain degree of randomness or [[asymmetry]] and when oriented perpendicular to habitat patches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Designing wildlife corridors |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081020135221.htm |access-date=4 August 2015 |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |archive-date=2 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102042737/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081020135221.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="":5"" /> Wildlife corridors are susceptible to [[edge effect]]s; habitat quality along the edge of a habitat fragment is often much lower than in core habitat areas. Habitat corridors are important for large species requiring significant-sized [[range (biology)|range]]s; however, they are also vital as connection corridors for smaller animals and plants, as well as ecological connectors to provide a ‟''[[rescue effect]]’’.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Julieta Benitez-Malvido| author2=Víctor Arroyo-Rodríguez |date=2008 |title=Habitat fragmentation, edge effects and biological corridors in tropical ecosystems |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242075972 |access-date=2022-11-02}}</ref>'' Wildlife corridors are additionally designed to reduce human-wildlife conflicts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maulana |first=Rheza |date=2023-04-01 |title=Architecture for Wildlife: The Possible Solution to Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Indonesia |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=1169 |issue=1 |pages=012046 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/1169/1/012046|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023E&ES.1169a2046M }}</ref>

== Examples ==

In [[Alberta|Alberta, Canada]], an overpass was constructed to keep animals off the busy highway, which crosses [[Banff National Park|Banff national park]]. The top of the bridge is planted with trees and native grasses, and fences were put on either side to help guide animals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dickie |first=Gloria |date=2022-07-22 |title=As Banff’s famed wildlife overpasses turn 20, the world looks to Canada for conservation inspiration |url=https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/as-banffs-famed-wildlife-overpasses-turn-20-the-world-looks-to-canada-for-conservation-inspiration/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Canadian Geographic |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[File:Bear underpass écoducOurs.jpg|thumb|[[Florida]]|alt=[[Florida]] highway]]
In [[Southern California]], 15 underpasses and drainage [[culvert]]s were observed to see how many animals used them as corridors. They proved to be especially effective on wide-ranging species such as carnivores, [[mule deer]], small mammals, and reptiles, even though the corridors were not intended specifically for animals. Researchers also learned that factors such as surrounding habitat, underpass dimensions, and human activity also played a role in the frequency of usage.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last=Ng |first=Sandra J |last2=Dole |first2=Jim W |last3=Sauvajot |first3=Raymond M |last4=Riley |first4=Seth P.D |last5=Valone |first5=Thomas J |date=2003-03-20 |title=Use of highway undercrossings by wildlife in southern California |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320703001666 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=499–507 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00166-6}}</ref>

In [[South Carolina]], five remnant areas of land were monitored; one was put in the center and four were surrounding it. Then, a corridor was put between one of the remnants and the center. Butterflies that were placed in the center habitat were two to four times more likely to move to the connected remnant rather than the disconnected ones. Furthermore, male [[holly]] plants were placed in the center region, and female holly plants in the connected region increased by 70 percent in seed production compared to those plants in the disconnected region. Plant [[Seed dispersal|seeds dispersal]] through bird droppings was noted to be the dispersal method with the largest increase within the corridor-connected patch of land.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web |last=Susan Milius |date=2002-10-22 |title=Insects, pollen, seeds travel wildlife corridors |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/insects-pollen-seeds-travel-wildlife-corridors |archive-date=4 November 2022 |website=Science News |access-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104061201/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/insects-pollen-seeds-travel-wildlife-corridors |url-status=live }}</ref>

There have also been positive effects on the rates of transfer and interbreeding in [[vole]] populations. A control population in which voles were confined to their core habitat with no corridor was compared to a treatment population in their core habitat with passages that they could use to move to other regions. Females typically stayed and mated within their [[Founder effect|founder population]], but the rate of transfer through corridors in the males was very high.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Jon Aars|author2= Rolf A. Ims |title=The Effect of Habitat Corridors on Rates of Transfer and Interbreeding Between Vole Demes |journal=Ecology |date=1999-07-01 |volume=80 |issue=5 |page=1648 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[1648:TEOHCO]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0012-9658 |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080&#91;1648:TEOHCO&#93;2.0.CO;2 |access-date=2022-11-04 |language=en |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104063040/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080%5B1648:TEOHCO%5D2.0.CO;2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2001, a [[Gray Wolf|wolf]] corridor was restored through a golf course in [[Jasper National Park]], [[Alberta]], which successfully altered wildlife behavior and showed frequent use by the wolf population.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Shepherd, B|author2=J. Whittington |date=2006|title=Response of wolves to corridor restoration and human use management|journal=Ecology and Society |volume=11 |issue=2|doi=10.5751/ES-01813-110201 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Daniel K. Rosenberg|author2=Barry R. Noon |author3=E. Charles Meslow|title=Biological Corridors: Form, Function, and Efficacy|journal=BioScience|volume=47|issue=10 |date=November 1997|pages=677–687|jstor=1313208|doi=10.2307/1313208|doi-access=free}}</ref>[[File:Elevated stretch of NH 44 through Pench Tiger Reserve.png|thumb|NH 44, [[Pench Tiger Reserve]]]]

===Major wildlife corridors===
* The Paséo Pantera (also known as the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor or [[Paseo del Jaguar|Paséo del Jaguar]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paseo Pantera Project |url=http://www.afn.org/~wcsfl/pp.htm |access-date=2022-11-09 |language=en |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084435/http://www.afn.org/~wcsfl/pp.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The Eastern [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] Corridor<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/img/original/ecoregion.jpg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412132445/https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/img/original/ecoregion.jpg |archive-date= 2023-04-12 |title=Map of Nepal}}</ref>
* China-Russia Tiger Corridor<ref>{{Cite web |title=New corridor links Amur tiger habitats in Russia and China |url=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?206504/New-corridor-links-Amur-tiger-habitats-in-Russia-and-China |access-date=2022-11-09 |website=WWF |language=en |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084430/https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?206504/New-corridor-links-Amur-tiger-habitats-in-Russia-and-China |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Tandai Tiger Corridor<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panthera.org/programs/tiger/tiger-corridor-initiative|title=Panthera|publisher=Panthera.org|access-date=4 August 2015|archive-date=22 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122022348/http://www.panthera.org/programs/tiger/tiger-corridor-initiative|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The [[European Green Belt]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Green Belt Initiative |url=https://www.europeangreenbelt.org/ |access-date=2022-11-09 |language=en |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111100540/https://www.europeangreenbelt.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The Siju-Rewak Corridor, located in the Garo Hills of India, protects an important population of elephants (thought to be approximately 20% of all the elephants that survive in the country). This corridor project links together the [[Siju Wildlife Sanctuary]] and the Rewak Reserve Forest in [[Meghalaya]] State, close to the [[Bangladesh–India border|India-Bangladesh border]]. This area lies within the meeting place of the Himalayan Mountain Range and the [[Indian subcontinent|Indian Peninsula]] and contains at least 139 other species of mammals, including tigers, [[clouded leopard|clouded leopards]] and the [[Himalayan black bear]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-05-02 |title=Siju-Rewak Corridor |url=https://conservationcorridor.org/digests/2012/05/siju-rewak-corridor/ |access-date=2022-11-09 |website=CONSERVATION CORRIDOR |language=en |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084439/https://conservationcorridor.org/digests/2012/05/siju-rewak-corridor/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The [[Ecologische Hoofdstructuur]] is a network of corridors and habitats created for wildlife in the [[Netherlands]]<ref>[[:nl:Ecologische hoofdstructuur|Ecologische Hoofdstructuur]]</ref>
* The {{convert|16|km}} long Kanha-Pench elevated corridor on [[National Highway 44 (India)|NH 44]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gandhi|first=Divya|date=2019-09-07|title=A wild, wild road|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/a-wild-wild-road/article29360610.ece|access-date=2020-09-17|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=9 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084439/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/a-wild-wild-road/article29360610.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Two elephant passes and two minor bridges on [[NH 54]] in [[Assam]]’s [[Lumding|Lumding Reserve Forest]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-25|title=Why This Elevated Stretch On National Highway 44 Is A Hit With Animals In Pench Tiger Reserve|url=https://indiainfrahub.com/2020/main-featured/why-this-elevated-stretch-on-national-highway-44-is-a-hit-with-animals-in-pench-tiger-reserve/|access-date=2020-09-17|website=India Infra Hub|language=en-US|archive-date=9 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084438/https://indiainfrahub.com/2020/main-featured/why-this-elevated-stretch-on-national-highway-44-is-a-hit-with-animals-in-pench-tiger-reserve/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Singh A.P.|author2=Singh A.K.|author3=Mishra D.K.|author4=Bora P.|author5=Sharma A.|url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/ensuring_safe_access_to_wildlife_in_lumding_reserve_forest.pdf|title=Ensuring safe access to wildlife in Lumding Reserve Forest, Assam, India, Mitigating the impacts of up-gradation of Doboka-Silchar National Highway (NH54E)|publisher=WWF-India|year=2010|access-date=17 September 2020|archive-date=15 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215230504/http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/ensuring_safe_access_to_wildlife_in_lumding_reserve_forest.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Three elephant underpasses, each with {{convert|6|m}} of vertical clearance on [[NH 72]] and NH 58 in [[Uttarakhand]], India.<ref>{{Cite web |author=SHIVANI AZAD |date=2019-01-18 |title=Elephant underpass in Rajaji hanging for 9 yrs, NGT orders NHAI to deposit Rs 2 cr |website=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/elephant-underpass-in-rajaji-hanging-for-9-yrs-ngt-orders-nhai-to-deposit-rs-2-cr/articleshow/67593263.cms |access-date=2022-11-09 |language=en |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109095320/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/elephant-underpass-in-rajaji-hanging-for-9-yrs-ngt-orders-nhai-to-deposit-rs-2-cr/articleshow/67593263.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Terai Arc Landscape]]s, Lower Himalayan Region.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chauhan|first=Priya|date=2021-04-01|title=26 Important Wildlife Corridors Providing Safe Passage to Species|language=en-IN|work=Planet Custodian|url=https://www.planetcustodian.com/important-wildlife-corridors-world/12788/|access-date=2021-04-23|archive-date=23 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423070609/https://www.planetcustodian.com/important-wildlife-corridors-world/12788/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Evaluation ==
Some species are more likely to utilize habitat corridors depending on migration and mating patterns, making it essential that corridor design is targeted towards a specific species.<ref name="":3"">{{cite web |author=Fran |title=Elephant corridors in Botswana to protect the herds |url=http://www.yourafricansafari.com/articles/new-way-to-protect-africas-elephant-herds |access-date=4 August 2015 |website=Your African Safari |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104094947/https://www.yourafricansafari.com/articles/new-way-to-protect-africas-elephant-herds/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Siân E. |last2=Davidson |first2=Zeke |last3=Kaaria |first3=Timothy |last4=Doncaster |first4=C. Patrick |date=December 2018 |title=Do wildlife corridors link or extend habitat? Insights from elephant use of a Kenyan wildlife corridor |journal=African Journal of Ecology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=860–871 |doi=10.1111/aje.12541 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018AfJEc..56..860G }}</ref>

Due to space constraints, buffers are not usually added in.<ref name=""Rosenberg 1995"" /> Without a buffer zone, corridors can become affected by disturbances from human [[land use change]]. There is a possibility that corridors could aid in the spread of invasive species, threatening multiple populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beier |first1=Paul |last2=Noss |first2=Reed F. |date=December 1998 |title=Do Habitat Corridors Provide Connectivity? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.98036.x |journal=Conservation Biology |language=en |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=1241–1252 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.98036.x |bibcode=1998ConBi..12.1241B |s2cid=16770640 |access-date=14 May 2022 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813182628/https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.98036.x |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology}}
* [[Aquatic organism passage]]
* [[Biolink zones]]
* [[Emerald network]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[Habitat destruction]]
* [[Landscape connectivity]]
* [[Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Natura 2000]]
* [[The Pollinator Pathway]]
* [[Roadkill]]
* [[Gary Tabor]], wildlife corridor conservationist
* [[Tugay]]
* [[Wildlife crossing]]
* [[Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative]]

==Further reading ==
*{{Cite journal|last=Beier, P. |first=Noss, R.F.   |date=December 1998 |title= Do Habitat Corridors Provide Connectivity? |journal= Conservation Biology |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages= 1241–1252  |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.98036.x|bibcode=1998ConBi..12.1241B |s2cid=16770640 }}
*Bennett, A.F. 1999. Linkages in the Landscape: The Role of Corridors and Connectivity in Wildlife Conservation. The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.
*De Chant, T. 2007. A Future of Conservation. Northfield Habitat Corridors Community Plan, Northfield, Minnesota.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.de-chant.com/tim/nhc/index.html |title=Northfield Habitat Corridors |publisher=De-chant.com |access-date=2015-08-11 |archive-date=3 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070803055449/http://www.de-chant.com/tim/nhc/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC). 2004. Wildlife Corridors. DEC, New South Wales. 
*Dole, J.W., Ng, S.J., Sauvajot, R.M. 2003. Use of Highway Undercrossings by Wildlife in Southern California. Biology Conservation, 115 (3):499-507.<ref name="":0"" /> 
*Foreman, Dave. Rewilding North America: a Vision for Conservation in the 21st Century. Washington: Island, 2004.
*{{cite journal | last1 = Fleury | first1 = A.M. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.D. | year = 1997 | title = A Framework for the Design of Wildlife Conservation Corridors with Specific Application to Southwestern Ontario | journal = Landscape and Urban Planning | volume = 37 | issue = 8| pages = 163–186 | doi = 10.1016/S0169-2046(97)80002-3 | hdl = 10214/4617 | hdl-access = free }}
*M., S. 2002. Ecology: Insects, Pollen, Seeds, Travel Wildlife Corridors. Science News, 162 (10):269.
*{{cite journal | last1 = Mech | first1 = S.G. | last2 = Hallett | first2 = J.G. | year = 2001 | title = Evaluating the Effectiveness of Corridors: a Genetic Approach | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 467–474 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x | bibcode = 2001ConBi..15..467M | s2cid = 84520743 }}
*Roach, J. 2006. First Evidence that Wildlife Corridors Boost Biodiversity, Study Says. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060901-plant-corridors.html |title=First Evidence That Wildlife Corridors Boost Biodiversity, Study Says |publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com |date=2010-10-28 |access-date=2015-08-11 |archive-date=21 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221040127/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060901-plant-corridors.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*{{cite journal | last1 = Rosenberg | first1 = D.K. | last2 = Noon | first2 = B.R. | last3 = Meslow | first3 = E.C. | year = 1997 | title = Biological Corridors: Form, Function, and Efficacy | journal = BioScience | volume = 47 | issue = 10| pages = 667–687 | doi = 10.2307/1313208 | jstor = 1313208 | doi-access = free }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Simberloff | first1 = D. | last2 = Farr | first2 = J.A. | last3 = Cox | first3 = J. | last4 = Mehlman | first4 = D.W. | year = 1992 | title = Movement Corridors: Conservation Bargains or Poor Investments? | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 6 | issue = 4| pages = 492–504 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.06040493.x | bibcode = 1992ConBi...6..493S }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Sutcliffe | first1 = O.L. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = C.D. | year = 1996 | title = Open Corridors Appear to Facilitate Dispersal by Ringlet Butterflies (Aphantopus hyperantus) between Woodland Clearings | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 10 | issue = 5| pages = 1359–1365 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10051359.x | bibcode = 1996ConBi..10.1359S }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Tewksbury | first1 = J.J. | last2 = Levey | first2 = D.J. | last3 = Haddad | first3 = N.M. | last4 = Sargent | first4 = S. | last5 = Orrock | first5 = J.L. | last6 = Weldon | first6 = A. | last7 = Danielson | first7 = B.J. | last8 = Brinkerhoff | first8 = J. | last9 = Damschen | first9 = E.I. | last10 = Townsend | first10 = P. | year = 2002 | title = Corridors Affect Plants, Animals, and Their Interactions in Fragmented Landscapes | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 20| pages = 12923–12926 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.202242699 | pmid = 12239344 | pmc = 130561 | bibcode = 2002PNAS...9912923T | doi-access = free }}

==References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=""Beier & Loe 1992"">{{Cite journal|author1=Beier, P. |author2=Loe, S.   |year= 1992 |title= In My Experience: A Checklist for Evaluating Impacts to Wildlife Movement Corridors |journal= Wildlife Society Bulletin |volume=20 |number= 4 |pages= 434–440  }}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/2_Desfragmentacion_Belgica.pdf Defragmentation in Belgium (Flanders) - Connecting nature, connecting people. Accessed: 22 January 2009]
*[https://regeneration.org/nexus/wildlife-corridors Wildlife Corridors] Project Regeneration
*[http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/1_Desfragmentacion_Holanda.pdf Wildlife passages - De-Fragmentation in the Netherlands - How to evaluate their effectiveness? Accessed: 22 January 2009]
*[http://corridordesign.org CorridorDesign.org - GIS tools for designing wildlife corridors Accessed: 9 March 2010]
*[http://www.conservationcorridor.org/ ConservationCorridor.org - information, tools and links to connect the science of landscape corridors to conservation in practice. Accessed: 14 September 2012]

{{Authority control}}
{{Conservation of species}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wildlife Corridor}}
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Conservation projects]]
[[Category:Ecological connectivity]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Urban studies and planning terminology]]
[[Category:Wildlife conservation]]
[[Category:Animal migration]]"
Biodiversity action plan,"{{About|the conservation biology topic|other uses of ""BAP""|BAP (disambiguation)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2012}}
[[File:Diademed ready to push off.jpg|thumb|upright=0.95|[[Diademed sifaka]], an [[endangered species|endangered]] [[primate]] of [[Madagascar]]]]

A '''biodiversity action plan''' ('''BAP''') is an internationally recognized program addressing [[threatened species]] and [[habitat]]s and is designed to protect and restore biological systems. The original impetus for these plans derives from the 1992 [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD). As of 2009, 191 countries have ratified the CBD, but only a fraction of these have developed substantive BAP documents.

The principal elements of a BAP typically include:<ref>{{cite book |last=Glowka |first=Lyle |author2=Françoise Burhenne-Guilmin |author3=Hugh Synge |author4=Jeffrey A. McNeely |author5=Lothar Gündling |title=Guide to the Convention on Biodiversity |year=1994 |publisher=IUCN |isbn=2-8317-0222-4 }}</ref> (a) preparing inventories of biological information for selected species or habitats; (b) assessing the [[conservation status]] of species within specified [[ecosystem]]s; (c) creation of targets for [[Conservation biology|conservation]] and [[Restoration ecology|restoration]]; and (d) establishing budgets, timelines and institutional partnerships for implementing the BAP.

==Species plans==
[[File:Lightmatter snowleopard.jpg|thumb|left|[[Snow leopard]], Pakistan, an endangered species]]

A fundamental method of engagement to a BAP is thorough documentation regarding individual species, with emphasis upon the population distribution and [[conservation status]]. This task, while fundamental, is highly daunting, since only an estimated ten percent of the world’s species are believed to have been characterized as of 2006,<ref name=""IUCN"">[http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/tables/table1 IUCN Red-list statistics (2006)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630054235/http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/tables/table1 |date=June 30, 2006 }}</ref> most of these unknowns being [[fungi]], [[invertebrate]] animals, micro-organisms and plants. For many bird, mammal and reptile species, information is often available in published literature; however, for fungi, invertebrate animals, micro-organisms and many plants, such information may require considerable local data collection. It is also useful to compile time trends of population estimates in order to understand the dynamics of population variability and vulnerability. In some parts of the world complete species inventories are not realistic; for example, in the [[Madagascar dry deciduous forests]], many species are completely undocumented and much of the region has never even been systematically explored by scientists.

A species plan component of a country’s BAP should ideally entail a thorough description of the range, habitat, behaviour, breeding and interaction with other species. Once a determination has been made of conservation status (e.g. [[rare species|rare]], endangered, threatened, vulnerable), a plan can then be created to conserve and restore the species population to target levels. Examples of programmatic protection elements are: [[habitat restoration]]; protection of habitat from [[urban development]]; establishment of property ownership; limitations on grazing or other agricultural encroachment into habitat; reduction of [[slash-and-burn]] agricultural practises; outlawing killing or collecting the species; restrictions on pesticide use; and control of other environmental pollution. The plan should also articulate which public and private agencies should implement the protection strategy and indicate budgets available to execute this strategy.

== Agricultural Plans ==
Agricultural practices can reduce the [[biodiversity]] of a region significantly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McLaughlin|first=Alison|last2=Mineau|first2=Pierre|date=1995|title=The impact of agricultural practices on biodiversity.|url=https://www.gwct.org.uk/media/841551/The-impact-of-agricultural-practices-on-biodiversity.pdf|journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment|volume=55|issue=3|pages=201–212|doi=10.1016/0167-8809(95)00609-V|via=Elsevier}}</ref>  Biodiversity Action Plans for agricultural production are necessary to ensure a biodiversity friendly production. It has not been common for companies to integrate biodiversity aspects into their [[value chain]], but some companies and organizations have shown overall efforts for implementing better practices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbd.int/business/gp.shtml|title=The Global Partnership for Business and Biodiversity|website=Convention on Biological Diversity}}</ref>

An existing example for guidelines on biodiversity practices in agriculture is the Biodiversity Action Plan for [[spice]] production in [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.international-climate-initiative.com/fileadmin/Dokumente/2019/20190708_BAP_Chilli.pdf|title=Manual on biodiversity action plan for chili production.|last=Private Business Action for Biodiversity Project|website=International Klimate Initiative|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015142137/https://www.international-climate-initiative.com/fileadmin/Dokumente/2019/20190708_BAP_Chilli.pdf|archive-date=2019-10-15}}</ref> By planning and implementing biodiversity friendly measures, [[Farmer|farmers]] can [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate]] negative impacts and support positive influences. 

==Habitat plans==
Where a number of threatened species depend upon a specific habitat, it may be appropriate to prepare a habitat protection element of the Biodiversity Action Plan. Examples of such special habitats are: raised acidic bogs of Scotland; [[Waterberg Biosphere]] [[bushveld]] in South Africa; California’s coastal [[wetland]]s; and Sweden’s [[Stora Alvaret]] on the island of [[Öland]]. In this case also, careful inventories of species and also the geographic extent and quality of the habitat must be documented. Then, as with species plans, a program can be created to protect, enhance and/or restore habitat using similar strategies as discussed above under the species plans.

==Specific countries==
Some examples of individual countries which have produced substantive Biodiversity Action Plans follow. In every example the plans concentrate on plants and vertebrate animals, with very little attention to neglected groups such as fungi, invertebrate animals and micro-organisms, even though these are also part of biodiversity. Preparation of a country BAP may cost up to 100 million pounds sterling, with annual maintenance costs roughly ten percent of the initial cost. If plans took into account neglected groups, the cost would be higher. Obviously costs for countries with small geographical area or simplified ecosystems have a much lesser cost. For example, the St. Lucia BAP has been costed in the area of several million pounds sterling.<ref>{{cite web| year=2001| author=Government of St. Lucia| title=National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of St. Lucia| url=http://www.slubiodiv.org/The_Project/Information/Printed_Materials/NBSAP/nbsap.html| access-date=2006-08-30 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061105113956/http://www.slubiodiv.org/The_Project/Information/Printed_Materials/NBSAP/nbsap.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2006-11-05}}</ref>

===Australia===
[[File:Daintree Rainforest.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Daintree Rainforest]] in [[Queensland]], Australia]]
Australia has developed a detailed and rigorous Biodiversity Action Plan.<ref>{{cite web| year=2011| author=Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council| title=Australia's Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2010-2030| url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/au/au-nbsap-v2-en.pdf| access-date=2012-12-07}}</ref> This document estimates that the total number of indigenous species may be 560,000, many of which are endemic. A key element of the BAP is protection of the [[Great Barrier Reef]], which is actually in a much higher state of health than most of the world’s [[reef]]s, Australia having one of the highest percentages of treated [[wastewater]].<ref>{{cite web|date=September 2005| author=Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Environment and Heritage| title=Great Barrier Reef Water Quality Protection Plan Annual Report 2004-2005| url=http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/annual-report/04-05/index.html| access-date=2006-08-30 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060822025646/http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/annual-report/04-05/index.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2006-08-22}}</ref> There are however serious ongoing concerns, particularly in regards to the ongoing negative impact on water quality from land use practices. Also, climate change impact is feared to be significant.

Considerable analysis has been conducted on the [[sustainable yield]] of firewood production, a major threat to [[deforestation]] in most tropical countries. Biological inventory work; assessment of harvesting practices; and computer modeling of the dynamics of treefall, rot and harvest; have been carried out to adduce data on safe harvesting rates. Extensive research has also been conducted on the relation of brush clearance to [[biodiversity]] decline and impact on [[water table]]s;<ref>Andreas Glanznig, ''Native Vegetation Clearance, Habitat Loss and Biodiversity Decline: an overview of recent native vegetation clearance in Australia and its implications for biodiversity'', Biodiversity Series, Paper No. 6, Biodiversity Unit, June 1995</ref> for example, these effects have been analyzed in the [[Toolibin Lake]] wetlands region.

===New Zealand===
{{See also|Biodiversity of New Zealand}}
New Zealand has ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity and as part of The New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy and Biodiversity Action Plans are implemented on ten separate themes.<ref>{{Cite book | publisher = Dept. of Conservation; Ministry for the Environment| isbn = 978-0-478-21919-7| title = The New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy| location = [Wellington, N.Z.]| date = February 2000}}</ref>

Local government and some companies also have their own Biodiversity Action Plan.

===St. Lucia===
The [[St. Lucia]] BAP recognizes impacts of large numbers of tourists to the marine and coastal diversity of the [[Soufrière, Saint Lucia|Soufrière]] area of the country. The BAP specifically acknowledges that the [[carrying capacity]] for human use and [[water pollution]] discharge of sensitive reef areas was exceeded by the year 1990. The plan also addresses conservation of the historic island fishing industry. In 1992, several institutions in conjunction with native fishermen to produce a sustainable management plan for fishery resources, embodied in the Soufrière Marine Management Area.

The St. Lucia BAP features significant involvement from the [[University of the West Indies]]. Specific detailed attention is given to three species of threatened marine turtles, to a variety of vulnerable birds and a number of [[pelagic fish]]es and [[cetacean]]s. In terms of [[habitat conservation]] the plan focusses attention on the biologically productive [[mangrove]] swamps and notes that virtually all mangrove areas had already come under national protection by 1984.<ref>''St. Lucia National Marine Fisheries Act of 1984, Section 10'', (1984)</ref>

===Tanzania===
The Tanzania national BAP addresses issues related to sustainable use of [[Lake Manyara]], an extensive freshwater lake, whose usage by humans accelerated in the period 1950 to 1990. The designation of the [[Lake Manyara Biosphere Reserve]] under [[UNESCO]]'s [[Man and the Biosphere Programme]] in 1981 combines conservation of the lake and surrounding high value forests with sustainable use of the wetlands area and simple agriculture. This BAP has united principal lake users in establishing management targets. The biosphere reserve has induced sustainable management of the wetlands, including monitoring [[groundwater]] and the chemistry of the [[escarpment]] water source.<ref name=""UNESCO"">{{cite web|title=Lake Manyara|url=http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?mode=all&code=URT+01|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=16 June 2016}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
[[File:Fowlsheughclifftonorthsea.JPG|thumb|[[Fowlsheugh]] cliffs, [[Scotland]], a protected [[seabird]] breeding habitat]]
The [[United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan]] covers not only [[Terrestrial ecoregion|terrestrial]] species associated with lands within the UK, but also marine species and [[Bird migration|migratory]] birds, which spend a limited time in the UK or its offshore waters. The UK plan encompasses ""391 Species Action Plans, 45 Habitat Action Plans and 162 Local Biodiversity Action Plans with targeted actions"".<ref>{{cite web| title=United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan| url=http://www.ukbap.org.uk/| author=Joint Nature Conservation Committee, London| year=2006| access-date=2006-08-31}}</ref> This plan is noteworthy because of its extensive detail, clarity of endangerment mechanisms, specificity of actions, follow up monitoring program and its inclusion of migrating cetaceans and pelagic birds.

On August 28, 2007, the new Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) [launched in 1997] identified 1,149 species and 65 habitats in the UK that needed conservation and greater protection. The updated list included the [[hedgehog]], [[house sparrow]], [[grass snake]] and the [[garden tiger moth]], while [[otter]]s, [[bottlenose dolphin]]s and [[red squirrel]]s remained in need of habitat protection.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6965681.stm BBC NEWS, Hedgehogs join 'protection' list]</ref>

In May 2011, the European Commission adopted a new strategy to halt the [[loss of biodiversity]] and ecosystem services in the EU by 2020, in line with the commitments made at the 10th meeting of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) held in Nagoya, Japan in 2010. In 2012 the UK BAP was succeeded by the 'UK Post-2010 Biodiversity Framework'.

==== UK BAP website ====
To support the work of the UK BAP, the UK BAP website was created by JNCC in 2001. The website contained information on the BAP process, hosted all relevant documents, and provided news and relevant updates. In March 2011, as part of the UK government’s review of websites, the UK BAP site was ‘closed’, and the core content was migrated into the JNCC website.<ref>{{cite web| title=UK Biodiversity Action Plan| url=http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155| author=Joint Nature Conservation Committee, London| year=2012| access-date=2012-10-28| archive-date=June 22, 2012| archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120622172050/http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155| url-status=dead}}</ref> Content from the original UK BAP website has been archived by the [[National Archives (UK)|National Archives]] as snapshots from various dates (for example, UK ''BAP'': copy March 2011;<ref>{{cite web| title=UK Biodiversity Action Plan archive copy| url=http://www.ukbap.org.uk/default.aspx| author=National Archives, London| year=2011| access-date=2012-10-28| url-status=dead| archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110303145238/http://www.ukbap.org.uk/default.aspx| archive-date=March 3, 2011| df=mdy-all}}</ref>
copy 2012<ref>[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120622172050/http:/jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155], JNCC. Accessed via National Archives, London (2012)</ref>).

=== United States ===
Twenty-six years prior to the international biodiversity convention, the United States had launched a national program to protect threatened species in the form of the 1966 [[Endangered Species Act]]. The legislation created broad authority for analyzing and listing species of concern, and mandated that Species [[Endangered Species Recovery Plan|Recovery Plan]]s be created. Thus, while the USA is an unratified signer of the accord, arguably it has the longest track record and most comprehensive program of species protection of any country. There are about 7000 listed species (e.g. endangered or threatened), of which about half have approved Recovery Plans. While this number of species seems high compared to other countries, the value is rather indicative of the total number of species characterized, which is extremely large.

===Uzbekistan===
Five major divisions of habitat have been identified in [[Uzbekistan]]’s BAP: Wetlands (including reed habitat and man-made [[marsh]]); desert ecosystems (including sandy, stony and clay); [[steppes]]; [[riparian]] ecosystems; and mountain ecosystems. Over 27,000 species have been inventoried in the country, with a high rate of [[endemism]] for fishes and reptiles. Principal threats to biodiversity are related to human activities associated with overpopulation and generally related to agricultural intensification.<ref>''Biodiversity Conservation National Strategy and Action Plan of Republic of Uzbekistan'', 1997</ref> Major geographic regions encompassed by the BAP include the [[Aral Sea]] Programme (threatened by long-term drainage and [[salination]], largely for cotton production), the [[Nuratau Mountains#The Nuratau-Kyzylkum Biosphere Reserve|Nuratau Biosphere Reserve]], and the Western [[Tien Shan Mountains]] Programme (in conjunction with [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]]).

==Criticism==
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2010}}
Some developing countries criticize the emphasis of BAPs, because these plans inherently favour consideration of [[wildlife]] protection above food and industrial production, and in some cases may represent an obstacle to population growth. The plans are costly to produce, a fact which makes it difficult for many smaller countries and poorer countries to comply. In terms of the plans themselves, many countries have adopted pro-forma plans including little research and even less in the way of natural resource management. Almost universally, this has resulted in plans which emphasize plants and vertebrate animals, and which overlook fungi,<ref>{{cite web| title=Micheli Guide to Fungal Conservation| url=http://www.fungal-conservation.org/micheli.htm| author=International Society for Fungal Conservation| year=2012| access-date=2012-12-07}}</ref> invertebrate animals and micro-organisms. With regard to specific world regions, there is a notable lack of substantive participation by most of the Middle Eastern countries and much of Africa, the latter of which may be impeded by economic considerations of plan preparation. Some governments such as the [[European Union]] have diverted the purpose of a biodiversity action plan, and implemented the convention accord by a set of economic development policies with referencing certain ecosystems' protection.

==Biodiversity planning: a new way of thinking==
The definition of biodiversity under the Convention on Biological Diversity now recognises that biodiversity is a combination of ecosystem structure and function, as much as its components e.g. species, habitats and [[genetic resources]]. Article 2 states:

<blockquote>
''in addressing the boundless complexity of biological diversity, it has become conventional to think in hierarchical terms, from the genetic material within individual cells, building up through individual organisms, populations, species and communities of species, to the biosphere overall...At the same time, in seeking to make management intervention as efficient as possible, it is essential to take an holistic view of biodiversity and address the interactions that species have with each other and their non-living environment, i.e. to work from an ecological perspective.''
</blockquote>

The World Summit on Sustainable Development endorsed the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity to ''“achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of [[biodiversity loss]] at the global, regional and national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of life on Earth”.'' To achieve this outcome, biodiversity management will depend on maintaining structure and function.<ref>Noss, R.F. (1990) Indicators for Monitoring Biodiversity: A Hierarchical Approach. Conservation Biology 4 (4) 355–364.</ref>

Biodiversity is not singularly definable but may be understood via a series of management principles under BAPs, such as:

1. that biodiversity is conserved across all levels and scales – structure, function and composition are conserved at site, regional, state and national scales. 
2. that examples of all ecological communities are adequately managed for conservation.  
3. ecological communities are managed to support and enhance viable populations of animals, fungi, micro-organisms and plants and ecological functions.

Biodiversity and wildlife are not the same thing. The traditional focus on threatened species in BAPs is at odds with the principles of biodiversity management because, by the time species become threatened, the processes that maintain biodiversity are already compromised. Individual species are also regarded as generally poor indicators of biodiversity when it comes to actual planning.<ref>Lindenmayer, D. B., Manning, A. D., Smith, P. L., Possingham, Hugh P., Fischer, J., Oliver, I., McCarthy, M. A., (2002) The Focal-Species Approach and Landscape Restoration: A Conservation Biology 16(2) 338–345</ref> A species approach to BAPs only serves to identify and at best, apply a patch to existing problems. Increasingly, biodiversity planners are looking through the lens of [[ecosystem services]]. Critics of biodiversity are often confusing the need to protect species (their intrinsic value) with the need to maintain ecosystem processes, which ultimately maintain human society and do not compromise economic development. Hence, a core principle of biodiversity management, that traditional BAPs overlook, is the need to incorporate cultural, social and economic values in the process.

Modern day BAPs use an analysis of [[ecosystem services]], key ecological process drivers, and use species as one of many indicators of change. They would seek to maintain structure and function by addressing habitat connectivity and resilience and may look at communities of species (threatened or otherwise) as one method of monitoring outcomes. Ultimately, species are the litmus test for biodiversity – viable populations of species can only be expected to exist in relatively intact habitats. However, the rationale behind BAPs is to ""conserve and restore"" biodiversity. One of the fastest developing areas of management is [http://www.bioenergywiki.net/index.php/Biodiversity_Offsets biodiversity offsets]. The principles are in keeping with ecological impact assessment, which in turn depends on good quality BAPs for evaluation. Contemporary principles of biodiversity management, such as those produced by the [http://www.forest-trends.org/biodiversityoffsetprogram/ Business Biodiversity Offsets Program]<ref>{{cite web|url=  http://eianzecology.blogspot.com/2009/03/principles-in-biodiversity-offsets.html|title=  Principles in Biodiversity Offsets|access-date=  April 21, 2009|archive-url=  https://web.archive.org/web/20090328121752/http://eianzecology.blogspot.com/2009/03/principles-in-biodiversity-offsets.html|archive-date=  March 28, 2009|url-status=  dead}}</ref> are now integral to any plans to manage biodiversity, including the development of BAPs.

==See also==
* [[2010 Biodiversity Target]]
* [[2010 Biodiversity Indicators Partnership]]
* [[Holocene extinction event]]
* [[Climate Action Plan]]
* [[IUCN Red List]]
* [[Regional Red List]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060630054235/http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/tables/table1 IUCN Summary Statistics for Globally Threatened Species]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061106215228/http://www.undp.org/biodiversity/biodiversitycd/practiceMexico.htm Mexico Biodiversity Action Plan]
* [http://www.psdn.org.ph/nbsap/main.html Philippines biodiversity inventory]
* [http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155 UK Biodiversity Action Plan (home page)] {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120622172050/http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155 |date=June 22, 2012 }}
* [http://www.fws.gov/endangered/pubs/ESA%20BASICS_050806.pdf USA Endangered Species Act of 1973]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060829232148/http://www.biodiv.org/default.shtml The Convention on Biological Diversity (home page)]

{{threatened species}}

[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Action plans]]"
Healthy Meadows,"{{short description|American company based in Montana}}
{{See also|Conservation grazing}}
{{Orphan|date=October 2019}}

'''Healthy Meadows''', based in [[Red Lodge, Montana]] near [[Yellowstone National Park]], is a company co-owned by Ivan Thrane and Chia Chen-Speidel that organizes natural weed control through [[conservation grazing]], a technique using animals that is more environmentally friendly than spraying [[pesticide]]s.<ref name=BAM>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.brownalumnimagazine.com/content/view/3251/40/|title=American Pastoral|date=Sep–Oct 2012|magazine=Brown Alumni Monthly}}</ref> The [[Montana]] [[Bureau of Land Management]] is a client.<ref name=CCN/>

Thrane and Chen-Speidel's flock number over 250 goats as of July 2013.<ref name=CCN>{{cite news|url=http://www.carboncountynews.com/content/goats-noxious-weeds-cant-be-bleat|title=Goats for noxious weeds? Can't be bleat!|date=July 18, 2013|newspaper=[[Carbon County News]]|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322043212/http://www.carboncountynews.com/content/goats-noxious-weeds-cant-be-bleat|archivedate=March 22, 2014}}</ref> On a typical day, the herd covers four to seven miles with an average customer's land takes between one and three days to clear.

Companies using goats to control and eradicate [[leafy spurge]], [[knapweed]], and other toxic weeds have sprouted across the [[American West]]. Montana's ranching industry spends about $100 million a year to control and rid itself of toxic weeds. Clearing dry brush has also proven to be valuable to reducing fire hazards.<ref name=BAM/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.creatinghealthymeadows.com Official website]
* [http://www.brownalumnimagazine.com/content/view/3251/40/ Article about Chia Chen-Speidel]

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]


{{Montana-stub}}"
Environmental issues with coral reefs,"{{short description|Factors which adversely affect tropical coral reefs}}
[[File:Mvey0290.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Island with [[fringing reef]] off [[Yap]], [[Micronesia]]. Coral reefs are dying around the world.<ref name=""Coral reefs around the world"">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/interactive/2009/sep/02/coral-world-interactive |title=Coral reefs around the world |publisher=[[Guardian.com]] |date= 2 September 2009 |access-date=12 June 2010 }}</ref>]]

Human activities have substantial impact on coral reefs, contributing to their worldwide decline.[1] Damaging activities encompass coral mining, pollution (both organic and non-organic), overfishing, blast fishing, as well as the excavation of canals and access points to islands and bays. Additional threats comprise disease, destructive fishing practices, and the warming of oceans.[2] Furthermore, the ocean's function as a carbon dioxide sink, alterations in the atmosphere, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, viral infections, the repercussions of dust storms transporting agents to distant reefs, pollutants, and algal blooms represent some of the factors exerting influence on coral reefs. Importantly, the jeopardy faced by coral reefs extends far beyond coastal regions. The ramifications of climate change, notably global warming, induce an elevation in ocean temperatures that triggers coral bleaching—a potentially lethal phenomenon for coral ecosystems.

Scientists estimate that over next 20 years, about 70 to 90% of all coral reefs will disappear. With primary causes being warming ocean waters, ocean acidity, and pollution.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nace |first1=Trevor |title=Nearly All Coral Reefs Will Disappear Over The Next 20 Years, Scientists Say |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2020/02/24/70-90-percent-of-coral-reefs-will-disappear-over-the-next-20-years-scientists-say/?sh=4b425437d87b |access-date=15 July 2021 |work=Forbes |date=24 February 2020}}</ref> In 2008, a worldwide study estimated that 19% of the existing area of coral reefs had already been lost.<ref name=Wilkinson>Wilkinson, Clive (2008) [http://www.icriforum.org/sites/default/files/Status%20Coral%20%20Reefs%20of%20World%202008%20%20Executive%20Summary_0.pdf Status of Coral Reefs of the World: Executive Summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219004526/http://www.icriforum.org/sites/default/files/Status%20Coral%20%20Reefs%20of%20World%202008%20%20Executive%20Summary_0.pdf |date=2013-12-19 }}. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network.</ref> Only 46% of the world's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health<ref name=Wilkinson /> and about 60% of the world's reefs may be at risk due to destructive, human-related activities. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in [[Southeast Asia]], where 80% of reefs are [[endangered species|endangered]]. By the 2030s, 90% of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and [[climate change]]; by 2050, it is predicted that all coral reefs will be in danger.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited_executive_summary.pdf |title=Reefs at Risk Revisited |publisher=World Resources Institute| date=February 2011| access-date=16 March 2012}}</ref><ref name=""Kleypas, J.A. 2006""/>
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Issues==

===Competition===
In the [[Caribbean Sea]] and tropical [[Pacific Ocean]], direct contact between coral and common [[seaweed]]s causes [[coral bleaching|bleaching]] and death of coral tissue via [[allelopathic]] competition. The lipid-soluble extracts of seaweeds that harmed coral tissues, also produced rapid bleaching. At these sites, bleaching and mortality was limited to areas of direct contact with seaweed or their extracts. The seaweed then expanded to occupy the dead coral's habitat.<ref name=RasherHay10>{{cite journal
|title=Chemically rich seaweeds poison corals when not controlled by herbivores
|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|first1=Douglas B. |last1=Rasher  |first2=Mark E. |last2=Hay
|doi=10.1073/pnas.0912095107
|date=May 25, 2010
|volume=107
|issue=21
|pages=9683–9688 |pmid=20457927 |pmc=2906836|bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.9683R |doi-access=free
}}</ref> However, as of 2009, only 4% of coral reefs worldwide had more than 50% algal coverage which means that there are no recent global trend towards algal dominance over coral reefs.<ref name=""tough"">{{cite web |date=June 3, 2009 |title=In The Turf War Against Seaweed, Coral Reefs More Resilient Than Expected |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090601111932.htm |access-date=1 February 2011 |publisher=Science Daily}}</ref>

Competitive seaweed and other [[algae]] thrive in nutrient-rich waters in the absence of sufficient [[herbivore|herbivorous]] [[predator]]s. Herbivores include fish such as [[parrotfish]], the urchin ''[[Diadema antillarum]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hvhl.nl/nieuws/items/2019/nieuw-onderzoek-naar-zee-egel-om-koraalriffen-te-beschermen.html|title=Nieuw onderzoek naar zee-egel om koraalriffen te beschermen - hvhl.nl|website=www.hvhl.nl}}</ref> [[Acanthuridae|surgeonfishes, tangs and unicornfishes]].<ref name=RasherHay10/>

===Predation===
{{Main|Overfishing|Environmental effects of fishing}}

[[Overfishing]], particularly selective overfishing, can unbalance coral ecosystems by encouraging the excessive growth of coral predators. Predators that eat living coral, such as the [[crown-of-thorns starfish]], are called ''corallivores''. Coral reefs are built from [[stony coral]], which evolved with large amounts of the [[wax]] [[cetyl palmitate]] in their tissues. Most predators find this wax indigestible.<ref>Benson AA and Muscatine L (1974) [https://www.jstor.org/pss/2834385 Wax in Coral Mucus: Energy Transfer From Corals to Reef Fishes] ''Limnology and Oceanography'', '''19''' (5) 810–814. [http://www.aslo.org/lo/toc/vol_19/issue_5/0810.pdf Download] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720114936/http://www.aslo.org/lo/toc/vol_19/issue_5/0810.pdf |date=2011-07-20 }}</ref> The crown-of-thorns starfish is a large (up to one meter) starfish protected by long, venomous spines. Its [[enzyme]] system dissolves the wax in stony corals, and allows the [[starfish]] to feed on the living animal. Starfish face predators of their own, such as the [[Giant Triton|giant triton]] [[sea snail]]. However, the giant triton is valued for its [[mollusc shell|shell]] and has been over fished. As a result, crown-of-thorns starfish populations can periodically grow unchecked, devastating reefs.<ref name=PBS>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/survival/coral/predators.html Predators and Prey] ''[[PBS.org]]''. Retrieved 11 December 2009.</ref><ref name=""cots 1999–2000"">{{cite web|url=http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/techreport/techrept32.htm |title=CRC Reef Research Centre Technical Report No. 32 — Crown-of-thorns starfish(Acanthaster planci) in the central Great Barrier Reef region. Results of fine-scale surveys conducted in 1999–2000. |access-date=7 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070829092853/http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/techreport/techrept32.htm |archive-date=29 August 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=CRC Reef Research Centre |title=Crown-of-thorns starfish on the Great Barrier Reef |url=http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/brochures/COTS_web_Nov2003.pdf |access-date=28 August 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060826192429/http://www.reef.crc.org.au//publications/brochures/COTS_web_Nov2003.pdf |archive-date=26 August 2006 }} (PDF)</ref>

<gallery>
File:Charonia tritonis a1.jpg|The overfished [[Giant Triton|giant triton]] eats the [[crown-of-thorns starfish]].
File:Crown of Thorns Starfish.jpg|The crown-of-thorns starfish eats [[coral]].
</gallery>

===Fishing practices===
[[File:Overfishing threats to coral reefs.png|thumb|upright=2| {{center|Overfishing threats to coral reefs – ''[[NOAA]]''<ref>[https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral-overfishing.html How does overfishing threaten coral reefs?] ''NOAA: National Ocean Service''. Retrieved 9 February 2020. Updated: 25 June 2018.</ref>}}]]

Although some [[marine aquarium]] fish species can reproduce in aquaria (such as [[Pomacentridae]]), most (95%) are collected from coral reefs.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Intense harvesting, especially in [[maritime Southeast Asia]] (including [[Indonesia]] and the [[Philippines]]), damages the reefs. This is aggravated by [[destructive fishing practices]], such as [[Cyanide fishing|cyanide]] and [[blast fishing]]. Most (80–90%) aquarium fish from the Philippines are captured with [[sodium cyanide]]. This toxic chemical is dissolved in sea water and released into areas where fish shelter. It narcotizes the fish, which are then easily captured. However, most fish collected with cyanide die a few months later from [[liver]] damage.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Moreover, many non-marketable specimens die in the process.<ref>{{cite journal| title= David LECCHINI, Sandrine POLTI, Yohei NAKAMURA, Pascal MOSCONI, Makoto TSUCHIYA, Georges REMOISSENET, Serge PLANES (2006) ""New perspectives on aquarium fish trade"" Fisheries Science 72 (1), 40–47 | journal=Fisheries Science | volume=72 | pages=40–47 |doi=10.1111/j.1444-2906.2006.01114.x|year = 2006|last1 = Lecchini|first1 = David| last2=Polti | first2=Sandrine | last3=Nakamura | first3=Yohei | last4=Mosconi | first4=Pascal | last5=Tsuchiya | first5=Makoto | last6=Remoissenet | first6=Georges | last7=Planes | first7=Serge | s2cid=35182758 }}</ref> It is estimated that 4,000 or more Filipino fish collectors have used over {{convert|1000000|kg}}  of cyanide on Philippine reefs alone, about 150,000&nbsp;kg per year.<ref name=""McClellan""/> A major catalyst of [[cyanide fishing]] is poverty within fishing communities. In countries like the Philippines that regularly employ cyanide, more than thirty percent of the population lives below the poverty line.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/philippines/ |title=CIA—The World Factbook—Philippines |access-date=1 February 2011 |publisher=[[CIA]] }}</ref>

[[Dynamite]] [[fishing]] is another destructive method for gathering fish. Sticks of dynamite, [[grenade]]s, or homemade explosives are detonated in the water. This method of fishing kills the fish within the main blast area, along with many unwanted reef animals. The blast also kills the corals in the area, eliminating the reef's structure, destroying habitat for the remaining fish and other animals important for reef health.<ref name=""McClellan"">{{cite web
|last1=McClellan |first1=Kate |last2=Bruno |first2=John |year=2008 |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Coral_degradation_through_destructive_fishing_practices
|title=Coral degradation through destructive fishing practices |publisher=Encyclopedia of Earth |access-date= 25 October 2008}}</ref> [[Muro-ami]] is the destructive practice of covering reefs with nets and dropping large stones onto the reef to produce a flight response among the fish. The stones break and kill the coral. Muro-ami was generally outlawed in the 1980s.<ref name=""McClellan""/>

Fishing gear damages reefs via direct physical contact with the reef structure and substrate. They are typically made of synthetic materials that do not deteriorate in the ocean, causing a lasting effect on the ecosystem and reefs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gilardi |first1=Kirsten V. K. |last2=Carlson-Bremer |first2=Daphne |last3=June |first3=Jeffrey A. |last4=Antonelis |first4=Kyle |last5=Broadhurst |first5=Ginny |last6=Cowan |first6=Tom |title=Marine species mortality in derelict fishing nets in Puget Sound, WA and the cost/benefits of derelict net removal |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=1 March 2010 |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=376–382 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.10.016 |pmid=20031176 |bibcode=2010MarPB..60..376G }}</ref> Gill nets, fish traps, and anchors break branching coral and cause coral death through entanglement. When fishermen drop lines by coral reefs, the lines entangle the coral. The fisher cuts the line and abandons it, leaving it attached to the reef. The discarded lines abrade coral [[polyp (zoology)|polyp]]s and upper tissue layers. Corals are able to recover from small lesions, but larger and recurrent damage complicates recovery.

Bottom dragging gear such as [[beach seine]]s can damage corals by abrasion and fracturing. A beach seine is a long net about {{convert|150|m|ft|sp=us}} with a mesh size of {{convert|3|cm|in|sp=us}} and a weighted line to hold the net down while it is dragged across the substrate and is one of the most destructive types of fishing gear on Kenya's reefs.<ref name=""McClellan""/>

Bottom [[trawling]] in deep oceans destroys cold-water and deep-sea corals. Historically, industrial fishers avoided coral because their nets would get caught on the reefs. In the 1980s, ""rock-hopper"" trawls attached large tires and rollers to allow the nets to roll over rough surfaces. Fifty-five percent of Alaskan cold-water coral that was damaged by one pass from a bottom trawl had not recovered a year later. Northeast Atlantic reefs bear scars up to {{convert|4|km|mi|sp=us}} long. In Southern Australia, 90 percent of the surfaces on coral [[seamount]]s are now bare rock. Even in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, seafloor trawling for prawns and scallops is causing localized extinction of some coral species.<ref name=""McClellan""/>

{{blockquote|""With increased human population and improved storage and transport systems, the scale of human impacts on reefs has grown exponentially. For example, markets for fish and other [[natural resource]]s have become global, supplying demand for reef resources.""<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hughes|s2cid=1521635 |title=Climate Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs |journal= [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume= 301 |issue=5635 |pages=929–933 |date=15 August 2003| doi=10.1126/science.1085046 |display-authors=etal|bibcode = 2003Sci...301..929H | pmid=12920289}}</ref>}}

=== Marine pollution ===
{{Main|Marine pollution}}
[[File:Land-based sources of pollution threats to coral reefs.png|thumb|upright=2| {{center|Land-based sources of pollution threats to coral reefs  – ''[[NOAA]]''<ref>[https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral-pollution.html How does land-based pollution threaten coral reefs?] ''NOAA:  National Ocean Service''. Accessed 9 February 2020. Update 18 April 2019.</ref>}}]]

Reefs in close proximity to human populations are subject to poor water quality from land- and marine-based sources. In 2006 studies suggested that approximately 80 percent of ocean pollution originates from activities on land.<ref name=""2006 United Nations Environment Program"">{{cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/pdf/annualreport/UNEP_AR_2006_English.pdf |title=UNEP in 2006 |access-date=18 August 2012 |archive-date=14 February 2007 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070214054525/http://www.unep.org/pdf/annualreport/UNEP_AR_2006_English.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Pollution arrives from land via [[Surface runoff|runoff]], the wind and ""injection"" (deliberate introduction, e.g., drainpipes).
Runoff brings with it sediment from [[erosion]] and land-clearing, nutrients and pesticides from agriculture, [[wastewater]], industrial [[effluent]] and miscellaneous material such as petroleum residue and trash that storms wash away. Some pollutants consume [[oxygen]] and lead to [[eutrophication]], killing coral and other reef inhabitants.<ref name=""celebrating200years.noaa.gov"">{{cite web |url=http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/visions/coral/side.html |publisher=[[NOAA]] |title=How Pollution Affects Coral Reefs |access-date=18 August 2012}}</ref>

Coral Reefs are being impacted heavily by the excessive amount of pollution that ultimately causes a huge effect on the water quality for these reefs' comfort and living. The practice of disposing of sewage wastes directly into the habitats of coral reefs is the main cause of the significant deficiency and overload that these reefs are currently facing. The only thing that these sewage wastes are doing is disrupting the tropical waters. This is really concerning because sewage can include a wide range of chemicals and wastes. For example, industrial chemicals, oils, heavy metals, fertilizers like phosphates and nitrates, and medical wastes. 

An increasing fraction of the global population lives in coastal areas. Without appropriate precautions, development (e.g., buildings and paved roads) increases the fraction of rainfall and other water sources that enter the ocean as runoff by decreasing the land's ability to absorb it.<ref name=""celebrating200years.noaa.gov""/>

Pollution can introduce [[pathogen]]s. For example, ''[[Aspergillus]] sydowii'' has been associated with a disease in [[sea fan]]s, and [[Serratia marcescens]], has been linked to the coral disease white pox.<ref name=""celebrating200years.noaa.gov""/>

Reefs near human populations can be faced with local stresses, including poor water quality from land-based sources of pollution.<ref name=""celebrating200years.noaa.gov""/> Copper, a common industrial pollutant has been shown to interfere with the [[Biological life cycle|life history]] and development of coral polyps.<ref>{{cite web|author=Emma Young|date=February 18, 2003|title=Copper decimates coral reef spawning
|publisher=[[New Scientist]]
|url= https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4391|access-date=26 August 2006}}</ref>

[[File:Barbadosdustgraph.gif|thumb|right|250px|Barbados dust graph.]]

In addition to runoff, wind blows material into the ocean. This material may be local or from other regions. For example, dust from the [[Sahara]] moves to the [[Caribbean]] and [[Florida]]. Dust also blows from the [[Gobi Desert|Gobi]] and [[Taklamakan Desert|Taklamakan]] [[desert]]s across [[Korea]], [[Japan]], and the Northern [[Pacific]] to the [[Hawaiian Islands]].<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Duce |first1=R.A. |last2=Unni |first2=C.K. |last3=Ray |first3=B.J. |last4=Prospero |first4=J.M.|last5=Merrill |first5=J.T. |s2cid=30337924 |year=1980
|title=Long-range atmospheric transport of soil dust from Asia to the tropical North Pacific: Temporal variability
|doi=10.1126/science.209.4464.1522
|journal=Science |volume=209 |issue=4464 |pages=1522–1524
|pmid=17745962
|bibcode = 1980Sci...209.1522D }}</ref> Since 1970, dust deposits have grown due to drought periods in Africa. Dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida varies from year to year<ref>Usinfo.state.gov.[http://www.gcrio.org/OnLnDoc/pdf/african_dust.pdf Study Says African Dust Affects Climate in U.S., Caribbean.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070620013708/http://www.gcrio.org/OnLnDoc/pdf/african_dust.pdf |date=2007-06-20 }} Retrieved on 10 June 2007.</ref> with greater flux during positive phases of the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Prospero J.M. |author2=Nees R.T. | year = 1986 | title = Impact of the North African drought and El Niño on mineral dust in the Barbados trade winds | journal = Nature | volume = 320 | issue = 6064| pages = 735–738 | doi = 10.1038/320735a0 |bibcode = 1986Natur.320..735P |s2cid=33094175 }}</ref> The [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] links dust events to reduced health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.<ref>[[United States Geological Survey]]. [http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/ Coral Mortality and African Dust.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502091350/http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/ |date=2012-05-02 }} Retrieved on 10 June 2007.</ref> Dust from the 1883 eruption of [[Krakatoa]] in [[Indonesia]] appeared in the [[annulus (zoology)|annular]] bands of the reef-building coral ''[[Montastraea annularis]]'' from the [[Florida Reef]]tract.<ref>Merman, E.A. 2001. Atmospheric inputs to the tropical ocean—unlocking the record in annually banded corals. Master's thesis. University of South Florida, St. Petersburg.</ref>

Sediment smothers corals and interferes with their ability to feed and reproduce. Pesticides can interfere with coral reproduction and growth.<ref name=""celebrating200years.noaa.gov""/> There are studies that present evidence that chemicals in sunscreens contribute to coral bleaching by lowering the resistance of zooxanthellae to viruses,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Danovaro|first1=Roberto|last2=Bongiorni |first2=Lucia |last3=Corinaldesi|first3=Cinzia|last4=Giovannelli|first4=Donato|last5=Damiani|first5=Elisabetta|last6=Astolfi|first6=Paola|last7=Greci|first7=Lucedio|last8=Pusceddu |first8=Antonio |title=Sunscreens Cause Coral Bleaching by Promoting Viral Infections |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=2008 |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=441–447 |doi=10.1289/ehp.10966 |pmid=18414624|pmc=2291018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Downs | first1 = C. A. | last2 = Kramarsky-Winter | first2 = E. | last3 = Fauth | first3 = J. E. | last4 = Segal | first4 = R. | last5 = Bronstein | first5 = O. | last6 = Jeger | first6 = R. | last7 = Loya | first7 = Y. | year = 2014 | title = Toxicological effects of the sunscreen UV filter, benzophenone-2, on planulae and in vitro cells of the coral, ''Stylophora pistillata'' | journal = Ecotoxicology | volume = 23 | issue = 2| pages = 175–191 | doi = 10.1007/s10646-013-1161-y | pmid=24352829| s2cid = 1505199 }}</ref> though these studies showed significant flaws in methodology and did not attempt to replicate the complex environment found in coral reefs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ogles |first1=Jacob |title=Scientific consensus mounts in favor of sunscreen |url=https://floridapolitics.com/archives/294229-scientific-consensus-mounts-in-favor-of-sunscreen |website=Florida Politics |date=22 April 2019 |publisher=Peter Schorsch}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=PubPeer: Toxicopathological Effects of the Sunscreen UV Filter, Oxybenzone (Benzophenone-3), on Coral Planulae and Cultured Primary Cells and Its Environmental Contamination in Hawaii and the U.S. Virgin Islands |url=https://pubpeer.com/publications/E3A59C5143AF504D4577F5D710C39A# |website=PubPeer|date=February 2016 |last1=Downs |first1=C. A. |last2=Kramarsky-Winter |first2=Esti |last3=Segal |first3=Roee |last4=Fauth |first4=John |last5=Knutson |first5=Sean |last6=Bronstein |first6=Omri |last7=Ciner |first7=Frederic R. |last8=Jeger |first8=Rina |last9=Lichtenfeld |first9=Yona |last10=Woodley |first10=Cheryl M. |last11=Pennington |first11=Paul |last12=Cadenas |first12=Kelli |last13=Kushmaro |first13=Ariel |last14=Loya |first14=Yossi }}</ref>

==== Nutrient pollution ====
{{main|Nutrient pollution}}
[[File:Runoff from this pipe in the U.S. Virgin Islands spews directly into the ocean only a few hundred yards from reefs.jpg|left|180px|thumb]]
[[File:Cwall99 lg.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This image of an [[algae bloom]] off the southern coast of England, though not in a coral region, shows what a bloom can look like from a satellite [[remote sensing]] system.]]

[[Nutrient pollution]], particularly [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] can cause [[eutrophication]], upsetting the balance of the reef by enhancing algal growth and crowding out corals. This nutrient–rich water can enable [[algal blooms|blooms]] of fleshy [[algae]] and [[phytoplankton]] to thrive off coasts. These blooms can create [[Hypoxia (environmental)|hypoxic]] conditions by using all available [[oxygen]]. Biologically available nitrogen (nitrate plus [[ammonia]]) needs to be below 1.0 [[micromole]] per liter (less than 0.014 parts per million of nitrogen), and biologically available phosphorus ([[orthophosphate]] plus dissolved organic phosphorus) needs to be below 0.1 micromole per liter (less than 0.003 parts per million of phosphorus). In addition concentrations of chlorophyll (in the microscopic plants called phytoplankton) needs to be below 0.5 parts per billion.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://www.globalcoral.org/Eutrophication%20and%20Water%20quality.html 
 |title=Eutrofication and water quality 
 |publisher=Global Coral Reef Alliance 
 |access-date=1 February 2011 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009031955/http://www.globalcoral.org/Eutrophication%20and%20Water%20quality.html 
 |archive-date=9 October 2010 
}}</ref> Both plants also obscure sunlight, killing both fish and coral. High nitrate levels are specifically toxic to corals, while phosphates slow down skeletal growth.

Excess nutrients can intensify existing disease, including potentially doubling the spread of [[Aspergillosis]], a fungal infection that kills soft corals such as sea fans, and increasing yellow band disease, a [[bacteria]]l [[infection]] that kills reef-building hard corals by fifty percent.<ref>{{cite web|author=Rachel Nowak|publisher=New Scientist|date=11 January 2004|title=Sewage nutrients fuel coral disease|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4539|access-date=10 August 2006}}</ref>

{{clear}}

==== Air pollution ====
{{main|Air pollution}}
A study released in April 2013 has shown that air pollution can also stunt the growth of [[coral reef]]s; researchers from Australia, Panama and the UK used coral records (between 1880 and 2000) from the western Caribbean to show the threat of factors such as coal-burning coal and volcanic eruptions. The researchers state that the study signifies the first time that the relationship between air pollution and coral reefs has been elucidated, while former chair of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Ian McPhail referred to the report as ""fascinating"" upon the public release of its findings.<ref>{{cite web|title=Air pollution casts a cloud over coral reef growth|url=http://theconversation.com/air-pollution-casts-a-cloud-over-coral-reef-growth-13319|work=The Conversation|publisher=The Conversation Media Group|access-date=9 April 2013|author=Liz Minchin|date=8 April 2013}}</ref>

===Marine debris===
{{main|Marine debris}}
Marine debris is defined as any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or the Great Lakes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/marinedebris.html|title=What is marine debris?|first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|last=US Department of Commerce|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov}}</ref> Debris may arrive directly from a ship or indirectly when washed out to sea via rivers, streams, and storm drains. Human-made items tend to be the most harmful such as [[plastics]] (from [[plastic bag|bags]] to balloons, hard hats to [[fishing line]]), glass, metal, rubber (millions of [[waste tire]]s), and even entire vessels.<ref name=""celebrating200years.noaa.gov""/>

[[Plastic debris]] can kill and harm multiple reef species. Corals and coral reefs are at higher risk because they are immobile, meaning that when the water quality or other changes in their habitat occur, corals cannot move
to a different place; they must adapt or they will not survive.<ref>(Richards & Beger, 2011)</ref> There are two different classes of plastics, macro and  [[microplastics]] and both types can cause damage in a number of ways. For example, macroplastics such as derelict (abandoned) fishing nets and other gear—often called ""[[ghost net]]s"" can still catch fish and other marine life and kill those organisms and break or damage reefs. Large items such as abandoned fishing nets are known as macroplastics whereas microplastics are plastic fragments that are typically less than or equal to 5&nbsp;mm in length and have primarily been found to cause damage to coral reefs though corals ingesting these plastic fragments.[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Orange_Coral_Ingesting_a_Microplastic.jpg Fig. 1. Video frame sequence of capture and ingestion of a microplastic particle by a polyp of Astroides calycularis. Obtained from Savinelli et al. (2020)<nowiki>]]</nowiki>] Some researchers have found that ingestion of microlastics harms coral, and subsequently coral reefs, because ingesting these fragments reduced coral food intake as well as coral fitness since corals waste a lot of time and energy handling the plastic particles.<ref>(Savinelli et al., 2020)</ref> Unfortunately, even remote reef systems suffer the effects of marine debris, especially if it is [[plastic pollution]]. Reefs in the [[Northwestern Hawaiian Islands]] are particularly prone to the accumulation of marine debris because of their central location in the [[North Pacific Gyre]]. Fortunately, there are solutions to protect corals and coral reefs against the harmful effects of plastic pollution. However, since little to no research exists regarding specific medicinal ways to help corals recover from plastic exposure, the best solution is to not let plastics enter the marine environment at all. This can be accomplished through a number of ways, some of which are already being enacted. For example, there are measures to ban microplastics from products like cosmetics and toothpaste <ref>(Prata, 2018, as cited in Pettipas et al., 2016; Rochman et al., 2015; Xanthos and Walker, 2017),</ref> as well as measures that demand for products that contain microplastics to be labeled as such so as to reduce their consumption.<ref>(Prata, 2018, as cited in Chang, 2015)</ref> Additionally, newer and better detection methods are needed for microplastics <ref>(Prata, 2018)</ref> and they must be installed at waste water treatment facilities <ref>(Murphy et al., 2016)</ref> to prevent these particles from entering the marine environment and causing damage to marine life, especially coral reefs. Many people are realizing the problem of plastic pollution and other marine debris though, and have taken steps to mitigate it. For example, from 2000 to 2006, [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] and partners removed over 500 tons of marine debris from the reefs in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.<ref name=""celebrating200years.noaa.gov""/>

Cigarette butts also [[Cigarette#Aquatic life health concerns|damage aquatic life]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/coral-reefs/what-you-can-do-help-protect-coral-reefs|title=What You Can Do to Help Protect Coral Reefs|first=OW|last=US EPA|date=January 30, 2017|website=US EPA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reefrelief.org/2013/02/the-environmental-impact-of-cigarette-butt-waste-just-the-facts/|title=The Environmental Impact of Cigarette Butt Waste: Just the Facts|date=February 5, 2013}}</ref> In order to avoid cigarette butt litter, some [[Cigarette#Solution and remediation projects|solutions]] have been proposed, including possibly banning [[cigarette filter]]s and implementing a deposit system for [[e-cigarette]] pods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/cigarettes-story-of-plastic/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810125852/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/cigarettes-story-of-plastic/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 10, 2019|title=Cigarette butts are toxic plastic pollution. Should they be banned?|date=August 9, 2019|website=Environment}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/08/the-worst-contaminants-of-oceans-are-not-plastic-straws-theyre-cigarette-butts/|title=Forget straws, cigarette butts are doing more damage to the oceans|website=World Economic Forum|date=28 August 2018 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

===Dredging===
{{Main|Dredging}}
[[Dredging]] operations are sometimes completed by cutting a path through a coral reef, directly destroying the reef structure and killing any organisms that live on it.<ref name=""miamiherald"">{{cite web|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/06/06/4162375/scientists-race-to-save-coral.html |title=Scientists race to save coral doomed by Government Cut dredging - Environment - MiamiHerald.com |publisher=miamiherald.com |access-date=21 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715171454/http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/06/06/4162375/scientists-race-to-save-coral.html |archive-date=15 July 2014 }}</ref> Operations that directly destroy coral are often intended to deepen or otherwise enlarge [[Channel (geography)|shipping channels]] or [[canals]], due to the fact that in many areas, removal of coral requires a [[License|permit]], making it more cost-effective and simple to avoid coral reefs if possible.

Dredging also releases plumes of suspended sediment, which can settle on coral reefs, damaging them by starving them of food and sunlight. Continued exposure to dredging spoil has been shown to increase rates of diseases such as [[white syndrome]], [[Coral bleaching|bleaching]] and sediment [[necrosis]] among others.<ref name=""theguardian"">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/16/coral-reefs-face-heightened-risk-of-fatal-disease-from-dredging-says-research|title=Coral reefs face heightened risk of fatal disease from dredging, says research &#124; Environment &#124; theguardian.com|date=16 July 2014|work=The Guardian|access-date=21 August 2014}}</ref> A study conducted in the [[Montebello Islands|Montebello]] and [[Barrow Island (Western Australia)|Barrow Islands]] showed that the number of coral colonies with signs of poor health more than doubled in [[transects]] with high exposure to dredging sediment plumes.<ref name=""plosone"">{{cite journal|title=PLOS ONE: Sediment and Turbidity Associated with Offshore Dredging Increase Coral Disease Prevalence on Nearby Reefs|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=7|pages=e102498|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0102498|pmid=25029525|year = 2014|last1 = Pollock|first1 = F. Joseph|last2=Lamb|first2=Joleah B.|last3=Field|first3=Stuart N.|last4=Heron|first4=Scott F.|last5=Schaffelke|first5=Britta|last6=Shedrawi|first6=George|last7=Bourne|first7=David G.|last8=Willis|first8=Bette L.|pmc=4100925|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Sunscreen===
[[File:CoralBleaching.jpg|thumbnail|right|Unbleached and [[coral bleaching|bleached coral]].]]

[[Sunscreen]] can enter the ocean indirectly through wastewater systems when it is washed off and from swimmers and divers or directly if the sunscreen comes off people when in the ocean. Some 14,000 tons of sunscreen ends up in the ocean each year, with 4000 to 6000 tons entering reef areas annually.<ref name=""Protect Yourself, Protect the Reef!"">{{Cite news|url=https://cdhc.noaa.gov/_docs/Site%20Bulletin_Sunscreen_final.pdf|title=National Park Service - Protect Yourself, Protect the Reef! |access-date=2019-01-15|language=en}}</ref> There is an estimate that 90% of snorkeling and diving tourism is concentrated on 10% of the world's coral reefs, meaning that popular reefs are especially vulnerable to sunscreen exposure.<ref name=""Protect Yourself, Protect the Reef!""/> Certain formulations of sunscreen are a serious danger to coral health. The common sunscreen ingredient [[oxybenzone]] causes coral bleaching and has an impact on other marine fauna.<ref name=""NPR"">{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/10/20/450276158/chemicals-in-sunscreen-are-harming-coral-reefs-says-new-study|title=Chemicals In Sunscreen Are Harming Coral Reefs, Says New Study|last=Wagner|first=Laura|date=October 20, 2015|work=NPR|access-date=2017-04-09|language=en}}</ref> In addition to oxybenzone, there are other sunscreen ingredients, known as chemical UV filters, that can also be harmful to corals and coral reefs and other marine life. They are: Benzophenone-1, Benzophenone-8, OD-PABA, 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor, 3-Benzylidene camphor, nano-Titanium dioxide, nano-Zinc oxide, Octinoxate, and Octocrylene.<ref name=""auto1"">{{Cite web|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/sunscreen-corals.html|title=Sunscreen Chemicals and Marine Life|first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|last=US Department of Commerce|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov}}</ref>

In [[Akumal]], Mexico, visitors are warned not to use sunscreen and are kept out of some areas to prevent damage to the coral. In several other tourist destinations, authorities recommend the use of sunscreens prepared with the naturally occurring chemicals [[titanium dioxide]] or [[zinc oxide]], or suggest the use of clothing rather than chemicals to screen the skin from the sun.<ref name=""NPR""/><ref name=""Protect Yourself, Protect the Reef!""/> The city of [[Miami Beach, Florida]] rejected calls for a ban on sunscreen in 2019 due to lack of evidence. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Wang |first1=Francis |title=Miami Beach Commissioners Vote Not To Ban Sunscreen Ingredients Experts Say Harm Coral Reefs |url=https://miami.cbslocal.com/2019/03/13/miami-beach-city-commission-meets-to-discuss-ordinance-that-would-ban-chemicals-in-sunscreen/ |website=CBS Miami |date=13 March 2019 |publisher=CBS}}</ref> In 2020, [[Palau]] enacted a ban on sunscreen and skincare products containing 10 chemicals including oxybenzone. The US state of [[Hawaii]] enacted a similar ban which came into effect in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50963080|title=Palau is first country to ban 'reef toxic' sun cream |work=BBC News |date=January 2020 |access-date=2020-01-01}}</ref> Care should be taken to protect both the marine environment and your skin, as sun exposure causes 90% of premature aging and could cause skin cancer, and it is possible to do both.<ref name=""auto1""/>

===Climate change===
{{Main|Climate change|Coral bleaching}}
[[File:Climate change threats to coral reefs.png|thumb|upright=2| {{center|Climate change threats to coral reefs  – ''[[NOAA]]''<ref>[https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coralreef-climate.html How does climate change affect coral reefs?] ''NOAA:  National Ocean Service''. Accessed 9 February 2020. Update 13 November 2019.</ref>}}]]

[[Current sea level rise|Rising sea levels due to climate change]] requires coral to grow so the coral can stay close enough to the surface to continue the process of [[photosynthesis]]. Water temperature changes or disease of the coral<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|title=Ocean|publisher=DK|year=2006|pages=263}}</ref> can induce [[coral bleaching]], as happened during the 1998 and 2004 [[El Niño]] years, in which [[sea surface temperature]]s rose well above normal, bleaching and killing many reefs. Bleaching may be caused by different triggers, including high sea surface temperature (SST), pollution, or other diseases.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ocean|publisher=DK|year=2006|pages=152–155}}</ref> SST coupled with high irradiance (light intensity), triggers the loss of [[zooxanthellae]], a [[symbiotic]] single cell algae that gives the coral its color and the coral's [[dinoflagellate]] pigmentation, which turns the coral white when it is expelled, which can kill the coral. Zooxanthellae provide up to 90% of their hosts' energy supply.<ref name="":0"" /> Healthy reefs can often recover from bleaching if water temperatures cool. However, recovery may not be possible if {{chem|CO|2}} levels rise to 500 [[Parts per million|ppm]] because concentrations of carbonate ions may then be too low.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=40021 |title=Environment: Between a Reef and a Hard Place |last=Leahy |first=Stephen |year=2007 |publisher=NoticiasFinancieras |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008064436/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=40021 |archive-date=2009-10-08 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hoegh-Guldberg|1999}}</ref> In summary, ocean warming is the primary cause of mass coral bleaching and mortality (very high confidence), which, together with ocean acidification, deteriorates the balance between coral reef construction and erosion (high confidence).<ref>{{Cite journal |date=February 28, 2022 |title=IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report Chapter 3 |url=https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf |journal=IPCC Sixth Assessment Report |pages=42}}</ref>

Warming seawater may also welcome the emerging problem of coral disease. Weakened by warm water, coral is much more prone to diseases including [[black band disease]], [[white band disease]] and [[skeletal eroding band]]. If global temperatures increase by 2&nbsp;°C during the twenty-first century, coral may not be able to adapt quickly enough to survive.<ref>{{cite journal
|doi=10.1007/BF00303779
|first=P.W. |last=Glynn |title=Coral Reef Bleaching: Ecological Perspectives"" Earth and Environmental Science |journal=Coral Reefs |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |date=March 1993 |bibcode=1993CorRe..12....1G|s2cid=46595398 }}<!--|access-date=1 February 2011 --></ref>

Warming seawater is also expected to cause migrations in fish populations to compensate for the change. This puts coral reefs and their associated species at risk of [[invasive species|invasion]] and may cause their extinction if they are unable to compete with the invading populations.<ref>{{cite journal|first=S. |last=Airamé |title=Climate Change, Coral Reef Ecosystems, and Management Options for Marine Protected Areas. |volume=44 |issue=6 |date=June 2009 |pmc=2791481 |pmid=19636605 |doi=10.1007/s00267-009-9346-0|bibcode = 2009EnMan..44.1069K |journal=Environmental Management |pages=1069–1088}}</ref>

A 2010 report by the [[Institute of Physics]] predicts that unless the national targets set by the [[Copenhagen Accord]] are amended to eliminate loopholes, then by 2100 global temperatures could rise by 4.2&nbsp;°C and result in an end to coral reefs.<ref>[https://www.iop.org/news/sep10/page_44805.html Climate Accord loopholes could spell 4.2°C rise in temperature and end of coral reefs by 2100] ''[[Institute of Physics]]'', Press release, 29 September 2010.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Joeri Rogelj |vauthors=Rogelj J, Chen C, Nabel J, Macey K, Hare W, Schaeffer M, Markmann K, Höhne N, Andersen KK |display-authors=etal | year = 2010 | title =Analysis of the Copenhagen Accord pledges and its global climatic impacts—a snapshot of dissonant ambitions | url =https://www.iop.org/news/sep10/page_44805.html | journal = Environmental Research Letters | volume = 5 | issue = 3| page = 3 | doi = 10.1088/1748-9326/5/3/034013 |bibcode = 2010ERL.....5c4013R| doi-access = free | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0028-1370-8 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Even a temperature rise of just 2&nbsp;°C, currently very likely to happen in the next 50 years (so by 2068 A.D.), there would be a more than 99% chance that tropical corals would be eradicated.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/11/next-generation-may-never-see-coral-reefs|title=Next generation 'may never see the glory of coral reefs'|first=Jonathan|last=Watts|newspaper=The Guardian |date=November 11, 2018|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and their Services |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter03.pdf}}</ref>

Warm-water coral reef ecosystems house one-quarter of the marine biodiversity and provide services in the form of food, income and shoreline protection to coastal communities around the world. These ecosystems are threatened by climate and non-climate drivers, especially ocean warming, MHWs, ocean acidification, SLR, tropical cyclones, fisheries/overharvesting, land-based pollution, disease spread and destructive shoreline practices. Warm-water coral reefs face near-term threats to their survival, but research on observed and projected impacts is very advanced.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=February 28, 2022 |title=IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report Chapter 3 |url=https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf |journal=IPCC Sixth Assessment Report |pages=42}}</ref>

Anthropogenic climate change has exposed ocean and coastal ecosystems to conditions that are unprecedented over millennia (high confidence2 15 ), and this has greatly impacted life in the ocean and 16 along its coasts (very high confidence).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and their Services |url=https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf}}</ref>

===Ocean acidification===
{{Main|Ocean acidification}}
[[File:Isidella tentaculum - NOAA.jpg|thumb|[[Bamboo coral]] is an early harbinger of ocean acidification]]
[[Ocean acidification]] results from increases in atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]]. Oceans absorb around one–third of the increase.<ref name=""Kleypas, J.A. 2006"">{{cite web |url=http://www.ucar.edu/communications/Final_acidification.pdf |title=Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Other Marine Calcifiers: A Guide for Future Research |access-date=1 February 2011 |date=June 2006 |first1=Joan A. |last1=Kleypas|author-link=Joan Kleypas |first2=Richard A. |last2=Feely |first3=Victoria J. |last3=Fabry |first4=Chris |last4=Langdon |first5=Christopher L. |last5=Sabine |first6=Lisa L. |last6=Robbins |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720101953/http://www.ucar.edu/communications/Final_acidification.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The dissolved gas reacts with the water to form [[carbonic acid]], and thus acidifies the ocean. This decreasing [[pH]] is another issue for coral reefs.<ref name=""Kleypas, J.A. 2006""/>

Ocean surface pH is estimated to have decreased from about 8.25 to 8.14 since the beginning of the industrial era,<ref name=jacob05>{{cite journal
 |last=Jacobson 
 |first=M. Z. 
 |url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/OceanEq.pdf 
 |doi=10.1029/2004JD005220 
 |title=Studying ocean acidification with conservative, stable numerical schemes for nonequilibrium air-ocean exchange and ocean equilibrium chemistry 
 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 
 |volume=110 
 |page=D07302 
 |year=2005 
 |access-date=1 February 2011 
 |bibcode=2005JGRD..11007302J 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628202728/http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/OceanEq.pdf 
 |archive-date=28 June 2011 
}}</ref> and a further drop of 0.3–0.4 units is expected.<ref name=orr05>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature04095 |author=Orr, J. C. |year=2005 |title=Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms |url=http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/acidification/paper/Orr_OnlineNature04095.pdf |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7059 |pages=681–686 |pmid=16193043 |bibcode=2005Natur.437..681O |s2cid=4306199 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625100559/http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/acidification/paper/Orr_OnlineNature04095.pdf |archive-date=2008-06-25 }}</ref> This drop has made it so the amount of hydrogen ions have increased by 30%.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CCX3233900059&it=r&asid=fcfad6eeb5d5e02417a421935811fc5b.%20Accessed%2030%20Jan.%202017.&authCount=1|title=Coral Reefs and Coral|date=2009|website=Gale Virtual Reference Library|access-date=2017-03-13}}</ref> Before the industrial age the conditions for [[calcium carbonate]] production were typically stable in surface waters since the [[carbonate]] ion is at [[supersaturation|supersaturated]] concentrations. However, as the ionic concentration falls, carbonate becomes under-saturated, making calcium carbonate structures vulnerable to dissolution.<ref name="":1"" /> Corals experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated {{chem|CO|2}}.<ref name=gatt98>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0921-8181(98)00035-6 | author = Gattuso, J.-P. | author2 = Frankignoulle, M. | author3 = Bourge, I. | author4 = Romaine, S. | author5 = Buddemeier, R. W. | name-list-style = amp | year = 1998 | title = Effect of calcium carbonate saturation of seawater on coral calcification | url = http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/jpg_papers_list.php | journal = Glob. Planet. Change | volume = 18 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 37–46 | bibcode = 1998GPC....18...37G | access-date = 2010-06-12 | archive-date = 2019-07-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190720181400/http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/jpg_papers_list.php | url-status = dead }}</ref> This causes the skeletons of the corals to weaken, or even not be made at all.<ref name="":1"" /> Ocean acidification may also have an effect of 'gender discrimination' as spawning female corals are significantly more susceptible to the negative effects of ocean acidification than spawning male coral <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holcomb|first1=M.|last2=Cohen|first2=A. L.|last3=McCorkle|first3=D. C.|date=2011-08-23|title=A gender bias in the calcification response to ocean acidification|url=https://bg.copernicus.org/preprints/8/8485/2011/bgd-8-8485-2011.pdf|doi=10.5194/bgd-8-8485-2011|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Bamboo coral]] is a [[deep water coral]] which produces [[growth ring]]s similar to trees. The growth rings illustrate growth rate changes as deep sea conditions change, including changes due to ocean acidification. Specimens as old as 4,000 years have given scientists ""4,000 years worth of information about what has been going on in the deep ocean interior"".<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2009/20090305_coral.html
|title=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – New Deep-Sea Coral Discovered on NOAA-Supported Mission
|publisher=www.noaanews.noaa.gov|access-date=11 May 2009}}
</ref>

[[File:Ocellaris clownfish.JPG|thumb|left|Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the water harms the ability of young clown and damsel fishes to smell and hear]]{{Update|part=section|date=May 2021|reason=The following paragraph may need an update, based on the last paragraph in this section}}
Rising carbon dioxide levels could confuse brain signaling in fish. In 2012, researchers reported on their results after studying the behavior of baby [[Clownfish|clown]] and [[damselfish]]es for several years in water with elevated levels of dissolved carbon dioxide, in line with what may exist by the end of the century. They found that the higher carbon dioxide disrupted a key brain [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]] in the fish, interfering with [[neurotransmitter]] functions. The damaged central nervous systems affected fish behavior and diminishing their sensory capacity to a point ""likely to impair their chances of survival"". The fishes were less able to locate reefs by smell or ""detect the warning smell of a predator fish"". Nor could they hear the sounds made by other reef fish, compromising their ability to locate safe reefs and avoid dangerous ones. They also lost their usual tendencies to turn to the left or right, damaging their ability to [[Shoaling and schooling|school]] with other fish.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/01/16/3409053.htm Carbon dioxide affecting fish brains: study] ''ABC'', 16 January 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/337677/title/Rising_carbon_dioxide_confuses_brain_signaling_in_fish Rising carbon dioxide confuses brain signaling in fish] ''Science News Online'', 16 January 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Nilsson GE, Dixson DL, Domenici P, McCormick MI, Sørensen C, Watson S, Munday PL | year = 2012 | title = Near-future carbon dioxide levels alter fish behaviour by interfering with neurotransmitter function Letter | journal = Nature Climate Change | volume = 2 | issue = 3| page = 1 | doi = 10.1038/nclimate1352 |bibcode = 2012NatCC...2..201N | s2cid = 67762214 }}</ref>

Although previous experiments found several detrimental effects on coral fish behavior from projected end-of-21st-century ocean acidification, a 2020 replication study found that ""end-of-century ocean acidification levels have negligible effects on [three] important behaviors of coral reef fishes"" and with ""data simulations, [showed] that the large effect sizes and small within-group variances that have been reported in several previous studies are highly improbable"".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clark|first1=Timothy D.|last2=Raby|first2=Graham D.|last3=Roche|first3=Dominique G.|last4=Binning|first4=Sandra A.|last5=Speers-Roesch|first5=Ben|last6=Jutfelt|first6=Fredrik|last7=Sundin|first7=Josefin|date=2020-01-08|title=Ocean acidification does not impair the behaviour of coral reef fishes|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1903-y|journal=Nature|volume=577|issue=7790|pages=370–375|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1903-y|pmid=31915382|bibcode=2020Natur.577..370C|s2cid=210118722|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Enserink|first=Martin|date=2020-01-08|title=Analysis challenges slew of studies claiming ocean acidification alters fish behavior|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/analysis-challenges-slew-studies-claiming-ocean-acidification-alter-fish-behavior|website=[[Science (journal)|Science]] news}}</ref> In 2021 it emerged that allegations of some of the previous studies being fraudulent have been raised.<ref>{{Cite web|last=EnserinkMay. 6|first=Martin|date=2021-05-06|title=Does ocean acidification alter fish behavior? Fraud allegations create a sea of doubt|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/does-ocean-acidification-alter-fish-behavior-fraud-allegations-create-sea-doubt|website=[[Science (journal)|Science]] news}}</ref> Furthermore, [[effect size]]s of studies assessing ocean acidification effects on fish behavior have declined dramatically over a decade of research on this topic, with effects appearing negligible since 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clements |first1=Jeff C. |last2=Sundin |first2=Josefin |last3=Clark |first3=Timothy D. |last4=Jutfelt |first4=Fredrik |date=2022-02-03 |title=Meta-analysis reveals an extreme ""decline effect"" in the impacts of ocean acidification on fish behavior |journal=PLOS Biology |language=en |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=e3001511 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3001511 |issn=1545-7885 |pmc=8812914 |pmid=35113875 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{clear}}

===Ocean deoxygenation===
[[File:The Brain coral.jpg|thumb|Some coral reefs are experiencing [[Anoxic event|hypoxia]] which can lead to bleaching and mass coral die-offs]]
{{see also|Anoxic event}}

There has been a severe increase in mass mortality events associated with low oxygen causing mass hypoxia with the majority having been in the last 2 decades. The rise in water temperature leads to an increase in oxygen demand and the increase for [[ocean deoxygenation]] which causes these large coral reef [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones.]] For many [[coral reef]]s, the response to this hypoxia is very dependent on the magnitude and duration of the deoxygenation. The symptoms can be anywhere from reduced [[photosynthesis]] and [[calcification]] to [[Coral bleaching|bleaching]]. Hypoxia can have indirect effects like the abundance of algae and spread of coral diseases in the [[ecosystem]]s. While coral is unable to handle such low levels of oxygen, algae is quite tolerant. Because of this, in interaction zones between algae and coral, increased hypoxia will cause more coral death and higher spread of algae. The increase mass coral dead zones is reinforced by the spread of coral diseases. Coral diseases can spread easily when there are high concentrations of [[sulfide]] and hypoxic conditions. Due to the loop of hypoxia and coral reef mortality, the fish and other marine life that inhabit the coral reefs have a change in behavioral in response to the hypoxia. Some fish will go upwards to find more oxygenated water, and some enter a phase of metabolic and ventilatory depression. Invertebrates migrate out of their homes to the surface of [[Substrate (marine biology)|substratum]] or move to the tips of arborescent [[coral colonies]].<ref name=Laffoley2019>Laffoley, D. & Baxter, J.M. (eds.) (2019). [https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/08.8%20DEOX.pdf Ocean deoxygenation: Everyone’s problem - Causes, impacts, consequences and solutions]. IUCN, Switzerland.</ref><ref>Vanwonterghem, I. and Webster, N.S. (2020) ""Coral reef microorganisms in a changing climate"". ''Iscience'', '''23'''(4). {{doi|10.1016/j.isci.2020.100972}}.</ref>

Around 6 million people, the majority who live in developing countries, depend on [[Fishery|coral reef fisheries]]. These mass die-offs due to extreme hypoxic events can have severe impacts on reef fish populations. Coral reef ecosystems offer a variety of essential ecosystem services including shoreline protection, [[nitrogen fixation]], and waste assimilation, and tourism opportunities. The continued decline of oxygen in oceans on coral reefs is concerning because it takes many years (decades) to repair and regrow corals.<ref name=Laffoley2019 />

===Disease===

Disease is a serious threat to many coral species. The diseases of coral may consist of bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic infections. Due to stressors like climate change and pollution, coral can become more vulnerable to diseases. Some examples of coral disease are ''Vibrio'', white syndrome, white band, rapid wasting disease, and many more.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pierce.ctc.edu:2189/ehost/detail/detail?vid=14&sid=f278f495-82f3-4790-a5bf-2bf8783710ca%40sessionmgr4010&hid=4114&bdata=JnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#AN=503444154&db=scf|title=Emerging Infections on the Reefs|last=Bruckner|first=Andrew and Robin|date=1998|website=EBSCO|access-date=2017-03-13}}{{Dead link|date=August 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> These diseases have different effects on the corals, ranging from damaging and killing individual corals to wiping out entire reefs.<ref name="":2"" />

In the Caribbean, white band disease is one of the primary causes for the death of over eighty percent of Staghorn and Elkhorn coral (Reef Resilience). It is a disease that can destroy miles of coral reef fast.

A disease such as white plague can spread over a coral colony by a half an inch a day. By the time the disease has fully taken over the colony, it leaves behind a dead skeleton. Dead standing coral structures are what most people see after disease has taken over a reef.

Recently, the Florida Reef Tract in the United States has been plagued by a stony coral tissue loss disease. The disease was first identified in 2014 and as of 2018 has been reported in every part of the reef except the lower Florida Keys and the Dry Tortugas. The cause of the disease is unknown but is thought to be caused by bacteria and be transmitted through direct contact and water circulation. This disease event is unique due to its large geographic range, extended duration, rapid progression, high rates of mortality and the number of species affected.<ref name=""auto"">{{cite web |url=https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/coral-disease/|title=Florida Reef Tract Coral Disease Outbreak |publisher=NOAA Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary |access-date=2019-01-14}}</ref>

=== Recreational diving ===
{{main|Environmental impact of recreational diving}} 
During the 20th century recreational scuba diving was considered to have generally low environmental impact, and was consequently one of the activities permitted in most marine protected areas. Since the 1970s diving has changed from an elite activity to a more accessible recreation, marketed to a very wide demographic. To some extent better equipment has been substituted for more rigorous training, and the reduction in perceived risk has shortened minimum training requirements by several training agencies. Training has concentrated on an acceptable risk to the diver, and paid less attention to the environment. The increase in the popularity of diving and in tourist access to sensitive ecological systems has led to the recognition that the activity can have significant environmental consequences.<ref name=""Hammerton 2014"" >{{cite thesis |publisher=Southern Cross University |date=2014|title=SCUBA-diver impacts and management strategies for subtropical marine protected areas |first=Zan |last=Hammerton |url=https://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=theses |url-access=<!--WP:URLACCESS--> }}</ref>

Scuba diving has grown in popularity during the 21st century, as is shown by the number of certifications issued worldwide, which has increased to about 23 million by 2016 at about one million per year.<ref name=""Lucrezi 2016"" >{{cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/how-scuba-diving-is-warding-off-threats-to-its-future-52504 |title=How scuba diving is warding off threats to its future |date=18 January 2016 |last=Lucrezi |first=Serena |website=The Conversation |access-date=5 September 2019 }}</ref> Scuba diving tourism is a growth industry, and it is necessary to consider [[environmental sustainability]], as the expanding impact of divers can adversely affect the [[marine environment]] in several ways, and the impact also depends on the specific environment. Tropical coral reefs are more easily damaged by poor diving skills than some temperate reefs, where the environment is more robust due to rougher sea conditions and fewer fragile, slow-growing organisms. The same pleasant sea conditions that allow development of relatively delicate and highly diverse ecologies also attract the greatest number of tourists, including divers who dive infrequently, exclusively on vacation and never fully develop the skills to dive in an environmentally friendly way.<ref name=""Dimmock et al 2013"" >{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259489022 |title=Scuba Diving Tourism |chapter=Chapter 10: The business of Scuba diving |pages=161–173|publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |first1=Kay |last1=Dimmock |first2=Terry |last2=Cummins |first3=Ghazali |last3=Musa |editor1-first=Ghazali |editor1-last=Musa |editor2-first=Kay |editor2-last=Dimmock }}</ref> [[Low impact diving]] training has been shown to be effective in reducing diver contact to more sustainable levels.<ref name=""Hammerton 2014"" /> Experience appears to be the most important factor in explaining divers' underwater behaviour, followed by their attitude towards diving and the environment, and [[personality type]].<ref name=""Ong and Musa 2012"" >{{cite journal |title=Examining the influences of experience, personality and attitude on SCUBA divers' underwater behaviour: A structural equation model |last1=Ong |first1=Tah Fatt |last2= Musa |first2=Ghazali |journal=Tourism Management |publisher=Elsevier |volume=33 |date=2012 |issue=6 |pages=1521–1534 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2012.02.007 }}</ref>

=== Other issues ===

[[File:CoralSandAruba.jpg|thumb|[[Coral sand]] from a beach on [[Aruba]], [[Caribbean Sea]].]]

Within the last 20 years, once-prolific [[seagrass meadow]]s and [[mangrove forest]]s, which absorb massive amounts of nutrients and [[sediment]], have been destroyed. Both the loss of wetlands, mangrove habitats and seagrass meadows affect the [[water quality]] of inshore reefs.<ref>{{cite web|author=Australian Government Productivity Commission|year=2003|title=Industries, Land Use and Water Quality in the Great Barrier Reef Catchment – Key Points| url= http://www.pc.gov.au/study/gbr/finalreport/keypoints.html|access-date=29 May 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060906134413/http://www.pc.gov.au/study/gbr/finalreport/keypoints.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 6 September 2006}}</ref>

[[Coral sand|Coral mining]] is another threat. Both small scale harvesting by villagers and industrial scale mining by companies are serious threats. Mining is usually done to produce construction material which is valued as much as 50% cheaper than other rocks, such as from [[quarries]].<ref name=""The Greenpeace Book of Coral Reefs"">The Greenpeace Book of Coral Reefs</ref> The rocks are ground and mixed with other materials, like cement to make concrete. Ancient coral used for construction is known as [[coral rag]]. Building directly on the reef also takes its toll, altering water circulation and the tides which bring the nutrients to the reef. The pressing reason for building on reefs is simply lack of space, and because of this, some of the areas with heavily mined coral reefs have still not been able to recover. Another pressing issue is coral collecting. There are bountiful amounts of coral that are deemed so beautiful that they are often collected. The collected coral are used to make a handful of things, including jewelry and home decorations. The breakage of coral branches is unhealthy for the reefs; therefore, tourists and those who purchase such items contribute greatly to the already devastating coral reefs and climate change.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://coral.org/coral-reefs-101/reef-threats/direct/|title=Direct Threats|website=Coral Reef Alliance}}</ref>

[[File:Coral-reef-bioerosion.jpg|thumbnail|left|Eroded coral<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biology.iastate.edu/intop/1Australia/Australia%20papers/Bioerosion.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030902051522/http://www.biology.iastate.edu/intop/1Australia/Australia%20papers/Bioerosion.htm |archive-date=2 September 2003 |title=Bioerosion: an essential, and often overlooked, aspect of reef ecology |date=17 April 2003 |access-date=2 November 2006 |author=Ryan Holl |publisher=[[Iowa State University]] |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]

Boats and ships require access points into bays and islands to load and unload cargo and people. For this, parts of reefs are often chopped away to clear a path. Negative consequences can include altered water circulation and altered [[tide|tidal]] patterns which can disrupt the reef's nutrient supply; sometimes destroying a great part of the reef. [[Fishing vessel]]s and other large boats occasionally run aground on a reef. Two types of damage can result. Collision damage occurs when a coral reef is crushed and split by a vessel's hull into multiple fragments. Scarring occurs when boat propellers tear off the live coral and expose the skeleton. The physical damage can be noticed as striations. [[Mooring (watercraft)|Mooring]] causes damage which can be reduced by using mooring [[buoy]]s. Buoys can attach to the seafloor using concrete blocks as weights or by penetrating the seafloor, which further reduces damage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2003/jan03/noaa03r402.html|title=Department of Commerce Awards Bronze Medal to Florida Biologist John Halas|access-date=2010-06-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100722063256/http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2003/jan03/noaa03r402.html|archive-date=2010-07-22|url-status=dead}}</ref> Also, [[Tetiaroa#Future of Teti'aroa|reef docks]] can be used to move over goods from large, seagoing vessels to small, flat-bottomed vessels.

Coral in Taiwan is being threatened by the influx of human population growth. Since 2007, several local environmental groups conducted research and found that much of the coral populations are being affected by untreated sewage, an influx of tourists taking corals for souvenirs, without fully understanding the destructive impact on the coral's ecological system. Researchers reported to the Taiwanese government that many coral populations have turned black in the southeast coast of Taiwan. Potentially, this could lead to loss of food supply, medicinal sources and tourism due to the breakdown of the food chain.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2009-02-06 |title=Taiwan coral reefs ""turn black"" with disease |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-taiwan-coral-idUSTRE5151HL20090206 |access-date=2023-05-11}}</ref>

== Oil ==
'''Causes and Effects of Oil Spills'''

The causes for oils spills can be separated into 2 categories: natural and anthropogenic causes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oil Spill Causes {{!}} Environmental Pollution Centers |url=https://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/oil-spill/causes/ |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org |language=en}}</ref>

Natural causes can be from oil that leaks out from the ocean floor into the water; erosion of the seafloor; or even climate change. The amount that naturally seeps into the ocean is 181 million gallons, which varies yearly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=GUNDLACH |first1=E. R |last2=HAYES |first2=M. O |date=1978 |title=Vulnerability of coastal environments to oil spill impacts |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/770409334 |language=English |oclc=770409334}}</ref>
[[File:North Sea Oil Rig (7573694644).jpg|thumb|Oil Rig in the North Sea]]
Anthropogenic causes involve human activities and is how most oil enters the ocean. The ways oil spills anthropogenically in the ocean are because of drilling rigs, pipelines, refineries, and wars. Anthropogenic spills are more harmful than naturals spills, as unlike natural spills, they leak about 210 million gallons of petroleum each year. Also, anthropogenic spills cause abrupt changes to ecosystems with long-term effects and even longer remediations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oil Spills; Causes, Effects, Solutions {{!}} Environment Buddy |url=https://www.environmentbuddy.com/environment/oil-spills-causes-effects-solutions/ |access-date=2022-04-21 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kingston |first=Paul F |date=2002-06-01 |title=Long-term Environmental Impact of Oil Spills |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1353256102000518 |journal=Spill Science & Technology Bulletin |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=53–61 |doi=10.1016/S1353-2561(02)00051-8 |issn=1353-2561}}</ref>

When oil spills occur, the affects can be felt in an area for decades and can cause massive damage to the aquatic life. For aquatic plant life an oil spill could affect how light, and oxygen is available for photosynthesis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fragoso ados Santos |first1=Henrique |last2=Duarte |first2=Gustavo Adolpho Santos |last3=Rachid |first3=Caio TavoraCoelho da Costa |last4=Chaloub |first4=Ricardo Moreira |last5=Calderon |first5=Emiliano Nicolas |last6=Marangoni |first6=Laura Fernandes de Barros |last7=Bianchini |first7=Adalto |last8=Nudi |first8=Adriana Haddad |last9=do Carmo |first9=Flávia Lima |last10=van Elsas |first10=Jan Dirk |last11=Rosado |first11=Alexandre Soares |date=2015-12-14 |title=Impact of oil spills on coral reefs can be reduced by bioremediation using probiotic microbiota |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=18268 |doi=10.1038/srep18268 |pmid=26658023 |pmc=4677405 |bibcode=2015NatSR...518268F |s2cid=5277926 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>
[[File:Coral Reef, Belize.jpg|thumb|Coral Reef Community]]
Two other examples of the many ways oil harms wildlife are in the form of [[Effects of oil exposure on wildlife|oil toxicity]] and [[fouling]]. Oil toxicity affects the wildlife when the toxic compounds oil is made up of enters the body doing damage to the internal organs, and eventually causes death. Fouling is when oil harms wildlife via coating itself on an animal or plant physically.<ref>{{Citation |last=Waskey |first=Andrew J. |title=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) |date=2011 |url=https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/disasterrelief/n179.xml |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Disaster Relief |pages=440–442 |place=Thousand Oaks |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc. |doi=10.4135/9781412994064 |isbn=9781412971010 |access-date=2022-04-21}}</ref>

'''Oil Impacts on Coral Reef Communities'''

Oil pollution is hazardous to living marine habitats due to its toxic constituents. [[Oil spill]]s occur due to natural seepage and during activities such as transportation and handling. These spills harm the marine and coastal wildlife. When the organisms have become exposed to these oil spills, it can lead them to suffer from [[Irritation|skin irritation]], decreased immunity and gastrointestinal damage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Prasad |first1=S J |last2=Nair |first2=T M Balakrishnan |last3=Joseph |first3=Sudheer |last4=Mohanty |first4=P C |date=2022 |title=Simulating the spatial and temporal distribution of oil spill over the coral reef environs along the southeast coast of Mauritius: A case study on MV Wakashio vessel wreckage, August 2020 |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12040-021-01791-z |journal=Journal of Earth System Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=1 |pages=42 |doi=10.1007/s12040-021-01791-z |bibcode=2022JESS..131...42P |s2cid=246481260 |issn=2347-4327}}</ref>

When oil floats above the coral reef, it will have no effect on the coral below, it is when the oil starts to sink to the ocean floor when it becomes a problem. The problem is the physical effect from the oil-sediment particle which has been found to be less harmful than if the coral came in contact with the toxic oil.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite journal |last1=Loya |first1=Y |last2=Rinkevich |first2=B |date=1980 |title=Effects of Oil Pollution on Coral Reef Communities |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=3 |pages=167–180 |doi=10.3354/meps003167 |bibcode=1980MEPS....3..167L |issn=0171-8630|doi-access=free }}</ref>

When the oil comes into contact with [[coral]]s, not only the reef system will be affected but fish, crabs and many more marine [[Invertebrate|invertebrates.]] Just a few drops of oil can cause coral reef fish to make poor decisions. Oil will impact the thinking of the coral reef fish in a way that could be dangerous to the fish and the coral reef where they choose their home.<ref name="":02"" />

It can negatively affect their growth, survival, settlement behaviors, and increases predation. It has been found that larval fish who have been exposed to oil will eventually have heart issues and physical irregularities later in life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hartmann |first1=AC |last2=Sandin |first2=SA |last3=Chamberland |first3=VF |last4=Marhaver |first4=KL |last5=de Goeij |first5=JM |last6=Vermeij |first6=MJA |date=2015-09-29 |title=Crude oil contamination interrupts settlement of coral larvae after direct exposure ends |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=536 |pages=163–173 |doi=10.3354/meps11437 |bibcode=2015MEPS..536..163H |issn=0171-8630|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Oil Impacts on Coral Life and Symbiotic Relationships ===
Evidence for the damaging effects of oil spills on coral reef structures can be seen at a reef site a few kilometers southwest of the Macondo well. Coral at this site, which has been covered in crude oil chemicals and brown flocculent particles, were found dying just seven months after the [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill|Deepwater Horizon eruption]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fisher |first1=Charles R. |last2=Demopoulos |first2=Amanda W. J. |last3=Cordes |first3=Erik E. |last4=Baums |first4=Iliana B. |author-link4=Iliana Baums|last5=White |first5=Helen K. |last6=Bourque |first6=Jill R. |date=2014 |title=Coral Communities as Indicators of Ecosystem-Level Impacts of the Deepwater Horizon Spill |url=http://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/64/9/796/269808/Coral-Communities-as-Indicators-of-EcosystemLevel |journal=BioScience |language=en |volume=64 |issue=9 |pages=796–807 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biu129 |issn=1525-3244|doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Gorgone_de_Mayotte.jpeg|thumb|Gorgonian Coral]]
[[Alcyonacea|Gorgonian octocorals]] (soft coral communities) are highly susceptible to damage from oil spills. This is due to the structure and function of their polyps, which are specialized in filtering tiny particles from the water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Etnoyer |first1=Peter J. |last2=Wickes |first2=Leslie N. |last3=Silva |first3=Mauricio |last4=Dubick |first4=J. D. |last5=Balthis |first5=Len |last6=Salgado |first6=Enrique |last7=MacDonald |first7=Ian R. |date=2015 |title=Decline in condition of gorgonian octocorals on mesophotic reefs in the northern Gulf of Mexico: before and after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill |journal=Coral Reefs |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=77–90 |doi=10.1007/s00338-015-1363-2 |s2cid=18048850 |issn=0722-4028|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Corals have a complex relationship with many different [[Prokaryote|prokaryotic]] organisms, including probiotic microorganisms that protect the corals from harmful environmental pollutants. However, research has shown that oil spills damage these organisms, and weaken their ability to protect reef structures in the presence of oil pollution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fragoso ados Santos |first1=Henrique |last2=Duarte |first2=Gustavo Adolpho Santos |last3=Rachid |first3=Caio TavoraCoelho da Costa |last4=Chaloub |first4=Ricardo Moreira |last5=Calderon |first5=Emiliano Nicolas |last6=Marangoni |first6=Laura Fernandes de Barros |last7=Bianchini |first7=Adalto |last8=Nudi |first8=Adriana Haddad |last9=do Carmo |first9=Flávia Lima |last10=van Elsas |first10=Jan Dirk |last11=Rosado |first11=Alexandre Soares |date=2015 |title=Impact of oil spills on coral reefs can be reduced by bioremediation using probiotic microbiota |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=18268 |doi=10.1038/srep18268 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=4677405 |pmid=26658023|bibcode=2015NatSR...518268F }}</ref>

'''Oil Clean up Methods'''
[[File:Oil Spill Containment Boom.jpg|thumb|Oil Spill Containment Boom]]
Booms are floating barricades that are placed in an oil spreading area that restrict the movement of floating oil. Booms are often utilized alongside skimmers, which are sponges and oil absorbent ropes that collect oil from the water. Moreover, insitu-burning and chemical [[Dispersion (chemistry)|dispersion]] can be utilized during an oil spillage. Insitu-burning refers to burning oil that has been collected to one location with a fire-resistant containment boom, however, the combustion from insitu-burning does not fully remove the oil but instead breaks it down into different chemicals which can negatively affect marine reefs.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pradhan-Das-Pradhan |first=Binapani-Madhumita-Madhumita |date=2021 |title=Marine Oil Spills: Implications on Response Plan |url=http://www.tshe.org/ea/pdf/EA14(3)/EA14(3)_02.pdf |website=Environment Asia}}</ref>

Chemical dispersants consist of [[Emulsion|emulsifiers]] and solvents that break oil into small droplets and are the most common form of oil removal, however, these can reduce corals [[Resilience of coral reefs|resilience]] to environmental [[stressor]]s. Moreover, chemical dispersants can physically harm coral species when exposed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Silva |first1=Denise P. |last2=Villela |first2=Helena D. M. |last3=Santos |first3=Henrique F. |last4=Duarte |first4=Gustavo A. S. |last5=Ribeiro |first5=José Roberto |last6=Ghizelini |first6=Angela M. |last7=Vilela |first7=Caren L. S. |last8=Rosado |first8=Phillipe M. |last9=Fazolato |first9=Carolline S. |last10=Santoro |first10=Erika P. |last11=Carmo |first11=Flavia L. |date=2021 |title=Multi-domain probiotic consortium as an alternative to chemical remediation of oil spills at coral reefs and adjacent sites |journal=Microbiome |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=118 |doi=10.1186/s40168-021-01041-w |issn=2049-2618 |pmc=8138999 |pmid=34020712 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Dispersants have been also utilized to clean oil spills, however, they harm early stages of coral and reduces the settlement on reef systems and have since been banned. However, there is still one formulation of dispersants used, the [[Corexit|Corexit 9427]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dispersants |url=https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/public_lands/energy/dirty_energy_development/oil_and_gas/gulf_oil_spill/dispersants.html |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.biologicaldiversity.org}}</ref>

Microbial biosurfactants can be utilized to reduce the damage to reef ecosystems as an eco-friendly method, however, there are limitations to their effect. This method is still being studied and is not a certain method of oil clean up.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Seema |last2=Homaei |first2=Ahmad |last3=Patil |first3=Sangram |last4=Daverey |first4=Achlesh |date=2018 |title=Microbial biosurfactants for oil spill remediation: pitfalls and potentials |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00253-018-9434-2 |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=27–37 |doi=10.1007/s00253-018-9434-2 |pmid=30343430 |s2cid=53042649 |issn=0175-7598}}</ref>

==Threatened species==
The global standard for recording [[threatened species|threatened]] marine species is the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] Red List of Threatened Species.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/introduction|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706005808/http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/introduction|url-status=dead|title=The 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|archive-date=July 6, 2009}}</ref> This list is the foundation for marine conservation priorities worldwide. A species is listed in the threatened category if it is considered to be [[Critically endangered species|critically endangered]], [[Endangered species|endangered]], or [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]]. Other categories are [[near threatened]] and [[data deficient]]. By 2008, the [[IUCN]] had assessed all 845 known reef-building corals species, marking 27% as [[threatened species|Threatened]], 20% as [[near threatened]], and 17% as [[data deficient]].<ref name=""IUCN factsheet"">[[IUCN]]: [http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/status_of_the_world_s_marine_species.pdf Status of the world's marine species]</ref>

The [[Coral Triangle|coral triangle]] (Indo-Malay-Philippine archipelago) region has the highest number of reef-building coral species in threatened category as well as the highest coral species diversity. The loss of coral reef ecosystems will have devastating effects on many marine species, as well as on people that depend on reef resources for their livelihoods.<ref name=""IUCN factsheet""/>

==Issues by region==
[[File:oa-sami.jpg|thumb|right| A [[NOAA]] ([[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory|AOML]]) ''in situ'' {{chem|pCO|2}} sensor ([http://sunburstsensors.com/ SAMI-CO2]), attached to a Coral Reef Early Warning System station in [[Discovery Bay, Jamaica|Discovery Bay]], Jamaica, utilized in conducting [[ocean acidification]] studies near coral reef areas]]

===Australia===
{{Main|Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef}}
The [[Great Barrier Reef]] is the world's largest [[coral reef]] system.<ref name = UNEP>{{cite web|author=UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre |year=1980|title=Protected Areas and World Heritage – Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area|url=http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html|publisher=[[Department of the Environment and Heritage]]|access-date=10 June 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060115152058/http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 15 January 2006}}</ref><ref name = GBRWHV>{{cite web|title=Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Values|url=http://www.deh.gov.au/heritage/worldheritage/sites/gbr/values.html|access-date=10 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061006181457/http://www.deh.gov.au/heritage/worldheritage/sites/gbr/values.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 6 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Fodor's|title=Great Barrier Reef Travel Guide|url=http://www.fodors.com/miniguides/mgresults.cfm?destination=great_barrier@230&cur_section=ove|access-date=8 August 2006}}</ref><ref name = 1975review>{{cite web|author=Department of the Environment and Heritage|title=Review of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975|url=http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/gbr-marine-park-act.html|access-date=2 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061018005108/http://deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/gbr-marine-park-act.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 18 October 2006}}</ref> The reef is located in the [[Coral Sea]] and a large part of the reef is protected by the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]]. Particular environmental pressures include [[surface runoff]], [[salinity]] fluctuations, [[climate change]], cyclic crown-of-thorns outbreaks, [[overfishing]], and spills or improper ballast discharge. According to the 2014 report of the [[Government of Australia]]'s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA), climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef.<ref name=""Outlook"">{{cite web|author1=GBRMPA |title=GBRMPA Outlook Report 2014 |url=http://asp-au.secure-zone.net/v2/index.jsp?id=1342/1518/5784&lng=en |website=Australian Government Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority |publisher=Australian Government |access-date=15 August 2014 |format=PDF |year=2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813000159/http://asp-au.secure-zone.net/v2/index.jsp?id=1342%2F1518%2F5784&lng=en |archive-date=13 August 2014 }}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, 50% of the coral on the Great Barrier Reef has been lost.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/08/explore-atlas-great-barrier-reef-coral-bleaching-map-climate-change/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809074121/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/08/explore-atlas-great-barrier-reef-coral-bleaching-map-climate-change/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 9, 2018|title=Half of the Great Barrier Reef is Dead|last=James|first=Lauren E.|date=August 2018|work=National Geographic|access-date=February 1, 2019}}</ref>

===Southeast Asia===
{{See also|Southeast Asia coral reefs}}
Southeast Asian coral reefs are at risk from damaging [[fishing]] practices (such as [[Cyanide fishing|cyanide]] and [[blast fishing]]), [[overfishing]], sedimentation, pollution and bleaching. Activities including education, regulation and the establishment of [[marine protected area]]s help protect these reefs.

====Indonesia====
[[Indonesia]] is home to one-third of the world's coral reefs, with coral that covers nearly {{convert|85000|km2}} and is home to one-quarter of its fish [[species]]. Indonesia's coral reefs are located in the heart of the [[Coral Triangle]] and have fallen victim to destructive fishing, tourism and bleaching. Data from LIPI in 1998 found that only 7 percent is in excellent condition, 24 percent is in good condition and approximately 69 percent is in poor-to-fair condition. According to one source, Indonesia will lose 70 percent of its coral reef by 2050 if restoration action does not occur.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mengenali Sumberdaya Pesisir dan Laut|url=http://ipmawatisusan.blogspot.com/2010/11/mengenali-sumberdaya-pesisir-dan-laut.html|work=Pelajar Progressif|publisher=Google, Inc.|access-date=22 April 2013|author=Ditulis oleh susan|language=ms|date=30 November 2010}}</ref>

====Philippines====
In 2007, [[Reef Check]], the world's largest reef [[Habitat conservation|conservation]] organization, stated that only 5% of [[Philippines]] {{convert|27,000|km2}} of coral reef are in ""''excellent condition''"": [[Tubbataha Reef]], [[Marine Park]] in [[Palawan]], [[Apo Island]] in [[Negros Oriental]], [[Apo Reef]] in [[Puerto Galera]], [[Mindoro]], and [[Verde Island]] Passage off [[Batangas]]. [[Philippine]] [[coral reefs]] is [[Asia]]'s second largest.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/storypage.aspx|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070709212017/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/storypage.aspx?StoryID=93671|url-status=dead|title=ABS-CBN Interactive|archive-date = 2007-07-09}}</ref>

====Taiwan====
Coral reefs in [[Taiwan]] are being threatened by human population growth. Many corals are affected by untreated sewage and souvenir-hunting tourists, not knowing that this practice destroys habitat and causes disease. Many corals have turned black from disease off Taiwan's southeast coast.<ref>{{cite news
|last=Jennings |first=R.
|date=Feb 6, 2009
|title=Taiwan coral reefs ""turn black"" with disease
|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE5151HL20090206
 |work=Reuters}}</ref>

===Caribbean===
Coral disease was first recognized as a threat to Caribbean reefs in 1972 when [[black band disease]] was discovered. Since then diseases have been occurring with higher frequency.<ref>{{cite web|title=Information about Coral Disease |url=https://cdhc.noaa.gov/disease/default.aspx|publisher=NOAA Coral Disease & Health Consortium|access-date=15 January 2019}}</ref>

It has been estimated that 50% of the [[Caribbean sea]] coral cover has disappeared since the 1960s. According to a [[United Nations Environment Program]] report, the [[Caribbean]] coral reefs might face [[Local extinction|extirpation]] in next 20 years due to population expansion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas, global warming, and invasive species.<ref>{{cite web|title=Caribbean coral reefs may disappear within 20 years: Report |url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/caribbean-coral-reefs-may-disappear-within-20-years-report/|work=IANS|publisher=news.biharprabha.com|access-date=3 July 2014}}</ref>

In 2005, the Caribbean lost about 50% of its reef in one year due to coral bleaching. The warm water from [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Virgin Islands]] travelled south to cause this coral bleaching.<ref>{{cite web |last1=US Department of Commerce |first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |title=What is coral bleaching? |url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov |access-date=5 March 2019 |language=EN-US}}</ref>

==== Jamaica ====
{{main|Environmental issues of Jamaica's reefs}}
[[Jamaica]] is the third largest Caribbean island. The Caribbean's coral reefs will cease to exist in 20 years if a conservation effort is not made.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/02/caribbean-coral-reef-lost-fishing-pollution-report|title=Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection|last=Aldred|first=Jessica|date=2014-07-02|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In 2005, 34 percent of Jamaica's coral reefs were bleached due to rising sea temperatures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://traveltips.usatoday.com/coral-reefs-jamaica-1380.html|title=Coral Reefs in Jamaica|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en}}</ref> Jamaica's coral reefs are also threatened by [[overfishing]], pollution, natural disasters, and reef mining.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hughes|first=Terence P.|s2cid=43204708|date=1994|title=Catastrophes, Phase Shifts, and Large-Scale Degradation of a Caribbean Coral Reef|jstor=2884556|journal=Science|volume=265|issue=5178|pages=1547–1551|bibcode=1994Sci...265.1547H|doi=10.1126/science.265.5178.1547|pmid=17801530}}</ref> In 2009, researchers concluded that many of the corals are recovering very slowly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Crabbe|first=M.J.C.|title=Scleractinian coral population size structures and growth rates indicate coral resilience on the fringing reefs of North Jamaica|journal=Marine Environmental Research|volume=67|issue=4–5|pages=189–198|doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2009.01.003|pmid=19269026|year=2009|bibcode=2009MarER..67..189C |s2cid=32292527 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00482199/file/PEER_stage2_10.1016%252Fj.marenvres.2009.01.003.pdf}}</ref>

====United States====
Southeastern Florida's reef track is 300 miles long.<ref>{{cite web|title=Florida |url=https://coast.noaa.gov/states/florida.html|publisher=NOAA Office for Coastal Management|access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref> Florida's coral reefs are currently undergoing an unprecedented stony coral tissue loss disease. The disease covers a large geographic range and affects many species of coral.<ref name=""auto""/>

In January 2019, science divers confirmed that the outbreak of stony coral tissue that extends south and west of [[Key West]]. In December 2018, Disease was spotted at Maryland Shoals, near the [[Saddlebunch Keys]]. By mid January 5 more sites between American Shoal and [[Eastern Dry Rocks]] were confirmed diseased.<ref>{{cite web |last1=NOAA |title=Florida Reef Tract Coral Disease Outbreak {{!}} Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary |url=https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/coral-disease/ |website=floridakeys.noaa.gov}}</ref>

Puerto Rico is home to over 5,000 square kilometers of shallow coral reef ecosystems. Puerto Rico's coral reefs and associated ecosystems have an average economic value of nearly $1.1 billion per year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Puerto Rico |url=https://coast.noaa.gov/states/puerto-rico.html|publisher=NOAA Office for Coastal Management|access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref>

The U.S. Virgin Islands’ coral reefs and associated ecosystems have an average economic value of $187 million per year.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Virgin Islands |url=https://coast.noaa.gov/states/usvi.html|publisher=NOAA Office for Coastal Management|access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref>

===Pacific===
====United States====
Hawaii's coral reefs (e.g. [[French Frigate Shoals]])  are a major factor in Hawaii's $800 million a year marine tourism and are being affected negatively by coral bleaching and increased sea surface temperatures, which in turn leads to coral reef diseases. The first large-scale coral bleaching occurred in 1996 and in 2004 it was found that the sea surface temperatures had been steadily increasing and if this pattern continues, bleaching events will occur more frequently and severely.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aeby |first1=Greta |title=Coral Reefs : Climate Change and Marine Disease |url=http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/coralreefs/climate-change-and-marine-disease/ |website=dlnr.hawaii.gov |access-date=5 March 2019 |archive-date=8 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608181743/https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/coralreefs/climate-change-and-marine-disease/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Oceans}}
*[[Marine cloud brightening#Research|Marine cloud brightening]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
*{{cite web|title=Reef Resilience: Coral Reef Resilience to Crown of Thorns Starfish and Coral Bleaching |website=livingoceansfoundation.org |publisher=Khaled bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation |date=16 November 2016 |url=https://www.livingoceansfoundation.org/science/reef-resilience/ }}

==Further reading==
* Barber, Charles V. and Vaughan R. Pratt. 1998. Poison and Profit: Cyanide Fishing in the Indo-Pacific. ''Environment'', [[Heldref Publications]].
* Martin, Glen. 2002. ""The depths of destruction Dynamite fishing ravages Philippines' precious coral reefs"". ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'', 30 May 2002
* {{cite journal |last1=Rinkevich |first1=Baruch |title=Rebuilding coral reefs: does active reef restoration lead to sustainable reefs? |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |date=1 April 2014 |volume=7 |pages=28–36 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.018 |bibcode=2014COES....7...28R }}

==External links==
*{{cite web|url=http://site.videoproject.com/coralreefs/ |title=Climate Change: Coral Reefs on the Edge |year=1999 |author-link=Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (biologist) |first=Ove |last=Hoegh-Guldberg |publisher=Global Change Institute, [[University of Queensland]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614033126/http://site.videoproject.com/coralreefs/ |archive-date=2010-06-14 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100610065226/http://ccma.nos.noaa.gov/ecosystems/coralreef/coral2008/welcome.html NOAA Report: The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090209180622/http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/coral_reef/ A special report on the plight of the planet's coral reefs—and how you can help—from ''Mother Jones'' magazine]

{{human impact on the environment|state=expanded}}
{{corals}}

[[Category:Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental impact by effect|Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Great Barrier Reef]]"
Geodiversity,"[[File:Lake pedder.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Lake Pedder]], south west Tasmania, prior to inundation as part of a hydro-electric development. Submergence of this unique landform assemblage and geoheritage feature beneath 15 m of water was one of many triggers to formulation of geoconservation philosophy.]]

'''Geodiversity''' is the variety of earth materials, forms and processes that constitute and shape the Earth, either the whole or a specific part of it.<ref name=Zwolinski>Zwolinski, Zb. 2004. ''Geodiversity'', in: ''Encyclopedia of Geomorphology'', A.Goudie (ed.), Routledge: pp. 417-418.</ref>  Relevant materials include [[mineral]]s, [[Rock (geology)|rocks]], [[sediment]]s, [[fossil]]s, [[soil]]s and [[water]].<ref name=Gray/><ref name=Brilha2014>{{cite journal |last1=Brilha |first1=José |date=2014 |title=Inventory and Quantitative Assessment of Geosites and Geodiversity Sites: a Review |journal=Geoheritage |volume= 8|issue= 2|pages= 119–134|doi=10.1007/s12371-014-0139-3 |hdl=1822/32896 |s2cid=55232122 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Forms may comprise [[fold (geology)|folds]], [[fault (geology)|faults]], [[landform]]s and other expressions of morphology or relations between units of earth material. Any natural process that continues to act upon, maintain or modify either material or form (for example [[tectonics]], [[sediment transport]], [[pedogenesis]]) represents another aspect of geodiversity. However geodiversity is not normally defined to include the likes of landscaping, concrete or other significant human influence.<ref name=Gray>Gray, M. 2004. ''Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature''. John Wiley & Sons Ltd {{ISBN|978-0470848951}}</ref>

== Overview ==
Geodiversity is neither homogeneously distributed nor studied across the planet. The identification of geodiversity hotspots (e.g. the islands of [[Geology of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and [[Geology of Tasmania|Tasmania]]) may be indicative not simply of the distribution of geodiversity but also of the status of [[geoconservation]] initiatives. In this regard it is worth noting that the [[biodiversity]] of an ecosystem stems at least in part from its underlying geology. With the majority of biological species remaining undescribed the classification and quantification of geodiversity is not an abstract exercise in geotaxonomy but a necessary part of mature nature conservation efforts, which also requires a [[Geoethics|geoethical]] approach.<ref>Peppoloni S. and Di Capua G. (2012), ""[http://www.annalsofgeophysics.eu/index.php/annals/article/view/6099 Geoethics and geological culture: awareness, responsibility and challenges]"". Annals of Geophysics, 55, 3, 335-341. {{doi|10.4401/ag-6099}}.</ref>

According to Ponciano et al<ref>Ponciano L.C.M.O. et al. (2011),""[https://www.academia.edu/1347148/IN_SITU_AND_EX_SITU_GEOLOGICAL-PALEONTOLOGICAL_HERITAGE_DEFINITIONS_ADVANTAGES_DISADVANTAGENS_AND_CONSERVATION_STRATEGIES_PATRIM%C3%94NIO_GEOL%C3%93GICO-PALEONTOL%C3%93GICO_IN_SITU_E_EX_SITU_DEFINI%C3%87%C3%95ES_VANTAGENS_DESVANTAGENS_E_ESTRAT%C3%89GIAS_DE_CONSERVA%C3%87%C3%83O_Ponciano_et_al._2011_ Patrimônio geológico-paleontológico in situ e ex situ: definições, vantagens, desvantagens e estratégias de conservação.""] In:CARVALHO IS, SRIVASTAVA NK, STROHSCHOEN JR O, LANA CC (Eds). Paleontologia: Cenários de Vida. Editora Interciência, Rio de Janeiro 4:853-869.</ref> geoheritage may be ''in situ'' (important geosites bearing any exceptional value, such as scientific, cultural, educational, touristic, etc) and ''ex situ'' (minerals, fossils, minerals and rocks that were extracted from their origin site and housed in scientific collections and have notable scientific, cultural, educational, touristic or any other value. These authors also consider any extremely valuable reference to these geodiversity elements as ex situ geoheritage, including therefore field notebooks, papers, photographs, maps, dissertations, books, etc. These references often bear historical and scientific value as, for instance, paleontologist Kenneth Caster's field notebooks which provided informations on unknown fossil localities <ref>Lima J.D.C. and Ponciano L.C.M.O. (2017), Importance of Kenneth Edward Caster (1908–1992) Personal Correspondence and Field Notebooks to the Brazilian Paleontological Heritage."" Geoheritage 10:179-190 {{doi|10.1007/s12371-017-0241-4}}.</ref>). Later (2016), José Brilha argues geodiversity may be of scientific value or valued for other aspects.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} Geodiversity of scientific value can be either geosites or geoheritage elements that are ''[[ex situ]]'' (not encompassing references to these elements such as dissertations, letters and field notebooks as geoheritage). Similarly geodiversity that is of little or no scientific value may be categorized as sites of geodiversity or geodiversity elements that are ''ex situ''.

Geodiversity also constitutes an important part of developing nature-based solutions to global environmental challenges and demands for natural resources. For example, a recent study argued that the acute lack of considering geodiversity in international conventions and monitoring frameworks poses a threat to achieving the UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>Schrodt, F. et al. (2019), ""[https://www.pnas.org/content/116/33/16155.short To advance sustainable stewardship, we must document not only biodiversity but geodiversity]"". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116, 33, 16155-16158. {{doi|10.1073/pnas.1911799116}}.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Landscape diversity]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Refbegin}}
* Osborne, R.A.L., 2000.  Presidential Address for 1999-2000. Geodiversity: ""green"" geology in action.  Proc. Linn. Soc. NSW. 122, pp.&nbsp;149–173.
{{Refend}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Systems geology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Category:Forest conservation,"{{Commons category|Forest conservation}}
{{Cat more|Sustainable forest management}}
{{CatRel|Reforestation}}

[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Forests|Conservation]]
[[Category:Forestry and the environment|Conservation]]
[[Category:Forest management|Conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainable forest management]]"
Conservation-reliant species,"[[File:Conservation reliant species08.jpg|thumb|Percentages of [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species|United States listed species]] which are conservation-reliant]]

'''Conservation-reliant species''' are animal or plant [[species]] that require continuing species-specific [[wildlife management]] intervention such as [[Hunting#Wildlife management|predator control]], [[Habitat conservation|habitat management]] and [[Pest control|parasite control]] to survive, even when a self-sustainable recovery in population is achieved.<ref name=""NCSE"">{{cite web |url=http://ncseonline.org/Conference/Biodiversity/cms.cfm?id=2396 |title=Endangered Species and Other Conservation Reliant Species |last=J. Michael Scott, US Geological Survey |author2=Dale Goble, University of Idaho Law School |date=December 2008 |work=9th National Conference on Science, Policy, and the Environment (Washington, D.C.) |publisher=NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE AND THE ENVIRONMENT |accessdate=2009-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613130509/http://ncseonline.org/Conference/Biodiversity/cms.cfm?id=2396 |archive-date=2010-06-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== History ==

The term ""conservation-reliant species"" grew out of the [[conservation biology]] undertaken by ''The Endangered Species Act at Thirty Project'' (launched 2001)<ref name=""Goble"">{{cite book |last=Goble |first=Dale |author2=J. Michael Scott |author3=Frank W. Davis |title=The Endangered Species Act at Thirty: Renewing the Conservation Promise |publisher=Island Press |year=2006 |volume=I |pages=xii, 299 |isbn=978-1-59726-009-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vEh7m1k5WMwC&dq=%22conservation+reliant+species%22&pg=PA299}}</ref> and its popularization by project leader [[J. Michael Scott]].<ref name=""Scott"">{{cite journal |last=Scott |first=J. Michael |date=Jan 2007 |title=AOU Conservation Award, 2006 |journal=The Auk |publisher=The American Ornithologists' Union |volume=124 |issue=1 |pages=353–355 |issn=0004-8038 |doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2007)124[353:ACA]2.0.CO;2|doi-access= }}</ref> Its first use in a formal publication was in ''Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment'' in 2005.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} Worldwide use of the term has not yet developed and it has not yet appeared in a publication compiled outside North America.<!--?: <ref>Note: See publication information of article references.</ref>-->

Passages of the 1973 [[Endangered Species Act]] (ESA) carried with it the assumption that endangered species would be delisted as their populations recovered. It assumed they would then thrive under existing regulations and the protections afforded under the ESA would no longer be needed. However, eighty percent of [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species|species currently listed]] under the ESA fail to meet that assumption. To survive, they require species-specific conservation interventions (e.g. control of predators, competitors, nest parasites, prescribed burns, altered hydrological processes, etc.) and thus they are conservation-reliant.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://training.fws.gov/EC/WebSeminarSeries/aug08/information_page.html |title=Conservation Reliant Species: Our New Relationship with Nature |access-date=2009-02-22 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023720/http://training.fws.gov/EC/WebSeminarSeries/aug08/information_page.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Criteria ==

The criteria for assessing whether a species is conservation-reliant are:<ref name=""Scott1"">{{cite web |url=http://training.fws.gov/EC/WebSeminarSeries/aug08/conservation_reliant_species.pdf |title=Conservation Reliant Species:Our New Relationship with Nature? |last=Scott |first=J. Michael Scott |author2=Dale Goble |author3=Aaron Haines |date=August 21, 2008 |work=CSP3900 Conservation Science Web Conference Series |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |accessdate=2009-02-21 |archive-date=2017-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125201140/https://training.fws.gov/EC/WebSeminarSeries/aug08/conservation_reliant_species.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
# Threats to the species’ continued existence are known and treatable.
# The threats are pervasive and recurrent, for example: nest parasites, non-native [[predator]]s, human disturbance.
# The threats render the species at risk of [[extinction]], absent ongoing conservation management.
# Management actions sufficient to counter threats have been identified and can be implemented, for example: [[controlled burn|prescribed fires]], restrictions on grazing or public access, predator or parasite control.
# National, state or local governments, often in cooperation with private or tribal interests, are capable of carrying out the necessary management actions as long as necessary.

== Management actions ==

There are five major areas of management action for conservation of vulnerable species:
# Control of other species may include: control of [[Introduced species#Introduced animals|exotic fauna]], [[Introduced species#Introduced plants|exotic flora]], other native species and [[parasite]]s and [[disease]].
# Control of direct human impacts may include control of [[Grazing#Disadvantages|grazing]], human access, on and [[off-road vehicle]]s, low impact [[recreation]] and illegal collecting and [[poaching]].
# Pollution control may include control of chemical [[Surface runoff|run-off]], [[siltation]], [[water quality]] and use of [[pesticide]]s and [[herbicide]]s.
# Active [[Habitat conservation|habitat management]] may include [[Wildfire suppression|fire management and control]], control of [[Erosion|soil erosion]] and [[waterbody|waterbodies]], habitat [[Restoration ecology|restoration]] and [[Weed control#Organic methods|mechanical vegetation control]].
# Artificial population recruitment may include captive propagation (forced immigration) or [[captive breeding]].<ref name=""Scott1""/>

== Case study ==
[[File:Indian Tiger.jpg|thumb|225px|Bengal tiger at [[Bannerghatta National Park]], Bangalore, India]]

A prominent example is in [[India]], where [[Bengal tiger|tigers]], an [[apex predator]] and the national animal, are considered a conservation-reliant species. This [[keystone species]] can maintain self-sustaining wild populations; however, they require ongoing management actions because threats are pervasive, recurrent and put them at risk of extinction. The origin of these threats are rooted in the changing socio-economic, political and spatial organization of society in India. Tigers have become extinct in some areas because of extrinsic factors such as [[habitat destruction]], poaching, disease, floods, fires and drought, decline of prey species for the same reasons, as well as intrinsic factors such as demographic [[stochastic]]ity and [[genetic deterioration]].

Recognizing the conservation reliance of tigers, [[Project Tiger]] is establishing a national science-based framework for monitoring tiger population trends in order to manage the species more effectively. India now has 28 tiger reserves, located in 17 states. These reserves cover {{convert|37761|km2|sqmi}} including 1.14% of the total land area of the country. These reserves are kept free of biotic disturbances, forestry operations, collection of minor forest products, grazing and human disturbance. The populations of tigers in these reserves now constitute some of the most important tiger source populations in the country.<ref name=""Maraj"">{{cite web |last=R Maraj, J Seidensticker |title=Assessment of a Framework for Monitoring Tiger Population Trends in India |url=http://projecttiger.nic.in/whtsnew/Assessment%20of%20a%20framework%20for%20monitoring%20tiger%20population%20trends%20in%20India-%202006.pdf |year=2006 |work=A Report to the IUCN: World Conservation Union and India's Project Tiger |publisher=Govt. of India, Project Tiger |pages=7–9 |accessdate=2009-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225022627/http://projecttiger.nic.in/whtsnew/Assessment%20of%20a%20framework%20for%20monitoring%20tiger%20population%20trends%20in%20India-%202006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Future ==

The magnitude and pace of human impacts on the environment make it unlikely that substantial progress will be made in delisting many species unless the definition of ""recovery"" includes some form of active management. Preventing delisted species from again being at risk of extinction may require continuing, species-specific management actions. Viewing ""recovery"" of  ""conservation-reliant species"" as a continuum of phases rather than a simple ""recovered/not recovered"" status may enhance the ability to manage such species within the framework of the Endangered Species Act. With ongoing [[loss of habitat]], disruption of natural cycles, increasing impacts of non-native invasive species, it is probable that the number of conservation-reliant species will increase.

It has been proposed that development of ""recovery management agreements"", with legally and biologically defensible contracts would provide for continuing conservation management following delisting. The use of such formalized agreements will facilitate shared management responsibilities between federal wildlife agencies and other federal agencies, and with state, local, and tribal governments, as well as with private entities that have demonstrated the capability to meet the needs of conservation-reliant species.<ref name=""Scott2"">{{cite journal |date=September 2005 |title=Recovery of imperiled species under the Endangered Species Act: The need for a new approach |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=383–89 |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=7326616&q=%22conservation+reliant+species%22&uid=1014961&setcookie=yes |doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2005)003[0383:ROISUT]2.0.CO;2 |last1=Scott |first1=J. Michael |last2=Goble |first2=Dale D. |last3=Wiens |first3=John A. |last4=Wilcove |first4=David S. |last5=Bean |first5=Michael |last6=Male |first6=Timothy |issn=1540-9295 |access-date=2009-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223143128/http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=7326616&q=%22conservation+reliant+species%22&uid=1014961&setcookie=yes |archive-date=2012-02-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Environment |Ecology |Earth sciences|Biology}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation-dependent species]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Sustainability]]
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Threatened species}}{{Conservation of species}}{{Branches of biology}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation-Reliant Species}}
[[Category:Conservation-reliant species| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Endangered species]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Habitat]]"
Assisted migration,"{{short description|Intentional transport of species to a different habitat}}
{{distinguish|Human-guided migration}}
[[File:Assisted migration 3 types 2022.jpg|thumb|Three types of assisted migration. Source: Climate Hubs, U.S. Department of Agriculture.]]

'''Assisted migration''' is ""the intentional establishment of populations or meta-populations beyond the boundary of a species' historic range for the purpose of tracking suitable habitats through a period of changing climate....""<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allaby |first1=Michael |title=A Dictionary of Ecology |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199567669 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yBuCBtOMs1kC&q=assisted%20migration |access-date=15 December 2022}}</ref> It is therefore a [[nature conservation]] tactic by which plants or animals are intentionally moved to geographic locations better suited to their present or future habitat needs and climate tolerances — and to which they are unable to migrate or disperse on their own.

In [[conservation biology]], the term first appeared in publications in 2004.<ref name=terminology>{{cite web |last1=Barlow |first1=Connie |title=Assisted Migration or Assisted Colonization: What's In a Name?: Chronological History of the Debate on Terminology |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/assistedmigrationdebate.html |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=15 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Wild Earth Forum: Assisted Migration for an Endangered Tree |journal=Wild Earth |date=Winter 2004 |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/forum.pdf |access-date=15 December 2022}}</ref> It signified a type of [[species translocation]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=IUCN |title=Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations |date=2013 |isbn= 978-2-8317-1609-1 |url=https://iucn-ctsg.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/new-rsg-reintro-guidelines-2013.pdf}}</ref> intended to reduce biodiversity losses owing to [[climate change]]. In the context of [[endangered species]] management, '''assisted colonization''' (2007)<ref name=""Hunter"" /> and '''managed relocation''' (2009)<ref name=richardson>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1= Richardson |first1=David M |title=Multidimensional evaluation of managed relocation |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci |date=June 2009 |volume=106 |issue=24 |pages=9721–9724 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0902327106 |pmid=19509337 |pmc=2694035 |doi-access=free }}</ref> were soon offered as [[synonym]]s — the latter in a paper entailing 22 coauthors.<ref name=richardson /><ref name=terminology />

In [[Silviculture|forestry science]] and management, [[Assisted migration of forests in North America|assisted migration]] is discussed in its own journals and from perspectives different from those of conservation biologists. This is, in part, because [[Paleoecology|paleoecologists]] had already concluded that there were significant lags in northward movement of even the dominant [[Canopy (biology)|canopy trees]] in North America during the thousands of years since the final glacial retreat.<ref name="":2"">{{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=Margaret B|date=October 1989|title=Lags in vegetation response to greenhouse warming|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF00138846.pdf|journal=Climatic Change|volume=15|issue=1–2|pages=75–82|doi=10.1007/bf00138846|bibcode=1989ClCh...15...75D|s2cid=154368627}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Margaret B|last2=Shaw|first2=Ruth B|title=Special Reviews: Range shifts and adaptive responses to Quaternary climate change |journal=Science |date=27 April 2001 |volume=292 |issue=5517 |pages=673–679|doi=10.1126/science.292.5517.673 |pmid=11326089|bibcode=2001Sci...292..673D |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.292.5517.673}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Petit |first1=Remy J |title=Review: Ecology and genetics of tree invasions: from recent introductions to Quaternary migrations |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=August 2004 |volume=197 |issue=1–3 |pages=113–137 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2004.05.009 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112704003202}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Seliger|first1=Benjamin J|last2=McGill|first2=Brian J|last3=Svenning|first3=Jens-Christian|last4=Gill|first4=Jacqueline L|date=November 2020|title=Widespread underfilling of the potential ranges of North American trees|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jbi.14001|journal=Journal of Biogeography|volume=48|issue=2|pages=359–371|doi=10.1111/jbi.14001|s2cid=228929332}}</ref> In the 1990s, forestry researchers had begun applying climate change projections to their own tree [[species distribution modelling]] efforts, and some results on the probable distances of future range shifts prompted attention.<ref name=""aitken2008"">{{cite journal|last1=Aitken |first1=Sally N |last2=Yeamam |first2=Sam|last3=Holliday |first3=Jason A |last4=Wang |first4=Tongli|last5=Curtis-McLane |first5=Sierra|title=Adaptation, migration or extirpation: Climate change outcomes for tree populations |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=25 January 2008 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=95–111 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00013.x |pmid=25567494 |pmc=3352395 }}</ref> As well, translocation terminology<ref name=""usfs-2023"">{{cite web |last1=Halleaux |first1=Savannah |title=Traveling trees: Assisted migration for climate resilience |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/features/traveling-trees |website=U.S. Forest Service |date=6 April 2023 |access-date=12 April 2023}}</ref> was not controversial among forestry researchers because '''migration''' was the standard term used in [[paleoecology]] for natural movements of tree species recorded in the [[geological record]]. Another key difference between forestry practices and conservation biology is that the former, necessarily, was guided by ""seed transfer guidelines"" whenever a timber or pulp harvest was followed up by reforestation plantings. The provincial government of [[British Columbia]] in Canada was the first to update their guidelines with, what they call, ""climate-based seed transfer.""<ref>{{cite web |title=Climate-based seed transfer |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/managing-our-forest-resources/tree-seed/seed-planning-use/climate-based-seed-transfer |website=Managing our forest resources |publisher=British Columbia government |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McKenney |first1=Dan|last2=Pedlar|first2=John|last3=O'Neill|first3=Greg|title=Climate change and forest seed zones: Past trends, future prospects and challenges to ponder |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=March 2009 |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=258–266 |doi=10.5558/tfc85258-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Overall, debate concerning the [[ethics]] of assisted migration in forestry practice was both short-term and muted<ref name=""pedlar2012"">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Pedlar |first1=John H |title=Placing Forestry in the Assisted Migration Debate |journal=BioScience |date=September 2012 |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=835–842 |doi=10.1525/bio.2012.62.9.10 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""WilliamsandDumroese2013"">{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Mary I|last2=Dumroese|first2=R Kasten|title=Preparing for Climate Change: Forestry and Assisted Migration |journal=Journal of Forestry |date=4 July 2013 |volume=111 |issue=4 |pages=287–297 |doi=10.5849/jof.13-016 |doi-access= }}</ref> compared to that which prevailed in conservation biology.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Brodie |first1=Jedediah F |title=Policy Forum: Global policy for assisted colonization of species |journal=Science |date=30 April 2021 |volume=372 |issue=6541 |pages=456–458 |doi=10.1126/science.abg0532 |pmid=33926936|s2cid=233448828 }}</ref><ref name=""pedlar2012"" /><ref name=""WilliamsandDumroese2013""/> For this reason, a separate Wikipedia page titled '''[[Assisted migration of forests in North America]]''' was launched in 2021 and made into a useful teaching tool for [[climate adaptation]] education and decision-making in the forestry profession.

The remainder of this page therefore focuses on the topic of '''assisted migration in conservation biology''' and especially its applications for management of endangered species.

== Background ==

[[Climate change]] is expected to drive many species out of parts of their current ranges while creating new suitable habitats elsewhere.<ref name=""Heller"">{{Cite journal | last1 = Heller | first1 = N. E. |author-link2=Erika Zavaleta| last2 = Zavaleta | first2 = E. S. | doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2008.10.006 | title = Biodiversity management in the face of climate change: A review of 22 years of recommendations | journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 142 | pages = 14–32 | year = 2009 | s2cid = 3797951 }}</ref><ref name=Thomas>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature02121 |pmid=14712274 |last1=Thomas |first1=C. D. |last2=Cameron |first2=A. |last3=Green |first3=R. E. |last4=Bakkenes |first4=M. |last5=Beaumont |first5=L. J. |last6=Collingham |first6=Y. C. |last7=Erasmus |first7=B. F. N. |last8=De Siqueira |first8=M. F. D. |last9=Grainger |first9=A. |last10=Hannah |first10=L. |last11=Hughes |first11=L. |last12=Huntley |first12=B. |last13=Van Jaarsveld |first13=A. S. |last14=Midgley |first14=G. F. |last15=Miles |first15=L. |last16=Ortega-Huerta |first16=M. A. |last17=Peterson |first17=A. |last18=Phillips |first18=O. L. |last19=Williams |first19=S. E. |title=Extinction risk from climate change |date=Jan 2004 |journal=Nature |volume=427 |pages=145–148 |url=http://www.geog.umd.edu/resac/outgoing/GEOG442%20Fall%202005/Lecture%20materials/extinctions%20and%20climate%20change.pdf |format=Full free text |issue=6970 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207021758/http://www.geog.umd.edu/resac/outgoing/GEOG442%20Fall%202005/Lecture%20materials/extinctions%20and%20climate%20change.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-07 |bibcode=2004Natur.427..145T |s2cid=969382 }}</ref> In order to avoid population declines and extinction, many species will need to either adapt or colonize newly suitable areas. Using a [[Niche modelling|niche modeling]] approach, scientists have predicted that a failure to migrate or adapt will result in about a quarter of the world's species dying out this century under moderate climate change.<ref name=Thomas/> The natural dispersal rates for many species are far slower than those needed to keep pace with projected habitat shifts in many regions of the world.<ref name=""Zhu"">{{Cite journal | last1 = Zhu | first1 = K. | last2 = Woodall | first2 = C. W. | last3 = Clark | first3 = J. S. | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02571.x | title = Failure to migrate: Lack of tree range expansion in response to climate change | journal = Global Change Biology | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 1042 | year = 2012 | bibcode = 2012GCBio..18.1042Z | s2cid = 31248474 }}</ref><ref name=Davis>{{Cite journal | last1 = Davis | first1 = M. B. | last2 = Shaw | first2 = R. G. | s2cid = 20302257 | title = Range Shifts and Adaptive Responses to Quaternary Climate Change | doi = 10.1126/science.292.5517.673 | journal = Science | volume = 292 | issue = 5517 | pages = 673–679 | year = 2001 | pmid =  11326089| bibcode = 2001Sci...292..673D }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Warren | first1 = M. S. | last2 = Hill | first2 = J. K. | last3 = Thomas | first3 = J. A. | last4 = Asher | first4 = J. | last5 = Fox | first5 = R. | last6 = Huntley | first6 = B. | last7 = Roy | first7 = D. B. | last8 = Telfer | first8 = M. G. | last9 = Jeffcoate | first9 = S. | last10 = Harding | first10 = P. | last11 = Jeffcoate | first11 = G. | last12 = Willis | first12 = S. G. | last13 = Greatorex-Davies | first13 = J. N. | last14 = Moss | first14 = D. | last15 = Thomas | first15 = C. D. | title = Rapid responses of British butterflies to opposing forces of climate and habitat change | journal = Nature | volume = 414 | issue = 6859 | pages = 65–69 | doi = 10.1038/35102054 | year = 2001 | pmid =  11689943| bibcode = 2001Natur.414...65W | s2cid = 4426671 | url = http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/119/1/thomascd4.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = McLachlan | first1 = J. S. | last2 = Clark | first2 = J. S. | last3 = Manos | first3 = P. S. | s2cid = 3064162 | doi = 10.1890/04-1036 | title = Molecular Indicators of Tree Migration Capacity Under Rapid Climate Change | journal = Ecology | volume = 86 | issue = 8 | pages = 2088 | year = 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Menendez | first1 = R. | last2 = Megias | first2 = A. G. | last3 = Hill | first3 = J. K. | last4 = Braschler | first4 = B. | last5 = Willis | first5 = S. G. | last6 = Collingham | first6 = Y. | last7 = Fox | first7 = R. | last8 = Roy | first8 = D. B. | last9 = Thomas | first9 = C. D. | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2006.3484 | title = Species richness changes lag behind climate change | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 273 | issue = 1593 | pages = 1465–70 | year = 2006 | pmid =  16777739| pmc = 1560312}}</ref>

Prehistoric climatic changes have resulted in massive global extinctions, and the rate of warming projected for the near future is many times faster than changes in the past 10,000 years.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Karl | first1 = T. R. | last2 = Trenberth | first2 = K. E. | title = Modern Global Climate Change | doi = 10.1126/science.1090228 | journal = Science | volume = 302 | issue = 5651 | pages = 1719–1723 | year = 2003 | pmid =  14657489| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1230878 | bibcode = 2003Sci...302.1719K | s2cid = 45484084 }}</ref> Geographic or human-caused barriers to natural dispersal may already be at cause for the listing as ""critically endangered"" two small-range endemic species for which assisted migration is now underway: Australia's [[Western swamp turtle|western swamp tortoise]]<ref name=""tortoise"" /> and America's [[Torreya taxifolia|Florida torreya]] tree.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=St George |first1=Zach |title=Last Resort: Moving Endangered Species in Order to Save Them |journal=Yale Environment 360 |date=27 October 2022 |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/assisted-migration-endangered-species-climate-change-united-states}}</ref> The inability of species to migrate in response to human-caused climate change has led to some scientists and land managers to consider exploring assisted migration as a means for preventing extinction of species.<ref name=McLachlanH>{{cite journal |last1=McLachlan |first1=Jason S|last2=Hellmann|first2=Jessica J|last3=Schwartz|first3=Mark W|title=A Framework for Debate of Assisted Migration in an Era of Climate Change |journal=Conservation Biology |date=26 March 2007 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=297–302|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00676.x|pmid=17391179|doi-access=free }}</ref> As of 2023, however, there have been few examples of assisted migration projects underway: A review paper concludes, ""Assisted migration was most common for plants (particularly trees), followed by birds, and was rarely implemented for other taxa.""<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Twardek |first1=William M |title=Review: The application of assisted migration as a climate change adaptation tactic: An evidence map and synthesis |journal=Biological Conservation |date=February 2023 |volume=280 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109932 |s2cid=257225019 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320723000320}}</ref>

=== Assisted migration v. species introduction ===
Assisted migration is a specific type of species introduction. [[Species introduction]] is any act of establishing a species in a habitat it does not currently occupy. It often refers to a long-distance relocation, such as the accidental introduction of an invasive species from one continent to another, or the intentional relocation of a species in decline to a habitat where it can persist. By contrast, assisted migration acknowledges that the natural dispersal rate of many species may be too low to naturally respond to rapid human-caused climate change and instead focuses on where the species would be able to disperse fast enough via [[natural selection]] to keep pace with the changing environment. Assisted migration practitioners consider helping the species disperse into such sites, which are often immediately adjacent to the species’ historical range.<ref name=Hunter>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hunter | first1 = M. L. | title = Climate Change and Moving Species: Furthering the Debate on Assisted Colonization | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00780.x | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 1356–1358 | year = 2007 | pmid =  17883502| s2cid = 8050923 }}</ref> In their eyes, assisted migration represents a small artificial boost to an otherwise natural process.<ref name=Mueller>{{Cite journal | last1 = Mueller | first1 = J. M. | last2 = Hellmann | first2 = J. J. | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00952.x | title = An Assessment of Invasion Risk from Assisted Migration | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 562–567 | year = 2008 | pmid =  18577085| s2cid = 43612242 }}</ref>

=== Alternatives ===
Even under rapid climate change, dispersal into new areas may not be necessary for some species to persist. Instead of tracking climate shifts through space, some species may be able to survive in their present locations by developing tolerance to new conditions through [[acclimatization]] and [[adaptation]].<ref name=Rice>{{cite journal |last1=Rice|first1=Kevin J.|last2=Emery|first2=Nancy C.|year=2003|title=Managing microevolution: Restoration in the face of global change|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=1|issue=9|pages=469–478|doi=10.2307/3868114|jstor=3868114}}</ref><ref name=""Skelly"">{{Cite journal | last1 = Skelly | first1 = D. K. | last2 = Joseph | first2 = L. N. | last3 = Possingham | first3 = H. P. | last4 = Freidenburg | first4 = L. K. | last5 = Farrugia | first5 = T. J. | last6 = Kinnison | first6 = M. T. | last7 = Hendry | first7 = A. P. | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00764.x | title = Evolutionary Responses to Climate Change | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 1353–1355 | year = 2007 | pmid =  17883501| s2cid = 11140235 }}</ref> The potential for acclimatization or adaptation to allow persistence in the face of climate change varies by species and is generally poorly understood. One study determined that [[evolution]] of higher temperature tolerances in some species of amphibians and reptiles will likely occur fast enough to allow these species to survive a 3&nbsp;°C temperature increase over 100 years, consistent with low- to mid-range projections of global warming.<ref name=Skelly/> By contrast, many species, such as most [[temperate]] trees, have longer generation times and therefore may adapt more slowly; they may take thousands of years to evolve a similar increase in temperature tolerance.<ref name=Rice/><ref name=Skelly/> Adaptation this slow would be insufficient for keeping up with expected future global warming if migration of new habitats is not an option. In addition to acclimatization and adaption, [[assisted evolution]] is an alternative to assisted migration that has been growing in popularity recently due to the worldwide coral reef crisis. Assisted evolution is the practice of using human intervention to accelerate the rate of natural evolutionary processes.<ref>{{cite news|title=Assisted Evolution| url=https://www.aims.gov.au/reef-recovery/assisted-evolution|access-date=May 5, 2019|newspaper=”[[Australian Institute of Marine Science]]”}}</ref> There are three main types of assisted evolution.

==== Stress conditioning ====
Stress conditioning consists of exposing organisms to sublethal stress, with the goal of inducing physiological changes that increase tolerance to future stress events. There has been documented evidence that some changes can be passed throughout generations in both plants and animals. Stress conditioning can be artificially induced in a laboratory environment to create desired responses based on their environments. Notable examples include a 1989 experiment which used stress conditioning via heat shock on rat kidneys to extend their safe cold storage time to 48 hours.<ref>{{cite news | last=Perdrizet | first=George | title=Stress conditioning: a novel approach to organ preservation | volume=46 | issue=1 | pages=23–6 | newspaper=”Europe PMC”| pmid=2656107 | year=1989 }}</ref> More recently, stress conditioning is being studied as a potential solution for the preservation of coral reefs as they are continually exposed to [[ocean warming]] and acidification.

==== Assisted gene flow  ====
Assisted gene flow (AGF) works to increase the presence of desired naturally-occurring genes in [[offspring]]. AGF relies on pre-existing genes within the species' [[genome]], rather than the artificial creation and insertion of genetic code within the genome of the species. Assisted gene flow can also introduce related species' genomes into the [[gene pool]] to allow for the introduction of previously impossible behaviors into the new species. AGF identifies genes that produce desired behaviors or tolerance to environmental conditions, and works to increase the chance that parental transmission of the gene in question occurs (also known as [[heritability]]). Determining which genes within the genome produce desired behaviors or environmental tolerance consist of experiments which measure the growth, survival, and behavior exhibition of offspring with varying genotypes. AGF is one possible strategy to preserve species that are threatened by climate change,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Aitken|first1=Sally N.|last2=Whitlock|first2=Michael C.|date=2013|title=Assisted Gene Flow to Facilitate Local Adaptation to Climate Change|journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics|volume=44|issue=1|pages=367–388|doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135747}}</ref> and can be applied to both plants (e.g. [[forest restoration]]) or animal populations. Currently, different coral colonies of the [[Great Barrier Reef]] are being interbred to test whether offspring display increased resistance to warmer living conditions. Increased resistance to warmer living conditions allow for the [[Historic preservation|preservation]] of the Great Barrier Reef even as water temperatures continue to rise.

==== Hybridization ====
Hybridization refers to the process where an egg and sperm from two different species can [[fertilize]] and produce young. Hybridization was studied in the 1800s by [[Johann Gregor Mendel]], who posthumously has been credited with the discovery of genes and alleles and their impact on an offspring's genotype. Benefits of hybridization include the increase in genetic diversity and the potential for genetic combinations which are able to adapt to, and reproduce in, increasingly difficult environments. Hybridization of coral reefs during the annual coral spawning is being experimented with to create hybrid offspring that will hopefully have higher survival and growth rates in a variety of climate change related conditions.

In contrast, for [[Neoendemism|neoendemic species]], hybridization could result in a loss of biodiversity because closely related species that are offered a chance to interbreed could result in a single species rather than the original two or more. ''[[Cupressus abramsiana]]'' is such an example. The 2016 federal update of the recovery plan for this threatened cypress tree, endemic to a small geographic region along the California coast, warned of the dangers of hybridization. A section of the plan titled ""Genetic introgression"" (also known as [[Introgression|introgressive hybridization]]) explains how the integrity of this species is threatened by nearby horticultural plantings of a sister species, [[Monterey cypress]], whose historically native range is nearby: on the opposite side of Monterey Bay. Hybridization is known to occur between the two endemics — as well as with a widely planted sister species native to Arizona: [[Arizona cypress]].<ref name="":recls"">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Reclassifying ''Hesperocyparis abramsiana'' (=''Cupressus abramsiana'') as Threatened. Federal Register Vol. 81. No. 33. https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/81/8408?link-type=pdf</ref> Other consequences of hybridization include the accumulation of deleterious genes, outbreeding depression, and genetic swamping. In the case of outbreeding depression which reduces the fitness of the hybrid species, there is a risk of extinction. This occurs when the population growth rate is below the replacement rate, wasting the reproductive potential of two populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adavoudi |first1=Roya |last2=Pilot |first2=Małgorzata |title=Consequences of Hybridization in Mammals: A Systematic Review |journal=Genes |pages=50 |language=en |doi=10.3390/genes13010050 |date=January 2022 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pmid=35052393 |pmc=8774782 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Controversy==
While assisted migration has the potential to allow species that have poor natural dispersal abilities to avoid [[extinction]], it has also sparked debate over the possibility that the migrated species might spread diseases or even become too successful (that is, [[Invasive species|invasive]]) in the recipient ecosystems. Even so, several assisted migration projects or experiments have begun for several [[critically endangered species]].<ref name=""dalrymple"">{{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=Sarah |title=Why climate change is forcing conservationists to be more ambitious: by moving threatened species to pastures new |journal=The Conversation |date=16 July 2021 |url=https://theconversation.com/why-climate-change-is-forcing-conservationists-to-be-more-ambitious-by-moving-threatened-species-to-pastures-new-163749 |access-date=26 July 2022}}</ref>

Beginning around 2007,<ref name=McLachlanH/> opposing pro and con positions became apparent in the field of conservation biology, while still relatively unknown to public promoters of conservation and managers of conservation lands. Supporters generally believe that the expected benefits of assisted migration, including saving and strengthening species, outweigh the potential harm of any project. Detractors generally believe that other conservation techniques which do not include the high risk of [[invasive species]] are not only better suited but are also more likely to succeed. This debate continued throughout the literature, generally due to a lack of real-world applications and follow-ups. Though these conservation efforts are becoming increasingly common, few long term looks at their success have been conducted.<ref name=Heller/>

In 2022 a review paper by seven researchers in the United States assessed shifts in what they called ""conservation strategies for the climate crisis.""<ref name=""McLaughlin-2022"">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal|last1=McLaughlin |first1=B C |title=Conservation strategies for the climate crisis: An update on three decades of biodiversity management recommendations from science |journal=Biological Conservation |date=2022 |volume=268 |issue=109497 |page=109497 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109497 |s2cid=247417657 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320722000507}}</ref> Among the ""novel strategies"" surveyed was ""climate-adaptive assisted migration."" The team found that academic publications became less focused on the pros and cons of the concept through the years. Instead, more attention was given to modeling or mapping where particular species could be moved. While plants had been the focus of most of the early publications, animals took the lead in recent years. Corals, invertebrates, mammals, and birds were the leading types of animals assessed for assisted migration needs and prospects. Even so, ""most authors presented assisted species migration as appropriate only for species under exceptionally high threat from climate change.""<ref name=""McLaughlin-2022"" /> By 2023, a news article in the journal ''Nature'' reported, ""attitudes towards assisted migration are slowly shifting as conservationists realise just how fast the climate is changing.""<ref name=""nature-2023"">{{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=Clare |title=These animals are racing towards extinction. A new home might be their last chance |journal=Nature |date=5 September 2023 |volume=621 |pages=22–25 |doi=10.1038/d41586-023-02732-0 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02732-0|doi-access= }}</ref>

===Invasive species risk===
Perhaps the principal concern scientists have expressed over assisted migration is the potential for relocated species to be invasive in their new habitats, driving out native species.<ref name=Simberloff>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ricciardi | first1 = A. | last2 = Simberloff | first2 = D. | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2008.12.006 | title = Assisted colonization is not a viable conservation strategy | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 5 | pages = 248–53 | year = 2009 | pmid =  19324453}}</ref> The fear that assisted migration will facilitate invasions stems mostly from observations of the vast numbers of species that have become invasive outside their native ranges by (often inadvertent) introduction by humans. Although most agree that assisted migration efforts, unlike accidental introductions, should involve detailed planning and risk assessment, for some, any threat of introducing invasive species, no matter how small, disqualifies assisted migration as a viable management response to climate change.<ref name=Simberloff/>

Those who wish to keep assisted migration on the table often note that the vast majority of historical species invasions have resulted from continent-to-continent or continent-to-island transportation of species and that very few invasions have resulted from the comparatively short-distance, within-continent movement of species proposed for assisted migration.<ref name=Mueller/><ref name=Sax>{{Cite journal | last1 = Sax | first1 = D. F. | last2 = Smith | first2 = K. F. | last3 = Thompson | first3 = A. R. | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.004 | title = Managed relocation: A nuanced evaluation is needed | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 9 | pages = 472–3; author reply 476–7 | year = 2009 | pmid =  19577321}}</ref><ref name=Hoegh>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hoegh-Guldberg | first1 = O. | last2 = Hughes | first2 = L. | last3 = McIntyre | first3 = S. | last4 = Lindenmayer | first4 = D. B. | last5 = Parmesan | first5 = C. | last6 = Possingham | first6 = H. P. | last7 = Thomas | first7 = C. D. | doi = 10.1126/science.1157897 | title = ECOLOGY: Assisted Colonization and Rapid Climate Change | journal = Science | volume = 321 | issue = 5887 | pages = 345–346 | year = 2008 | pmid =  18635780| s2cid = 206512777 }}</ref> For example, Mueller and Hellman reviewed 468 documented species invasions and found that only 14.7% occurred on the same continent where the species originated.<ref name=Mueller/> Of the 14.7%, the vast majority were fish and crustaceans. Terrestrial species that became invasive on the same continent where they originated were often transported across large biogeographic barriers, such as mountain ranges. These long-distance, within-continent translocations are unlike expected uses of assisted migration, which generally involve helping species colonize habitats immediately adjacent to their current ranges.<ref name=""Hunter""/>

===Uncertainty in the planning process===
To identify populations at risk and locate new potential habitats, conservationists often use [[Environmental niche modelling|niche models]]. These models predict the suitability of habitats in the future based on how closely their climates resemble the climate currently inhabited by the species. Though useful for describing broad trends, these models make a number of unrealistic assumptions that restrict the usefulness of their predictions.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Dawson | first1 = T. P. | last2 = Jackson | first2 = S. T. | last3 = House | first3 = J. I. | last4 = Prentice | first4 = I. C. | last5 = Mace | first5 = G. M. | s2cid = 40618973 | title = Beyond Predictions: Biodiversity Conservation in a Changing Climate | doi = 10.1126/science.1200303 | journal = Science | volume = 332 | issue = 6025 | pages = 53–58 | year = 2011 | pmid =  21454781| bibcode = 2011Sci...332...53D }}</ref> For instance, they do not consider the possibility that species may be able to develop tolerance of new climates through acclimatization or adaptation.<ref name=""doi10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00792.x"">{{Cite journal | last1 = Guisan | first1 = A. | last2 = Thuiller | first2 = W. | doi = 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00792.x | title = Predicting species distribution: Offering more than simple habitat models | journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | pages = 993–1009 | year = 2005 | pmid = 34517687 | doi-access =  }}</ref> Further, they do not account for the fact that a given species may perform better (e.g., become invasive) or worse (e.g., fail to establish) in a new habitat than in its current range if the community of [[competition (biology)|competitor]], predator, and [[mutualism (biology)|mutualist]] species is different there.<ref name=""doi10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00792.x""/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leathwick|first1=J.R.|last2=Austin|first2=M.P.|year=2001|title=Competitive interactions between tree species in New Zealand's old-growth indigenous forests|journal=Ecology|volume=82|issue=9|pages=2560–2573|doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[2560:cibtsi]2.0.co;2}}</ref> Additionally, because different climate variables (e.g., minimum January temperature, average annual precipitation) rarely shift in unison, it is possible that few areas will exactly match the historical climates of species threatened by climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Williams | first1 = J. W. | last2 = Jackson | first2 = S. T. | last3 = Kutzbach | first3 = J. E. | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0606292104 | title = Projected distributions of novel and disappearing climates by 2100 AD | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 104 | issue = 14 | pages = 5738–42 | year = 2007 | pmid =  17389402| pmc = 1851561| bibcode = 2007PNAS..104.5738W | doi-access = free }}</ref> Such multi-directional climate shifts will make it especially difficult to determine the species that are at greatest risk of habitat loss due to climate change and to predict future suitable habitat. The uncertainties in predictions of future suitable habitat limits confidence in assisted migration decisions and has led some to reject assisted migration entirely.<ref name=Simberloff/>

Despite the uncertainty inherent in predictions of future suitable habitat, some studies have demonstrated that predictions can be quite accurate. A study of ''Hesperia comma'' butterflies in Britain identified unoccupied habitat sites that were likely to support the species under a warmer climate based on their similarity to occupied sites.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Lawson | first1 = C. R. | last2 = Bennie | first2 = J. J. | last3 = Thomas | first3 = C. D. | last4 = Hodgson | first4 = J. A. | last5 = Wilson | first5 = R. J. | title = Local and landscape management of an expanding range margin under climate change | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02098.x | journal = Journal of Applied Ecology | pages = no | year = 2012 | doi-access = free }}</ref> As the climate warmed, the butterfly colonized many of the sites; most of the sites it did not colonize were located far from existing populations, suggesting they were uncolonized because the butterfly could not reach them on its own. The data suggested that the suitable, uncolonized sites could be good targets for assisted migration. The results suggested that if investigators can demonstrate their model makes reliable predictions with real-world data, models might be trusted for informing assisted migration decisions.

===Risks and benefits===

The science is clear that climate change will drive many species extinct, and a traditional, land-preservation ethic will not prevent extinctions.<ref name=McLachlanH/> Those wary of moving species instead suggest expanding networks of [[habitat corridor]]s, allowing species to naturally migrate into newly suitable areas.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Krosby | first1 = M. | last2 = Tewksbury | first2 = J. | last3 = Haddad | first3 = N. M. | last4 = Hoekstra | first4 = J. | title = Ecological Connectivity for a Changing Climate | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01585.x | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 24 | issue = 6 | pages = 1686–1689 | year = 2010 | pmid =  20961330| s2cid = 5095281 }}</ref> Under the rates of climate change projected for the coming decades, however, even perfectly connected habitats will probably be insufficient.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Galatowitsch | first1 = S. | last2 = Frelich | first2 = L. | last3 = Phillips-Mao | first3 = L. | doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2009.03.030 | title = Regional climate change adaptation strategies for biodiversity conservation in a midcontinental region of North America | journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 142 | issue = 10 | pages = 2012 | year = 2009 }}</ref> Species that cannot naturally keep pace with shifting climates will be at risk regardless of habitat connectivity. Evidence suggests that slowly evolving and slowly dispersing species (including species that are dispersal-limited due to [[habitat fragmentation]]) will decline or go extinct in the absence of assisted migration programs.<ref name=Hoegh/>

In their rejection of assisted migration, Ricciardi and Simberloff cite the precautionary principle, stating that any unknown risk, no matter how small, of assisted migration resulting in the creation of new invasive species is enough to require that it not be undertaken.<ref name=Simberloff/> Many scientists reject this position, however, noting that in many cases where extinctions due to climate change are likely, the risks of extinction from not facilitating migration are probably far worse than the risks of facilitating migration.<ref name=Sax/><ref name=Schwartz>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schwartz | first1 = M. W. | last2 = Hellmann | first2 = J. J. | last3 = McLachlan | first3 = J. S. | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.006 | title = The precautionary principle in managed relocation is misguided advice | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 9 | pages = 474; author reply 476–7 | year = 2009 | pmid =  19595477}}</ref> They argue that the precautionary principle cuts both ways, and the risks of inaction must be compared against the risks of action. Others note that the ethics of assisting migration will depend on the values of the stakeholders involved in a specific decision rather than the position of scientists on assisted migration in general.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schlaepfer | first1 = M. A. | last2 = Helenbrook | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Searing | first3 = K. B. | last4 = Shoemaker | first4 = K. T. | title = Assisted colonization: Evaluating contrasting management actions (and values) in the face of uncertainty | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.008 | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 9 | pages = 471–2; author reply 476–7 | year = 2009 | pmid =  19595475}}</ref> At the very least, some note, scientists should conduct further research into assisted migration and improve our capacity to predict specific outcomes instead of outright rejecting it.<ref name=Schwartz/>

Because confidence in expected outcomes is often greater in the short-term (e.g., 20 years) than the long-term future, it may be more reasonable to use short-term projections to guide actions.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Gray | first1 = L. K. | last2 = Gylander | first2 = T. | last3 = Mbogga | first3 = M. S. | last4 = Chen | first4 = P. Y. | last5 = Hamann | first5 = A. | title = Assisted migration to address climate change: Recommendations for aspen reforestation in western Canada | doi = 10.1890/10-1054.1 | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 1591–1603 | year = 2011 | pmid =  21830704}}</ref> However, it is also important to consider whether the climate will remain suitable long enough for colonizing species to mature and reproduce, if that is the management goal.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = McDonald-Madden | first1 = E. | last2 = Runge | first2 = M. C. | last3 = Possingham | first3 = H. P. | last4 = Martin | first4 = T. G. | title = Optimal timing for managed relocation of species faced with climate change | doi = 10.1038/nclimate1170 | journal = Nature Climate Change | volume = 1 | issue = 5 | pages = 261 | year = 2011 | url = http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:246908/UQ246908_OA.pdf | bibcode = 2011NatCC...1..261M }}</ref>

Due to climate change, accidental species introductions, and other global changes, there is nowhere on the planet free of human disturbance.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Vitousek | first1 = P. M. | title = Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems | doi = 10.1126/science.277.5325.494 | journal = Science | volume = 277 | issue = 5325 | pages = 494–499 | year = 1997 | url = https://izvestia.igras.ru/jour/article/view/743 }}</ref> Thus, the idea that land managers should refrain from creating human-altered communities through assisted migration may be moot given that all communities have been altered by humans to some degree whether managers undertake assisted migration or not.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Seddon | first1 = P. J. | title = From Reintroduction to Assisted Colonization: Moving along the Conservation Translocation Spectrum | doi = 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00724.x | journal = Restoration Ecology | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pages = 796–802 | year = 2010 | s2cid = 84866686 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/998241 }}</ref><ref name=Thomas2>{{Cite journal | last1 = Thomas | first1 = C. D. | title = Translocation of species, climate change, and the end of trying to recreate past ecological communities | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2011.02.006 | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 216–221 | year = 2011 | pmid =  21411178}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hobbs | first1 = R. J. | last2 = Hallett | first2 = L. M. | last3 = Ehrlich | first3 = P. R. | last4 = Mooney | first4 = H. A. | title = Intervention Ecology: Applying Ecological Science in the Twenty-first Century | doi = 10.1525/bio.2011.61.6.6 | journal = BioScience | volume = 61 | issue = 6 | pages = 442 | year = 2011 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Given the reality of global change, it will be impossible to maintain past ecological communities indefinitely. Many therefore believe we should strive to maintain biodiversity and functioning ecosystems in the face of climate change, even if it means actively moving species beyond their native ranges.<ref name=Thomas2/> In the absence of assisted migration, climate change is already causing many highly mobile species, such as butterflies, to colonize areas they have not previously inhabited.<ref name=Thomas2/> Through assisted migration, managers could help rare or less-mobile species keep pace, possibly preventing future extinctions due to a their inability to colonize new areas fast enough. Though some argue that nature often responds to challenges more effectively in the absence of human intervention, others note that current climate change, itself, is a human intervention.<ref name=Thomas2/> Many species that would have been effective dispersers under slower, natural climate change may be left behind by more mobile species under current rates of human-caused climate change. Thus, through changing the climate, humans may already be artificially segregating species even without actively relocating them.<ref name=Thomas2/>

Critics may also have major concerns about different genetic issues when considering assisted migration such as maladaptation to novel environmental conditions and hybridization with similar species. These often depend on the genetic structure and level of genetic variation in the source populations. The environmental conditions in which these populations are being introduced must also be taken into account. In order to enhance genetic variation, and thus adaptive potential, material could be sourced from multiple populations. This is known as composite provenancing.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Broadhurst|first1=Linda|title=Seed supply for broadscale restoration: maximizing evolutionary potential|journal=Evolutionary Applications|date=4 September 2008|volume=1|issue=4|pages=587–597|doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2008.00045.x|pmid=25567799|pmc=3352390}}</ref> However, if the environmental gradient is well known, such as predictable changes in elevation or aridity, source populations should be ‘genetically matched’ to recipient sites as best as possible to ensure that the translocated individuals ae not maladapted. This strategy of moving species beyond their current range has been suggested for those that are severely threatened or endangered. By moving them outside their native range, hopefully the immediate threats of predation, disease, and habitat loss can be avoided. However, these species are usually already suffering from some sort of genetic issue resulting from low effective population size such as inbreeding depression, loss in genetic diversity, or maladaptation. Therefore, caution must be taken with what few individuals remain and rapid population growth must be the primary goal. In the case of some species, this can be accomplished with a captive breeding program <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weeks|first1=Andrew|last2=Sgro|first2=Carla|last3=Young|first3=Andrew|last4=Frankham|first4=Richard|last5=Mitchell|first5=Nicki|last6=Byrne|first6=Margaret|last7=Coates|first7=David|last8=Eldridge|first8=Mark|last9=Sunnucks|first9=Paul|last10=Breed|first10=Martin|last11=James|first11=Elizabeth|last12=Hoffmann|first12=Ary|title=Assessing the benefits and risks of translocations in changing environments: a genetic perspective|journal=Evolutionary Applications|date=18 June 2011|volume=4|issue=6|pages=709–725|doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2011.00192.x|pmid=22287981|pmc=3265713}}</ref>

==Governmental policies ==
===Global conservation policy===
A review paper published in the journal ''Science'' in 1989, titled ""Translocation as a Species Conservation Tool: Status and Strategy,"" compiled the use of [[Species translocation|translocations for rare species]] (of birds and mammals) from 1973 to 1989 in the United States, Hawaii, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Griffith | first1 = B. | last2 = Scott | first2 = J.M. | last3 = Carpenter | first3 = J.W. | last4 = Reed | first4 = C. | year = 1989 | title = Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy | journal = Science | volume = 245 | issue = 4917| pages = 477–480 | doi=10.1126/science.245.4917.477| pmid = 17750257| bibcode = 1989Sci...245..477G | s2cid = 45514129 }}</ref> [[Habitat destruction]], [[habitat fragmentation]], and [[hunting]] were the primary causes of decline listed in that paper. [[Climate change]] was not mentioned as a cause for concern.

Three decades later, the [[International Union for the Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) published that ""climate change currently affects at least 10,967 species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.""<ref name=""iucn"">{{cite web |title=Issues brief: Species and climate change |url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/species-and-climate-change#:~:text=Species%20are%20already%20being%20impacted,the%20likelihood%20of%20their%20extinction. |publisher=IUCN |access-date=18 December 2022}}</ref> In another IUCN publication in 2021, climate change was mentioned 20 times in a 355-page report by the organization's Conservation Translocation Specialist Group; but ""assisted colonization"" as an adaptive response was mentioned just once.<ref>{{cite web |last1=IUCN SSC Conservation Translocation Specialist Group (CTSG) |title=Global conservation translocation perspectives (2021): Case studies from around the globe |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2021-007-En.pdf |publisher=IUCN |access-date=18 December 2022}}</ref>

In 2022, the update of the United Nations [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] agreement recognized ""climate change"" as the third most significant threat to global biodiversity. ""Changes in land and sea use"" along with ""direct exploitation of organisms"" were regarded as greater threats. Because the agreement was at the level of ""goals"" and ""targets,"" no mention was made of conservation tools, such as translocation, nor its climate-adaptive form (assisted migration).<ref>{{cite web |title=Convention on Biological Diversity (2022) |url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/e6d3/cd1d/daf663719a03902a9b116c34/cop-15-l-25-en.pdf |publisher=U.N. Environment Program |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref>

===USA Endangered Species Act===

June 2022, the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] published a proposed rule in the ''[[Federal Register]]'' that would ""revise section 10(j) regulations under the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973|Endangered Species Act]] to better facilitate recovery by allowing for the introduction of listed species to suitable habitats outside of their historical ranges. The proposed change will help improve the conservation and recovery of imperiled ESA-listed species in the coming decades, as growing impacts from [[climate change]] and [[invasive species]] cause habitats within their historical ranges to shift and become unsuitable.""<ref>{{cite web |last1=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |title=Press release (6 June 2022): Department of the Interior Proposes Expanding Conservation Technique as Climate Change Threatens Greater Species Extinction |url=https://fws.gov/press-release/2022-06/department-interior-proposes-proposes-expanding-conservation-technique |website=fws.gov |date=June 6, 2022 |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> The comment period ended August 2022, with more than 500 comments posted online by supporters and opponents.<ref>{{cite news |last1=St. George |first1=Zach |title=Last Resort: Moving Endangered Species in Order to Save Them |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/assisted-migration-endangered-species-climate-change-united-states |publisher=Yale Environment 360 |date=27 October 2022}}</ref> The final decision is scheduled for publication June 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rulemaking document: Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Experimental Populations |url=https://www.regulations.gov/docket/FWS-HQ-ES-2021-0033/unified-agenda |website=Regulations.gov |publisher=U.S. Government |access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> A 2010 paper in ''Conservation Letters'' had pointed out that, while no statutory changes appeared necessary to facilitate this newly proposed form of climate adaptation, ""current regulations are an impediment to assisted colonization for many endangered animal species, whereas regulations do not necessarily restrict assisted colonization of endangered plants.""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shirey |first1=Patrick D |last2=Lamberti |first2=Gary A |title=Assisted colonization under the U.S. Endangered Species Act |journal=Conservation Letters |date=2010 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=45–52 |doi=10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00083.x |s2cid=49565853 |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00083.x|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of Interior]] in June 2023 announced its decision to modify the section 10(j)  rule by deleting reference to ""historical range"" as a parameter for where ""experimental populations"" were authorized to be located. This effectively authorized assisted species migration for endangered or threatened plants and animals.<ref name=""sierra-2023"">{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Joanna |title=Assisted Migration Helps Animals Adapt to Climate Change |journal=Sierra Magazine |date=12 October 2023 |url=https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/assisted-migration-helps-animals-adapt-climate-change}}</ref> The press release summarized the reason for the change as, ""At the time the original 10(j) regulations were established, the potential impact of climate change on species and their habitats was not fully realized, yet in the decades since have become even more dramatic. These revisions will help prevent extinctions and support the recovery of imperiled species by allowing the Service and our partners to implement proactive, conservation-based species introductions to reduce the impacts of climate change and other threats such as invasive species.""<ref>{{cite web |last1=U.S. Department of Interior |title=Press release: Interior Department Takes Action to Strengthen Endangered Species Protections |url=https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/interior-department-takes-action-strengthen-endangered-species-protections |website=fws.gov |date=June 30, 2023}}</ref>

==Implementation ==

A number of scholarly reports have documented natural poleward range shifts of mobile species — notably, butterflies and birds, during the past several decades of [[climate change|global warming]]. This is especially the case in the [[United Kingdom]], where [[natural history]] observations are reputable and reach back several centuries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Chris D |title=REVIEW: Climate, Climate Change, and Range Boundaries |journal=Diversity and Distributions |date=2010 |volume=16 |pages=488–495 |doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00642.x |s2cid=82893033 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00642.x|doi-access=free }}</ref> It has also been documented that plants are being sold in nurseries in Europe far north of their historically native ranges, and with apparent success in the colder habitats.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van der Veken |first1=Sebastiaan |title=Garden plants get a head start on climate change |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=2008 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=212–216 |doi=10.1890/070063 |url=https://mvellend.recherche.usherbrooke.ca/Van_der_Veken_Frontiers2008.pdf}}</ref> Evidence of such ""inadvertent assisted migration"", owing to the horticultural trade, has also been documented for plants in the United States.<ref name=""bellemare"">{{cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Jesse |last2=Connolly |first2=Bryan|last3=Sax |first3=Dov|title=REVIEW: Climate Change, Managed Relocation, and the Risk of Intra-Continental Plant Invasions: A Theoretical and Empirical Exploration Relative to the Flora of New England |journal=Rhodora |date=2017 |volume=119 |issue=978 |pages=73–109 |doi=10.3119/16-10 |s2cid=52104073 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In the North American context, assisted migration is most often discussed in the context of the [[Assisted migration of forests in North America|relocalization of the continent's forests]]. In the late 2000s and early 2010s, the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian provinces]] of [[Alberta]] and [[British Columbia]] modified their tree reseeding guidelines to account for the northward movement of forest's optimal ranges.<ref name=""Williams"">{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Mary I. |last2=Dumroese |first2=R. Kasten |date=2014 |title=Assisted Migration: What It Means to Nursery Managers and Tree Planters |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2014_williams_m002.pdf |journal=Tree Planters' Notes |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=21–26}}</ref> British Columbia even gave the green light for the relocation of a single species, the [[Western larch|Western Larch]], 1000&nbsp;km northward.<ref name=""Klenk"">{{Cite journal |last=Klenk |first=Nicole L. |date=2015-03-01 |title=The development of assisted migration policy in Canada: An analysis of the politics of composing future forests |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837714002749 |journal=Land Use Policy |language=en |volume=44 |pages=101–109 |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.12.003 |issn=0264-8377}}</ref>

In the series below of actual and prospective assisted migration projects, all but one (Florida torreya tree) are being advocated and implemented by professional scientists, and usually with oversight by governmental [[endangered species]] programs. [[Taxonomic rank|Taxonomic significance]] in successfully translocating plant and animal species range from (a) maintaining the genetics of an isolated [[population genetics|'''population''']] (American pika), to (b) preventing extinction of a '''[[subspecies]]''' (Quino checkerspot butterfly), to (c) preventing the extinction of a '''[[species]]''' (Florida torreya tree), and to (d) preventing extinction of a '''[[genus]]''' (Western swamp tortoise).

===First projects ===

====• Florida torreya, US====

[[File:Torreya Guardians homepage image.jpg|thumb|Source: homepage of the [[Torreya Guardians]] website.<ref>{{cite web |title=Map of torreya seed distribution by Torreya Guardians |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/ |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=21 July 2022}}</ref>]]

The [[Florida Torreya|Florida torreya]] (''Torreya taxifolia)'' is a [[critically endangered]] tree of the yew [[Family (biology)|family]], [[Taxaceae]],<ref name=""Esser1993"">{{cite report|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tortax/all.html|title=''Torreya taxifolia''. In: Fire Effects Information System|author=Esser, Lora L.|date=1993|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory|access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref> found in the [[Southeastern United States]], at the state border region of northern [[Florida]] and southwestern [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. A self-organized group of conservationists called the [[Torreya Guardians]] was created in 2004 to undertake the assisted migration of this [[glacial relict]] tree by [[Rewilding (conservation biology)|rewilding]] it in more northern parts of the [[United States]].<ref name=""BostonGlobe"">{{Cite news|last=Berdik|first=Chris|date=12 October 2008|title=Driving Mr. Lynx|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|url=http://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2008/10/12/driving_mr_lynx/?page=1|access-date=2021-08-07}}</ref><ref name=""dalrymple"" /> The controversy that developed was that the citizens used an exception (just for plants) in the United States [[Endangered Species Act of 1973]] to begin their own assisted migration of a listed [[critically endangered species]] — even while the official recovery plan did not yet allow for it.

By 2018 the citizens had accomplished documentation of species thrival in a dozen legacy horticultural plantings — including seed production and next-generation saplings at several sites in North Carolina.<ref name=""groves"" /> In 2018 their own plantings in Cleveland, Ohio, began producing seeds<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bess |first1=Fred |title=''Torreya taxifolia'' in Cleveland, Ohio |url= http://www.torreyaguardians.org/ohio-cleveland.html |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref> (turquoise star in image at right).

Early scholarly debates on the pros and cons of assisted migration as a climate-adaptation tool for endangered species conservation often mentioned the Florida torreya project.,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Torreya Guardians |title=Torreya Guardians in the Media |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/guardians.html#media |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beardmore |first1=Tannis |last2=Winder |first2=Richard |title=Review of science-based assessments of species vulnerability: Contributions to decision-making for assisted migration |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=November 2011 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=745–754 |doi=10.5558/tfc2011-091 |url=https://pubs.cif-ifc.org/doi/pdf/10.5558/tfc2011-091?download=true&|doi-access=free }}</ref> as did international media<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Richard |title=Home, Home Outside the Range? |journal=Science |date=24 September 2010 |volume=329 |issue=5999 |pages=1592–1594 |doi=10.1126/science.329.5999.1592 |pmid=20929823 |bibcode=2010Sci...329.1592S |url=https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.329.5999.1592?sid=187de4cd-f4dc-418e-916b-81cbb0ae90ae}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=A modern ark: To save endangered species, move them to more congenial places |newspaper=The Economist |date=26 November 2016 |url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2015/11/26/a-modern-ark}}</ref>

====• Western Swamp Tortoise, Australia====
The [[western swamp tortoise]] (''Pseudemydura umbrina'') is a [[critically endangered]] reptile that is [[Endemism|endemic]] to a small portion of southwestern [[Australia]].<ref>King, J.M., G. Kuchling, & S.D. Bradshaw (1998). Thermal environment, behavior, and body condition of wild Pseudemydura umbrina (Testudines: Chelidae) during late winter and early spring. Herpetologica. 54 (1):103-112.</ref> It was deemed extinct until it was rediscovered in 1954 and reported in 1981 to be ""a relict species of a monotypic genus, of very restricted range and specialized habitat.""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Burbridge |first1=A A |title=The Ecology of the Western Swamp Tortoise, ''Pseudemydura umbrina'' (Testudines: Chelidae) |journal=Australian Wildlife Research |date=1981 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=203–223 |doi=10.1071/WR9810203 |url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/WR/WR9810203}}</ref>  This species is notable in conservation history for being the first example of an endangered [[vertebrate]] that was experimentally translocated to a distant location (300 kilometers poleward) expressly because of climate change.

By the time assisted migration trials began, the sole remaining original refuge for this species was inhabited only by captive-bred tortoises that had been reintroduced.<ref name=""bouma"">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Bouma |first1=Alexandra |title=Assisted colonisation trials for the western swamp turtle show that juveniles can grow in cooler and wetter climates |journal=Endangered Species Research |date=September 2020 |volume=43 |pages=75–88 |doi=10.3354/esr01053 |s2cid=222260601 |url=https://www.int-res.com/articles/esr2020/43/n043p075.pdf |access-date=2022-12-21 |archive-date=2020-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105205733/https://www.int-res.com/articles/esr2020/43/n043p075.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> The first trial began in 2016, with the release of 24 captive-raised juveniles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wahlquist |first1=Calla |title=Australia's rarest tortoises get new home to save them from climate change |journal=The Guardian |date=16 August 2016 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/aug/17/australias-rarest-tortoises-get-new-home-to-save-them-from-climate-change}}</ref> In contrast to the Florida torreya tree example, this first experiment in assisted migration of an endangered species in Australia was ""preceded by detailed planning and research."" A generally positive result, despite impediments to statistically significant data, was reported in a journal article four years later.<ref name=""bouma"" />

A second trial began in 2022 in the same region, this time in [[Scott National Park]]. Lead scientist is Nicola Mitchell, an associate professor of conservation physiology at the University of Western Australia. She openly spoke to the ''International New York Times'' about the ethical imperative: Should humans just let nature run its course, thereby dooming this species to extinction because of climate change? ""Or do we have an ethical responsibility"" to act in its behalf?<ref name = tortoise>{{cite news |last1=Zhuang |first1=Yan |title=Can Australia Save a Rare Reptile by Moving It to a Cooler Place? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/12/world/australia/assisted-colonization-tortoise.html |work=New York Times |date=12 December 2022}}</ref>

Mark Schwartz, a conservation scientist at the University of California, Davis, was quoted in the article. Speaking about the scale of biodiversity threats posed by climate change, versus using assisted migration as an adaptive strategy, Schwartz said: ""To move enough species to resolve this threat basically seems untenable."" Yet he also noted that climate-responsive translocations were more acceptable than another approach under consideration: initiating gene editing to make species more climate-proof. Lead scientist Mitchell acknowledged the risks, while offering ""we can potentially undo our mistakes by recapturing them.""<ref name = tortoise/> Additional translocations of baby turtles continued into 2023.<ref name=""nature-2023"" />

===Early advocacy without implementation===

====• Quino Checkerspot butterfly, US====

The [[Quino checkerspot butterfly|'''Quino checkerspot''']] (''Euphydryas editha quino'') is a [[butterfly]] native to southern [[California]] and northwestern [[Baja California]]. It is a [[subspecies]] of the common [[Edith's checkerspot]] (''Euphydryas editha''), which ranges as far north as southern [[British Columbia]] and [[Alberta]]. In 1997 it became the second subspecies of Edith's checkerspot to be listed under the federal [[Endangered Species Act]]. (The first was Bay checkerspot, which was listed as ""threatened"" in 1987.)<ref name=""ecos"">{{cite web |title=Quino checkerspot butterfly (''Euphydryas editha quino'') |url=https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp/species/5900 |website=ECOS Environmental Conservation Online System |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=21 December 2022}}</ref>

Notably, it became the first endangered species for which climate change was reported as a current threat and thus a factor to be considered in its recovery plan.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Toub |first1=Steve |title=Climate Change Will Leave Edith's Checkerspot Butterflies Out Of Sync (November 2009) |url=https://www.endangered.org/climate-change-will-leave-ediths-checkerspot-butterflies-out-of-sync/ |website=Endangered Species Coalition |date=20 November 2009 |access-date=21 December 2022}}</ref> However, as reported in ''The Guardian'' April 2014<blockquote>
[[File:Quino Checkerspot Butterfly on a wild hyacinth (31651366006) cropped.jpg|thumb|Quino Checkerspot Butterfly on a wild hyacinth]]

A butterfly species whose population collapsed because of climate change and habitat loss has defied predictions of extinction to rapidly move to cooler climes and change its food plant. The quino checkerspot (''Euphydryas editha quino''), found in Mexico and California, has shifted to higher altitudes and surprisingly chosen a completely different species of plant on which to lay its eggs, according to research presented at the Butterfly Conservation's seventh international symposium in Southampton.... ""Every butterfly biologist who knew anything about the quino in the mid-1990s thought it would be extinct by now, including me,"" said Prof Camille Parmesan of the Marine Sciences Institute at Plymouth University....""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barkham |first1=Patrick |title=Endangered butterfly species defies climate change |journal=The Guardian |date=7 April 2014 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/apr/07/endangered-butterfly-species-defies-climate-change-quino-checkerspot}}</ref></blockquote>

In a paper titled, ""Endangered Quino checkerspot butterfly and climate change: Short-term success but long-term vulnerability?"", the authors acknowledged the butterfly's surprising ability to utilize a new larval plant food in a cooler nearby habitat and concluded: ""Quino appears resilient to warming climate. However, projections indicate that most or all of Quino’s current range in the USA, including the new high elevation expansion, will become uninhabitable. Our most frequent projected future range (circa 2050) is c. 400 km northward from current populations, hence conservation of Quino may eventually require assisted colonization.""<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Parmesan |first1=Camille |title=Endangered Quino checkerspot butterfly and climate change: Short-term success but long-term vulnerability? |journal=Journal of Insect Conservation |date=2015 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=185–204 |doi=10.1007/s10841-014-9743-4|hdl=10026.1/10112 |s2cid=254600881 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272746958|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

====• American Pika (rodent) and Joshua Tree, US====
{{multiple image
 | total_width = 400
 | image1 = American Pika area.png
 | image2 = Joshua tree map cole 2011 climate future.jpg
 | footer = LEFT: Current native range of '''American pika'''. RIGHT: Modelled range contraction (red) and expansion (green) for '''Joshua Tree''' in future climate warming.<ref name=""cole-2011"">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Cole |first1=Kenneth L |title=Past and ongoing shifts in Joshua tree distribution support future modeled range contraction |journal=Ecological Applications |date=January 2011 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=137–149 |doi=10.1890/09-1800.1 |pmid=21516893 |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2011_cole_k001.pdf}}</ref>}}

Within the first decade of the terms '''assisted migration''' and '''assisted colonization''' appearing in the journals of [[conservation biology]] science, two wide-ranging species in the western USA (image right) were scrutinized for possible application of the new climate adaptation tool. The [[American pika]], ''Ochotona princeps'', (a close relative of rabbits)<ref name=""pika-2015"">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Wilkening |first1=Jennifer L |title=Alpine biodiversity and assisted migration: the case of the American pika (''Ochotona princeps'') |journal=Biodiversity |date=December 2015 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=224–236 |doi=10.1080/14888386.2015.1112304|s2cid=131656767 }}</ref> and the [[Joshua tree]], ''Yucca brevifolia'', (the iconic tree of the [[Mojave Desert]])<ref name=""cole-2011"" /> were experiencing climate-driven range contractions in their southernmost populations.

At the time, when climate-adaptation tools were originally discussed, scientific applications to well-known species garnered media attention.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Thomas B |title=Op-Ed: 'Assisted migration' may save some species from climate change doom |journal=Los Angeles Times |date=21 September 2014 |url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-oe-smith-pika-evolution-climate-change-20140922-story.html}}</ref> Because successfully capturing, transporting, and releasing an alpine mammal would require planning and ""considerable financial resources,""<ref name=""pika-2015"" /> serious advocacy for launching such a project for the pika did not occur. As for Joshua tree, in 2019 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ruled against listing this desert plant as a ""threatened"" species,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Findings on Petitions To List Eight Species as Endangered or Threatened Species |journal=Federal Register |date=15 August 2019 |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2019/08/15/2019-17536/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-and-plants-12-month-findings-on-petitions-to-list-eight-species}}</ref> and California state government did the same in 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=California won't immediately list Joshua tree as threatened |url=https://spectrumnews1.com/ca/la-west/environment/2022/06/16/california-western-joshua-tree-threatened#:~:text=SACRAMENTO%2C%20Calif.,the%20plant%20from%20climate%20change. |access-date=21 December 2022 |agency=Associated Press |date=16 June 2022}}</ref> During this time, three U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service scientists aggregated existing research (including range shift climate modelling) into a report titled, ""Examining the Past, Present, and Future of an Iconic Mojave Desert Species, the Joshua Tree.""<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Wilkening |first1=Jennifer L |title=Examining the Past, Present, and Future of an Iconic Mojave Desert Species, the Joshua Tree |journal=The Southwestern Naturalist |date=September 2020 |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=216–229 |doi=10.1894/0038-4909-65.3-4.216 |s2cid=246340766 |url=https://bioone.org/journals/the-southwestern-naturalist/volume-65/issue-3-4/0038-4909-65.3-4.216/EXAMINING-THE-PAST-PRESENT-AND-FUTURE-OF-AN-ICONIC-MOJAVE/10.1894/0038-4909-65.3-4.216.short}}</ref> It was published in December 2020. No mention was made of any form of translocation, including assisted migration, for securing the species against future climate change.

====• Stitchbird (hihi), New Zealand====
The [[stitchbird]], also known as the Hihi, is a bird endemic to New Zealand. Changes in climate have shown to have a profound effect on the hihi's ability to thrive and reproduce. As a result, human caused climate change is an existential threat to the species. The hihi's current native habitat is becoming unstable due to rising temperatures, and suitable temperatures are shifting further south. Assisted migration is being considered as a means of ensuring the hihi can remain in its current natural habitat. Critics, however, argue the risks that are presented to the new host environments are not worth the potential benefits assisted migration may present.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chauvenet |first1=Alienor L M |title=Saving the hihi under climate change: a case for assisted colonization |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=5 September 2013 |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=1330–1340 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12150 |s2cid=86584128 |url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1365-2664.12150}}</ref>

==Inadvertent assisted migration==
[[File:Magnolia tripetala in flower in northeast Alabama.jpg|thumb|Umbrella magnolia, a subcanopy tree, in flower northeast Alabama|left]]

Mature [[horticultural]] plantings of trees northward of their native ranges are a form of assisted migration already underway.<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Van der Veken |first1=Sebastiaan |title=Garden plants get a head start on climate change |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=May 2008 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=212–216 |doi=10.1890/070063 |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/070063|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Because the original plantings likely did not include the goal of helping the trees migrate northward in a warming climate, this form of unintended climate adaptation enabled by humans can be called [[Assisted migration of forests in North America|inadvertent assisted migration]]. Jesse Bellemare and colleagues may have coined the term in a paper published in 2017: ""It appears that a subset of native plants, particularly those with ornamental value, might already have had opportunities to shift their ranges northward via inadvertent human assistance.""<ref name=""bellemare"" /> A subcanopy tree native to the southeastern United States, [[Magnolia tripetala|umbrella magnolia]], that had fully [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]] into a forest adjacent to its original horticultural planting in Massachusetts was the subject of an earlier paper by Bellemare.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Jesse|last2=Deeg|first2=Claudia |title=Horticultural Escape and Naturalization of Magnolia tripetala in Western Massachusetts: Biogeographic Context and Possible Relationship to Recent Climate Change |journal=Rhodora |date=2015 |volume=117 |issue=971 |pages=371–383 |doi=10.3119/15-04 |s2cid=86153619|url=https://bioone.org/journals/rhodora/volume-117/issue-971/15-04/Horticultural-Escape-and-Naturalization-of-Magnolia-tripetala-in-Western-Massachusetts/10.3119/15-04.short}}</ref> This and other examples suggest not only that poleward assisted migration of plants can be successful, but that distinguishing [[native species|native from non-native species]] in this time of rapid climate change will require novel standards.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marinelli |first1=Janet |title=As World Warms, How Do We Decide When a Plant is Native? |journal=Yale Environment 360 |date=19 April 2016 |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/how_do_we_decide_when_a_plant_is_native_climate_change}}</ref>

[[File:Torreya taxifolia historic groves videos by Torreya Guardians.jpg|thumb|Historic groves of ''Torreya taxifolia'' planted outside of native range have been documented by [[Torreya Guardians]] and posted as photo-essays on the group's website<ref>{{cite web |title=Assisted Migration, Torreya Guardians |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/ |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=19 July 2022}}</ref> and also as videos.<ref name=""videos"">{{cite web |title=Videos on the Torreya Guardians Website |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/video.html |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=19 July 2022}}</ref>|right|upright=1.75]]

Reports of full naturalization of poleward horticultural plantings of other native trees have been used as support for intentional deployment of assisted migration at larger scales as a tool for climate adaptation. [[Sequoia sempervirens|Coast redwood]] (native to California) and [[Torreya taxifolia]] (native to Florida) are two examples. In 2022 a Canadian Forestry Service publication pointed to the success of horticultural plantings in [[British Columbia]] and [[Washington state]], along with a review of research detailing redwood's [[paleobiogeography]] and current range conditions, as grounds for proposing that Canada's [[Vancouver Island]] already offered ""narrow strips of optimal habitat"" for extending the range of coast redwood.<ref name=""winder2022"">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal| last1=Winder |first1=Richard S |title=Potential for Assisted Migration of Coast Redwood (''Sequoia sempervirens'') to Vancouver Island |journal=Canadian Forest Service Publications |date=October 2022 |issue=BC-X-459 | isbn=9780660458618 |url=https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications?id=40819 |access-date=30 October 2022}}</ref> As to Florida torreya, documentation of ""historic groves in northward states""<ref name=""groves"">{{cite web |last1=Barlow |first1=Connie |title=Historic Groves of Torreya Trees: Long-term Experiments in Assisted Migration |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/historic-groves.html |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=19 July 2022}}</ref> was presented by the group [[Torreya Guardians]] as a supportive factor in their 2019 ""Petition to Downlist from endangered to threatened ''Torreya taxifolia''"".<ref name=""Barlow petition"">{{cite web |last1=Barlow |first1=Connie |title=Petition to DOWNLIST from endangered to threatened ''Torreya taxifolia'', Florida Torreya (2019) |url=https://ecos.fws.gov/docs/tess/petition/864.pdf |website=ECOS Environmental Conservation Online System |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=18 July 2022}}</ref> Two years later, a decision was issued and published,<ref name=""petition-decision-FR"">{{cite journal |title=Evaluation of a Petition To Downlist Florida Torreya |journal=Federal Register |date=29 September 2021 |volume=86 |issue=186 |pages=53939 |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2021-09-29/pdf/2021-20963.pdf}}</ref> with no change in species status of imperilment. But Factor E of the decision, ""Documentation of Historical Groves,"" did acknowledge the citizen accomplishments in this regard.

==See also==
*[[Climate change adaptation]]
*[[Forest management]]
*[[Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity]]
*[[Hemerochory]]
*[[Escaped plant]]

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Climate change]]"
Sentinel species,"{{Short description|Organisms used to detect risks to humans}}
{{Redirect|Canary in a coal mine|the song by the Police|Canary in a Coalmine}}

[[File:Canario amarillo.png|thumb|upright|[[Domestic canary]], historically used to detect gas in [[coal mines]]]]

'''Sentinel species''' are [[organism]]s, often animals, used to detect risks to humans by providing advance warning of a danger. The terms primarily apply in the context of environmental hazards rather than those from other sources. Some animals can act as sentinels because they may be more susceptible or have greater exposure to a particular hazard than humans in the same environment.<ref name=""national research council"">National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Animals as Monitors of Environmental Hazards, ""Animals as Sentinels of Environmental Health Hazards: Committee on Animals as Monitors of Environmental Hazards,"" National Academy Press: 1991, {{ISBN|0309040469}}.</ref> People have long observed animals for signs of impending hazards or evidence of environmental threats. Plants and other living organisms have also been used for these purposes.

== Historical examples ==
[[File:Strasbourg-16 rue du 22 Novembre (4).jpg|thumb|Miner with a canary in a cage|alt=Depiction of a miner with a canary in a cage]]

Many observations of animals point to toxicity in food, water or air that would or could harm humans.
=== Canaries ===
The classic example is the ""[[domestic canary|canary]] in the [[Coal mining|coal mine]]"". The idea of placing a warm-blooded animal in a mine to detect [[carbon monoxide]] was first proposed by [[John Scott Haldane]] in 1895,<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Haldane, John Scott |date=1895 |title=The Action of Carbonic Oxide on Man |journal=[[The Journal of Physiology]] |volume=XVIII |issue= 5–6|pages=448 |doi= 10.1113/jphysiol.1895.sp000578|pmid= 16992272|pmc= 1514663}}</ref> and canaries were used as early as 1896.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Haldane, John Scott |date=1896 |title=The Detection and Estimation of Carbonic Oxide in Air |journal=[[The Journal of Physiology]] |volume=XX |issue= 6|pages=521–522 |doi= 10.1113/jphysiol.1896.sp000635|pmid= 16992351|pmc= 1512612}}</ref><ref name=""acott"">{{cite journal |last=Acott |first=C. |title=JS Haldane, JBS Haldane, L Hill, and A Siebe: A brief resume of their lives. |journal=South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal |volume=29 |issue=3 |year=1999 |issn=0813-1988 |oclc=16986801 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727224432/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6016 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=July 27, 2011 |access-date=2008-07-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boycott |first1=A. E. |first2=G. C. C. |last2=Damant |first3=J. S. |last3=Haldane |title=Prevention of compressed air illness |journal=J. Hygiene |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=342–443 |year=1908 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7489 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917041924/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7489 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=September 17, 2008 |access-date=2013-09-05 |doi=10.1017/S0022172400003399 |pmc=2167126 |pmid=20474365}}</ref><ref>{{The Timetables of Science|pages=411}}</ref> Countries such as Britain, the United States, and Canada used canaries as a sentinel species.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Eschner |first2=Kat |title=The Story of the Real Canary in the Coal Mine |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/story-real-canary-coal-mine-180961570/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Well into the 20th century, coal miners brought canaries into coal mines as an early-warning signal for toxic gases, primarily carbon monoxide.<ref>David A. Bengston, Diane S. Henshel, ""Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment: Biomarkers and Risk Assessment"", ASTM International, 1996, {{ISBN|0803120311}}, p 220.</ref> The birds, being more sensitive, would become sick before the miners, who would then have a chance to escape or put on protective [[respirators]]. In some cases, the canaries were kept in cages with dedicated oxygen tanks so the birds could survive after their illness provided a warning.<ref name=""pollard"">{{Cite web |last=Pollard |first=Lewis |date=2018-03-27 |title=The canary resuscitator |url=https://blog.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/canary-resuscitator/ |access-date=2021-10-13 |website=Science and Industry Museum blog |language=en-GB}}</ref> ""Canary in the coal mine"" is now used as an idiom for a person or thing that warns people of danger.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ShareAmerica |date=2014-11-12 |title=Idiom in the news: Canary in the coal mine |url=https://share.america.gov/english-idiom-canary-coal-mine/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=ShareAmerica |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Forsaith |first=Carly |date=2022-09-22 |title='Canary in a Coal Mine': Definition, Meaning, and Examples |url=https://writingtips.org/canary-in-a-coal-mine/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Writing Tips |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Cats ===
In [[Minamata Bay]], Japan, [[Domestic cat|cats]] developed ""[[Minamata disease|dancing cat fever]]"" before humans were affected due to eating mercury-contaminated fish.<ref name=""withrow"">Stephen J. Withrow, David M. Vail, ''Withrow and MacEwen's Small Animal Clinical Oncology'', Elsevier: 2007, {{ISBN|0721605583}}, p. 73-4.</ref> 

=== Dogs ===
Dogs were recognized as early as 1939 to be more susceptible to tonsil cancer if they were kept in crowded urban environments.<ref name=""withrow"" /> Studies similarly found higher disease rates in animals exposed to [[tobacco smoke]].<ref name=""withrow"" /> 
===Poultry===
[[Yushō disease]] was discovered when poultry began dying at alarming rates due to [[polychlorinated biphenyl]] (PCB) poisoning, although not before approximately 14,000 people were affected.

== Characteristics ==
Animal sentinels must have measurable responses to the hazard in question, whether that is due to the animal's death, disappearance, or some other determinable aspect.<ref name=""national research council"" />{{rp|34}} Many of these species are ideally [[Endangered species|unendangered]] and easy to handle. It is important that the species' range overlap with the range being studied.<ref name=""bds"" /> Often the ideal species is determined by the characteristics of the hazard.

For example, [[honey bee]]s are susceptible to [[air pollution]].<ref name=""national research council"" />{{rp|35}} Similarly both [[bats]] and [[swallows]] have been used to monitor pesticide contamination due to their diet of insects that may have been affected by the chemicals.<ref name=""national research council"" />{{rp|35}} By the same token, aquatic animals, or their direct predators, are used as sentinel species to monitor [[water pollution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sentinel Species - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/sentinel-species |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>

Some species may show effects of a contaminant before humans due to their size, their reproductive rate, or their increased exposure to the contaminant.<ref name=""bds"">Arthur D. Bloom, Frederick de Serres, ''Ecotoxicity and Human Health: A Biological Approach to Environmental Remediation'', CRC Press: 1995, {{ISBN|1566701414}}, page 76.</ref>

== Specific applications ==

=== Toxic gases ===
[[File:Canary coal mine.jpg|thumb| Mining foreman R. Thornburg shows a small cage with a canary used for testing carbon monoxide gas in 1928.]]
Canaries were iconically used in [[coal mines]] to detect the presence of [[carbon monoxide]]. The bird's rapid breathing rate, small size, and high metabolism, compared to the miners, led birds in dangerous mines to succumb before the miners, thereby giving the miners time to take action.

=== Air and water pollution ===
A number of animals have been used to measure varying kinds of air pollution. These include [[honey bee]]s for air pollution, [[bivalve molluscs]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en |title=Molluscan eye |access-date=2014-01-25 |archive-date=2016-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113173444/http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en |url-status=dead }}</ref> for online water-quality survey and [[pigeon]]s for atmospheric lead.<ref name=""national research council"" />{{rp|35}} Bats and swallows have been used to monitor pesticide contamination due to their diet of insects that may have been affected by the chemicals.<ref name=""national research council"" />{{rp|35}}

Aquatic [[DDT]] pollution has been quantitatively measured in [[California]] fish. [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]] has been measured through the analysis of fish livers.<ref name=""national research council"" />{{rp|82}} [[Toxaphene]] concentrations were discovered far from the area of its use through analysis of [[trout]] in the [[Great Lakes]].<ref name=""national research council"" />{{rp|85}} The evidence of atmospheric transport of the substance influenced the subsequent prohibition of its widespread use. [[Alligators]] may have been used to warn of hazardous contamination in [[Centreville, Mississippi]] retention ponds.<ref>{{Citation |author=Eugene Love Fair Jr. |date=May 28, 2013 |title=Christmas v. Exxon Mobil |work= [[Mississippi Court of Appeals]] |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/ms-court-of-appeals/1632483.html |access-date=January 3, 2014}}</ref>

Scientists also monitor [[crayfish]] in the wild in natural bodies of water to study the levels of pollutants there.<ref name=""Brewery"" /><ref name=""Missouri"">{{cite magazine|url=https://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/2008/11/clean-water|title=Clean Water|magazine=Missouri Conservationist Magazine|publisher=Missouri Department of Conservation|date=November 2008|volume=69|issue=11|access-date=1 November 2019}}</ref><ref name=""Meuse"">{{Cite journal | first1 = P. A. E. L. | last1 = Schilderman | first2= E. J. C. |last2=Moonen|first3=L. M.|last3=Maas|first4=I.|last4=Welle|first5=J. C. S.|last5=Kleinjans | year=1999 | title = Use of Crayfish in Biomonitoring Studies of Environmental Pollution of the River Meuse | journal = Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety | volume = 44 | issue = 3 | pages = 241–252 | doi =10.1006/eesa.1999.1827 | pmid = 10581118 | issn = 0147-6513}}</ref>

The Protivin brewery in the [[Czech Republic]] uses crayfish outfitted with sensors to detect any changes in their bodies or pulse activity in order to monitor the purity of the water used in their product. The creatures are kept in a fish tank that is fed with the same local natural source water used in their brewing. If three or more of the crayfish have changes to their pulses, employees know there is a change in the water and examine the parameters.<ref name=""Brewery"">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-czech-crayfish-water-purity/crayfish-staff-help-czech-brewery-keep-its-water-as-pure-as-can-be-idUSKCN1C22GP|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025221438/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-czech-crayfish-water-purity/crayfish-staff-help-czech-brewery-keep-its-water-as-pure-as-can-be-idUSKCN1C22GP|title=Crayfish staff help Czech brewery keep its water as pure as can be|work=[[Reuters TV]]|last=Hanrahan|first=Mark|date=27 September 2017|archive-date=25 October 2019|access-date=1 November 2019}}</ref>

=== Infectious diseases ===
The discovery of [[West Nile virus]] in the Western Hemisphere was heralded by an outbreak of disease in crows and other wild birds. Other emerging diseases have demonstrated linkages between animal health events and human risk, including [[monkeypox]], [[SARS]], and [[avian influenza]]. In outbreaks of bubonic plague, rats begin dying out before humans. {{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

=== Household toxins ===
[[Dog]]s may provide early warning of [[lead poisoning]] hazards in a [[home]], and certain cancers in dogs and [[cat]]s have been linked to household exposures to [[pesticide]]s, [[cigarette]] smoke, and other [[carcinogens]]. {{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

==Cultural references==
* [[Kurt Vonnegut]] in an interview compared the function of artists in human society to coal-mine canaries; see [[:q:Kurt Vonnegut|Wikiquote]].<ref>Interview ""Physicist, Purge Thyself"" in the Chicago Tribune Magazine (22 June 1969)</ref>
* ""Canary in a Coalmine"" is the title of a non-single track on [[The Police]]'s 1980 album [[Zenyatta Mondatta]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Christmas Day lost and found: Police's 'Canary in a Coalmine' |url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/2013/12/25/christmas-day-lost-and-found-police-s-canary-in-a-coalmine/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Tampa Bay Times |language=en}}</ref>
* ""Canary in a Coalmine"" is the title of a non-single track on [[The Crane Wives]]’ 2012 album [https://www.thecranewives.com/music-fool The Fool in Her Wedding Gown]

== See also ==
* [[Guard dog]]
* [[Indicator species]]
* [[Stack canary]]
* [[Warrant canary]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal
 |author1=van der Schalie WH |author2=Gardner HS Jr |author3=Bantle JA |author4=De Rosa CT |author5=Finch RA |author6=Reif JS |author7=Reuter RH |author8=Backer LC |author9=Burger J |author10=Folmar LC |author11=Stokes WS. | title = Animals as sentinels of human health hazards of environmental chemicals | journal = [[Environ Health Perspect]] |date=Apr 1999 | volume = 107 | issue = 4 | pages = 309–315 | doi=10.1289/ehp.99107309 |pmid=10090711 |pmc=1566523 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=O'Brien DJ |author2=Kaneene JB |author3=Poppenga RH | title = The use of mammals as sentinels for human exposure to toxic contaminants in the environment | journal = Environ Health Perspect |date=Mar 1993 | volume = 99 | pages = 351–368 | pmid = 8319652 | pmc=1567056 | doi=10.1289/ehp.9399351 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Backer LC |author2=Grindem CB |author3=Corbett WT |author4=Cullins L |author5=Hunter JL | title = Pet dogs as sentinels for environmental contamination | journal = Sci Total Environ | date  = 2001-07-02 | volume = 274 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 161–169 | doi  = 10.1016/S0048-9697(01)00740-9 |pmid=11453293 |bibcode=2001ScTEn.274..161B |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1259733 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Rabinowitz P |author2=Gordon Z |author3=Chudnov D |author4=Wilcox M |author5=Odofin L |author6=Liu A |author7=Dein J. | title = Animals as sentinels of bioterrorism agents | journal = Emerg Infect Dis |date=Apr 2006 | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 647–652 | pmid = 16704814 | doi=10.3201/eid1204.051120 | pmc=3294700}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Meselson M |author2=Guillemin J |author3=Hugh-Jones M |author4=Langmuir A |author5=Popova I |author6=Shelokov A |author7=Yampolskaya O | title = The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979 | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | date = 1994-11-18 | volume = 266 | issue = 5188 | pages = 1202–1208 | pmid = 7973702 | doi  = 10.1126/science.7973702 |bibcode=1994Sci...266.1202M }}
* {{cite journal | author = Kahn LH | title = Confronting zoonoses, linking human and veterinary medicine
 | journal = Emerg Infect Dis |date=Apr 2006 | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 556–561 | doi=10.3201/eid1204.050956 | pmid = 16704801
 | pmc = 3294691 }}

== External links ==
* [http://canarydatabase.org The Canary Database: Animals As Sentinels of Human Environmental Health Hazards]
* Online biomonitoring of water quality by a permanent record of bivalve molluscs' behavior and physiology (biological rhythms, growth rate, spawning, early warning), 24/7, worldwide: the [http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en MolluSCAN ''eye''] project

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Mine safety]]"
Organic chocolate,"[[File:Dark chocolate Blanxart.jpg|thumb|Organic dark chocolate with 72% [[Cocoa solids|cocoa]] content]]

'''Organic chocolate''' is [[chocolate]] which has been [[Organic certification|certified organic]]. As of 2016, it was a growing sector in the global chocolate industry. Organic chocolate is a [[Conspicuous conservation|socially desirable]] product for some consumers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-money-organic-chocolate-idUSKBN0LF2F820150211|title=Is organic chocolate worth the price?|author=Mitch Lipka|date=11 February 2015|work=Reuters|accessdate=15 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.candyindustry.com/articles/85215-report---19-5-billion-in-chocolate-sales-and-20--growth-in-organic|title=Report: $19.5 billion in chocolate sales—and 20% growth in organic - 2012-05-30 - Candy Industry|publisher=|accessdate=15 March 2016}}</ref>  Major brands, such as [[The Hershey Company]], have begun to produce organic chocolate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.treehugger.com/green-food/dagoba-sold-to-hersheys.html|title=Dagoba Sold To Hershey's|work=TreeHugger|accessdate=15 March 2016}}</ref>

==Sources==
Many, if not most, producers of organic chocolate source their ingredients from certified [[fair trade cocoa]] farms and cooperatives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vision.ucsd.edu/~kbranson/stopchocolateslavery/main.html|title=Slave-Free Chocolate|publisher=|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313054416/http://vision.ucsd.edu/~kbranson/stopchocolateslavery/main.html|archive-date=13 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Organic chocolate comes in many varieties, including milk chocolate, white chocolate, and dark chocolate. Major brands of organic chocolate include [[United Kingdom|Britain]]-based [[Green & Black's]], Hershey-owned [[Dagoba Chocolate]], and [[Equal Exchange]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goodhousekeeping.com/food-recipes/dessert/g165/fair-trade-chocolate-organic-chocolate/|title=Best Organic and Fair Trade Chocolate - Fair Trade and Organic Chocolates|author=The Daily Green Staff|date=9 May 2013|work=Good Housekeeping|accessdate=15 March 2016}}</ref>  Less-known retailers include [[Taza Chocolate]], [[Pacari Chocolate]], and Sacred Chocolate, a brand noted for producing [[raw chocolate]].<ref name=""foxnews.com"">{{cite web|url=http://video.foxnews.com/v/2755356477001/can-changing-your-diet-prevent-heart-disease/?playlist_id=2647851223001#playlist_id=2647851223001&sp=show-clips&v=2755356477001|title=Can changing your diet prevent heart disease?|work=Fox News|accessdate=3 April 2016}}</ref>

== Production process ==
The Seattle-based chocolate maker [[Theo Chocolate]] was one of the first companies that were ""fair-trade certified"" and produced organic chocolate. In 2006 Theo Chocolate began their production of organic chocolate, there were no solid guidelines for [[Chocolate#Production|chocolate manufacturing]] at the time and they had to get the process and ingredients in the correct measurements. The main ingredient in chocolate, cocoa is found [[Chocolate#History|close to the equator]] and the majority of it is grown in [[West Africa|Western Africa]] or [[South America]]. The organic cocoa, the main ingredient in organic chocolate, is sent to the chocolate factory, where it arrives in burlap sacks. The cocoa beans are then thoroughly cleaned and foreign objects are removed until just the beans remain. The manufacturer makes sure to use all organic ingredients to ensure that the final product is truly organic.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://emagazine.com/sweet-dreams/|title=Sweet Dreams|date=2007-10-26|work=Emagazine.com|access-date=2018-11-04|language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Raw chocolate]]
*[[Environmental impact of cocoa production]]
*[[Fair trade cocoa]]
*[[Tropical rainforest conservation]]
*[[Types of chocolate]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{commons}}
{{reflist}}
{{Chocolate}}

[[Category:Organic chocolate| ]]
[[Category:Environmental certification]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Forest conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]


{{Confectionery-stub}}
{{Dessert-stub}}"
Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species,"{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
'''LaCONES''' or '''Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species''', is a [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]] lab located in [[Hyderabad]]. It was conceptualised by [[Lalji Singh]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.ccmb.res.in/lacones/ |title = LaCONES :: Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species}}</ref> It is India's only research facility engaged in conservation and preservation of wildlife and its resources. It was established in 1998 with the help of [[Central Zoo Authority of India]], CSIR and the government of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It was dedicated to the nation in 2007 by then President of India [[APJ Abdul Kalam]]. It is a part of the [[Centre for cellular and molecular biology]]. India's first genetic bank for wildlife conservation, the National wildlife genetic resource bank (NWGRB) established by the government at LaCONES in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=LaCONES :: Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species |url=http://e-portal.ccmb.res.in/lacones/ |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=e-portal.ccmb.res.in}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Billy Arjan Singh]]
*[[Vava Suresh]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Hyderabad, India}}

[[Category:Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]]
[[Category:1998 establishments in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Wildlife conservation in India]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Research institutes in Hyderabad, India]]


{{Hyderabad-geo-stub}}"
Vulnerable species,"{{Short description|IUCN conservation category}}
{{Conservation status}}

A '''vulnerable species''' is a [[species]] which has been [[Conservation status|categorized]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] as being [[threatened species|threatened]] with [[extinction]] unless the circumstances that are [[threatened species|threatening]] its survival and [[reproduction]] improve.

Vulnerability is mainly caused by [[habitat loss]] or destruction of the species' home. Vulnerable habitat or species are monitored and can become increasingly threatened. Some species listed as ""vulnerable"" may be common in [[captivity (animal)|captivity]], an example being the [[military macaw]].

There are currently 5,196 [[animal]]s and 6,789 [[plant]]s classified as Vulnerable, compared with 1998 levels of 2,815 and 3,222, respectively.<ref name=""iucn 2012.2"">{{cite web | url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2012_2_RL_Stats_Table_2.pdf | title = IUCN Red List version 2012.2: Table 2: Changes in numbers of species in the threatened categories (CR, EX, VU) from 1996 to 2012 (IUCN Red List version 2012.2) for the major taxonomic groups on the Red List | access-date = 2012-12-31 | author = [[IUCN]] | date = 2012 | archive-date = 2013-01-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130127140524/http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2012_2_RL_Stats_Table_2.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> Practices such as [[cryoconservation of animal genetic resources]] have been enforced in efforts to conserve vulnerable breeds of livestock specifically.

==Criteria==
[[File:Brachypelma_smithi_2009_G09.jpg|thumb|right|Mexican red-knee tarantula (''[[Brachypelma hamorii]]''), a vulnerable species from Mexico]]
[[File:Snares Penguin (Eudyptes robustus) -group.jpg|thumb|Snares penguin (''[[Eudyptes robustus]]''), a vulnerable species from New Zealand]]
The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] uses several criteria to enter species in this category. A [[taxon]] is Vulnerable when it is not [[critically endangered]] or Endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future, as defined by any of the following criteria (A to E):

'''A) Population reduction in the form of either of the following:'''

#An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of ≥ 50% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, provided the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased.<ref name=iucnvu>{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/categories_criteria_3_1#critical |title=IUCN 2008 Red List - Categories and Criteria (version 3.1) |website=www.iucnredlist.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008002903/http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/categories_criteria_3_1 |archive-date=2008-10-08}} </ref> This measurement is based on (and specifying) any of the following:
##direct observation
##an index of abundance appropriate for the taxon
##a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or quality of habitat
##actual or potential levels of exploitation
##the effects of [[Introduced species|introduced taxa]], [[hybrid (biology)|hybridisation]], pathogens, [[pollutants]], competitors or [[parasites]].
#A reduction of at least 20%, projected or suspected to be met within the next ten years or three generations, whichever is the longer, based on (and specifying) any of (2), (3), (4) or (5) above.

'''B) Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> or area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, and estimates indicating any two of the following:'''

#Severely [[Habitat fragmentation|fragmented]] or known to exist at no more than ten locations.
#Continuing decline, inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following:
##extent of occurrence
##area of occupancy
##area, extent or quality of habitat
##number of locations or subpopulations
##number of mature individuals
#Extreme fluctuations in any of the following:
##extent of occurrence
##area of occupancy
##number of locations or subpopulations
##number of mature individuals

'''C) Population estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and either:'''

#An estimated continuing decline of at least 10% within 10 years or three generations, whichever is longer, or
#A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals and population structure in the form of either:
##severely fragmented (i.e. no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 1,000 mature individuals)
##all mature individuals are in a single subpopulation

'''D) Population very small or restricted in the form of either of the following:'''

#Population estimated to number less than 1,000 mature individuals.
#Population is characterised by an acute restriction in its area of occupancy (typically less than 20&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>)<ref name=iucnvu /> or in the number of locations (typically less than five). Such a taxon would thus be prone to the effects of human activities (or stochastic events whose impact is increased by human activities) within a very short period of time in an unforeseeable future, and is thus capable of becoming Critically Endangered or even Extinct in a very short period.

'''E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10% within 100 years.'''

The examples of vulnerable animal species are [[hyacinth macaw]], [[mountain zebra]], [[gaur]], [[black crowned crane]] and [[blue crane]]

==See also==
*[[:Category:IUCN Red List vulnerable species]] for an alphabetical list
*[[Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources]]
*[[List of vulnerable amphibians]]
*[[List of vulnerable arthropods]]
*[[List of vulnerable birds]]
*[[List of vulnerable fishes]]
*[[List of vulnerable insects]]
*[[List of vulnerable invertebrates]]
*[[List of vulnerable mammals]]
*[[List of vulnerable molluscs]]
*[[List of vulnerable reptiles]]
*[[List of IUCN Red List Vulnerable plants]]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[https://www.iucnredlist.org/search/grid?redListCategory=vu List of Vulnerable species] as identified by the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]

{{Threatened species|state=expanded}}
{{Threatened species by region}}
{{Portal bar|Ecology|Biology}}

[[Category:Vulnerable species| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Northwest Straits Marine Conservation Initiative,"{{Short description|Environmental conservation organization}}
The '''Northwest Straits Marine Conservation Initiative''' or '''Northwest Straits Initiative''' ('''NWSI''') was established under Title IV of Public Law 105–384 in 1998.<ref>105th Congress. (1998, November 13). Title IV. Public Law 105-384, p. 9.</ref> It is composed of the [[Northwest Straits Commission]], the [[Marine Resources Committees]], and the [[Northwest Straits Foundation]].

The NWSI was born from political deadlock over the proposed formation of a federal marine sanctuary in the waters of northwest Washington, including Strait of Juan de Fuca and the San Juan Islands. Democratic Senator [[Patty Murray]] and Republican Congressman Jack Metcalf proposed the Initiative as an alternative to the marine sanctuary.<ref>""Giving locals a chance."" Island Times 21 July 1999: 4.</ref> Its base operations are  federally-funded.<ref>Smith, Colleen. ""Save Our Aquatic Ecosystem - Practice Marine Stewardship."" The Islands' Weekly 18 May 2004.</ref>

The NWSI focuses on conservation and restoration of [[Puget Sound]] in northwest Washington State and relies on the work of local, citizen-based Marine Resources Committees (located in seven counties) to prioritize actions in recovering the health of the sound.<ref>Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team. ""New Initiative Tackles 'Tough Problems' to Protect, Restore Marine Resources."" Sound Waves 2000.</ref>  The seven Washington State counties are: Whatcom, Skagit, Snohomish, Island, San Juan, Jefferson and Clallam.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Marine Resources Committees,"The '''Marine Resources Committees''' (MRC) are a type of government board for maritime counties in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. It is part of the [[Northwest Straits Marine Conservation Initiative]], enacted in 1998. Seven of the state's counties have MRCs: [[Whatcom County|Whatcom]], [[Skagit County, Washington|Skagit]], [[Snohomish County, Washington|Snohomish]], [[Clallam]], Island, Jefferson and San Juan.  The first MRC was San Juan County in 1996,<ref>Smith, Colleen. ""Save Our Aquatic Ecosystem - Practice Marine Stewardship."" The Islands' Weekly May 18, 2004.</ref> setting an example for others. A typical MRC has representation from local government, tribal government, the local port district, local business, and the scientific, recreational and conservation communities. Funding for the MRCs comes from federal, state, and local governments and non-profit groups.<ref>Stiffler, Lisa. ""Marine initiative gets a thumb up ."" Seattle Post-Intelligencer April 8, 2004.</ref> General operational funding is provided by the [[Northwest Straits Commission]].<ref>Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team. ""New Initiative Tackles 'Tough Problems' to Protect, Restore Marine Resources."" Sound Waves 2000.</ref> Each MRC has a representative who sits on the Northwest Straits Commission board, making up the majority of the group.<ref>""Giving locals a chance."" Island Times July 21, 1999: 4.</ref>
These committees perform baseline studies of Northern [[Puget Sound]] and provide solutions for protection of the waters and their habitats.<ref>""Senator sightings abound."" The Coupeville Examiner August 25, 2000.</ref> They also serve to carry out the overall mission of the Northwest Straits Marine Conservation Initiative.<ref>Murray- Metcalf Northwest Straits Citizens Advisory Commission. (1998). Report to Convenors. Seattle: Washington Sea Grant Program, University of Washington.</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Nature conservation organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Zhao Yufen,"{{short description|Chinese chemist}}
{{family name hatnote|[[Zhao (surname)|Zhao]]|lang=Chinese}}

'''Zhao Yufen''' ({{zh|s=赵玉芬|t=趙玉芬|p=Zhào Yùfēn}}; born 1948) is a Chinese chemist at the college of chemistry and chemical engineering at [[Xiamen University]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = China bows to public over chemical plant|journal = Nature News|date = 2008-01-09|pages = 117|volume = 451|issue = 7175|doi = 10.1038/451117a|pmid = 18185552|first = Jane|last = Qiu|author-link=Jane Qiu|bibcode = 2008Natur.451..117Q|doi-access = free}}</ref> She has been an outspoken critic of chemical plants.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://english.caixin.com/2015-04-07/100798074.html|title = PX Plant Explosion Sparks Echoes of Warnings Past|last = Dawei|first = Yu|date = 7 April 2015|work = Caixin Online|access-date = 9 November 2015}}</ref> She was the youngest female member elected to the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]].<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|url = http://www.tsinghua.edu.cn/publish/chemen/2141/2011/20110409175259106200403/20110409175259106200403_.html|title = Prof. Yufen Zhao Ph.D|access-date = 9 November 2015|website = Tsinghua University}}</ref>

== Biography ==
Zhao was born in [[Qi County, Hebi]], [[Henan]], and moved to [[Taiwan]] in 1949 with her parents.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite news|url = http://www.zonaeuropa.com/20070603_1.htm|title = Zhao Yufen: Two Hometowns, Same Deep Love|date = 21 July 2006|work = People.com.cn|access-date = 9 November 2015|via = Zonaeuropa}}</ref> Zhao graduated from [[National Tsing Hua University]] (Taiwan) in 1971, and received her Ph.D from [[Stony Brook University|State University of New York at Stony Brook]] in 1975.<ref name="":2"" /> In 1979, she went on to become a researcher at the Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences.<ref name="":3"" /> She became a professor at [[Tsinghua University]] (Beijing) in 1988 and in 1991, was elected to the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]], then the youngest female academician.<ref name="":3"" />

In March 2007, Zhao created a petition to halt the construction of a chemical plant in [[Xiamen]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite news|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/27/AR2007062702962.html|title = Text Messages Giving Voice to Chinese|last = Cody|first = Edward|date = 28 June 2007|newspaper = The Washington Post|access-date = 9 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Changing Media, Changing China|url = https://archive.org/details/changingmediacha00shir|url-access = limited|last1 = Gang|first1 = Qian|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 2011|isbn = 9780199751983|pages = [https://archive.org/details/changingmediacha00shir/page/n72 66]–67|chapter = China's Emerging Public Sphere|last2 = Bandurski|first2 = David|editor-last = Shirk|editor-first = Susan L.}}</ref> Zhao was against the plant, which was going to produce [[P-Xylene|paraxylene]] (PX), a [[carcinogen]]ic [[petrochemical]], due to health risks and pollution of the environment.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite news|url = http://www.china.org.cn/english/environment/239503.htm|title = People vs. Chemical Plant|date = 14 January 2008|work = China.org|access-date = 9 November 2015}}</ref> She said that ""As a project with a high risk of poisonous emissions and explosions, the project should not be located close to a city.""<ref name="":4"" /> She also started writing letters to propose a relocation of the plant to He Lefeng, the Party chief of Xiamen.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal|url = http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=28339099&site=ehost-live|title = Power to the People|last = Li|first = Li|date = 3 January 2008|journal = Beijing Review|access-date = 9 November 2015|volume = 51|issue = 1|pages = 20–21|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  Months later, protesters used text messages to spread the word of a demonstration against the plant.<ref name="":0"" /> Xiamen lawmakers voted overwhelmingly against the plant, which was located to Gulei Peninsula.<ref name="":1"" />

June 15, 2014, Zhao, as the head of the Academy Zhao Yufen of Xiamen University, along with BIOasis, signed on for the construction of a Phosphorus & Marine Science Research Center to be built at the Shandong International Biotechnology Park.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://en.luyetz.com/news/20140804133612368.htm|title = Academy Zhao Yufen and Her Research Team Start Cooperation with BIOasis|date = 15 June 2014|work = Luye Investment|access-date = 10 November 2015}}</ref>

Zhao has work published in the ''[[Journal of the American Chemical Society]]'', ''[[Journal of Organic Chemistry]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|title = CuBr/rac-BINOL-Catalyzed N-Arylations of Aliphatic Amines at Room Temperature|journal = The Journal of Organic Chemistry|date = 2007-01-01|issn = 0022-3263|pages = 672–674|volume = 72|issue = 2|doi = 10.1021/jo062060e|first1 = Deshou|last1 = Jiang|first2 = Hua|last2 = Fu|first3 = Yuyang|last3 = Jiang|first4 = Yufen|last4 = Zhao|pmid=17221996}}</ref> ''[[Angewandte Chemie]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A Simple and Efficient Approach to Quinazolinones under Mild Copper-Catalyzed Conditions|last1 = Liu|first1 = Xiaowei|date = 3 December 2008|journal = Angewandte Chemie|doi = 10.1002/ange.200804675|pmid = 19053126|volume = 121|issue = 2|pages = 354–357|last2 = Fu|first2 = Hua|last3 = Jiang|last4 = Zhao|first3 = Yuyang|first4 = Yufen}}</ref> ''[[Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Chrysin and its phosphate ester inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in Hela cells|journal = Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry|date = 2004-12-01|pages = 6097–6105|volume = 12|issue = 23|doi = 10.1016/j.bmc.2004.09.013|pmid = 15519155|first1 = Ting|last1 = Zhang|first2 = Xiaolan|last2 = Chen|first3 = Lingbo|last3 = Qu|first4 = Jinglan|last4 = Wu|first5 = Ran|last5 = Cui|first6 = Yufen|last6 = Zhao}}</ref> ''[[Chemical Communications]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Highly efficient copper-catalyzed cascade synthesis of quinazoline and quinazolinone derivatives|journal = Chemical Communications|issue = 47|pages = 6333–6335|doi = 10.1039/b814011a|pmid = 19048146|first1 = Cheng|last1 = Huang|first2 = Yuan|last2 = Fu|first3 = Hua|last3 = Fu|first4 = Yuyang|last4 = Jiang|first5 = Yufen|last5 = Zhao|date = 2008-12-21}}</ref> ''Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis'',<ref>{{Cite journal|title = An Inexpensive and Efficient Copper Catalyst for N-Arylation of Amines, Amides and Nitrogen-Containing Heterocycles|journal = Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis|date = 2006-10-01|issn = 1615-4169|pages = 2197–2202|volume = 348|issue = 15|doi = 10.1002/adsc.200606198|first1 = Xun|last1 = Guo|first2 = Honghua|last2 = Rao|first3 = Hua|last3 = Fu|first4 = Yuyang|last4 = Jiang|first5 = Yufen|last5 = Zhao}}</ref> and other journals.

== References ==
<!--- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes on how to create references using <ref></ref> tags, these references will then appear here automatically -->
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://chem.xmu.edu.cn/group/yfzhao/home.html Prof. Zhao Group]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zhao, Yufen}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century women scientists]]
[[Category:21st-century women scientists]]
[[Category:Chemists from Henan]]
[[Category:Chinese women chemists]]
[[Category:Educators from Henan]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:National Tsing Hua University alumni]]
[[Category:People from Hebi]]
[[Category:Stony Brook University alumni]]
[[Category:Taiwanese people from Henan]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Tsinghua University]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Xiamen University]]"
Conservation development,"{{Short description|Controlled-growth land use development}}
{{essay|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Costa Rica - Caribbean Sea - Parismina (Eco-Tourism) - 03.jpg|thumb|alt=Parismina|[[Parismina]], main street, Costa Rica]]
'''Conservation development''', also known as '''conservation design''', is a controlled-growth [[land use]] [[land development|development]] that adopts the principle for allowing limited [[sustainable development]] while protecting the area's [[natural environment]]al features in perpetuity, including preserving [[Open space reserve|open space]] landscape and vista, protecting [[Arable land|farmland]] or natural [[habitat]]s for wildlife, and maintaining the character of rural communities.<ref name=""Arendt"">{{cite book |title=Conservation Design for Subdivisions: A Practical Guide To Creating Open Space Networks |last=Arendt |first=Randall G. |year=1996 |publisher=Island Press |location=Washington |isbn=978-1-55963-489-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/conservationdesi0000aren|url-access=registration }}</ref> A conservation development is usually defined as a project that dedicates a minimum of 50 percent of the total development parcel as [[Open space reserve|open space]]. The management and ownership of the land are often formed by the partnership between private land owners, land-use conservation organizations and [[local government]]. It is a growing trend in many parts of the country, particularly in the [[Western United States]]. In the [[Eastern United States]], conservation design has been promoted by some [[State governments of the United States|state]] and local governments as a technique to help preserve [[water quality]].<ref>Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, Dover, DE; and Brandywine Conservancy, Chadds Ford, PA. [http://www.dnrec.state.de.us/dnrec2000/Divisions/Soil/Stormwater/New/Delaware_CD_Manual.pdf ''Conservation Design for Stormwater Management.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171158/http://www.dnrec.state.de.us/dnrec2000/Divisions/Soil/Stormwater/New/Delaware_CD_Manual.pdf |date=2016-03-03 }} September 1997.</ref>

This type of planning has become more relevant as ""[[land conversion]] for [[housing development]] is a leading cause of [[habitat loss]] and [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]]"".<ref name=""Pejchar"">{{cite journal|last=Pejchar|first=Liba|author2=Margaret R. Caldwell |author3=Carl Palmer |author4=Gretchen C. Daily |title=Evaluating the Potential for Conservation Development: Biophysical, Economic and Institutional Perspectives|journal=Conservation Biology|year=2007|volume=21|issue=1|pages=69–78 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00572.x|pmid=17298512|bibcode=2007ConBi..21...69P |s2cid=7601586 }}</ref> With a loss or fragmentation of a species' habitat, it results in the endangerment of a species and pushes them towards premature [[extinction]].<ref name=""Miller"">{{cite book|last=Miller Jr.|first=Tyler G.|title=Living in the Environment|year=201|publisher=Nelson Education|edition=2nd Canadian |author2=Dave Hackett}}</ref> Land conversion also contributes to the reduction of agriculturally productive land,<ref name=""Milder"">{{cite journal|last=Milder|first=Jeffery C.|title=A Framework for Understanding Conservation Development and its Ecological Implications|journal=BioScience|year=2007|volume=57|issue=9|pages=757–768|doi=10.1641/b570908|doi-access=free}}</ref> already shrinking due to [[climate change]].

Conservation development differs from other land protection approaches by aiming to protect land and environmental resources on parcels slated for immediate development—to protect land here and now. In contrast, a [[green belt]] approach typically aims to protect land from future development, and in a region beyond areas currently slated for development. It seeks to offer a gradient between [[urban region]]s and open [[countryside]], beyond what a line on a map—typically a [[highway]]—currently provides. This approach seeks to avoid the [[dichotomy]] of economic [[urbanism]] on one side of such a street while on the other lies completely protected woodlands and farm fields, devoid of inclusion in that economy. Addressing the theoretical illusion that humanity walled off is better-off, conservation development recognizes that design of how we live is far more important than we allot credit; that instead of walling off a problem we need to face that problem and drastically lower our impact on the sites where we live, and indeed raise the performance of our communities toward a level where such walls are no longer considered first response requirements.

== History ==
Conservation development was formulated in the early 1980s by a British-trained planner Randall Arendt. He pulled together several concepts from the 1960s. He combined the idea of cluster and open space design with Ian McHarg's ""design with nature"" philosophy.<ref name=""Doyle"">{{cite journal |last=Doyle |first=Donna L. |title=Planning for Greener Development: Conservation Development and Landon Bay East |journal=FES Outstanding Graduate Student Paper Series |year=2005 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=1–20}}</ref>

== Conservation development ==
Conservation development seeks to protect a variety of ecological resources and services such as [[biodiversity]], productive farmland, [[ecosystem services]], scenic landscapes and historic and cultural resources.<ref name=""Milder""/> This is achieved by identifying the ecologically sensitive and valuable areas. The protected lands can be under an easement to prevent development on it. Housing is then built around the protected areas. Density, lots sizes, types of housing and amount of protected area is dependent on the type of conservation development.

While not a prevalent type of development, it's estimated that conservation development takes up between 2.5%-10% of the total US [[real estate development]].<ref name=""Milder""/> Conservation development is usually applied to rural, exurban or suburban residential subdivisions, though it does have a few urban applications (Doyle 4).

While there are several types of conservation developments, they all have several features in common.<ref name=""Milder""/> All developments have conservation land set aside, either held by a [[conservation organization]] or protected by a conservation easement. These developments must have ongoing stewardship for the protected portion of the parcel.<ref name=""Pejchar""/> Secondly, the development finances the protected area. Third, each development begins by surveying the land's ecological features and resources. A decision can then be made about where to build and what areas need to be protected. Lastly, these developments also use a variety of design features to reduce some of the negative impacts inherent in development. Examples include [[Low-impact development (Canada/US)|low-impact stormwater management systems]], and landscape design.

== Types ==
Milder cites four principal conservation development techniques found in the United States.<ref name=""Milder""/> The first two he groups together as having a ""conservation with development"" philosophy. Conservation is the main goal with development as a means to that end. The latter two types fall under the ""development with conservation"" ethos. These two types of projects are done through private developers whose goal is to turn a profit at the end of the day, but in a ""conservation-friendly matter"".<ref name=""Milder""/> Table 1 provides an excellent summary of the different conservation development techniques.

=== Conservation buyer projects ===
The first type he calls conservation buyer projects. In this situation, a [[land trust]] buys the property and places the ecologically important areas under a conservation easement. They then resell the land, including the easement, to a conservation buyer. The buyer cannot build on the easement, but may do so on the remaining, unprotected portion. This technique usually results in a few houses being built on the piece of land, resulting in a low density.<ref name=""Milder""/> According to a study undertaken by Milder & Clark, 98.4% of the total land receives protection, the highest amongst the four conservation development types.<ref name=""Milder_Clark"">{{cite journal|last=Milder|first=Jeffery C.|author2=Story Clark|title=Conservation Development Practices, Extent and Land-Use Effects in the United States|journal=Conservation Biology|year=2001|volume=25|issue=4|pages=697–707|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01688.x|pmid=21658127|s2cid=5828829 }}</ref>

=== Conservation and limited development projects ===
The second type identified by Milder is called conservation and limited development projects (CLDP). They are often carried out by land trusts, and occasionally by conservation-minded developers or landowners. Real estate is developed for sale on an open market, and the profit is used to finance conservation of the nearby land. Milder & Clark found that 93.5% of the total land area is protected under this type of development.<ref name=""Milder_Clark""/> Recent studies done on the effectiveness of CLDPs in protecting, restoring and managing threatened resources reveal that it is significantly more effective at doing so, in comparison to conservation subdivisions and conventional development.

=== Conservation subdivisions ===
Conservation subdivisions are the third and best-known type of conservation development. This is a development that ""sets aside a major portion of the site as conservation land"" and clusters housing on the remaining portion.<ref name=""Milder""/> The houses are built on lots smaller than usual, meaning the density of the development nears the maximum allowed by zoning. Unlike conservation and limited development projects, a homeowners' association manages the protected land. These associations may lack knowledge and have different goals regarding the lands' management, which may result in a less than ideally managed conservation. As a result of this and other factors, a study found that on average only 57.1% of the total land area is protected from development.<ref name=""Milder_Clark""/>

=== Conservation-oriented planned development projects ===
The final type identified by Milder is called conservation-oriented planned development projects. These are large-scale development projects found in suburban and exurban areas. The scale of the projects means large tracts of land can be protected. They typically have densities nearing the zoned maximum and feature of a mix of housing types and land uses. The resulting percentage of protected land is 71.3.<ref name=""Milder_Clark""/>

==Conservation community==
[[File:Santa Lucia Preserve Design.jpg|thumb|This map of [[Santa Lucia Preserve]], a conservation community in California, depicts which portions are protected by conservation covenants.]]
A '''conservation community''' (or '''conservation development''') is a real estate and conservation hybrid model of [[land development]], consisting of both [[Protected area|protected areas]] and [[Human settlement|human settlements]], with the primary goal of saving large parcels of land from ecological degradation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McMahon |first1=Edward T. |title=Conservation Communities |url=https://urbanland.uli.org/sustainability/conservation-communities/ |website=UrbanLand.ULI.org |publisher=Urban Land Institute |access-date=7 March 2022 |date=July 1, 2010}}</ref> This land can be [[forest]]ed land, [[agriculture|agricultural]] land, [[ranch]] land, or any other type of land that needs protecting from high-impact development. This model is contrasted from other protected area models by integrating human communities within nature, rather than relocating them outside, and as such falls under the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN's]] [[IUCN protected area categories|Category V]] protected area designation. 

The model represents an integral balance between people and nature and can sustain for-profit activity such as residential communities, private clubs, or small-scale industrial activity on conditions that ensure the continued protection or [[ecological restoration]] of an area.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milder |first1=Jeffrey |title=A Framework for Understanding Conservation Development and Its Ecological Implications |journal=BioScience |date=October 1, 2007 |volume=57 |issue=9 |pages=757–768 |doi=10.1641/B570908 |s2cid=14417328 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Conservation communities are models of sustainable community development, providing an alternative to conventional forms of development.<ref>[https://www.sfu.ca/cscd/ Sustainable Development], Simon Fraser University.</ref> They are adaptable to the needs of different regions and they use small-scale residential development to fund [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]], eliminating the need to solely depend on funding from private [[Donation|donor]]s or [[government]]s, though they are sometimes additionally subsidized by such investments. This land development model is important to the [[Environmental movement|Environmental movement's]] goals of [[sustainable development]], Green homebuilding, local [[food security]], and responsible management of natural resources.

Some of the tools used to create conservation communities are conservation covenants, [[ecoforestry]] covenants, and other forms of covenant registered to the title of the land. Covenants are a legal contract used to protect the integrity of ecosystem, the ecological health of [[drainage basin|watersheds]] (which are damaged by increased development),<ref>""[https://engineering.purdue.edu/SafeWater/watershed/ Watershed Protection]"". Purdue University, College of Engineering.</ref> maintain long-term access to natural resources and associated [[value added|value-added]] opportunities, protect native plant and animal species, and prevent [[effects of climate change|climate change impacts]].

In an effort to avoid [[greenwashing]] and in order to increase accountability and public transparency, some conservation communities establish separate federally registered charities or [[501(c)(3) organization|501(c)(3) non-profit]] [[Land trust|land trusts]], which own the land in fee and extend [[Conservation easement|conservation easements]] to developers and private homeowners. This way, the incentive structure ensures real estate developers stay true to the mission of conservation, with the land trust vested with authority to investigate, report, and penalize infractions.

Conservation communities are developed not only to minimize their [[ecological footprint]], but also to improve (or at least does not diminish) the existing ecological system's performance. The planning stage for the residential community focuses around maintaining and enhancing the ecological integrity of the land. The community, therefore, sits on the least sensitive part of the land from an ecological point of view, and is often built using low-impact infrastructure such as [[Nature-based solutions|Nature-based Solutions]] for the civil engineering and [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]]-targeted housing. To further reduce broader environmental impact, many conservation communities (whether in whole or in part) generate their own power, pump their own water, and grow food on-site.

===The economy===
In addition to residential use, conservation communities can supplement their funding through other eco-compatible uses such as sustainable resource extraction, value-added manufacturing opportunities, [[organic horticulture]], [[mixed-use development|live/work enterprises]], [[ecotourism]], recreational and ecological educational opportunities. Through these additional measures, long-term protection of the land is sustained by the economic value created through restrained, eco-conscious business.

Additionally, conservation communities can create sustainable employment opportunities for those living in the communities as well as the surrounding region. Ecotourism promotes environmental protection and support for the well-being of local community members by bringing visitors into the conservation community for educational and recreational purposes.<ref>Randall, A. (1987). ''Resource economics''. 2nd ed. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons.</ref>

===Community===
As a novel and intentional approach to human settlement, conservation communities can be designed to strengthen interconnectedness between community members as well as with the broader local community. Doug Makaroff, founder of [[Elkington Forest]] (recently renamed to Malahat Forest Estates) noted that ""by building sustainable and relational communities, our lives are richer.""<ref>""[https://www.pressreader.com/canada/vancouver-sun/20081213/283128539716389 Hard Times Can Increase Innovation and Collaboration]"". Davis, Kim (December 13, 2008). ''Vancouver Sun'', Westcoast Homes.</ref>

===Examples===
{| class=""wikitable""
|-
! Community name
! Location
! Active?
|- 
| Deer Path Farm<ref>{{cite web |title=Deer Path Farm History |url=https://www.deerpathfarm.com/about/history/ |website=DeerPathFarm.com |publisher=Deer Path Farm |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Illinois, US
| Yes
|-
| [[Elkington Forest]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Elkington Forest |url=http://elkingtonforest.com/ |website=ElkingtonForest.com |publisher=Elkington Forest |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501163026/http://elkingtonforest.com/ |access-date=5 March 2022|archive-date=2012-05-01 |version=renamed}}</ref>
| British Columbia, Canada
| Yes
|-
| Independence Denver<ref>{{cite web |title=Independence Denver |url=https://independencedenver.com |website=IndependenceDenver.com |publisher=Independence |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Colorado, US
| Yes
|-
| [[Montage Hotels & Resorts#Montage Palmetto Bluff|Palmetto Bluff]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Palmetto Bluff Conservation |url=https://www.palmettobluff.com/conservation |website=PalmettoBluff.com |publisher=Palmetto Bluff |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| South Carolina, US
| Yes
|-
| Pendergrast Farm Community<ref>{{cite web |title=Pendergrast Farm |url=https://pendergrastfarm.com |website=PendergrastFarm.com |publisher=Pendergrast Farm |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Georgia, US
| Yes
|-
| Prairie Crossing<ref>{{cite web |title=Prairie Crossing |url=https://www.pchoa.com/home.asp |website=PCHOA.com |publisher=Prairie Crossing |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Illinois, US
| Yes
|-
| [[Santa Lucia Preserve]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Preserve |url=https://www.santaluciapreserve.com/ |website=SantaLuciaPreserve.com |publisher=Santa Lucia Preserve |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| California, US
| Yes
|-
| Serenbe<ref>{{cite web |title=Serenbe |url=https://serenbe.com |website=Serbene.com |publisher=Serenbe |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Georgia, US
| Yes
|-
| The Boulders<ref>{{cite web |title=The Boulders |url=https://thebouldersnc.com/ |website=TheBouldersNC.com |publisher=The Boulders |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| North Carolina, US
| Yes
|-
| Tryon Farm<ref>{{cite web |title=Tryon Farm |url=http://tryonfarm.com |website=TryonFarm.com |publisher=Tryon Farm |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Indiana, US
| Yes
|-
| Young Ranch<ref>{{cite web |title=Young Ranch |url=https://www.youngranchsanjose.com/ |website=YoungRanchSanJose.com |publisher=Young Ranch |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| California, US
| Proposed
|-
|}

== Advantages ==
The biggest advantage of conservation development is that it can protect species and ecosystems, preventing further habitat fragmentation and loss. By surveying the land and identifying the primary conservation areas where ecosystems are most at risk, communities are created without huge disruption to the environment.<ref name=""Pejchar""/><ref name=""Doyle""/> Conservation development also provides for secondary conservation areas, which provide corridors for animals to hunt, mate and travel through.<ref name=""Arendt""/>

However, any development will have some impact on the land. But by studying it, there are ways in which this can be mitigated. A developer can have native vegetation planted. Wildlife friendly native species could be introduced,<ref name=""Milder""/> while invasive species are monitored and controlled.<ref name=""Pejchar""/> [[Stormwater#Stormwater management|Stormwater management]] systems are also used to ""promote natural flow patterns and infiltration"", considered a very important factor in minimizing a development's impact.<ref name=""Milder""/>

There are several benefits from an economic standpoint. Conservation development allows developers to make themselves distinct in a competitive housing market.<ref name=""Pejchar""/> A developer can use an environmentally oriented marketing strategy, highlighting the benefits of the development to possible buyer with a green thumb.<ref name=""Arendt""/> A final advantage of conservation development is that homes in these developments tend appreciate faster than their conventional counterparts.<ref name=""Arendt""/><ref name=""Doyle""/>

Pejchar et al. and Arendt cite a number of economic benefits that accrue to municipalities through conservation development. They include fewer public costs on maintenance and infrastructure, protecting open space without losing tax revenues, and avoiding the loss of [[ecological services]] like landscape stabilization, flood control and clean water.<ref name=""Pejchar""/><ref name=""Arendt""/> A municipality also experiences a reduced demand for public green space since it has been provided free of charge by the development.<ref name=""Arendt""/>

Lastly, there are a few social and recreational advantages to conservation development.<ref name=""Arendt""/> With the smaller lots that accompany these houses, homeowners are likely to move into public green space and engage with their neighbors. Community events such as picnics or parties are more common. The protected green space also provides excellent recreational activities, such as hiking, jogging, or simply observing nature. It's hopeful that with this experience, people can reconnect with nature and develop a land ethic.<ref name=""Doyle""/>

== Disadvantages ==
There are several drawbacks to conservation development. The first problem encountered is the perceived risk by both developers and homebuyers.<ref name=""Pejchar""/> In protecting sensitive areas, developers and homeowners see a risk in the possible elimination of desired sites to build homes. This might be a large enough risk to discourage developers. This could be a place for government intervention, which could provide tax breaks to developers building a development this way.

Conservation subdivisions and conservation-oriented planned development projects have been ""criticized for protecting land at too small a scale to provide meaningful conservation benefits, while simultaneously promoting ""leapfrog"" development"".<ref name=""Milder""/> This pushes [[urban sprawl|sprawl]] further from the city and contributes to a more fragmented rural area.

== Implications ==
This type of planning has become more relevant as ""[[land conversion]] for [[housing development]] is a leading cause of [[habitat loss]] and [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]]"".<ref name=""Pejchar""/> With a loss or fragmentation of a species' habitat, it results in the [[endangered species|endangerment of a species]] and pushes them towards premature extinction.<ref name=""Miller""/> [[biodiversity loss|Without biodiversity]], we lose the many benefits we derive from it, including economic and [[ecological services]], genetic information, and recreational pleasure, just to name a few.<ref name=""Miller""/> Land conversion also contributes to the reduction of agriculturally [[soil fertility|productive land]],<ref name=""Milder""/> already shrinking due to [[climate change]].

== See also ==
{{Portal|Ecology|Environment}}
* {{annotated link|Community-based conservation}}
* {{annotated link|Conservation community}}
* {{annotated link|Environmental planning}}
* {{annotated link|Land trust}}
* {{annotated link|Low-impact development (UK)|Low impact development}}
* {{annotated link|Preservation development}} (farmland preservation)
* {{annotated link|Private protected area}}
* {{annotated link|Protected area}}
* {{annotated link|Residential cluster development}}
* {{annotated link|Smart growth}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=McMahon |first1=Edward |title=Conservation communities : creating value with nature, open space, and agriculture |date=2010 |publisher=Urban Land Institute |location=Washington, DC |isbn=9780874202175}}
* {{cite news |last1=Anderson |first1=Jennifer |title=Protecting Land Through Conservation Development: Lessons from Land Trust Experience |url=https://www.landtrustalliance.org/news/protecting-land-through-conservation-development-lessons-land-trust-experience |access-date=7 March 2022 |work=Saving Land Magazine |publisher=Land Trust Alliance |date=Summer 2014}}
* {{cite web |last1=Heid, FASLA |first1=Jim |title=Conservation Development |url=https://jheid.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/P6-2015-Conservation-Development.pdf |website=JHeid.com/ideas |access-date=7 March 2022 |date=June 2014 |quote=A definitional framework of Conservation Development and four case studies.}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* Ellis, Ronald L. Jr. (2006). [http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/110/ ""Residential Land Use Policy and Conservation Development in the Blanco River Basin.""] Applied Research Project. Texas State University-San Marcos. Paper 110.
* Gillfillan, Abigail (2007). [http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/273/ ""Using Geographic Information Systems to Develop and Analyze Land-Use Policies.""] Applied Research Project. Texas State University-San Marcos. Paper 273.
* Sullivan, Michael and Warren, John-Paul (2002). ""Conservation Development: Blending Ecology and Development"" Ontario Planning Journal, Vol 17, No. 6, 2002
* Daigle, Andre and Savard, Daniel (2005) ""Designing for Conservation"" Plan Canada, Winter 2005
* Warren, John-Paul (2007) ""Sustainable Development based on Conservation Design: A New Approach in New Brunswick Land Planning - Is It  Working?"" York University MES Major Research Paper
* Warren, John-Paul and Mercer, Kevin (2008) ""Water: Harvesting the Resource"" Ground, Ontario Assn of Landscape Architects, Landscape Architecture Quarterly, Fall/Winter 2008
* Warren, John-Paul (2001) ""Blake-Duck-Siep In One Go: A CD Developer Survey"" Conservation Development Alliance of Ontario, for The Natural Lands Trust, PA
* Yaro, Robert, Randall G. Arendt, Harry L. Dodson and Elizabeth A. Brabec (1988) ''Dealing with Change in the Connecticut River Valley: A Design Manual for Conservation and Development'', Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
* Arendt, Randall G. (2015) ''Rural By Design: Planning for Town and Country'' 2nd Edition, APA Planners Press
* McHarg, Ian (1995) ''Design With Nature'', Wiley
* Donohue, Brian (2001) ''Reclaiming the Commons: Community Farms and Forests in a New England Town'', Yale University Press
* Warren, John-Paul (2001) ""A Survey on Conservation Development: 13 U.S. Land Trusts respond"", for The Natural Lands Trust, PA
* Warren, John-Paul (2005) ""A Database of Canadian Urban Conservation Developments"", Evergreen, Common Grounds, all the above available from the author at jpwarren-inter at uniserve.com
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.greenneighborhoods.org ""Green Neighborhoods: Open Space Residential Design in Massachusetts""] - Massachusetts Audubon Society
* [http://www.conservationtools.org/tools/general/show/9 ""Growing Greener."" Case Studies in Pennsylvania.] - Natural Lands Trust, Media, PA

{{Land-use planning}}
{{conservation of species}}
{{Environmentalism|state=autocollapse}}
{{Real estate developments|state=autocollapse}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Economy and the environment]]
[[Category:Urban design]]
[[Category:New Urbanism]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:Rural development]]
[[Category:Economic development]]"
Conservation management system,"A '''conservation management system''' (CMS) is a procedure for maintaining a species or [[habitat]] in a particular state. It is a means whereby humankind secures wildlife in a favourable condition for [[contemplation]], education or research, in perpetuity.  It is an important topic in [[cultural ecology]], where conservation management counterbalances the unchecked [[resource exploitation|exploitative management of natural resources]].  Conservation management systems are vital for turning [[sustainable development]] strategies into successful operations.

In New Zealand the [[New Zealand Department of Conservation|Department of Conservation]] develops conservation management strategies in conjunction with the community as a means of prioritising conservation issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/getting-involved/consultations/conservation-management-strategies/how-the-strategies-are-developed/|title=Developing conservation management strategies: Consulting|publisher=Department of Conservation|accessdate=30 May 2012}}</ref>

Conservation management has historically adopted ideals deriving from 3 discursive approaches: the classic approach, populist approach, and neoliberal approach. All three approaches have differing ideas about the nexus of conservation and development and their potential interactions. 
* The Classic Approach understands local people to be a threat to [[Nature conservation|environmental conservation]] and therefore people occupying landed intended for conservation have historically and presently been evicted from their land. {{cn|date=August 2020}}
* The Populist Approach understands that conservation requires the participation and the empowerment of local people in order to reach both social and environmental aims. 
* The [[Neoliberal]] Approach sees the need for value to be placed on [[biodiversity]] in order for conservation to be incorporated in the economic systems and be successful as a tool of [[economic development]].<ref>Brown, K. (2002). Innovations for Conservation and Development. The Geographical Journal,168(1), 6-17. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3451218 </ref>

[[National Park]]s are heavily managed conservation areas. The approach adopted by a conservation authority will influence the management of a Park and dictate how the park authorities view the role of the park and the relationship visitors may have with it.  
An example of a park adopting a populist approach is the [[Rouge National Urban Park]] located in Canada’s largest city [[Toronto]]. Though controlled by the Government of Canada through Parks Canada, the Rouge National Urban Park encourages the community to access the park to learn, play and live. The complexity of the Park being in a large metropolitan city has meant that [[Parks Canada]] has incorporated the surrounding communities into the planning, implementation, and management of the park.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/on/rouge/info/~/media/028EC69FE3264676AD660595012FED36.ashx|title=Rouge National Urban Park Management Plan|last=Parks Canada|date=2014|website=www.pc.gc.ca|access-date=2019-07-18}}</ref>

== Conservation Management Systems in Practice ==
Poorly managed or incorrectly manage conservation practices can have consequences beyond what is initially expected<ref name="":1"">{{Cite news|last=Gonzalez-Duarte|first=C|title=Butterflies, organized crime, and ''sad trees"": A critique of the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve Program in a context of rural violence|work=World Development}}</ref> while successful plans can make positive change. One example of unintended consequences of the Classic approach is the spread of organized crime in the Mexican Oyamel forest.<ref name="":1"" /> The land was made part of [[UNESCO]]'s [[Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve]] Program and had the intention of protecting the [[Migration (ecology)|migratory]] [[habitat]] of the [[monarch butterfly]]. Locals were pushed out to protect the habitat as part of the classic management approach. However, local crime organizations have now taken up residence and there have been numerous deaths and 'disappearances' in the area<ref name="":1"" /> An example of a plan that made positive change was that of the use of [[technoscience]] to create [[American chestnut tree]]s that were resistant to blight. Through crosses and manipulations, a lab at SUNY-ESF was able to create a [[blight resistance|blight resistant]] strain of hybrid American chestnut trees. In order to prevent privatization and patenting from limiting the access of conservation endeavors from using this strain, the lab chose to forego such neoliberal practices. This has led to positive impact in the conservation endeavors for the American chestnut tree but has also opened up the door to further biotechnological advances and possible [[commodification]] of related strains. <ref>{{Cite news|last=Barnes, J.C. and Delborne, J.A.|date=2021|title=The politics of genetic technoscience for conservation: The case of blight-resistant American chestnut. Environment and Planning E|work=Nature and Space}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Conservation management system (United Kingdom)]]
*[[Conservation ethic]]
*[[Conservation biology]]
*[[Environmental management]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.cmsconsortium.org/ Conservation Management System Consortium], an international partnership of conservation organisations from the UK and the Netherlands

{{conservation of species}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]"
Joint Forest Management,"{{Short description|Term for partnerships in forest movements}}
[[File:Arabari.jpg|thumb|Joint Forest Movement scheme at work upgraded forests of the [[Arabari]] forest range, [[Gujarat]]

(Rajeev kumar) ]]

'''Joint Forest Management''' often abbreviated as '''JFM''' is the official and popular term in [[India]] for partnerships in [[forest]] [[Social movement|movement]] involving both the state forest departments and local communities. The policies and objectives of Joint Forest Movement are detailed in the Indian comprehensive [[National Forest Policy, 1988|National Forest Policy]] of 1988<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://moef.nic.in/downloads/about-the-ministry/introduction-nfp.pdf|title=National Forest Policy, 1988|last=|first=|date=|website=Ministry of Environment, Forests and climate change|access-date=31 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329155216/http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/about-the-ministry/introduction-nfp.pdf|archive-date=29 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1>{{Cite web |url=http://www.manage.gov.in/managelib/extdig/Untitled-1.pdf#search=%22%22joint%20forest%20management%22%22 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-09-13 |archive-date=2006-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721111645/http://www.manage.gov.in/managelib/extdig/Untitled-1.pdf#search=%22%22joint%20forest%20management%22%22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the Joint Forest Management Guidelines of 1990 of the [[Government of India]].<ref>[http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/iffn/country/in/in_6.htm Lessons from Joint Forest Management<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

Although schemes vary from state to state and are known by different names in different [[Languages of India|Indian languages]], usually a village committee known as the Forest Protection Committee (FPC) and the Forest Department enter into a JFM agreement. Villagers agree to assist in the safeguarding of forest resources through protection from fire, grazing, and illegal harvesting in exchange for which they receive [[non-timber forest product]]s and a share of the revenue from the sale of [[timber]] products.<ref>[http://www.envfor.nic.in/divisions/forprt/terijfm.html Study on Joint Forest Management<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111095120/http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/forprt/terijfm.html |date=2007- hg 66gdedc.b01-11 }}</ref>

==Origins==
Joint forest management is concept of developing relationships between fringe forest groups and forest department on the basis of mutual trust and jointly defined roles and responsibilities for forest protection and development. Joint Forest Management originated in [[Odisha]] in 1988 . The major hardwood of [[Arabari|Arabari Forest Range]] is [[Sal tree|sal]], a commercially profitable forest crop. [[Ajit Kumar Banerjee]], a [[Silviculture|silviculturist]], working for the [[Indian Forest Service|Forest Department]] as the Divisional Forest Officer, was conducting trials which were constantly being disturbed by grazing and illegal harvesting by the local populace. At the time there were no initiatives for sharing of forest resources between the government and the locals, with the government considering many of the locals no more than ""thieves"".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/sourcebook/sb0207.pdf#search=%22arabari%20banerjee%22 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-09-13 |archive-date=2006-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060920234923/http://worldbank.org/wbi/sourcebook/sb0207.pdf#search=%22arabari%20banerjee%22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The forest official, against the suggestions of his co-workers, sought out representatives of eleven local villages and negotiated the terms of a contract with an ''ad hoc'' Forest Protection Committee. The initial program involved 612 families managing 12.7 square kilometres of forests classified as ""degraded"". 25% of profits from the forests were shared with the villagers. The experiment was successful and was expanded to other parts of the state in 1987. JFM is still in force at Arabari.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

A few years later, Joint Forest Management was employed in the state of [[Haryana]] to prevent [[soil erosion]] and [[deforestation]]. In 1977, villagers were persuaded that instead of [[grazing]] on erosion-prone hills, building small dams would help agricultural output on areas currently under cultivation. The program led to reforestation of many hills in the state. However, officially the state of [[Odisha]] remains the first to pass the first resolutions for JFM<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/1998/98sep27/haryana.htm#3 tribuneindia... Haryana<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

==Current status==
After the initial successes in West Bengal and Haryana, the JFM schemes received national importance in the legislation of 1988 and thrust in the Guidelines of 1998. As of 2000 27 states of the Indian Union had various JFM schemes with over 63,000 FPCs involved in the joint management of over 1400,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of forested land. In 2010 the areas increased to 2460000 km2 was managed by more than 112896 committees with around 14500000 families getting benefit from JFM programme.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rupfor.org/jfm.asp |title=Resource Unit for Participatory Forestry (RUPFOR) – Joint Forest Management |access-date=2006-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902012906/http://www.rupfor.org/jfm.asp |archive-date=2006-09-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Communal forests of India]]
*[[Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education]]̈
*[[National Forest Commission]]
*[[Social forestry]]
*[[Sustainable forest management]]
*[[Sustainable forestry]]
*[[Illegal logging]]
*[[Van Vigyan Kendra|Van Vigyan Kendra (VVK)]] Forest Science Centres

==References and notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060815120453/http://www.jfmindia.org/ A website with extensive research on the history, issues, case studies, and conflict resolution methods in JFM]
*[http://envfor.nic.in Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests webpage]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060828235453/http://wbln1018.worldbank.org/sar/sa.nsf/a22044d0c4877a3e852567de0052e0fa/acf2b8a3eb9f69878525687f00605632?OpenDocument Detailed World Bank case study of JFM in an Indian state]
*[http://www.manage.gov.in/managelib/extdig/Untitled-1.pdf#search=%22%22joint%20forest%20management%22%22 Government guidelines and highlights of JFM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721111645/http://www.manage.gov.in/managelib/extdig/Untitled-1.pdf#search=%22%22joint%20forest%20management%22%22 |date=2006-07-21 }}
* [http://www.myjungle.in My Jungle] – A website appealing for community collaborative forest conservation project by [http://snmcpn.org/ Sahyadri Nisarga Mitra], Chiplun. Maharashtra.

{{Forestry}}

[[Category:Communal forests of India]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in India]]
[[Category:Forest administration in India]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Indian forest law]]"
Category:Desert greening,"{{commonscat}}{{Cat main|desert greening}}
{{Portal|Ecology|Environment}}

[[Category:Deserts]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Land reclamation]]
[[Category:Permaculture]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Water conservation]]"
Near-threatened species,"{{Short description|IUCN conservation category}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Conservation status}}

A '''near-threatened species''' is a [[species]] which has been [[Conservation status|categorized]] as ""'''Near Threatened'''"" ('''NT''') by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) as that may be vulnerable to [[Endangered species|endangerment]] in the near future, but it does not currently qualify for the threatened status.<ref name=""IUCN FAQ"">{{cite web
 | url = https://www.iucnredlist.org/about/faqs#What%20are%20the%20Red%20List%20Categories%20and%20Criteria
 | title = What are The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria?
 | website = IUCN Red List
 | publisher = IUCN
 | access-date = 11 August 2020
 | archive-date = 11 August 2020
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200811002306/https://www.iucnredlist.org/about/faqs#What%20are%20the%20Red%20List%20Categories%20and%20Criteria
 | url-status = live
 }}</ref><ref name=""IUCN Summary sheet"">{{cite web
 | url = https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/summary_sheet_en_web.pdf
 | title = SUMMARY OF THE FIVE CRITERIA (A-E) USED TO EVALUATE IF A TAXON BELONGS IN AN IUCN RED LIST THREATENED CATEGORY (CRITICALLY ENDANGERED, ENDANGERED OR VULNERABLE)
 | website = IUCN Red List
 | publisher = IUCN
 | access-date = 11 August 2020
 | archive-date = 9 August 2020
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200809013820/https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/summary_sheet_en_web.pdf
 | url-status = live
 }}</ref>

The IUCN notes the importance of re-evaluating near-threatened [[taxon|taxa]] at appropriate intervals.

The rationale used for near-threatened taxa usually includes the criteria of [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] which are plausible or nearly met, such as reduction in numbers or range. Near-threatened species evaluated from 2001 onwards may also be ones which are dependent on conservation efforts to prevent their becoming threatened, whereas before this [[conservation-dependent species]] were given a separate category (""Conservation Dependent"").

Additionally, the 402 conservation-dependent taxa may also be considered near-threatened.

== IUCN Categories and Criteria version 2.3 ==
[[File:Status iucn2.3 NT.svg|left|Diagram of ''{{nowrap|Lower Risk{{\}}near threatened}}'' in the older IUCN version 2.3, beside the former ''{{nowrap|Lower Risk{{\}}conservation dependent}}'' subcategory.]]

Before 2001, the IUCN used the version 2.3 Categories and Criteria to assign [[conservation status]], which included a separate category for [[conservation-dependent]] species (""Conservation Dependent"", LR/cd). With this category system, Near Threatened and Conservation Dependent were both subcategories of the category ""Lower Risk"". Taxa which were last evaluated before 2001 may retain their LR/cd or LR/nt status, although had the category been assigned with the same information today the species would be designated simply ""Near Threatened (NT)"" in either case.

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode=""packed"">
File:Otter in Southwold.jpg|The near-threatened [[Eurasian otter]]
File:Maned wolf-aguara guazu.jpeg|The [[maned wolf]] is near-threatened largely as the result of habitat loss.
File:Gray Bat USACE.jpg|The [[gray bat]] was moved from ""endangered"" to ""near-threatened"" due to successful conservation efforts. It has now been moved to vulnerable.<ref name=""Grey bat status"">{{cite journal | url = https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/14132/22051652 | title = Myotis grisescens status | journal = IUCN Red List of Threatened Species | date = 24 February 2017 | publisher = IUCN | access-date = 2020-08-11 | archive-date = 25 October 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201025085211/https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/14132/22051652 | url-status = live }}</ref>
File:Plains zebra in Mlilwane Wildlife Sanctuary 02.jpg|[[Plains zebra]]s (or ''Equus quagga'') are listed as 'near threatened' by the IUCN.
File:Python regius.jpg|The [[ball python]], formerly a common species, had become near-threatened as a result of illegal trades and [[poaching]].
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[IUCN Red List near threatened species]], ordered by [[taxonomic rank]].
*[[:Category:IUCN Red List near threatened species]], ordered alphabetically.
*[[List of near threatened amphibians]]
*[[List of near threatened arthropods]]
*[[List of near threatened birds]]
*[[List of near threatened fishes]]
*[[List of near threatened insects]]
*[[List of near threatened invertebrates]]
*[[List of near threatened mammals]]
*[[List of near threatened molluscs]]
*[[List of near threatened reptiles]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/search/link/4cb7fb7b-41ac38af List of Near Threatened species] as identified by the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]

{{Threatened species |expanded}}
{{Threatened species by region}}
{{Portal bar|Ecology|Biology}}

[[Category:Near threatened species| ]]
[[Category:Near threatened plants| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Decline in amphibian populations,"{{short description|Ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide}}
[[File:Bufo periglenes2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Golden toad]] of [[Monteverde]], [[Costa Rica]], was among the first casualties of amphibian declines. Formerly abundant, it was last seen in 1989.]]
Since the 1980s, decreases in [[amphibian]] populations, including population decline and localized [[mass extinction]]s, have been observed in locations all over the world. This type of [[biodiversity loss]] is known as one of the most critical threats to global [[biodiversity]]. The possible causes include [[habitat destruction]] and modification, diseases, exploitation, [[pollution]], [[pesticide]] use, [[introduced species]], and [[ultraviolet-B]] radiation (UV-B). However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and the topic is currently a subject of ongoing research. 

Modeling results found that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the [[background extinction rate]]. This estimate even goes up to 25,000–45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McCallum |first1=M. L. |year=2007 |title=Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=483–491 |doi=10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=30162903 |url=https://www.herpconbio.org/~herpconb/McCallum/amphibian%20extinctions.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217133741/https://www.herpconbio.org/~herpconb/McCallum/amphibian%20extinctions.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-12-17 }}</ref>

Scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s. Nevertheless, awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a [[Holocene extinction|modern-day mass extinction]] only dates from the 1980s. By 1993, more than 500 species of [[Frog|frogs]] and [[Salamander|salamanders]] on all five continents were in decline.

== Observations ==
[[File:Distribuição das 2873 espécies de anfíbios globalmente ameaçadas - Luedtke et al. 2023.jpg|thumb|380px|The distribution of 2,873 globally threatened amphibian species.<ref>{{Cite Q|Q123056982}}</ref>]]
In the past three decades, declines in populations of amphibians (the [[Class (biology)|class]] of organisms that includes [[frogs]], [[toads]], [[salamanders]], [[newts]], and [[caecilians]]) have occurred worldwide. In 2004, the results were published of the first worldwide assessment of amphibian populations, the Global Amphibian Assessment. This found that 32% of species were globally threatened, at least 43% were experiencing some form of population decrease, and that between 9 and 122 species have become extinct since 1980.<ref name=""stuart"">{{cite journal |last1=Stuart |first1=Simon N. |last2=Chanson |first2=Janice S. |last3=Cox |first3=Neil A. |last4=Young |first4=Bruce E. |last5=Rodrigues |first5=Ana S. L. |last6=Fischman |first6=Debra L. |last7=Waller |first7=Robert W. |date=3 December 2004 |title=Status and Trends of Amphibian Declines and Extinctions Worldwide |journal=Science |pmid=15486254 |volume=306 |issue=5702 |pages=1783–1786 |doi=10.1126/science.1103538 |citeseerx=10.1.1.225.9620 |bibcode=2004Sci...306.1783S |s2cid=86238651 }}</ref> {{As of|2010}}, the [[IUCN Red List]], which incorporates the Global Amphibian Assessment and subsequent updates, lists 650 amphibian species as ""[[Critically Endangered]]"", and 35 as ""[[Extinct]]"".<ref name=""RedListAmphibiansCR"">{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/search/link/4c879f29-b092b8e2 |title=IUCN Red List - Search Results |work=[[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]. Version 2010.3 |publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] |access-date=September 8, 2010}}</ref> Despite the high risk this group faces, recent evidence suggests the public is growing largely indifferent to this and other environmental problems, posing serious problems for conservationists and environmental workers alike.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McCallum | first1 = M.L. | last2 = Bury | first2 = G.W. | year = 2013 | title = Google search patterns suggest declining interest in the environment | journal = Biodiversity and Conservation | volume = 22| issue = 6–7| pages = 1355–1367| doi = 10.1007/s10531-013-0476-6 | s2cid = 15593201 }}</ref>

Declines in amphibian populations were first widely recognized in the late 1980s{{Citation needed|date=September 2016}}, when a large gathering of [[herpetology|herpetologists]] reported noticing declines in populations in amphibians across the globe.<ref name=""blaustein"">{{cite journal | last1 = Blaustein | first1 = A.R. | last2 = Wake | first2 = D.B. | year = 1990 | title = Declining amphibian populations: a global phenomenon? | journal = Trends in Ecology and Evolution | volume = 5 | issue = 7| pages = 203–204 | doi=10.1016/0169-5347(90)90129-2}}</ref>  Among these species, the [[Golden toad]] (''Bufo periglenes'') [[Endemism|endemic]] to [[Monteverde]], [[Costa Rica]], featured prominently.  It was the subject of scientific research until populations suddenly crashed in 1987 and it had disappeared completely by 1989.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Crump | first1 = M.L. | last2 = Hensley | first2 = F.R. | last3 = Clark | first3 = K.I. | year = 1992 | title = Apparent decline of the golden toad: Underground or extinct? | journal = Copeia | volume = 1992 | issue = 2| pages = 413–420 | doi=10.2307/1446201| jstor = 1446201 }}</ref> Other species at Monteverde, including the Monteverde Harlequin Frog (''[[Atelopus varius]]''), also disappeared at the same time. Because these species were located in the pristine Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, and these extinctions could not be related to local human activities, they raised particular concern among biologists.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=J. Alan Pounds |author2=Martha L. Crump |s2cid=53330451 |title=Amphibian Declines and Climate Disturbance: The Case of the Golden Toad and the Harlequin Frog|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=8|issue=1|pages=72–85|year=1994|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010072.x}}</ref>

Many scientists believe that amphibians serve as ""[[Animal sentinel#Historical examples|canaries in a coal mine]],"" and that declines in amphibian populations and species indicate that other groups of animals and plants will soon be at risk.<ref name=""onethird"">''Science Daily'' (October 15, 2004), [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/10/041015103700.htm Amphibians in dramatic decline: Study finds nearly one third of species threatened with extinction]. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 18, 2007.</ref>

=== Initial skepticism ===
When amphibian declines were first presented as a conservation issue in the late 1980s, some scientists remained unconvinced of the reality and gravity of the conservation issue.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pechmann | first1 = J.H.K. | last2 = Scott | first2 = D.E. | last3 = Semlitsch | first3 = R.D. | last4 = Caldwell | first4 = J.P. | last5 = Vitt | first5 = L.J. | last6 = Gibbons | first6 = J.W. | s2cid = 27171692 | year = 1991 | title = Declining amphibian populations: the problem of separating human impacts from natural fluctuations | journal = Science | volume = 253 | issue = 5022| pages = 892–895 | doi=10.1126/science.253.5022.892 | pmid=17751826| bibcode = 1991Sci...253..892P }}</ref> Some biologists argued that populations of most organisms, amphibians included, naturally vary through time.  They argued that the lack of long-term data on amphibian populations made it difficult to determine whether the anecdotal declines reported by biologists were worth the (often limited) time and money of conservation efforts.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

However, since this initial skepticism, biologists have come to a consensus that declines in amphibian populations are a real and severe threat to biodiversity.<ref name=""stuart"" /> This consensus emerged with an increase in the number of studies that monitored amphibian populations, direct observation of mass mortality in pristine sites that lacked apparent cause, and an awareness that declines in amphibian populations are truly global in nature.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Houlahan | first1 = J.E. | last2 = Findlay | first2 = C.S. | last3 = Schmidt | first3 = B.R. | last4 = Meyer | first4 = A.H. | last5 = Kuzmin | first5 = S.L. | year = 2000 | title = Quantitative evidence for global amphibian population declines | journal = Nature | volume = 404 | issue = 6779| pages = 752–758 | doi = 10.1038/35008052| pmid = 10783886 | bibcode = 2000Natur.404..752H | s2cid = 4393392 }}</ref>

== Causes ==
[[Habitat destruction|Habitat loss]], disease and [[climate change]] are thought to be responsible for the drastic decline in populations in recent years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Conservation International - Amphibians |url=http://www.conservation.org/learn/biodiversity/species/profiles/amphibians/Pages/overview.aspx |access-date=8 August 2012}}</ref> 

Declines have been particularly intense in the western [[United States]], [[Central America]], [[South America]], eastern [[Australia]] and [[Fiji]] (although cases of amphibian extinctions have appeared worldwide). While human activities are causing a loss of much of the world's biodiversity, amphibians appear to be suffering much greater effects than other classes of organism. Because amphibians generally have a two-staged life cycle consisting of both [[aquatic animal|aquatic]] ([[larva]]e) and [[terrestrial animal|terrestrial]] ([[adult]]) phases, they are sensitive to both terrestrial and [[aquatic ecosystem|aquatic environmental]] effects.  Because their skins are highly permeable, they may be more susceptible to [[toxins]] in the environment than other organisms such as birds or mammals.<ref name=""onethird"" />  

Numerous potential explanations for amphibian declines have been proposed.  Most or all of these causes have been associated with some population declines, so each cause is likely to affect in certain circumstances but not others. Many of the causes of amphibian declines are well understood, and appear to affect other groups of organisms as well as amphibians. These causes include habitat modification and fragmentation, introduced predators or competitors, introduced species, pollution, pesticide use, or over-harvesting. However, many amphibian declines or extinctions have occurred in pristine habitats where the above effects are not likely to occur. The causes of these declines are complex, but many can be attributed to emerging diseases, climate change, increased ultraviolet-B radiation, or long-distance transmission of chemical contaminants by wind.

Artificial lighting has been suggested as another potential cause. Insects are attracted to lights making them scarcer within the amphibian habitats.<ref>Eisenbeis, G., 2006. Artificial night lighting and insects: Attraction of insects to streetlamps in a rural setting in Germany. In C. Rich & T. Longcore (eds), Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting. Island Press: 281-304.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baker | first1 = B.J. | last2 = Richardson | first2 = J.M.L. | year = 2006 | title = The effect of artificial light on male breeding-season behaviour in green frogs, ''Rana clamitans melanota'' | journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology | volume = 84 | issue = 10| pages = 1528–1532 | doi=10.1139/z06-142}}</ref>

=== Habitat modification ===
{{Main|Habitat destruction}}
[[Habitat]] modification or destruction is one of the most dramatic issues affecting amphibian species worldwide. As amphibians generally need aquatic and terrestrial habitats to survive, threats to either habitat can affect populations. Hence, amphibians may be more vulnerable to habitat modification than organisms that only require one habitat type. Large scale climate changes may further be modifying aquatic habitats, preventing amphibians from spawning altogether.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7693381.stm | work=BBC News | title=Climate link to amphibian decline | date=2008-10-27 | access-date=2010-05-01}}</ref>

=== Habitat fragmentation ===
{{Main|Habitat fragmentation}}
Habitat fragmentation occurs when habitats are isolated by habitat modification, such as when a small area of forest is completely surrounded by agricultural fields.  Small populations that survive within such fragments are often susceptible to [[inbreeding]], [[genetic drift]], or extinction due to small fluctuations in the environment. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Knozowski |first1=P. |last2=Górski |first2=A. |last3=Stawicka |first3=A. M. |last4=Nowakowski |first4=J. J. |date=2022-12-31 |title=Long-term changes in the diversity of amphibian communities inhabiting small water bodies in the urban area of Olsztyn (NE Poland) |journal=The European Zoological Journal |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=791–812 |doi=10.1080/24750263.2022.2087773|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Disease ===
Research from 2007 and 2018 indicated that the reemergence of varieties of [[Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis|chytrid fungi]] may account for a substantial fraction of the overall decline.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kriger |first1=Kerry M. |last2=Hero |first2=Jean‐Marc |date=26 July 2007 |title=The chytrid fungus ''Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis'' is non‐randomly distributed across amphibian breeding habitats |journal=Diversity and Distributions |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=781–788 |doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2007.00394.x |s2cid=85857635 |quote=Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has been implicated as the causative agent of mass moralities, population declines, and the extinctions of stream‐breeding amphibian species worldwide. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Retallick |first1=Richard W. R. |last2=Miera |first2=Verma |year=2007 |title=Strain differences in the amphibian chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and non-permanent, sub-lethal effects of infection |url=https://www.int-res.com/articles/dao2006/75/d075p201.pdf |journal=Diseases of Aquatic Organisms |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=201–207 |doi=10.3354/dao075201 |pmid=17629114 |quote=The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is likely the cause of numerous recent amphibian population declines worldwide. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=O’Hanlon |first1=Simon J |display-authors=etal |year=2018 |title=Recent Asian origin of chytrid fungi causing global amphibian declines |journal=Science |volume=360 |issue=6389 |pages=621–627 |bibcode=2018Sci...360..621O |doi=10.1126/science.aar1965 |pmc=6311102 |pmid=29748278}}</ref> 

A number of diseases have been related to mass die-offs or declines in populations of amphibians, including ""red-leg"" disease (''[[Aeromonas hydrophila]]''), ''[[Ranavirus]]'' (family [[Iridoviridae]]), ''[[Anuraperkinsus]]'', and [[chytridiomycosis]]. It is not entirely clear why these diseases have suddenly begun to affect amphibian populations, but some evidence suggests that these diseases may have been spread by humans, or may be more virulent when combined with other environmental factors.<ref name=""Daszaketal1999"">{{cite journal |last=Daszak |first=Peter |author2=Lee Berger |author3=Andrew A. Cunningham |author4=Alex D. Hyatt |author5=D. Earl Green |author6=Rick Speare |year=1999 |title=Emerging Infectious Diseases and Amphibian Population Declines. |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=735–48 |doi=10.3201/eid0506.990601 |pmc=2640803 |pmid=10603206}}</ref>

==== Trematodes ====
{{More information|Ribeiroia}}
[[File:Trematode cyst-infected Pacific Treefrog (Hyla regilla) with supernumerary limbs, from La Pine, Deschutes County, Oregon (9672239342).jpg|thumb|Trematode cyst-infected [[Pacific Tree Frog]] (''Hyla regilla'') with supernumerary limbs, from La Pine, Deschutes County, Oregon, 1998–9. This 'category I' deformity (polymelia) is believed to be caused by the trematode cyst infection. The cartilage is stained blue and calcified bones in red.]]
There is considerable evidence that parasitic [[trematode]] [[platyhelminth]]s (a type of [[Trematoda|fluke]]) have contributed to developmental abnormalities and population declines of amphibians in some regions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=P.T.J. |last2=Chase |first2=J.M. |year=2004 |title=Parasites in the food web: linking amphibian malformations and aquatic eutrophication |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=521–526 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00610.x}}</ref>  These trematodes of the genus ''[[Ribeiroia]]'' have a complex life cycle with three host species.  The first host includes a number of species of aquatic snails.  The early larval stages of the trematodes then are transmitted into aquatic tadpoles, where the metacercariae (larvae) encyst in developing limb buds.  These encysted life stages produce developmental abnormalities in post-metamorphic frogs, including additional or missing limbs.<ref name=""blaustein"" />  These abnormalities increase frog predation by aquatic birds, the final host of the trematode.

[[File:P. regilla with parasite-induced limb malformation.png|thumb|[[Pacific Tree Frog]] with limb malformation induced by ''[[Ribeiroia ondatrae]]'']]
A study showed that high levels of nutrients used in farming and ranching activities fuel parasite infections that have caused frog deformities in ponds and lakes across North America. The study showed increased levels of nitrogen and phosphorus cause sharp hikes in the abundance of trematodes, and that the parasites subsequently form cysts in the developing limbs of tadpoles causing missing limbs, extra limbs and other severe malformations including five or six extra or even no limbs.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Johnson PTJ |author2=Jonathan M. Chase |author3=Katherine L. Dosch |author4=Richard B. Hartson |author5=Jackson A. Gross |author6=Don J. Larson |author7=Daniel R. Sutherland |author8=Stephen R. Carpenter |year=2007 |title=Aquatic eutrophication promotes pathogenic infection in amphibians |journal=PNAS |volume=104 |issue=40 |pages=15781–15786 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10415781J |doi=10.1073/pnas.0707763104 |pmc=2000446 |pmid=17893332 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Pollution and chemical contaminants ===
There is evidence of chemical [[pollutant]]s causing frog developmental deformities (extra limbs, or malformed eyes).<ref>{{cite journal|title=The complexity of deformed amphibians|author1=Blaustein, Andrew R|author2=Pieter TJ Johnson|journal=Front. Ecol. Environ.|year=2003|volume=1|issue=2|pages=87–94|url=http://tiee.ecoed.net/vol/v2/issues/frontier_sets/amphibians/pdf/Frontiers-Blaustein-Johnson.pdf|doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0087:TCODA]2.0.CO;2|issn=1540-9295|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029213623/http://tiee.ecoed.net/vol/v2/issues/frontier_sets/amphibians/pdf/Frontiers-Blaustein-Johnson.pdf|archive-date=2013-10-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Burkhart, James G. |author2=Gerald Ankley |author3=Heidi Bell |author4=Hillary Carpenter |author5=Douglas Fort |author6=David Gardiner |author7=Henry Gardner |author8=Robert Hale |author9=Judy C. Helgen |author10=Paul Jepson |author11=Douglas Johnson |author12=Michael Lannoo |author13=David Lee |author14=Joseph Lary |author15=Rick Levey |year=2000 |title=Strategies for assessing the implications of malformed frogs for environmental health |url=https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/ehp.0010883 |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=83–90 |doi=10.1289/ehp.0010883 |jstor=3454299 |pmc=1637865 |pmid=10620528 |author16=Joseph Magner |author17=Carol Meteyer |author18=Michael D. Shelby |author19=George Lucier |display-authors=3}} [https://wayback.archive-it.org/20032/20221214170903/https://www.niehs.nih.gov/news/newsroom/releases/1997/november18/index.cfm Associated workshop held on December 4-5, 1997].</ref> Pollutants have varying effects on frogs.  Some alter the [[central nervous system]]; others cause a disruption in the production and secretion of hormones. Experimental studies have also shown that exposure to commonly used herbicides such as [[glyphosate]] (Tradename [[Roundup (herbicide)|Roundup]]) or insecticides such as [[malathion]] or [[carbaryl]] greatly increase mortality of tadpoles.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Relyea | first1 = R.A. | year = 2004 | title = The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 618–627 | doi=10.1890/03-5342}}</ref> Additional studies have indicated that terrestrial adult stages of amphibians are also susceptible to non-active ingredients in Roundup, particularly [[Polyethoxylated tallow amine|POEA]], which is a [[surfactant]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Relyea | first1 = R.A. | year = 2005 | title = The lethal impact of Roundup on aquatic and terrestrial amphibians | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 15 | issue = 4| pages = 1118–1124 | doi=10.1890/04-1291}}</ref> Although sex reversal in some species of frogs occur naturally in pristine  environments, certain estrogen-like pollutants can forcibly induce these changes.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/frogs-reverse-sex-more-often-than-thought | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210220224800/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/frogs-reverse-sex-more-often-than-thought | url-status = dead | archive-date = February 20, 2021 | title = Healthy frogs can mysteriously reverse their sex | work= National Geographic}}</ref> In a study conducted in a laboratory at Uppsala University in Sweden, more than 50% of frogs exposed to levels of estrogen-like pollutants existing in natural bodies of water in Europe and the United States became females. Tadpoles exposed even to the weakest concentration of estrogen were twice as likely to become females while almost all of the control group given the heaviest dose became female.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070227/sc_afp/scienceenvironmentanimalssexfrogs_070227120242 | title = Pollutants change 'he' frogs into 'she' frogs | work= Yahoo! News | access-date = 2007-03-01 | year = 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070302073022/http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070227/sc_afp/scienceenvironmentanimalssexfrogs_070227120242 |archive-date = March 2, 2007}}</ref>

While most pesticide effects are likely to be local and restricted to areas near agriculture, there is evidence from the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] mountains of the western United States that pesticides are traveling long distances into pristine areas, including [[Yosemite National Park]] in [[California]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Grossi, Mark |title=Sierra Frogs Fall Silent|journal=The Fresno Bee|date=24 July 2001|url = http://www.yosemite.org/newsroom/clips2001/July/072401.html|access-date=2008-10-02|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070618083908/http://www.yosemite.org/newsroom/clips2001/July/072401.html |archive-date = June 18, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Some recent evidence points to [[ozone]] as a possible contributing factor to the worldwide decline of amphibians.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dohm | first1 = M.R. | year = 2005 | title = Effects of ozone exposure on nonspecific phagocytic capacity of pulmonary macrophages from an amphibian, ''Bufo marinus'' | journal = Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry | volume = 24 | issue = 1| pages = 205–210 | doi=10.1897/04-040r.1| pmid = 15683185 | s2cid = 6574504 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

=== Ozone depletion, ultraviolet radiation and cloud cover ===
{{See also|Climate change}}
Like many other organisms, increasing [[ultraviolet-B]] (UVB) radiation due to stratospheric [[ozone depletion]] and other factors may harm the [[DNA]] of amphibians, particularly their eggs.<ref>{{Cite news
 | date = November 1995
 | title = Ambient UV-B radiation causes deformities in amphibian embryos
 | periodical = [[PNAS]]
 | volume = 92
 | pages = 11049–11052
 | url = http://www.pnas.org/content/94/25/13735.full?ijkey=go9pEPNU9CiQY
 | doi =10.1073/pnas.92.24.11049
 |author1=Andrew R. Blaustein |author2=Joseph M. Kiesecker |author3=Douglas P. Chivers |author4=Robert G. Anthony | pmid = 9391095
| doi-access = free
 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Belden|first=Lisa K.|author2=Blaustein, Andrew R.|title=Population differences in sensitivity to UV-b radiation for larval long-toed salamanders|journal=Ecology|year=2002|volume=83|issue=6|pages=1586–1590|doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[1586:PDISTU]2.0.CO;2|url=http://people.oregonstate.edu/~blaustea/pdfs/BeldenBlausteinEcology.pdf|issn=0012-9658}}</ref> The amount of damage depends upon the life stage, the species type and other environmental parameters. Salamanders and frogs that produce less [[photolyase]], an enzyme that counteracts DNA damage from UVB, are more susceptible to the effects of loss of the ozone layer. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation may not kill a particular species or life stage but may cause sublethal damage.

More than three dozen species of amphibians have been studied, with severe effects reported in more than 40 publications in peer-reviewed journals representing authors from North America, Europe and Australia. Experimental enclosure approaches to determine UVB effects on egg stages have been criticized; for example, egg masses were placed at water depths much shallower than is typical for natural oviposition sites.  While UVB radiation is an important stressor for amphibians,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bancroft | first1 = B.A. |display-authors=et al | year = 2007 | title = Effects of UVB radiation on marine and freshwater organisms: a synthesis through meta-analysis | journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 10 | issue = 4| pages = 332–345 | doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01022.x| pmid = 17355571 }}</ref> its effect on the egg stage may have been overstated.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Licht | first1 = LE | year = 2003 | title = Shedding Light on Ultraviolet Radiation and Amphibian Embryos | journal = BioScience | volume = 53 | issue = 6| pages = 551–561 | doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0551:sloura]2.0.co;2| doi-access = free }}</ref>

<!-- this was moved from a ""global warming"" section added 1 nov 08 -->Anthropogenic climate change has likely exerted a major effect on amphibian declines.  For example, in the Monteverde Cloud Forest, a series of unusually warm years led to the mass disappearances of the Monteverde Harlequin frog and the Golden Toad.<ref name=""Pounds et al 2006"">{{cite journal|last=Alan Pounds|first=J.|author2=Bustamante, Martín R. |author3=Coloma, Luis A. |author4=Consuegra, Jamie A. |author5=Fogden, Michael P. L. |author6=Foster, Pru N. |author7=La Marca, Enrique |author8=Masters, Karen L. |author9=Merino-Viteri, Andrés |author10=Puschendorf, Robert |author11=Ron, Santiago R. |author12=Sánchez-Azofeifa, G. Arturo |author13=Still, Christopher J. |author14=Young, Bruce E. |title=Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming|journal=Nature|year=2006|volume=439|issue=7073|pages=161–167|doi=10.1038/nature04246|url=http://webpages.icav.up.pt/ptdc/bia-bec/099915/2008/9.Pounds%20et%20al%202006%20Nature.pdf|pmid=16407945|bibcode=2006Natur.439..161A|s2cid=4430672}}</ref>  An increased level of [[cloud cover]], a result of [[geoengineering]]{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} and global warming, which has warmed the nights and cooled daytime temperatures, has been blamed for facilitating the growth and proliferation of the fungus ''Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis'' (the causative agent of the fungal infection [[chytridiomycosis]]).

[[File:Ecnomiohyla rabborum 2.jpg|thumb|An adult male ''[[Ecnomiohyla rabborum]]'' in the [[Atlanta Botanical Garden]], a species ravaged by ''[[Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis]]'' in its native habitat.  It was the last known surviving member of its species, and with its death on Sept 28, 2016, the species is believed to be extinct.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Messenger|first1=Stephen|title=Last Frog Of His Kind Dies Alone|url=https://www.thedodo.com/last-frog-of-his-kind-dies-2023519285.html|website=The Dodo|access-date=30 September 2016|date=2016-09-30}}</ref><ref name=""ZA2"">{{cite web|url=http://www.zooatlanta.org/home/article_content/leapyear|title=It's Leap Year. Remember the Rabbs' tree frog.|author=Zoo Atlanta|date=February 17, 2012|publisher=Atlanta Fulton County Zoo|access-date=March 12, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524060207/http://www.zooatlanta.org/home/article_content/leapyear|archive-date=May 24, 2012}}</ref>]]

Although the immediate cause of the die offs was the chytrid, climate change played a pivotal role in the extinctions. Researchers included this subtle connection in their inclusive climate-linked epidemic hypothesis, which acknowledged climatic change as a key factor in amphibian extinctions both in Costa Rica and elsewhere.<ref name=""PoundsetalReply2007"">{{cite journal|last=Pounds|first=J. Alan|author2=Bustamante, Martín R. |author3=Coloma, Luis A. |author4=Consuegra, Jamie A. |author5=Fogden, Michael P. L. |author6=Foster, Pru N. |author7=La Marca, Enrique |author8=Masters, Karen L. |author9=Merino-Viteri, Andrés |author10=Puschendorf, Robert |author11=Ron, Santiago R. |author12=Sánchez-Azofeifa, G. Arturo |author13=Still, Christopher J. |author14=Young, Bruce E. |title=Global warming and amphibian losses; The proximate cause of frog declines? (Reply)|journal=Nature|year=2007|volume=447|issue=7144|pages=E5–E6|doi=10.1038/nature05942|bibcode=2007Natur.447....5P|s2cid=4372607}}</ref>

New evidence has shown global warming to also be capable of directly degrading toads' body condition and survivorship.<ref name=""Reading2006"">{{cite journal|last=Reading|first=C. J.|title=Linking global warming to amphibian declines through its effects on female body condition and survivorship|journal=Oecologia|year=2006|volume=151|issue=1|pages=125–131|doi=10.1007/s00442-006-0558-1|pmid=17024381|s2cid=24832716|url=http://www.salvemossapos.com/threats/pdfs/Reading-2007-Global-Warming.pdf|access-date=2014-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202112142/http://www.salvemossapos.com/threats/pdfs/Reading-2007-Global-Warming.pdf|archive-date=2014-02-02|url-status=dead}}</ref>   Additionally, the phenomenon often colludes with landscape alteration, pollution, and species invasions to effect amphibian extinctions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pounds|first=J. Alan|author2=Puschendorf, Robert|title=Ecology: Clouded Futures (News & Views)|journal=Nature|year=2004|volume=427|issue=6970|pages=107–109|doi=10.1038/427107a|pmid=14712258|s2cid=877425}}</ref>

=== Introduced predators ===
{{Main|Introduced species}}
Non-native predators and competitors have also been found to affect the viability of frogs in their habitats.  The [[mountain yellow-legged frog]] which typically inhabits the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] lakes have seen a decline in numbers due to stocking of non-native fish ([[trout]]) for recreational [[fishing]].  The developing tadpoles and froglets fall prey to the fish in large numbers. This interference in the frog's three-year [[Metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]] is causing a decline that is manifest throughout their ecosystem.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Knapp | first1 = R. A. | last2 = Matthews | first2 = K. R. | s2cid = 51734566 | year = 2000 | title = Non-native fish introductions and the decline of the mountain yellow-legged frog from within protected areas | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 428–438 | doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99099.x}}</ref>

=== Increased noise levels ===
Frogs and toads are highly vocal, and their reproductive behaviour often involves the use of vocalizations. There have been suggestions that increased noise levels caused by human activities may be contributing to their declines. In a study in Thailand, increased [[ambient noise level]]s were shown to decrease calling in some species and to cause an increase in others.<ref name=""Anthropogenic sounds"">{{cite journal|last=Sun|first=Jennifer W.C.|author2=Narins, Peter M.|title=Anthropogenic sounds differentially affect amphibian call rate|journal=Biological Conservation|year=2005|volume=121|issue=3|pages=419–427|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2004.05.017|url=https://www.ibp.ucla.edu/Faculty/Narins/publications/pdfs/Sun%20and%20Narins%20BC.pdf}}</ref>  This has, however, not been shown to be a cause for the widespread decline.

== Symptoms of stressed populations ==
Amphibian populations in the beginning stages of decline often exhibit a number of signs, which may potentially be used to identify at-risk segments in conservation efforts.  One such sign is developmental instability, which has been proven as evidence of environmental stress.<ref name=Alfordetal2007>{{cite journal|last=Alford|first=Ross A.|author2=Bradfield, Kay S. |author3=Richards, Stephen J. |title=Ecology: Global warming and amphibian losses|journal=Nature|year=2007|volume=447|issue=7144|pages=E3–E4|doi=10.1038/nature05940|url=http://eprints.jcu.edu.au/16656/1/16656.pdf|pmid=17538571|bibcode=2007Natur.447....3A|s2cid=4412404}}</ref>   This environmental stress can potentially raise susceptibility to diseases such as chytridiomycosis, and thus lead to amphibian declines.  In a study conducted in [[Queensland]], Australia, for example, populations of two amphibian species, ''[[Litoria nannotis]]'' and ''[[Litoria genimaculata]]'', were found to exhibit far greater levels of limb asymmetry in pre-decline years than in control years, the latter of which preceded die offs by an average of 16 years.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}  Learning to identify such signals in the critical period before population declines occur might greatly improve conservation efforts.

== Conservation measures ==
{{See also|Amphibian Ark}}
The first response to reports of declining amphibian populations was the formation of the Declining Amphibian Population Task Force (DAPTF) in 1990. DAPTF led efforts for increased amphibian population monitoring in order to establish the extent of the problem, and established working groups to look at different issues.<ref name=""journals.openedition.org"">P. J. Bishop, A. Angulo, J. P. Lewis, Robin D. Moore, G. B. Rabb and J. Garcia Moreno, « The Amphibian Extinction Crisis - what will it take to put the action into the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan? », S.A.P.I.EN.S [Online], 5.2 | 2012, Online since 12 August 2012, connection on 09 April 2019. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/sapiens/1406</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Alastair Campbell |year=1999|publisher=Environment Australia|isbn=0-642-54656-8|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/pubs/frogs.pdf|title=Declines and disappearances of Australian frogs|oclc=44894378|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114145514/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/pubs/frogs.pdf|archive-date=2011-11-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> Results were communicated through the newsletter Froglog.

Much of this research went into the production of the first Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA), which was published in 2004 and assessed every known amphibian species against the IUCN Red List criteria. This found that approximately one third of amphibian species were threatened with extinction.<ref>Stuart et al (2004) Status and Trends of Amphibian Declines and Extinctions Worldwide. Science. Vol. 306, Issue 5702, pp. 1783-1786. {{doi|10.1126/science.1103538}}</ref> As a result of these shocking findings an Amphibian Conservation Summit was held in 2005, because it was considered ""morally irresponsible to document amphibian declines and extinctions without also designing and promoting a response to this global crisis"".<ref name=""Gascon 2007"">{{cite conference | editor1-first=Claude | editor1-last=Gascon | editor2-first=James P. | editor2-last=Collins | editor3-first=Robin D. | editor3-last=Moore | editor4-first=Don R. | editor4-last=Church | editor5-first=Jeanne E. | editor5-last=McKay | editor6-first=Joseph R. | editor6-last=Mendelson III | date=2007 | title=Amphibian Conservation Action Plan | location=[[Gland]]/[[Cambridge]] | publisher=[[IUCN]] SSC Amphibian Specialist Group | s2cid=87645483}}</ref>

Outputs from the Amphibian Conservation Summit included the first Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP)<ref name=""Gascon 2007""/> and to merge the DAPTF and the Global Amphibian Specialist Group into the [[IUCN]] SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (ASG).<ref name=""journals.openedition.org""/> The ACAP established the elements required to respond to the crisis, including priority actions on a variety of thematic areas. The ASG is a global volunteer network of dedicated experts who work to provide the scientific foundation for effective amphibian conservation action around the world.

The ACAP (Gascon et al 2007), concerned that time and capability were short, recommended that all relevant species be immediately incorporated into ex situ [[breeding program]]s.<ref name=""Silla-Byrne-2019"">{{cite journal | last1=Silla | first1=Aimee J. | last2=Byrne | first2=Phillip G. | title=The Role of Reproductive Technologies in Amphibian Conservation Breeding Programs | journal=[[Annual Review of Animal Biosciences]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=7 | issue=1 | date=2019-02-15 | issn=2165-8102 | doi=10.1146/annurev-animal-020518-115056 | pages=499–519| pmid=30359086 | s2cid=53098666 | doi-access=free }}</ref> On 16 February 2007, scientists worldwide met in [[Atlanta]], [[United States|U.S.]], to form a group called the [[Amphibian Ark]] to help save more than 6,000 species of amphibians from disappearing by starting [[captive breeding]] programmes.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?we_cat=9&art_id=38447&sid=12249536&con_type=1&d_str=20070216 | title = Bid to save frogs from killer goes worldwide | access-date = 2007-02-22 | year = 2007 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151018180029/http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?we_cat=9&art_id=38447&sid=12249536&con_type=1&d_str=20070216 | archive-date = 2015-10-18 }}</ref> Overall between the call to action in 2007 and 2019 there has been a 57% increase in number of breeding programs, or 77 additional species.<ref name=""Silla-Byrne-2019"" />

Areas with noticed frog extinctions, like Australia, have few policies that have been created to prevent the extinction of these species.  However, local initiatives have been placed where conscious efforts to decrease global warming will also turn into a conscious effort towards saving the frogs. In South America, where there is also an increased decline of amphibian populations, there is no set policy to try to save frogs. Some suggestions would include getting entire governments to place a set of rules and institutions as a source of guidelines that local governments have to abide by.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.frogs.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929231921/http://frogs.org/|archive-date=29 September 2023|title = Amphibian Conservation Alliance|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.denverzoo.org/conservation/project46]{{dead link|date=May 2013}}</ref>

A critical issue is how to design protected areas for amphibians which will provide suitable conditions for their survival. Conservation efforts through the use of protected areas have shown to generally be a temporary solution to population decline and extinction because the amphibians become inbred.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Amphibians, Reptiles, and their Conservation|url = https://archive.org/details/amphibiansreptil00crum|url-access = registration|last = Crump|first = M.|publisher = Linnet Books|year = 2002|location = North Haven, CT|isbn = 9780208025111}}</ref> It is crucial for most amphibians to maintain a high level of genetic variation through large and more diverse environments.

Education of local people to protect amphibians is crucial, along with legislation for local protection and limiting the use of toxic chemicals, including some fertilizers and pesticides in sensitive amphibian areas.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The New Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians (2 ed.)|last = Halliday, Adler|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 2008|isbn = 9780198525073|location = Online}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Amphibians}}
* [[Effects of pesticides on amphibians]]
* [[Holocene extinction]]
* [[Colony collapse disorder]]
* [[Decline in insect populations]]
* [[White nose syndrome]]
* [[The Sixth Extinction (book)|''The Sixth Extinction'']] (book)
* ''[[Racing Extinction]]'' (film)

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
<!-- Dead note ""Licht"": Licht, L.E. 2003. Shedding light on ultraviolet radiation and amphibian embryos. BioScience 53: 551-561. -->
<!-- Dead note ""Lannoo"": Lannoo, M. ed.2005. Amphibian declines. University of California Press. Berkeley. -->
<!-- Dead note ""Semlitsch"": Semlitsch, R.D. ed. 2003. Amphibian Conservation. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington. D.C. -->
<!-- Dead note ""Gordon"": Gordon, M.S. and S.M. Bartol. eds. Experimental approaches to conservation biology. University of California Press. Berkeley.  -->

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100217145333/http://www.frogweb.gov/ FrogWeb: Amphibian Declines & Malformations]
* [http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians IUCN Red List - Amphibians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701164228/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians |date=2014-07-01 }} – assesses the current status of amphibian species worldwide (incorporates the Global Amphibian Assessment)
* [http://www.amphibiaweb.org/declines/declines.html AmphibiaWeb] – provides background information on amphibian declines.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090210171452/http://alternatives2toxics.pointinspace.com/fmi/iwp/cgi?-db=A2T_HerpDB&-loadframes Reptile Amphibian & Pesticide (RAP) Database]
* [http://www.ourstolenfuture.org/NEWSCIENCE/wildlife/frogs/2003/2003-1023hayesetal.htm Weedicide induced feminization]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090912024029/http://www.qldfrogs.asn.au/01_cms/details.asp?ID=36 Photos of Sick Frogs] at Queensland Frog Society

{{good article}}
{{Doomsday}}
{{Extinction}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Decline In Amphibian Populations}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Extinct amphibians]]
[[Category:Population ecology]]
[[Category:Amphibian extinctions since 1500]]
[[Category:Amphibian conservation]]"
Elephant hunting in Kenya,"[[File:Loxodonta africana -Amboseli National Park, Kenya-8.jpg|thumb|350px|An African elephant in [[Amboseli National Park]], Kenya.]]
'''Elephant hunting''', which used to be an accepted activity '''in Kenya''', was banned in 1973, as was the [[ivory trade]]. Kenya pioneered the [[destruction of ivory]] as a way to combat this [[black market]].

==History==
===Colonial Kenya===
During [[British Kenya|colonial times]], elephant hunting in Kenya was seen as a sport for noblemen and was exploited by the colonial governors.<ref name=""History1915"">{{cite book|author=American Museum of Natural History|title=The American Museum journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=66seAQAAIAAJ|access-date=6 May 2011|year=1915|publisher=American Museum of Natural History}}</ref> [[British East Africa]] was not unique in this: [[big-game hunting]] was popular in many parts of [[British Empire|the Empire]]. 

Among the [[white hunter]]s, the bull elephant was said to be the most exhilarating target. Small-bore [[rifle]]s appeared to be the preferred option and aiming at the brain instead of the heart was another preference. The motive was not always monetary. However, many hunters were indiscriminate in their choice of elephants to kill – young, old, male or female, it did not matter, as the primary purpose was ivory to sell and [[elephant meat]] to feed their hunting party.<ref name=""Steinhart2006"">{{cite book|last=Steinhart|first=Edward I.|title=Black poachers, white hunters: a social history of hunting in colonial Kenya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXaP-eY493cC&pg=PA71|access-date=6 May 2011|year=2006|publisher=James Currey|isbn=978-0-85255-960-4|page=71}}</ref> 

The [[East African Professional Hunter's Association]] was formed to regulate the industry and restrict its excesses. The Association, which came into being at the [[Fairmont The Norfolk Hotel|Norfolk Hotel]], Nairobi, stemmed from a desire to regulate hunting in the wake of technological developments like the safari vehicle, which had made accessing remote hunting areas much easier. During its existence it was able to accomplish much to conserve East African wildlife and become perhaps one of the most respected societies in the world of its kind.<ref name=herne167>{{cite book |title=White Hunters: The Golden Age of African Safaris |last=Herne |first=Brian |year= 1999 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company, LLC |location=New York |page=167 }}</ref>  

One of the most prolific of the white hunters was the Scottish adventurer [[W. D. M. Bell]], who is reported to have killed over a thousand elephants, spread across several African countries. <ref name=""Barclay"">{{cite book|last=Barclay|first=Edgar N|title=Big Game Shooting Records 1931|publisher=HF&G Witherby|chapter=Chapter One - correspondence with WDM Bell and author}}</ref> See the first of his memoirs, ''The Wanderings of an Elephant Hunter'' (1923), for more information. Some of the madness of the desire to shoot an elephant (albeit not in Kenya) is shown in ''[[White Hunter Black Heart]]'', a fictionalised version of what happened during the filming of the Hollywood classic ''[[The African Queen (film)|African Queen]]''.

In 1963, the [[History_of_Kenya#Independence|first year of independence]], the [[government of Kenya|Kenyan government]] issued 393 permits ([[hunting license]]s) for elephants.<ref name=""McNickle2004"">{{cite book|last=McNickle|first=Dan|title=Teaching and Hunting in East Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdSHVaGcCwsC&pg=PT275|access-date=6 May 2011|date=19 March 2004|publisher=Trafford Publishing|isbn=978-1-4120-1935-4|page=275}}</ref> 

In the 1950s and 1960s, the Kenyan poacher received approximately Shs. 3-4/lb ($.79–1.05/kg); by the 1970s, it was Shs. 100/kg ($12.74/kg), increasing the black market value for the primary producer from about one-fifth to one-third of the real value.<ref>Douglas-Hamilton, p. 77</ref>

===The ban, and ivory smuggling===
According to the American hunter [[Craig Boddington]], elephant hunting was made illegal in Kenya in 1973 and all animal hunting without a permit in 1977.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sportsafield.com/notes-from-afield/africas-elephant-explosion|title=Africa's elephant explosion|publisher=Sportsafield|access-date=6 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510154017/http://www.sportsafield.com/notes-from-afield/africas-elephant-explosion|archive-date=10 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> 

By the late 1970s, the elephant population was estimated around 275,000, dropping to 20,000 in 1989.<ref name=""ifaw.org2004"">{{cite web|url=http://www.ifaw.org/Publications/Program_Publications/Elephants/asset_upload_file236_12046.pdf |title=Elephants on the High Street |date=March 2004 |publisher=International Fund for Animal Welfare |pages=18 |access-date=9 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928081306/http://www.ifaw.org/Publications/Program_Publications/Elephants/asset_upload_file236_12046.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref> Between 1970 and 1977, Kenya lost more than half of its elephants.<ref name=""savetheelephants.org1979"">{{cite web|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:aVmYNQzzD6wJ:www.savetheelephants.org/files/pdf/publications/1979%2520Douglas-Hamilton%2520African%2520Elephant%2520Ivory%2520Trade%2520Study.pdf+kenya+elephant+ivory&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjXA_YT_db_nctmmbthPos3ND898AdycIwZxSwqAQrLb1EIJtiFy256vXYlu78njDGIelvBtUYi8MCWD2QDoME2zD-lemLDTFdcthjgS-0H2z4G-GbaepaVoeawZDsvloI2C8Ix&sig=AHIEtbRtWTmA6gOHe3MIqyQSFH3bpPFppg|title=AFRICAN ELEPHANT IVORY TRADE STUDY FINAL REPORT|first=I. |last=Douglas-Hamilton|date=August 1979|work=savetheelephants.org|page=19|access-date=9 May 2011}}</ref> 

In the 1970s, [[Ngina Kenyatta]] (Mama Ngina), wife of then-President [[Jomo Kenyatta]], and other high-level government officials were allegedly involved in an ivory-smuggling ring that transported tusks out of the country in the state private aeroplane.<ref name=""Information1975"">{{cite book|title=New Scientist|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zE74f2fU1iwC&pg=PA452|access-date=8 May 2011|date=22 May 1975|publisher=Reed Business Information|page=452|issn=0262-4079}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=""Bonner1993"">{{cite book|last=Bonner|first=Raymond|title=At the hand of man: peril and hope for Africa's wildlife|url=https://archive.org/details/athandofmanperil00bonn|url-access=registration|access-date=8 May 2011|year=1993|publisher=Knopf|isbn=978-0-679-40008-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/athandofmanperil00bonn/page/51 51]}}</ref><ref name=""Society1980"">{{cite book|title=Animal kingdom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oAEdAQAAMAAJ|access-date=8 May 2011|year=1980|publisher=New York Zoological Society}}</ref><ref name=""Wieland2004""/><ref name=""Munger1983"">{{cite book|last=Munger|first=Edwin S.|title=Touched by Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=06MMAAAAIAAJ|access-date=8 May 2011|year=1983|publisher=Castle Press|isbn=978-0-934912-00-6}}</ref>  ''New Scientist'' claimed that there was now documentary proof that at least one member of ""Kenya's royal family"" (the Kenyatta) had shipped over six tons of ivory to China.<ref name=""Information1975""/> 

In the 1970s, 1900 elephants were killed in Kenya for their ivory tusks, increasing to 8300 elephants in the 1980s.<ref name=""Lowery1997"" />

===The worldwide ban on ivory trade===
In 1989, as a dramatic gesture to persuade the world to halt the ivory trade, President [[Daniel arap Moi]] [[Destruction_of_ivory#Kenya and the first fires|ignited twelve tons of elephant tusks]].<ref name=""Perlez1989"">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/19/world/kenya-in-gesture-burns-ivory-tusks.html|title=KENYA, IN GESTURE, BURNS IVORY TUSKS|last=Perlez|first=Jane|date=July 19, 1989|work=[[The New York Times]]  |access-date=9 May 2011}}</ref> 

In the 1990s the widespread ban on commercial ivory trading reduced the industry to a fraction of what it had been and elephant populations have stabilised.<ref name=""Wieland2004"">{{cite book|last=Wieland|first=Terry|title=A view from a tall hill: Robert Ruark in Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CflNHBquJWAC&pg=PA411|access-date=6 May 2011|date=25 March 2004|publisher=Down East Enterprise Inc|isbn=978-0-89272-650-9|page=411}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> But illegal poaching and sale on the black market still poses a serious threat, as does government bribery. The largest poaching incident in Kenya since the ivory trade ban occurred in March 2002, when a family of ten elephants was killed.<ref name=""ifaw.org2004"" />

Illegal elephant deaths decreased between 1990, when the [[CITES]] ban was issued, and 1997, when only 34 were illegally killed.<ref name=""Lowery1997"">{{cite web|url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/poach.htm|title=ICE Case Studies - CASE NUMBER: 33 - CASE MNEMONIC: POACH - CASE NAME: Ivory Poaching |first=N. |last=Lowery |date=December 1997|publisher=[[American University]]|access-date=9 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505054639/http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/poach.htm |archive-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> Ivory seizures rose dramatically since 2006 with many illegal exports going to Asia.<ref name=""cnn.com2011"">{{cite news |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-06/world/kenya.illegal.ivory_1_illegal-ivory-elephant-tusks-kenyan-elephants?_s=PM:WORLD |title=Kenya finds Illegal ivory in boxes disguised as diplomatic baggage |date=May 6, 2011 |publisher=CNN |access-date=9 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513075330/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-06/world/kenya.illegal.ivory_1_illegal-ivory-elephant-tusks-kenyan-elephants?_s=PM%3AWORLD |archive-date=13 May 2011 }}</ref> Poaching spiked seven-fold between 2007 and 2010.<ref name=""Straziuso2010"">{{cite news|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/37167109|title=Ivory trade threatens African elephant |last=Straziuso|first=Jason |author2=Michael Casey |author3=William Foreman |date=2010-05-15|publisher=Associated Press|access-date=9 May 2011}}</ref> 

Large scale tourism promotion picked up in Kenya following the imposed hunting ban in Kenya since 1977. It has been noted that ""photographic tourism"", or non-consumptive wildlife use, [[Tourism in Kenya|is contributing 12% of Kenya’s GDP]]. Hence, some groups have recommended that tourism be promoted rather than any kind of hunting or consumptive wildlife use, as it could divert the attention of the government of Kenya from the policy goal of wildlife preservation.<ref name=sport>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bornfree.org.uk/campaigns/further-activities/trophy-hunting/|title=Shooting animals for 'sport'|access-date=8 May 2011|publisher=Bornfree.org}}</ref><ref name=""Internet Archive Digital Library"">{{cite book|last1=Arkell-Hardwick|first1=Alfred|title=An ivory trader in North Kenia|date=1903|publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co.|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/ivorytraderinnor00hard|access-date=17 February 2015}}</ref>

===The current situation, including safari tourism===
[[File:Elephant576.JPG|thumb|An elephant skull with tusk removed by poachers near [[Voi]], [[Taita-Taveta District]].]]

Although elephant hunting has been banned for more than 40 years in Kenya, poaching has not been eradicated completely given the poverty of many Kenyans and the high value of elephant tusks. Tusks traditionally were shipped overseas and sold on the black market.<ref name=""AndersonGrove1990"">{{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=David|last2=Grove|first2=Richard H.|title=Conservation in Africa: Peoples, Policies and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oclQ6rHRJAYC&pg=PA45|access-date=6 May 2011|date=25 May 1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-34990-1|page=45}}</ref> 

Arrests continue at Nairobi's international airport, where 92 kilos{{clarify|reason=kilograms?|date=March 2014}} of raw ivory were seized in 2010, and 96 kilos{{clarify|reason=https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/fighting-wildlife-trade-kenya|date=March 2014}} in 2011.<ref name=""voanews.com2011"">{{cite news |url=http://blogs.voanews.com/breaking-news/2011/04/29/kenya-seizes-traveler-carrying-elephant-ivory/ |title=Kenya Seizes Traveler Carrying Elephant Ivory |date=April 29, 2010 |publisher=Voice of America News |access-date=9 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506152540/http://blogs.voanews.com/breaking-news/2011/04/29/kenya-seizes-traveler-carrying-elephant-ivory/ |archive-date=6 May 2011 }}</ref>

An individual case that received publicity in 2014 was the death of [[Satao (elephant)|Satao]], one of the world's largest elephants, in the [[Tsavo Trust]]. Despite [[Kenya Wildlife Service]] guards, poachers managed to shoot the bull with poisoned arrows and cut off his tusks.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

==Possible trophy hunting in the future==
[[Trophy hunting]], purely as sport and as a conservation action, is now being considered for adoption in Kenya, as such a programme appears to have yielded positive results in Namibia and South Africa under a programme titled ""Community-Based Natural Resource Management"" (CBNRM). Under this programme, while cash was offered as an incentive for sport hunting, the basic aim was wildlife control on the communal land, providing benefits to the community as a whole.<ref name=trophy>{{Cite web|url=http://conservationfinance.wordpress.com/2007/03/19/elephant-hunting/ |title=Elephant Hunting |access-date=7 May 2011 |publisher=Conservation Finance |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813225940/http://conservationfinance.wordpress.com/2007/03/19/elephant-hunting/ |archive-date=13 August 2011 }}</ref> It is believed{{By whom|date=October 2011}} that trophy hunting might attract elephant poachers into moving into legal hunting and leaving elephant trading.

The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]'s (FAO) report states: ""Trophy hunting is generally self-regulating because low off-take is required to ensure high trophy quality and marketability in future seasons. Trophy hunting creates crucial financial incentives for the development and/or retention of wildlife as a land use over large areas in Africa, including in areas where ecotourism is not viable. Hunting plays an important role in the rehabilitation of degraded wildlife areas by enabling the income generation from wildlife without affecting population growth of trophy species.""<ref name=hunting>{{Cite web|url=fttp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/aj114e/aj114e09.pdf|title=Trophy Hunting In Sub Saharan Africa: Economic Scale and Conservation Significance|access-date=7 May 2011|publisher=fao.org}}</ref>

The policy of trophy hunting has been adopted in 23 sub-Saharan African countries. The income generated in total in Africa is quoted to be USD 201 million/year, derived from about 18,500 international hunting clients covering an area of 1.4 million km².<ref name=hunting/> Since there is a lack of consensus among the clients about the efficacy of this method of biodiversity conservation in Africa, a study carried out by the [[Africa Wildlife Conservation Fund]] indicates that if Kenya makes trophy hunting legal again, nearly 90% of the clients would be interested to pursue this activity in that country. In this context, the importance of effective regulation of hunting operators and clients has also been highlighted.<ref name=fund>{{Cite web |url=http://www.africanwildlifeconservationfund.org/Research_Team_at_African_Wildl/Romanach_Pubs/Potential%20of%20trophy%20hunting.pdf |title=Potential of trophy hunting to create incentives for wildlife conservation in Africa where alternative wildlife-based land uses may not be viable |pages=283, 286–287, 289 |access-date=8 May 2011 |publisher=Africa Wildlife Conservation Fund |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517024606/http://www.africanwildlifeconservationfund.org/Research_Team_at_African_Wildl/Romanach_Pubs/Potential%20of%20trophy%20hunting.pdf |archive-date=17 May 2011 }}</ref>

One of the disadvantages of trophy hunting is the possible publicity backlash, such as [[Zimbabwe]] experienced with the [[killing of Cecil the lion]].

==See also==
*[[Elephant hunting in Chad]]
*[[Environmental issues in Kenya]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Africa topic|Elephant hunting in|countries_only=yes}}
[[Category:Environmental issues in Kenya]]
[[Category:Economy of Kenya]]
[[Category:Elephant hunting]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Hunting by country]]
[[Category:Ivory]]"
Habitat fragmentation,"{{Short description|Discontinuities in an organism's environment causing population fragmentation.}}
[[File:Grasp africa-vi.png|thumb|right|Predicted fragmentation and destruction of [[Hominidae|Great Ape]] habitat in [[Central Africa]], from the [[GLOBIO Model|GLOBIO]]<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051030100748/http://www.globio.info/region/africa/|archive-date=30 Oct 2005|url-status=dead|url=http://www.globio.info/region/africa/|website=GLOBIO|title=GLOBIO: Africa}}</ref> and GRASP projects in 2002. Areas shown in black and red delineate areas of severe and moderate habitat loss, respectively.]]
[[File:Deforestation central Europe - Rodungen Mitteleuropa.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Deforestation]] in [[Europe]]. France is the most deforested country in Europe, with only 15% of the native vegetation remaining.]]
[[File:Sugarcane Deforestation, Bolivia, 2016-06-15 by Planet Labs.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Deforestation]] in [[Bolivia]], 2016.]]

'''Habitat fragmentation''' describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]] ([[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]]), causing [[population fragmentation]] and  [[ecosystem decay]]. Causes of habitat fragmentation include [[geological]] processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment<ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"">{{cite journal|author=Sahney|first1=S.|last2=Benton|first2=M. J.|last3=Falcon-Lang|first3=H. J.|date=1 December 2010|title=Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica|url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079|format=PDF|journal=Geology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=1079–1082|bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S|doi=10.1130/G31182.1}}</ref> (suspected of being [[allopatric speciation|one of the major causes]] of [[speciation]]<ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"" />), and human activity such as [[Conservation development|land conversion]], which can alter the environment much faster and causes the [[extinction]] of many species. More specifically, [[habitat]] fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fahrig|first=Lenore|date=2019|title=Habitat fragmentation: A long and tangled tale|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=33–41|doi=10.1111/geb.12839|bibcode=2019GloEB..28...33F |s2cid=91260144|issn=1466-8238}}</ref><ref name=""Fahrig2003"" />

==Definition==
The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena:
* Reduction in the total area of the habitat
* Decrease of the interior: [[edge effect|edge]] ratio
* Isolation of one habitat fragment from other areas of habitat
* Breaking up of one patch of habitat into several smaller patches
* Decrease in the average size of each patch of habitat

""fragmentation ... not only causes loss of the amount of habitat but by creating small, isolated patches it also changes the properties of the remaining habitat"" (van den Berg et al. 2001){{Failed verification|date=April 2018}}. Habitat fragmentation is the landscape level of the phenomenon, and patch level process. Thus meaning, it covers; the patch areas, edge effects, and patch shape complexity.<ref>van den Berg LJL, Bullock JM, Clarke RT, Langsten RHW, Rose RJ. 2001. Territory selection by the Dartford warbler (Sylvia undata) in Dorset, England: the role of vegetation type, habitat fragmentation, and population size. Biol. Conserv. 101:217-28</ref>

In scientific literature, there is some debate whether the term ""habitat fragmentation"" applies in cases of [[habitat loss]], or whether the term primarily applies to the phenomenon of habitat being cut into smaller pieces without significant reduction in habitat area. Scientists who use the stricter definition of ""habitat fragmentation"" per se<ref name=""Fahrig2003"" /> would refer to the loss of habitat area as ""habitat loss"" and explicitly mention both terms if describing a situation where the habitat becomes less connected and there is less overall habitat.

Furthermore, habitat fragmentation is considered as an invasive threat to [[biodiversity]], due to its implications of affecting large number of [[species]] than [[Invasive species|biological invasions]], [[overexploitation]], or [[pollution]].<ref name=""Haddad2015"" />

Additionally, the effects of habitat fragmentation damage the ability for species, such as [[native plant]]s, to be able to effectively adapt to their changing environments. Ultimately, this prevents [[gene flow]] from one generation of [[Population genetics|population]] to the next, especially for species living in smaller population sizes. Whereas, for species of larger populations have more [[Mutation|genetic mutations]] which can arise and [[genetic recombination]] impacts which can increase species survival in those environments. Overall, habitat fragmentation results in habitat disintegration and [[Habitat destruction|habitat loss]] which both tie into destructing [[biodiversity]] as a whole.

== Causes ==

===Natural causes===
Evidence of [[habitat destruction]] through natural processes such as [[volcanism]], fire, and [[climate variability and change|climate change]] is found in the fossil record.<ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"" />{{Failed verification|date=February 2018}}Studies have demonstrated the impacts of individual species at the landscape level<ref name=""auto"">{{Cite journal |last1=McLachlan |first1=S.M |last2=Bazely |first2=D.R |date=October 2003 |title=Outcomes of longterm deciduous forest restoration in southwestern Ontario, Canada |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00248-3 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=113 |issue=2 |pages=159–169 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00248-3 |bibcode=2003BCons.113..159M |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> For example, From research the results show that the impact of deer herbivory on forest plant communities can be observed at the landscape level at the Rondeau Provincial park for the period of 1955-1978<ref name=""auto""/>and also,  [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse|habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica]] 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.<ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"" />

===Human causes===
Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused by humans when [[native plant]]s are cleared for human activities such as [[agriculture]], [[Subdivision (land)|rural development]], [[urbanization]] and the creation of [[hydroelectric]] reservoirs. Habitats which were once continuous become divided into separate fragments. Due to human activities, many tropical and temperate habitats have already been severely fragmented, and in the near future, the degree of fragmentation will significantly rise.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Templeton |first1=Alan R. |last2=Shaw |first2=Kerry |last3=Routman |first3=Eric |last4=Davis |first4=Scott K. |date=1990 |title=The Genetic Consequences of Habitat Fragmentation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2399621 |journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=13–27 |doi=10.2307/2399621 |jstor=2399621 |issn=0026-6493}}</ref> After intensive clearing, the separate fragments tend to be very small islands isolated from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement, or even barren land. The latter is often the result of [[slash and burn]] farming in [[tropical forest]]s.  In the wheat belt of central-western [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], 90% of the native vegetation has been cleared and over 99% of the [[tall grass prairie]] of [[North America]] has been cleared, resulting in extreme habitat fragmentation.

=== Endogenous vs. exogenous  ===
There are two types of processes that can lead to habitat fragmentation. There are exogenous processes and endogenous processes. Endogenous is a process that develops as a part of species biology so they typically include changes in biology, behavior, and interactions within or between species. Endogenous threats can result in changes to breeding patterns or migration patterns and are often triggered by exogenous processes. Exogenous processes are independent of species biology and can include habitat degradation, habitat subdivision or habitat isolation. These processes can have a substantial impact on endogenous processes by fundamentally altering species behavior. Habitat subdivision or isolation can lead to changes in dispersal or movement of species including changes to seasonal migration. These changes can lead to a decrease in a density of species, increased competition or even increased predation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fischer|first1=Joern|last2=Lindenmayer|first2=David B.|date=February 7, 2007|title=Landscape Modification and Habitat Fragmentation: A synthesis|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=16|issue=3|pages=265–280|doi=10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.x|bibcode=2007GloEB..16..265F |ref=1|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Implications ==

=== Habitat and biodiversity loss ===
{{Main|biodiversity loss}}
One of the major ways that habitat fragmentation affects [[biodiversity]] is by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available for organisms. Habitat fragmentation often involves both [[habitat destruction]] and the subdivision of previously continuous habitat.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fahrig|first1=Lenore|title=Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Biodiversity|journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics|date=November 2003|volume=34|issue=1|pages=487–515|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419}}</ref> Plants and other [[Sessility (zoology)|sessile]] organisms are disproportionately affected by some types of habitat fragmentation because they cannot respond quickly to the altered spatial configuration of the habitat.<ref name=""Lienert2004"">{{cite journal|last1=Lienert|first1=Judit|title=Habitat fragmentation effects on fitness of plant populations – a review|journal=Journal for Nature Conservation|date=July 2004|volume=12|issue=1|pages=53–72|doi=10.1016/j.jnc.2003.07.002|bibcode=2004JNatC..12...53L }}</ref>

Habitat loss, which can occur through the process of habitat fragmentation, is considered to be the greatest threat to species.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wilcove | first1 = David S. |display-authors=etal | year = 1998 | title = Quantifying Threats to Imperiled Species in the United States | jstor = 1313420 | journal = BioScience | volume = 48 | issue = 8| pages = 607–615 | doi=10.2307/1313420| doi-access = free}}</ref> But, the effect of the configuration of habitat patches within the landscape, independent of the effect of the amount of habitat within the landscape (referred to as fragmentation per se<ref name=""Fahrig2003"">{{cite journal | last1 = Fahrig | first1 = L | year = 2003 | title = Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity | journal = Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics | volume = 34 | pages = 487–515 | doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419}}</ref>), has been suggested to be small.<ref name=""Fahrig2013"">{{cite journal | last1 = Fahrig | first1 = L | year = 2013 | title = Rethinking patch size and isolation effects: the habitat amount hypothesis | journal = J. Biogeogr. | volume = 40 | issue = 9| pages = 1649–1663 | doi = 10.1111/jbi.12130 | bibcode = 2013JBiog..40.1649F | doi-access = free}}</ref> A review of empirical studies found that, of the 381 reported significant effect of habitat fragmentation per se on species occurrences, abundances or diversity in the scientific literature, 76% were positive whereas 24% were negative.<ref name=""Fahrig2017"">{{cite journal | last1 = Fahrig | first1 = L | year = 2017 | title = Ecological Responses to Habitat Fragmentation Per Se | journal = Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics | volume = 48 | pages = 1–23 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110316-022612}}</ref> Despite these results, the scientific literature tends to emphasize negative effects more than positive effects.<ref>Fahrig, L. (2018) Forty years of biais in habitat fragmentation research, In: Effective Conservation Science: Data Not Dogma (Edited by Kareiva, Marvier and Silliman), Oxford University Press, United Kingdom</ref> Positive effects of habitat fragmentation per se imply that several small patches of habitat can have higher conservation value than a single large patch of equivalent size.<ref name=""Fahrig2017"" /> Land sharing strategies could therefore have more positive impacts on species than land sparing strategies.<ref name=""Fahrig2017"" /> Although the negative effects of habitat loss are generally viewed to be much larger than that of habitat fragmentation, the two events are heavily connected and observations are not usually independent of one another.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2018.07.022| s2cid=52839843 | title=Is habitat fragmentation good for biodiversity? | year=2018 | last1=Fletcher | first1=Robert J. | last2=Didham | first2=Raphael K. | last3=Banks-Leite | first3=Cristina | last4=Barlow | first4=Jos | last5=Ewers | first5=Robert M. | last6=Rosindell | first6=James | last7=Holt | first7=Robert D. | last8=Gonzalez | first8=Andrew | last9=Pardini | first9=Renata | last10=Damschen | first10=Ellen I. | last11=Melo | first11=Felipe P.L. | last12=Ries | first12=Leslie | last13=Prevedello | first13=Jayme A. | last14=Tscharntke | first14=Teja | last15=Laurance | first15=William F. | last16=Lovejoy | first16=Thomas | last17=Haddad | first17=Nick M. | journal=Biological Conservation | volume=226 | pages=9–15 | bibcode=2018BCons.226....9F | url=https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/126675/1/Fletcher_etal_2018_Biological_Conservation.pdf }}</ref>[[File:Indiana Dunes Habitat Fragmentation.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Habitat fragmented by numerous roads near the [[Indiana Dunes National Park]].]]
Area is the primary determinant of the number of species in a fragment<ref name=""Rosenzweig"">{{cite book | last = Rosenzweig | first = Michael L. | author-link = Michael Rosenzweig | title = Species diversity in space and time | year = 1995 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | location = Cambridge}}</ref> and the relative contributions of demographic and genetic processes to the risk of global population extinction depend on habitat configuration, stochastic environmental variation and species features.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Robert | first1 = A | year = 2011 | title = Find the weakest link. A comparison between demographic, genetic and demo-genetic metapopulation extinction times | journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | page = 260 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2148-11-260 | pmid = 21929788 | pmc = 3185286 | bibcode = 2011BMCEE..11..260R | doi-access = free }}</ref> Minor fluctuations in climate, resources, or other factors that would be unremarkable and quickly corrected in large populations can be catastrophic in small, isolated populations. Thus fragmentation of habitat is an important cause of species extinction.<ref name=""Rosenzweig"" /> Population dynamics of subdivided populations tend to vary [[wikt:asynchronous|asynchronous]]ly. In an unfragmented landscape a declining population can be ""rescued"" by immigration from a nearby expanding population. In fragmented landscapes, the distance between fragments may prevent this from happening. Additionally, unoccupied fragments of habitat that are separated from a source of [[Colonisation (biology)|immigrants]] by some barrier are less likely to be repopulated than adjoining fragments. Even small species such as the [[Columbia spotted frog]] are reliant on the [[rescue effect]]. Studies showed 25% of juveniles travel a distance over 200m compared to 4% of adults. Of these, 95% remain in their new locale, demonstrating that this journey is necessary for survival.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Funk W.C. |author2=Greene A.E. |author3=Corn P.S. |author4=Allendorf F.W. | year = 2005 | title = High dispersal in a frog species suggests that it is vulnerable to habitat fragmentation | journal = [[Biology Letters|Biol. Lett.]] | volume = 1 | issue = 1| pages = 13–6 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2004.0270|pmid=17148116 |pmc=1629065}}</ref>

Additionally, habitat fragmentation leads to [[edge effect]]s. Microclimatic changes in light, temperature, and wind can alter the ecology around the fragment, and in the interior and exterior portions of the fragment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Magnago|first1=Luiz Fernando Silva|last2=Rocha|first2=Mariana Ferreira|last3=Meyer|first3=Leila|last4=Martins|first4=Sebastião Venâncio|last5=Meira-Neto|first5=João Augusto Alves|date=September 2015|title=Microclimatic conditions at forest edges have significant impacts on vegetation structure in large Atlantic forest fragments|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|language=en|volume=24|issue=9|pages=2305–2318|doi=10.1007/s10531-015-0961-1|bibcode=2015BiCon..24.2305M |s2cid=16927557|issn=0960-3115|url=http://www.locus.ufv.br/handle/123456789/21347}}</ref> [[wildfire|Fires]] become more likely in the area as humidity drops and temperature and wind levels rise. Exotic and pest species may establish themselves easily in such disturbed environments, and the proximity of domestic animals often upsets the natural ecology. Also, habitat along the edge of a fragment has a different climate and favours different species from the interior habitat. Small fragments are therefore unfavourable for species that require interior habitat. The percentage preservation of contiguous habitats is closely related to both genetic and species biodiversity preservation. Generally a 10% remnant contiguous habitat will result in a 50% [[biodiversity loss]].<ref>Quammen, David (1997), ""The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction"" (Scribner)</ref>

Much of the remaining terrestrial [[wildlife]] habitat in many third world countries has experienced fragmentation through the development of [[Urban sprawl|urban expansion]] such as roads interfering with [[habitat loss]]. Aquatic species’ habitats have been fragmented by [[dam]]s and [[Interbasin transfer|water diversions]].<ref name=""Habitat Loss"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-Wildlife/Habitat-Loss|title=Habitat Loss|website=National Wildlife Federation|language=en|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref> These fragments of habitat may not be large or connected enough to support species that need a large territory where they can find mates and food. The loss and fragmentation of habitats makes it difficult for migratory species to find places to rest and feed along their migration routes.<ref name=""Habitat Loss"" />

The effects of current fragmentation will continue to emerge for decades. Extinction debts are likely to come due, although the counteracting immigration debts may never fully be paid. Indeed, the experiments here reveal ongoing losses of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning two decades or longer after fragmentation occurred. Understanding the relationship between transient and long-term dynamics is a substantial challenge that ecologists must tackle, and fragmentation experiments will be central for relating observation to theory.<ref name=""Haddad2015""/>

===Informed conservation===
Habitat fragmentation is often a cause of species becoming [[threatened]] or [[endangered]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Crooks|first1=Kevin R.|last2=Burdett|first2=Christopher L.|last3=Theobald|first3=David M.|last4=King|first4=Sarah R. B.|last5=Di Marco|first5=Moreno|last6=Rondinini|first6=Carlo|last7=Boitani|first7=Luigi|date=2017-07-18|title=Quantification of habitat fragmentation reveals extinction risk in terrestrial mammals|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=114|issue=29|pages=7635–7640|doi=10.1073/pnas.1705769114|issn=0027-8424|pmc=5530695|pmid=28673992|bibcode=2017PNAS..114.7635C |doi-access=free}}</ref> The existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases, the fragmentation of any remaining habitat can lead to difficult decisions for conservation biologists. Given a limited amount of resources available for conservation is it preferable to protect the existing isolated patches of habitat or to buy back land to get the largest possible contiguous piece of land. In rare cases, a [[conservation reliant species]] may gain some measure of disease protection by being distributed in isolated habitats, and when controlled for overall habitat loss some studies have shown a positive relationship between species richness and fragmentation; this phenomenon has been called the habitat amount hypothesis, though the validity of this claim has been disputed.<ref name=""Fahrig2013"" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanski|first=Ilkka|date=May 2015|editor-last=Triantis|editor-first=Kostas|title=Habitat fragmentation and species richness|journal=Journal of Biogeography|language=en|volume=42|issue=5|pages=989–993|doi=10.1111/jbi.12478|bibcode=2015JBiog..42..989H |s2cid=84220990 |doi-access=}}</ref> The ongoing debate of what size fragments are most relevant for conservation is often referred to as [[SLOSS debate|SLOSS]] (Single Large or Several Small). Habitat loss in a biodiversity hotspot can result in a localized extinction crisis, generally speaking habitat loss in a hotspot location can be a good indicator or predictor of the number of threatened and extinct endemic species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brooks |first1=Thomas M. |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Rylands |first5=Anthony B. |last6=Konstant |first6=William R. |last7=Flick |first7=Penny |last8=Pilgrim |first8=John |last9=Oldfield |first9=Sara |last10=Magin |first10=Georgina |last11=Hilton-Taylor |first11=Craig |date=August 2002 |title=Habitat Loss and Extinction in the Hotspots of Biodiversity |url=https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00530.x |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=909–923 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00530.x |bibcode=2002ConBi..16..909B |s2cid=44009934 |issn=0888-8892}}</ref>

One solution to the problem of habitat fragmentation is to link the fragments by preserving or planting [[Habitat corridor|corridors]] of native vegetation. In some cases, a bridge or underpass may be enough to join two fragments.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wildlife Crossings: Animals survive with bridges and tunnels|url=http://www.wilderutopia.com/environment/wildlife/wildlife-crossings-animals-survive-bridges-tunnels/|publisher=Wilder Eutopia|access-date=19 December 2017|date=2013-05-19}}</ref> This has the potential to mitigate the problem of isolation but not the loss of interior habitat. Wildlife corridors can help animals to move and occupy new areas when food sources or other natural resources are lacking in their core habitat, and animals can find new mates in neighbouring regions so that [[genetic diversity]] can increase. Species that relocate seasonally can do so more safely and effectively when it does not interfere with human development barriers.

Due to the continuous expansion of urban landscapes, current research is looking at [[green roof]]s being possible vectors of habitat corridors.  A recent study has found that green roofs are beneficial in connecting the habitats of arthropods, specifically bees and weevils.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Braaker |first1=S. |last2=Ghazoul |first2=J. |last3=Obrist |first3=M. K. |last4=Moretti |first4=M. |date=April 2014 |title=Habitat connectivity shapes urban arthropod communities: the key role of green roofs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/13-0705.1 |journal=Ecology |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=1010–1021 |doi=10.1890/13-0705.1 |pmid=24933819 |bibcode=2014Ecol...95.1010B |s2cid=41070926 |issn=0012-9658}}</ref>

Another mitigation measure is the enlargement of small remnants to increase the amount of interior habitat. This may be impractical since developed land is often more expensive and could require significant time and effort to restore.

The best solution is generally dependent on the particular species or ecosystem that is being considered. More mobile species, like most birds, do not need connected habitat while some smaller animals, like rodents, may be more exposed to predation in open land. These questions generally fall under the headings of [[metapopulation]]s [[island biogeography]].

=== Genetic risks ===
As the remaining habitat patches are smaller, they tend to support smaller populations of fewer species.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Simberloff|first1=Daniel|date=1 January 1998|chapter=Small and Declining Populations|title=Conservation Science and Action|language=en|pages=116–134|doi=10.1002/9781444313499.ch6|isbn=978-1-4443-1349-9}}</ref> Small populations are at an increased risk of a variety of genetic consequences that influence their long-term survival.<ref>{{cite book|title=Introduction to conservation genetics|last1=Frankham|first1=Richard|last2=Ballou|first2=Jonathan D.|last3=Briscoe|first3=David A.|date=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-70271-3|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge}}</ref> Remnant populations often contain only a subset of the genetic diversity found in the previously continuous habitat. In these cases, processes that act upon underlying genetic diversity, such as [[adaptation]], have a smaller pool of fitness-maintaining alleles to survive in the face of environmental change. However, in some scenarios, where subsets of genetic diversity are partitioned among multiple habitat fragments, almost all original genetic diversity can be maintained despite each individual fragment displaying a reduced subset of diversity.<ref name=""Borrell2018"">{{cite journal |last1=Borrell |first1=James S. |last2=Wang |first2=Nian |last3=Nichols |first3=Richard A. |last4=Buggs |first4=Richard J. A. |title=Genetic diversity maintained among fragmented populations of a tree undergoing range contraction |journal=Heredity |date=15 August 2018 |volume=121 |issue=4 |pages=304–318 |doi=10.1038/s41437-018-0132-8 |pmid=30111882 |pmc=6134035}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mustajärvi |first1=Kaisa |last2=Siikamäki |first2=Pirkko |last3=Rytkönen |first3=Saara |last4=Lammi |first4=Antti |date=2001 |title=Consequences of plant population size and density for plant-pollinator interactions and plant performance: Plant-pollinator interactions |journal=Journal of Ecology |language=en |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=80–87 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2745.2001.00521.x|s2cid=84923092 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Gene Flow and Inbreeding ====
[[Gene flow]] occurs when individuals of the same species exchange genetic information through reproduction. Populations can maintain genetic diversity through [[Animal migration|migration]]. When a habitat becomes fragmented and reduced in area, gene flow and migration are typically reduced. Fewer individuals will migrate into the remaining fragments, and small disconnected populations that may have once been part of a single large population will become reproductively isolated. Scientific evidence that gene flow is reduced due to fragmentation depends on the study species. While trees that have long-range pollination and dispersal mechanisms may not experience reduced gene flow following fragmentation,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kramer |first1=Andrea T. |last2=Ison |first2=Jennifer L. |last3=Ashley |first3=Mary V. |last4=Howe |first4=Henry F. |title=The Paradox of Forest Fragmentation Genetics |journal=Conservation Biology |date=August 2008 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=878–885 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00944.x |pmid=18544089|bibcode=2008ConBi..22..878K |s2cid=1665248 }}</ref> most species are at risk of reduced gene flow following habitat fragmentation.<ref name=""Lienert2004"" />

Reduced gene flow, and reproductive isolation can result in [[inbreeding]] between related individuals. Inbreeding does not always result in negative fitness consequences, but when inbreeding is associated with fitness reduction it is called [[inbreeding depression]]. Inbreeding becomes of increasing concern as the level of [[homozygosity]] increases, facilitating the expression of deleterious alleles that reduce the fitness. Habitat fragmentation can lead to inbreeding depression for many species due to reduced gene flow.<ref name=""Pavolva2017"">{{cite journal |last1=Pavlova |first1=Alexandra |last2=Beheregaray |first2=Luciano B. |last3=Coleman |first3=Rhys |last4=Gilligan |first4=Dean |last5=Harrisson |first5=Katherine A. |last6=Ingram |first6=Brett A. |last7=Kearns |first7=Joanne |last8=Lamb |first8=Annika M. |last9=Lintermans |first9=Mark |last10=Lyon |first10=Jarod |last11=Nguyen |first11=Thuy T. T. |last12=Sasaki |first12=Minami |last13=Tonkin |first13=Zeb |last14=Yen |first14=Jian D. L. |last15=Sunnucks |first15=Paul |title=Severe consequences of habitat fragmentation on genetic diversity of an endangered Australian freshwater fish: A call for assisted gene flow |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=July 2017 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=531–550 |doi=10.1111/eva.12484 |pmid=28616062 |pmc=5469170|bibcode=2017EvApp..10..531P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=W |last2=Qiao |first2=Y |last3=Li |first3=S |last4=Pan |first4=W |last5=Yao |first5=M |title=Low genetic diversity and strong population structure shaped by anthropogenic habitat fragmentation in a critically endangered primate, Trachypithecus leucocephalus |journal=Heredity |date=15 February 2017 |volume=118 |issue=6 |pages=542–553 |doi=10.1038/hdy.2017.2 |pmid=28198816 |pmc=5436025}}</ref> Inbreeding depression is associated with conservation risks, like local extinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hedrick|first1=Philip W.|last2=Kalinowski|first2=Steven T.|date=November 2000|title=Inbreeding Depression in Conservation Biology|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|language=en|volume=31|issue=1|pages=139–162|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.139|issn=0066-4162}}</ref>

==== Genetic drift ====
Small populations are more susceptible to [[genetic drift]]. Genetic drift is random changes to the genetic makeup of populations and leads to reductions in genetic diversity. The smaller the population is, the more likely genetic drift will be a driving force of evolution rather than natural selection. Because genetic drift is a random process, it does not allow species to become more adapted to their environment. Habitat fragmentation is associated with increases to genetic drift in small populations which can have negative consequences for the genetic diversity of the populations.<ref name=""Pavolva2017"" /> However, research suggests that some tree species may be resilient to the negative consequences of genetic drift until population size is as small as ten individuals or less.<ref name=""Borrell2018"" />

===== Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plant populations =====

Habitat fragmentation decreases the size and increases plant populations' spatial isolation. With [[genetic variation]] and increased methods of inter-population [[genetic divergence]] due to increased effects of [[Genetic drift|random genetic drift]], elevating [[inbreeding]] and reducing gene flow within plant species. While genetic variation may decrease with remnant population size, not all fragmentation events lead to genetic losses and different types of genetic variation. Rarely, fragmentation can also increase gene flow among remnant populations, breaking down local genetic structure.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Young|first1=Andrew|last2=Boyle|first2=Tim|last3=Brown|first3=Tony|date=1996|title=The population genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plants|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|language=en|volume=11|issue=10|pages=413–418|doi=10.1016/0169-5347(96)10045-8|pmid=21237900}}</ref>

==== Adaptation ====
In order for populations to evolve in response to natural selection, they must be large enough that natural selection is a stronger evolutionary force than genetic drift. Recent studies on the impacts of habitat fragmentation on adaptation in some plant species have suggested that organisms in fragmented landscapes may be able to adapt to fragmentation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matesanz |first1=Silvia |last2=Rubio Teso |first2=María Luisa |last3=García-Fernández |first3=Alfredo |last4=Escudero |first4=Adrián |title=Habitat Fragmentation Differentially Affects Genetic Variation, Phenotypic Plasticity and Survival in Populations of a Gypsum Endemic |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=26 May 2017 |volume=8 |pages=843 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2017.00843 |pmid=28603529 |pmc=5445106|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dubois |first1=Jonathan |last2=Cheptou |first2=Pierre-Olivier |title=Effects of fragmentation on plant adaptation to urban environments |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=5 December 2016 |volume=372 |issue=1712 |pages=20160038 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2016.0038 |pmid=27920383 |pmc=5182434}}</ref> However, there are also many cases where fragmentation reduces adaptation capacity because of small population size.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Legrand |first1=Delphine |last2=Cote |first2=Julien |last3=Fronhofer |first3=Emanuel A. |last4=Holt |first4=Robert D. |last5=Ronce |first5=Ophélie |last6=Schtickzelle |first6=Nicolas |last7=Travis |first7=Justin M. J. |last8=Clobert |first8=Jean |title=Eco-evolutionary dynamics in fragmented landscapes |journal=Ecography |date=January 2017 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=9–25 |doi=10.1111/ecog.02537 |url=http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/9606/1/Legrand_et_al_2016_Ecography.pdf |hdl=2164/9606|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017Ecogr..40....9L }}</ref>

==== Examples of impacted species ====
Some species that have experienced genetic consequences due to habitat fragmentation are listed below: 
[[File:Macquarie perch.jpg|thumb|Macquarie perch]]

* ''[[Macquaria australasica]]''<ref name=""Pavolva2017"" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/1594|title=Macquaria australasica|website=fishesofaustralia.net.au|language=en|access-date=2018-06-06}}</ref>
*''[[Fagus sylvatica]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jump |first1=A. S. |last2=Penuelas |first2=J. |title=Genetic effects of chronic habitat fragmentation in a wind-pollinated tree |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=12 May 2006 |volume=103 |issue=21 |pages=8096–8100 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0510127103 |pmid=16698935 |pmc=1472435 |bibcode=2006PNAS..103.8096J|doi-access=free }}</ref>
*''[[Betula nana]]''<ref name=""Borrell2018"" />
*''[[Rhinella ornata]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dixo |first1=Marianna |last2=Metzger |first2=Jean Paul |last3=Morgante |first3=João S. |last4=Zamudio |first4=Kelly R. |title=Habitat fragmentation reduces genetic diversity and connectivity among toad populations in the Brazilian Atlantic Coastal Forest |journal=Biological Conservation |date=August 2009 |volume=142 |issue=8 |pages=1560–1569 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2008.11.016|bibcode=2009BCons.142.1560D }}</ref>
*''[[Ochotona princeps]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peacock |first1=Mary M. |last2=Smith |first2=Andrew T. |title=The effect of habitat fragmentation on dispersal patterns, mating behavior, and genetic variation in a pika ( Ochotona princeps ) metapopulation |journal=Oecologia |date=24 November 1997 |volume=112 |issue=4 |pages=524–533 |doi=10.1007/s004420050341 |pmid=28307630 |bibcode=1997Oecol.112..524P |s2cid=2446276}}</ref>
*''[[Uta stansburiana]]''<ref name=""Delany2010"">{{cite journal |last1=Delaney |first1=Kathleen Semple |last2=Riley |first2=Seth P. D. |last3=Fisher |first3=Robert N. |last4=Fleischer |first4=Robert C. |title=A Rapid, Strong, and Convergent Genetic Response to Urban Habitat Fragmentation in Four Divergent and Widespread Vertebrates |journal=PLOS ONE |date=16 September 2010 |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=e12767 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0012767 |pmid=20862274 |pmc=2940822 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...512767D|doi-access=free }}</ref>
*''[[Plestiodon skiltonianus]]''<ref name=""Delany2010"" />
*''[[Sceloporus occidentalis]]''<ref name=""Delany2010"" />
*''[[Chamaea fasciata]]''<ref name=""Delany2010"" />

=== Effect on animal behaviours===
Although the way habitat fragmentation affects the genetics and extinction rates of species has been heavily studied, fragmentation has also been shown to affect species' behaviours and cultures as well. This is important because social interactions can determine and have an effect on a species' fitness and survival. Habitat fragmentation alters the resources available and the structure of habitats, as a result, alters the behaviours of species and the dynamics between differing species. Behaviours affected can be within a species such as reproduction, mating, foraging, species dispersal, communication and movement patterns or can be behaviours between species such as predator-prey relationships.<ref name=""Banks2007"">{{cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=Sam C |last2=Piggott |first2=Maxine P |last3=Stow |first3=Adam J |last4=Taylor |first4=Andrea C |title=Sex and sociality in a disconnected world: a review of the impacts of habitat fragmentation on animal social interactions |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=2007 |volume=85 |issue=10 |pages=1065–1079 |doi=10.1139/Z07-094}}</ref> In addition, when animals happen to venture into unknown areas in between fragmented forests or landscapes, they can supposedly come into contact with humans which puts them at a great risk and further decreases their chances of survival.<ref name=""Haddad2015"">{{Cite journal|last1=Haddad|first1=Nick M.|last2=Brudvig|first2=Lars A.|last3=Clobert|first3=Jean|last4=Davies|first4=Kendi F.|last5=Gonzalez|first5=Andrew|last6=Holt|first6=Robert D.|last7=Lovejoy|first7=Thomas E.|last8=Sexton|first8=Joseph O.|last9=Austin|first9=Mike P.|last10=Collins|first10=Cathy D.|last11=Cook|first11=William M.|date=2015-03-01|title=Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth's ecosystems|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=e1500052|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1500052|pmid=26601154|pmc=4643828|bibcode=2015SciA....1E0052H|issn=2375-2548}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

==== Predation behaviours ====
Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities has been shown to greatly affect the predator-prey dynamics of many species by altering the number of species and the members of those species.<ref name=""Banks2007"" /> This affects the natural predator-prey relationships between animals in a given community <ref name=""Banks2007"" /> and forces them to alter their behaviours and interactions, therefore resetting the so-called ""behavioral space race"".<ref name=""Shneider2001"">{{cite journal |last1=Shneider |first1=Michael F |title=Habitat loss, fragmentation and predator impact: spatial implications for prey conservation |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2001 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=720–735|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00642.x|bibcode=2001JApEc..38..720S |doi-access=free }}</ref> The way in which fragmentation changes and re-shapes these interactions can occur in many different forms. Most prey species have patches of land that are a refuge from their predators, allowing them the safety to reproduce and raise their young. Human introduced structures such as roads and pipelines alter these areas by facilitating predator activity in these refuges, increasing predator-prey overlap.<ref name=""Shneider2001"" /> The opposite could also occur in the favour of prey, increasing prey refuge and subsequently decreasing predation rates. Fragmentation may also increase predator abundance or predator efficiency and therefore increase predation rates in this manner.<ref name=""Shneider2001"" /> Several other factors can also increase or decrease the extent to which the shifting predator-prey dynamics affect certain species, including how diverse a predators diet is and how flexible habitat requirements are for predators and prey.<ref name=""Banks2007"" /> Depending on which species are affected and these other factors, fragmentation and its effects on predator-prey dynamics may contribute to species extinction.<ref name=""Banks2007"" /> In response to these new environmental pressures, new adaptive behaviours may be developed. Prey species may adapt to increased risk of predation with strategies such as altering mating tactics or changing behaviours and activities related to food and foraging.<ref name=""Banks2007"" />

===== Boreal woodland caribous =====
In the boreal woodland caribous of British Columbia, the effects of fragmentation are demonstrated. The species refuge area is peatland bog which has been interrupted by linear features such as roads and pipelines.<ref name=""DeMars2017"">{{cite journal |last1=DeMars |first1=Craig A |last2=Boutin |first2=Stan |title=Nowhere to hide: Effects of linear features on predator-prey dynamics in a large mammal system |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |date=September 4, 2017 |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=274–284 |doi=10.1111/1365-2656.12760|pmid=28940254 |doi-access=free}}</ref> These features have allowed their natural predators, the wolf, and the black bear to more efficiently travel over landscapes and between patches of land.<ref name=""DeMars2017"" /> Since their predators can more easily access the caribous' refuge, the females of the species attempt to avoid the area, affecting their reproductive behaviours and offspring produced.<ref name=""DeMars2017"" />

==== Communication behaviours ====
Fragmentation affecting the communication behaviours of birds has been well studied in Dupont's Lark. The Larks primarily reside in regions of Spain and are a small passerine bird which uses songs as a means of cultural transmission between members of the species.<ref name=""DeMars2017"" /> The Larks have two distinct vocalizations, the song, and the territorial call. The territorial call is used by males to defend and signal territory from other male Larks and is shared between neighbouring territories when males respond to a rivals song.<ref name=""Laiolo2005"">{{cite journal |last1=Laiolo |first1=Paola |last2=Tella |first2=José L |title=Habitat fragmentation affects culture transmission: patterns of song matching in Dupont's lark |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2005 |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1183–1193 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01093.x|bibcode=2005JApEc..42.1183L |hdl=10261/57878 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Occasionally it is used as a threat signal to signify an impending attack on territory.<ref name=""Laiolo2007"">{{cite journal |last1=Laiolo |first1=Paola |last2=Tella |first2=José L |title=Erosion of animal cultures in fragmented landscapes |journal= Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|date=2007 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=68–72 |doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[68:eoacif]2.0.co;2}}</ref> A large song repertoire can enhance a male's ability to survive and reproduce as he has a greater ability to defend his territory from other males, and a larger number of males in the species means a larger variety of songs being transmitted.<ref name=""Laiolo2005"" /> Fragmentation of the Dupont's Lark territory from agriculture, forestry and urbanization appears to have a large effect on their communication structures.<ref name=""Laiolo2007"" /> Males only perceive territories of a certain distance to be rivals and so isolation of territory from others due to fragmentation leads to a decrease in territorial calls as the males no longer have any reason to use it or have any songs to match.<ref name=""Laiolo2007"" />

[[Human]]s have also brought on varying implications into ecosystems which in turn affect animal behaviour and responses generated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wong|first1=B. B. M.|last2=Candolin|first2=U.|date=2015-05-01|title=Behavioral responses to changing environments|journal=Behavioral Ecology|language=en|volume=26|issue=3|pages=665–673|doi=10.1093/beheco/aru183|issn=1045-2249|doi-access=free|hdl=10.1093/beheco/aru183|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Although there are some species which are able to survive these kinds of harsh conditions, such as, cutting down wood in the forests for [[Pulp and paper industry|pulp and paper]] industries, there are animals which can survive this change but some that cannot. An example includes, varying [[aquatic insect]]s are able to identify appropriate ponds to lay their eggs with the aid of [[Polarized light pollution|polarized light]] to guide them, however, due to [[ecosystem]] modifications caused by humans they are led onto artificial structures which emit artificial light which are induced by dry asphalt dry roads for an example.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221958968|title=polarized Light Pollution: a new kind of ecological photopollution|website=Research Gate}}</ref>

=== Effect on microorganisms ===
While habitat fragmentation is often associated with its effects on large plant and animal populations and biodiversity, due to the interconnectedness of ecosystems there are also significant effects that it has on the [[microbiota]] of an environment. Increased fragmentation has been linked to reduced populations and diversity of fungi responsible for decomposition, as well as the insects they are host to.<ref name=""Nordén2013"">{{Cite journal|last1=Nordén|first1=Jenni|last2=Penttilä|first2=Reijo|last3=Siitonen|first3=Juha|last4=Tomppo|first4=Erkki|last5=Ovaskainen|first5=Otso|date=May 2013|editor-last=Thrall|editor-first=Peter|title=Specialist species of wood-inhabiting fungi struggle while generalists thrive in fragmented boreal forests|journal=Journal of Ecology|language=en|volume=101|issue=3|pages=701–712|doi=10.1111/1365-2745.12085|s2cid=85037421 |issn=0022-0477|doi-access=free|bibcode=2013JEcol.101..701N }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kiesewetter |first=Kasey N. |last2=Otano |first2=Leydiana |last3=Afkhami |first3=Michelle E. |date=June 2023 |title=Fragmentation disrupts microbial effects on native plant community productivity |url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2745.14097 |journal=Journal of Ecology |language=en |volume=111 |issue=6 |pages=1292–1307 |doi=10.1111/1365-2745.14097 |issn=0022-0477}}</ref> This has been linked to simplified food webs in highly fragmented areas compared to old growth forests.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Komonen|first1=Atte|last2=Penttila|first2=Reijo|last3=Lindgren|first3=Mariko|last4=Hanski|first4=Ilkka|date=July 2000|title=Forest fragmentation truncates a food chain based on an old-growth forest bracket fungus|journal=Oikos|language=en|volume=90|issue=1|pages=119–126|doi=10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.900112.x|bibcode=2000Oikos..90..119K |issn=0030-1299}}</ref> Furthermore, edge effects have been shown to result in significantly varied [[Microenvironment (ecology)|microenvironments]] compared to interior forest due to variations in light availability, presence of wind, changes in precipitation, and overall moisture content of leaf litter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Matlack|first=Glenn R.|date=1993|title=Microenvironment variation within and among forest edge sites in the eastern United States|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=66|issue=3|pages=185–194|doi=10.1016/0006-3207(93)90004-K|bibcode=1993BCons..66..185M }}</ref> These microenvironments are often not conducive to overall forest health as they enable [[Generalist and specialist species|generalist]] species to thrive at the expense of [[Generalist and specialist species|specialists]] that depend on specific environments.<ref name=""Nordén2013"" />

=== Effect on mutualistic and antagonistic relationships ===
A [[metadata]] analysis has found that habitat fragmentation greatly affects [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] relationships while affecting antagonistic relationships, such as [[predation]] and [[Herbivore|herbivory]], to a less degree.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Magrach |first1=Ainhoa |last2=Laurance |first2=William F. |last3=Larrinaga |first3=Asier R. |last4=Santamaria |first4=Luis |date=October 2014 |title=Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Forest Fragmentation on Interspecific Interactions: Forest Fragmentation and Interspecific Interactions |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12304 |journal=Conservation Biology |language=en |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1342–1348 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12304|pmid=24725007 |s2cid=5526322 }}</ref> For example, the mutualistic relationship between ''[[Mesogyne insignis]]'' and ''[[Megachile]]''. A study has found greater [[pollination]] and increased fruit production of ''M. insignis'' in unfragmented forests verses fragmented forests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Olotu |first1=Moses I. |last2=Ndangalasi |first2=Henry J. |last3=Nyundo |first3=Bruno A. |date=March 2012 |title=Effects of forest fragmentation on pollination of Mesogyne insignis (Moraceae) in Amani Nature Reserve forests, Tanzania: Effects of forest fragmentation on pollination of Mesogyne insignis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01302.x |journal=African Journal of Ecology |language=en |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=109–116 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01302.x}}</ref>  As for an example of an antagonistic relationship of nest predation, a study found that there is no increase in nest predation on fragmented forests - thus not supporting the [[Edge effects|edge effect]] hypothesis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Allan |last2=Hartman |first2=Göran |date=2001 |title=Tropical forest fragmentation and nest predation – an experimental study in an Eastern Arc montane forest, Tanzania |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/A:1016649731062 |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=1077–1085 |doi=10.1023/A:1016649731062|s2cid=20971928 }}</ref>

== Forest fragmentation ==
{{Split section|date=November 2022}}
{{Commons category|Forest fragmentation}}
Forest fragmentation is a form of habitat fragmentation where forests are reduced (either naturally or man-made) to relatively small, isolated patches of forest known as forest fragments or forest remnants.<ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"" /> The intervening matrix that separates the remaining woodland patches can be natural open areas, [[farmland]], or developed areas. Following the principles of [[island biogeography]], remnant woodlands act like islands of forest in a sea of pastures, fields, subdivisions, shopping malls, etc. These fragments will then begin to undergo the process of [[ecosystem decay]].

Forest fragmentation also includes less subtle forms of discontinuities such as utility right-of-ways (ROWs). Utility ROWs are of ecological interest because they have become pervasive in many forest communities, spanning areas as large as 5 million acres in the United States.<ref name=""Russell2005"">{{Cite journal|last1=Russell|first1=K. N.|last2=Ikerd|first2=H.|last3=Droege|first3=S.|date=2005-07-01|title=The potential conservation value of unmowed powerline strips for native bees|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=124|issue=1|pages=133–148|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2005.01.022|bibcode=2005BCons.124..133R }}</ref> Utility ROWs include electricity transmission ROWs, gas pipeline and telecommunication ROWs. Electricity transmission ROWs are created to prevent vegetation interference with transmission lines. Some studies have shown that electricity transmission ROWs harbor more plant species than adjoining forest areas,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wagner|first1=David L.|last2=Metzler|first2=Kenneth J.|last3=Leicht-Young|first3=Stacey A.|last4=Motzkin|first4=Glenn|date=2014-09-01|title=Vegetation composition along a New England transmission line corridor and its implications for other trophic levels|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=327|pages=231–239|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2014.04.026}}</ref> due to alterations in the microclimate in and around the corridor. Discontinuities in forest areas associated with utility right-of-ways can serve as biodiversity havens for native bees <ref name=""Russell2005"" /> and grassland species,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lampinen |first1=Jussi |last2=Ruokolainen |first2=Kalle |last3=Huhta |first3=Ari-Pekka |last4=Chapman |first4=Maura (Gee) Geraldine |title=Urban Power Line Corridors as Novel Habitats for Grassland and Alien Plant Species in South-Western Finland |journal=PLOS ONE |date=13 November 2015 |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=e0142236 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0142236 |pmid=26565700 |pmc=4643934 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1042236L|doi-access=free }}</ref> as the right-of-ways are preserved in an early successional stage.

Forest fragmentation reduces food resources and [[habitat]] sources for animals thus splitting these species apart. Thus, making these animals become much more susceptible to effects of [[predation]] and making them less likely to perform [[Hybrid (biology)|interbreeding]] - lowering genetic diversity.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Bogaert|first1=Jan|title=Forest Fragmentation: Causes, Ecological Impacts and Implications for Landscape Management|date=2011|work=Landscape Ecology in Forest Management and Conservation: Challenges and Solutions for Global Change|pages=273–296|editor-last=Li|editor-first=Chao|publisher=Springer|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-12754-0_12|isbn=978-3-642-12754-0|last2=Barima|first2=Yao S. S.|last3=Mongo|first3=Léon Iyongo Waya|last4=Bamba|first4=Issouf|last5=Mama|first5=Adi|last6=Toyi|first6=Mireille|last7=Lafortezza|first7=Raffaele|editor2-last=Lafortezza|editor2-first=Raffaele|editor3-last=Chen|editor3-first=Jiquan}}</ref>

=== Implications ===
Forest fragmentation is one of the greatest threats to [[biodiversity]] in forests, especially in the tropics.<ref>{{cite book | last = Bierregaard | first = Richard | editor = Claude Gascon | editor2 = Thomas E. Lovejoy | editor3 = Rita Mesquita | year = 2001 | title = Lessons from Amazonia: The Ecology and Conservation of a Fragmented Forest | publisher = Yale University Press | isbn = 978-0-300-08483-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lessonsfromamazo0000unse}}</ref> The problem of [[habitat destruction]] that caused the fragmentation in the first place is compounded by:
* the inability of individual forest fragments to support viable populations, especially of large vertebrates
* the local [[extinction]] of species that do not have at least one fragment capable of supporting a viable population
* [[edge effect]]s that alter the conditions of the outer areas of the fragment, greatly reducing the amount of true forest interior habitat.<ref>{{cite book | last = Harris | first = Larry D. | year = 1984 | title = The Fragmented Forest: Island Biogeography Theory and the Preservation of Biotic Diversity | publisher = The University of Chicago Press | isbn = 978-0-226-31763-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/fragmentedforest0000harr}}</ref>

The effect of fragmentation on the [[flora]] and [[fauna]] of a forest patch depends on a) the size of the patch, and b) its degree of isolation.<ref>{{Citation|last=Didham|first=Raphael K|chapter=Ecological Consequences of Habitat Fragmentation|date=2010-11-15|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Life Sciences|pages=a0021904|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|language=en|doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0021904|isbn=978-0-470-01617-6}}</ref>  Isolation depends on the distance to the nearest similar patch, and the contrast with the surrounding areas. For example, if a cleared area is [[reforestation|reforested]] or allowed to [[natural regeneration|regenerate]], the increasing [[structural diversity]] of the [[vegetation]] will lessen the isolation of the forest fragments.  However, when formerly forested lands are converted permanently to pastures, agricultural fields, or human-inhabited developed areas, the remaining forest fragments, and the [[Biota (biology)|biota]] within them, are often highly isolated.

Forest patches that are smaller or more isolated will lose species faster than those that are larger or less isolated. A large number of small forest ""islands"" typically cannot support the same biodiversity that a single contiguous forest would hold, even if their combined area is much greater than the single forest. However, forest islands in rural landscapes greatly increase their biodiversity.<ref>, Banaszak J. (ed.) 2000. Ecology of Forest Islands. Bydgoszcz University Press, Bydgoszcz, Poland, 313 pp.</ref> In the [[Maulino forest]] of Chile fragmentation appear to not affect overall plant diversity much, and tree diversity is indeed higher in fragments than in large continuous forests.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bustamante |first=Ramiro O.|author-last2=Simonetti|author-first2=Javier A.|author-last3=Grez|author-first3=Audrey A.|author-last4=San Martín|author-first4=José |date=2005 |title=Historia, biodiversidad y ecología de los bosques costeros de Chile |chapter=Fragmentación y dinámica de regeneración del bosque Maulino: diagnóstico actual y perspectivas futuras|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=C.|editor-last2=Armesto|editor-first2=J.|editor-last3=Valdovinos|editor-first3=C.|chapter-url=http://bdrnap.mma.gob.cl/recursos/SINIA/Biblio_AP/070316BIBLIORNAP_164.pdf |pages=529–539 |trans-chapter=Fragmentation and regeneration dynamics of the Maulino forest: present status and future prospects|language=es}}</ref><ref name=Bosque2020-3>{{Cite journal|title=Native and exotic plant species diversity in forest fragments and forestry plantations of a coastal landscape of central Chile|journal=[[Bosque (journal)|Bosque]]|url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0717-92002020000200125&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=en|last1=Becerra|first1=Pablo I.|volume=41|last2=Simonetti|first2=Javier A.|publisher=[[Austral University of Chile]]|issue=2|doi=10.4067/S0717-92002020000200125 |year=2020|pages=125–136|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[McGill University]] in [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]] released a university based newspaper statement stating that 70% of the world's remaining forest stands within one kilometre of a forest edge putting biodiversity at an immense risk based on research conducted by international scientists.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/newsroom/channels/news/forest-fragmentation-threatens-biodiversity-243709|title=Forest fragmentation threatens biodiversity|website=Newsroom|language=en|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref>

Reduced fragment area, increased isolation, and increased edge initiate changes that percolate through all ecosystems. Habitat fragmentation is able to formulate persistent outcomes which can also become unexpected such as an abundance of some species and the pattern that long temporal scales are required to discern many strong system responses.<ref name=""Haddad2015"" />

=== Sustainable forest management ===

The presence of forest fragments influences the supply of various [[ecosystem]]s in adjacent [[Agriculture|agricultural]] fields (Mitchell et al. 2014). Mitchell et al. (2014), researched on six varying ecosystem factors such as crop production, [[decomposition]], [[pesticide regulation]], carbon storage, [[soil fertility]], and water quality regulation in soybean fields through separate distances by nearby forest fragments which all varied in isolation and size across an agricultural landscape in [[Quebec|Quebec, Canada]]. Sustainable forest management can be achieved in several ways including by managing forests for [[ecosystem service]]s (beyond simple provisioning), through government compensation schemes, and through effective regulation and legal frameworks.<ref>{{Citation|title=Chapter 23 - Sustainable Forest Management|date=2019-01-01|url=https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/IzpisGradiva.php?id=36180|journal=Sustainable Food and Agriculture|pages=233–236|editor-last=Campanhola|editor-first=Clayton|publisher=Academic Press|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-812134-4.00023-6|language=en|isbn=978-0-12-812134-4|s2cid=128938268|editor2-last=Pandey|editor2-first=Shivaji}}</ref> The only realistic method of conserving forests is to apply and practice sustainable [[forest management]] to risk further loss.

There is a high industrial demand for [[wood]], [[Pulp (paper)|pulp]], [[paper]], and other resources which the [[forest]] can provide with, thus businesses which will want more access to the cutting of forests to gain those resources. The [[Rainforest Alliance|rainforest alliance]] has efficiently been able to put into place an approach to sustainable forest management, and they established this in the late 1980s. Their [[Conservation biology|conservation]] was deemed successful as it has saved over nearly half a billion acres of land around the world.<ref name=""What is Sustainable Forestry"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/articles/what-is-sustainable-forestry|title=What is Sustainable Forestry?|website=Rainforest Alliance|date=28 July 2016|language=en|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref>

A few approaches and measures which can be taken in order to conserve forests are methods by which erosion can be minimized, waste is properly disposed, conserve native [[tree]] species to maintain [[genetic diversity]], and setting aside forestland (provides habitat for critical [[Species|wildlife species]]).<ref name=""What is Sustainable Forestry"" /> Additionally, [[Wildfire|forest fires]] can also occur frequently and measures can also be taken to further prevent forest fires from occurring. For example, in [[Guatemala]]’s culturally and ecologically significant [[Petén Department|Petén]] region, researchers were able to find over a 20-year period, actively managed [[Forest Stewardship Council|FSC]]-certified forests experienced substantially lower rates of [[deforestation]] than nearby protected areas, and forest fires only affected 0.1 percent of certified land area, compared to 10.4 percent of protected areas.<ref name=""What is Sustainable Forestry"" /> However, it must be duly noted that short term decisions regarding forest sector employment and harvest practices can have long-term effects on biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/gtr/gtr_nrs90/gtr-nrs-90-chapter-4.pdf|title=Strategies for Sustainable Forest Management|website=fed.us}}</ref> Planted forests become increasingly important as they supply approximately a quarter of global industrial roundwood production and are predicted to account for 50% of global output within two decades (Brown, 1998; Jaakko Poyry, 1999).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Siry|first1=Jacek P.|last2=Cubbage|first2=Frederick W.|last3=Ahmed|first3=Miyan Rukunuddin|date=2005-05-01|title=Sustainable forest management: global trends and opportunities|journal=Forest Policy and Economics|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=551–561|doi=10.1016/j.forpol.2003.09.003|issn=1389-9341}}</ref> Although there have been many difficulties, the implementation of forest certification has been quite prominent in being able to raise effective awareness and disseminating knowledge on a holistic concept, embracing economic, environmental and social issues, worldwide. While also providing a tool for a range of other applications than assessment of [[sustainability]], such as e.g. verifying [[Carbon sink|carbon sinks.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rametsteiner|first1=Ewald|last2=Simula|first2=Markku|date=2003-01-01|title=Forest certification—an instrument to promote sustainable forest management?|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|series=Maintaining Forest Biodiversity|language=en|volume=67|issue=1|pages=87–98|doi=10.1016/S0301-4797(02)00191-3|pmid=12659807|issn=0301-4797}}</ref>

== Approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation ==
Two approaches are typically used to understand habitat fragmentation and its ecological impacts.

=== Species-oriented approach ===
The species-oriented approach focuses specifically on individual species and how they each respond to their environment and habitat changes with in it. This approach can be limited because it does only focus on individual species and does not allow for a broad view of the impacts of habitat fragmentation across species.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fischer|first1=Joern|last2=Lindenmayer|first2=David B.|title=Landscape Modification and Habitat Fragmentation: A synthesis|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|date=February 7, 2007|volume=16|issue=3|pages=265–280|doi=10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.x|bibcode=2007GloEB..16..265F |ref=1|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Pattern-oriented approach ====

The pattern-oriented approach is based on land cover and its patterning in correlation with species occurrences. One model of study for landscape patterning is the patch-matrix-corridor model developed by [[Richard Forman]] The pattern-oriented approach focuses on land cover defined by human means and activities. This model has stemmed from [[island biogeography]] and tries to infer causal relationships between the defined landscapes and the occurrence of species or groups of species within them. The approach has limitations in its collective assumptions across species or landscapes which may not account for variations amongst them.<ref>Fischer, Joern & B. Lindenmayer, David. (2007). Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 16. 265-280. 10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.</ref>

==== Variegation model ====

The other model is the variegation model. Variegated landscapes retain much of their natural vegetation but are intermixed with gradients of modified habitat <ref>{{cite web|title=Landscape Ecology and Landscape Change|url=http://www.veac.vic.gov.au/reports/Chapter%202%20-%20Landscape%20Ecology%20and%20Landscape%20Change.pdf|access-date=March 22, 2018|ref=2}}</ref> This model of habitat fragmentation typically applies to landscapes that are modified by agriculture. In contrast to the fragmentation model that is denoted by isolated patches of habitat surrounded by unsuitable landscape environments, the variegation model applies to landscapes modified by agriculture where small patches of habitat remain near the remnant original habitat. In between these patches are a matrix of grassland that is often modified versions of the original habitat. These areas do not present as much of a barrier to native species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIntyre |first1=S. |last2=Barrett |first2=G. W. |title=Habitat Variegation, An Alternative to Fragmentation |journal=Conservation Biology |date=1992 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=146–147 |jstor=2385863 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.610146.x|bibcode=1992ConBi...6..146M }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Empty forest]]
* [[Extinction vortex]]
* [[Gene pool]]
* [[Genetic erosion]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[Habitat corridor]]
* [[Habitat destruction]]
* [[Landscape connectivity]]
* [[Landscape ecology]]
* [[Patch dynamics]]
* [[Reproductive isolation]]
* [[Restoration ecology]]
* [[Road kill]]
* [[Wildlife corridor]]
* [[Wildlife crossing]]
{{div col end}}

== Bibliography ==
* Lindenmayer D.B & Fischer J (2013) ''Habitat Fragmentation and Landscape Change: An Ecological and Conservation Synthesis'' (Island Press)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ecological fragmentation}}
*[http://www.globio.info GLOBIO], an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of human activities on the natural environment, specifically highlighting larger wilderness areas and their fragmentation
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120217000742/http://vlab.infotech.monash.edu.au/simulations/cellular-automata/population-genetics/ Monash Virtual Laboratory] – Simulations of habitat fragmentation and population genetics online at Monash University's Virtual Laboratory.
*[http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/2_Desfragmentacion_Belgica.pdf Defragmentation in Belgium (Flanders) – Connecting nature, connecting people. Accessed: Jan 22, 2009]{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/1_Desfragmentacion_Holanda.pdf Wildlife passages – De-Fragmentation in the Netherlands – How to evaluate their effectiveness? Accessed: Jan 22, 2009]{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/landscape-fragmentation-in-europe Landscape Fragmentation in Europe] The technical report from 2006 - the result of a collaboration between the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) and the European Environment Agency (EEA). Accessed: Feb 22, 2016
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24229723 Kinver, Mark. (2013, September 26). ""Forest fragmentation triggers 'ecological Armageddon'"", BBC News.]

{{Modelling ecosystems|expanded=other}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Conservation of species}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Habitat Fragmentation}}
[[Category:Habitats| Fragmentation]]
[[Category:Habitat|Fragmentation]]
[[Category:Ecological connectivity]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainable forest management]]"
2014 Sundarbans oil spill,"{{Engvar|date=December 2014}}
{{use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}
{{Infobox oil spill
| name          = 2014 Sundarbans oil spill
| image         = File:Spilt oil in Sundarban.jpg
| image_caption = Spilled oil on the Shela River
| location      = Shela River, [[Sundarbans]], [[Khulna District]], Bangladesh<ref>{{cite news|last1=Abu Bakar Siddique|title=The Sundarbans in big trouble|url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/10/sundarbans-big-trouble|work=Dhaka Tribune}}</ref>
| coordinates   ={{coord|22|21|51|N|89|40|1|E|type:edu|display=title inline}}
| spill_date    = 9 December 2014
| cause         = Collision between oil tanker and cargo vessel
| operator      = MS Harun & Co.
| casualties    = 
| volume        = {{convert|350,000|L|impgal usgal}}
| area          = {{convert|350|km2|abbr=on}}
| coast         = 
}}
The '''2014 Sundarbans oil spill''' was an [[oil spill]] that occurred on 9 December 2014 at the Shela River in [[Sundarbans]], Bangladesh, a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref name="":142"">{{Cite news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30448377|title = India on alert after Sunderbans oil spill in Bangladesh|work = [[BBC]]|access-date = 16 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="":222"">{{cite news|last1=Phillips|first1=Tom|title=Fears for rare wildlife as oil 'catastrophe' strikes Bangladesh|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/bangladesh/11291856/Fears-for-rare-wildlife-as-oil-catastrophe-strikes-Sundarbans.html|access-date=15 December 2014|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=13 December 2014}}</ref> The spill occurred when an oil-tanker named ''Southern Star VII'',<ref name="":32"">{{Cite news|url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/pollution/350-tonne-oil-spill-by-Bangladeshi-ship-threatens-Sunderbans/articleshow/45483696.cms|title = 350-tonne oil spill by Bangladeshi ship threatens Sunderbans|last = Krishnendu Mukherjee|first = Rakhi Chakrabarty|work = [[The Times of India]]|access-date = 15 December 2014}}</ref> carrying {{convert|350,000|L|impgal usgal}} of [[furnace oil]], was in collision with a cargo vessel<ref name="":222""/> and sank in the river.<ref name=""Global Voices Online"">{{Cite news|url = http://globalvoicesonline.org/2014/12/14/massive-oil-spill-threatens-bangladeshs-sundarbans/|title = Massive Oil Spill Threatens Bangladesh's Sundarbans|work = Global Voices Online|access-date = 15 December 2014}}</ref>  By 17 December, the oil had spread over a {{convert|350|km2|abbr=on}} area.<ref name="":0"">[http://www.dw.de/assessing-the-oil-spills-impact-on-bangladeshs-sundarbans-forest/a-18137182 ""Assessing the oil spill's impact on Bangladesh's Sundarbans forest"". ''Deutsche Welle''. 17 December 2014.]</ref> The oil spread to a second river and a network of canals in Sundarbans, which blackened the shoreline.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bangladesh launches campaign to clean up Sunderbans oil spill|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/bangladesh-launches-campaign-to-clean-up-sunderbans-oil-spill/article6689136.ece|access-date=15 December 2014|work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> The spill threatened trees, plankton, and vast populations of small fish and dolphins.<ref name="":132"">{{Cite news|url = http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/12/bangladesh-begins-oil-clean-up-after-spill-2014121292319849578.html|title = Bangladesh begins oil clean-up after spill|work = [[Al Jazeera English|Aljazeera]]|access-date = 15 December 2014}}</ref> The spill occurred at a protected [[mangrove]] area, home to rare [[Irrawaddy dolphin|Irrawaddy]] and [[Ganges river dolphin]]s.<ref name="":02"" /> By 12 January 2015, {{convert|70000|L|impgal usgal}} of oil had been cleaned up by local residents, the [[Bangladesh Navy]], and [[Government of Bangladesh|the government of Bangladesh]].<ref name="":1"">{{Cite news|url = http://www.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/article/421969|title = ৩০ টন তেলমাখা সামগ্রী, অপসারিত হয়নি বাকি তেল, দুশ্চিন্তা কাটেনি|work = [[Prothom Alo]]|access-date = 13 January 2015|archive-date = 13 January 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150113121140/http://www.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/article/421969|url-status = dead}}</ref>

== Location ==
The collision between the oil tanker and the cargo vessel occurred at the Shela River in Sundarbans, [[Khulna Division]], Bangladesh. The site is near [[Mongla Port]], and is about {{convert|100|km|mi}} from [[Kolkata Port (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Kolkata Port]].<ref name="":32""/> The oil tanker was at anchor at the confluence between the Shela River and the Passur River in dense fog when the cargo vessel collided with it at 5am on 9 December 2014.<ref name=Kumar-Rao>{{cite web |url=https://maptia.com/aratikumarrao/stories/oil-spill-in-the-sundarbans |title=Oil spill in the Sundarbans |author=Kumar-Rao, Arati |date=24 December 2014 |publisher=Maptia |access-date=21 February 2015 |archive-date=21 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221144123/https://maptia.com/aratikumarrao/stories/oil-spill-in-the-sundarbans |url-status=dead }}</ref> The site is in a protected [[mangrove]] area, home to rare [[Irrawaddy dolphin|Irrawaddy]] and [[Ganges dolphin]]s.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite news|url = http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/12/bangladesh-oil-spill-threatens-rare-dolphins-20141211165442529249.html |title = Bangladesh oil spill threatens rare dolphins|work = [[Al Jazeera English|Aljazeera]] |access-date = 15 December 2014}}</ref>

== Casualties and losses ==
[[File:The oil Tank.jpg|thumb|Salvaged oil tanker]]

Seven crew members of the sunken ship managed to swim ashore,<ref>{{cite news|title=India on alert after oil spill in Sundarbans|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-sundarbans-idUSKBN0JQ1BZ20141212|date=12 December 2014|access-date=9 May 2022|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> but the captain of the ship, Mokhlesur Rahman, died, and his body was recovered a few kilometers away from the spot where the ship sank.<ref>{{cite news|title=Callousness cause for Sundarban environmental disaster|url=http://www.observerbd.com/2014/12/17/61220.php|access-date=17 December 2014|work=observerbd.com}}</ref> Experts estimated that {{currency|1000000000|BDT}} was lost as a result of the sinking of the oil-tanker.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite news|url = http://www.clickittefaq.com/more-stories/tk-100-cr-loss-feared-sundarban-oil-spill/|title = TK 100 cr. loss feared from Sundarban oil spill|work = [[The Daily Ittefaq]]|access-date = 15 December 2014|archive-date = 15 December 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141215220859/http://www.clickittefaq.com/more-stories/tk-100-cr-loss-feared-sundarban-oil-spill/|url-status = dead}}</ref> The residents of the surrounding area are at a health risk. 
The government of Bangladesh told the local residents to collect the oil and sell it to the [[Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation]]. The local oil collectors faced health risks and various skin diseases, including hair fallout if furnace oil mixed with water contacts a person's face or hair.<ref name="":4"" />

== Environmental issues ==
[[File:Dead crab after oil spill in Sundarban.jpg|left|thumb|A dead crab and color interference pattern formed in the spilled oil.]]
[[File:Golpata tree oil covered.jpg|thumb|Oil covered trees]]
Environmentalists warned that the event was an ecological ""catastrophe"",<ref name="":132""/> as the spill occurred at a protected area where rare dolphins were present.<ref name="":02"" /> Experts expressed concerns that the oil spill will hamper the well-being of the aquatic organisms in the area. Wildlife near the river are at a risk of death, because the smell of oil makes breathing difficult.<ref name="":722"">{{cite news|title=Oil spill in Sundarbans threatens food cycle|url=http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57215/Oil-spill-in-Sundarbans-threatens-food-cycle|access-date=19 December 2014|work=[[Prothom Alo]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219172507/http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57215/Oil-spill-in-Sundarbans-threatens-food-cycle|archive-date=19 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some images indicate that the disaster killed some animals.<ref name=""Global Voices Online""/>

On 13 December 2014, a dead Irrawaddy dolphin was seen floating on the Harintana-Tembulbunia channel of the Shela River.<ref name="":622"">{{Cite news|url = http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/14/first-dead-dolphin-spotted|title = First dead dolphin spotted|last = Siddique|first = Abu Bakar|work = The Dhaka Tribune|access-date = 18 December 2014}}</ref> However, it was not confirmed that the dolphin's death was caused by the oil spill. According to the local residents, few dolphins have been seen in the area since the oil spill.
Oriental small-clawed otter (''Amblonyx cinereus'') aquatic carnivore animal lives in the aquatic ecosystem of Sundarbans.<ref>Bautista H. and Rahman K. M. M. (2016). Review On the Sundarbans Delta Oil Spill: Effects On Wildlife and Habitats. International Research Journal, 1(43), Part 2, pp: 93-96. DOI: 10.18454/IRJ.2016.43.143</ref> On 18 December 2014, two dead [[otter]]s were recovered from the Shela River by forest department workers. An [[autopsy]] of the two otters confirmed that they had died from ingesting oil. The otter is considered to be an [[endangered species]], and has been included in the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] endangered list.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite news|url = http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57260/Two-otters-dead-in-oil-spill|title = Two otters dead in oil spill|last = Mahmud|first = Iftekhar|work = [[Prothom Alo]]|access-date = 22 December 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141221142751/http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57260/Two-otters-dead-in-oil-spill|archive-date = 21 December 2014|url-status = dead}}</ref>

A team of forest department workers saw [[crocodile]]s, [[monitor lizard]]s and many other animals smeared with oil at the Chandpai range of the Sundarbans.<ref name="":9"" />

The oil spill is also posing a major threat to the forest's food cycle. Reports from various sources showed that the microorganisms, the primary level of the food cycle, are dying.<ref name="":722""/> The [[United Nations]] expressed deep concern over the oil spill, urging the government of Bangladesh to impose a ""complete ban"" on commercial vessels moving through the forest.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/dec/18/un-sends-team-to-clean-up-sunderbans-oil-spill-in-bangladesh|title = UN sends team to clean up Sunderbans oil spill in Bangladesh|date = 18 December 2014|work = [[Agence France-Presse|AFP]]|access-date = 19 December 2014|publisher = [[The Guardian]]}}</ref>

[[Shajahan Khan]], the shipping minister of Bangladesh, told [[Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha]] that he has talked with environmental experts, and they said that there will likely be no major damage as a result of the oil spill.<ref name="":622""/> Researchers said that Khan's claim was ""unscientific and misleading"".<ref name="":722""/>

Ten species that are at risk as a result of the spill have been listed by [[National Geographic Traveller|The National Geographic Traveler]]. These species are the [[Irrawaddy dolphin]]s, [[Bengal tiger]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[great egret]]s, [[rhesus macaque]]s, [[northern river terrapin]]s, [[black-capped kingfisher]]s, [[chital]]s, [[saltwater crocodile]]s, and [[horseshoe crab]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/20/bnp-probe-sundarbans-oil-spill|title = BNP to probe Sundarbans oil spill|work = The Dhaka Tribune|access-date = 22 December 2014}}</ref>
The presence of [[white-rumped vulture]] (''Gyps bengalensis'') over the Sundarbans sky also indicated the large scale death of wild fauna. The secondary effect of oil spill is always much greater than the primary effects.<ref>Rahman K. M. M. & Rakhimov I. I. (2015). Ecological Effects of Oil Spill on Bangladesh Sundarbans Biodiversity. International Scientific and Practical Conference ""Complex Problems of Technosphere Safety"";Voronezh: Voronezh State Technical University, Russia;Part.VI.258p:Pp:16-21.</ref>

==Oil collection==
[[File:Oil collection by local residents of Sundarbans.jpg|thumb|Local residents collecting oil]]

After the spill, primarily [[Bangladeshi]] fishermen began to clean up the oil using sponges and sacks.<ref name="":132""/> [[Padma Oil Company]], a government-owned corporation, bought the oil at a price of 30 takas per litre.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2014/12/12/suranjit-peeved-over-sundarbans-oil-spill|title = Suranjit peeved over Sundarbans oil spill|work = [[Bdnews24.com]]|access-date = 19 December 2014}}</ref> The Bangladeshi navy initially sent four ships to deal with the spill, and planned to use chemicals to disperse the oil,<ref name="":132""/> but the plan was canceled, as there were concerns that dispersing the oil would further damage the ecology and biodiversity of the mangrove forest.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/13/dilly-dallying-delays-clean-sundarbans-spill|title = Dilly dallying delays clean-up of Sundarbans spill|work = The Dhaka Tribune|access-date = 19 December 2014}}</ref> The government of Bangladesh closed the Shela River to all vessels.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/south-asia/river-route-closed-after-sundarbans-oil-spill/article6683452.ece|title = River route closed after Sundarbans oil spill|work = [[The Hindu]]|access-date = 15 December 2014}}</ref> The owner of the sunken oil tanker, MS Harun & Co., began salvage efforts, assisted by three private rescue vessels. The Bangladesh Forest Department filed a 1 billion taka lawsuit against the owners of the two cargo ships involved in the collision.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2014/12/10/govt-files-tk-1-billion-compensation-suit-for-sundarbans-oil-spill|title = Govt files Tk 1 billion compensation suit for Sundarbans oil spill}}</ref>  By 12 January 2015, the government, with the help of local residents, the Bangladesh Navy, and the owner of the oil tanker, had collected {{convert|70000|L|impgal usgal}} of oil.<ref name="":1"" /> The Bangladesh government said that they do not have the capacity to manage oil spills.<ref name="":52"">{{cite news |title=No capacity to tackle oil spills |url=http://www.hawker.com.bd/news_details.php?news_id=389549 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |date=16 December 2014 |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=26 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226151916/http://www.hawker.com.bd/news_details.php?news_id=389549 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/14/india-alert-after-sunderbans-oil-spill|title = India on alert after Sundarbans oil spill|work = The Dhaka Tribune|access-date = 16 December 2014}}</ref>

The Economic Relations Division of the Bangladesh government sent a letter to the United Nation's Bangladesh office on 15 December 2014, asking for help in the oil collection efforts. The United Nations accepted the request, and a team from the [[UNEP]] and [[OCHA]] went to the site of the spill.<ref>{{cite news|title=UN agrees to help govt contain oil spread|url=http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57157/Govt-seeks-UN-help-for-Sundarbans|access-date=17 December 2014|work=[[Prothom Alo]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217121509/http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57157/Govt-seeks-UN-help-for-Sundarbans|archive-date=17 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> A team from the [[United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination]] arrived in the [[Dhaka]] to support the cleanup efforts.<ref name="":8"" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Biology}}
* [[Rampal Power Station (Proposed)|Rampal Power Station]]
* [[List of oil spills]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sundarbans oil spill|Sundarbans oil spill|}}
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/in-pictures-30529147 In pictures: Bangladesh oil spill clean-up]
* [http://www.observerbd.com/2014/12/22/62242.php Oil spill takes toll on aquatic life]

[[Category:Sundarbans|Oil spill]]
[[Category:Oil spills in Asia|Sundarbans oil spill 2014]]
[[Category:Man-made disasters in Bangladesh|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:2014 in Bangladesh|Sundarbans oil spill]] 
[[Category:2014 in the environment|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:2014 industrial disasters|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:2014 health disasters|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:Environment of Bangladesh|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:2014 disasters in Bangladesh|Sundarbans oil spill]]"
Environmental issues of Jamaica's reefs,"#REDIRECT [[Coral reefs of Jamaica#Causes of decline]]

{{R from merge}}
{{R to section}}

[[Category:Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental impact by effect|Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Environment of Jamaica]]"
Social Trekking,"{{Orphan|date=January 2021}}

'''Social Trekking''' is a new concept in [[Environmentalism|environmental awareness]] efforts, wherein [[tour operator]]s and organizations committed to [[Environmental protection|environmental conservation]] organize 'green-treks' to encourage people to recover and bring back garbage from environmentally sensitive [[glacier]] regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://presstrustofkashmir.com/trekking-tourism-grows-significantly-in-kashmir/|title=Trekking-Tourism Grows Significantly In Kashmir|publisher=presstrustofkashmir.com|date=2017-08-31|accessdate=2017-09-04|url-status=bot: unknown|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901095603/http://presstrustofkashmir.com/trekking-tourism-grows-significantly-in-kashmir/|archivedate=2017-09-01}}</ref> Social treks are part of 'low impact tourism' efforts,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.knskashmir.com/Mustaq-Pahalgami-flags-off-second-batch-of-trekers-19566 |title=Mustaq Pahalgami flags off second batch of trekers |publisher=www.knskashmir.com |date=2017-09-10 |accessdate=2017-09-10 |url-status=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910150950/http://www.knskashmir.com/Mustaq-Pahalgami-flags-off-second-batch-of-trekers-19566 |archivedate=2017-09-10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://scoopnews.in/det.aspx?q=70740|title=Himalayan Welfare Organization flags off second batch of trekers|publisher=scoopnews.in|date=2017-09-10|accessdate=2017-09-14|url-status=bot: unknown|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913134232/http://scoopnews.in/det.aspx?q=70740|archivedate=2017-09-13}}</ref> designed with the aim of minimizing the [[carbon footprint]] of the event, while also recovering and bringing back any garbage found on the way and/or at the destination, usually situated in ecologically sensitive far flung hilly areas, where local municipal committees fail to ensure proper garbage recovery.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Habitat destruction,"{{Short description|Process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}

[[File:Biodiversity Hotspots Map.jpg|upright=2|thumb|Map of the world's biodiversity hot spots, all of which are heavily threatened by habitat loss and degradation]]

'''Habitat destruction''' (also termed '''habitat loss''' and '''habitat reduction''') occurs when a natural [[habitat]] is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and [[Abundance (ecology)|species numbers]].<ref name=""Calizza Costantini Careddu Rossi pp. 5784–5796"">{{cite journal|last1=Calizza|first1=Edoardo|last2=Costantini|first2=Maria Letizia|last3=Careddu|first3=Giulio|last4=Rossi|first4=Loreto|date=June 17, 2017|title=Effect of habitat degradation on competition, carrying capacity, and species assemblage stability|journal=Ecology and Evolution|publisher=Wiley|volume=7|issue=15|pages=5784–5796|doi=10.1002/ece3.2977|issn=2045-7758|pmc=5552933|pmid=28811883|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017EcoEv...7.5784C }}</ref><ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"">{{cite journal|author=Sahney|first1=S|last2=Benton|first2=Michael J.|last3=Falcon-Lang|first3=Howard J.|date=1 December 2010|title=Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica|url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079|url-status=live|format=PDF|journal=Geology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=1079–1082|bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S|doi=10.1130/G31182.1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011144357/http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079|archive-date=2011-10-11|access-date=2010-11-29|via=GeoScienceWorld}}</ref> Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of [[biodiversity loss]] and species [[extinction]] worldwide.<ref name=""Marvier-2004"">{{Cite journal|last1=Marvier|first1=Michelle|last2=Kareiva|first2=Peter|last3=Neubert|first3=Michael G.|date=2004|title=Habitat Destruction, Fragmentation, and Disturbance Promote Invasion by Habitat Generalists in a Multispecies Metapopulation|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00485.x|journal=Risk Analysis|volume=24|issue=4|pages=869–878|doi=10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00485.x|pmid=15357806|bibcode=2004RiskA..24..869M |s2cid=44809930|issn=0272-4332|access-date=2021-03-18|archive-date=2021-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723082930/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00485.x|url-status=live}}</ref>

Humans contribute to habitat destruction through the [[Exploitation of natural resources|use of natural resources]], agriculture, industrial production and [[urbanization]] ([[urban sprawl]]). Other activities include [[mining]], [[logging]] and [[trawling]]. Environmental factors can contribute to habitat destruction more indirectly. Geological processes, [[climate change]],<ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"" /> [[introduced species|introduction]] of [[invasive species]], ecosystem [[nutrient depletion]], [[water pollution|water]] and [[noise pollution]] are some examples. Loss of habitat can be preceded by an initial [[habitat fragmentation]]. Fragmentation and loss of habitat have become one of the most important topics of research in ecology as they are major threats to the survival of [[endangered species]].<ref name=""WIEGAND 108–121"">{{Cite journal |last1=WIEGAND |first1=THORSTEN |last2=REVILLA |first2=ELOY |last3=MOLONEY |first3=KIRK A. |date=February 2005 |title=Effects of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation on Population Dynamics |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00208.x |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=108–121 |bibcode=2005ConBi..19..108W |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00208.x |issn=0888-8892 |s2cid=33258495}}</ref>

== Observations ==

=== By region ===
[[File:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG|thumb|right|Satellite photograph of [[deforestation in Bolivia]]. Originally dry tropical forest, the land is being cleared for [[soybean]] cultivation.<ref>{{cite web
  | title = Tierras Bajas Deforestation, Bolivia
  | work = Newsroom. Photo taken from the International Space Station on April 16, 2001
  | publisher = [[NASA Earth Observatory]]
  | date = 2001-04-16
  | url = http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=4842
  | access-date = 2008-08-11
  | archive-date = 2008-09-20
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080920061746/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=4842
  | url-status = dead
  }}</ref>]]
[[Biodiversity hotspot]]s are chiefly [[tropical]] regions that feature high concentrations of [[Endemism|endemic]] species and, when all hotspots are combined, may contain over half of the world's [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]] species.<ref name=""Cincotta"">Cincotta & Engelman, 2000.</ref> These hotspots are suffering from habitat loss and destruction. Most of the natural habitat on islands and in areas of high human population density has already been destroyed (WRI, 2003). Islands suffering extreme habitat destruction include [[New Zealand]], [[Madagascar]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Japan]].<ref name=""Primack"">Primack, 2006.</ref> South and East Asia—especially [[China]], [[India]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and Japan—and many areas in [[West Africa]] have extremely dense human populations that allow little room for natural habitat. Marine areas close to highly populated [[coast]]al cities also face degradation of their [[coral reef]]s or other marine habitat. [[Forest_City,_Johor#History|Forest City]], a township in southern Malaysia built on [[Environmentally Sensitive Area]] (ESA) Rank 1 wetland is one such example, with irreversible reclamation proceeding prior to environmental impact assessment and approvals. Other such areas include the eastern coasts of Asia and Africa, northern coasts of [[South America]], and the [[Caribbean Sea]] and its associated [[island]]s.<ref name=""Primack""/>

Regions of un[[sustainable agriculture]] or unstable governments, which may go hand-in-hand, typically experience high rates of habitat destruction. [[South Asia]], [[Central America]], [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], and the [[Amazonian tropical rainforest]] areas of South America are the main regions with unsustainable agricultural practices and/or government mismanagement.<ref name=""Primack""/>

Areas of high agricultural output tend to have the highest extent of habitat destruction. In the U.S., less than 25% of native vegetation remains in many parts of the [[Eastern United States|East]] and [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]].<ref name=""Stein"">Stein et al., 2000.</ref> Only 15% of land area remains unmodified by human activities in all of Europe.<ref name=""Primack""/>

Currently, changes occurring in different environments around the world are changing the specific geographical habitats that are suitable for plants to grow. Therefore, the ability for plants to migrate to suitable environment areas will have a strong impact on the distribution of plant diversity. However, at the moment, the rates of plant migration that are influenced by habitat loss and fragmentation are not as well understood as they could be.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Higgins |first1=Steven I. |last2=Lavorel |first2=Sandra |last3=Revilla |first3=Eloy |date=2003-04-25 |title=Estimating plant migration rates under habitat loss and fragmentation |url=https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12141.x |journal=Oikos |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=354–366 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12141.x |bibcode=2003Oikos.101..354H |hdl=10261/51883 |issn=0030-1299|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== By type of ecosystem ===
[[File:Lacanja burn.JPG|thumb|Jungle burned for agriculture in southern Mexico]]
[[Tropical rainforest]]s have received most of the attention concerning the destruction of habitat. From the approximately 16&nbsp;million square kilometers of tropical rainforest habitat that originally existed worldwide, less than 9&nbsp;million square kilometers remain today.<ref name=""Primack""/> The current rate of [[deforestation]] is 160,000 square kilometers per year, which equates to a loss of approximately 1% of original forest habitat each year.<ref name=""Laurance"">Laurance, 1999.</ref>

Other forest [[ecosystem]]s have suffered as much or more destruction as tropical [[rainforest]]s. [[Deforestation and climate change|Deforestation]] for [[Agriculture|farming]] and [[logging]] have severely disturbed at least 94% of [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|temperate broadleaf forests]]; many [[old growth forest]] stands have lost more than 98% of their previous area because of human activities.<ref name=""Primack""/> [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|Tropical deciduous dry forests]] are easier to [[Slash and burn|clear and burn]] and are more suitable for agriculture and [[cattle ranching]] than tropical rainforests; consequently, less than 0.1% of [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|dry forests in Central America's Pacific Coast]] and less than 8% in [[Madagascar dry deciduous forests|Madagascar]] remain from their original extents.<ref name=""Laurance""/>

[[File:Farmland-batang bungo.jpg|thumb|left|Farmers near newly cleared land within Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat ([[Kerinci Seblat National Park]]), [[Sumatra]]]]
Plains and [[desert]] areas have been degraded to a lesser extent. Only 10–20% of the world's [[drylands]], which include [[temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]], [[Scrubland|scrub]], and [[Temperate deciduous forest|deciduous forests]], have been somewhat degraded.<ref>Kauffman & Pyke, 2001.</ref> But included in that 10–20% of land is the approximately 9&nbsp;million square kilometers of seasonally dry-lands that humans have converted to deserts through the process of [[desertification]].<ref name=""Primack""/> The [[tallgrass prairie]]s of North America, on the other hand, have less than 3% of natural habitat remaining that has not been converted to farmland.<ref>White et al., 2000.</ref>
[[File:Hawaii turtle.JPG|thumb|''[[Chelonia mydas]]'' on a Hawaiian coral reef. Although the endangered species is protected, habitat loss from human development is a major reason for the loss of [[green turtle]] nesting beaches.]]

[[Wetland]]s and marine areas have endured high levels of habitat destruction. More than 50% of wetlands in the U.S. have been destroyed in just the last 200 years.<ref name=""Stein""/> Between 60% and 70% of European wetlands have been completely destroyed.<ref>Ravenga et al., 2000.</ref> In the United Kingdom, there has been an increase in demand for coastal housing and tourism which has caused a decline in marine habitats over the last 60 years. The [[Sea level rise|rising sea levels]] and temperatures have caused [[soil erosion]], [[coastal flooding]], and loss of quality in the UK [[marine ecosystem]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=535|title=United Kingdom: Environmental Issues, Policies and Clean Technology|date=2015-06-08|website=AZoCleantech.com|access-date=2017-12-12|archive-date=2019-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330131246/https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=535|url-status=live}}</ref> About one-fifth (20%) of marine coastal areas have been highly modified by humans.<ref>Burke et al., 2000.</ref> One-fifth of coral reefs have also been destroyed, and another fifth has been severely degraded by [[overfishing]], pollution, and [[invasive species]]; 90% of the Philippines' coral reefs alone have been destroyed.<ref name=""MEA"">Millennium Ecological Assessment, 2005.</ref> Finally, over 35% of the [[Coastal ecosystems|mangrove ecosystems]] worldwide have been destroyed.<ref name=""MEA""/>

==Natural causes==
[[File:Burnt forest GJ.jpg|thumb|Forest in [[Grands-Jardins National Park]] 10 years after a forest fire occurred<ref>{{Citation|title=File:Burnt forest GJ.jpg|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burnt_forest_GJ.jpg|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2021-03-18|archive-date=2021-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723082910/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burnt_forest_GJ.jpg|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, [[fire]], and climate change is well documented in the fossil record.<ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates""/> One study shows that habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica 300&nbsp;million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.<ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates""/>

==Causes due to human activities==
Habitat destruction caused by humans includes [[land conversion]] from forests, etc. to [[arable land]], [[urban sprawl]], [[Public works|infrastructure development]], and other anthropogenic changes to the characteristics of land. Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and [[pollution]] are aspects of habitat destruction caused by humans that do not necessarily involve over destruction of habitat, yet result in habitat collapse. [[Desertification]], [[deforestation]], and [[Coral bleaching|coral reef degradation]] are specific types of habitat destruction for those areas ([[desert]]s, [[forest]]s, [[coral reef]]s).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===Overarching drivers===
The forces that cause humans to destroy habitat are known as ''drivers'' of habitat destruction. [[Demographic]], economic, sociopolitical, scientific and technological, and cultural drivers all contribute to habitat destruction.<ref name=""MEA"" />

Demographic drivers include the [[Human overpopulation|expanding human population]]; rate of [[Population growth|population increase]] over time; [[Population density|spatial distribution]] of people in a given area ([[List of urban areas by population|urban]] versus rural), ecosystem type, and country; and the combined effects of poverty, age, family planning, gender, and education status of people in certain areas.<ref name=""MEA"" /> Most of the exponential human population growth worldwide is occurring in or close to [[biodiversity hotspots]].<ref name=""Cincotta"" /> This may explain why human population density accounts for 87.9% of the variation in numbers of [[threatened species]] across 114 countries, providing indisputable evidence that people play the largest role in decreasing [[biodiversity]].<ref>McKee et al., 2003.</ref> The boom in human population and migration of people into such species-rich regions are making [[conservation biology|conservation efforts]] not only more urgent but also more likely to conflict with local human interests.<ref name=""Cincotta"" /> The high local population density in such areas is directly correlated to the poverty status of the local people, most of whom lacking an education and family planning.<ref name=""Geist"">Geist & Lambin, 2002.</ref>

According to the Geist and Lambin (2002) study, the underlying driving forces were prioritized as follows (with the percent of the 152 cases the factor played a significant role in): economic factors (81%), institutional or policy factors (78%), technological factors (70%), cultural or socio-political factors (66%), and [[demographic]] factors (61%). The main economic factors included [[commercialization]] and growth of [[timber market]]s (68%), which are driven by national and international demands; urban [[industrial growth]] (38%); low domestic costs for land, labor, fuel, and timber (32%); and increases in product prices mainly for [[cash crops]] (25%). Institutional and policy factors included formal pro-[[deforestation]] policies on [[land development]] (40%), [[economic growth]] including [[colonization]] and infrastructure improvement (34%), and subsidies for land-based activities (26%); [[property rights]] and land-tenure insecurity (44%); and policy failures such as [[corruption]], lawlessness, or [[mismanagement]] (42%). The main technological factor was the poor application of technology in the [[wood industry]] (45%), which leads to wasteful logging practices.  Within the broad category of cultural and sociopolitical factors are public attitudes and values (63%), individual/household behavior (53%), public unconcern toward forest environments (43%), missing basic values (36%), and unconcern by individuals (32%). Demographic factors were the in-migration of colonizing settlers into sparsely populated forest areas (38%) and growing population density—a result of the first factor—in those areas (25%).

=== Forest conversion to agriculture ===
{{Further|Deforestation}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 450
| image1            = 20210331 Global tree cover loss - World Resources Institute.svg
| caption1          = The rate of global tree cover loss has approximately doubled since 2001, to an annual loss approaching an area the size of Italy.<ref>{{cite news |ref={{harvid|World Resources Institute, 31 March|2021}}
 |last1=Butler |first1=Rhett A.
 |title=Global forest loss increases in 2020
 |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/global-forest-loss-increases-in-2020-but-pandemics-impact-unclear/
 |work=Mongabay
 |date=31 March 2021
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401022404/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/global-forest-loss-increases-in-2020-but-pandemics-impact-unclear/
 |archive-date=1 April 2021
|url-status=live }} ● ''Mongabay'' graphing WRI data from {{cite web
 |title=Forest Loss / How much tree cover is lost globally each year?
 |url=https://research.wri.org/gfr/forest-extent-indicators/forest-loss
 |website=research.WRI.org
 |publisher=World Resources Institute — Global Forest Review
 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230802052653/https://research.wri.org/gfr/forest-extent-indicators/forest-loss
 |archive-date=2 August 2023
 |date=2023
 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| image2            = 8000 BCE+ Loss of forest and grassland to grazing and crops.svg
| caption2          = The period since 1950 has brought ""the most rapid transformation of the human relationship with the natural world in the history of humankind"".<ref name=IGBP_Steffen_2004>{{cite web |last1=Steffen |first1=Will |last2=Sanderson |first2=Angelina |last3=Tyson |first3=Peter |last4=Jäger |first4=Jill |last5=Matson |first5=Pamela |last6=Moore III |first6=Berrien |last7=Oldfield |first7=Frank |last8=Richardson |first8=Katherine |last9=Schellnhuber |first9=H. John |last10=Turner II |first10=B. L. |last11=Wasson |first11=Robert J. |display-authors=4 |title=Global Change and the Climate System / A Planet Under Pressure |url=http://www.igbp.net/download/18.56b5e28e137d8d8c09380001694/1376383141875/SpringerIGBPSynthesisSteffenetal2004_web.pdf |publisher=International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319052247/http://www.igbp.net/download/18.56b5e28e137d8d8c09380001694/1376383141875/SpringerIGBPSynthesisSteffenetal2004_web.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2017 |pages=131, 133 |date=2004 |quote=Fig. 3.67(j): loss of tropical rainforest and woodland, as estimated for tropical Africa, Latin America and South and Southeast Asia.  |url-status=live}}</ref> Almost one-third of the world's forests, and almost two-thirds of its grassland, have been lost to human agriculture—which now occupies almost half the world's habitable land.<ref name=LandUseChange_8000BCE>{{cite web |title=Deforestation and Forest Loss / Humanity destroyed one third of the world's forests by expanding agricultural land |url=https://ourworldindata.org/deforestation |publisher=Our World in Data (OWID) |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221107180838/https://ourworldindata.org/deforestation |archive-date=7 November 2022 |quote=Data: Historical data on forests from Williams (2003) - Deforesting the Earth. Historical data on agriculture from The History Database of Global Environment (HYDE). Modern data from the FAO |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

Geist and Lambin (2002) assessed 152 case studies of net losses of tropical forest cover to determine any patterns in the proximate and underlying causes of tropical deforestation. Their results, yielded as percentages of the case studies in which each parameter was a significant factor, provide a quantitative prioritization of which proximate and underlying causes were the most significant. The proximate causes were clustered into broad categories of [[agricultural expansion]] (96%), [[infrastructure expansion]] (72%), and [[wood extraction]] (67%). Therefore, according to this study, [[forest conversion]] to agriculture is the main [[land use]] [[land conversion|change]] responsible for tropical deforestation. The specific categories reveal further insight into the specific causes of tropical deforestation: transport extension (64%), commercial wood extraction (52%), [[permanent cultivation]] (48%), [[cattle ranching]] (46%), shifting ([[slash and burn]]) cultivation (41%), [[subsistence agriculture]] (40%), and [[fuel wood]] extraction for domestic use (28%). One result is that [[shifting cultivation]] is not the primary cause of deforestation in all world regions, while transport extension (including the [[Road construction|construction of new roads]]) is the largest single proximate factor responsible for deforestation.<ref name=""Geist"" />

Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.<ref name="":0"">{{cite journal |last1=Drakare |first1=Stina |last2=Lennon |first2=Jack J. |last3=Hillebrand |first3=Helmut |year=2006 |title=The imprint of the geographical, evolutionary and ecological context on species-area relationships |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=215–227 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00848.x |pmid=16958886 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Conversion to ""trivial"" standardized ecosystems (e.g., [[monoculture]] following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species. Even the simplest forms of agriculture affect diversity – through clearing or draining the land, discouraging [[Weed|weeds]] and [[Pest (organism)|pests]], and encouraging just a limited set of domesticated plant and animal species.<ref name="":0"" />

There are also feedbacks and interactions among the proximate and underlying causes of deforestation that can amplify the process. Road construction has the largest feedback effect, because it interacts with—and leads to—the establishment of new settlements and more people, which causes a growth in wood (logging) and food markets.<ref name=""Geist"" /> Growth in these markets, in turn, progresses the commercialization of agriculture and logging industries. When these industries become commercialized, they must become more efficient by utilizing larger or more modern machinery that often has a worse effect on the habitat than traditional farming and logging methods. Either way, more land is cleared more rapidly for commercial markets. This common feedback example manifests just how closely related the proximate and underlying causes are to each other.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Allen |first1=L. |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/19401/chapter/8 |title=Read ""Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8: A Unifying Foundation"" at NAP.edu |last2=Kelly |first2=B. B. |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-309-32485-4 |language=en |doi=10.17226/19401 |pmid=26269871}}</ref>

=== Climate change ===
{{See also|Effects of climate change|Effects of climate change on biomes}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 500
| image1            = NSIDC arctic sea ice extent since 1979.svg
| caption1          = Decline in arctic sea ice ''extent'' (area) from 1979 to 2022
| image2            = Plot arctic sea ice volume.svg
| caption2          = Decline in arctic sea ice ''volume'' from 1979 to 2022
}}

[[Climate change]] contributes to destruction of some habitats, endangering various species. For example:  

* Climate change causes [[Sea level rise|rising sea levels]] which will threaten natural habitats and species globally.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baker|first1=Jason D.|last2=Littnan|first2=Charles L.|last3=Johnston|first3=David W.|date=2006-05-24|title=Potential effects of sea level rise on the terrestrial habitats of endangered and endemic megafauna in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands|journal=Endangered Species Research|volume=2|pages=21–30|doi=10.3354/esr002021|issn=1863-5407|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Galbraith|first1=H.|last2=Jones|first2=R.|last3=Park|first3=R.|last4=Clough|first4=J.|last5=Herrod-Julius|first5=S.|last6=Harrington|first6=B.|last7=Page|first7=G.|date=2002-06-01|title=Global Climate Change and Sea Level Rise: Potential Losses of Intertidal Habitat for Shorebirds|journal=Waterbirds|volume=25|issue=2|pages=173–183|doi=10.1675/1524-4695(2002)025[0173:GCCASL]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=86365454 |issn=1524-4695}}</ref>
* Melting [[sea ice]] destroys habitat for some species.<ref>Constable, A.J., S. Harper, J. Dawson, K. Holsman, T. Mustonen, D. Piepenburg, and B. Rost, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_CCP6.pdf Cross-Chapter Paper 6: Polar Regions]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2319–2368, {{doi|10.1017/9781009325844.023}}</ref>{{rp|2321}} For example, the [[Arctic sea ice decline|decline of sea ice in the Arctic]] has been accelerating during the early twenty‐first century, with a decline rate of 4.7% per decade (it has declined over 50% since the first satellite records).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Yiyi |last2=Dong |first2=Xiquan |last3=Bailey |first3=David A. |last4=Holland |first4=Marika M. |author-link4=Marika Holland |last5=Xi |first5=Baike |last6=DuVivier |first6=Alice K. |last7=Kay |first7=Jennifer E. |last8=Landrum |first8=Laura L. |last9=Deng |first9=Yi |date=2019-06-19 |title=Thicker Clouds and Accelerated Arctic Sea Ice Decline: The Atmosphere-Sea Ice Interactions in Spring |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=6980–6989 |bibcode=2019GeoRL..46.6980H |doi=10.1029/2019gl082791 |issn=0094-8276 |s2cid=189968828 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10150/634665}}</ref><ref name="":22"">{{Cite journal |last1=Senftleben |first1=Daniel |last2=Lauer |first2=Axel |last3=Karpechko |first3=Alexey |date=2020-02-15 |title=Constraining Uncertainties in CMIP5 Projections of September Arctic Sea Ice Extent with Observations |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=1487–1503 |bibcode=2020JCli...33.1487S |doi=10.1175/jcli-d-19-0075.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=210273007 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="":32"">{{Cite journal |last1=Yadav |first1=Juhi |last2=Kumar |first2=Avinash |last3=Mohan |first3=Rahul |date=2020-05-21 |title=Dramatic decline of Arctic sea ice linked to global warming |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-04064-y |journal=Natural Hazards |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=2617–2621 |doi=10.1007/s11069-020-04064-y |bibcode=2020NatHa.103.2617Y |issn=0921-030X |s2cid=218762126}}</ref>  One well known example of a species affected is the [[polar bear]], whose habitat in the Artic is threatened.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Durner |first1=George M. |last2=Douglas |first2=David C. |last3=Nielson |first3=Ryan M. |last4=Amstrup |first4=Steven C. |last5=McDonald |first5=Trent L. |last6=Stirling |first6=Ian |last7=Mauritzen |first7=Mette |last8=Born |first8=Erik W. |last9=Wiig |first9=Øystein |last10=Deweaver |first10=Eric |last11=Serreze |first11=Mark C. |last12=Belikov |first12=Stanislav E. |last13=Holland |first13=Marika M. |last14=Maslanik |first14=James |last15=Aars |first15=Jon |year=2009 |title=Predicting 21st-century polar bear habitat distribution from global climate models |journal=Ecological Monographs |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=25–58 |bibcode=2009EcoM...79...25D |doi=10.1890/07-2089.1 |s2cid=85677324 |last16=Bailey |first16=David A. |last17=Derocher |first17=Andrew E.}}</ref> [[Algae]] can also be affected when it grows on the underside of sea ice.<ref name=""Riebesell"">{{Cite journal |last1=Riebesell |first1=Ulf |last2=Körtzinger |first2=Arne |last3=Oschlies |first3=Andreas |date=2009 |title=Sensitivities of marine carbon fluxes to ocean change |journal=PNAS |volume=106 |issue=49 |pages=20602–20609 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0813291106 |pmc=2791567 |pmid=19995981 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Coral reef|Warm-water coral reefs]] are very sensitive to global warming and ocean acidification. Coral reefs provide a [[habitat]] for thousands of species. They provide [[ecosystem services]] such as [[coastal protection]] and food. But 70–90% of today's warm-water coral reefs will disappear even if warming is kept to {{Convert|1.5|C-change}}.<ref name="":2"">{{cite book |last1=Hoegh-Guldberg |first1=O. |first2=D. |last2=Jacob |first3=M. |last3=Taylor |first4=M. |last4=Bindi |first5=S. |last5=Brown |first6=I. |last6=Camilloni |first7=A. |last7=Diedhiou |first8=R. |last8=Djalante |first9=K.L. |last9=Ebi |first10=F. |last10=Engelbrecht |first11=J. |last11=Guiot |first12=Y. |last12=Hijioka |first13=S. |last13=Mehrotra |first14=A. |last14=Payne |first15=S.I. |last15=Seneviratne |first16=A. |last16=Thomas |first17=R. |last17=Warren |first18=G. |last18=Zhou |chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2022/06/SR15_Chapter_3_LR.pdf  |chapter=Impacts of 1.5°C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems |title=Global Warming of 1.5°C: An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5&nbsp;°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty |date=2022 |pages=175–312 |isbn=978-1-009-15794-0 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ |editor-last1=Masson-Delmotte |editor-first1=V. |editor-first2=P. |editor-last2=Zhai |editor-first3=H.-O. |editor-last3=Pörtner |editor-first4=D. |editor-last4=Roberts |editor-first5=J. |editor-last5=Skea |editor-first6=P.R. |editor-last6=Shukla |editor-first7=A. |editor-last7=Pirani |editor-first8=W. |editor-last8=Moufouma-Okia |editor-first9=C. |editor-last9=Péan |editor-first10=R. |editor-last10=Pidcock |editor-first11=S. |editor-last11=Connors |editor-first12=J.B.R. |editor-last12=Matthews |editor-first13=Y. |editor-last13=Chen |editor-first14=X. |editor-last14=Zhou |editor-first15=M.I. |editor-last15=Gomis |editor-first16=E. |editor-last16=Lonnoy |editor-first17=T. |editor-last17=Maycock |editor-first18=M. |editor-last18=Tignor |editor-first19=T. |editor-last19=Waterfield |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK and New York City |doi=10.1017/9781009157940.005 }}</ref>{{rp|179}} For example, Caribbean [[coral reef]]s{{snd}}which are [[Biodiversity hotspot|biodiversity hotspots]]{{snd}}will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current rate.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite news |last=Aldred |first=Jessica |date=2 July 2014 |title=Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/02/caribbean-coral-reef-lost-fishing-pollution-report |access-date=9 November 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>

===Habitat fragmentation===
{{excerpt|Habitat fragmentation|file=no}}

==Impacts ==

=== On animals and plants ===
When a habitat is destroyed, the [[carrying capacity]] for [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] plants, animals, and other organisms is reduced so that [[population decline|populations decline]], sometimes up to the level of [[extinction]].<ref>Scholes & Biggs, 2004.</ref>

Habitat loss is perhaps the greatest threat to organisms and biodiversity.<ref>Barbault & Sastrapradja, 1995.</ref> Temple (1986) found that 82% of [[Endangered species|endangered bird species]] were significantly threatened by habitat loss. Most amphibian species are also threatened by native habitat loss,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beebee |first1=Trevor J.C. |last2=Griffiths |first2=Richard A. |date=31 May 2005 |title=The amphibian decline crisis: A watershed for conservation biology? |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=125 |issue=3 |page=271 |bibcode=2005BCons.125..271B |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2005.04.009}}</ref> and some species are now only breeding in modified habitat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borzée |first1=Amaël |last2=Jang |first2=Yikweon |date=28 April 2015 |title=Description of a seminatural habitat of the endangered Suweon treefrog Hyla suweonensis |journal=Animal Cells and Systems |volume=19 |issue=3 |page=216 |doi=10.1080/19768354.2015.1028442 |s2cid=86565631 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[endemism|Endemic]] organisms with limited ranges are most affected by habitat destruction, mainly because these organisms are not found anywhere else in the world, and thus have less chance of recovering. Many endemic organisms have very specific requirements for their survival that can only be found within a certain ecosystem, resulting in their extinction. Extinction may also take place very long after the destruction of habitat, a phenomenon known as [[extinction debt]]. Habitat destruction can also decrease the range of certain organism populations. This can result in the reduction of genetic diversity and perhaps the production of [[infertile]] youths, as these organisms would have a higher possibility of mating with related organisms within their population, or different species. One of the most famous examples is the impact upon China's [[giant panda]], once found in many areas of [[Sichuan]]. Now it is only found in fragmented and isolated regions in the southwest of the country, as a result of widespread [[deforestation]] in the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 August 2011 |title=The Panda's Forest: Biodiversity Loss |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/china-sichuan-panda-deforestation-habitat-mountain-conservation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923010154/http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/china-sichuan-panda-deforestation-habitat-mountain-conservation |archive-date=23 September 2011 |access-date=6 September 2011}}</ref>

As habitat destruction of an area occurs, the [[species diversity]] offsets from a combination of habitat generalists and specialists to a population primarily consisting of [[Generalist and specialist species|generalist species]].<ref name=""Marvier-2004"" /> [[Invasive species]] are frequently generalists that are able to survive in much more diverse habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Evangelista |first1=Paul H. |last2=Kumar |first2=Sunil |last3=Stohlgren |first3=Thomas J. |last4=Jarnevich |first4=Catherine S. |last5=Crall |first5=Alycia W. |last6=Norman III |first6=John B. |last7=Barnett |first7=David T. |date=2008 |title=Modelling invasion for a habitat generalist and a specialist plant species |journal=Diversity and Distributions |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=808–817 |bibcode=2008DivDi..14..808E |doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00486.x |issn=1366-9516 |s2cid=14148713 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Habitat destruction leading to climate change offsets the balance of species keeping up with the [[extinction threshold]] leading to a higher likelihood of extinction.<ref name=""Travis-2003"">{{Cite journal |last=Travis |first=J. M. J. |date=2003-03-07 |title=Climate change and habitat destruction: a deadly anthropogenic cocktail |url= |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences |volume=270 |issue=1514 |pages=467–473 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2002.2246 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=1691268 |pmid=12641900}}</ref>

Habitat loss is one of the main environmental causes of the decline of biodiversity on local, regional, and global scales. Many believe that habitat fragmentation is also a threat to biodiversity however some believe that it is secondary to habitat loss.<ref name=""Helm 051109031307003"">{{Cite journal |last1=Helm |first1=Aveliina |last2=Hanski |first2=Ilkka |last3=Partel |first3=Meelis |date=2005-11-09 |title=Slow response of plant species richness to habitat loss and fragmentation |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00841.x |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=72–77 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00841.x |issn=1461-023X |pmid=16958870}}</ref> The reduction of the amount of habitat available results in specific landscapes that are made of isolated patches of suitable habitat throughout a hostile environment/matrix. This process is generally due to pure habitat loss as well as fragmentation effects. Pure habitat loss refers to changes occurring in the composition of the landscape that causes a decrease in individuals. Fragmentation effects refer to an addition of effects occurring due to the habitat changes.<ref name=""WIEGAND 108–121"" /> Habitat loss can result in negative effects on the dynamic of species richness. The order [[Hymenoptera]] is a diverse group of plant pollinators who are highly susceptible to the negative effects of habitat loss, this could result in a domino effect between the plant-pollinator interactions leading to major conservation implications within this group.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spiesman |first1=Brian J. |last2=Inouye |first2=Brian D. |date=December 2013 |title=Habitat loss alters the architecture of plant–pollinator interaction networks |url=https://doi.org/10.1890/13-0977.1 |journal=Ecology |volume=94 |issue=12 |pages=2688–2696 |bibcode=2013Ecol...94.2688S |doi=10.1890/13-0977.1 |issn=0012-9658 |pmid=24597216}}</ref>

=== On human population ===
[[File:KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded edit2.jpg|thumb |The draining and development of coastal wetlands that previously protected the [[Gulf Coast]] contributed to severe flooding in New Orleans, Louisiana, in the aftermath of [[Hurricane Katrina]] in 2005.<ref>Tibbetts, 2006.</ref>]]

Habitat destruction can vastly increase an area's vulnerability to [[natural disaster]]s like [[flood]] and [[drought]], [[crop failure]], [[spread of disease]], and [[water contamination]].<ref name=""MEA""/>{{page needed|date= April 2021}} On the other hand, a healthy ecosystem with good [[ecosystem management|management]] practices can reduce the chance of these events happening, or will at least mitigate adverse impacts.<ref name = WRR>{{cite web | last1= Mumba | first1= Musonda | last2= Munang | first2= Richard | last3= Rivington | first3= Mike | title= Ecosystem Management: The Need to Adopt a Different Approach Under a Changing Climate | url= https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/world-resources-report/ecosystem-management-need-adopt-different-approach-under | website= Resources Report | date= 27 June 2013 | publisher= United Nations Environment Programme/Macaulay Land Use Research Institute | access-date= 15 April 2021 | archive-date= 15 April 2021 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210415232300/https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/world-resources-report/ecosystem-management-need-adopt-different-approach-under | url-status= live }}</ref> Eliminating swamps—the habitat of [[pest (organism)|pest]]s such as [[mosquito]]es—has contributed to the prevention of diseases such as [[malaria]].<ref>{{cite book
 | last1 = Bull
 | first1 = David
 | title = A Growing Problem: Pesticides and the Third World Poor
 | year = 1982
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RPjwAAAAMAAJ
 | publisher = OXFAM
 | publication-date = 1982
 | page = 29
 | isbn = 9780855980641
 | access-date = 24 April 2021
 | quote = It was drainage of swampland which eradicated the disease [malaria] from the [[Fenlands]] in Britain and the [[Pontine marshes]] of Italy.
 | archive-date = 24 April 2021
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210424030702/https://books.google.com/books?id=RPjwAAAAMAAJ
 | url-status = live
 }}</ref>
Completely depriving an [[pathogen|infectious agent]] (such as a virus) of its habitat—by [[vaccination]], for example—can result in eradicating that infectious agent.<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Reiter
 | first1 = Paul
 | author-link1 = Paul Reiter
 | year = 1997
 | chapter = Surveillance and Control of Urban Dengue Vectors
 | editor1-last = Gubler
 | editor1-first = Duane J.
 | editor2-last = Ooi
 | editor2-first = Eng Eong
 | editor3-last = Vasudevan
 | editor3-first = Subhash
 | editor4-last = Farrar
 | editor4-first = Jeremy
 | editor4-link = Jeremy Farrar
 | title = Dengue and Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Tl_YBAAAQBAJ
 | series = CAB books
 | edition = 2, revised
 | location = Wallingford, Oxfordshire
 | publisher = CABI
 | publication-date = 2014
 | page = 504
 | isbn = 9781845939649
 | access-date = 30 September 2021
 | quote = The eradication of smallpox virus [...]  is also a perfect example of habitat destruction: smallpox vaccination gives life-long immunity, and humans are the only host. Mass vaccination therefore resulted in total elimination of the habitat of the virus.
}}
</ref>

Agricultural land can suffer from the destruction of the surrounding landscape. Over the past 50 years, the destruction of habitat surrounding agricultural land has degraded approximately 40% of agricultural land worldwide via [[erosion]], [[Soil salinity|salinization]], [[Soil compaction|compaction]], [[Natural resource#Depletion|nutrient depletion]], [[pollution]], and [[urbanization]].<ref name=""MEA""/> Humans also lose direct uses of natural habitat when habitat is destroyed. Aesthetic uses such as [[birdwatching]], recreational uses like [[hunting]] and [[fishing]], and [[ecotourism]] usually{{quantify|date= April 2021}} rely upon relatively undisturbed habitat. Many{{quantify|date=September 2021}} people value the complexity of the natural world and express concern at the loss of natural habitats and of animal or plant species worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |title= Valuing nature |url= https://www.wwf.org.uk/what-we-do/valuing-nature |website= World Wildlife Foundation |publisher= WWF |access-date= 15 April 2021 |archive-date= 25 April 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210425084205/https://www.wwf.org.uk/what-we-do/valuing-nature |url-status= live }}</ref>

Probably the most profound impact that habitat destruction has on people is the loss of many valuable [[ecosystem services]]. Habitat destruction has altered nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and [[carbon cycle]]s, which has increased the frequency and severity of [[acid rain]], [[algal bloom]]s, and [[fish kill]]s in rivers and oceans and contributed tremendously to global [[climate change]].<ref name=""MEA""/>{{qn|date= April 2021}} One ecosystem service whose significance is becoming better understood is [[Climate|climate regulation]]. On a local scale, trees provide windbreaks and shade; on a regional scale, [[Transpiration|plant transpiration]] recycles rainwater and maintains constant annual rainfall; on a global scale, plants (especially trees in tropical rainforests) around the world counter the accumulation of [[greenhouse gas]]es in the atmosphere by [[Carbon sequestration|sequestering carbon]] dioxide through [[photosynthesis]].<ref name=""Primack""/> Other ecosystem services that are diminished or lost altogether as a result of habitat destruction include [[watershed management]], [[nitrogen fixation]], oxygen production, [[pollination]] (see [[pollinator decline]]),<ref>
{{cite journal
| journal= PLOS ONE|volume= 8|issue= 5|year= 2013
| doi= 10.1371/journal.pone.0063421|pmc= 3661593
| title= Plant Pollinator Networks along a Gradient of Urbanisation
| author1= Benoît Geslin|author2= Benoit Gauzens
| author3= Elisa Thébault|author4= Isabelle Dajoz|pmid= 23717421
| page= e63421 |bibcode= 2013PLoSO...863421G
| doi-access= free
}}
</ref>
[[waste treatment]] (i.e., the [[Decomposition|breaking down]] and immobilization of [[toxic]] pollutants), and [[Nutrient cycle|nutrient recycling]] of [[sewage]] or [[agricultural runoff]].<ref name=""Primack""/>

The loss of trees from tropical rainforests alone represents a substantial diminishing of Earth's ability to produce oxygen and to use up carbon dioxide. These services are becoming even more important as increasing [[carbon dioxide]] levels is one of the main contributors to global [[climate change]].<ref name = WRR/> The [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] may not directly affect humans, but the indirect effects of losing many species as well as the diversity of ecosystems in general are enormous. When biodiversity is lost, the environment loses many species that perform valuable and unique roles in the ecosystem. The environment and all its inhabitants rely on biodiversity to recover from extreme environmental conditions. When too much biodiversity is lost, a catastrophic event such as an earthquake, flood, or volcanic eruption could cause an ecosystem to crash, and humans would obviously suffer from that.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sinclair |first1=A. R. E. |last2=Byrom |first2=Andrea E. |date=January 2006 |title=Understanding ecosystem dynamics for conservation of biota |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |language=en |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=64–79 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2656.2006.01036.x |issn=0021-8790|doi-access=free |pmid=16903044 |bibcode=2006JAnEc..75...64S }}</ref> Loss of biodiversity also means that humans are losing animals that could have served as biological-control agents and plants that could potentially provide higher-yielding crop varieties, pharmaceutical drugs to cure existing or future diseases (such as cancer), and new resistant crop-varieties for agricultural species susceptible to pesticide-resistant insects or virulent strains of [[fungi]], [[virus]]es, and [[bacteria]].<ref name=""Primack""/>

The negative effects of habitat destruction usually impact rural populations more directly than urban populations.<ref name=""MEA""/> Across the globe, poor people suffer the most when natural habitat is destroyed, because less natural habitat means fewer natural resources ''per capita'', yet wealthier people and countries can simply pay more to continue to receive more than their ''per capita'' share of natural resources.

Another way to view the negative effects of habitat destruction is to look at the [[opportunity cost]] of destroying a given habitat. In other words, what do people lose out on with the removal of a given habitat? A country may increase its food supply by converting forest land to row-crop agriculture, but the value of the same land may be much larger when it can supply natural resources or services such as clean water, timber, ecotourism, or flood regulation and drought control.<ref name=""MEA""/>{{qn|date=April 2021}}

==Outlook==
The [[Human overpopulation|rapid expansion of the global human population]] is increasing the world's food requirement substantially. Simple logic dictates that more people will require more food. In fact, as the world's population increases dramatically, agricultural output will need to increase by at least 50%, over the next 30 years.<ref name=""Tilman"">Tilman et al., 2001.</ref> In the past, continually moving to new land and soils provided a boost in food production to meet the global food demand. That easy fix will no longer be available, however, as more than 98% of all land suitable for agriculture is already in use or degraded beyond repair.<ref>Sanderson et al., 2002.</ref>

The impending global [[food crisis]] will be a major source of habitat destruction. Commercial farmers are going to become desperate to produce more food from the same amount of land, so they will use more [[fertilizer]]s and show less concern for the environment to meet the market demand. Others will seek out new land or will convert other land-uses to agriculture. Agricultural intensification will become widespread at the cost of the environment and its inhabitants. Species will be pushed out of their habitat either directly by habitat destruction or indirectly by fragmentation, [[environmental degradation|degradation]], or [[pollution]]. Any efforts to protect the world's remaining natural habitat and biodiversity will compete directly with humans' growing demand for natural resources, especially new agricultural lands.<ref name=""Tilman""/>

==Solutions==
Attempts to address habitat destruction are in international policy commitments embodied by [[Sustainable Development Goal 15]] ""Life on Land"" and [[Sustainable Development Goal 14]] ""Life Below Water"". However, the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] report on ""Making Peace with Nature"" released in 2021 found that most of these efforts had failed to meet their internationally agreed upon goals.<ref>United Nations Environment Programme (2021). ''[https://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature Making Peace with Nature: A scientific blueprint to tackle the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies]. Nairobi. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323211102/https://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature|date=2021-03-23}}''</ref>

Tropical deforestation: In most cases of [[tropical deforestation]], three to four underlying causes are driving two to three proximate causes.<ref name=""Geist"" /> This means that a universal policy for controlling tropical deforestation would not be able to address the unique combination of proximate and underlying causes of deforestation in each country.<ref name=""Geist"" /> Before any local, national, or international deforestation policies are written and enforced, governmental leaders must acquire a detailed understanding of the complex combination of proximate causes and underlying driving forces of deforestation in a given area or country.<ref name=""Geist"" /> This concept, along with many other results of tropical deforestation from the Geist and Lambin study, can easily be applied to habitat destruction in general.

Shoreline erosion: Coastal erosion is a natural process as storms, waves, tides and other water level changes occur. Shoreline stabilization can be done by barriers between land and water such as seawalls and bulkheads. Living shorelines are gaining attention as a new stabilization method. These can reduce damage and erosion while simultaneously providing ecosystem services such as food production, nutrient and sediment removal, and water quality improvement to society<ref>{{Cite web|title=Living Shorelines|url=https://www.habitatblueprint.noaa.gov/living-shorelines/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=NOAA Habitat Blueprint|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-03-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318194801/https://www.habitatblueprint.noaa.gov/living-shorelines/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Habitat Destruction, Uganda (21429887344).jpg|thumb|Example of human caused habitat destruction likely capable of reversing if further disturbance is halted. Uganda.]]
[[File:Pivers-Island-840x320.jpg|alt=Pivers Island, North Carolina|thumb|Natural vegetation along this coastal shoreline in North Carolina, US, is being used to reduce the effects of shoreline erosion while providing other benefits to the natural ecosystem and the human community.]]
Preventing an area from losing its specialist species to generalist invasive species depends on the extent of the habitat destruction that has already taken place. In areas where the habitat is relatively undisturbed, halting further habitat destruction may be enough.<ref name=""Marvier-2004"" /> In areas where habitat destruction is more extreme ([[Habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] or patch loss), [[restoration ecology]] may be needed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liao|first1=Jinbao|last2=Bearup|first2=Daniel|last3=Wang|first3=Yeqiao|last4=Nijs|first4=Ivan|last5=Bonte|first5=Dries|last6=Li|first6=Yuanheng|last7=Brose|first7=Ulrich|last8=Wang|first8=Shaopeng|last9=Blasius|first9=Bernd|date=2017-05-02|title=Robustness of metacommunities with omnivory to habitat destruction: disentangling patch fragmentation from patch loss|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1830|journal=Ecology|volume=98|issue=6|pages=1631–1639|doi=10.1002/ecy.1830|pmid=28369715|bibcode=2017Ecol...98.1631L |issn=0012-9658|hdl=10067/1418100151162165141|hdl-access=free|access-date=2021-03-18|archive-date=2021-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723082938/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.1830|url-status=live}}</ref>

Education of the general public is possibly the best way to prevent further human habitat destruction.<ref name=""Morrison-1999"">{{Citation|title=Habitat and habitat destruction|first = M.L.|last = Morrison |doi=10.1007/1-4020-4494-1_165 |url= https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/1-4020-4494-1_165 |encyclopedia=Environmental Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science|series = Encyclopedia of Earth Science|year= 1999|pages = 308–309|place= Dordrecht|publisher= Springer|isbn = 0-412-74050-8}}</ref> Changing the dull creep of environmental impacts from being viewed as acceptable to being seen a reason for change to more sustainable practices.<ref name=""Morrison-1999"" /> Education about the necessity of [[family planning]] to slow population growth is important as greater population leads to greater human caused habitat destruction.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ehrlich|first1=P. R.|last2= Pringle |first2=R. M.|date=2008-08-11|title=Where does biodiversity go from here? A grim business-as-usual forecast and a hopeful portfolio of partial solutions|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=105|issue= Supplement 1|pages=11579–11586|doi=10.1073/pnas.0801911105|pmid=18695214|pmc=2556413|bibcode=2008PNAS..10511579E |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The preservation and creation of [[Wildlife corridor|habitat corridors]] can link isolated populations and increase pollination.<ref name=""Townsend-2002"">{{Cite journal|last1=Townsend|first1=Patricia A.|last2=Levey|first2=Douglas J.|title=An Experimental Test of Whether Habitat Corridors Affect Pollen Transfer|date=2002|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/03-0607|journal=Ecology|volume=86|issue=2|pages=466–475|doi=10.1890/03-0607|issn=0012-9658|access-date=2021-03-18|archive-date=2021-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723082947/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/03-0607|url-status=live}}</ref> Corridors are also known to reduce the negative impacts of habitat destruction.<ref name=""Townsend-2002"" />

The biggest potential to solving the issue of habitat destruction comes from solving the political, economical and social problems that go along with it such as, individual and commercial material consumption,<ref name=""Morrison-1999"" /> sustainable extraction of resources,<ref>{{Citation|last=Bringezu|first=Stefan|title=Visions of a sustainable resource use|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.9774/gleaf.978-1-907643-07-1_5|work=Sustainable Resource Management: Global Trends, Visions and Policies|year=2009|pages=155–215|publisher=Greenleaf Publishing Limited|doi=10.9774/gleaf.978-1-907643-07-1_5|isbn=978-1-907643-07-1|access-date=2021-03-18}}</ref> [[Protected area|conservation areas]],<ref name=""Morrison-1999"" /> restoration of degraded land<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Elmarsdottir|first1=Asrun|last2=Aradottir|first2=Asa L.|last3=Trlica|first3=M. J.|date=2003-09-26|title=Microsite availability and establishment of native species on degraded and reclaimed sites|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=40|issue=5|pages=815–823|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00848.x|issn=0021-8901|doi-access=free|bibcode=2003JApEc..40..815E }}</ref> and addressing climate change.<ref name=""Travis-2003"" />

Governmental leaders need to take action by addressing the underlying driving forces, rather than merely regulating the proximate causes. In a broader sense, governmental bodies at a local, national, and international scale need to emphasize:

# Considering the irreplaceable [[ecosystem services]] provided by natural habitats.
# Protecting remaining intact sections of natural habitat.
# Finding ecological ways to increase agricultural output without increasing the total land in production.
# Reducing [[human population]] and expansion. Apart from improving access to [[contraception]] globally, furthering [[gender equality]] also has a great benefit. When women have the same education (decision-making power), this generally leads to smaller families.
It is argued that the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation can be counteracted by including spatial processes in potential restoration management plans. However, even though spatial dynamics are incredibly important in the conservation and recovery of species, a limited amount of management plans are taking the spatial effects of habitat restoration and conservation into consideration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huxel |first1=Gary R. |last2=Hastings |first2=Alan |date=September 1999 |title=Habitat Loss, Fragmentation, and Restoration |url=https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100X.1999.72024.x |journal=Restoration Ecology |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=309–315 |doi=10.1046/j.1526-100x.1999.72024.x |bibcode=1999ResEc...7..309H |s2cid=86235090 |issn=1061-2971}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Impacts of shipping on marine wildlife and habitats in Southeast Asia]]
==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* Barbault, R. and S. D. Sastrapradja.  1995.  Generation, maintenance and loss of biodiversity. Global Biodiversity Assessment, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge pp.&nbsp;193–274. {{ISBN|9780521564816}}
* {{cite book|author1=Burke, L.|author2=Y. Kura|author3=K. Kassem|author4=C. Ravenga|author5=M. Spalding|author6=D. McAllister|year=2000|title=Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems: Coastal Ecosystems|publisher=[[World Resources Institute]], Washington, D.C.|isbn=9781569734582|url=https://www.wri.org/publication/pilot-analysis-global-ecosystems-coastal-ecosystems|access-date=2020-02-19|archive-date=2018-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504112659/http://www.wri.org/publication/pilot-analysis-global-ecosystems-coastal-ecosystems|url-status=live}}
* Cincotta, R.P., and R. Engelman. 2000. Nature's place: human population density and the future of biological diversity. Population Action International.  Washington, D.C.
* {{cite journal |author1=Geist H. J. |author2=Lambin E. E. | year = 2002 | title = Proximate causes and underlying driving forces of tropical deforestation | journal = BioScience | volume = 52 | issue = 2| pages = 143–150 | doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0143:PCAUDF]2.0.CO;2| doi-access = free }}
* Kauffman, J. B. and D. A. Pyke.  2001.  Range ecology, global livestock influences.  In S. A. Levin (ed.), Encyclopedia of Biodiversity 5: 33–52.  Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
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* {{cite journal |author1=McKee J. K. |author2=Sciulli P.W. |author3=Fooce C. D. |author4=Waite T. A. | year = 2003 | title = Forecasting global biodiversity threats associated with human population growth | journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 115 | pages = 161–164 | doi=10.1016/s0006-3207(03)00099-5}}
* Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Program).  2005.  [https://books.google.com/books?id=UFVmiSAr-okC&dq=Ecosystems+and+Human+Well-Being Ecosystems and Human Well-Being] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610053151/https://books.google.com/books?id=UFVmiSAr-okC&dq=Ecosystems+and+Human+Well-Being |date=2016-06-10 }}.  Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.  Island Press, Covelo, CA.
* Primack, R. B.  2006.  Essentials of Conservation Biology.  4th Ed.  Habitat destruction, pages 177–188.  Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
* {{cite journal |author1=Pimm Stuart L. |author2=Raven Peter |s2cid=4310784 | year = 2000 | title = Biodiversity: Extinction by numbers | journal = Nature | volume = 403 | issue = 6772| pages = 843–845 | doi = 10.1038/35002708 | pmid=10706267|bibcode=2000Natur.403..843P | doi-access = free }}
* Ravenga, C., J. Brunner, N. Henninger, K. Kassem, and R. Payne.  2000.  Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Wetland Ecosystems.  World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
* {{cite journal |author1=Sahney S. |author2=Benton M.J. |author3=Falcon-Lang H.J. | year = 2010 | title = Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica | journal = Geology | volume = 38 | issue = 12| pages = 1079–1082 | doi=10.1130/G31182.1 | bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Sanderson E. W. |author2=Jaiteh M. |author3=Levy M. A. |author4=Redford K. H. |author5=Wannebo A. V. |author6=Woolmer G. | year = 2002 | title = The human footprint and the last of the wild | journal = BioScience | volume = 52 | issue = 10| pages = 891–904 | doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0891:thfatl]2.0.co;2| doi-access=free }}
* Scholes, R. J. and R. Biggs (eds.).  2004.  [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248529390_Ecosystem_services_in_southern_Africa_a_regional_assessment Ecosystem services in Southern Africa: a regional assessment.  The regional scale component of the Southern African Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002175727/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248529390_Ecosystem_services_in_southern_Africa_a_regional_assessment |date=2020-10-02 }} [[Council for Scientific and Industrial Research|CSIR]], Pretoria, South Africa.
* Stein, B. A., L. S. Kutner, and J. S. Adams (eds.).  2000.  Precious Heritage: The Status of Biodiversity in the United States.  Oxford University Press, New York.
* {{cite book | author = Temple S. A. | chapter = The Problem of Avian Extinctions | title = Current Ornithology | year = 1986 | volume = 3 | pages = 453–485 | doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-6784-4_11| isbn = 978-1-4615-6786-8 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Tibbetts John | year = 2006 | title = Louisiana's Wetlands: A Lesson in Nature Appreciation | pmc = 1332684 | journal = Environ Health Perspect | volume = 114 | issue = 1| pages = A40–A43 | pmid=16393646 | doi=10.1289/ehp.114-a40}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Tilman D. |author2=Fargione J. |author3=Wolff B. |author4=D'Antonio C. |author5=Dobson A. |author6=Howarth R. |author7=Schindler D. |author8=Schlesinger W. H. |author9=Simberloff D. |s2cid=23847498 |year=2001 |title=Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change |journal=Science |volume=292 |issue=5515 |pages=281–284 |doi=10.1126/science.1057544 |pmid=11303102 |display-authors=etal |bibcode=2001Sci...292..281T }}
* White, R. P., S. Murray, and M. Rohweder.  2000.  Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems: Grassland Ecosystems.  World Resources Institute, Washington, D. C.
* WRI.  2003.  World Resources 2002–2004: Decisions for the Earth: Balance, voice, and power.  328 pp.  World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
{{refend}}{{Extinction}}
{{human impact on the environment|state=expanded}}
{{threatened species}}
{{population}}

[[Category:Habitats| ]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Environmental impact by effect]]"
Category:Reforestation,"{{Commons category|Reforestation}}
{{Catmain}}
{{CatRel|Forest conservation}}

[[Category:Forest management]]
[[Category:Forestry and the environment]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainable forest management]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide removal]]
[[Category:Biosequestration]]"
Category:Wetland conservation,"{{Cat main}}

[[Category:Wetlands]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Category:Wilderness,"{{Cat main|Wilderness}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Category:Conservation projects,"{{Commons category|Conservation projects}}
Conservation projects are programmes undertaken by [[conservation movement|conservation]] and [[Environmental movement|environmental]] organizations to protect [[biodiversity]], [[wildlife]], wild places or [[endangered species]].

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Projects]]"
Category:Conservationists,"{{Non-diffusing parent category|Women conservationists}}
{{Commons cat}}

This category is for '''[[Conservation movement|conservationists]]''' who were or are active in the [[conservation movement]]. For people involved in [[Conservation and restoration]], also referred as conservationists see [[:Category:Conservator-restorers]].

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Nature conservation|:]]
[[Category:Environmentalists]]
[[Category:People in environmental occupations]]"
Adaptive management,"{{short description|Adaptive environmental assessment and management (AEAM)}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=October 2012}}

'''Adaptive management''', also known as '''adaptive resource management''' or '''adaptive environmental assessment and management''', is a structured, [[iteration|iterative]] process of robust [[decision making]] in the face of [[uncertainty]], with an aim to reducing uncertainty over time via [[system monitoring]]. In this way, decision making simultaneously meets one or more [[resource management]] objectives and, either passively or actively, accrues information needed to improve future management. Adaptive management is a tool which should be used not only to change a system, but also to learn about the system.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|title=Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management|last=Holling|first=C.S.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=1978|isbn=9781932846072}}</ref> Because adaptive management is based on a learning process, it improves long-run management outcomes. The challenge in using the adaptive management approach lies in finding the correct balance between gaining knowledge to improve management in the future and achieving the best short-term outcome based on current knowledge.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EMxPZu99B_MC|title=Adaptive Environmental Management: A Practitioner's Guide|last1=Allan|first1=Catherine|last2=Stankey|first2=George Henry|date=2009-06-05|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781402096327}}</ref> This approach has more recently been employed in implementing [[international development]] programs.

==Objectives==
There are a number of scientific and social processes which are vital components of adaptive management, including:
* Management is linked to appropriate temporal and spatial scales
* Management retains a focus on [[statistical power]] and controls
* Use of computer models to build synthesis and an embodied ecological consensus
* Use of embodied ecological consensus to evaluate strategic alternatives
* Communication of alternatives to political arena for negotiation of a selection

The achievement of these objectives requires an open management process which seeks to include past, present and future [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]]. Adaptive management needs to at least maintain [[Glasnost|political openness]], but usually aims to create it. Adaptive management must therefore be a [[scientific]] and social process. It must focus on the development of new [[institutions]] and institutional strategies in balance with [[scientific hypothesis]] and experimental frameworks (resilience.org).

Adaptive management can proceed as either passive or active adaptive management, depending on how learning takes place. Passive adaptive management values learning only insofar as it improves decision outcomes (i.e. passively), as measured by the specified utility function. In contrast, active adaptive management explicitly incorporates learning as part of the objective function, and hence, decisions which improve learning are valued over those which do not.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"">{{Cite book|title=Adaptive management of renewable resources|last=Walters|first=Carl J.|date=1986-01-01|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0029479704|oclc=13184654}}</ref> In both cases, as new knowledge is gained, the models are updated and optimal management strategies are derived accordingly. Thus, while learning occurs in both cases, it is treated differently. Often, deriving actively adaptive policies is technically very difficult, which prevents it being more commonly applied.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carey|first1=Gemma|last2=Crammond|first2=Brad|last3=Malbon|first3=Eleanor|last4=Carey|first4=Nic|date=2015-09-18|title=Adaptive Policies for Reducing Inequalities in the Social Determinants of Health|journal=International Journal of Health Policy and Management|volume=4|issue=11|pages=763–767|doi=10.15171/ijhpm.2015.170|issn=2322-5939|pmc=4629702|pmid=26673337}}</ref>

==Features==
Key features of both passive and active adaptive management are:
*Iterative decision-making (evaluating results and adjusting actions on the basis of what has been learned)
*[[Feedback]] between monitoring and decisions (learning)
*Explicit characterization of system uncertainty through multi-model inference
*[[Bayesian inference]]
*Embracing [[risk]] and uncertainty as a way of building understanding

However, a number of process failures related to information feedback can prevent effective adaptive management decision making:<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Elzinga|first1=Caryl L. |last2=Salzer|first2=Daniel W. |last3=Willoughby|first3=John W.|date=1998-01-01|title=Measuring & Monitering Plant Populations|journal=U.S. Bureau of Land Management Papers|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usblmpub/17/}}</ref>

* [[data collection]] is never completely implemented
* data are collected but not analyzed
* [[data analysis|data are analyzed]] but results are inconclusive
* data are analyzed and are interesting, but are not presented to decision makers
* data are analyzed and presented, but are not used for decision-making because of internal or external factors

==History==
The use of adaptive management techniques can be traced back to peoples from ancient civilisations. For example, the [[Yap]] people of Micronesia have been using adaptive management techniques to sustain high [[population density|population densities]] in the face of resource scarcity for thousands of years (Falanruw 1984). In using these techniques, the Yap people have altered their environment creating, for example, coastal [[mangrove]] depressions and [[seagrass meadow]]s to support fishing and termite resistant wood (Stankey and Shinder 1997).

The origin of the adaptive management concept can be traced back to ideas of [[scientific management]] pioneered by [[Frederick Winslow Taylor|Frederick Taylor]] in the early 1900s (Haber 1964). While the term ""adaptive management"" evolved in natural resource management workshops through decision makers, managers and scientists focussing on building simulation models to uncover key assumptions and uncertainties (Bormann ''et al.'' 1999)<!-- ### This sentence is incomplete. Managagers and sci. did what? -->

Two ecologists at The [[University of British Columbia]], [[C. S. Holling|C.S. Holling]]<ref name="":0"" /> and C.J Walters<ref name="":1"" /> further developed the adaptive management approach as they distinguished between passive and active adaptive management practice. [[Kai Lee]], notable Princeton physicist, expanded upon the approach in the late 1970s and early 1980s while pursuing a post-doctorate degree at UC [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]]. The approach was further developed at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], while C.S. Holling was director of the institute. In 1992, Hilbourne described three learning models for federal land managers, around which adaptive management approaches could be developed, these are reactive, passive and active.

Adaptive management has probably been most frequently applied in Yap, [[Australia]] and [[North America]], initially applied in [[fishery]] management, but received more broad application in the 1990s and 2000s. One of the most successful applications of adaptive management has been in the area of waterfowl harvest management in North America, most notably for the [[mallard]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nichols|first1=James D.|last2=Johnson|first2=Fred A.|last3=Williams|first3=Byron K.|last4=Boomer|first4=G. Scott|date=2015-06-01|title=On formally integrating science and policy: walking the walk|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=52|issue=3|pages=539–543|doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12406|issn=1365-2664|doi-access=|bibcode=2015JApEc..52..539N }}</ref>

Adaptive management in a conservation project and program context can trace its roots back to at least the early 1990s, with the establishment of the Biodiversity Support Program (BSP)<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/index.html Biodiversity Support Program]</ref> in 1989. BSP was a [http://www.usaid.gov/ USAID]-funded consortium of WWF<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ WWF]</ref> The Nature Conservancy (TNC),<ref>[http://www.tnc.org/ The Nature Conservancy]</ref> and World Resources Institute (WRI).<ref>[http://www.wri.org/ World Resources Institute]</ref> Its Analysis and Adaptive Management Program sought to understand the conditions under which certain conservation strategies were most effective and to identify lessons learned across conservation projects. When BSP ended in 2001, TNC and Foundations of Success<ref>[http://www.fosonline.org/ Foundations of Success]</ref> (FOS, a non-profit which grew out of BSP) continued to actively work in promoting adaptive management for conservation projects and programs. The approaches used included Conservation by Design<ref>[http://conserveonline.org/workspaces/cbdgateway/ Conservation by Design]</ref> (TNC) and Measures of Success<ref>[http://www.islandpress.org/ip/books/book/islandpress/M/bo3559851.html Measures of Success]</ref> (FOS).

In 2004, the Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP)<ref>[http://www.conservationmeasures.org/ Conservation Measures Partnership]</ref> – which includes several former BSP members – developed a common set of standards and guidelines<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.conservationmeasures.org/initiatives/standards-for-project-management/ | title=Home | access-date=2011-08-17 | archive-date=2011-08-27 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827101834/http://www.conservationmeasures.org/initiatives/standards-for-project-management | url-status=dead }}</ref> for applying adaptive management to conservation projects and programs.

==Use in environmental practices==
Applying adaptive management in a [[Conservation biology|conservation]] or [[ecosystem management]] project involves the integration of project/program design, management, and monitoring to systematically test assumptions in order to adapt and learn. The three components of adaptive management in environmental practice are:

*''Testing assumptions'' is about systematically trying different actions to achieve a desired outcome. It is not, however, a random trial-and-error process.  Rather, it involves using knowledge about the specific site to pick the best known strategy, laying out the assumptions behind how that strategy will work, and then collecting monitoring data to determine if the assumptions hold true.
*''Adaptation'' involves changing assumptions and interventions to respond to new or different information obtained through monitoring and project experience.
*''Learning'' is about explicitly documenting a team's planning and implementation processes and its successes and failures for internal learning as well as learning across the conservation community.  This learning enables conservation practitioners to design and manage projects better and avoid some of the perils others have encountered.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stankey|first1=George H.|last2=Clark|first2=Roger N.|last3=Bormann|first3=Bernard T.|last4=Stankey|first4=George H.|last5=Clark|first5=Roger N.|last6=Bormann|first6=Bernard T.|title=Adaptive management of natural resources: theory, concepts, and management institutions.|journal=Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-654. Portland, or: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 73 P |year=2005 |volume=654 |doi=10.2737/PNW-GTR-654 |hdl=2027/umn.31951d02977054k |url=https://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/20657/|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Learning about a managed system is only useful in cases where management decisions are repeated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rout|first1=Tracy M.|last2=Hauser|first2=Cindy E.|last3=Possingham|first3=Hugh P.|date=2009-03-01|title=Optimal adaptive management for the translocation of a threatened species|journal=Ecological Applications|volume=19|issue=2|pages=515–526|doi=10.1890/07-1989.1|issn=1939-5582|pmid=19323207|bibcode=2009EcoAp..19..515R |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:181588/UQ181588_OA.pdf}}</ref>

==Application to environmental projects and programs==
[[Image:CMP Cycle - 2008-02-20.jpg|thumb|Figure 1: CMP Adaptive Management Cycle]]

''Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation''<ref>[http://www.conservationmeasures.org/ ''Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation'']</ref> lays out five main steps to an adaptive management project cycle (see Figure 1). The ''Open Standards'' represent a compilation and adaptation of best practices and guidelines across several fields and across several organizations within the conservation community. Since the release of the initial ''Open Standards'' (updated in 2007 and 2013), thousands of project teams from conservation organizations (e.g., TNC, Rare, and WWF), local conservation groups, and donors alike have begun applying these ''Open Standards'' to their work.  In addition, several CMP members have developed training materials and courses to help apply the Standards.

Some recent write-ups of adaptive management in conservation include wildlife protection (SWAP, 2008), forests ecosystem protection (CMER, 2010), coastal protection and restoration (LACPR, 2009), natural resource management (water, land and soil), species conservation especially, fish conservation from [[overfishing]] (FOS, 2007) and [[climate change]] (DFG, 2010). In addition, some other examples follow:
 
*In 2006–2007, FOS worked with The National Fish and Wildlife Foundation (NFWF) to develop an evaluation system help NFWF gauge impact across the various coral reef habitat and species conservation projects;
*In 2007, FOS worked with the [[Ocean Conservancy]] (OC) to evaluate the effectiveness of this Scorecard in helping to end overfishing in domestic fisheries.
*Between 1999 and 2004, FOS worked for WWF's Asian Rhino and Elephant Action Strategy (AREAS) Program to ensure that Asian elephants and rhinos thrive in secure habitats within their historical range and in harmony with people.
*The Department of Fish and Game (DFG) is developing and implementing adaptation strategies to help protect, restore and manage fish and wildlife, with the understanding that some level of climate change will occur and that it will have profound effects on ecosystems in the United States.
*The Adaptive Management program was created by CMR to provide science-based recommendations and technical information to assist the Forest Practices Board. In April 2010, the Forest Practices Adaptive Management Annual Science Conference was held in Washington.
*In 2009, The Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration (LACPR) Technical Report has been developed by the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] (USACE) according to adaptive management process.
*Since 2009, the Kenya Wildlife Service has been managing its marine protected areas using adaptive management in an ongoing process of learning through the  Science for Active Management (SAM)<ref>[http://sam4wio.weebly.com Science for Active Management]</ref> Program.

==In international development==

The concept of adaptive management is not restricted to natural resources or [[ecosystem management]], as similar concepts have been applied to [[international development]] programming.<ref>{{Cite book |doi = 10.17226/10972|isbn = 978-0-309-09191-6|title = Adaptive Management for Water Resources Project Planning|year = 2004}}</ref><ref>Rondinell, D. A. (1993) Development Projects as Policy Experiments: an adaptive approach to development administration, 2nd ed, Routledge, London and New York</ref> This has often been a recognition to the ""wicked"" nature of many development challenges and the limits of traditional planning processes.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1007/BF01405730|title = Dilemmas in a general theory of planning|year = 1973|last1 = Rittel|first1 = Horst W. J.|last2 = Webber|first2 = Melvin M.|journal = Policy Sciences|volume = 4|issue = 2|pages = 155–169|s2cid = 18634229}}</ref><ref>Ramalingam, B., Laric, M. and Primrose, J. (2014) 'From Best Practice to Best Fit: Understanding and Navigating Wicked Problems in International Development'. Working Paper. London: ODI</ref><ref>Head, B. and Alford, J. (2008) ""Wicked Problems: The Implications for Public Management"", 12th Annual Conference International Research Society for Public Management, Vol. Panel on Public Management in Practice, 26–28 March 2008, Brisbane.</ref> One of the principal changes facing international development organizations is the need to be more flexible, adaptable and focused on learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1109/TPC.2009.2034240|title = Adapting to Change: Becoming a Learning Organization as a Relief and Development Agency|year = 2009|last1 = Smith|first1 = S.|last2 = Young|first2 = A.|journal = IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication|volume = 52|issue = 4|pages = 329–345|s2cid = 9884915}}</ref> This is reflected in international development approaches such as Doing Development Differently, Politically Informed Programming and Problem Driven Iterative Adaptation.<ref>Andrews, M., Pritchett, L. and Woolcock, M. (2015) Doing problem driven work. Working Paper 30. Cambridge, MA: Center for International Development at [[Harvard University]].</ref><ref>Booth, D. and Unsworth, S. (2014) Politically smart, locally-led development. ODI discussion paper London: [[Overseas Development Institute]].</ref><ref>Fritz, V., Levy, B., and Ort, R. (2014) Problem-driven political economy analysis: The World Bank's experience. Washington DC: [[World Bank]].</ref>

One recent example of the use of adaptive management by international development donors is the planned Global Learning for Adaptive Management (GLAM) programme to support adaptive management in [[Department for International Development]] and [[USAID]]. The program is establishing a centre for learning about adaptive management to support the utilization and accessibility of adaptive management.<ref>Funds for NGOs. [https://www2.fundsforngos.org/economic-development/dfid-global-learning-adaptive-management-glam-programme/ ""DFID: Global Learning for Adaptive Management (GLAM) Programme""]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>Oxfam [http://oxfamblogs.org/fp2p/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Adaptive-Management-LSE-Oxfam-Report_DRAFT-for-comments3.doc%C2%A0 ""Adaptive Management at Oxfam""]. Retrieved May 25, 2017</ref> In addition, donors have been focused on amending their own programmatic guidance to reflect the importance of learning within programs: for instance, USAID's recent focus in their ADS guidance on the importance of collaborating, learning and adapting.<ref name=""usaid.gov"">USAID. [https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1870/201.pdf ""ADS Chapter 201 Program Cycle Operational Policy""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023195937/https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1870/201.pdf |date=2019-10-23 }}. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>USAID Learning Lab. [https://usaidlearninglab.org/faq/collaborating-learning-and-adapting-cla ""CLA""]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref> This is also reflected in Department for International Development's Smart Rules that provide the operating framework for their programs including the use of evidence to inform their decisions.<ref>DFID. [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/dfid-smart-rules-better-programme-delivery ""DFID Smart Rules: Better Programme Deliver""]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref> There are a variety of tools used to operationalize adaptive management in programs, such as [[learning agenda]]s and [[decision cycle]]s.<ref>[https://usaidlearninglab.org/library/knowing-when-adapt-decision-tree ""Knowing When to Adapt - A Decision Tree""] Retrieved March 22, 2019</ref>

Collaborating, learning and adapting (CLA) is a concept related to the operationalizing of adaptive management in international development that describes a specific way of designing, implementing, adapting and evaluating programs.<ref>Altschuld, J. W., & Watkins, R. (2015). Needs assessment: trends and a view toward the future. New Directions for Evaluation, Number 144. Hoboken, NJ: [[John Wiley & Sons]].</ref>{{rp|85}}<ref>Janus, Steffen Soulejman. (2016). Becoming a knowledge-sharing organization: a handbook for scaling up solutions through knowledge capturing and sharing. Washington, D.C.: [[World Bank Group]]. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/25320</ref>{{rp|46}} CLA involves three concepts:
#collaborating intentionally with stakeholders to share knowledge and reduce duplication of effort,
#learning systematically by drawing on evidence from a variety of sources and taking the time to reflect on implementation, and
#adapting strategically based on applied learning. CLA practices have tangible benefits; for instance, a recent study recently found that companies ""which apply more data-driven and adaptive leadership practices perform better"" when examined against those which focus less on those practices.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ijpe.2015.11.013 |url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/27723|title=Data-driven and adaptive leadership contributing to sustainability: Global agri-food supply chains connected with emerging markets|year=2016|last1=Akhtar|first1=Pervaiz|last2=Tse|first2=Ying Kei|last3=Khan|first3=Zaheer|last4=Rao-Nicholson|first4=Rekha|journal=International Journal of Production Economics|volume=181|pages=392–401}}</ref>

CLA integrates three closely connected concepts within the organizational theory literature: namely collaborating, learning and adapting. There is evidence of the benefits of collaborating internally within an organization and externally with organizations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://usaidlearninglab.org/library/literature-review-evidence-base-collaborating,-learning,-and-adapting|title=Literature review of the evidence base for collaborating, learning, and adapting|last=Lab|first=Learning|date=2016-08-11|work=USAID Learning Lab|access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref> Much of the production and transmission of knowledge—both [[explicit knowledge]] and [[tacit knowledge]]—occurs through collaboration.<ref>For example: Polanyi, Michael (1966), The tacit dimension. Chicago: [[University of Chicago Press]].</ref> There is evidence for the importance of collaboration among individuals and groups for innovation, knowledge production, and diffusion—for example, the benefits of staff interacting with one another and transmitting knowledge.<ref>Kelly, Kip, and Schaefer, Alan (2014). [http://www.kenan-flagler.unc.edu/~/media/Files/documents/executive-development/unc-white-paper-creating-a-collaborative-organizational-culture.pdf ""Creating a collaborative organizational culture""]. UNC White Paper.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Phelps | first1 = C. | last2 = Heidl | first2 = R. | last3 = Wadhwa | first3 = A. | year = 2012 | title = Knowledge, networks, and knowledge networks: a review and research agenda | journal = Journal of Management | volume = 38 | issue = 4| pages = 1115–1166 | doi=10.1177/0149206311432640| s2cid = 7849173 }}</ref><ref>Hackman, J. R. (2002). Leading teams: setting the stage for great performances. Boston: [[Harvard Business School Press]].</ref> The importance of collaboration is closely linked to the ability of organizations to collectively learn from each other, a concept noted in the literature on [[learning organization]]s.<ref>Garvin, David A. August 1993. ""[https://hbr.org/1993/07/building-a-learning-organization Building a learning organization]."" [[Harvard Business Review]] 71, no. 4: 78–91.</ref><ref name=""Senge"">Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: the art and practice of the learning organization. New York: [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] Business.</ref><ref>Argyris, C. and Schön, D. (1978) Organizational learning: a theory of action perspective, Reading, Mass: [[Addison Wesley]].</ref>

CLA, an adaptive management practice, is being employed by implementing partners<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://usaidlearninglab.org/library-series/cla-case-2015|title=CLA Case Study 2015|work=USAID Learning Lab|access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://usaidlearninglab.org/library-series/cla-case-2016|title=CLA Case Study 2016|work=USAID Learning Lab|access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref> that receive funding from the [[federal government of the United States]],<ref>Fintrac. [http://www.fintrac.com/learning-innovation ""Collaborating, Learning and Adapting""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625011244/http://www.fintrac.com/learning-innovation |date=2017-06-25 }}. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>QED Group LLC. [https://www.qedgroupllc.com/impact-stories/collaborating-learning-and-adapting/ ""Impact Stories: Collaborating, Learning and Adapting: Facilitating Agile Program Success Through CLA""]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>Global Communities. (2016). M&E for ""Collaboration, Learning and Adapting"" in PACE. http://www.globalcommunities.org/publications/2016-M+E-CLA-PACE.pdf</ref> but it is primarily a framework for internal change efforts that aim at incorporating collaboration, learning, and adaptation within the [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) including its missions located around the world.<ref>USAID Learning Lab [https://usaidlearninglab.org/node/14633 ""Understanding CLA""]. Retrieved June 4, 2017.</ref> CLA has been linked to a part of USAID's commitment to becoming a learning organization.<ref>OECD, 2016. Development Co-operation Peer Reviews: United States. {{doi|10.1787/9789264266971-en}}</ref> CLA represents an approach to combine strategic collaboration, continuous learning, and adaptive management.<ref>USAID Learning Lab. [https://usaidlearninglab.org/faq/collaborating-learning-and-adapting-cla ""CLA""]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref> A part of integrating the CLA approach is providing tools and resources, such as the Learning Lab, to staff and partner organizations.<ref>Borgen. [http://www.borgenmagazine.com/roadmap-usaid-learning-lab/ ""A Roadmap to USAID Learning Lab""]. Retrieved April 19, 2017</ref> The CLA approach is detailed for USAID staff in the recently revised program policy guidance.<ref name=""usaid.gov""/>

==Use in other practices as a tool for sustainability==
Adaptive management as a systematic process for improving environmental management policies and practices is the traditional application however, the adaptive management framework can also be applied to other sectors seeking [[sustainability]] solutions such as business and community development. Adaptive management as a strategy emphasizes the need to change with the environment and to learn from doing. Adaptive management applied to ecosystems makes overt sense when considering ever changing environmental conditions.  The flexibility and constant learning of an adaptive management approach is also a logical application for organizations seeking sustainability methodologies.
Businesses pursuing sustainability strategies would employ an adaptive management framework to ensure that the organization is prepared for the unexpected and geared for change. By applying an adaptive management approach the business begins to function as an integrated system adjusting and learning from a multi-faceted network of influences not just environmental but also, economic and social (Dunphy, Griffths, & Benn, 2007). The goal of any sustainable organization guided by adaptive management principals must be to engage in active learning to direct change towards sustainability (Verine, 2008). This ""learning to manage by managing to learn"" (Bormann BT, 1993) will be at the core of a sustainable business strategy.

Sustainable community development requires recognition of the relationship between environment, economics and social instruments within the community. An adaptive management approach to creating sustainable community policy and practice also emphasizes the connection and confluence of those elements. Looking into the cultural mechanisms which contribute to a community value system often highlights the  parallel to adaptive management practices, ""with [an] emphasis on feedback learning, and its treatment of uncertainty and unpredictability"" (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2000). Often this is the result of indigenous knowledge and historical decisions of societies deeply rooted in ecological practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2000).  By applying an adaptive management approach to community development the resulting systems can develop built in sustainable practice as  explained by the Environmental Advisory Council (2002), ""active adaptive management views policy as a set of experiments designed to reveal processes that build or sustain resilience. It requires, and facilitates, a social context with flexible and open institutions and multi-level governance systems that allow for learning and increase adaptive capacity without foreclosing future development options"" (p.&nbsp;1121). A practical example of adaptive management as a tool for sustainability was the application of a modified variation of adaptive management using artvoice, [[photovoice]], and [[agent-based model]]ing in a participatory social framework of action. This application was used in field research on tribal lands to first identify the environmental issue and impact of illegal trash dumping and then to discover a solution through iterative agent-based modeling using [[NetLogo]] on a theoretical ""regional cooperative clean-energy economy"". This [[cooperative]] economy incorporated a mixed application of: traditional trash recycling and a waste-to-fuels process of carbon recycling of non-recyclable trash into [[ethanol fuel]]. This industrial waste-to-fuels application was inspired by pioneering work of the Canadian-based company, [[Enerkem]]. See Bruss, 2012 - PhD dissertation: Human Environment Interactions and Collaborative Adaptive Capacity Building in a Resilience Framework, GDPE Colorado State University.

In an ever-changing world, adaptive management appeals to many practices seeking sustainable solutions by offering a framework for decision making that proposes to support a sustainable future which, ""conserves and nurtures the diversity—of species, of human opportunity, of learning institutions and of economic options""(The Environmental Advisory Council, 2002, p.&nbsp;1121).

== Effectiveness ==
It is difficult to test the effectiveness of adaptive management in comparison to other management approaches. One challenge is that once a system is managed using one approach it is difficult to determine how another approach would have performed in exactly the same situation.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last1=Holden|first1=Matthew H.|last2=Ellner|first2=Stephen P.|date=2016-07-01|title=Human judgment vs. quantitative models for the management of ecological resources|journal=Ecological Applications|volume=26|issue=5|pages=1553–1565|doi=10.1890/15-1295|pmid=27755756|issn=1939-5582|arxiv=1603.04518|bibcode=2016EcoAp..26.1553H |s2cid=1279459}}</ref> One study tested the effectiveness of formal passive adaptive management in comparison to human intuition by having natural resource management students make decisions about how to harvest a hypothetical fish population in an online computer game. The students on average performed poorly in comparison to the computer programs implementing passive adaptive management.<ref name="":2"" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://psmag.com/sometimes-even-bad-models-make-better-decisions-than-people-4956bade3990#.cnenr5clc|title=Sometimes, Even Bad Models Make Better Decisions Than People|date=2016-03-11|newspaper=Pacific Standard|access-date=2016-12-22}}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Collaborative adaptive management is often celebrated as an effective way to deal with natural resource management under high levels of conflict, uncertainty and complexity.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last=Beratan|first=Kathi|date=2014-03-28|title=Summary: Addressing the Interactional Challenges of Moving Collaborative Adaptive Management From Theory to Practice|journal=Ecology and Society|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.5751/ES-06399-190146|issn=1708-3087|doi-access=free}}</ref> The effectiveness of these efforts can be constrained by both social and technical barriers. As the case of the [[Glen Canyon Dam|Glenn Canyon Dam]] Adaptive Management Program in the US illustrates, effective collaborative adaptive management efforts require clear and measurable goals and objectives, incentives and tools to foster collaboration, long-term commitment to monitoring and adaptation, and straightforward joint fact-finding protocols.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Susskind|first1=Lawrence|last2=Camacho|first2=Alejandro E.|last3=Schenk|first3=Todd|date=2011-10-31|title=A critical assessment of collaborative adaptive management in practice|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=49|issue=1|pages=47–51|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02070.x|issn=0021-8901|doi-access=}}</ref> In Colorado, USA, a ten-year, [[ranch]]-scale (2590 ha) experiment began in 2012 at the [[Agricultural Research Service]] (ARS) Central Plains Experimental range to evaluate the effectiveness and process of collaborative adaptive management <ref name="":3"" /> on [[rangeland]]s. The Collaborative Adaptive Rangeland Management or “CARM” project monitors outcomes from yearling steer grazing management on 10, 130 ha pastures conducted by a group of conservationists, ranchers, and public employees, and researchers. This team compares ecological monitoring data tracking profitability and conservation outcomes with outcomes from a “traditional” management treatment: a second set of ten pastures managed without adaptive decision making but with the same stocking rate. Early evaluations of the project by social scientists offer insights for more effective adaptive management.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal|last1=Wilmer|first1=Hailey|last2=Derner|first2=Justin D.|last3=Fernández-Giménez|first3=María E.|last4=Briske|first4=David D.|last5=Augustine|first5=David J.|last6=Porensky|first6=Lauren M.|date=September 2018|title=Collaborative Adaptive Rangeland Management Fosters Management-Science Partnerships|journal=Rangeland Ecology & Management|volume=71|issue=5|pages=646–657|doi=10.1016/j.rama.2017.07.008|s2cid=90148819|issn=1550-7424}}</ref> First, trust is primary and essential to learning in adaptive management, not a side benefit. Second, practitioners cannot assume that extensive monitoring data or large-scale efforts will automatically facilitate successful collaborative adaptive management. Active, long-term efforts to build trust among scientists and stakeholders are also important. Finally, explicit efforts to understand, share and respect multiple types of manager knowledge, including place-based ecological knowledge practiced by local managers, is necessary to manage adaptively for multiple conservation and livelihood goals on rangelands.<ref name="":4"" /> Practitioners can expect adaptive management to be a complex, non-linear process shaped by social, political and ecological processes, as well as by data collection and interpretation.

==General resources==
Information and guidance on the entire adaptive management process is available from CMP members' websites and other online sources:
*The Conservation Measures Partnership's ''Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation'' provide general guidance and principles for good adaptive management in conservation.
*Miradi Adaptive Management Software for Conservation Projects is user friendly software developed through a joint venture between CMP and Benetech.  The software walks conservation teams through each step of the Open Standards.
*Foundations of Success (FOS) Resources and Training web pages list reference materials on adaptive management and [[monitoring and evaluation]], as well as information about online or in-person courses in adaptive management.
*The Nature Conservancy's Conservation Action Planning (CAP) Resources page includes detailed guidance and tools for implementing the CAP adaptive management process.  See also TNC's CAP Standards.
*The Wildlife Conservation Society's Living Landscapes page contains extensive guidance materials on WCS's approach to adaptive management.
*WWF's web page on the ''WWF Standards of Conservation Project and Programme Management'' contains detailed guidance, resources, and tools for the steps in WWF's adaptive management process.
*Measures of Success: Designing, Managing, and Monitoring Conservation and Development Projects, written in 1998 by Richard Margoluis and Nick Salafsky, was one of the first detailed manuals about applying adaptive management to conservation projects. Also available in Spanish.
*Foundations of Success (FOS)  web pages list Asian Rhino and Elephant Program Evaluation in 2004.
*Foundations of Success (FOS)  web pages list National Fish & Wildlife Foundation's Coral Fund in 2007.
*Foundations of Success (FOS)  web pages list Ocean Conservancy's Overfishing Scorecard in 2007.
*The Department of Fish and Game (DFG)  web pages list Adapting to Climate Change programme.
*U.S. Army Corps of Engineers  web pages list Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Final Technical Report in 2009.
*Washington State Department of Natural Resource (CMR)  web pages list Forest Practices Adaptive Management Program in 2010.

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Decision cycle]]
* [[Decision theory]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Fisheries]]
* [[Forestry]]
* [[Learning cycle]]
* [[Operations research]]
* [[Optimization (mathematics)]]
* [[Silviculture]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
*{{cite journal |author1=Carey, G. |author2=Crammond, B. |author3=Malbon, E. |display-authors=et al | year = 2015 |  title = Adaptive policies for reducing inequalities in the social determinants of health. | journal = International Journal of Health Policy and Management | issue = 11 | url = http://www.ijhpm.com/article_3097_0.html  |  volume = 4 |  pages = 763–767 | doi=10.15171/ijhpm.2015.170 | pmid=26673337 | pmc=4629702}}
*{{cite book |author1=Bormann, B.T. |author2=Wagner, F.H. |author3=Wood, G. |author4=Algeria, j. |author5=Cunningham, P.G. |author6=Brooks, M.H. |author7=Friesema, P. |author8=Berg, J. |author9=Henshaw, J | year = 1999| title = Ecological Stewardship: A common reference for ecosystem management|publisher = Elsevier| location = Amsterdam}}
*{{cite book |author1=Williams, Byron K. |author2=Robert C. Szaro |author3=Carl D. Shapiro | year = 2007 | title = Adaptive Management: The U.S. Department of the Interior Technical Guide | publisher = US Department of the Interior | isbn = 978-1-4113-1760-4}}
*{{cite book | editor-last = Holling | editor-first = C. S. | editor-link = C. S. Holling | year = 1978 | title = Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management | publisher = Wiley | location = Chichester | isbn = 978-0-471-99632-3}}
*{{cite conference| last = Falanrue |first=Marjorie |year=1982 |title = People pressure and management of limited resources on Yap| publisher = The Smithsonian Institution Press |conference=Proc. World Congress on National Parks | location = Washington DC| editor1 = McNeely, J.A. |editor2=Miller, K.R. |pages=348–354 }}
*{{cite book | author = Walters, C.J.| year = 1986 | title = Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources | publisher = Mc Graw Hill | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-02-947970-4}}
*{{cite book | last = Lee | first = Kai N. | year = 1993 | title = Compass and Gyroscope: Integrating Science and Politics for the Environment | publisher = Island Press | location = Washington, D.C. | isbn = 978-1-55963-197-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/compassgyroscope0000leek }}
*{{cite book | last = Walters | first = Carl | year = 1986 | title = Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources | publisher = Macmillan | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-02-947970-4}}
*{{cite book | author1 = Argyris, Chris | author2 = Donald A. Schön | year = 1978 | title = Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective | publisher = Addison-Wesley | location = Reading, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0-201-00174-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/organizationalle00chri }}
*{{cite book | editor = Gunderson, Lance H. |editor2=C. S. Holling |editor3=Stephen S. Light | year = 1995 | title = Barriers and Bridges to the Renewal of Ecosystems and Institutions | publisher = Columbia University Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-231-10102-8}}
*{{cite book |author1=Margoluis, Richard |author2=Nick Salafsky | year = 1998 | title = Measures of Success: Designing, Managing, and Monitoring Conservation and Development Projects | publisher = Island Press | location = Washington, D.C | isbn = 978-1-55963-612-4}}
*{{cite book | author = Schön, Donald A. | year = 1984 | title = The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think In Action | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-465-06878-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/reflectivepracti00scho }}
*{{cite book | author = Senge, Peter M. | year = 2006 | title = The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization | publisher = Currency Doubleday | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-385-26095-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/fifthdisciplinet00seng }}
*{{cite book |author1=Catherine Allan |author2=George H. Stankey | year = 2009 | title = Adaptive Environmental Management: A Practitioner's Guide | publisher = Dordrecht | location = The Netherlands  | isbn = 978-90-481-2710-8}}
*{{cite journal |author1=Johnson, F.A. |author2=Williams, B.K. |author3=Nichols, J.D. |author4=Hines, J.El |author5=Kendall, W.L. |author6=Smith, G.W. |author7=Caithamer, D.F. | year = 1993 |  title = Developing an adaptive management strategy for harvesting waterfowl in North America | journal =Trans N Am Wildl Nat Resour Conf | issue = 58 | pages = 565–583}}
*{{cite journal | author = Hilborn, R. | year = 1992 | title = Can fisheries agencies learn from experience? | journal = Fisheries | issue =17 | volume = 4 | pages = 6–14| doi = 10.1577/1548-8446(1992)017<0006:CFALFE>2.0.CO;2 }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Nichols, J.D. |author2=Runge, M.C. |author3=Johnson, F.A. |author4=Williams, B.K. | year = 2007 |  title = Adaptive harvest management of North American waterfowl populations: a brief history and future prospects | journal = Journal of Ornithology | issue = S2 |  doi = 10.1007/s10336-007-0256-8 |  volume = 148 |  pages = 343|s2cid=8903078 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1232777 }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Nichols, J.D. |author2=Johnson, F.A. |author3=Williams, B.K. | year = 1995 |  title = Managing North American waterfowl in the face of uncertainty | journal = Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. | volume = 26 | pages = 177–199 |  doi = 10.1146/annurev.es.26.110195.001141 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1372&context=usfwspubs }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Johnson, F.A. |author2=Williams, B.K. | year = 1999 |  title = Protocol and practice in the adaptive management of waterfowl harvests. | journal = Conservation Ecology | volume = 3 | issue = 8 |doi=10.5751/ES-00091-030108 |hdl=10535/3370 |hdl-access = free }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Margoluis, R. |author2=Stem, C. |author3=Salafsky, N. |author4=Brown, M. | year = 2009 |  title = Using conceptual models as a planning and evaluation tool in conservation | journal = Evaluation and Program Planning | doi = 10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2008.09.007 |  volume = 32 |  pages = 138–147 | pmid = 19054560 | issue = 2}}
*{{cite book | last = Marmorek | first = David R. |author2=D.C.E. Robinson|author3=C. Murray|author4=L. Grieg | year = 2006 | title = Enabling Adaptive Forest Management | publisher = National Commission on Science for Sustainable Forestry | page = 94| doi = 10.13140/2.1.2301.5367 }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Greig, L.|author2=Marmorek, D.R. |author3=Murray, C.M. |author4=Robinson, D.C.E. | year = 2013| title = Insight into enabling adaptive management | journal = Ecology and Society |  volume = 18|  pages = 24 | issue = 3 | doi=10.5751/es-05686-180324|doi-access = free |hdl = 10535/9163 |hdl-access = free }}
*{{cite book | last = Murray | first = Carol |author2=David Marmorek | editor = Peter Friederici | title = Ecological Restoration of Southwestern Ponderosa Pine Forests | year = 2003 | publisher = Island Press | location = Washington, D.C. | isbn = 978-1-55963-652-0 | pages = 417–428 | chapter = Adaptive management and ecological restoration | chapter-url = http://www.essa.com/downloads/Murray_&_Marmorek_Ponderosa_Pine_2003.pdf}}
*{{cite book | last = Peterman | first = Randall M. |author2=Calvin N. Peters | editor = Vera Sit and Brenda Taylor (eds). | title = Statistical Methods for Adaptive Management Studies | chapter-url = http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Lmh/Lmh42.htm | year = 1998 | publisher = B.C. Ministry of Forests | location = Victoria, B.C. | isbn = 978-0-7726-3512-9 | pages = 105–127 | chapter = Decision analysis: taking uncertainties into account in forest resource management}}
*{{cite journal |author1=Salafsky, N. |author2=Margoluis, R. |author3=Redford, K. |author4=Robinson, J. | year = 2002 |  title = Improving the practice of conservation: A conceptual framework and agenda for conservation science | journal = Conservation Biology | url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118954269/issue| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130105071802/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118954269/issue| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2013-01-05|  doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.01232.x|  volume = 16 | issue = 6 |  pages = 1469–1479|s2cid=16578544 }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Salafsky, N. |author2=Salzer, D. |author3=Stattersfield, A.J. |author4=Hilton-Taylor, C. |author5=Neugarten, R. |author6=Butchart, S.H.M. |author7=Collen, B. |author8=Cox, N. |author9=Master, L.L. |author10=O'Connor, S. |author11=Wilkie, D. | year = 2009 |  title = A standard lexicon for biodiversity conservation: Unified classifications of threats and actions | journal = Conservation Biology |  doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00937.x|  volume = 22 |  pages = 897–911 | pmid = 18544093 | issue = 4|doi-access =  |s2cid=19479216 }}
*{{cite journal|author1=Salzer, D. |author2=Salafsky, N. |year=2006 |title=Allocating resources between taking action, assessing status, and measuring effectiveness of conservation actions |journal=Natural Areas Journal |url=http://www.naturalarea.org/journaltoc.aspx?p=95 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=310–316 |doi=10.3375/0885-8608(2006)26[310:ARBTAA]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=11789167 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724221134/http://www.naturalarea.org/journaltoc.aspx?p=95 |archive-date=2011-07-24 }}
*{{cite journal | last = Stankey | first = George H |author2=Roger N. Clark|author3=Bernard T. Bormann | year = 2005 | title = Adaptive management of natural resources: theory, concepts, and management institutions | journal = Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-654. Portland, or: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 73 P | volume = 654 | page = 73 p| doi = 10.2737/PNW-GTR-654 | hdl = 2027/umn.31951d02977054k | hdl-access = free }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Stem, C.. |author2=Margoluis, R. |author3=Salafsky, N. |author4=Brown, M. | year = 2005 |  title = Monitoring and evaluation in conservation: A review of trends and approaches | journal = Conservation Biology | url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118701082/issue | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130105055456/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118701082/issue | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2013-01-05 |  doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00594.x |  volume = 19 | issue = 2 |  pages = 295–309|bibcode=2005ConBi..19..295S |s2cid=8709069 }}
*{{cite book | last = Virine | first = Lev |author2=Michael Trumper |url=http://www.projectdecisions.org |title=Project Decisions: The Art and Science | location = Vienna, VA | publisher = Management Concepts | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-1-56726-217-9 }}
*{{cite book | author = Elzinga, C.L. | author2 = D. W. Salzer | author3 = J. W. Willoughby | year = 1998 | title = Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations | publisher = Bureau of Land Management | location = Denver, CO | id = BLM Technical Reference 1730-1 | url = http://www.blm.gov/nstc/library/pdf/MeasAndMon.pdf | access-date = 2015-04-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150528203109/http://www.blm.gov/nstc/library/pdf/MeasAndMon.pdf | archive-date = 2015-05-28 | url-status = dead }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Alana L. Moore |author2=Michael A. | year = 2009 |  title = On Valuing Information in Adaptive-Management, Models | pmid = 20136870 | journal = Conservation Biology | url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.simsrad.net.ocs.mq.edu.au/doi/10.1111/cbi.2010.24.issue-4/issuetoc |  doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01443.x |  volume = 24 | issue = 4 |  pages = 984–993|s2cid=5623403 }}
*{{cite book |author1=George H. Stankey |author2=Roger N. Clark |author3=Bernard T. Bormann | year = 2005 | title = Adaptive Management of Natural Resources: Theory, Concepts, and Management Institutions | publisher = United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) | location = Washington | url = http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr654.pdf }}
*{{cite journal |author=Gregory R |author2=Ohlson D |author3=Arvai J | year = 2006 |  title = Deconstructing adaptive management: criteria for application to environmental management | pmid = 17205914 | journal = Ecological Applications |  doi = 10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[2411:DAMCFA]2.0.CO;2 |  volume = 16 | issue = 6 |  pages = 2411–2425|hdl=1794/22080 |hdl-access = free }}
* Australian Government Connected Water |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110215233134/http://www.connectedwater.gov.au/framework/adaptive_management.html%7C
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1251:ROTEKA]2.0.CO;2 | author = Berkes, F. |author2=Colding, J. |author3=Folke, C.| year = 2000 |title = Rediscovery of Traditional Ecological Knowledge as Adaptive Management |journal = Ecological Applications |volume = 10 | issue = 5|pages = 1251–1262}}
*{{cite journal | author = Chaffee, E. E.| year = 1985 |title = Three Models of Strategy | journal = The Academy of Management Review |volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 89–98 | doi=10.5465/amr.1985.4277354}}
*{{cite book | author = Dunphy, D. |author2=Griffths, A. |author3=Benn, S| year = 2007 |  title =  Organizational Change for Corporate Sustainability | publisher = Routledge | location = London}}
*{{cite book | author = The Environmental Advisory Council | year = 2002 | title = Resilience and Sustainable Development: Building Adaptive Capacity in a World of Transformation | publisher =  EDITA NORSTEDTS TRYCKERI AB | location = stockholm}}
*{{cite journal |author = Verine, L.| year = 2008 | title = Adaptive Project Management |journal = PM World Today | volume = 10 | issue=5 | pages = 1–9}}
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1890/07-1989.1 | author = Rout, T.M. |author2=Hauser, C.E. |author3=Possingham, H.P. | year = 2009 | title = Optimal adaptive management for the translocation of a threatened species | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 19| issue=2 | pages = 515–516 | pmid = 19323207 | bibcode = 2009EcoAp..19..515R | url = http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:181588/UQ181588_OA.pdf }}
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1890/1051-0761(2002)012[0927:AAMIIP]2.0.CO;2 | author = Shea, K. |author2=Possingham, H.P. |author3=Murdoch, WW. |author4=Roush, R. |author-link4=Rick Roush| year = 2002 | title = Active Adaptive Management in Insect Pest and Weed Control: Intervention with a Plan for Learning | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 12|issue=3 | pages = 927–936|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8678/UQ8678_OA.pdf }}

{{Natural resources}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adaptive Management}}
[[Category:Habitat management equipment and methods]]
[[Category:Learning methods]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Management frameworks]]"
Conservation biology,"{{Short description|Study of threats to biological diversity}}
{{Redirect2|Biological conservation|Conservation ecology|scientific journals|Conservation Biology (journal){{!}}''Conservation Biology'' (journal)|and|Biological Conservation (journal){{!}}''Biological Conservation'' (journal)|and|Conservation Ecology (journal){{!}}''Conservation Ecology'' (journal)|the popular movement|Conservationism}}
[[File:2016 EPI Ecosystem Vitality Objective - Biodiversity and Habitat (26170609028).jpg|thumb|300px|2016 conservation indicator which includes the following indicators: marine protected areas, terrestrial biome protection (global and national), and species protection (global and national)]]
'''Conservation biology''' is the study of the conservation of nature and of [[Earth]]'s [[biodiversity]] with the aim of protecting [[species]], their [[habitats]], and [[ecosystems]] from excessive rates of [[extinction]] and the erosion of biotic interactions.<ref name=""SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction"">{{cite journal |last1=Sahney |first1=S. |last2=Benton |first2=M. J |title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=275 |issue=1636 |pages=759–65 |year=2008 |pmid=18198148 |pmc=2596898 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 }}</ref><ref name=ConsBiol80>{{cite book |author1=Soulé, Michael E. |author2=Wilcox, Bruce A. |title=Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-87893-800-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soulé |first1=Michael E. |title=What is Conservation Biology? |journal=BioScience |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=727–34 |year=1986 |url=http://www.michaelsoule.com/resource_files/85/85_resource_file1.pdf |doi=10.2307/1310054 |jstor=1310054 |publisher=American Institute of Biological Sciences }}</ref> It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of [[natural resource management]].<ref name=""Soule86"">{{cite book|last = Soule| first= Michael E. | title=Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity| year = 1986 | publisher = Sinauer Associates| page = 584 | isbn=978-0-87893-795-0}}</ref><ref name=""Hunter96"">{{cite book |author=Hunter, Malcolm L. |title=Fundamentals of conservation biology |publisher=Blackwell Science |location=Oxford |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-86542-371-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofco00hunt }}</ref><ref name=""Groom06"">{{cite book |author1=Meffe, Gary K. |author2=Martha J. Groom |title=Principles of conservation biology |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87893-518-5 |edition=3rd}}</ref><ref name=""Dyke08"">{{cite book |last=Van Dyke |first=Fred |date=2008 |title=Conservation biology: foundations, concepts, applications |location=New York |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] |edition=2nd |isbn=9781402068904 |oclc=232001738 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6891-1 |hdl=11059/14777 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Evh1UD3ZYWcC}}</ref>{{rp|478}}

The [[conservation ethic]] is based on the findings of conservation biology.

== Origins ==
[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Efforts are made to preserve the natural characteristics of [[Hopetoun Falls]], Australia, without affecting visitors' access.]]
The term conservation biology and its conception as a new field originated with the convening of ""The First International Conference on Research in Conservation Biology"" held at the [[University of California, San Diego]] in La Jolla, California, in 1978 led by American biologists Bruce A. Wilcox and [[Michael E. Soulé]] with a group of leading university and zoo researchers and conservationists including [[Kurt Benirschke]], Sir [[Otto Frankel]], [[Thomas Lovejoy]], and [[Jared Diamond]]. The meeting was prompted due to concern over tropical deforestation, disappearing species, and eroding genetic diversity within species.<ref>J. Douglas. 1978. Biologists urge US endowment for conservation. Nature Vol. 275, 14 September 1978. Kat Williams . 1978. Natural Sciences. Science News. September 30, 1978.</ref> The conference and proceedings that resulted<ref name=ConsBiol80/> sought to initiate the bridging of a gap between theory in ecology and [[evolutionary genetics]] on the one hand and conservation policy and practice on the other.<ref>Organization of the meeting itself also entailed bridging a gap between genetics and ecology. Soulé, was an evolutionary geneticist working with wheat geneticist Sir Otto Frankel to advance [[conservation genetics]] as a new field at the time. [[Jared Diamond]], who suggested the idea for a conference to Wilcox was concerned with the application of community ecology and island biogeography theory to conservation. Wilcox and [[Thomas Lovejoy]], who together initiated planning for the conference in June 1977 when Lovejoy secured a commitment of seed funding at [[World Wildlife Fund]], felt both genetics and ecology should be represented. Wilcox suggested use of a new term  ''conservation biology'', complementing Frankel's conception and coining of ""conservation genetics"",  to encompass the application of biological sciences in general to conservation. Subsequently, Soulé and Wilcox wrote conceived the agenda for the meeting they jointly convened on September 6–9, 1978, titled ''First International Conference on Resesarch in Conservation Biology'', in which the program described ""The purpose of this conference is to accelerate and facilitate the development of a rigorous new discipline called conservation biology — a multidisciplinary field drawing its insights and methodology mostly from population ecology, community ecology, sociobiology, population genetics, and reproductive biology."" This inclusion of topics at the meeting related to animal breeding reflected participation and support of the zoo and captive breeding communities.</ref>

Conservation biology and the concept of biological diversity ([[biodiversity]]) emerged together, helping crystallize the modern era of conservation science and [[National Environmental Policy Act|policy]]. The inherent multidisciplinary basis for conservation biology has led to new subdisciplines including conservation social science, [[conservation behavior]] and conservation physiology.<ref name=""Cooke et al 2013"">{{cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=S. J. |last2=Sack |first2=L. |last3=Franklin |first3=C. E. |last4=Farrell |first4=A. P. |last5=Beardall |first5=J. |last6=Wikelski |first6=M. |last7=Chown |first7=S. L. |title=What is conservation physiology? Perspectives on an increasingly integrated and essential science |journal=[[Conservation Physiology]] |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=cot001 |year=2013 |pmid=27293585 |pmc=4732437 |doi=10.1093/conphys/cot001 }}</ref> It stimulated further development of [[conservation genetics]] which [[Otto Frankel]] had originated first but is now often considered a subdiscipline as well.

== Description ==

The rapid decline of established biological systems around the world means that conservation biology is often referred to as a ""Discipline with a deadline"".<ref>{{cite book |author=Wilson, Edward Osborne |title=The future of life |publisher=Little, Brown |location=Boston |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-316-64853-0 }}{{page needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> Conservation biology is tied closely to [[ecology]] in researching the [[population ecology]] ([[Biological dispersal|dispersal]], [[wikt:migration|migration]], [[demographics]], [[effective population size]], [[inbreeding depression]], and [[minimum viable population|minimum population viability]]) of [[rare species|rare]] or [[endangered species]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kala |first1=Chandra Prakash |title=Indigenous Uses, Population Density, and Conservation of Threatened Medicinal Plants in Protected Areas of the Indian Himalayas |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=19 |issue=2 |year=2005 |pages=368–78 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00602.x |jstor=3591249 |s2cid=85324142 }}</ref><ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"">{{cite journal |last1=Sahney |first1=S. |last2=Benton |first2=M. J. |last3=Ferry |first3=P. A. |title=Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land |journal=Biology Letters |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=544–7 |year=2010 |pmid=20106856 |pmc=2936204 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 }}</ref> Conservation biology is concerned with phenomena that affect the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender [[genetics|genetic]], [[population]], [[species]], and ecosystem diversity.<ref name=""Hunter96""/><ref name=""Groom06"" /><ref name=""Dyke08"" /><ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates""/> The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years,<ref name=""Koh"">{{cite journal |last1=Koh |first1=Lian Pin |last2=Dunn |first2=Robert R. |last3=Sodhi |first3=Navjot S. |last4=Colwell |first4=Robert K. |last5=Proctor |first5=Heather C. |last6=Smith |first6=Vincent S. |title=Species coextinctions and the biodiversity crisis |journal=Science |volume=305 |issue=5690 |pages=1632–4 |year=2004 |pmid=15361627 |doi=10.1126/science.1101101 |bibcode=2004Sci...305.1632K |s2cid=30713492 }}</ref> which will increase poverty and starvation, and will reset the course of evolution on this planet.<ref>Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). ''Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis.'' World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.[http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf]</ref><ref name=""Jackson"">{{cite journal |last=Jackson |first=J. B. C. |title=Ecological extinction and evolution in the brave new ocean |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=11458–65 |year=2008 |pmid=18695220 |pmc=2556419 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0802812105  |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511458J |doi-access=free }}</ref> Researchers acknowledge that projections are difficult, given the unknown potential impacts of many variables, including species introduction to new biogeographical settings and a non-analog climate.<ref name=""Fitzpatrick 2255–2261"">{{Cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Matthew C. |last2=Hargrove |first2=William W. |date=2009-07-01 |title=The projection of species distribution models and the problem of non-analog climate |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9584-8 |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |language=en |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=2255–2261 |doi=10.1007/s10531-009-9584-8 |s2cid=16327687 |issn=1572-9710}}</ref>

Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends and process of [[biodiversity loss]], species [[extinction]]s, and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to sustain the well-being of human society. Conservation biologists work in the field and office, in government, universities, non-profit organizations and industry. The topics of their research are diverse, because this is an interdisciplinary network with professional alliances in the biological as well as social sciences. Those dedicated to the cause and profession advocate for a global response to [[Holocene extinction|the current biodiversity crisis]] based on [[morals]], [[ethics]], and scientific reason. Organizations and citizens are responding to the biodiversity crisis through conservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local through global scales.<ref name=""Soule86""/><ref name=""Hunter96""/><ref name=""Groom06"" /><ref name=""Dyke08""/> There is increasing recognition that conservation is not just about what is achieved but how it is done.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=S. J. |last2=Michaels |first2=S. |last3=Nyboer |first3=E. A. |last4=Schiller |first4=L. |last5=Littlechild |first5=D. B. R. |last6=Hanna |first6=D. E. L. |last7=Robichaud |first7=C. D. |last8=Murdoch |first8=A. |last9=Roche |first9=D. |last10=Soroye |first10=P. |last11=Vermaire |first11=J. C. |date=2022-05-31 |title=Reconceptualizing conservation |journal=PLOS Sustainability and Transformation |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=e0000016 |doi=10.1371/journal.pstr.0000016 |issn=2767-3197|doi-access=free }}</ref>  A ""conservation acrostic"" has been created to emphasize that point where C = co-produced, O = open, N = nimble, S = solutions-oriented, E = empowering, R = relational, V = values-based, A = actionable, T = transdisciplinary, I = inclusive, O = optimistic, and N = nurturing.<ref name="":4"" />

== History ==

{{quote box
| quote= The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others.
| source= – Theodore Roosevelt<ref>Theodore Roosevelt, Address to the Deep Waterway Convention
Memphis, TN, October 4, 1907</ref>
| align=right
| width=25%
| salign=right
}}

=== Natural resource conservation ===
Conscious efforts to conserve and protect ''global'' biodiversity are a recent phenomenon.<ref name=""Dyke08""/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ffem.fr/lang/en/accueil-FFEM/activites-ffem/biodiversite_protection|title=Biodiversity protection and preservation|website=ffem.fr|access-date=2016-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018140452/http://www.ffem.fr/lang/en/accueil-FFEM/activites-ffem/biodiversite_protection|archive-date=2016-10-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> Natural resource conservation, however, has a history that extends prior to the age of conservation. Resource ethics grew out of necessity through direct relations with nature. Regulation or communal restraint became necessary to prevent selfish motives from taking more than could be locally sustained, therefore compromising the long-term supply for the rest of the community.<ref name=""Dyke08""/> This social dilemma with respect to natural resource management is often called the ""[[Tragedy of the Commons]]"".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hardin G |title=The Tragedy of the Commons |journal=Science |volume=162 |issue=3859 |pages=1243–8 |date=December 1968 |pmid=5699198 |doi=10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 |bibcode=1968Sci...162.1243H |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Also considered to be a consequence of evolution, where individual selection is favored over group selection. For recent discussions, see: {{cite journal |author=Kay CE |title=The Ultimate Tragedy of Commons |journal=Conserv. Biol. |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=1447–8 |year=1997 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.97069.x|s2cid=1397580 }}<br />''and'' {{cite journal|vauthors=Wilson DS, Wilson EO |title=Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology |journal=Q Rev Biol |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=327–48 |date=December 2007 |pmid=18217526 |url=http://evolution.binghamton.edu/dswilson/resources/publications_resources/Rethinking |doi=10.1086/522809 |s2cid=37774648 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326151243/http://evolution.binghamton.edu/dswilson/resources/publications_resources/Rethinking%20sociobiology.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-26 }}</ref>

From this principle, conservation biologists can trace communal resource based ethics throughout cultures as a solution to communal resource conflict.<ref name=""Dyke08""/> For example, the Alaskan [[Tlingit people|Tlingit]] peoples and the [[Haida people|Haida]] of the [[Pacific Northwest]] had resource boundaries, rules, and restrictions among clans with respect to the fishing of [[sockeye salmon]]. These rules were guided by clan elders who knew lifelong details of each river and stream they managed.<ref name=""Dyke08"" /><ref name=""Mason"">Mason, Rachel and Judith Ramos. (2004). Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Tlingit People concerning the Sockeye Salmon Fishery of the Dry Bay Area, A Cooperative Agreement Between Department of the Interior National Park Service and the Yakutat Tlingit Tribe, Final Report (FIS) Project 01-091, Yakutat, Alaska.{{cite web |url=http://www.ser.org/iprn/pdf/Elaine_Abraham.pdf |title=Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Tlingit People Concerning the Sockeye Salmon Fishery of the Dry Bay Area |access-date=2009-01-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225013400/http://www.ser.org/iprn/pdf/Elaine_Abraham.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-25 }}</ref> There are numerous examples in history where cultures have followed rules, rituals, and organized practice with respect to communal natural resource management.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Murphree|first=Marshall W.|date=2009-05-22|title=The strategic pillars of communal natural resource management: benefit, empowerment and conservation|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|language=en|volume=18|issue=10|pages=2551–2562|doi=10.1007/s10531-009-9644-0|s2cid=23587547|issn=0960-3115}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Wilson, David Alec |title=Darwin's cathedral: evolution, religion, and the nature of society |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-226-90134-3 }}</ref>

The Mauryan emperor [[Ashoka]] around 250 BC issued edicts restricting the slaughter of animals and certain kinds of birds, as well as opened veterinary clinics.

Conservation ethics are also found in early religious and philosophical writings. There are examples in the [[Tao]], [[Shinto]], [[Hindu]], [[Islamic]] and [[Buddhist]] traditions.<ref name=""Dyke08"" /><ref name=""Primack 2004"">{{cite book | last = Primack | first = Richard B. | title = A Primer of Conservation Biology, 3rd ed. | publisher = Sinauer Associates | year = 2004 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/primerofconserva00rich/page/320 320pp] | isbn = 978-0-87893-728-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/primerofconserva00rich/page/320 }}</ref> In Greek philosophy, Plato lamented about pasture [[land degradation]]: ""What is left now is, so to say, the skeleton of a body wasted by disease; the rich, soft soil has been carried off and only the bare framework of the district left.""<ref>Hamilton, E., and H. Cairns (eds). 1961. Plato: the collected dialogues. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ</ref> In the bible, through Moses, God commanded to let the land rest from cultivation every seventh year.<ref name=""Dyke08"" /><ref>The Bible, Leviticus, 25:4-5</ref> Before the 18th century, however, much of European culture considered it a [[Earth religion|pagan view]] to admire nature. Wilderness was denigrated while agricultural development was praised.<ref name=""Evans97"">{{cite book |author=Evans, David |title=A history of nature conservation in Britain |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-415-14491-9 }}</ref> However, as early as AD 680 a [[wildlife sanctuary]] was founded on the [[Farne Islands]] by [[St Cuthbert]] in response to his religious beliefs.<ref name=""Dyke08"" />

=== Early naturalists ===

[[File:White Gerfalcons.jpg|thumb|upright|White [[gyrfalcon]]s drawn by [[John James Audubon]] ]]
[[File:On the feet of the canidae and ursidae (1914) fig. 2.png|thumb|upright=1.15|More conservation research is needed for understanding ecology and behaviour of the [[dhole]] in central China.]]

[[Natural history]] was a major preoccupation in the 18th century, with grand expeditions and the opening of popular public displays in [[Europe]] and [[North America]]. By 1900 there were 150 [[natural history museum]]s in [[Germany]], 250 in [[Great Britain]], 250 in the [[United States]], and 300 in [[France]].<ref name=""Farber00"">{{cite book |author=Farber, Paul Lawrence |title=Finding order in nature: the naturalist tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8018-6390-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/findingorderinna0000farb }}</ref> Preservationist or conservationist sentiments are a development of the late 18th to early 20th centuries.

Before Charles Darwin set sail on HMS ''Beagle'', most people in the world, including Darwin, believed in special creation and that all species were unchanged.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite book|title=Biology|last=Mader|first=Sylvia|publisher=McGraw Hill Education|year=2016|isbn=978-0-07-802426-9|location=New York, NY|page=262}}</ref> George-Louis Leclerc was one of the first naturalist that questioned this belief. He proposed in his 44 volume natural history book that species evolve due to environmental influences.<ref name="":3"" /> Erasmus Darwin was also a naturalist who also suggested that species evolved. Erasmus Darwin noted that some species have vestigial structures which are anatomical structures that have no apparent function in the species currently but would have been useful for the species' ancestors.<ref name="":3"" /> The thinking of these early 18th century naturalists helped to change the mindset and thinking of the early 19th century naturalists.

By the early 19th century [[biogeography]] was ignited through the efforts of [[Alexander von Humboldt]], [[Charles Lyell]] and [[Charles Darwin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/biology/macisaac/55-437/intro.htm|title=Introduction to Conservation Biology and Biogeography|website=web2.uwindsor.ca}}</ref> The 19th-century fascination with natural history engendered a fervor to be the first to collect rare specimens with the goal of doing so before they became extinct by other such collectors.<ref name=""Evans97"" /><ref name=""Farber00"" /> Although the work of many 18th and 19th century naturalists were to inspire nature enthusiasts and [[Environmental organization|conservation organizations]], their writings, by modern standards, showed insensitivity towards conservation as they would kill hundreds of specimens for their collections.<ref name=""Farber00"" />

=== Conservation movement ===
{{Main|Conservation movement}}

The modern roots of conservation biology can be found in the late 18th-century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] period particularly in [[England]] and [[Scotland]].<ref name=""Evans97"" /><ref name=""Cloyd"">{{Cite book | last = Cloyd | first = E. L. | year = 1972 | title = James Burnett, Lord Monboddo | location = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | page = 196 | isbn = 978-0-19-812437-5 }}</ref> Thinkers including [[Lord Monboddo]] described the importance of ""preserving nature""; much of this early emphasis had its origins in [[Christian theology]].<ref name=""Cloyd""/>

Scientific conservation principles were first practically applied to the forests of [[British India]]. The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: that human activity damaged the [[Natural environment|environment]], that there was a [[civic duty]] to maintain the environment for future generations, and that scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out. Sir [[James Ranald Martin]] was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing many medico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for the institutionalization of forest conservation activities in British India through the establishment of [[Indian Forest Service|Forest Departments]].<ref>Stebbing, E.P (1922)''The forests of India'' vol. 1, pp. 72-81</ref>

The [[Madras]] Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed by [[Alexander Gibson (botanist)|Alexander Gibson]], a professional [[botany|botanist]] who systematically adopted a forest conservation program based on scientific principles. This was the first case of state conservation management of forests in the world.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDYlNljAP5AC|title=Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism|first1=Greg |last1=Barton|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=48|isbn=978-1-139-43460-7 }}</ref> [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] introduced the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation program in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread to [[British empire|other colonies]], as well the United States,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/11/05/stories/2007110550080500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071108213227/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/11/05/stories/2007110550080500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 8, 2007|title=A life for forestry|last=MUTHIAH|first=S. |date=Nov 5, 2007|access-date=2009-03-09|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cleghorn|first=Hugh Francis Clarke |title=The Forests and Gardens of South India |publisher=W. H. Allen|location=London|year= 1861|edition=Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized Feb 10, 2006|oclc= 301345427|url=http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/301345427?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ZbC9FY1JqIC%26checksum%3D374d90c92770a514a51708f07461f0b3&title=&linktype=digitalObject&detail=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bennett|first=Brett M.|title=Early Conservation Histories in Bengal and British India: 1875-1922 |url=http://www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/journals/Golden_jubilee_vol/articles/H_468%20(Brett%20M%20Benet).htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304212026/http://www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/journals/Golden_jubilee_vol/articles/H_468%20(Brett%20M%20Benet).htm |archive-date=2012-03-04 |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |volume=50 |issue=1–2 |year=2005 |pages=485–500|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |issn=1016-6947}}</ref> where [[Yellowstone National Park]] was opened in 1872 as the world's first national park.<ref>{{cite book|last=Haines|first=Aubrey|title=The Yellowstone Story: A History of Our First National Park: Volume 1 Revised Edition|year=1996|publisher=Yellowstone Association for Natural Science, History of Education}}</ref>

The term ''conservation'' came into widespread use in the late 19th century and referred to the management, mainly for economic reasons, of such natural resources as [[timber]], fish, game, [[topsoil]], [[pasture]]land, and minerals. In addition it referred to the preservation of [[forest]]s ([[forestry]]), [[wildlife]] ([[wildlife refuge]]), parkland, [[wilderness]], and [[Drainage basin|watersheds]]. This period also saw the passage of the first conservation legislation and the establishment of the first nature conservation societies. The [[Sea Birds Preservation Act 1869|Sea Birds Preservation Act of 1869]] was passed in Britain as the first nature protection law in the world<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=3540740023|title=Coastal Dunes: Ecology and Conservation|author1=G. Baeyens |author2=M. L. Martinez |year=2007|page=282|publisher=Springer}}</ref> after extensive lobbying from the Association for the Protection of Seabirds<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/humberside/hi/people_and_places/nature/newsid_9383000/9383787.stm|title=Protecting seabirds at Bempton Cliffs | work=BBC News | first=Jo|last=Makel|date=2 February 2011}}</ref> and the respected [[ornithology|ornithologist]] [[Alfred Newton]].<ref>Newton A. 1899. The plume trade: borrowed plumes. ''The Times'' 28 January 1876;  and The plume trade. ''The Times'' 25 February 1899. Reprinted together by the Society for the Protection of Birds, April 1899.</ref> Newton was also instrumental in the passage of the first [[Game laws]] from 1872, which protected animals during their breeding season so as to prevent the stock from being brought close to extinction.<ref>Newton A. 1868. The zoological aspect of game laws. Address to the ''British Association'', Section D, August 1868. Reprinted [n.d.] by the Society for the Protection of Birds.</ref>

One of the first conservation societies was the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]], founded in 1889 in [[Manchester]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/about/history/milestones.asp |title=Milestones  |publisher=RSPB |access-date=19 February 2007}}</ref> as a [[advocacy group|protest group]] campaigning against the use of [[great crested grebe]] and [[Black-legged kittiwake|kittiwake]] skins and feathers in [[fur clothing]]. Originally known as ""the Plumage League"",<ref>{{cite book |last=Penna |first=Anthony N. |location=Armonk, N.Y. U.S. |title=Nature's Bounty: Historical and Modern Environmental Perspectives |year=1999 |publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]] |isbn=978-0-7656-0187-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/naturesbountyhis0000penn/page/99 99] |url=https://archive.org/details/naturesbountyhis0000penn/page/99 }}</ref> the group gained popularity and eventually amalgamated with the Fur and Feather League in Croydon, and formed the RSPB.<ref name=""history"">{{cite web |url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/about/history/index.asp |title=History of the RSPB |publisher=RSPB |access-date=19 February 2007}}</ref> The [[National Trust]] formed in 1895 with the manifesto to ""...promote the permanent preservation, for the benefit of the nation, of lands, ... to preserve (so far practicable) their natural aspect."" In May 1912, a month after the ''Titanic'' sank, banker and expert naturalist [[Charles Rothschild]] held a meeting at the [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] in London to discuss his idea for a new organisation to save the best places for wildlife in the British Isles. This meeting led to the formation of the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves, which later became the [[Wildlife Trusts]].
[[File:Wanton waste of MN native fish by the ton.jpg|alt=In this single-night bowfishing tournament in Minnesota, 85% of individual fish shot and dumped were native fishes. |thumb|Some biodiversity loss is more insidious than others due to systemic neglect. For example, sport killing and wanton waste of tons of native fishes from unregulated 21st century [[bowfishing]] in the United States.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal |last=Lackmann |first=Alec R. |last2=Bielak-Lackmann |first2=Ewelina S. |last3=Jacobson |first3=Reed I. |last4=Andrews |first4=Allen H. |last5=Butler |first5=Malcolm G. |last6=Clark |first6=Mark E. |date=2023-08-30 |title=Harvest trends, growth and longevity, and population dynamics reveal traditional assumptions for redhorse (Moxostoma spp.) management in Minnesota are not supported |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-023-01460-8 |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |language=en |doi=10.1007/s10641-023-01460-8 |issn=1573-5133}}</ref> New conservation movements are needed to deter irreparable biodiversity loss to fragile freshwater ecosystems.    ]]
In the [[United States]], the [[Forest Reserve Act of 1891]] gave the President power to set aside forest reserves from the land in the public domain. [[John Muir]] founded the [[Sierra Club]] in 1892, and the [[New York Zoological Society]] was set up in 1895. A series of [[National Park|national forests and preserves]] were established by [[Theodore Roosevelt]] from 1901 to 1909.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-and-conservation.htm|title=Theodore Roosevelt and Conservation - Theodore Roosevelt National Park (U.S. National Park Service)|website=nps.gov|access-date=2016-10-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.runet.edu/~wkovarik/envhist/5progressive.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050223142405/http://www.runet.edu/~wkovarik/envhist/5progressive.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2005-02-23 |title=Environmental timeline 1890–1920 |website=runet.edu }}</ref> The 1916 National Parks Act, included a 'use without impairment' clause, sought by John Muir, which eventually resulted in the removal of a proposal to build a dam in [[Dinosaur National Monument]] in 1959.<ref name=""Davis96"">{{cite book |author=Davis, Peter |title=Museums and the natural environment: the role of natural history museums in biological conservation |url=https://archive.org/details/museumsnaturalen0000davi |url-access=registration |publisher=Leicester University Press |location=London |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7185-1548-5 }}</ref>

[[File:Muir and Roosevelt restored.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Theodore Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] and [[John Muir|Muir]] on [[Glacier Point]] in [[Yosemite National Park]]]]

In the 20th century, [[Canadians|Canadian]] civil servants, including [[Charles Gordon Hewitt]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/chronob/HEWI1885.htm |title=Chrono-Biographical Sketch: Charles Gordon Hewitt |website=people.wku.edu |access-date=2017-05-07}}</ref> and [[James Bernard Harkin|James Harkin]], spearheaded the movement toward [[wildlife conservation]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Foster|first=Janet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KLFOFGXvYQC&q=Janet+Foster+working+for+wildlife%257D%257D|title=Working for Wildlife: The Beginning of Preservation in Canada|date=1998-01-01|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-7969-5|language=en}}</ref>

In the 21st century professional conservation officers have begun to collaborate with [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] communities for protecting wildlife in Canada.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cecco |first1=Leyland |title=Indigenous input helps save wayward grizzly bear from summary killing |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/apr/19/grizzly-bear-canada-indigenous-conservation-british-columbia |access-date=23 April 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=19 April 2020}}</ref> Some conservation efforts are yet to fully take hold due to ecological neglect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lackmann |first=Alec R. |last2=Andrews |first2=Allen H. |last3=Butler |first3=Malcolm G. |last4=Bielak-Lackmann |first4=Ewelina S. |last5=Clark |first5=Mark E. |date=2019-05-23 |title=Bigmouth Buffalo Ictiobus cyprinellus sets freshwater teleost record as improved age analysis reveals centenarian longevity |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-019-0452-0 |journal=Communications Biology |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1038/s42003-019-0452-0 |issn=2399-3642|doi-access=free |pmc=6533251 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rypel |first=Andrew L. |last2=Saffarinia |first2=Parsa |last3=Vaughn |first3=Caryn C. |last4=Nesper |first4=Larry |last5=O’Reilly |first5=Katherine |last6=Parisek |first6=Christine A. |last7=Miller |first7=Matthew L. |last8=Moyle |first8=Peter B. |last9=Fangue |first9=Nann A. |last10=Bell‐Tilcock |first10=Miranda |last11=Ayers |first11=David |last12=David |first12=Solomon R. |date=December 2021 |title=Goodbye to “Rough Fish”: Paradigm Shift in the Conservation of Native Fishes |url=https://afspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fsh.10660 |journal=Fisheries |language=en |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=605–616 |doi=10.1002/fsh.10660 |issn=0363-2415|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scarnecchia |first=Dennis L. |last2=Schooley |first2=Jason D. |last3=Lackmann |first3=Alec R. |last4=Rider |first4=Steven J. |last5=Riecke |first5=Dennis K. |last6=McMullen |first6=Joseph |last7=Ganus |first7=J. Eric |last8=Steffensen |first8=Kirk D. |last9=Kramer |first9=Nicholas W. |last10=Shattuck |first10=Zachary R. |date=December 2021 |title=The Sport Fish Restoration Program as a Funding Source to Manage and Monitor Bowfishing and Monitor Inland Commercial Fisheries |url=https://afspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fsh.10679 |journal=Fisheries |language=en |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=595–604 |doi=10.1002/fsh.10679 |issn=0363-2415}}</ref> For example in the USA, 21st century [[bowfishing]] of native fishes, which amounts to killing wild animals for recreation and disposing of them immediately afterwards, remains unregulated and unmanaged.<ref name="":7"" /> 

=== Global conservation efforts ===

In the mid-20th century, efforts arose to target individual species for conservation, notably efforts in [[big cat]] conservation in [[South America]] led by the New York Zoological Society.<ref>A.R. Rabinowitz, ''Jaguar: One Man's Battle to Establish the World's First Jaguar Preserve'', Arbor House, New York, N.Y. (1986)</ref> In the early 20th century the New York Zoological Society was instrumental in developing concepts of establishing preserves for particular species and conducting the necessary conservation studies to determine the suitability of locations that are most appropriate as conservation priorities; the work of Henry Fairfield Osborn Jr., [[Carl E. Akeley]], [[Archie Carr]] and his son Archie Carr III is notable in this era.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Carr, Marjorie Harris |author2=Carr, Archie Fairly |title=A naturalist in Florida: a celebration of Eden |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalistinflor0000carr |url-access=registration |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-300-05589-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/chronob/OSBO1887.htm|title=Chrono-Biographical Sketch: (Henry) Fairfield Osborn, Jr.|website=wku.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=the story of the virungas |url=http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/mgorilla/mgeuropean.html |access-date=2022-07-10 |website=cotf.edu}}</ref><!-- The timings of these two sentences contradict each other. --> Akeley for example, having led expeditions to the [[Virunga Mountains]] and observed the [[mountain gorilla]] in the wild, became convinced that the species and the area were conservation priorities. He was instrumental in persuading [[Albert I of Belgium]] to act in defense of the [[mountain gorilla]] and establish [[Albert National Park]] (since renamed [[Virunga National Park]]) in what is now [[Democratic Republic of Congo]].<ref>Akeley, C., 1923. ''In Brightest Africa'' New York, Doubleday. 188-249.</ref>

By the 1970s, led primarily by work in the United States under the [[Endangered Species Act]]<ref>U.S. Endangered Species Act (7 U.S.C. § 136, 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) of 1973, Washington DC, U.S. Government Printing Office</ref> along with the [[Species at Risk Act]] (SARA) of Canada, [[Biodiversity Action Plan]]s developed in [[Australia]], [[Sweden]], the [[United Kingdom]], hundreds of species specific protection plans ensued. Notably the United Nations acted to conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of mankind. The programme was adopted by the General Conference of [[UNESCO]] in 1972. As of 2006, a total of 830 sites are listed: 644 cultural, 162 natural. The first country to pursue aggressive biological conservation through national legislation was the United States, which passed back to back legislation in the Endangered Species Act<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/16/1531-|title=16 U.S. Code § 1531 - Congressional findings and declaration of purposes and policy|website=LII / Legal Information Institute}}</ref> (1966) and [[National Environmental Policy Act]] (1970),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=browse_usc&docid=Cite:+42USC4321|title=US Government Publishing Office - FDsys - Browse Publications|website=frwebgate.access.gpo.gov}}</ref> which together injected major funding and protection measures to large-scale habitat protection and threatened species research. Other conservation developments, however, have taken hold throughout the world. India, for example, passed the [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Paul R. |last1=Krausman |first2=A. J. T. |last2=Johnsingh |year=1990 |title=Conservation and Wildlife Education in India |journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=342–7 |jstor=3782224}}</ref>

In 1980, a significant development was the emergence of the [[urban wildlife|urban conservation]] movement. A local organization was established in [[Birmingham]], UK, a development followed in rapid succession in cities across the UK, then overseas. Although perceived as a [[grassroots movement]], its early development was driven by academic research into urban wildlife. Initially perceived as radical, the movement's view of conservation being inextricably linked with other human activity has now become mainstream in conservation thought. Considerable research effort is now directed at urban conservation biology. The [[Society for Conservation Biology]] originated in 1985.<ref name=""Dyke08""/>{{rp|2}}

By 1992, most of the countries of the world had become committed to the principles of conservation of biological diversity with the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.biodiv.org/convention/default.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070227072411/http://www.biodiv.org/convention/default.shtml|url-status=dead|title=Convention on Biological Diversity Official Page|archivedate=February 27, 2007}}</ref> subsequently many countries began programmes of [[Biodiversity Action Plan]]s to identify and conserve threatened species within their borders, as well as protect associated habitats. The late 1990s saw increasing professionalism in the sector, with the maturing of organisations such as the [[Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management]] and the [[Society for the Environment]].

Since 2000, the concept of [[landscape scale conservation]] has risen to prominence, with less emphasis being given to single-species or even single-habitat focused actions. Instead an ecosystem approach is advocated by most mainstream conservationists, although concerns have been expressed by those working to protect some high-profile species.

Ecology has clarified the workings of the [[biosphere]]; i.e., the complex interrelationships among humans, other species, and the physical environment. The [[Human overpopulation|burgeoning human population]] and associated [[agriculture]], [[Industrial sector|industry]], and the ensuing pollution, have demonstrated how easily ecological relationships can be disrupted.<ref>{{cite book |author=Gore, Albert |title=Earth in the balance: ecology and the human spirit |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-395-57821-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/earthinbalanceec00gore }}</ref>

{{cquote|The last word in ignorance is the man who says of an animal or plant: ""What good is it?"" If the land mechanism as a whole is good, then every part is good, whether we understand it or not. If the biota, in the course of aeons, has built something we like but do not understand, then who but a fool would discard seemingly useless parts? To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering.|20px|20px|[[Aldo Leopold]]|''[[A Sand County Almanac]]''}}

== Concepts and foundations ==

=== Measuring extinction rates ===
{{annotated image/Extinction|float=right}}

Extinction rates are measured in a variety of ways. Conservation biologists measure and apply [[statistical measure]]s of [[fossil record]]s,<ref name=""SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction""/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Regan |first1=Helen M. |last2=Lupia |first2=Richard |last3=Drinnan |first3=Andrew N. |last4=Burgman |first4=Mark A. |title=The Currency and Tempo of Extinction |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |year=2001 |pmid=18707231 |doi=10.1086/317005 |s2cid=205983813 }}</ref> rates of [[habitat loss]], and a multitude of other variables such as [[loss of biodiversity]] as a function of the rate of habitat loss and site occupancy<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacKenzie |first1=Darryl I. |last2=Nichols |first2=James D. |last3=Hines |first3=James E. |last4=Knutson |first4=Melinda G. |last5=Franklin |first5=Alan B. |title=Estimating Site Occupancy, Colonization, and Local Extinction When a Species Is Detected Imperfectly |journal=Ecology |volume=84 |issue=8 |year=2003 |pages=2200–2207 |jstor=3450043 |doi=10.1890/02-3090 |hdl=2027.42/149732 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> to obtain such estimates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balmford |first1=Andrew |last2=Green |first2=Rhys E. |last3=Jenkins |first3=Martin |title=Measuring the changing state of nature |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=18 |issue=7 |year=2003 |pages=326–30 |doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00067-3 |url=http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucessjb/S3%20Reading/balmford%20et%20al%202003.pdf }}</ref> ''[[The Theory of Island Biogeography]]''<ref>{{cite book |last1=MacArthur|first1=R.H.|author-link1= Robert MacArthur|last2=Wilson|first2=E.O.|author-link2= E. O. Wilson|title=The Theory of Island Biogeography |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-691-08836-5|title-link=The Theory of Island Biogeography}}</ref> is possibly the most significant contribution toward the scientific understanding of both the process and how to measure the rate of species extinction. The current [[background extinction rate]] is estimated to be one species every few years.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Raup DM |title=A kill curve for Phanerozoic marine species |journal=Paleobiology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=37–48 |year=1991 |pmid=11538288 |doi=10.1017/S0094837300010332 |bibcode=1991Pbio...17...37R |s2cid=29102370 }}</ref> Actual extinction rates are estimated to be orders of magnitudes higher.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ceballos|first1=Gerardo|last2=Ehrlich|first2=Paul R.|last3=Barnosky|first3=Anthony D.|last4=García|first4=Andrés|last5=Pringle|first5=Robert M.|last6=Palmer|first6=Todd M.|date=2015-06-01|title=Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=1|issue=5|pages=e1400253|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1400253|pmid=26601195|pmc=4640606|bibcode=2015SciA....1E0253C|issn=2375-2548|doi-access=free}}</ref> While this is important, it's worth noting that there are no models in existence that account for the complexity of unpredictable factors like species movement, a non-analog climate, changing species interactions, evolutionary rates on finer time scales, and many other stochastic variables.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brun |first1=Philipp |last2=Thuiller |first2=Wilfried |last3=Chauvier |first3=Yohann |last4=Pellissier |first4=Loïc |last5=Wüest |first5=Rafael O. |last6=Wang |first6=Zhiheng |last7=Zimmermann |first7=Niklaus E. |date=January 2020 |title=Model complexity affects species distribution projections under climate change |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jbi.13734 |journal=Journal of Biogeography |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=130–142 |doi=10.1111/jbi.13734 |s2cid=209562589 |issn=0305-0270|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Fitzpatrick 2255–2261""/>

The measure of ongoing species loss is made more complex by the fact that most of the Earth's species have not been described or evaluated. Estimates vary greatly on how many species actually exist (estimated range: 3,600,000–111,700,000)<ref name=""Wilson00"">{{cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = Edward O. | year = 2000 | title = On the Future of Conservation Biology | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 14 | issue = 1| pages = 1–3 | doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.00000-e1.x| s2cid = 83906221 | doi-access = free }}</ref> to how many have received a [[Binomial nomenclature|species binomial]] (estimated range: 1.5–8 million).<ref name=""Wilson00"" /> Less than 1% of all species that have been described beyond simply noting its existence.<ref name=""Wilson00"" /> From these figures, the IUCN reports that 23% of [[vertebrate]]s, 5% of [[invertebrate]]s and 70% of plants that have been evaluated are designated as [[endangered]] or [[threatened]].<ref name=""IUCN"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/tables/table1|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630054235/http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/tables/table1|url-status=dead|title=IUCN Red-list statistics (2006)|archivedate=June 30, 2006}}</ref><ref>The IUCN does not disaggregate endangered from [[critically endangered]] or threatened for the purpose of these statistics.</ref> Better knowledge is being constructed by [[The Plant List]] for actual numbers of species.

=== Systematic conservation planning ===

Systematic conservation planning is an effective way to seek and identify efficient and effective types of reserve design to capture or sustain the highest priority biodiversity values and to work with communities in support of local ecosystems. Margules and Pressey identify six interlinked stages in the systematic planning approach:<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Margules CR, Pressey RL |title=Systematic conservation planning |journal=Nature |volume=405 |issue=6783 |pages=243–53 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10821285 |doi=10.1038/35012251 |s2cid=4427223 |url=http://www.ecology.uq.edu.au/docs/SoC_Brazil_2005/Papers/Margules_and_Pressey_2000.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225013400/http://www.ecology.uq.edu.au/docs/SoC_Brazil_2005/Papers/Margules_and_Pressey_2000.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-25 }}</ref>

# Compile data on the biodiversity of the planning region
# Identify conservation goals for the planning region
# Review existing conservation areas
# Select additional conservation areas
# Implement conservation actions
# Maintain the required values of conservation areas

Conservation biologists regularly prepare detailed conservation plans for [[Grant (money)|grant proposals]] or to effectively coordinate their plan of action and to identify best management practices (e.g.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2007-07-04|url=http://www.amphibians.org/newsletter/ACAP.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704172505/http://www.amphibians.org/newsletter/ACAP.pdf |title=Amphibian Conservation Action Plan|archive-date=2007-07-04 |access-date=2022-12-29}}</ref>). Systematic strategies generally employ the services of [[Geographic Information Systems]] to assist in the decision-making process. The [[SLOSS debate]] is often considered in planning.

=== Conservation physiology: a mechanistic approach to conservation ===

Conservation physiology was defined by [[Steven J. Cooke]] and colleagues as:<ref name=""Cooke et al 2013""/><blockquote>An integrative scientific discipline applying physiological concepts, tools, and knowledge to characterizing biological diversity and its ecological implications; understanding and predicting how organisms, populations, and ecosystems respond to environmental change and stressors; and solving conservation problems across the broad range of taxa (i.e. including microbes, plants, and animals). Physiology is considered in the broadest possible terms to include functional and mechanistic responses at all scales, and conservation includes the development and refinement of strategies to rebuild populations, restore ecosystems, inform conservation policy, generate decision-support tools, and manage natural resources.</blockquote>Conservation physiology is particularly relevant to practitioners in that it has the potential to generate cause-and-effect relationships and reveal the factors that contribute to population declines.

=== Conservation biology as a profession ===

The [[Society for Conservation Biology]] is a global community of conservation professionals dedicated to advancing the science and practice of conserving biodiversity. Conservation biology as a discipline reaches beyond biology, into subjects such as [[philosophy]], [[law]], [[economics]], [[humanities]], [[arts]], [[anthropology]], and [[education]].<ref name=""Hunter96""/><ref name=""Groom06"" /> Within biology, [[conservation genetics]] and [[evolution]] are immense fields unto themselves, but these disciplines are of prime importance to the practice and profession of conservation biology.

Conservationists introduce [[bias]] when they support policies using qualitative description, such as [[Habitat degradation|habitat ''degradation'']], or ''healthy'' [[ecosystem]]s. Conservation biologists advocate for reasoned and sensible management of natural resources and do so with a disclosed combination of [[science]], [[reason]], [[logic]], and [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]] in their conservation management plans.<ref name=""Hunter96"" /> This sort of advocacy is similar to the medical profession advocating for healthy lifestyle options, both are beneficial to human well-being yet remain scientific in their approach.

There is a movement in conservation biology suggesting a new form of leadership is needed to mobilize conservation biology into a more effective discipline that is able to communicate the full scope of the problem to society at large.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Manolis JC, Chan KM, Finkelstein ME, Stephens S, Nelson CR, Grant JB, Dombeck MP |title=Leadership: A new frontier in conservation science |journal=Conserv. Biol. |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=879–86 |year=2009 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01150.x |pmid=19183215 |s2cid=36810103 }}</ref> The movement proposes an adaptive leadership approach that parallels an [[adaptive management]] approach. The concept is based on a new philosophy or leadership theory steering away from historical notions of power, authority, and dominance. Adaptive conservation leadership is reflective and more equitable as it applies to any member of society who can mobilize others toward meaningful change using communication techniques that are inspiring, purposeful, and collegial. Adaptive conservation leadership and mentoring programs are being implemented by conservation biologists through organizations such as the Aldo Leopold Leadership Program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://leopoldleadership.org/content/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217231043/http://leopoldleadership.org/content|archive-date=2007-02-17|title=Aldo Leopold Leadership Program|publisher=Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University}}</ref>

=== Approaches ===

Conservation may be classified as either [[in-situ conservation]], which is protecting an endangered species in its natural [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]], or [[ex-situ conservation]], which occurs outside the natural habitat.<ref name="":2"">{{cite journal |last1=Kala |first1=Chandra Prakash |title=Medicinal plants conservation and enterprise development |journal=Medicinal Plants - International Journal of Phytomedicines and Related Industries |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=2009 |pages=79–95 |doi=10.5958/j.0975-4261.1.2.011 }}</ref> In-situ conservation involves protecting or restoring the habitat. Ex-situ conservation, on the other hand, involves protection outside of an organism's natural habitat, such as on reservations or in [[gene bank]]s, in circumstances where viable populations may not be present in the natural habitat.<ref name="":2"" />

Also, non-interference may be used, which is termed a [[Environmentalism|preservationist]] method. Preservationists advocate for giving areas of nature and species a protected existence that halts interference from the humans.<ref name=""Hunter96""/> In this regard, conservationists differ from preservationists in the social dimension, as conservation biology engages society and seeks equitable solutions for both society and ecosystems. Some preservationists emphasize the potential of biodiversity in a world without humans.

=== Ecological monitoring in conservation ===
Ecological monitoring is the systematic collection of data relevant to the [[ecology]] of a species or habitat at repeating intervals with defined methods.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite book |last=Spellerberg |first=Ian F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=68ap9hdp8D8C&pg=PR7 |title=Monitoring Ecological Change |date=2005-08-18 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-44547-4 |language=en}}</ref> Long-term monitoring for environmental and ecological metrics is an important part of any successful conservation initiative. Unfortunately, long-term data for many [[species]] and [[habitat]]s is not available in many cases.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal |last1=Lindenmayer |first1=David B. |last2=Lavery |first2=Tyrone |last3=Scheele |first3=Ben C. |date=2022-12-01 |title=Why We Need to Invest in Large-Scale, Long-Term Monitoring Programs in Landscape Ecology and Conservation Biology |journal=Current Landscape Ecology Reports |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=137–146 |doi=10.1007/s40823-022-00079-2 |s2cid=252889110 |issn=2364-494X|doi-access=free |hdl=1885/312385 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A lack of historical data on species [[population]]s, habitats, and ecosystems means that any current or future conservation work will have to make assumptions to determine if the work is having any effect on the population or ecosystem health. Ecological monitoring can provide early warning signals of deleterious effects (from human activities or natural changes in an environment) on an ecosystem and its species.<ref name="":5"" /> In order for signs of negative trends in [[ecosystem]] or species health to be detected, monitoring methods must be carried out at appropriate time intervals, and the metric must be able to capture the trend of the population or habitat as a whole.

Long-term monitoring can include the continued measuring of many biological, ecological, and environmental metrics including annual breeding success, population size estimates, water quality, [[biodiversity]] (which can be measured in many way, i.e. [[Diversity index|Shannon Index]]), and many other methods. When determining which metrics to monitor for a conservation project, it is important to understand how an ecosystem functions and what role different species and abiotic factors have within the system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rodríguez-González |first1=Patricia María |last2=Albuquerque |first2=António |last3=Martínez-Almarza |first3=Miguel |last4=Díaz-Delgado |first4=Ricardo |date=2017-11-01 |title=Long-term monitoring for conservation management: Lessons from a case study integrating remote sensing and field approaches in floodplain forests |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479717300853 |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |series=Piégay & Lamouroux ""Enlarging spatial and temporal scales for biophysical diagnosis and sustainable river management"" |language=en |volume=202 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=392–402 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.01.067 |pmid=28190693 |issn=0301-4797}}</ref> It is important to have a precise reason for why ecological monitoring is implemented; within the context of conservation, this reasoning is often to track changes before, during, or after conservation measures are put in place to help a species or habitat recover from degradation and/or maintain integrity.<ref name="":5"" />

Another benefit of ecological monitoring is the hard evidence it provides scientists to use for advising policy makers and funding bodies about conservation efforts. Not only is ecological monitoring data important for convincing politicians, funders, and the public why a conservation program is important to implement, but also to keep them convinced that a program should be continued to be supported.<ref name="":6"" />

There is plenty of debate on how conservation resources can be used most efficiently; even within ecological monitoring, there is debate on which metrics that money, time and personnel should be dedicated to for the best chance of making a positive impact. One specific general discussion topic is whether monitoring should happen where there is little [[Human impact on the environment|human impact]] (to understand a system that has not been degraded by humans), where there is human impact (so the effects from humans can be investigated), or where there is data deserts and little is known about the habitats' and communities' response to human [[Disturbance (ecology)|perturbations]].<ref name="":5"" />

The concept of [[bioindicator]]s / [[Bioindicator|indicator species]] can be applied to ecological monitoring as a way to investigate how [[pollution]] is affecting an ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burger |first=Joanna |date=July 2006 |title=Bioindicators: A Review of Their Use in the Environmental Literature 1970–2005 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15555270600701540 |journal=Environmental Bioindicators |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=136–144 |doi=10.1080/15555270600701540 |issn=1555-5275}}</ref> Species like [[amphibian]]s and [[bird]]s are highly susceptible to pollutants in their environment due to their behaviours and physiological features that cause them to absorb pollutants at a faster rate than other species. Amphibians spend parts of their time in the water and on land, making them susceptible to changes in both environments.<ref>Macdonald, N. (2002). [https://www.naturewatch.ca/wp-content/biguploads/senior_guide_712.pdf Frogwatch Teachers' guide to frogs as indicators of ecosystem health].</ref> They also have very permeable skin that allows them to breath and intake water, which means they also take any air or water-soluble pollutants in as well. Birds often cover a wide range in habitat types annually, and also generally revisit the same nesting site each year. This makes it easier for researchers to track ecological effects at both an individual and a population level for the species.<ref>Begazo, A. (2022). [https://avianreport.com/birds-as-indicators-of-ecosystem-health Birds as indicators of Ecosystem Health]. Retrieved December 14, 2022</ref>

Many conservation researchers believe that having a long-term ecological monitoring program should be a priority for conservation projects, protected areas, and regions where environmental harm mitigation is used.

=== Ethics and values ===
{{See also|Conservation (ethic)|Land ethic}}

Conservation biologists are [[interdisciplinary]] researchers that practice ethics in the biological and social sciences. Chan states<ref name=""Chan08"">{{cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=Kai M. A. |title=Value and Advocacy in Conservation Biology: Crisis Discipline or Discipline in Crisis? |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2008 |pmid=18254846 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00869.x |doi-access=free }}</ref> that conservationists must advocate for biodiversity and can do so in a scientifically ethical manner by not promoting simultaneous advocacy against other competing values.

A conservationist may be inspired by the ''resource conservation ethic'',<ref name=""Dyke08""/>{{rp|15}} which seeks to identify what measures will deliver ""the greatest good for the greatest number of people for the longest time.""<ref name=""Hunter96"" />{{Rp|13}} In contrast, some conservation biologists argue that nature has an [[Intrinsic value (ethics)|intrinsic value]] that is independent of [[anthropocentric]] usefulness or [[utilitarianism]].<ref name=""Dyke08""/>{{rp|3,12,16–17}} [[Aldo Leopold]] was a classical thinker and writer on such conservation ethics whose philosophy, ethics and writings are still valued and revisited by modern conservation biologists.<ref name=""Dyke08""/>{{rp|16–17}}

=== Conservation priorities ===

{{See also|Biodiversity#Benefits of biodiversity}}

[[File:BiomassCharts.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A pie chart image showing the relative biomass representation in a rain forest through a summary of children's perceptions from drawings and artwork (left), through a scientific estimate of actual biomass (middle), and by a measure of biodiversity (right). The biomass of social insects (middle) far outweighs the number of species (right).]]

The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) has organized a global assortment of scientists and research stations across the planet to monitor the changing state of nature in an effort to tackle the extinction crisis. The IUCN provides annual updates on the status of species conservation through its Red List.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org |title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |access-date=2013-10-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627094911/http://www.iucnredlist.org/ |archive-date=2014-06-27 }}</ref> The [[IUCN Red List]] serves as an international conservation tool to identify those species most in need of conservation attention and by providing a global index on the status of biodiversity.<ref name=""Vié09"">{{Cite book |editor-last1 =Vié  |editor-first1 = J. C. |editor-last2 =Hilton-Taylor  |editor-first2 =C. |editor-last3 =Stuart  |editor-first3 = S.N. | year =2009 | title =Wildlife in a Changing World – An Analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species | location =Gland, Switzerland | publisher =IUCN | page =180 | url =http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/RL-2009-001.pdf | access-date =December 24, 2010 }}</ref> More than the dramatic rates of species loss, however, conservation scientists note that the [[sixth mass extinction]] is a biodiversity crisis requiring far more action than a priority focus on [[Rare species|rare]], [[Endemism|endemic]] or [[endangered species]]. Concerns for biodiversity loss covers a broader conservation mandate that looks at [[ecological processes]], such as migration, and a holistic examination of biodiversity at levels beyond the species, including genetic, population and ecosystem diversity.<ref name=""Molnar04"">{{Cite journal |last1 = Molnar |first1 = J. |last2 = Marvier |first2 = M. |last3 = Kareiva |first3 = P. |title = The sum is greater than the parts |journal = Conservation Biology |volume = 18 |issue = 6 |pages = 1670–1 |year = 2004 |doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00l07.x }}</ref> Extensive, systematic, and rapid rates of biodiversity loss threatens the sustained well-being of humanity by limiting supply of ecosystem services that are otherwise regenerated by the complex and evolving holistic network of genetic and ecosystem diversity. While the [[conservation status]] of species is employed extensively in conservation management,<ref name=""Vié09"" /> some scientists highlight that it is the common species that are the primary source of exploitation and habitat alteration by humanity. Moreover, common species are often undervalued despite their role as the primary source of ecosystem services.<ref name=""Gaston10"">{{cite journal | doi=10.1126/science.1182818 | last=Gaston | first=K.J. | title=Valuing common species | journal=Science | volume=327 | issue=5962 | pages=154–155 | year=2010 | pmid=20056880 |bibcode = 2010Sci...327..154G | s2cid=206523787 }}</ref><ref name=""Kearns10"">{{cite journal |last1=Kearns |first1=Carol Ann |year=2010 |title=Conservation of Biodiversity |journal=Nature Education Knowledge |volume=3 |issue=10 |page=7 |url=http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/conservation-of-biodiversity-13235087 }}</ref>

While most in the community of conservation science ""stress the importance"" of [[sustainability|sustaining biodiversity]],<ref name=""CREOcare"">{{Cite web|title=Center for Biodiversity & Conservation &#124; AMNH|url=https://www.amnh.org/research/center-for-biodiversity-conservation|access-date=2022-12-29|website=American Museum of Natural History|language=en-US}}</ref> there is debate on how to prioritize genes, species, or ecosystems, which are all components of biodiversity (e.g. Bowen, 1999). While the predominant approach to date has been to focus efforts on endangered species by conserving ''[[biodiversity hotspots]]'', some scientists (e.g)<ref name=""Luck03"">{{cite journal |last1=Luck |first1=Gary W. |last2=Daily |first2=Gretchen C. |last3=Ehrlich |first3=Paul R. |title=Population diversity and ecosystem services |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=18 |issue=7 |year=2003 |pages=331–6 |doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00100-9 }}</ref> and conservation organizations, such as the [[Nature Conservancy]], argue that it is more cost-effective, logical, and socially relevant to invest in ''biodiversity coldspots''.<ref name=""Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots"">{{cite journal |last1=Kareiva |first1=Peter |last2=Marvier |first2=Michelle |title=Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots |journal=American Scientist |volume=91 |issue=4 |year=2003 |pages=344–51 |doi=10.1511/2003.4.344 }}</ref> The costs of discovering, naming, and mapping out the distribution of every species, they argue, is an ill-advised conservation venture. They reason it is better to understand the significance of the ecological roles of species.<ref name=""Molnar04"" />

Biodiversity hotspots and coldspots are a way of recognizing that the spatial concentration of genes, species, and ecosystems is not uniformly distributed on the Earth's surface. For example, ""... 44% of all species of vascular plants and 35% of all species in four vertebrate groups are confined to 25 hotspots comprising only 1.4% of the land surface of the Earth.""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Kent |first5=Jennifer |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=Nature |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–8 |year=2000 |pmid=10706275 |doi=10.1038/35002501 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M |s2cid=4414279 }}</ref>

Those arguing in favor of setting priorities for coldspots point out that there are other measures to consider beyond biodiversity. They point out that emphasizing hotspots downplays the importance of the social and ecological connections to vast areas of the Earth's ecosystems where [[biomass]], not biodiversity, reigns supreme.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors = Underwood EC, Shaw MR, Wilson KA |title=Protecting Biodiversity when Money Matters: Maximizing Return on Investment |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=e1515 |year=2008 |pmid=18231601 |pmc=2212107 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0001515 |bibcode = 2008PLoSO...3.1515U |editor1-last=Somers |editor1-first=Michael |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is estimated that 36% of the Earth's surface, encompassing 38.9% of the worlds vertebrates, lacks the endemic species to qualify as biodiversity hotspot.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Leroux SJ, Schmiegelow FK |title=Biodiversity concordance and the importance of endemism |journal=Conserv. Biol. |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=266–8; discussion 269–70 |date=February 2007 |pmid=17298533 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00628.x|s2cid=1394295 }}</ref> Moreover, measures show that maximizing protections for biodiversity does not capture ecosystem services any better than targeting randomly chosen regions.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Naidoo R, Balmford A, Costanza R |title=Global mapping of ecosystem services and conservation priorities |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=105 |issue=28 |pages=9495–500 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18621701 |pmc=2474481 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0707823105 |bibcode = 2008PNAS..105.9495N |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> Population level biodiversity (mostly in coldspots) are disappearing at a rate that is ten times that at the species level.<ref name=""Luck03"" /><ref name=""Wood08"" /> The level of importance in addressing biomass versus endemism as a concern for conservation biology is highlighted in literature measuring the level of threat to global ecosystem carbon stocks that do not necessarily reside in areas of endemism.<ref name=""Running08"" /><ref name=""Kurz08"" /> A hotspot priority approach<ref>The [http://web.conservation.org/xp/gcf Global Conservation Fund] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116135224/http://web.conservation.org/xp/gcf |date=2007-11-16 }} is an example of funding organization that excludes biodiversity coldspots in its strategic campaign.</ref> would not invest so heavily in places such as [[steppe]]s, the [[Serengeti]], the [[Arctic]], or [[taiga]]. These areas contribute a great abundance of population (not species) level biodiversity<ref name=""Wood08"">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wood CC, Gross MR |title=Elemental conservation units: communicating extinction risk without dictating targets for protection |journal=Conserv. Biol. |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=36–47 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18254851 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00856.x |s2cid=23211536 |url=http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/gross/WoodandGross2008.pdf |access-date=2009-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001072212/http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/gross/WoodandGross2008.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[ecosystem services]], including cultural value and planetary [[nutrient cycling]].<ref name=""Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots""/>

[[File:Status iucn3.1.svg|thumb|Summary of 2006 [[IUCN Red List]] categories: 
EX ([[Extinction|Extinct]]) — EW ([[Extinct in the Wild]]) — CR ([[Critically Endangered]]) — EN ([[Endangered species|Endangered]]) — VU ([[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]]) — NT ([[Near-threatened species|Near Threatened]]) — LC ([[Least-concern species|Least Concern]]) ]]

Those in favor of the hotspot approach point out that species are irreplaceable components of the global ecosystem, they are concentrated in places that are most threatened, and should therefore receive maximal strategic protections.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/Pages/default.aspx|title= The Biodiversity Hotspots|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081222043456/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/Pages/default.aspx|archive-date= 2008-12-22}}</ref> This is a hotspot approach because the priority is set to target species level concerns over population level or biomass.<ref name=""Wood08"" />{{failed verification|date=July 2012}} Species richness and genetic biodiversity contributes to and engenders ecosystem stability, ecosystem processes, evolutionary [[adaptation|adaptability]], and biomass.<ref>The following papers are examples of research showing the relationship between biodiversity, biomass, and ecosystem stability:<br />{{cite journal |last=Bowen |first=B. W. |date=December 1999 |title=Preserving genes, species, or ecosystems? Healing the fractured foundations of conservation policy |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=8 |issue=12 Suppl 1 |pages=S5–10 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294X.1999.00798.x |pmid=10703547 |s2cid=33096004 |url=http://nature.berkeley.edu/genomicswg/EE_twentyeight.pdf}}<br />{{cite journal |vauthors=Cardinale BJ, Wright JP, Cadotte MW |title=Impacts of plant diversity on biomass production increase through time because of species complementarity |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 |issue=46 |pages=18123–8 |date=November 2007 |pmid=17991772 |pmc=2084307 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0709069104 |bibcode = 2007PNAS..10418123C |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> Both sides agree, however, that conserving biodiversity is necessary to reduce the extinction rate and identify an inherent value in nature; the debate hinges on how to prioritize limited conservation resources in the most cost-effective way.

=== Economic values and natural capital ===

[[File:Libya 4985 Tadrart Acacus Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Tadrart Acacus]] desert in western [[Libya]], part of the [[Sahara]] ]]
{{See also|Ecosystem services|Biodiversity<!--#Human benefits-->}}

Conservation biologists have started to collaborate with leading global [[economist]]s to determine how to measure the [[wealth]] and [[Service (economics)|services]] of nature and to make these values apparent in [[International finance|global market transactions]].<ref name=""EC08"">{{cite book |author=European Communities |title=The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity. Interim Report |publisher=Welzel+Hardt |location=Wesseling, Germany |year=2008 |isbn=978-92-79-08960-2 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/economics/pdf/teeb_report.pdf }}</ref> This system of accounting is called ''[[natural capital]]'' and would, for example, register the value of an ecosystem before it is cleared to make way for development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gund Institute for Environment|url=https://www.uvm.edu/gund|access-date=2022-12-29|website=www.uvm.edu|language=en}}</ref> The [[World Wide Fund For Nature|WWF]] publishes its ''[[Living Planet Report]]'' and provides a global index of biodiversity by monitoring approximately 5,000&nbsp;populations in 1,686&nbsp;species of vertebrate (mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians) and report on the trends in much the same way that the stock market is tracked.<ref name=""LLP08"" />

This method of measuring the global economic benefit of nature has been endorsed by the [[G8+5]] leaders and the [[European Commission]].<ref name=""EC08""/> Nature sustains many [[ecosystem services]]<ref>{{cite web|url=  http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/esa.html|title=  From the Ecological Society of America (ESA)|access-date=  2008-12-30|archive-url=  https://web.archive.org/web/20100726162725/http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/esa.html|archive-date=  2010-07-26|url-status=  dead}}</ref> that benefit humanity.<ref name=""MEA08"">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis]. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.</ref> Many of the Earth's ecosystem services are [[public goods]] without a [[Market (economics)|market]] and therefore no [[price]] or [[value (economics)|value]].<ref name=""EC08"" /> When the ''stock market'' registers a financial crisis, traders on [[Wall Street]] are not in the business of trading stocks for much of the planet's living natural capital stored in ecosystems. There is no natural stock market with investment portfolios into sea horses, amphibians, insects, and other creatures that provide a sustainable supply of ecosystem services that are valuable to society.<ref name=""MEA08"" /> The ecological footprint of society has exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity limits of the planet's ecosystems by about 30&nbsp;percent, which is the same percentage of vertebrate populations that have registered decline from 1970 through 2005.<ref name=""LLP08"">{{cite web | last = WWF | title = World Wildlife Fund | url = http://assets.wwf.ca/downloads/lpr_2008.pdf | access-date = January 8, 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090225013400/http://assets.wwf.ca/downloads/lpr_2008.pdf | archive-date = February 25, 2009 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

{{quote box
|The ecological credit crunch is a global challenge. The ''Living Planet Report 2008'' tells us that more than three-quarters of the world's people live in nations that are ecological debtors – their national consumption has outstripped their country's biocapacity. Thus, most of us are propping up our current lifestyles, and our economic growth, by drawing (and increasingly overdrawing) upon the ecological capital of other parts of the world.
| WWF Living Planet Report<ref name=""LLP08"" />
| width=25%
| align=left}}

The inherent [[natural economy]] plays an essential role in sustaining humanity,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.millenniumassessment.org/ |title=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |access-date=2008-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219235544/http://www.millenniumassessment.org/ |archive-date=2008-12-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> including the regulation of global [[atmospheric chemistry]], [[Pollination management|pollinating crops]], [[pest control]],<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7796138.stm | work=BBC News | title=Bees get plants' pests in a flap | date=2008-12-22 | access-date=2010-04-01 | first=Richard | last=Black}}</ref> [[Soil ecology|cycling soil nutrients]], purifying our [[water supply]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hermoso|first1=Virgilio|last2=Abell|first2=R|last3=Linke|first3=S|last4=Boon|first4=P|title=The role of protected areas for freshwater biodiversity conservation: challenges and opportunities in a rapidly changing world.|journal=Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems|year=2016|volume=26|issue=S1|pages=3–11|doi=10.1002/aqc.2681|s2cid=88786689 }}</ref> supplying medicines and health benefits,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mitchell R, Popham F |title=Effect of exposure to natural environment on health inequalities: an observational population study |journal=Lancet |volume=372 |issue=9650 |pages=1655–60 |date=November 2008 |pmid=18994663 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61689-X |s2cid=37232884 |url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/4767/1/4767.pdf }}</ref> and unquantifiable quality of life improvements. There is a relationship, a [[correlation]], between markets and [[natural capital]], and [[Social inequity aversion|social income inequity]] and biodiversity loss. This means that there are greater rates of biodiversity loss in places where the inequity of wealth is greatest<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors = Mikkelson GM, Gonzalez A, Peterson GD |title=Economic Inequality Predicts Biodiversity Loss |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=e444 |year=2007 |pmid=17505535 |pmc=1864998 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000444 |bibcode = 2007PLoSO...2..444M |editor1-last=Chave |editor1-first=Jerome |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Although a direct market comparison of [[natural capital]] is likely insufficient in terms of [[human value]], one measure of ecosystem services suggests the contribution amounts to trillions of dollars yearly.<ref>Staff of World Resources Program. (1998). [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/feature/eco_fea_value.pdf ''Valuing Ecosystem Services''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081130114053/http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/feature/eco_fea_value.pdf |date=2008-11-30 }}. World Resources 1998-99.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Perspectives on biodiversity: valuing its role in an everchanging world |publisher=National Academy Press |location=Washington, D.C |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-309-06581-8 |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9589&page=114 |vauthors = ((Committee on Noneconomic and Economic Value of Biodiversity)),((Board on Biology, Commission on Life Sciences)), ((National Research Council))|doi=10.17226/9589 |pmid=25077215 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ecotrust.org/press/katoomba_backgrounder.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505071048/http://ecotrust.org/press/katoomba_backgrounder.html|url-status=dead|title=Valuation of Ecosystem services : A Backgrounder|archivedate=May 5, 2007}}</ref><ref>[http://essp.csumb.edu/esse/ Ecosystem Services: Estimated value in trillions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407114751/http://essp.csumb.edu/esse/ |date=2007-04-07 }}</ref> For example, one segment of [[North America]]n forests has been assigned an annual value of 250 billion dollars;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/642234|title=Carbon capture, water filtration, other boreal forest ecoservices worth estimated $250 billion/year|website=EurekAlert!}}</ref> as another example, [[honey bee]] pollination is estimated to provide between 10 and 18 billion dollars of value yearly.<ref>[http://apis.ifas.ufl.edu/apis92/apnov92.htm APIS, Volume 10, Number 11, November 1992, M.T. Sanford: Estimated value of honey bee pollination] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202162316/http://apis.ifas.ufl.edu/apis92/apnov92.htm |date=2007-02-02 }}</ref> The value of ecosystem services on one [[New Zealand]] island has been imputed to be as great as the [[GDP]] of that region.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Hidden Economy|url=http://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/environmental-information/About-the-Waikato-region/Our-economy/The-hidden-economy/|access-date=2022-12-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719234229/http://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/environmental-information/About-the-Waikato-region/Our-economy/The-hidden-economy/|archive-date=2011-07-19|website=www.waikatoregion.govt.nz}}</ref> This planetary wealth is being lost at an incredible rate as the demands of human society is exceeding the bio-regenerative capacity of the Earth. While biodiversity and ecosystems are resilient, the danger of losing them is that humans cannot recreate many ecosystem functions through [[technological innovation]].
{{Clear}}

=== Strategic species concepts ===

==== Keystone species ====
{{Main|Keystone species}}

Some species, called a ''keystone species'' form a central supporting hub unique to their ecosystem.<ref name=""Society"">{{Cite news|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/keystone-species/ |title= Keystone Species|last=|date=October 19, 2023|newspaper=National Geographic Society|access-date=}}</ref> The loss of such a species results in a collapse in ecosystem function, as well as the loss of coexisting species.<ref name=""Hunter96""/> Keystone species are usually predators due to their ability to control the population of prey in their ecosystem.<ref name=""Society""/> The importance of a keystone species was shown by the extinction of the [[Steller's sea cow]] (''Hydrodamalis gigas'') through its interaction with [[sea otter]]s, [[sea urchin]]s, and [[kelp]]. [[Kelp bed]]s grow and form nurseries in shallow waters to shelter creatures that support the [[food chain]]. Sea urchins feed on kelp, while sea otters feed on sea urchins. With the rapid decline of sea otters due to [[overhunting]], sea urchin populations [[urchin barren|grazed unrestricted]] on the kelp beds and the [[ecosystem collapse]]d. Left unchecked, the urchins destroyed the shallow water kelp communities that supported the Steller's sea cow's diet and hastened their demise.<ref>P. K. Anderson. (1996). Competition, predation, and the evolution and extinction of Steller's Sea Cow, ''Hydrodamalis gigas''. Marine Mammal Science, 11(3):391-394</ref> The sea otter was thought to be a keystone species because the coexistence of many ecological associates in the kelp beds relied upon otters for their survival. However this was later questioned by Turvey and Risley,<ref name=pmid17148336>{{cite journal |last1=Turvey |first1=S.T |last2=Risley |first2=C.L |title=Modelling the extinction of Steller's sea cow |journal=Biology Letters |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=94–7 |year=2006 |pmid=17148336 |pmc=1617197 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2005.0415 }}</ref> who showed that hunting alone would have driven the Steller's sea cow extinct.

==== Indicator species ====
{{Main|Indicator species}}

An ''indicator species'' has a narrow set of ecological requirements, therefore they become useful targets for observing the health of an ecosystem. Some animals, such as [[amphibian]]s with their semi-permeable skin and linkages to [[wetland]]s, have an acute sensitivity to environmental harm and thus may serve as a ''[[miner's canary]]''. Indicator species are monitored in an effort to capture [[environmental degradation]] through pollution or some other link to proximate human activities.<ref name=""Hunter96""/> Monitoring an indicator species is a measure to determine if there is a significant environmental impact that can serve to advise or modify practice, such as through different forest [[silviculture]] treatments and management scenarios, or to measure the degree of harm that a [[pesticide]] may impart on the health of an ecosystem.

Government regulators, consultants, or [[NGO]]s regularly monitor indicator species, however, there are limitations coupled with many practical considerations that must be followed for the approach to be effective.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Landres PB, Verner J, Thomas JW |title=Ecological Uses of Vertebrate Indicator Species: A Critique |journal=Conserv. Biol. |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=316–28 |year=1988 |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/emc/nfma/includes/2007_rule/1988_12_Landres%20et%20al%201988.pdf |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1988.tb00195.x}}</ref> It is generally recommended that multiple indicators (genes, populations, species, communities, and landscape) be monitored for effective conservation measurement that prevents harm to the complex, and often unpredictable, response from ecosystem dynamics (Noss, 1997<ref name=""Meffe97"">{{cite book |author1=Carroll, C. Dennis |author2=Meffe, Gary K. |title=Principles of conservation biology |publisher=Sinauer |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-87893-521-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofcons00meff }}</ref>{{Rp|88–89}}).

==== Umbrella and flagship species ====
{{Main|Umbrella species|Flagship species}}

An example of an ''umbrella species'' is the [[monarch (butterfly)|monarch butterfly]], because of its lengthy [[Insect migration|migrations]] and [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] value. The monarch migrates across North America, covering multiple ecosystems and so requires a large area to exist. Any protections afforded to the monarch butterfly will at the same time umbrella many other species and habitats. An umbrella species is often used as ''flagship species'', which are species, such as the [[giant panda]], the [[blue whale]], the [[tiger]], the [[mountain gorilla]] and the monarch butterfly, that capture the public's attention and attract support for conservation measures.<ref name=""Hunter96""/> Paradoxically, however, conservation bias towards flagship species sometimes threatens other species of chief concern.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fedriani | first1 = JM | last2 = García | first2 = L | last3 = Sanchéz | first3 = M | last4 = Calderon | first4 = J | last5 = Ramo | first5 = C | year = 2017 | title = Long-term impact of protected colonial birds on a jeopardized cork oak population: conservation bias leads to restoration failure | journal = Journal of Applied Ecology | volume = 54 | issue = 2| pages = 450–458 | doi = 10.1111/1365-2664.12672 | hdl = 10261/135920 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

{{Clear}}

== Context and trends ==

Conservation biologists study trends and process from the [[paleontological]] past to the [[ecological]] present as they gain an understanding of the context related to [[species extinction]].<ref name=""SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction""/> It is generally accepted that there have been five major global mass extinctions that register in Earth's history. These include: the [[Ordovician–Silurian extinction event|Ordovician]] (440 [[mya (unit)|mya]]), [[Late Devonian extinction|Devonian]] (370 mya), [[Permian–Triassic extinction event|Permian–Triassic]] (245 mya), [[Triassic–Jurassic extinction event|Triassic–Jurassic]] (200 mya), and [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] (66 mya) extinction spasms. Within the last 10,000 years, human influence over the Earth's ecosystems has been so extensive that scientists have difficulty estimating the number of species lost;<ref name=""Ehrlich"">{{cite book |author1=Ehrlich, Anne H. |author2=Ehrlich, Paul R. |title=Extinction: the causes and consequences of the disappearance of species |publisher=Random House |location=New York |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-394-51312-6 }}{{page needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> that is to say the rates of [[deforestation]], [[Coral reef destruction|reef destruction]], [[Threats to wetlands|wetland draining]] and other human acts are proceeding much faster than human assessment of species. The latest ''[[Living Planet Report]]'' by the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] estimates that we have exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity of the planet, requiring 1.6 Earths to support the demands placed on our natural resources.<ref name=""WWFLPR"">{{cite book |author=WWF |title=Living Planet Report 2016. Risk and resilience in a new era |url=http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/lpr_living_planet_report_2016.pdf |year=2016 |publisher=WWF International|location=Gland, Switzerland|page=39 |isbn=978-2-940529-40-7|author-link=World Wildlife Fund }}</ref>

=== Holocene extinction ===
{{Main|Holocene extinction}}

[[File:ChildrenPerceptionBiomass.jpg|thumb|An art scape image showing the relative importance of animals in a rain forest through a summary of (a) child's perception compared with (b) a scientific estimate of the importance. The size of the animal represents its importance. The child's mental image places importance on big cats, birds, butterflies, and then reptiles versus the actual dominance of social insects (such as ants).]]

Conservation biologists are dealing with and have published [[evidence]] from all corners of the planet indicating that humanity may be causing the sixth and fastest planetary [[extinction event]].<ref name=""Wake08"" /><ref>http://www.millenniumassessment.org{{full citation needed|date=October 2016}}{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis – Scientific Experts Believe We Are In Midst of Fastest Mass Extinction in Earth's History |url=http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607101209/http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html |archive-date=2007-06-07 |access-date=2022-12-29}}</ref> It has been suggested that an unprecedented number of species is becoming extinct in what is known as the [[Holocene extinction event]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=May, Robert Lewis |author2=Lawton, John |title=Extinction rates |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-854829-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/extinctionrates00lawt }}</ref> The global extinction rate may be approximately 1,000 times higher than the natural background extinction rate.<ref name=""Dell'Amore"">{{cite web|last1=Dell'Amore|first1=Christine|title=Species Extinction Happening 1,000 Times Faster Because of Humans?|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/05/140529-conservation-science-animals-species-endangered-extinction/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531233644/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/05/140529-conservation-science-animals-species-endangered-extinction|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 31, 2014|work=National Geographic|access-date=11 October 2016|date=30 May 2014}}</ref> It is estimated that two-thirds of all [[mammal]] [[genera]] and one-half of all mammal [[species]] weighing at least {{Convert|44|kg|lb}} have gone extinct in the last 50,000 years.<ref name=pmid17148336/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Avise |first1=J. C. |last2=Hubbell |first2=S. P. |last3=Ayala |first3=F. J. |title=In the light of evolution II: Biodiversity and extinction |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |pages=11453–7 |year=2008 |issue=Suppl 1 |pmid=18695213 |pmc=2556414 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0802504105 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511453A |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7808171.stm |first1=Molly |last1=Bentley |date=January 2, 2009 |title=Diamond clues to beasts' demise |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kennett |first1=D. J. |last2=Kennett |first2=J. P. |last3=West |first3=A. |last4=Mercer |first4=C. |last5=Hee |first5=S. S. Q. |last6=Bement |first6=L. |last7=Bunch |first7=T. E. |last8=Sellers |first8=M. |last9=Wolbach |first9=W. S. |title=Nanodiamonds in the Younger Dryas Boundary Sediment Layer |journal=Science |volume=323 |issue=5910 |page=94 |year=2009 |pmid=19119227 |doi=10.1126/science.1162819 |bibcode=2009Sci...323...94K |s2cid=206514910 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/16088/files/PAL_E3879.pdf }}</ref> The Global Amphibian Assessment<ref>{{cite web |title=An Analysis of Amphibians on the 2008 IUCN Red List. Summary of Key Findings |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians/key_findings |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706112056/http://www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians/key_findings |archive-date=2009-07-06 |work=Global Amphibian Assessment 
|publisher=IUCN }}</ref> reports that [[Decline in amphibian populations|amphibians are declining]] on a global scale faster than any other [[vertebrate]] group, with over 32% of all surviving species being threatened with extinction. The surviving populations are in continual decline in 43% of those that are threatened. Since the mid-1980s the actual rates of extinction have exceeded 211 times rates measured from the [[fossil record]].<ref name=""McCallum07"">{{cite journal |last1=McCallum |first1=Malcolm L. |title=Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=41 |issue=3 |year=2007 |pages=483–91 |jstor=4498614 |doi=10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=30162903 }}</ref> However, ""The current amphibian extinction rate may range from 25,039 to 45,474 times the background extinction rate for amphibians.""<ref name=""McCallum07"" /> The global extinction trend occurs in every major [[vertebrate]] group that is being monitored. For example, 23% of all [[mammals]] and 12% of all [[bird]]s are [[IUCN Red List|Red Listed]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), meaning they too are threatened with extinction. Even though extinction is natural, the decline in species is happening at such an incredible rate that evolution can simply not match, therefore, leading to the greatest continual mass extinction on Earth.<ref name=""Vince"">{{cite web|last1=Vince|first1=Gaia|title=A looming mass extinction caused by humans|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20121101-a-looming-mass-extinction|publisher=BBC|access-date=11 October 2016}}</ref> Humans have dominated the planet and our high consumption of resources, along with the pollution generated is affecting the environments in which other species live.<ref name=""Vince""/><ref name=""Tate"">{{cite web|last1=Tate|first1=Karl|title=The New Dying: How Human-Caused Extinction Affects the Planet (Infographic)|url=http://www.livescience.com/51280-the-new-dying-how-human-caused-extinction-affects-the-planet-infographic.html|website=Live Science|date=19 June 2015|access-date=11 October 2016}}</ref> There are a wide variety of species that humans are working to protect such as the Hawaiian Crow and the Whooping Crane of Texas.<ref name=""Worrall"">{{cite web|last1=Worrall|first1=Simon|title=How the Current Mass Extinction of Animals Threatens Humans|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/08/140820-extinction-crows-penguins-dinosaurs-asteroid-sydney-booktalk/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823170945/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/08/140820-extinction-crows-penguins-dinosaurs-asteroid-sydney-booktalk/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 23, 2014|work=National Geographic|access-date=11 October 2016|date=20 August 2016}}</ref> People can also take action on preserving species by advocating and voting for global and national policies that improve climate, under the concepts of [[climate mitigation]] and [[climate restoration]]. The Earth's oceans demand particular attention as climate change continues to alter pH levels, making it uninhabitable for organisms with shells which dissolve as a result.<ref name=""Dell'Amore""/>

=== Status of oceans and reefs ===
{{See also|Coral reef|Marine pollution|Marine conservation|Human impact on marine life}}

Global assessments of coral reefs of the world continue to report drastic and rapid rates of decline. By 2000, 27% of the world's coral reef ecosystems had effectively collapsed. The largest period of decline occurred in a dramatic ""bleaching"" event in 1998, where approximately 16% of all the coral reefs in the world disappeared in less than a year. ''[[Coral bleaching]]'' is caused by a mixture of [[environmental stress]]es, including increases in ocean temperatures and [[Ocean acidification|acidity]], causing both the release of [[symbiotic]] [[algae]] and death of corals.<ref name=""ausSOE01"">{{cite book |title=Australia state of the environment 2001: independent report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |location=Collingwood, VIC, Australia |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-643-06745-5 |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/report/pubs/part03b.pdf |author=Australian State of the Environment Committee.}}</ref> Decline and extinction risk in coral reef biodiversity has risen dramatically in the past ten years. The loss of coral reefs, which are predicted to go extinct in the next century, threatens the balance of global biodiversity, will have huge economic impacts, and endangers food security for hundreds of millions of people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=K. E. |last2=Abrar |first2=M. |last3=Aeby |first3=G. |last4=Aronson |first4=R. B. |last5=Banks |first5=S. |last6=Bruckner |first6=A. |last7=Chiriboga |first7=A. |last8=Cortes |first8=J. |last9=Delbeek |first9=J. C. |last10=DeVantier |first10=L. |last11=Edgar |first11=G. J. |last12=Edwards |first12=A. J. |last13=Fenner |first13=D. |last14=Guzman |first14=H. M. |last15=Hoeksema |first15=B. W. |last16=Hodgson |first16=G. |last17=Johan |first17=O. |last18=Licuanan |first18=W. Y. |last19=Livingstone |first19=S. R. |last20=Lovell |first20=E. R. |last21=Moore |first21=J. A. |last22=Obura |first22=D. O. |last23=Ochavillo |first23=D. |last24=Polidoro |first24=B. A. |last25=Precht |first25=W. F. |last26=Quibilan |first26=M. C. |last27=Reboton |first27=C. |last28=Richards |first28=Z. T. |last29=Rogers |first29=A. D. |last30=Sanciangco |first30=J. |last31=Sheppard |first31=A. |last32=Sheppard |first32=C. |last33=Smith |first33=J. |last34=Stuart |first34=S. |last35=Turak |first35=E. |last36=Veron |first36=J. E. N. |last37=Wallace |first37=C. |last38=Weil |first38=E. |last39=Wood |first39=E. |title=One-Third of Reef-Building Corals Face Elevated Extinction Risk from Climate Change and Local Impacts |journal=Science |volume=321 |issue=5888 |pages=560–3 |year=2008 |pmid=18653892 |doi=10.1126/science.1159196 |bibcode=2008Sci...321..560C |s2cid=206513451 }}</ref>  Conservation biology plays an important role in international agreements covering the world's oceans<ref name=""ausSOE01"" /> (and other issues pertaining to [[biodiversity]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/M-7.01///en?page=1 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2009-01-05 |archive-date=2011-06-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605063047/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/M-7.01///en?page=1 |url-status=dead }}{{full citation needed|date=October 2016}}</ref>).

{{quote box
| quote = These predictions will undoubtedly appear extreme, but it is difficult to imagine how such changes will not come to pass without fundamental changes in human behavior.
| source = J.B. Jackson<ref name=""Jackson""/>{{Rp|11463}}
| width = 25%
| align = left}}

The oceans are threatened by acidification due to an increase in CO<sub>2</sub> levels. This is a most serious threat to societies relying heavily upon oceanic [[natural resource]]s. A concern is that the majority of all [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] species will not be able to [[Evolution|evolve]] or [[acclimate]] in response to the changes in the ocean chemistry.<ref>The Royal Society. 2005. Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Policy document 12/05. {{ISBN|0-85403-617-2}} [http://royalsociety.org/displaypagedoc.asp?id=13539 Download]</ref>

The prospects of averting mass extinction seems unlikely when ""90% of all of the large (average approximately ≥50 kg), open ocean tuna, billfishes, and sharks in the ocean""<ref name=""Jackson"" /> are reportedly gone. Given the scientific review of current trends, the ocean is predicted to have few surviving [[multi-cellular organism]]s with only [[microbes]] left to dominate [[marine ecosystem]]s.<ref name=""Jackson"" />

=== Groups other than vertebrates ===

Serious concerns also being raised about [[Taxonomic rank|taxonomic groups]] that do not receive the same degree of social attention or attract funds as the vertebrates. These include [[fungus|fungal]] (including [[lichen]]-forming species),<ref name=""fungal-conservation"">{{cite web|url=http://www.fungal-conservation.org/blogs/orphans-of-rio.pdf |title=Orphans of Rio |publisher=fungal-conservation.org |access-date=2011-07-09}}</ref> invertebrate (particularly [[insect]]<ref name=""Koh""/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=JA |last2=Telfer |first2=MG |last3=Roy |first3=DB |last4=Preston |first4=CD |last5=Greenwood |first5=JJ |last6=Asher |first6=J |last7=Fox |first7=R |last8=Clarke |first8=RT |last9=Lawton |first9=JH |title=Comparative Losses of British Butterflies, Birds, and Plants and the Global Extinction Crisis |journal=Science |volume=303 |issue=5665 |pages=1879–81 |year=2004 |pmid=15031508 |doi=10.1126/science.1095046 |bibcode=2004Sci...303.1879T |s2cid=22863854 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=Robert R. |title=Modern Insect Extinctions, the Neglected Majority |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=19 |issue=4 |year=2005 |pages=1030–6 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00078.x |s2cid=38218672 }}</ref>) and [[plant]] [[Community (ecology)|communities]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mustajärvi |first1=Kaisa |last2=Siikamäki |first2=Pirkko |last3=Rytkönen |first3=Saara |last4=Lammi |first4=Antti |date=2001 |title=Consequences of plant population size and density for plant-pollinator interactions and plant performance: Plant-pollinator interactions |journal=Journal of Ecology |language=en |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=80–87 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2745.2001.00521.x|s2cid=84923092 |doi-access=free }}</ref> where the vast majority of biodiversity is represented. Conservation of fungi and conservation of insects, in particular, are both of pivotal importance for conservation biology. As mycorrhizal symbionts, and as decomposers and recyclers, fungi are essential for sustainability of forests.<ref name=""fungal-conservation"" /> The value of insects in the [[biosphere]] is enormous because they outnumber all other living groups in measure of [[species richness]]. The greatest bulk of [[biomass]] on land is found in plants, which is sustained by insect relations. This great ecological value of insects is countered by a society that often reacts negatively toward these aesthetically 'unpleasant' creatures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Edward O. |title=The Little Things That Run the world (The Importance and Conservation of Invertebrates) |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=1 |issue=4 |year=1987 |pages=344–6 |jstor=2386020 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1987.tb00055.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Samways |first1=Michael J. |title=Insects in biodiversity conservation: some perspectives and directives |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=2 |issue=3 |year=1993 |pages=258–82 |doi=10.1007/BF00056672 |s2cid=43987366 }}</ref>

One area of concern in the insect world that has caught the public eye is the mysterious case of missing [[honey bee]]s (''Apis mellifera''). Honey bees provide an indispensable ecological services through their acts of pollination supporting a huge variety of agriculture crops. The use of honey and wax have become vastly used throughout the world.<ref>Society, National Geographic. ""Honeybee."" National Geographic. National Geographic, n.d. Web. 11 October 2016.</ref> The sudden disappearance of bees leaving empty hives or [[colony collapse disorder]] (CCD) is not uncommon. However, in 16-month period from 2006 through 2007, 29% of 577 [[beekeeper]]s across the United States reported CCD losses in up to 76% of their colonies. This sudden demographic loss in bee numbers is placing a strain on the agricultural sector. The cause behind the massive declines is puzzling scientists. [[Pest (organism)|Pests]], [[pesticide]]s, and [[global warming]] are all being considered as possible causes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holden |first1=C. |title=Ecology: Report Warns of Looming Pollination Crisis in North America |journal=Science |volume=314 |issue=5798 |page=397 |year=2006 |pmid=17053115 |doi=10.1126/science.314.5798.397 |s2cid=30877553 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stokstad |first1=E. |title=Entomology: The Case of the Empty Hives |journal=Science |volume=316 |issue=5827 |pages=970–2 |year=2007 |pmid=17510336 |doi=10.1126/science.316.5827.970 |s2cid=170560082 }}</ref>

Another highlight that links conservation biology to insects, forests, and climate change is the [[mountain pine beetle]] (''Dendroctonus ponderosae'') [[epidemic]] of [[British Columbia]], Canada, which has infested {{convert|470000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of forested land since 1999.<ref name=""Running08"">{{cite journal |last1=Running |first1=S. W. |title=Climate Change: Ecosystem Disturbance, Carbon, and Climate |journal=Science |volume=321 |issue=5889 |pages=652–3 |year=2008 |pmid=18669853 |doi=10.1126/science.1159607 |s2cid=206513681 }}</ref> An action plan has been prepared by the Government of British Columbia to address this problem.<ref>{{cite web |title=British Columbia's Mountain Pine Beetle Action Plan 2006-2011 |url=http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/mountain_pine_beetle/actionplan/2006/Beetle_Action_Plan.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130419001655/https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/mountain_pine_beetle/actionplan/2006/Beetle_Action_Plan.pdf |archive-date=2013-04-19 |work=Province of British Columbia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mountain pine beetle |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/managing-our-forest-resources/forest-health/forest-pests/bark-beetles/mountain-pine-beetle |work=Province of British Columbia |date=January 26, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221213155346/https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/managing-our-forest-resources/forest-health/forest-pests/bark-beetles/mountain-pine-beetle |archive-date= Dec 13, 2022 }}</ref>

{{Blockquote|This impact [''pine beetle epidemic''] converted the forest from a small net [[carbon sink]] to a large net carbon source both during and immediately after the outbreak. In the worst year, the impacts resulting from the beetle outbreak in British Columbia were equivalent to 75% of the average annual direct forest fire emissions from all of Canada during 1959–1999.|Kurz ''et al''.<ref name=""Kurz08"">{{cite journal |last1=Kurz |first1=W. A. |last2=Dymond |first2=C. C. |last3=Stinson |first3=G. |last4=Rampley |first4=G. J. |last5=Neilson |first5=E. T. |last6=Carroll |first6=A. L. |last7=Ebata |first7=T. |last8=Safranyik |first8=L. |title=Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7190 |pages=987–90 |year=2008 |pmid=18432244 |doi=10.1038/nature06777 |bibcode=2008Natur.452..987K |s2cid=205212545 }}</ref>}}

=== Conservation biology of parasites ===
{{Main|Conservation biology of parasites}}

A large proportion of parasite species are threatened by extinction. A few of them are being eradicated as pests of humans or domestic animals; however, most of them are harmless. Parasites also make up a significant amount of global biodiversity, given that they make up a large proportion of all species on earth,<ref name=""Kwak 108696"">{{Cite journal |last1=Kwak |first1=Mackenzie L. |last2=Heath |first2=Allen C. G. |last3=Cardoso |first3=Pedro |date=2020-08-01 |title=Methods for the assessment and conservation of threatened animal parasites |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320720307540 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=248 |pages=108696 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108696 |s2cid=225517357 |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> making them of increasingly prevalent conservation interest. Threats include the decline or fragmentation of host populations, or the extinction of host species. Parasites are intricately woven into ecosystems and food webs, thereby occupying valuable roles in ecosystem structure and function.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Colin J. |last2=Hopkins |first2=Skylar |last3=Bell |first3=Kayce C. |last4=Doña |first4=Jorge |last5=Godfrey |first5=Stephanie S. |last6=Kwak |first6=Mackenzie L. |last7=Lafferty |first7=Kevin D. |last8=Moir |first8=Melinda L. |last9=Speer |first9=Kelly A. |last10=Strona |first10=Giovanni |last11=Torchin |first11=Mark |last12=Wood |first12=Chelsea L. |date=October 2020 |title=A global parasite conservation plan |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320719319937 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=250 |pages=108596 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108596|s2cid=225345547 |hdl=10919/102428 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Kwak 108696""/>

=== Threats to biodiversity ===
{{Main|Biodiversity threats}}

Today, many threats to biodiversity exist. An acronym that can be used to express the top threats of present-day H.I.P.P.O stands for Habitat Loss, Invasive Species, Pollution, Human Population, and Overharvesting.<ref name="":0"">{{cite web|url=https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog030/node/394|title=Threats to Biodiversity {{!}} GEOG 030: Geographic Perspectives on Sustainability and Human-Environment Systems, 2011|website=www.e-education.psu.edu|access-date=2016-10-07}}</ref> The primary threats to biodiversity are [[habitat destruction]] (such as [[deforestation]], [[agricultural expansion]], [[Urban planning|urban development]]), and [[overexploitation]] (such as [[wildlife trade]]).<ref name=""Ehrlich"" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Freckleton |first1=Rob |last2=Sodhi |first2=Navjot S. |last3=Bickford |first3=David |last4=Diesmos |first4=Arvin C. |last5=Lee |first5=Tien Ming |last6=Koh |first6=Lian Pin |last7=Brook |first7=Barry W. |last8=Sekercioglu |first8=Cagan H. |last9=Bradshaw |first9=Corey J. A. |title=Measuring the Meltdown: Drivers of Global Amphibian Extinction and Decline |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=e1636 |year=2008 |pmid=18286193 |pmc=2238793 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0001636 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.1636S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Longcore |first1=Travis |last2=Rich |first2=Catherine |s2cid=33259398 |title=Ecological light pollution |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=2 |issue=4 |year=2004 |pages=191–8 |jstor=3868314 |doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0191:ELP]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Asia's biodiversity vanishing into the marketplace |publisher=Wildlife Conservation Society |date=February 9, 2004 |url=http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-2/Asias-biodiversity-vanishing-into-the-marketplace-2548-1/ |access-date=October 13, 2016 |archive-date=August 23, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823125652/http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-2/Asias-biodiversity-vanishing-into-the-marketplace-2548-1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Greatest threat to Asia's wildlife is hunting, scientists say |publisher=Wildlife Conservation Society |date=April 9, 2002 |url=http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-2/Greatest-threat-to-Asias-wildlife-is-hunting--scientists-say-7889-1/ |access-date=October 13, 2016 |archive-date=July 25, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725080253/http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-2/Greatest-threat-to-Asias-wildlife-is-hunting--scientists-say-7889-1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hance |first1=Jeremy |date=January 19, 2009 |title=Wildlife trade creating 'empty forest syndrome' across the globe |work=Mongabay |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2009/01/wildlife-trade-creating-empty-forest-syndrome-across-the-globe/ }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Knozowski |first1=Paweł |last2=Nowakowski |first2=Jacek J. |last3=Stawicka |first3=Anna Maria |last4=Górski |first4=Andrzej |last5=Dulisz |first5=Beata |date=2023-11-10 |title=Effect of nature protection and management of grassland on biodiversity – Case from big flooded river valley (NE Poland) |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=898 |pages=165280 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165280 |pmid=37419354 |bibcode=2023ScTEn.898p5280K |issn=0048-9697|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dulisz |first1=Beata |last2=Stawicka |first2=Anna Maria |last3=Knozowski |first3=Paweł |last4=Diserens |first4=Tom A. |last5=Nowakowski |first5=Jacek J. |date=2022-01-01 |title=Effectiveness of using nest boxes as a form of bird protection after building modernization |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |language=en |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=277–294 |doi=10.1007/s10531-021-02334-0 |s2cid=254280225 |issn=1572-9710|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Knozowski |first1=P. |last2=Górski |first2=A. |last3=Stawicka |first3=A. M. |last4=Nowakowski |first4=J. J. |date=2022-12-31 |title=Long-term changes in the diversity of amphibian communities inhabiting small water bodies in the urban area of Olsztyn (NE Poland) |journal=The European Zoological Journal |language=en |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=791–812 |doi=10.1080/24750263.2022.2087773 |s2cid=250940055 |issn=2475-0263|doi-access=free }}</ref>[[Habitat fragmentation]] also poses challenges, because the global network of protected areas only covers 11.5% of the Earth's surface.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Ana S. L. |last2=Andelman |first2=Sandy J. |last3=Bakarr |first3=Mohamed I. |last4=Boitani |first4=Luigi |last5=Brooks |first5=Thomas M. |last6=Cowling |first6=Richard M. |last7=Fishpool |first7=Lincoln D. C. |last8=da Fonseca |first8=Gustavo A. B. |last9=Gaston |first9=Kevin J. |last10=Hoffmann |first10=Michael |last11=Long |first11=Janice S. |last12=Marquet |first12=Pablo A. |last13=Pilgrim |first13=John D. |last14=Pressey |first14=Robert L. |last15=Schipper |first15=Jan |last16=Sechrest |first16=Wes |last17=Stuart |first17=Simon N. |last18=Underhill |first18=Les G. |last19=Waller |first19=Robert W. |last20=Watts |first20=Matthew E. J. |last21=Yan |first21=Xie |title=Effectiveness of the global protected area network in representing species diversity |journal=Nature |volume=428 |issue=6983 |pages=640–3 |year=2004 |pmid=15071592 |doi=10.1038/nature02422 |bibcode=2004Natur.428..640R |s2cid=4320526 |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/1529/2/Rodrigues_et_al_2004.pdf }}</ref>  A significant consequence of fragmentation and lack of [[Wildlife corridor|linked protected areas]] is the reduction of animal migration on a global scale. Considering that billions of tonnes of biomass are responsible for [[nutrient cycling]] across the earth, the reduction of migration is a serious matter for conservation biology.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilcove |first1=David S |last2=Wikelski |first2=Martin |title=Going, Going, Gone: Is Animal Migration Disappearing |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=e188 |year=2008 |pmid=18666834 |pmc=2486312 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060188 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=C. G. |last2=Fonseca |first2=C. R. |last3=Haddad |first3=C. F. B. |last4=Batista |first4=R. F. |last5=Prado |first5=P. I. |title=Habitat Split and the Global Decline of Amphibians |journal=Science |volume=318 |issue=5857 |pages=1775–7 |year=2007 |pmid=18079402 |doi=10.1126/science.1149374 |bibcode=2007Sci...318.1775B |s2cid=22055213 }}</ref>

{{quote box
|Human activities are associated directly or indirectly with nearly every aspect of the current extinction spasm.
| Wake and Vredenburg<ref name=""Wake08"">{{cite journal |last1=Wake |first1=D. B. |last2=Vredenburg |first2=V. T. |title=Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=11466–73 |year=2008 |pmid=18695221 |pmc=2556420 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801921105 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511466W |doi-access=free }}</ref>
| width=25%
| align=left}}

However, human activities need not necessarily cause irreparable harm to the biosphere. With [[Conservation management system|conservation management and planning]] for biodiversity at all levels, from [[gene]]s to ecosystems, there are examples where humans mutually coexist in a sustainable way with nature.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Gerald |year=2005 |title=Ecology & Anthropology: A Field Without Future? |journal=Ecological and Environmental Anthropology |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=13–5 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmeea/33/ |oclc=729066337 }}</ref> Even with the current threats to biodiversity there are ways we can improve the current condition and start anew.

Many of the threats to biodiversity, including disease and climate change, are reaching inside borders of protected areas, leaving them 'not-so protected' (e.g. [[Yellowstone National Park]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McMenamin |first1=S. K. |last2=Hadly |first2=E. A. |last3=Wright |first3=C. K. |title=Climatic change and wetland desiccation cause amphibian decline in Yellowstone National Park |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=44 |pages=16988–93 |year=2008 |pmid=18955700 |pmc=2579365 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0809090105 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10516988M |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Climate change]], for example, is often cited as a serious threat in this regard, because there is a [[feedback loop]] between species extinction and the release of [[carbon dioxide]] into the [[atmosphere]].<ref name=""Running08"" /><ref name=""Kurz08"" /> Ecosystems store and [[Carbon cycle|cycle]] large amounts of carbon which regulates global conditions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Global climate change and life on earth|publisher=Routledge, Chapman and Hall|year=1991|isbn=978-0-412-02821-2|location=New York|author=Wyman, Richard L.|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/globalclimatecha0000unse_i6d1}}</ref> In present day, there have been major climate shifts with temperature changes making survival of some species difficult.<ref name="":0"" /> The [[effects of global warming]] add a catastrophic threat toward a mass extinction of global biological diversity.<ref name="":1"" /> Numerous more species are predicted to face unprecedented levels of extinction risk due to population increase, climate change and economic development in the future.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tilman |first1=David |last2=Clark |first2=Michael |last3=Williams |first3=David R. |last4=Kimmel |first4=Kaitlin |last5=Polasky |first5=Stephen |last6=Packer |first6=Craig |date=2017 |title=Future threats to biodiversity and pathways to their prevention |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature22900 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=546 |issue=7656 |pages=73–81 |doi=10.1038/nature22900 |pmid=28569796 |bibcode=2017Natur.546...73T |s2cid=4400396 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Conservationists have claimed that not all the species can be saved, and they have to decide which their efforts should be used to protect. This concept is known as the Conservation Triage.<ref name="":0"" /> The extinction threat is estimated to range from 15 to 37 percent of all species by 2050,<ref name="":1"">{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Chris D. |last2=Cameron |first2=Alison |last3=Green |first3=Rhys E. |last4=Bakkenes |first4=Michel |last5=Beaumont |first5=Linda J. |last6=Collingham |first6=Yvonne C. |last7=Erasmus |first7=Barend F. N. |last8=de Siqueira |first8=Marinez Ferreira |last9=Grainger |first9=Alan |last10=Hannah |first10=Lee |last11=Hughes |first11=Lesley |last12=Huntley |first12=Brian |last13=van Jaarsveld |first13=Albert S. |last14=Midgley |first14=Guy F. |last15=Miles |first15=Lera |last16=Ortega-Huerta |first16=Miguel A. |last17=Townsend Peterson |first17=A. |last18=Phillips |first18=Oliver L. |last19=Williams |first19=Stephen E. |title=Extinction risk from climate change |journal=Nature |volume=427 |issue=6970 |pages=145–8 |year=2004 |pmid=14712274 |doi=10.1038/nature02121 |bibcode=2004Natur.427..145T |s2cid=969382 |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/733227/Thomas&Cameron_Extinctions_Cover&Article_Nature_2004.pdf}}
*{{cite magazine |author=John Roach |date=July 12, 2004 |title=By 2050 Warming to Doom Million Species, Study Says |magazine=National Geographic |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0107_040107_extinction.html}}</ref> or 50 percent of all species over the next 50 years.<ref name=""Koh"" /> The current extinction rate is 100–100,000 times more rapid today than the last several billion years.<ref name="":0"" />

{{clear}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Applied ecology]]
* [[Bird observatory]]
* [[Conservation-reliant species]]
* [[Ecological extinction]]
* [[Gene pool]]
* [[Genetic erosion]]
* [[Genetic pollution]]
* [[In-situ conservation]]
* [[Indigenous peoples#Environmental and economic benefits of the Indigenous stewardship of land|Indigenous peoples: environmental benefits]]
* [[List of basic biology topics]]
* [[List of biological websites]]
* [[List of biology topics]]
* [[List of nature conservation organizations|List of conservation organisations]]
* [[List of conservation topics]]
* [[Mutualisms and conservation]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Nature conservation]]
* [[:Category:Nature conservation organizations by country|Nature conservation organizations by country]]
* [[Protected area]]
* [[Regional Red List]]
* [[Renewable resource]]
* [[Restoration ecology]]
* [[Tyranny of small decisions]]
* [[Water conservation]]
* [[Welfare biology]]
* [[Wildlife disease]]
* [[Wildlife management]]
* [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]
{{Div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
'''Scientific literature'''
* {{cite journal |last1=Bowen |first1=Brian W. |title=Preserving genes, species, or ecosystems? Healing the fractured foundations of conservation policy |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=8 |issue=s1 |year=1999 |pages=S5–S10 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294X.1999.00798.x |pmid=10703547 |s2cid=33096004 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Brooks T. M. |author2=Mittermeier R. A. |author3=Gerlach J. |author4=Hoffmann M. |author5=Lamoreux J. F. |author6=Mittermeier C. G. |author7=Pilgrim J. D. |author8=Rodrigues A. S. L. | year = 2006 | title = Global Biodiversity Conservation Priorities | journal = Science | volume = 313 | issue = 5783|pages=58–61 |bibcode = 2006Sci...313...58B |doi = 10.1126/science.1127609 |pmid=16825561 |s2cid=5133902 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Kareiva P. |author2=Marvier M. |year=2003 |title=Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots |url=http://www.nau.edu/~envsci/sisk/courses/env440/readings/Kareiva+et+al+2003+Am+Sci.pdf |journal=American Scientist |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=344–351 |doi=10.1511/2003.4.344 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906162035/http://www.nau.edu/~envsci/sisk/courses/env440/readings/Kareiva%20et%20al%202003%20Am%20Sci.pdf |archive-date=September 6, 2006 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Manlik |first1=Oliver. |title=Reproductive Sciences in Animal Conservation |chapter=The Importance of Reproduction for the Conservation of Slow-Growing Animal Populations |journal=Reproductive Sciences in Animal Conservation. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology |volume=1200|year=2019 |pages=13–39 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-23633-5_2|pmid=31471793 |isbn=978-3-030-23633-5 |series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology |s2cid=201756810 }}
* {{cite journal |author=McCallum M. L. |year=2008 |title=Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate |url=https://www.herpconbio.org/~herpconb/McCallum/amphibian%20extinctions.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217133741/https://www.herpconbio.org/~herpconb/McCallum/amphibian%20extinctions.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-12-17 |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=483–491 |doi=10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=30162903 }}
* {{cite journal |author=McCallum M. L. |year=2015 |title=Vertebrate biodiversity losses point to a sixth mass extinction|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-015-0940-6?zanpid=20487846442748446727 |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=2497–2519 |doi=10.1007/s10531-015-0940-6 |s2cid=254285797 }}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10531-021-02140-8 |title=Turtle biodiversity losses suggest coming sixth mass extinction |date=2021 |last1=McCallum |first1=Malcolm L. |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=1257–1275 |s2cid=233903598 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Kent |first5=Jennifer |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=Nature |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–8 |year=2000 |pmid=10706275 |doi=10.1038/35002501 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M |s2cid=4414279 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Brooks T. M. |author2=Mittermeier R. A. |author3=Gerlach J. |author4=Hoffmann M. |author5=Lamoreux J. F. |author6=Mittermeier C. G. |author7=Pilgrim J. D. |author8=Rodrigues A. S. L. | year = 2006 | title = Global Biodiversity Conservation Priorities | journal = Science | volume = 313 | issue = 5783|pages=58–61 |bibcode = 2006Sci...313...58B |doi = 10.1126/science.1127609 |pmid=16825561 |s2cid=5133902 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Kareiva P. |author2=Marvier M. |year=2003 |title=Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots |url=http://www.nau.edu/~envsci/sisk/courses/env440/readings/Kareiva+et+al+2003+Am+Sci.pdf |journal=American Scientist |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=344–351 |doi=10.1511/2003.4.344 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906162035/http://www.nau.edu/~envsci/sisk/courses/env440/readings/Kareiva%20et%20al%202003%20Am%20Sci.pdf |archive-date=September 6, 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mccallum |first1=Malcolm L. |last2=Bury |first2=Gwendolyn W. |title=Google search patterns suggest declining interest in the environment |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=22 |issue=6–7 |year=2013 |pages=1355–67 |doi=10.1007/s10531-013-0476-6 |s2cid=15593201 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Kent |first5=Jennifer |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=Nature |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–8 |year=2000 |pmid=10706275 |doi=10.1038/35002501 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M |s2cid=4414279 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wake |first1=D. B. |last2=Vredenburg |first2=V. T. |title=Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=11466–73 |year=2008 |pmid=18695221 |pmc=2556420 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801921105 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511466W |doi-access=free }}

'''Textbooks'''
*{{Cite book |author1=Groom, Martha J. |author2=Meffe, Gary K. |author3=Carroll, C. Ronald. |title=Principles of Conservation Biology |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87893-597-0 }}
*{{Cite book |editor=Norse, Elliott A. |editor2=Crowder, Larry B. |title=Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea's biodiversity |publisher=Island Press |location=Washington, DC |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-55963-662-9 }}
*{{Cite book |author=Primack, Richard B. |title=A primer of Conservation Biology |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-87893-728-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/primerofconserva00rich }}
*{{Cite book |author=Primack, Richard B. |title=Essentials of Conservation Biology |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87893-720-2 }}
*{{Cite book |author1=Wilcox, Bruce A. |author2=Soulé, Michael E. |author3=Soulé, Michael E. |title=Conservation Biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-87893-800-1 }}
*{{Cite book |author1=Kleiman, Devra G. |author2=Thompson, Katerina V. |author3=Baer, Charlotte Kirk |title=Wild Mammals in Captivity |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago, Illinois |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-226-44009-5}}
*{{cite book |author1=Scheldeman, X. |author2=van Zonneveld, M. |year=2010 |title=Training Manual on Spatial Analysis of Plant Diversity and Distribution |publisher=Bioversity International |url=http://www.bioversityinternational.org/training/training_materials/gis_manual.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927164904/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/training/training_materials/gis_manual.html |archive-date=2011-09-27 }}
*{{cite book |author1=Sodhi, Navjot S.   |author2=Ehrlich, Paul R. |year=2010 |title= Conservation biology for all |publisher= Oxford University Press |url=  http://www.mongabay.com/conservation-biology-for-all.html}} A free textbook for download.
*{{cite book | author= Sutherland, W. |editor1-first=William J |editor1-last=Sutherland |editor2-first=Lynn V |editor2-last=Dicks |editor3-first=Nancy |editor3-last=Ockendon |editor4-first=Rebecca K |editor4-last=Smith |year=2015 |title= What Works in Conservation |publisher= Open Book Publishers |doi=10.11647/OBP.0060 |isbn=978-1-78374-157-1 |url=  http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/347/what-works-in-conservation|display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }} A free textbook for download.

'''General non-fiction'''
*{{Cite book |last=Christy |first=Bryan |title=The Lizard King: The true crimes and passions of the world's greatest reptile smugglers |publisher=Twelve |location=New York |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-446-58095-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/lizardkingtruecr00chri }}
*{{cite web |last=Nijhuis |first=Michelle |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/conservationists-triage-determine-which-endangered-species-to-save/ |title=Conservationists use triage to determine which species to save and not: Like battlefield medics, conservationists are being forced to explicitly apply triage to determine which creatures to save and which to let go |date=July 23, 2012 |work=Scientific American |access-date=2017-05-07}}

'''Periodicals'''
* ''Animal Conservation'' [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/%28ISSN%291469-1795]
* ''[[Biological Conservation (journal)|Biological Conservation]]'' 
* ''Conservation'' [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/%28ISSN%291936-6779], a quarterly magazine of the [[Society for Conservation Biology]]
* ''[[Conservation and Society]]''
* ''[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]]'', a [[peer-reviewed]] [[Academic journal|journal]] of the [[Society for Conservation Biology]]
* ''[[Conservation Letters]]''
* ''[[Diversity and Distributions]]''
* ''[[Ecology and Society]]''

'''Training manuals'''
*{{Cite book |author1=White, James Emery |author2=Kapoor-Vijay, Promila |title=Conservation biology: a training manual for biological diversity and genetic resources |publisher=Commonwealth Science Council, Commonwealth Secretariat |location=London |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-85092-392-6 }}

== External links ==
* [https://consbio.org/ Conservation Biology Institute (CBI)]
* [https://www.unep-wcmc.org/ United Nations Environment Programme - World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC)]
* [https://www.amnh.org/research/center-for-biodiversity-conservation The Center for Biodiversity and Conservation] - (American Museum of Natural History)
* {{cite SEP |url-id=conservation-biology |title=Conservation Biology |last=Sarkar |first=Sahotra}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060909070826/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-59 Dictionary of the History of Ideas]
* [http://www.conservationevidence.com Conservationevidence.com] - Free access to conservation studies

{{Conservation of species|state=expanded}}
{{Threatened species}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation Biology}}
[[Category:Conservation biology| ]]
[[Category:Landscape ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation|*]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Philosophy of biology]]"
Gap analysis (conservation),"'''Gap analysis''' is a tool used in [[wildlife conservation]] to identify gaps in conservation lands (e.g., [[protected area]]s and [[nature reserve]]s) or other wildlands where significant plant and animal species and their habitat or important ecological features  occur.<ref>Scott, J.M. and Schipper, J. 2006. Gap analysis: a spatial tool for conservation planning. Pp. 518-519 in M.J. Groom, G.K. Meffe, C. Ronald Carroll and Contributors. ''Principles of Conservation Biology'' (3rd ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.</ref>

Conservation managers or scientists can use it as a basis for providing recommendations to improve the representativeness of nature reserves or the effectiveness of protected areas so that these areas provide the best value for conserving [[biodiversity|biological diversity]]. With the information that a gap analysis yields, the boundaries of protected areas may be designed to subsume 'gaps' containing significant populations of wildlife species that can enhance the long-term survival of a larger [[metapopulation]] of the species already within the managed or protected area, or to include a diversity of wildlife species or [[ecosystem]]s that merit protection but are inadequately represented in an existing protected area network. Gap assessments can be done using the [[geographic information system]]: land maps that delineate topography, biological and geological features ([[forest cover]], plains, rivers, etc.), boundaries, land ownership and use are overlaid with the distribution of wildlife species. How much of the species' distribution fall within or without the conservation lands, or within a highly exploited area etc. can be identified.

At its simplest, a gap analysis is an assessment of the extent to which a protected area system meets protection goals set by a nation or region to represent its biological diversity. Gap analyses can vary from simple exercises based on a spatial comparison of biodiversity with existing protected areas to complex studies that need detailed data gathering and analysis, mapping and use of software decision packages. 

==Gap types==
Gap analyses generally consider a range of different “gaps” in a protected area network:
<ref>[[Clem Tisdell|Tisdell, C.]], Wilson, C. and Swarna Nantha, H. 2005. Policies for saving a rare Australian glider: economics and ecology. ''Biological Conservation'' 123(2): 237-248.</ref><ref>Fearnside, P.M. and Ferraz, J. 1995. A conservation gap analysis of Brazil's Amazonian vegetation. ''Conservation Biology'' 9(5): 1134-1147.</ref>

*Representation gaps: either no representations of a particular species or ecosystem in any protected area, or not enough examples of the species or ecosystem represented to ensure long-term protection.
*Ecological gaps: while the species or ecosystem occurs in the protected area system, occurrence is either of inadequate ecological condition, or the protected area(s) fail to address species' movements or specific ecological conditions needed for long-term survival or ecosystem functioning.
*Management gaps: protected areas exist but management regimes (management objectives, governance types, or management effectiveness) do not provide full security for particular species or ecosystems given local conditions.

==U.S. Gap Analysis Project==
{{Main|Gap Analysis Project}}
The gap analysis process itself was conceived in the 1980s, by [[J. Michael Scott]], at the [[University of Idaho]]. He developed methods to assess endangered birds in [[Hawaii]] and began by mapping the distribution of each species individually. Then he combined data on individual species to create a map of species richness throughout the island.  Until this approach was developed there was no broad scale way to assess the level of protection given to areas rich in biodiversity.  The results of this analysis led to creation of the [[Hakaiau Forest National Wildlife Refuge]], in one of the areas of highest species richness. In the late 1980s, Scott and other researchers at the University of Idaho Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit initiated an Idaho Gap Analysis Project as a first pilot project under the auspices of the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]]. Following two years of methods development, the program was launched in 1989 as part of the [[U.S. Geological Survey]] under the title Gap Analysis Program (GAP). GAP is now known as the [[Gap Analysis Project]].<ref>{{USGS|title=History|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/gap-analysis-project/history|author=Gap Analysis Project|accessdate=April 16, 2022}}</ref>

The Gap Analysis Project mission is to provide state, regional, and national biodiversity assessments of the conservation status of native vertebrate species, aquatic species, and natural land cover types and to facilitate the application of this information to land management activities. The stated goal of GAP is “keeping common species common”. GAP partners in the development of four core datasets: a detailed map of the terrestrial ecosystems of the United States; maps of predicted habitat distributions for the terrestrial vertebrate species for the U.S.; distribution models for aquatic species; and the Protected Areas Database of the U.S.<ref>{{USGS|title=Mission|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/gap-analysis-project/mission|author=Gap Analysis Project|accessdate=April 16, 2022}}</ref>

==Critiques and limitations==
===Threat indicators, scale dependence & the 'modifiable areal unit problem'===
Indicators of human threats, such as population growth, land use, and road density have been proposed to enhance gap analysis and further prioritize which ‘gaps’ are most immediately threatened. However, because species responses to threats vary, gap analysis can only portray potential threats. Indicators of conservation value, such as species richness, have no inherent spatial scale. Thus, the optimal scale range for the [[minimum mapping unit]] (MMU) is determined on a case-by-case basis, compromising scientific credibility with data availability and cost effectiveness. [[Scale dependence]] of the MMU as a variant of the ‘[[modifiable areal unit problem]]’, or MAUP.<ref>Stoms, David M. 1994. “Scale dependence of species richness maps.” ''Professional Geographer''. 46(3): 346-358.</ref> The larger the MMU, the more species it will contain, either over-generalizing species richness by using large units or increasing statistical [[uncertainty]] for habitat distributions by using small units. Scale dependence introduces [[statistical error]] in spatial analysis.

===Mapping uncertainty===
Predicted species habitat distributions in GAP data contain numerous errors of commission (attributing presence where a species is absent) and errors of omission (attributing absence where a species is present) resulting in large composite error when map layers are combined. Despite this fact, species distribution maps produced by gap analysis rarely incorporate error into the visual representation. In gap analysis applications, it can result in dramatically different conservation recommendations.<ref>Flather, Curtis H., Kenneth R. Wilson, Denis J. Dean, and William C. McComb. (1997). “Identifying gaps in conservation networks: of indicators and uncertainty in geographic-based analyses.” ''Ecological Applications''. 7(2): 531-542.</ref> In addition, residual multiscale sampling effects can be identified using a statistical covariation measure, such as [[sensitivity analysis]]. 

===The ‘shifting baseline syndrome’===
The baseline for all National GAP projects is determined by the satellite data used to determine the vegetation cover that predicts species habitat distribution, which already includes a large percentage of anthropogenic land uses. First, because historic species distribution is not known, gap analysis results are a mere fraction of any species original habitat. Also, the static nature of gap analysis currently is not able to show the dynamic response capacity of species to change or species viability over time.<ref>Jennings, Michael J. (2000). “Gap analysis: concepts, methods, and recent results.” ''Landscape Ecology''. 15: 5-20.</ref> [[shifting baseline syndrome|Shifting baselines]] require that gap analysis incorporates a case-by-case consideration of management goals and definitions of conservation success.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://gapanalysis.usgs.gov/viewers/ Web viewers for various North American gap data sets] compiled by the [[USGS]]

{{conservation of species}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Overexploitation,"{{Short description|Depleting a renewable resource}}[[File:Surexploitation morue surpêcheEn.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Atlantic cod]] stocks were severely overexploited in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their [[Collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery|abrupt collapse in 1992]].<ref name=Frank>{{cite journal |first1=Kenneth T. |last1=Frank |first2=Brian |last2=Petrie |first3=Jae S. |last3=Choi |first4=William C. |last4=Leggett |year=2005 |title=Trophic Cascades in a Formerly Cod-Dominated Ecosystem |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=308 |pages=1621–1623 |doi=10.1126/science.1113075 |pmid=15947186 |issue=5728 |bibcode=2005Sci...308.1621F |s2cid=45088691}}</ref>]]

'''Overexploitation''', also called '''overharvesting''', refers to harvesting a [[renewable resource]] to the [[point of diminishing returns]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R. |title=Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology |last2=Ehrlich |first2=Anne H. |date=1972 |publisher=[[W. H. Freeman and Company]] |isbn=0716706954 |edition=2nd |page=127}}</ref> Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term applies to [[natural resource]]s such as [[Aquifer|water aquifers]], [[Pasture|grazing pasture]]s and  [[forests]], wild [[medicinal plant]]s, [[fish stocks]] and other [[wildlife]].

In [[ecology]], overexploitation describes one of the five main activities threatening global [[biodiversity]].<ref name=Wilcoveetal>{{cite journal |last1=Wilcove |first1=D. S. |first2=D. |last2=Rothstein |first3=J. |last3=Dubow |first4=A. |last4=Phillips |first5=E. |last5=Losos |year=1998 |title=Quantifying threats to imperiled species in the United States |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=607–615 |doi=10.2307/1313420 |jstor=1313420 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ecologists use the term to describe populations that are harvested at an unsustainable rate, given their natural rates of mortality and capacities for reproduction. This can result in extinction at the population level and even extinction of whole species. In [[conservation biology]], the term is usually used in the context of human economic activity that involves the taking of biological resources, or organisms, in larger numbers than their populations can withstand.<ref>Oxford. (1996). Oxford Dictionary of Biology. Oxford University Press.</ref> The term is also used and defined somewhat differently in [[fisheries]], [[hydrology]] and [[natural resource management]].

Overexploitation can lead to resource destruction, including [[extinction]]s. However, it is also possible for overexploitation to be sustainable, as [[#Fisheries|discussed below]] in the section on fisheries. In the context of fishing, the term [[overfishing]] can be used instead of overexploitation, as can [[overgrazing]] in [[stock management]], [[overlogging]] in [[forest management]], [[overdrafting]] in [[aquifer]] management, and [[endangered species]] in species monitoring. Overexploitation is not an activity limited to humans. Introduced predators and herbivores, for example, can overexploit native [[flora]] and [[fauna]].

== History ==
[[File:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg|thumb|right|When the giant flightless birds called [[moa]] were overexploited to the point of extinction,<ref name=Holdaway /> the giant [[Haast's eagle]] that preyed on them also became extinct.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tennyson |first1=A. |last2=Martinson |first2=P. |year=2006 |title=Extinct Birds of New Zealand |publisher=Te Papa Press |location=Wellington, New Zealand |isbn=978-0-909010-21-8}}</ref>]]

Concern about overexploitation is relatively recent, though overexploitation itself is not a new phenomenon. It has been observed for millennia. For example, ceremonial cloaks worn by the Hawaiian kings were made from the [[mamo]] bird; a single cloak used the feathers of 70,000 birds of this now-extinct species. The [[dodo]], a flightless bird from [[Mauritius]], is another well-known example of overexploitation. As with many island species, it was naive about certain predators, allowing humans to approach and kill it with ease.<ref>{{cite news |first=Jonathan |last=Fryer |date=2002-09-14 |title=Bringing the dodo back to life |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=2006-09-07 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2255991.stm}}</ref>

From the earliest of times, [[hunting]] has been an important human activity as a means of survival. There is a whole history of overexploitation in the form of overhunting. The [[overkill hypothesis]] ([[Quaternary extinction event]]s) explains why the [[megafauna]]l extinctions occurred within a relatively short period. This can be traced to [[human migration]]. The most convincing evidence of this theory is that 80% of the North American large mammal species disappeared within 1000 years of the arrival of humans on the western hemisphere continents.<ref>Paul S. Martin</ref>  The fastest ever recorded extinction of [[megafauna]] occurred in [[New Zealand]], where by 1500 AD, just 200 years after settling the islands, ten species of the giant [[Moa|moa birds]] were hunted to extinction by the [[Māori people|Māori]].<ref name=Holdaway>{{cite journal |last1=Holdaway |first1=R. N. |last2=Jacomb |first2=C. |year=2000 |title=Rapid Extinction of the Moas (Aves: Dinornithiformes): Model, Test, and Implications |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |url=http://www.esf.edu/efb/gibbs/efb413/moa.pdf |volume=287 |issue=5461 |pages=2250–2254 |doi=10.1126/science.287.5461.2250 |pmid=10731144 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527164824/http://www.esf.edu/efb/gibbs/efb413/moa.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-27 |bibcode=2000Sci...287.2250H}}</ref> A second wave of extinctions occurred later with European settlement.

In more recent times, overexploitation has resulted in the gradual emergence of the concepts of [[sustainability]] and [[sustainable development]], which has built on other concepts, such as [[sustainable yield]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Larkin |first=P. A. |year=1977 |title=An epitaph for the concept of maximum sustained yield |journal=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1577/1548-8659(1977)106<1:AEFTCO>2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> [[eco-development]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lubchenco |first=J. |year=1991 |title=The Sustainable Biosphere Initiative: An ecological research agenda |journal=[[Ecology (journal)|Ecology]] |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=371–412 |doi=10.2307/2937183 |jstor=2937183 |s2cid=53389188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lee |first=K. N. |year=2001 |chapter=Sustainability, concept and practice of |editor-first=S. A. |editor-last=Levin |title=Encyclopedia of Biodiversity |volume=5 |pages=553–568 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |location=San Diego, CA |isbn=978-0-12-226864-9}}</ref> and [[deep ecology]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Naess |first=A. |year=1986 |chapter=Intrinsic value: Will the defenders of nature please rise? |editor-first=M. E. |editor-last=Soulé |title=Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity |pages=153–181 |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, MA |isbn=978-0-87893-794-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Sessions |editor-first=G. |year=1995 |title=Deep Ecology for the 21st Century: Readings on the Philosophy and Practice of the New Environmentalism |publisher=Shambala Books |location=Boston |isbn=978-1-57062-049-2}}</ref>

{{clear}}

== Overview ==
Overexploitation does not necessarily lead to the destruction of the resource, nor is it necessarily unsustainable. However, [[resource depletion|depleting]] the numbers or amount of the resource can change its quality. For example, [[Livistona rotundifolia|footstool palm]] is a wild palm tree found in Southeast Asia. Its leaves are used for thatching and food wrapping, and overharvesting has resulted in its leaf size becoming smaller.

=== Tragedy of the commons ===
{{Main | Tragedy of the commons}}
[[File:Cows on Selsley Common - geograph.org.uk - 192472.jpg|thumb|left|Cows on [[Selsley Common]]. The [[tragedy of the commons]] is a useful parable for understanding how overexploitation can occur.]]

In 1968, the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' published an article by [[Garrett Hardin]] entitled ""The Tragedy of the Commons"".<ref name=hardin68>{{cite journal |first=Garrett |last=Hardin |title=The Tragedy of the Commons |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=162 |issue=3859 |year=1968 |pages=1243–1248 |doi=10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 |pmid=5699198 |bibcode=1968Sci...162.1243H |doi-access=free}} Also available at http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/articles/art_tragedy_of_the_commons.html.</ref> It was based on a parable that [[William Forster Lloyd]] published in 1833 to explain how individuals innocently acting in their own self interest can overexploit, and destroy, a resource that they all share.<ref name=""Lloyd 1833"">{{Cite book |title=Two Lectures on the Checks to Population |last=Lloyd |first=William Forster |publisher=[[Oxford University]] |year=1833 |url=https://archive.org/details/twolecturesonch00lloygoog |access-date=2016-03-13}}</ref>{{Pages needed|date=May 2019}} Lloyd described a simplified hypothetical situation based on medieval [[land tenure]] in Europe. [[Herder]]s share [[common land]] on which they are each entitled to [[Grazing|graze]] their cows. In Hardin's article, it is in each herder's individual interest to graze each new cow that the herder acquires on the common land, even if the [[carrying capacity]] of the common is exceeded, which damages the common for all the herders. The self-interested herder receives all of the benefits of having the additional cow, while all the herders share the damage to the common. However, all herders reach the same rational decision to buy additional cows and graze them on the common, which eventually destroys the common. Hardin concludes:
<blockquote>
Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit—in a world that is limited. Ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons. Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.<ref name=hardin68 />{{rp|1244}}
</blockquote>

In the course of his essay, Hardin develops the theme, drawing in many examples of latter day commons, such as [[national park]]s, the atmosphere, oceans, rivers and [[fish stocks]]. The example of fish stocks had led some to call this the ""tragedy of the fishers"".<ref>{{cite book |first=Samuel |last=Bowles |title=Microeconomics: Behavior, Institutions, and Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/microeconomicsbe00bowl |url-access=limited |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/microeconomicsbe00bowl/page/n41 27]–29 |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-09163-1}}</ref> A major theme running through the essay is the growth of [[World population|human populations]], with the [[Earth]]'s finite resources being the general common.

The tragedy of the commons has intellectual roots tracing back to [[Aristotle]], who noted that ""what is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it"",<ref>{{cite book |last=Ostrom |first=E. |year=1992 |chapter=The rudiments of a theory of the origins, survival, and performance of common-property institutions |editor-first=D. W. |editor-last=Bromley |title=Making the Commons Work: Theory, Practice and Policy |location=San Francisco |publisher=ICS Press}}</ref> as well as to [[Hobbes]] and his ''[[Leviathan (Hobbes book)|Leviathan]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Feeny |first=D. |year=1990 |title=The Tragedy of the Commons: Twenty-two years later |journal=Human Ecology |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.1007/BF00889070 |pmid=12316894 |s2cid=13357517 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The opposite situation to a tragedy of the commons is sometimes referred to as a [[tragedy of the anticommons]]: a situation in which rational individuals, acting separately, collectively waste a given resource by underutilizing it.

The tragedy of the commons can be avoided if it is appropriately regulated. Hardin's use of ""commons"" has frequently been misunderstood, leading Hardin to later remark that he should have titled his work ""The tragedy of the unregulated commons"".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fe20060726sh.html |title=Will commons sense dawn again in time? |work=The Japan Times Online}}</ref>

== Sectors ==

=== Fisheries ===
{{see|Overfishing|Sustainable fishery}}
[[File:Bluefin-big.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Atlantic bluefin tuna]] is currently overexploited. Scientists say 7,500 tons annually is the sustainable limit, yet the fishing industry continue to harvest 60,000 tons.]]

In [[wild fisheries]], overexploitation or [[overfishing]] occurs when a [[Fish stocks|fish stock]] has been fished down ""below the size that, on average, would support the long-term [[maximum sustainable yield]] of the fishery"".<ref>{{Cite web |title=NOAA fisheries glossary |url=https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/12856 |access-date=2021-06-13 |website=repository.library.noaa.gov |publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> However, overexploitation can be sustainable.<ref>[Source?]</ref>

When a fishery starts harvesting fish from a previously unexploited stock, the [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] of the fish stock will decrease, since harvesting means fish are being removed. For sustainability, the rate at which the fish replenish biomass through reproduction must balance the rate at which the fish are being harvested. If the harvest rate is increased, then the stock biomass will further decrease. At a certain point, the maximum harvest yield that can be sustained will be reached, and further attempts to increase the harvest rate will result in the collapse of the fishery. This point is called the [[maximum sustainable yield]], and in practice, usually occurs when the fishery has been fished down to about 30% of the biomass it had before harvesting started.<ref>Bolden, E.G., Robinson, W.L. (1999), [https://books.google.com/books?id=PL6r1Ir_x_oC&q=%22Wildlife+ecology+and+management%22 ''Wildlife ecology and management''] 4th ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. {{ISBN|0-13-840422-4}}</ref>

It is possible to fish the stock down further to, say, 15% of the pre-harvest biomass, and then adjust the harvest rate so the biomass remains at that level. In this case, the fishery is sustainable, but is now overexploited, because the stock has been run down to the point where the sustainable yield is less than it could be.

Fish stocks are said to ""collapse"" if their biomass declines by more than 95 percent of their maximum historical biomass. [[Atlantic cod]] stocks were severely overexploited in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992.<ref name=""Frank""/> Even though fishing has ceased, the cod stocks have failed to recover.<ref name=Frank/> The absence of cod as the [[apex predator]] in many areas has led to [[trophic cascade]]s.<ref name=Frank/>

About 25% of world fisheries are now overexploited to the point where their current biomass is less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grafton |first1=R.Q. |last2=Kompas |first2=T. |last3=Hilborn |first3=R.W. |author3-link=Ray Hilborn |year=2007 |title=Economics of Overexploitation Revisited |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=318 |issue=5856 |page=1601 |doi=10.1126/science.1146017 |bibcode=2007Sci...318.1601G |pmid=18063793 |s2cid=41738906}}</ref> These depleted fisheries can often recover if fishing pressure is reduced until the stock biomass returns to the optimal biomass. At this point, harvesting can be resumed near the maximum sustainable yield.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosenberg |first1=A.A. |year=2003 |title=Managing to the margins: the overexploitation of fisheries |journal=[[Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment]] |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=102–106 |doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0102:MTTMTO]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>

The [[tragedy of the commons]] can be avoided within the context of fisheries if [[fishing effort]] and practices are regulated appropriately by [[fisheries management]]. One effective approach may be assigning some measure of ownership in the form of [[individual transferable quota]]s (ITQs) to fishermen. In 2008, a large scale study of fisheries that used ITQs, and ones that did not, provided strong evidence that ITQs help prevent collapses and restore fisheries that appear to be in decline.<ref>[https://www.newscientist.com/channel/earth/dn14762-guaranteed-fish-quotas-halt-commercial-freeforall.html  New Scientist: Guaranteed fish quotas halt commercial free-for-all]</ref><ref>[http://www.economist.com/science/displayStory.cfm?source=hptextfeature&story_id=12253181 A Rising Tide: Scientists find proof that privatising fishing stocks can avert a disaster] The Economist, 18th Sept, 2008.</ref>

=== Water resources ===
{{see|Overdrafting|Water scarcity}}

Water resources, such as [[lake]]s and [[aquifer]]s, are usually renewable resources which naturally recharge (the term [[fossil water]] is sometimes used to describe aquifers which do not recharge). Overexploitation occurs if a water resource, such as the [[Ogallala Aquifer]], is mined or extracted at a rate that exceeds the recharge rate, that is, at a rate that exceeds the practical sustained yield. Recharge usually comes from area streams, rivers and lakes. An aquifer which has been overexploited is said to be [[Overdrafting|overdrafted]] or depleted. Forests enhance the recharge of [[aquifer]]s in some locales, although generally forests are a major source of aquifer depletion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/UNreport.html |title=Underlying Causes of Deforestation: UN Report |website=World Rainforest Movement |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010411092448/http://wrm.org.uy/deforestation/UNreport.html |archive-date=2001-04-11}}</ref><ref name = ""Conrad2008"">{{cite web |url=http://www.azstarnet.com/sn/byauthor/244797 |last=Conrad |first=C. |title=Forests of eucalyptus shadowed by questions |date=2008-06-21 |work=[[Arizona Daily Star]] |access-date=2010-02-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206103926/http://www.azstarnet.com/sn/byauthor/244797 |archive-date=2008-12-06}}</ref> Depleted aquifers can become polluted with contaminants such as [[nitrate]]s, or permanently damaged through subsidence or through saline intrusion from the ocean.

This turns much of the world's underground water and lakes into finite resources with peak usage debates similar to [[peak oil|oil]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/6worllarg2.html |title=World's largest aquifer going dry |date= February 2006 |publisher=U.S. Water News Online |access-date=2010-12-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060913031104/http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/6worllarg2.html |archive-date=2006-09-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2005/Update47_data.htm |title=Disappearing Lakes, Shrinking Seas: Selected Examples  |last1=Larsen |first1= J. |publisher=Earth Policy Institute |date=2005-04-07 |access-date=2009-01-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903213215/http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2005/Update47_data.htm |archive-date=2006-09-03}}</ref> These debates usually centre around agriculture and suburban water usage but generation of electricity from nuclear energy or coal and tar sands mining is also water resource intensive.<ref>http://www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/water_resource.htm{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> A modified [[Hubbert curve]] applies to any resource that can be harvested faster than it can be replaced.<ref name=""Palaniappan2008"">{{cite web |first1=Meena |last1=Palaniappan |first2=Peter H. |last2=Gleick |name-list-style=amp |year=2008 |title=The World's Water 2008-2009 Ch 1. |url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch01.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320104604/http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch01.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-20 |access-date=2009-01-31 |publisher=[[Pacific Institute]]}}</ref> Though Hubbert's original analysis did not apply to renewable resources, their overexploitation can result in a [[Hubbert peak|Hubbert-like peak]]. This has led to the concept of [[peak water]].

=== Forestry ===
{{see|Overlogging}}
[[File:Gordon River Clearcut.jpg|thumb|right|Clear cutting of old growth forests in Canada.]]

[[Forest]]s are overexploited when they are [[Logging|logged]] at a rate faster than [[reforestation]] takes place. Reforestation competes with other land uses such as food production, livestock grazing, and living space for further economic growth. Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for [[paper]]. In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking.<ref>http://atlas.aaas.org/pdf/63-66.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724210638/http://atlas.aaas.org/pdf/63-66.pdf |date=2011-07-24 }} Forest Products</ref> Short-term economic gains made by [[Deforestation|conversion of forest]] to agriculture, or overexploitation of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long term biological productivity. [[West Africa]], [[Madagascar]], [[Southeast Asia]] and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of overexploitation and the consequent declining timber harvests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0905.htm|title=Destruction of Renewable Resources}}</ref>

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== Biodiversity ==
[[File:Maldivesfish2.jpg|thumb|left|The rich diversity of [[marine life]] inhabiting [[coral reef]]s attracts [[Bioprospecting|bioprospectors]]. Many coral reefs are overexploited; threats include coral mining, [[cyanide fishing|cyanide]] and [[blast fishing]], and [[overfishing]] in general.]]

Overexploitation is one of the main threats to global [[biodiversity]].<ref name=Wilcoveetal /> Other threats include [[pollution]], [[introduced species|introduced]] and [[invasive species|invasive]] species, [[habitat fragmentation]], [[habitat destruction]],<ref name=Wilcoveetal /> [[Hybrid (biology)|uncontrolled hybridization]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83 |title=Extinction by Hybridization and Introgression |year=1996 |last1=Rhymer |first1=Judith M. |last2=Simberloff |first2=Daniel |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics]] |volume=27 |pages=83–109 |jstor=2097230}}</ref> [[climate change]],<ref name = ""Kannan2009"">{{cite journal |last1=Kannan |first1=R. |last2=James |first2=D. A. |title=Effects of climate change on global biodiversity: a review of key literature |journal=Tropical Ecology |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=31–39 |date=2009 |issn=0564-3295 |url=http://www.tropecol.com/pdf/open/PDF_50_1/05Kannan.pdf |access-date=2014-05-21}}</ref> [[ocean acidification]]<ref name=Mora>{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=C. |title=Biotic and Human Vulnerability to Projected Changes in Ocean Biogeochemistry over the 21st Century |journal=[[PLOS Biology]] |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=e1001682 |year=2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001682 |display-authors=etal |pmid=24143135 |pmc=3797030 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and the driver behind many of these, [[human overpopulation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dumont |first1=E. |year=2012 |title=Estimated impact of global population growth on future wilderness extent. |journal=[[Earth System Dynamics Discussions]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=433–452 |doi=10.5194/esdd-3-433-2012 |bibcode=2012ESDD....3..433D|url=https://esd.copernicus.org/preprints/3/433/2012/esdd-3-433-2012.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref>

One of the key health issues associated with biodiversity is drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources.<ref>(2006) ""Molecular Pharming"" GMO Compass Retrieved November 5, 2009, From {{cite web |url=http://www.gmocompass.org/eng/search/ |title=GMO Compass |access-date=2010-02-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130503025248/http://www.gmocompass.org/eng/search/ |archive-date=2013-05-03 }}</ref> A significant proportion of drugs are [[natural product]]s derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources. Marine ecosystems are of particular interest in this regard.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roopesh |first=J. |year=2008 |title=Marine organisms: Potential Source for Drug Discovery |journal=Current Science |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=292 |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/feb102008/292a.pdf |display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, unregulated and inappropriate [[bioprospecting]] could potentially lead to overexploitation, ecosystem degradation and [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]].<ref name = ""Dhillion"">{{cite journal |title=Bioprospecting: Effects on Environment and Development |journal=[[Ambio]] |date=September 2002 |first1=S. S. |last1=Dhillion |last2=Svarstad |first2=H. |last3=Amundsen |first3=C. |last4=Bugge |first4=H. C. |volume=31 |issue=6 |pages=491–493 |jstor=4315292 |doi=10.1639/0044-7447(2002)031[0491:beoead]2.0.co;2 |pmid=12436849}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Cole |first=Andrew |year=2005 |title=Looking for new compounds in sea is endangering ecosystem |journal=[[British Medical Journal|BMJ]] |volume=330 |issue=7504 |pages=1350 |doi=10.1136/bmj.330.7504.1350-d |pmid=15947392 |pmc=558324}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cohabnet.org/en_issue4.htm |title=COHAB Initiative - on Natural Products and Medicinal Resources |publisher=Cohabnet.org |access-date=2009-06-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025100247/http://cohabnet.org/en_issue4.htm |archive-date=2017-10-25 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

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== Endangered and extinct species ==
{{see|Endangered species|Holocene extinction}}
[[File:Overgrazing.JPG|thumb|right|It is not just humans that overexploit resources. [[Overgrazing]] can be caused by native fauna, as shown in the upper right. However, past human overexploitation (leading to elimination of some predators) may be behind the situation.]]

Species from all groups of fauna and flora are affected by overexploitation.

All living organisms require resources to survive. Overexploitation of these resources for protracted periods can deplete natural stocks to the point where they are unable to recover within a short time frame. Humans have always harvested food and other resources they have needed to survive. Human populations, historically, were small, and methods of collection limited to small quantities. With an exponential increase in [[human population]], expanding markets and increasing demand, combined with improved access and techniques for capture, are causing the [[exploitation of natural resources|exploitation]] of many species beyond sustainable levels.<ref>Redford 1992, Fitzgibon ''et al.'' 1995, Cuarón 2001.</ref>  In practical terms, if continued, it reduces valuable resources to such low levels that their exploitation is no longer sustainable and can lead to the [[extinction]] of a species, in addition to having dramatic, unforeseen [[keystone species|effects]], on the [[ecosystem]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frankham |first1=R. |last2=Ballou |first2=J. D. |last3=Briscoe |first3=D. A. |year=2002 |title=Introduction to Conservation Genetics |location=New York |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-63014-6}}</ref> Overexploitation often occurs rapidly as markets open, utilising previously untapped resources, or locally used species.

[[File:Conuropsis carolinensisAWP026AA2.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Carolina parakeet]] was hunted to extinction.]]
 This is more prevalent when looking at [[island ecology]] and the species that inhabit them, as islands can be viewed as the world in miniature. Island [[Endemism|endemic]] populations are more prone to [[extinction]] from overexploitation, as they often exist at low densities with reduced reproductive rates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dowding |first1=J. E. |last2=Murphy |first2=E. C. |year=2001 |title=The Impact of Predation be Introduced Mammals on Endemic Shorebirds in New Zealand: A Conservation Perspective |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=47–64 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00187-7}}</ref> A good example of this are island snails, such as the Hawaiian ''[[Achatinella]]'' and the French Polynesian ''[[Partula (gastropod)|Partula]]''. Achatinelline snails have 15 species listed as extinct and 24 critically endangered<ref>{{cite web |title=IUCN Red List |year=2003b |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/search.php?freetext=Achatinella&modifier=phrase&criteria=wholedb&taxa_species=1&redlistCategory%5B%5D=allex&country%5B%5D=all&aquatic%5B%5D=all&regions%5B%5D=all&habitats%5B%5D=all&threats%5B%5D=all&Submit.x=97&Submit.y=2}}</ref> while 60 species of partulidae are considered extinct with 14 listed as critically endangered.<ref>{{cite web |title=IUCN Red List |year=2003c |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/search.php?freetext=Partula&modifier=phrase&criteria=wholedb&taxa_species=1&redlistCategory%5B%5D=allex&country%5B%5D=all&aquatic%5B%5D=all&regions%5B%5D=all&habitats%5B%5D=all&threats%5B%5D=all&Submit.x=95&Submit.y=4 |access-date=9 December 2003}}</ref> The [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre|WCMC]] have attributed over-collecting and very low lifetime fecundity for the extreme vulnerability exhibited among these species.<ref>WCMC. (1992). McComb, J., Groombridge, B., Byford, E., Allan, C., Howland, J., Magin, C., Smith, H., Greenwood, V. and Simpson, L. (1992). World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Chapman and Hall.</ref>

As another example, when the humble [[Erinaceus europaeus|hedgehog]] was introduced to the Scottish island of [[Uist]], the population greatly expanded and took to consuming and overexploiting shorebird eggs, with drastic consequences for their breeding success. Twelve species of [[Bird|avifauna]] are affected, with some species numbers being reduced by 39%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=D. B. |last2=Fuller |first2=R. J. |last3=Campbell |first3=S. T. |title=Long-term Population Changes Among Breeding Shorebirds in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland, In Relation to Introduced Hedgehogs (''Erinaceus europaeus'') |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=117 |issue=2 |year=2004 |pages=151–166 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00289-1}}</ref>

Where there is substantial human migration, civil unrest, or war, controls may no longer exist. With civil unrest, for example in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] and [[Rwanda]], firearms have become common and the breakdown of food distribution networks in such countries leaves the resources of the natural environment vulnerable.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jones |first=R. F. |year=1990 |title=Farewell to Africa |journal=Audubon |volume=92 |pages=1547–1551}}</ref> Animals are even killed as target practice, or simply to spite the government.  Populations of large primates, such as [[gorilla]]s and [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s, [[ungulate]]s and other mammals, may be reduced by 80% or more by hunting, and certain species may be eliminated altogether.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilkie |first1=D. S. |first2=J. F. |last2=Carpenter |year=1999 |title=Bushmeat hunting in the Congo Basin: An assessment of impacts and options for migration |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=927–955 |doi=10.1023/A:1008877309871 |s2cid=27363244}}</ref> This decline has been called the [[bushmeat|bushmeat crisis]].

=== Vertebrates ===
Overexploitation threatens one-third of endangered [[vertebrates]], as well as other groups. Excluding edible fish, the illegal [[wildlife trade|trade in wildlife]] is valued at $10 billion per year.  Industries responsible for this include the trade in [[bushmeat]], the trade in [[Chinese medicine]], and the [[fur trade]].<ref>Hemley 1994.</ref> The Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or [[CITES]] was set up in order to control and regulate the trade in endangered animals. It currently protects, to a varying degree, some 33,000 species of animals and plants. It is estimated that a quarter of the endangered vertebrates in the United States of America and half of the endangered mammals is attributed to overexploitation.<ref name=Wilcoveetal /><ref>{{cite book |last=Primack |first=R. B. |year=2002 |title=Essentials of Conservation Biology |edition=3rd |location=Sunderland |publisher=Sinauer Associates |isbn=978-0-87893-719-6}}</ref>

==== Birds ====
{{see|List of extinct birds in the wild|List of extinct bird species since 1500}}
Overall, 50 bird species that have become extinct since 1500 (approximately 40% of the total) have been subject to overexploitation,<ref>The LUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2009).</ref> including:
* [[Pinguinus impennis|Great Auk]] – the penguin-like bird of the north, was hunted for its [[feathers]], meat, fat and oil.
* [[Carolina parakeet]] – The only parrot species native to the eastern United States, was hunted for [[crop protection]] and its feathers.

==== Mammals ====
{{see|List of recently extinct mammals}}
* The international trade in fur: [[chinchilla]], [[vicuña]], [[giant otter]] and numerous cat species

==== Fish ====
{{see|List of recently extinct fishes}}
* [[Fishkeeping|Aquarium hobbyist]]s: [[tropical fish]]

==== Various ====
* [[Novelty pet]]s: snakes, parrots, primates and [[big cat]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rspca.org.uk/documents/1494939/7712578/The+Exotic+Pet-demic%3A+UK%27s+ticking+timebomb+exposed.pdf/075754a7-fa68-f9bf-66b4-ccb0d559db28?t=1631617196174|title=THE EXOTIC PET-DEMIC/UK'S TICKING TIMEBOMB EXPOSED|date=September 2021|publisher=[[Born Free Foundation]] and the [[Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]]}}</ref>
* [[Chinese medicine]]: [[bear]]s, [[tiger]]s, [[rhino]]s, [[seahorse]]s, [[Asian black bear]] and [[saiga antelope]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Collins |first=Nick |title=Chinese medicines contain traces of endangered animals |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/men_shealth/9200397/Chinese-medicines-contain-traces-of-endangered-animals.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412224539/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/men_shealth/9200397/Chinese-medicines-contain-traces-of-endangered-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 12, 2012 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=2012-04-12}}</ref>

=== Invertebrates ===
{{see|List of recently extinct invertebrates}}
* [[Insect collector]]s: [[butterflies]]
* [[Conchology|Shell collectors]]: Marine [[mollusc]]s

=== Plants ===
{{see|List of recently extinct plants}}
* [[Horticulturist]]s: New Zealand mistletoe (''[[Trilepidea adamsii]]''), [[orchids]], [[cacti]] and many other plant species

{{clear}}

== Cascade effects ==
[[Image:Kelp forest.jpg|thumb|left|Overexploiting [[sea otter]]s resulted in [[cascade effect]]s which destroyed [[kelp forest]] ecosystems.]]

Overexploitation of species can result in knock-on or [[cascade effect]]s. This can particularly apply if, through overexploitation, a habitat loses its [[apex predator]]. Because of the loss of the top predator, a [[Overpopulation in wild animals|dramatic increase]] in their [[prey]] species can occur. In turn, the unchecked prey can then overexploit their own food resources until population numbers dwindle, possibly to the point of extinction.

A classic example of cascade effects occurred with [[sea otters]]. Starting before the 17th century and not phased out until 1911, sea otters were hunted aggressively for their exceptionally warm and valuable pelts, which could fetch up to $2500 US. This caused cascade effects through the [[kelp forest]] ecosystems along the Pacific Coast of North America.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Estes |first1=J. A. |first2=D. O. |last2=Duggins |first3=G. B. |last3=Rathbun |year=1989 |title=The ecology of extinctions in kelp forest communities |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=251–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1989.tb00085.x |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230655}}</ref>

One of the sea otters’ primary food sources is the [[sea urchin]]. When hunters caused sea otter populations to decline, an [[ecological release]] of sea urchin populations occurred. The sea urchins then overexploited their main food source, [[kelp]], creating urchin barrens, areas of seabed denuded of kelp, but carpeted with urchins. No longer having food to eat, the sea urchin became [[locally extinct]] as well. Also, since kelp forest ecosystems are homes to many other species, the loss of the kelp caused other cascade effects of secondary extinctions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dayton |first1=P. K. |first2=M. J. |last2=Tegner |first3=P. B. |last3=Edwards |first4=K. L. |last4=Riser |year=1998 |title=Sliding baselines, ghosts, and reduced expectations in kelp forest communities |journal=Ecol. Appl. |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=309–322 |doi=10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0309:SBGARE]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>

In 1911, when only one small group of 32 sea otters survived in a remote cove, an international treaty was signed to prevent further exploitation of the sea otters. Under heavy protection, the otters multiplied and repopulated the depleted areas, which slowly recovered. More recently, with declining numbers of fish stocks, again due to overexploitation, [[Orcinus orca|killer whales]] have experienced a food shortage and have been observed feeding on sea otters, again reducing their numbers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Krebs |first=C. J. |year=2001 |title=Ecology |edition=5th |location=San Francisco |publisher=Benjamin Cummings |isbn=978-0-321-04289-7}}</ref>

{{clear}}

== See also ==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Carrying capacity]]
* [[Common-pool resource]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Defaunation]]
* [[Deforestation]]
* [[Ecosystem management]]
* [[Exploitation of natural resources]]
* [[Extinction]]
* [[Human overpopulation]]
* [[Inverse commons]]
* [[Over-consumption]]
* [[Overpopulation in wild animals]]
* [[Paradox of enrichment]]
* [[Planetary boundaries]]
* [[Social dilemma]]
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[Tyranny of small decisions]]
{{colend}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* [[FAO]] (2005) [https://books.google.com/books?id=sZiFyqG9Wx8C&q=overexploitation+fisheries Overcoming factors of unsustainability and overexploitation in fisheries] Fisheries report 782, Rome. {{ISBN|978-92-5-105449-9}}
* [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/jul/08/climate-crisis-biodiversity-decline-overexploited-planet-change-to-survive-aoe We’ve overexploited the planet, now we need to change if we’re to survive]. [[Patrick Vallance]] for ''The Guardian''. July 8, 2022.

{{Human impact on the environment|state=expanded}}
{{modelling ecosystems|expanded=none}}
{{Extinction}}
{{Natural resources}}
{{Population}}
{{Doomsday}}

[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Fisheries science]]
[[Category:Environmental issues]]"
International parrot trade,"[[File:Amazona dufresniana -two captive-8a-2c.jpg|thumb|right|Captive [[blue-cheeked amazon]] parrots]]

The '''international trade in parrots''' is a lucrative enterprise, and forms an important part of the international [[wildlife trade]]. As [[parrot]]s have become increasingly endangered, many countries have placed restrictions on the trade and/or prohibited the trade altogether. Despite the restriction on trade in many countries however, the market still operates both legally and illegally. A big factor that attempts to keep the control in international trade is CITES. The Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife Fauna and Flora was established in 1975, and consists of 184 parties which includes 183 countries along with the European Union. CITES offers three different degrees of protection for around 38,000 species around the world.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last1=Romero-Vidal |first1=Pedro |last2=Carrete |first2=Martina |last3=Hiraldo |first3=Fernando |last4=Blanco |first4=Guillermo |last5=Tella |first5=José L. |date=January 2022 |title=Confounding Rules Can Hinder Conservation: Disparities in Law Regulation on Domestic and International Parrot Trade within and among Neotropical Countries |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=1244 |doi=10.3390/ani12101244 |pmid=35625090 |pmc=9137931 |issn=2076-2615 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Approximately 2,600 of the more than 9,600 bird species in existence are subject to trade,<ref name=Latin>
'''[[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]].''' 2011. ''[http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i0708e/i0708e00.pdf Trade in Wild Birds and Related Bird Movements in Latin America and the Caribbean]'' Animal Production and Health Paper No. 166. Rome.
</ref>{{rp|3}} and 20% of these species belong to the order Psittaciformes (parrots).<ref name=Latin/>{{rp|3}} In 2009, 3.9% of households in the United States owned birds, which equated to 11,199,000 pet birds in total,<ref name=Weston>
{{cite journal
  |url=http://birdpop.net/pubs/files/weston/2009/552_Weston2009.pdf
  |first1=M.K.|last1=Weston
  |first2=M.A.|last2=Memon
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Latin America and its Consequences to Parrot Nutrition, Health and Conservation
  |journal=Bird Populations
  |publisher=The Institute for Bird Populations
  |year=2009
  |volume=9
  |pages=76–83
}}</ref> and 75% of these belonged to the [[Psittaciformes|Psittaciforme order]].<ref name=Weston/>{{rp|77}}

== CITES ==
CITES organization aims to restrict the import and export of endangered species.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |title=CITES – Encyclopedia of Parrots |url=https://parrots.lars-bodin.dk/information/cites/ |access-date=2023-11-03 |language=en-US}}</ref> In appendix I CITES lists species are threatened by extinction, and that trade within these species is only permitted in exceptional circumstances.<ref name="":0"" /> Appendix II species listed are not immediately threatened by extinction but trading must be controlled.<ref name="":0"" /> Appendix III are species that are protected in at least one country.<ref name="":0"" /> Specifically for appendix I CITES restricts the trading of wild birds, species within can only be traded if a permit is granted.<ref name="":0"" /> In a study done in Singapore in 2016, they found that 23% (54,207) of CITES Appendix I, II, and III listed birds and 35.2% (78,406) of CITES Appendix I, II, and III listed Parrots were not re-exported after their arrival.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last1=Aloysius |first1=Scott Li Meng |last2=Yong |first2=Ding Li |last3=Lee |first3=Jessica G. |last4=Jain |first4=Anuj |date=March 2020 |title=Flying into extinction: Understanding the role of Singapore's international parrot trade in growing domestic demand |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bird-conservation-international/article/flying-into-extinction-understanding-the-role-of-singapores-international-parrot-trade-in-growing-domestic-demand/16430B7F412A6ABDA7E407CEE7774E13 |journal=Bird Conservation International |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=139–155 |doi=10.1017/S0959270919000182 |s2cid=196688171 |issn=0959-2709|doi-access=free }}</ref> Tracking were parrots go after they have been imported and exported can help determine weather or not the birds are being breed at the locations that are importing, or weather they are being sold as pets.<ref name="":1"" /> 

==International trade==
The pet trade is a large contributor to the legal and illegal sides of wild animal consumption every year. There are many ways that legal wild life trade are regulated to try and ensure sustainable biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Jun |title=Latin America's Export Trade Prospect of Agricultural Products in China |journal=Contemporary Economics}}</ref> However, illegal trade is still an immense issue today. It's estimated that pet trade is worth, at a global level, $30.6-42.8 billion annually.<ref name="":2"" />><ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last1=Tow |first1=Jia Hao |last2=Symes |first2=William S. |last3=Carrasco |first3=Luis Roman |date=2021-10-12 |title=Economic value of illegal wildlife trade entering the USA |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=10 |pages=e0258523 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0258523 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8510001 |pmid=34637471 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1658523T |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is also estimated that $8.6-20.8 of the total is obtained through illegal trade. All over the world animals are being captured, breed, transported, and sold.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":3"" /> There are two main ways that Parrots are brought into trade. The first is that they will be caught from the wild and then transported to places where they are then sold. The second being that they are captively breed from wild populations, and are then sold into the trade. With both of these during the capture, transport and breeding process the mortality rate of birds is high.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last1=Pires |first1=Stephen F. |last2=Schneider |first2=Jacqueline L. |last3=Herrera |first3=Mauricio |date=2016-03-01 |title=Organized crime or crime that is organized? The parrot trade in the neotropics |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-015-9259-7 |journal=Trends in Organized Crime |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=4–20 |doi=10.1007/s12117-015-9259-7 |s2cid=255516461 |issn=1936-4830}}</ref>

When looking wild caught and also captive breed animals involved in the wildlife trade. Birds are among the highest in the number of species that are involved in trade and also the ones that have a large number of threatened species are affected by the pet trade.<ref name="":4"" /> Birds are one of the most commonly traded taxonomic groups worldwide, with ca. 4000 of both wild-caught and captive-bred origin species sold and kept as pets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ribeiro |first1=Joana |last2=Reino |first2=Luís |last3=Schindler |first3=Stefan |last4=Strubbe |first4=Diederik |last5=Vall-llosera |first5=Miquel |last6=Araújo |first6=Miguel Bastos |last7=Capinha |first7=César |last8=Carrete |first8=Martina |last9=Mazzoni |first9=Sabrina |last10=Monteiro |first10=Miguel |last11=Moreira |first11=Francisco |last12=Rocha |first12=Ricardo |last13=Tella |first13=José L. |last14=Vaz |first14=Ana Sofia |last15=Vicente |first15=Joana |date=2019-10-01 |title=Trends in legal and illegal trade of wild birds: a global assessment based on expert knowledge |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01825-5 |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |language=en |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=3343–3369 |doi=10.1007/s10531-019-01825-5 |s2cid=199445653 |issn=1572-9710}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=David Tsz Chung |last2=Poon |first2=Emily Shui Kei |last3=Wong |first3=Anson Tsz Chun |last4=Sin |first4=Simon Yung Wa |date=2021-10-01 |title=Global trade in parrots – Influential factors of trade and implications for conservation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989421003346 |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=30 |pages=e01784 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01784 |s2cid=239683716 |issn=2351-9894|doi-access=free }}</ref> In fact, approximately a third (>400) of all globally threatened bird species are thought to be affected by overexploitation for food or cage bird trade.

===Top exporters===
The greatest number of parrots came from [[Latin America]]n countries (mostly [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]] and [[Argentina]]).<ref name=Reynolds>
{{cite book
  |title=Conservation of Exploited Species
  |first=John D.
  |last=Reynolds
  |publisher=Cambridge University Press
  |year=2001
  |isbn=978-0-521-78733-8
  |url-access=registration
  |url=https://archive.org/details/conservationofex0000unse
  }}</ref> The top bird exporting countries are:
* [[Argentina]]
* [[Tanzania]]
* [[Senegal]]
* [[Indonesia]]<ref>
{{cite book
  |url=http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/17427827/622761750/name/Etnoornithologi.pdf
  |last=Tidemann|first=Sonia
  |title=Ethno-ornithology: Birds, Indigenous Peoples, Culture and Society
  |publisher=Earthscan
  |year=2009
  |isbn=978-1-84407-783-0
  |page=82
}}</ref>

===Top importers===
The largest importers of parrots are:<ref name = Latin/>
* The [[European Union]]
* The United States
* [[Singapore]]
* [[Central America]]
* The [[Caribbean]]

Prior to 1992, the United States was the largest importer, but after the Wild Bird Conservation Act was passed in 1992, the European Union emerged as the leading importer.<ref name=Latin/> In the 2000-2003 period, the EU imported 2.8 million wild bird species, accounting for 93% of imports worldwide.<ref name=Latin/>

The chart below graphs the gross exports of true parrots, members of the family Psittacidae, a subtaxon of the order Psittaciformes.
[[File:Parrot Export Chart.png|thumb|center|600px|Gross exports of true parrots<ref>
{{cite web
 |url=http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/trade.shtml
 |title=CITES trade database
 |accessdate=2011-11-15
}} Data excludes some genera in the family Psittacidae, including ''Pesoporous'', ''Poicephalus'', ''Tangnathus'', Strigops, Rhynchopsitta, ''Purpureicephalus'', ''Psittrichus'', ''Psittinus'', ''Triclaria'', and ''Touit''.</ref>]]

However, the statistics greatly underestimate the quantity of birds channeled into the pet trade. Mortalities that occur prior to export are excluded.<ref name=Latin/> An estimated 60% of the birds taken from the wild for trade may perish before reaching the market and many die in transport.<ref>
{{cite book
  |title=Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation
  |chapter=The Psittacine Trade in Mexico
  |first1=E.
  |last1=Inigo
  |first2=M.
  |last2=Ramos
  |editor1-first=John G.
  |editor1-last=Robinson
  |editor2-first=Kent H.
  |editor2-last=Redford
  |publisher=The University of Chicago Press
  |year=1991
  |isbn=978-0-226-72258-0
  |url-access=registration
  |url=https://archive.org/details/neotropicalwildl0000unse
  }}</ref>

The parrot trade has grown in Latin America, due to the wide availability of species in this area and the high global demand for exotic pets. The trade regulations vary between countries and are difficult to enforce, which has led to this continued practice despite the issues it causes. There is a lack of knowledge about the husbandry of exotic pets, particularly parrots, leading to inadequate care in captivity and illnesses, such as hypovitaminosis A disorder, which can be fatal. Additionally, the escape and owner release of these birds into the wild can also threaten species by establishing non-native populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Weston |first1=MK |last2=Memon |first2=MA |date=2009 |title=The illegal parrot trade in Latin America and its consequences to parrot nutrition, health and conservation. |journal=Bird Populations |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=76–83}}</ref>

==Trade in the United States==

Although most parrots in the United States are imported (see chart below), some appear to be captured domestically. Florida's wild [[blue-and-yellow macaw]]s are not native to the state and therefore are not protected under Florida law.<ref name=""Buder"">{{cite journal | last=Buder |first=Emily |date=15 May 2018 |title=The Legal 'Pet-Poaching' Problem |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/video/index/560441/parrot-macaws-miami/ |journal=The Atlantic |access-date=27 September 2021}}</ref> Pam Wright explained, ""Florida's wild parrots are being poached, sold on the internet, and it's perfectly legal.""<ref>{{cite news | url=https://weather.com/science/nature/news/2018-06-09-florida-parrots-poached-sold-internet-legal | title=Florida's Wild Parrots Are Being Poached, Sold On the Internet, and It's Perfectly Legal | date=9 June 2018}}</ref> In the documentary ''Parrots in Peril'', Neil Losin argues, ""Wherever you find wild animals that have commercial value in the pet trade—cities included—poaching can become a problem"".<ref name=""Buder""/>

[[File:U.S parrot trade chart.png|thumb|center|600px|United States parrot trade<ref name = US>[http://www.usitc.gov/ ""HTS – 0106320000: General Customs Value by General Customs Value for ALL Countries."", USITC Interactive Tariff and Trade Database, Accessed November 2011]</ref>]]

==Legal rules and restrictions regarding Psittacidae trade==
The Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA)<ref>{{cite web
  |url=http://www.fws.gov/international/DMA_DSA/Permits/web_list_wbca.html
  |title=Wild Bird Conservation Act
  |publisher=US Fish and Wildlife Service
  |accessdate=21 February 2012
  |archive-date=7 July 2012
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707065143/http://www.fws.gov/international/DMA_DSA/Permits/web_list_wbca.html
  |url-status=dead
  }}</ref> was enacted on October 23, 1992, to protect exotic bird species from international trade. The Act maintains that wild-caught birds may only be imported into the United States if they are produced in accordance with service-approved management plans for sustainable use of the species.<ref name = US/> After the WBCA, the number of parrots imported in the US declined from over 100,000 annually to only hundreds annually.<ref name=Reynolds/>

The [[European Union]] placed a temporary ban on wild bird imports in October 2005 after imported birds died from the [[Influenza A virus subtype H5N1|H5N1 bird flu]]. The ban was made permanent in 2007, allowing only captive-bred birds from approved countries to be imported.<ref>
{{cite news
  |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6253543.stm
  |title=EU to ban imports of wild birds
  |work=BBC News
  |date=11 January 2007
}}</ref>

The [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]] (CITES) protects certain species from the effects of international trade. Several true parrots from the genus [[Ara (genus)|''Ara'']] ([[great green macaw]], [[blue-throated macaw]], [[scarlet macaw]], [[military macaw]]), are all protected under Appendix 1 of CITES, meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced birds is prohibited.<ref>“Appendices 1,2, and 3” Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 2010</ref>

==Trade in Mexico==
Although it is difficult to account for the exact number of birds trafficked each year, a comprehensive survey of parrot trappers by [[Defenders of Wildlife]], a national nonprofit organization in Mexico, estimates that anywhere from 65,000 to 78,500 birds are captured and traded annually. The same report indicates that [[Psittacidae]] populations have declined as much as 30% in Mexico over the past century due to a combination of habitat loss and overexploitation of the trade of these animals.<ref name = Guzman>
{{cite report
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
  |page=9
  |first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
  |first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
  |first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
  |first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
  |publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
  |location=Mexico
  |year=2007
}}</ref>

===History===
Although declining parrot populations in Mexico are a modern worry, the [[Psittacine]] trade is deeply rooted in the country's history and culture. The [[Aztecs]] often kept parrots and macaws as pets, and their feathers were used to make ceremonial tokens. Smaller tribes taken over by the Aztec empire often provided their conquerors with Macaw feathers as a form of tribute and a symbol of submission.<ref name = Guzman/>
The Aztecs, who occupied Mesoamerica, also most likely traded Psittacidae feathers and animals with [[Pueblo]] peoples living in modern-day New Mexico.<ref name = Watson>
{{cite journal
  |first1=Adam S.|last1=Watson
  |first2=Stephen|last2=Plog
  |first3=Brendan J.|last3=Culleton
  |first4=Partricia A.|last4=Gilman
  |title=Early Procurement of Scarlet Macaws and the Emergence of Social Complexity in Chaco Canyon, NM
  |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
  |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]]
  |year=2015
  |volume=112
  |issue=27|pages=8239–8243
  |doi = 10.1073/pnas.1509825112 |pmid=26100874 |pmc=4500242
|bibcode=2015PNAS..112.8238W|doi-access=free
 }}</ref> It is evident that a culture of internal and international trade of these birds existed even before the Spanish conquest. The international parrot trade increased as [[spanish colonization]] opened the region to new trade routes.<ref name = Guzman/>
However, the illegal trade and smuggling of these birds only became recognized as an environmental issue and subsequently legislated in the 20th century.<ref name = Valdez>
{{cite journal
  |title=Wildlife Conservation and Management in Mexico 
  |url=http://faculty.weber.edu/jcavitt/WildlifeManagementMaterials/Readings/MexicoWildlifeLaws.pdf
  |first1=Raul|last1=Valdez
  |first2=Juan C.|last2=Guzman-Aranda
  |first3=Fransisco J.|last3=Abarca
  |first4=Luis A.|last4=Tarango-Arámbula
  |first5=Fernando|last5=Clemente
  |journal=[[Wildlife Society Bulletin]]
  |year=2006
  |volume=34
  |issue=2
 |page=273
|doi=10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[270:WCAMIM]2.0.CO;2
 |s2cid=85750850
 }}</ref>

===Export===
In September 1982 Mexico banned the commercial export of Psittacines, but because demand still existed in the United States, trade across the border continued illegally.<ref name = Gobbi>
{{cite report
  |title=Parrot Smuggling Across the Texas-Mexico Border
  |url=http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic_species_birds3.pdf
  |page=9
  |first1=José|last1=Gobbi
  |first2=Debra|last2=Rose
  |first3=Gina|last3=De Ferrari
  |first4=Leonora|last4=Sheeline
  |publisher=[[Traffic USA]]
  |location=Washington, DC
  |year=1996
}}</ref> Throughout the 1980s the majority of birds captured in Mexico were smuggled across the U.S. border to be sold as [[exotic pets]].<ref name = Guzman1>
{{cite report
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
  |page=10
  |first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
  |first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
  |first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
  |first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
  |publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
  |location=Mexico
  |year=2007
}}</ref> Beginning in the 1990s two major factors prompted the decrease of the flow of these birds into the U.S. First, the passage of the Wild Bird Conservation Act in the United States in 1992 led to a dramatic increase in the regulation of exotic birds entering the United States, naturally followed by a decrease in trade.<ref name=""Cornell University Law School"">{{cite web
  |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/16/4902
  |title=16 US Code 4902- Statement of Purpose 
  |publisher=Cornell University Law School 
  |accessdate=24 November 2015
}}</ref> Second, the Wild Bird Conservation Act authorized the creation of captive breeding centers in the United States.<ref name=""Cornell University Law School""/> Although captive bred birds are usually more expensive due to the costs of being raised in captivity, Americans looking for exotic pets are generally able to afford these higher prices. The sale of captive bred parrots has largely overtaken that of illegal exotics in the U.S.<ref name = Pires>
{{cite journal
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |first1=Stephen F.|last1=Pires
  |journal=Global Crime
  |publisher=[[Routledge]]
  |year=2012
  |volume=13
  |issue=3
  |page=178
|doi=10.1080/17440572.2012.700180
  |s2cid=144452354}}</ref> A common misconception is that animal trafficking in Mexico today is fueled by demand from the United States similar to that of the drug trade. However, it has been determined that internal trade of Psittacines within Mexico is now actually far more detrimental and widespread than international [[smuggling]].<ref name = Guzman1/>

===Illegal Trade Within Mexico===

The regulation of the parrot trade in Mexico has proven to be a problematic process. Until 2003, the parrot trade was authorized on a species by species basis. The number of species that could be legally trapped and sold had steadily declined since 1979, and in 2003 the [[Mexican government]] banned the trade of all Psittacines. However, in 2006 permits were once again issued for the capture and trade of select species. Although some trade in Psittacines was legal between 2006 and 2008, the absence of law enforcement for wildlife crimes meant that even trade in authorized species was usually perpetrated illegally.<ref name = Guzman22>
{{cite report
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
  |pages=9–10
  |first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
  |first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
  |first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
  |first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gomez
  |publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
  |location=Mexico
  |year=2007
}}</ref> Before 2008, many parrots were captured and sold by bird trapper and salesman unions. These unions were often registered with the state, and agreed to terms that attempted to protect parrot populations in return for official trapping authorizations. Although these stipulations aimed to protect Psittacine populations, they proved to be largely ineffective in practice.<ref name = Guzman33>
{{cite report
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
  |page=25
  |first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
  |first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
  |first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
  |first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
  |publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
  |location=Mexico
  |year=2007
}}</ref> For instance, federal law mandated that capture of authorized parrot species had to be performed inside [[Unidades de Manejo para la Conservación de la Vida Silvestre|UMA]]’s, or Wildlife Conservation, Management, and Sustainable Utilization Units, which are areas of land registered with the federal Office of wildlife regulated under a specific species management plan.<ref name = Valdez1>
{{cite journal
  |title=Wildlife Conservation and Management in Mexico 
  |url=http://faculty.weber.edu/jcavitt/WildlifeManagementMaterials/Readings/MexicoWildlifeLaws.pdf
  |first1=Raul|last1=Valdez
  |first2=Juan C.|last2=Guzman-Aranda
  |first3=Fransisco J.|last3=Abarca
  |first4=Luis A.|last4=Tarango-Arámbula
  |first5=Fernando|last5=Clemente
  |journal=[[Wildlife Society Bulletin]]
  |year=2006
  |volume=34
  |issue=2
 |page=273
|doi=10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[270:WCAMIM]2.0.CO;2
 |s2cid=85750850
 }}</ref>
The law also set quotas and other specific rules for trappers within these UMA's. However, the Mexican wildlife law enforcement agency, PROFEPA, was too understaffed and underfunded to enforce these laws. It was not capable of monitoring each UMA for illicit activity. Instead, it visited a select group of predetermined UMA's each year, and performed inspections of UMA's where illegal activity had been reported.<ref name = Guzman3>
{{cite report
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
  |page=55
  |first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
  |first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
  |first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
  |first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
  |publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
  |location=Mexico
  |year=2007
}}</ref> In 2005 only 54 out of the 6,446 UMA's in Mexico received visits from wildlife regulatory agencies. An absence of a concrete body of knowledge regarding Psitaccine populations and the activity of trappers within these areas meant that quotas were often exceeded and authorizations were bypassed. Consequently, it has been demonstrated that as much as 75% of the parrot trade, even in authorized species, was being perpetrated illegally.<ref name = Guzman43>
{{cite report
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
  |page=55
  |first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
  |first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
  |first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
  |first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
  |publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
  |location=Mexico
  |year=2007
}}</ref>

A 2006 report by Cantu et al. report demonstrated that the illegal trade of Psittacines actually ''increased'' when [[trapping]] was authorized by government agencies. This was because illegal activity was much more easily concealed under the auspices of legal trade.<ref name = Guzman4>
{{cite report
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
  |page=89
  |first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
  |first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
  |first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
  |first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
  |publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
  |location=Mexico
  |year=2007
}}</ref> The report suggested that the Mexican government stop issuing trapping authorizations for all species of parrots and [[macaws]],<ref name = Guzman4/> and so a ban on the Psittacine trade was placed into effect in October 2008.<ref>
{{cite web
  |url=https://www.animallaw.info/statute/mx-bird-parrot-ban-decree-which-article-60-2-general-law-wildlife
  |title=General Law of Wildlife Article 602
  |publisher=Michigan State Animal Legal and Historical Center
  |accessdate=28 November 2015
}}</ref>

Although this ban might be successful in deterring some of the organized trade in Psittacines, the illegal parrot trade is still a major problem today.<ref name = Pires2>
{{cite journal
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade: A Literature Review
  |first1=Stephen F.|last1=Pires
  |journal=Global Crime
  |publisher=[[Routledge]]
  |year=2012
  |volume=13
  |issue=3
  |page=178
|doi=10.1080/17440572.2012.700180
  |s2cid=144452354}}</ref> Psittacines are poached from the wild by opportunistic peasants who use the animals they sell as a primary or secondary source of income.<ref name = Moreto>
{{cite journal
  |title=Preventing Wildlife Crime: Solutions that can overcome the tragedy of the commons'
  |first1=Stephen F.|last1=Pires
  |first2=William D.|last2=Moreto
  |journal=European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research
  |publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media]]
  |year=2011
  |volume=17
  |issue=2
 |page=104
|doi=10.1007/s10610-011-9141-3
 |s2cid=144855203|id={{ProQuest|916897879}}
 }}</ref> This [[poaching]] is difficult to trace or regulate because it is widespread and performed without any sort of record-keeping.<ref name = Guzman2>
{{cite report
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
  |page=21
  |first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
  |first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
  |first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
  |first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
  |publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
  |location=Mexico
  |year=2007
}}</ref> The captured parrots are often sold to middlemen called itinerant fences who travel to different locations to purchase parrots from villagers and later sell them to open air markets located in more densely populated areas.<ref name = Pires2/>

PROFEPA attempts to combat the illegal parrot trade using several methods including directly attending to reports regarding illegal activity; making scheduled inspections of markets, pet shops, zoos, and UMA's; pinpointing identified locations for sale and transport; and patrolling ports, airports, and borders. However, these efforts do not make a significant impact. Much of PROFEPA's enforcement activity is concentrated on the point of sale, but the high rate of mortality in trafficked parrots means that intervention efforts often occur too late to save the smuggled birds. The agency also lacks the resources to conduct raids on warehouses and markets that are used to store and sell parrots. Even when these operations can be implemented, PROFEPA is hindered by insiders who tip off the bird traders so that they can hide their animals before the raids occur. (new info, defenders, 54) Because of its ineffective system of management, it has been estimated that PROFEPA's seizures of wildlife represent only 2% of the total annual Psittacine trade.<ref name=""Guzman53"">{{cite report
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
  |page=55
  |first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
  |first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
  |first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
  |first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
  |publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
  |location=Mexico
  |year=2007
}}</ref>

===Solutions To Illegal Trade===

Today, the illegal parrot trade continues because it is a low risk, high reward criminal activity.<ref name = Stephen>
{{cite journal
  |title=The Heterogenicity of Illegal Parrot Markets: An Analysis of Seven Neotropical Open Air Markets
  |doi=10.1007/s10610-014-9246-6
  |first1=Stephen F.|last1=Pires
  |journal=European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 
  |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
  |year=2015
  |volume=21
  |pages=151–166
|s2cid=154596917
 }}</ref> Intervention is problematic because there is a limited body of knowledge regarding the topic, and records kept by government agencies are sparse.<ref name=""Clarkeandpires1"">{{cite journal
  |title=Are Parrots Craved? An Analysis of Parrot Poaching in Mexico
  |first1=Stephen S.|last1=Pires
  |first2=Ronald V.|last2=Clarke
  |journal=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
  |publisher=[[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]
  |year=2012
  |volume=49
  |pages=122–146
  |doi=10.1177/0022427810397950
|s2cid=145534061}}</ref>

A 2006 report by Cantu. et al. is one of the only comprehensive and concentrated bodies of knowledge regarding the extent of the Psittacine trade in Mexico. This report is largely based on interviews with bird traders and union leaders, and attempts to organize data collected by a variety of Mexican agencies regarding the issue. However, the document is limited by a lack of concrete evidence specifically regarding the number of birds taken from the wild each year, and relies on interviews and speculation to fill in the gaps left by the absence of scientific data. It advocates for an increase in Psittacine [[population studies]] to regulate trade and to be able to formulate effective measures for reducing the exploitation of Psittacine populations.<ref name=""Clarkeandpires1""/> Because of the widespread and disorganized nature of the Psitaccine trade, literature suggests that improved enforcement of current regulatory methods is not feasible due to the financial limitations of PROFEPA and other wildlife administration agencies.<ref name=""Clarkeandpires1""/>

Alternative forms of prevention were suggested in several different studies. A 2011 report by Pires and Moreto advocates a system of situational crime prevention in which enforcement is targeted on a community basis. They write, “…in areas where parrot poaching is concentrated, possible solutions to poaching include: removing ladders from trees, keeping a watch out by citizens/police during breeding periods, shutting down illegal pet markets, and [[CCTV]] for the most poached species.”<ref name = Moreto1>
{{cite journal
  |title=Preventing Wildlife Crime: Solutions that can overcome the tragedy of the commons'
  |first1=Stephen F.|last1=Pires
  |first2=William D.|last2=Moreto
  |journal=European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research
  |publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media]]
  |year=2011
  |volume=17
  |issue=2
 |page=110
|doi=10.1007/s10610-011-9141-3
 |s2cid=144855203|id={{ProQuest|916897879}}
 }}</ref>
They conclude that a concentration of resources in the areas where they are most needed would prove most effective in reducing illegal trade.<ref name = Moreto1/>

A similar study by Pires and Clarke suggests that campaigns to build national pride for the Psitaccines of Mexico could be effective in lowering trafficking rates, but they acknowledge that the campaign may not be successful due to [[Mexico]]’s large urban population and diversity of parrot species. A more comprehensive and concrete suggestion, also by Pires and Clarke, is to promote and invest in ecotourist lodges that partner with local communities in order to conserve Psittacine populations by using them to attract tourists who stimulate the local economy. If these lodges were effective in providing adequate support to surrounding communities, it is foreseeable that the parrot trade in those areas would decrease as opportunistic trappers realize the value of psittacines as a [[natural resource]]. Need based trapping would decline as primary or secondary incomes would become dependent on the [[ecotourism]] business.<ref name=""Clarke"">{{cite report
  |title=Are Parrots Craved? An Analysis of Parrot Poaching in Mexico
  |url=http://jrc.sagepub.com/content/49/1/122
  |first1=Stephen S.|last1=Pires
  |first2=Ronald V.|last2=Clarke
  |journal=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 
  |publisher=[[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]
  |year=2012
  |volume=49
  |page=130
}}</ref>

==Illegal market==
Smuggling reached its peak in the 1980s when an estimated 50,000 to 150,000 [[neotropical parrot]]s were smuggled annually into the United States.<ref name = Carlos>
{{cite report
  |title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
  |url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
  |page=9
  |first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
  |first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
  |first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
  |first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
  |publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
  |location=Mexico
  |year=2007
}}</ref>

===Sample market prices===
* A [[Lear's macaw]] sells for approximated [[USD|$]]60,000-$90,000<ref name = Wyler>
{{cite report
  |url=https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/102621.pdf
  |title=International Illegal Trade in Wildlife: Threats and U.S. Policy
  |first1=Liana|last1=Sun Wyler
  |first2=Pervaze A.|last2=Sheikh
  |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]]
  |page=CRS-7
  |year=2008
}}</ref>
* [[Hyacinth macaw]]s sell for $5000–$12,000 per mature breeding pair<ref name=Wyler />
* Captive bred [[blue-and-yellow macaw]] were sold for around $1,800 dollars in the United States in the early 1980s, and for $650 to $900 in the early 1990s<ref name=Carlos />
* Live birds and bird eggs are the second most common major seizure by the [[Australian Customs Service]]<ref>
{{cite journal
  |title=Wildlife across our borders: a review of the illegal trade in Australia
  |first1=Erika|last1=Alacs
  |first2=Arthur|last2=Georges
  |journal=Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences
  |volume=40|issue=2|pages=147–160|year=2008
|doi=10.1080/00450610802491382|s2cid=57018987}}</ref>
* The price of a blue and gold macaw could be as high as $1200 in the early 1990s<ref>
{{cite report
  |title=Making a Killing or Making a Living: Wildlife Trade, Trade Controls, and Rural Livelihoods
  |first1=Dilys|last1=Roe
  |first2=Teresa|last2=Mulliken
  |first3=Simon|last3=Milledge
  |first4=Josephine|last4=Mremi
  |first5=Simon|last5=Mosha
  |first6=Maryanne|last6=Grieg-Gran
  |url=http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/9156IIED.pdf
  |page=12
  |publisher=[[International Institute for Environment and Development]]
  |docket=Biodiversity and Livelihoods Issues No. 6
}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Environmental agreements]]
*[[Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System]]
*[[Wildlife conservation]]
*[[Wildlife management]]
*[[Wildlife smuggling]]
*[[CITES]]
*[[Poaching]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Animal trade|Parrots]]
[[Category:Parrots]]"
Island restoration,"{{more footnotes|date=August 2011}}
[[File:Redonda by sea 1, 2023.jpg|thumb|[[Redonda]], an island in [[Antigua and Barbuda]], where restoration efforts have taken place.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-02 |title=Destructive wild goats ruled the island of Redonda for over a century. Now, it's being reborn. |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/raveous-wild-goats-ruled-this-island-for-over-a-century-being-reborn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418093532/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/raveous-wild-goats-ruled-this-island-for-over-a-century-being-reborn |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 18, 2021 |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=Science |language=en}}</ref>]]
The '''ecological restoration of islands''', or '''island restoration''', is the application of the principles of [[ecological restoration]] to [[island]]s and island groups. Islands, due to their isolation, are home to many of the world's [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] species, as well as important breeding grounds for [[seabird]]s and some [[marine mammal]]s. Their ecosystems are also very vulnerable to human [[disturbance (ecology)|disturbance]] and particularly to [[introduced species]], due to their small size. Island groups, such as [[New Zealand]] and [[Hawaii]], have undergone substantial [[extinction]]s and losses of [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]]. Since the 1950s several organisations and government agencies around the world have worked to restore islands to their original states; New Zealand has used them to hold natural populations of species that would otherwise be unable to survive in the wild. The principal components of island restoration are the removal of introduced species and the reintroduction of native species.

==Islands, endemism and extinction==
Isolated islands have been known to have greater levels of endemism since the 1970s when the theory of [[island biogeography]], formulated by [[Robert MacArthur]] and [[E.O. Wilson]], was developed. This higher occurrence of endemism is because isolation limits immigration of new species to the island, allowing new species to evolve separately from others on the mainland. For example, 71% of [[Biodiversity of New Zealand|New Zealand]]'s bird species (prior to human arrival) were endemic. As well as displaying greater levels of endemism, island species have characteristics that make them particularly vulnerable to human disturbance.

Many island species evolved on small islands, or even restricted habitats on small islands. Small populations are vulnerable to even modest hunting, and restricted habitats are vulnerable to loss or modification of said habitat. More importantly, island species are often ecologically naive, that is they have not evolved alongside a predator, or have lost appropriate behavioural responses to [[predator]]s. This often resulted in flightlessness, or unusual levels of [[island tameness|tameness]]. This made many species susceptible to hunting (it is thought, for example, that [[moa]]s were hunted to extinction in a few short generations) and to predation by introduced species. Some, such as the [[dodo]], are thought to have become extinct because of the pressure of both humans and introduced animals. One estimate of birds in the [[Pacific]] islands puts the extinctions at 2000 species. Between 40 and 50% of the bird species of New Zealand have become extinct since 200 AD.

[[Image:Takahe and chick.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Takahē]] have bred after translocation to restored islands, like these on [[Kapiti Island]].]]
The field of island restoration is usually credited with having been started in New Zealand in the 1960s, but other smaller projects, such as the restoration of [[Nonsuch Island]] in [[Bermuda]] (which began in 1962) have been going on for almost as long. Nevertheless, the program undertaken by the [[New Zealand Department of Conservation|Department of Conservation]] (DOC) is one of the largest in the world. It began on [[Cuvier Island]], where ecologists removed stock, [[goat]]s, [[feral cats]] and finally, in 1993, [[Pacific rat]]s. The success of the project resulted in similar projects around New Zealand. The advantages to the DOC were considerable; in addition to protecting species endemic to smaller islands, like the [[magenta petrel]], islands near the mainland, once restored, could act as habitat for species of birds that were unable to survive on the mainland. Species like the [[takahē]], where the remaining wild population was at considerable risk from feral cats and dogs, could be moved to these islands to safeguard the species.

===Eradication of introduced alien species===
One important aspect of island restoration is the removal of [[invasive species|invasive alien species]]. Since these species are most often the reason that native fauna and flora is threatened, their removal is essential to the restoration project. From 1673 until 2009, 786 successful invasive vertebrate eradication have been recorded and in the last few decades the frequency of eradications and the size of islands from which invasive vertebrates have been eradicated has increased. A definitive list of past island restoration efforts exists as the Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications.<ref>{{cite web|title=Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications (DIISE)|url=http://diise.islandconservation.org/ |publisher=[[Island Conservation)]]|access-date=9 January 2019}}</ref> In addition a list of the current invasive species present on the world's islands exists as the Threatened Island Database<ref>{{cite web|title=Threatened Island Biodiversity database (TIB)|url=http://tib.islandconservation.org/ |publisher=[[Island Conservation)]]|access-date=9 January 2019}}</ref>

Islands are particularly suitable for restoration as once cleared of an introduced species they can be kept cleared of these species by virtue of being an island. Species removal is intensive and expensive, and methods used must be carefully chosen as to not create too much impact on non-target species. Feral cats, goats and three species of rats are among the most damaging species introduced to islands (Moors & Atkinson 1984). The differences in size, lifestyle and behaviour preclude the use of the same techniques for all of them, but with many species a range of techniques needs to be used in order to ensure success. Larger animals, such as goats and pigs, can be effectively hunted; in the case of [[Round Island (Mauritius)|Round Island]], in [[Mauritius]], all the goats were eliminated by a single marksman. On larger islands ecologists use a [[Judas goat]], where a radio collared goat is released into the wild. This goat is then followed and groups it joins are removed. To remove cats a combination of techniques is needed: hunting, trapping and poisoning. Cats are more difficult to hunt than goats and pigs, requiring the use of experienced hunters and night hunting.

Trapping is ineffective for rats, given their sheer numbers, and the only method that works is [[poison]]ing, which can be delivered into the field by broadcasting (by hand or from the air) or by the maintenance of bait stations. This method has been employed around the world, in the [[Falkland Islands]], in the tropical Pacific, and off New Zealand, where over 40 islands have been cleared. This method is not without problems, especially if the rats share the island with other, native species of rodent that might take the bait as well, as has happened on [[Anacapa Island]] in the [[Channel Islands of California|Channel Islands]] and Rat Island ([[Hawadax Island|Hawadax]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.seabirdrestoration.org/pdf/RatIslandReview.pdf|title=THE RAT ISLAND RAT ERADICATION PROJECT: A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF NONTARGET MORTALITY. PREPARED FOR ISLAND CONSERVATION THE NATURE CONSERVANCY and the U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, ALASKA MARITIME NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE. PREPARED BY THE ORNITHOLOGICAL COUNCIL. Final report issued December 2010.|date=2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BwdOUBgcb_baeXlYTzZ0X05hWFU/view|title=US Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Law Enforcement, Report of Investigation #2009703127R001|date=2009}}</ref> in the Aleutian archipelago. In the Pacific poison intended for rats was taken by land [[crab]]s instead; the crabs were not affected by the poison but frustrated attempts to clear the rats.

The removal of invasive [[weed]]s is, in most cases, more difficult than removing animal species. One such eradication was that of [[sandbur]], ''Cencrus echinatus'', an introduced [[grass]] on [[Laysan]]. The grass, introduced to Laysan around 1961, had taken over 30% of the island by 1991, displaced the native [[bunchgrass]], and reduced the breeding habitat of two endemic threatened species, the [[Laysan duck]] and [[Laysan finch]], as well as those of several [[seabird]]s.  The removal took ten years, with controlled spraying for the first year, then individual removal of plants, then, when few plants were being found, sifting of the sands around plants to remove seeds. The cost of the eradication program was $150,000 per year.

Invasive vertebrate eradication has many benefits besides conservation of species and has been found to align with 13 UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and 42 associated targets encompassing marine and terrestrial biodiversity conservation, promotion of local and global partnerships, economic development, climate change mitigation, human health and sanitation and sustainable production and consumption.<ref name=""de WitZilliacus2020"">{{cite journal|last1=de Wit|first1=Luz A|last2=Zilliacus|first2=Kelly M|last3=Quadri|first3=Paulo|last4=Will|first4=David|last5=Grima|first5=Nelson|last6=Spatz|first6=Dena|last7=Holmes|first7=Nick|last8=Tershy|first8=Bernie|last9=Howald|first9=Gregg R|last10=Croll|first10=Donald A|title=Invasive vertebrate eradications on islands as a tool for implementing global Sustainable Development Goals|journal=Environmental Conservation|volume=47|issue=3|year=2020|pages=139–148|issn=0376-8929|doi=10.1017/S0376892920000211|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pursuing Sustainable Development for Island Communities by Removing Invasive Species|url=https://www.islandconservation.org/sustainable-development-communities-removing-invasive-species/|publisher=Island Conservation|access-date=13 August 2020|date=13 August 2020}}</ref>

====Strategies====

There are three strategies to reduce the numbers of the introduced animals in order to lighten the problems caused by them: exclusion, control, and eradication.
Exclusion is removal of introduced species in limited areas and focused on a local impact.
Control has a meaning of mitigation by reducing the numbers of introduced species down to ecologically and economically less harmful level. Since it is not complete wiping out strategy, this has to be taken constantly and repeatedly. This strategy is said to be feasible but less cost effective due to its incompleteness.
Eradication is the complete removal of all the individuals of the population, down to the last potentially reproducing individual, or the reduction of their population density below sustainable levels<ref>Myers, J. H., Simberloff, D., Kuris, A.  M. & Carey, J. R. (2000). Eradication revisited : dealing with exotic species. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15, 316–320.</ref> (J. H. Myerset al., 2000). For islands, it is usually the best strategy as it gives permanent effects, which potentially means most cost effective. However, it is still logistically and economically high cost. Also, this strategy is sometimes hard to accomplish depending on the environment of island and the alien species.<ref name=autogenerated1>Courchamp, F., Chapuis, J., and Pascal, M. (2003). Mammal invaders on islands: impact, control and control impact. Cambridge Philosophical Society. 78, 347-383.</ref> [[Island Conservation]] exclusively focuses on the eradication of invasive vertebrate species from islands. Up until 2021, the organization had deployed teams to protect 1,195 populations of 487 species and subspecies on 64 islands.<ref>{{cite web|title=Island Conservation Mission and History|url=https://www.islandconservation.org/mission-and-history//|access-date=20 March 2021}}</ref>

====Methods====

Fencing is used for excluding the alien mammals. This method intends to limit the area for the mammals before control or eradication.
Shooting is often used for large animals to control them. This method has meanings of gaining food supply and recreation. It requires accessibility in the field and experience for the hunters. Also, to maintain the effect, it requires good amount of manpower for long time, so it can be costly.
Trapping is designed for medium-sized mammals which are hard to shoot at.  This method is usually only for reduction not eradication. The advantage of this method is that it can be selective since it is possible to exclude or reduce the possibility of trapping native animals. However, trapping requires limited area to cover and limited population to capture.

Poisoning is very effective for small species. However, there are some disadvantages of this method. It is possible that untargeted animals take the poison. It is also necessary to consider the secondary poisoning that other animals are affected by poisoned species. This method can be costly if the area to cover is large.<ref name=tny20141223>
{{cite magazine |last1=Kolbert|first1=Elizabeth |title=The Big Kill : New Zealand's crusade to rid itself of mammals |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/12/22/big-kill |access-date=23 December 2014 |magazine=The New Yorker |date=23 December 2014 }}</ref>

Pathogen Introduction (parasitism) is one of the biological methods to eradicate alien species. It is very effective for limited species, but the viruses and bacteria need to be specified clearly for use.<ref name=tny20141223/>

Predator introduction is another biological method to eradicate the introduced species. It is less costly and environmentally clean, but it can cause greater problems, because it is possible that the introduced predator targets the native animals instead of alien species and its existence and its parasites can be new problems.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

Competitor introduction is also a biological method to eradicate introduced carnivores. It can be very effective with good amount of information. In the end, the competitor has to be removed as well.
Virus vectored immune-contraception is one of the newest method that is to infect introduced animals with genetically engineered viruses. This method is considered environmentally clean, low cost, selective, and ethical. However, it is not fully operational and the effect comes slowly.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

===Restoration of former habitat===
In many cases the removal of introduced species is sufficient to allow a return to a pre-disturbance state, but generally active management, often in the form of replanting native flora and reintroduction of extirpated fauna is needed to achieve restoration goals. Planting of native species helps to replenish species that were either grazed or out competed. Species of animal can be translocated either from existing populations, or from captive bred populations. These reintroductions need to be carefully managed, particularly in the case of [[endangered species]], where the potential benefits need to be weighed against the possibility of failure. Not all translocations succeed, and it may be necessary to help the reintroduced animals along with supplementary feeding or other kinds of management.

One other important aspect of restoration is prevention, that is, keeping invasive species from returning to a cleared island. This can be achieved by restricting access to the island in question (reducing possible instances of invasion) to more stringent quarantine methods. For example, in order to prevent invasive weeds from returning to Laysan, people working on the island must bring entirely new clothes to the island, which must be frozen prior to arrival.

==Opposition to island restoration==
Prior to the initial efforts to remove rats from New Zealand's offshore islands there was a great deal of skepticism as to the feasibility of island restoration amongst ecologists and conservation workers. However, as the techniques have improved and larger islands have been restored, most of the initial criticisms from within the field have been dropped, in particular as the costs of eradication are often much lower than continuous pest control. 

Outside of the field of conservation there has been some opposition from other interested groups, particularly from the [[animal rights]] movement, which contends that the [[animal welfare|welfare]] of the pests in question is not adequately addressed in island restoration plans. Because a broad spectrum of pest removal techniques needs to be used, including leg traps, animal rights campaigners accuse ecologists of cruelty, and indifference to non-targeted species that also take bait or are trapped, and suggest that more humane methods such as capture and [[Animal sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilization]] be used instead (something those working in island restoration contend would be too expensive, and potentially ineffective as in [[Kangaroo Island#Conservation|Kangaroo Island]] [[koala]]s). Some also defend the rights of the introduced species to exist as well.  Others, including scientists affiliated with the animal rights movement, accept that when the choice is between the future of a species and a population of pests, the future of a species must take priority (with the caveat that the extermination is conducted as humanely as possible). 

Opposition to island restoration has not led to the abandonment of many projects but has delayed several, particularly through court action. Groups sometimes adopt different approaches; opponents of [[hedgehog]] removal in the [[Outer Hebrides]] offered bounties for live hedgehogs removed from the islands and relocated in their natural habitat. Invasive plants can also generate strong feelings. The removal of ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' trees from [[Angel Island (California)|Angel Island]] in [[San Francisco Bay]] faced considerable opposition.

==Island restoration projects==
Island restoration has been attempted in many countries since the 1960s, and has met with varying degrees of success. The following examples highlight some of the factors that influence projects. A comprehensive list of projects can be found on the Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications.<ref>{{cite web|title=DIISE|url=http://diise.islandconservation.org/|publisher=Island Conservation|access-date=18 June 2016}}</ref>

=== Round Island ===
[[Île Ronde, Mauritius|Round Island]] (Île Ronde in French) is a tropical island 22.5 kilometres north of [[Mauritius]], with an area of 1.69 square kilometres and a maximum elevation of 280 metres.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/application/index.php?tpid=30&tcid=82|title=Welcome to the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation (MWF) - In The Field - Mauritius - Round Island|last=Foundation|first=Mauritian Wildlife|website=www.mauritian-wildlife.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-09-09}}</ref> Compared to other [[Mascarene Islands|Mascarene islands]] and islets, Round Island remained relatively pristine until goats and rabbits were introduced in the 19th century (goats were introduced between 1846 and 1868, whilst rabbits were present in large numbers before 1810).<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|title=Lost land of the dodo : an ecological history of Mauritius, Réunion & Rodrigues|last=S.)|first=Cheke, A. S. (Anthony|date=2008|publisher=Yale University Press|others=Hume, Julian P. (Julian Pender)|isbn=9780300141863|location=New Haven|oclc=216936090}}</ref> These herbivores, along with other factors, such as sporadic logging and frequent cyclones, led to the eventual dwindling of the island's forests and dependent fauna. In turn, this led to soil erosion by wind and rain, impeding forest regeneration, acting as a [[Positive feedback|positive feedback mechanism]] that caused rapid deforestation of the island. In 1957, however, Round Island was officially made a nature reserve, and in 1979 and 1986 was rid of goats (shooting) and rabbits (poisoning), respectively, after several unsuccessful attempts.<ref name="":0"" />

Since removal of the introduced herbivores, the Round Island plant community has recovered dramatically. This is especially stark for three of the endemic tree species, ''Latania loddigesii'', ''Pandanus vandermeerschii'' and ''Hyophorbe lagenicaulis'', which constituted a large portion of the Round Island forest historically. This has led to six reptile species (five of which were [[critically endangered]]) recovering in tandem with the plant community; these are the skinks ''Leiolopisma telfaririi'' and ''Scelotes bojerii'', the geckos ''Phelsuma guentheri'', ''P. ornata'' and ''Nactus serpensinsula'', and the snake C''asarea dussumerii.''<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1994-01-01|title=Changes in the vegetation and reptile populations on Round Island, Mauritius, following eradication of rabbits|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=67|issue=1|pages=21–28|doi=10.1016/0006-3207(94)90004-3|issn=0006-3207|last1=North|first1=S.G.|last2=Bullock|first2=D.J.|last3=Dulloo|first3=M.E.}}</ref>

The Round Island restoration program represents one of the longest-running projects of its kind in the world, since its conservation status was confirmed in 1957. Much of the current conservation work on Round Island is conducted by the [[Mauritian Wildlife Foundation]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/application/index.php?tpid=1&tcid=1|title=Welcome to the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation (MWF) - Home|last=Foundation|first=Mauritian Wildlife|website=www.mauritian-wildlife.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-09-09}}</ref> and [[Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.durrell.org/wildlife/|title=Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust {{!}} Home|website=Durrell|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-09-09}}</ref> and revolves around maintaining soil levels, reforestation of the island, and eradication of remaining invasive plants and invertebrates.

===Aleutian Islands===
[[Image:Fox with auklet.jpg|200px|thumb|Arctic fox with [[least auklet]]]]
The [[Aleutian Islands]], prior to the 18th century, lacked any terrestrial predators, but from the mid-18th century [[Arctic fox]]es were introduced to act as a source for the [[fur trade]], a practice that continued into the early 20th century. This introduction decimated the birds of the chain, particularly [[seabird]]s like the [[whiskered auklet]]. The reduction in seabirds, in turn, had effects on the [[ecology]] of the islands, as many of the plants were dependent on the guano from nesting birds acting as a fertilizer. In the early 1950s managers of the Aleutian Islands Reservation became aware of the damage, and an eradication program began. Since then over 80 islands have been cleared of non-native foxes (only six islands remain) and bird populations have rebounded. Whiskered auklets, which numbered 25,000 in 1974, had increased to 116,000 in 2003.

===Campbell Island===
[[Campbell Island, New Zealand|Campbell Island]] is a sub [[Antarctic]] island 700&nbsp;km south of New Zealand that became infested with [[Norway rat|rats]] in the 19th century. Several endemic birds, including the [[Campbell teal]] and [[Campbell snipe]], only survived on small rocky islets just off the island, and the populations were perilously low. Several teals were taken into captivity for [[ex-situ conservation]], but once they had bred in captivity there was no-where else to return them to until the island was cleared of rats. The DOC's plan to remove rats from the island was one of the most ambitious attempted, as the island was so remote, the rat populations had the highest density of rats anywhere in the world, the weather treacherous and, at 113&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, it was the largest island at that point where eradication had been attempted. The poison had to be dropped in the winter, to minimize disturbance to nesting seabirds and reduce the chance of [[bird strike]] for the pilots. After several experiments, the eradication began in 2001. In 2003 trackers with dogs were unable to find any rats. Soon after the island was cleared it was possible to return the teals to the island. [[Snipe]] have self-reintroduced to the island and have begun breeding.

=== South Georgia ===
Rats, brought to [[South Georgia Island]] as stowaways on sealing and whaling ships in the late 18th century,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sgisland.gs/index.php/%28e%29Eradication_Of_Rodents?useskin=env|title=Eradication of Rodents|publisher=South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands|access-date= |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803043220/http://www.sgisland.gs/index.php/(e)Eradication_Of_Rodents?useskin=env|archive-date=2015-08-03}}</ref> have caused much damage to native wildlife, destroying tens of millions of ground-nesting birds’ eggs and chicks. While previously the island's glaciers formed a natural barrier to the spread of rats, these glaciers are now slowly melting as the climate warms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/bas_research/science/climate/overview.php|title=Climate Change - Overview|publisher=British Antarctic Survey|access-date= |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708074958/http://www.antarctica.ac.uk//bas_research/science/climate/overview.php|archive-date=2015-07-08}}</ref> In 2011, scientists instituted a four-year programme to entirely eradicate the rats and mice, in what would be by far the largest rodent eradication attempt in the world to date.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article7052509.ece|title=South Georgia to poison millions of rats|last=Hastings|first=Chris|date=7 March 2010|work=Times Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/ecologists-turn-exterminators-in-the-great-rat-hunt-1917801.html|title=Ecologists turn exterminators in the great rat hunt|last=Connor|first=Steve|date=8 March 2010|work=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13282806|title='Success' in South Georgia rat eradication|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=4 May 2011|work=BBC}}</ref> The project was led by zoologist Anthony Martin of [[University of Dundee|The University of Dundee]] who stated, ""This is a man-induced problem and it's about time that man put right earlier errors.""<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-23143430|title=South Georgia rat removal hits milestone|last=Hogenboom|first=Melissa|date=4 July 2013|work=BBC|access-date=3 July 2013}}</ref> In July 2013, the success of the main phase of the extermination of the rats, which took place in May that year, was announced. 180 tonnes of rat poison, [[brodifacoum]], were dropped over 70% of the island, in what was the world's largest ever operation of this kind.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/215555ea-e3ea-11e2-b35b-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2Y3xemB5L|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211231252/https://www.ft.com/content/215555ea-e3ea-11e2-b35b-00144feabdc0#axzz2Y3xemB5L|archive-date=2022-12-11|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|title=Rats removed from South Georgia in biggest mass poisoning|last=Cookson|first=Clive|date=July 3, 2013|website=Financial Times|access-date=2016-04-08}}</ref> Another 95t of rat poison was planned to be dropped by three helicopters in January 2015.<ref>{{citation|last=Sarsfield|first=Kate|title=Habitat Restoration Project gears up for final phase of airborne rodent eradication programme|date=3 December 2014|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/habitat-restoration-project-gears-up-for-final-phase-of-airborne-rodent-eradication-406709/|work=[[Flightglobal]]|publisher=Reed Business Information|access-date=4 December 2014}}</ref> In June 2015 the eradication programme concluded, apparently successfully, with the island believed ""very likely"" to be rat free. Monitoring will continue for a further two or three years.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/rare-birds-return-to-remote-south-georgia-island-after-successful-rat-eradication-programme-10345864.html ""Rare birds return to remote South Georgia island after successful rat eradication programme""], ''The Independent'', 25 June 2015</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Courchamp, F., Chapuis, J., and Pascal, M. (2003). Mammal invaders on islands: impact, control and control impact. Cambridge Philosophical Society. 78, 347-383.
* Myers, J. H., Simberloff, D., Kuris, A.  M. & Carey, J. R. (2000). Eradication revisited : dealing with exotic species. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15, 316–320.

==Further reading==
* Atkinson, I A E, (1988). ''[https://newzealandecology.org/nzje/1759 Presidential address: Opportunities for Ecological Restoration]''. New Zealand Journal of Ecology '''11''': 1-12
* Flint, E. & Rehkemper, G. (2002) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267935164_Control_and_eradication_of_the_introduced_grass_Cenchrus_echinatus_at_Laysan_Island_Central_Pacific_Ocean ''Control and eradication of the introduced grass, ''Cenchrus echinatus'', at Laysan Island, Central Pacific Ocean'']. Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species (proceedings of the international conference on eradication of island invasives) (Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. '''27'''. Veitch, C. R. and Clout, M.N., eds).
*Kettmann, M. ( April 29, 2003) ''Death for Life on Anacapa island'', The Santa Barbara Independent
* Moors, P.J.; Atkinson, I.A.E. (1984). ''Predation on seabirds by introduced animals, and factors affecting its severity.''. In ''Status and Conservation of the World's Seabirds''. Cambridge: ICBP. {{ISBN|0-946888-03-5}}.
* Nogales, Manuel ''et al.'' (2004). ''[https://ccal.ucsc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Nogales_2004.pdf A review of feral cat eradication on islands]''. ''Conservation Biology''. '''18''' (2), 310-319.
*Williams, J.C., Byrd G.V.& Konyukhov, N.B. (2003) ""[http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/31_2/31_2_175-180.pdf ''Whiskered Auklets ''Aethia pygmaea'', foxes, humans and how to right a wrong'']''."" ''Marine Ornithology'' '''31''': 175-180.''
* [[David B. Wingate|Wingate, D.B.]] (1985) ''The restoration of Nonsuch Island as a living museum of Bermuda's precolonial terrestrial biome.'' In ''Conservation of Island Birds''. ICBP Technical Publication. {{ISBN|0-946888-04-3}}
* [http://www.seabirdrestoration.org/pdf/RatIslandReview.pdf THE RAT ISLAND RAT ERADICATION PROJECT: A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF NONTARGET MORTALITY].  PREPARED FOR ISLAND CONSERVATION THE NATURE CONSERVANCY and the U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, ALASKA MARITIME NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE. PREPARED BY THE ORNITHOLOGICAL COUNCIL. Final report issued December 2010.
* [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BwdOUBgcb_baeXlYTzZ0X05hWFU/view US Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Law Enforcement, Report of Investigation #2009703127R001]

==See also==
{{portal|Ecology|Islands}}
*[[Island ecology]]
*[[Restoration ecology]]

==External links==
* [http://diise.islandconservation.org/ Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications (DIISE)]
* [http://tib.islandconservation.org/ Threatened Island Biodiversity database (TIB)]
*[http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/ USDA - APHIS - Wildlife Services]
*[http://www.islandconservation.org/ Island Conservation]
* [http://www.islas.org.mx/ Conservación de Islas]
*[https://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/science-publications/conservation-publications/land-and-freshwater/land/ecosystem-restoration-on-mainland-nz/principles-of-restoration/ New Zealand Department of Conservation Ecological Restoration]
*[http://www.hear.org/articles/turningthetide/ IUCN Proceedings of the International Conference on Eradication of Island Invasives]
*[http://currents.ucsc.edu/04-05/03-28/foxes.asp UC Santa Cruz: Impact of Foxes in Alaska]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4724821.stm BBC News: New Zealand's pest eradication on islands]
*[https://www.nature.scot/professional-advice/land-and-sea-management/managing-wildlife/uist-wader-research UK SNH Uist Wader Project: impact of hedgehogs on wading bird breeding success]

{{conservation of species}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Island Restoration}}
[[Category:Island restoration| ]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Endemism]]"
Planet Earth: The Future,"{{about|the BBC Four documentary series|the BBC One series|Planet Earth (2006 TV series)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox television
| image              = Planet Earth - The Future.jpg
| alt_name           =
| genre              = [[Nature documentary]]
| writer             = 
| director           = 
| presenter          = 
| narrated           = Simon Poland
| composer           = [[George Fenton]]<br>[[David Poore]]
| country            = United Kingdom
| language           = English
| num_episodes       = 3
| executive_producer = 
| producer           = [[Fergus Beeley]]
| location           = 
| runtime            = 60 minutes
| company            = [[BBC Natural History Unit]]
| channel            = [[BBC Four]]
| first_aired        = {{start date|2006|11|26|df=yes}}
| last_aired         = {{end date|2006|12|10|df=yes}}
| related            = ''[[Planet Earth (2006 TV series)|Planet Earth]]'' 
}}

'''''Planet Earth: The Future''''' is a 2006 [[BBC]] [[documentary]] series on the environment and conservation, produced by the [[BBC Natural History Unit]] as a companion to the multi-award-winning [[nature documentary]] ''[[Planet Earth (2006 TV series)|Planet Earth]]''. The programmes were originally [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] on [[BBC Four]] immediately after the final three episodes of ''Planet Earth'' on [[BBC One]]. Each episode highlights the conservation issues surrounding some of the [[species]] and environments featured in ''Planet Earth'', using interviews with the film-makers and eminent figures from the fields of [[science]], [[conservation (ethic)|conservation]], [[politics]], and [[theology]]. The programmes are narrated by Simon Poland and the series producer was [[Fergus Beeley]].

==Background==
When the first episodes of ''Planet Earth'' were broadcast in the [[UK]], the producers were criticised by some green campaigners for glossing over the [[environmental problem]]s faced by the planet. Executive producer [[Alastair Fothergill]] defended the approach, explaining that a heavy-handed environmental message would not work on primetime [[BBC One]]. However, the ''Planet Earth'' film crews witnessed first-hand scenes of [[environmental degradation]] and the increasing scarcity of wildlife in some of the shooting locations. This experience formed the basis of ''Planet Earth - The Future'', which was designed to engage viewers in a mature debate about [[environmental issues]].

The following year, the BBC commissioned ''[[Saving Planet Earth]]'', the second overtly conservation-themed series to be shown on [[BBC One]]. The first BBC series to deal comprehensively with conservation was ''[[State of the Planet]]'' in 2000.

==Episodes==
{|class=""wikitable plainrowheaders"" style=""background: ; width:75%;""
|-
! style=""background: #00B050; width: 12%; color: #000000;"" | Episode
! style=""background: #00B050; color: #000000;"" | Title
! style=""background: #00B050; width: 20%; color: #000000;"" | Original air date
|-
{{Episode list
 |EpisodeNumber   = 1
 |Title           = Saving Species
 |OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2006|11|26|df=y}}
 |ShortSummary    = The first programme asks if there really is an [[extinction]] crisis facing certain species. Alastair Fothergill, executive producer of ''Planet Earth'', admits that making the series was a bittersweet experience since some creatures were filmed with the knowledge that their continued existence is under threat. David Attenborough believes that conservation of the [[natural environment|natural world]] is something that can unite humanity if people know enough about it. Cameraman Martyn Colbeck relates that every single day during a six-week [[Africa]]n visit to film for ""Jungles"", he and his crew were awakened by the sound of gunshots. [[Poaching]] can quickly wipe out a population, and David Greer of the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] explains that in 2005 his team confiscated 70 guns in the area – a 700% increase from 1999. Other featured animals at risk include the [[walia ibex]], the [[snow leopard]], the [[boto]], and [[saiga antelope]]. The attack of a [[polar bear]] on a [[walrus]] colony on dry land in ""Ice Worlds"" was a rare occurrence. Footage from a 1997 ''[[BBC Wildlife Specials|BBC Wildlife Special]]'' shows the bears hunting smaller prey on sea ice. Species have always become extinct, but now, the viewer is told, the rate of extinction is accelerating (see [[Holocene extinction]]) and it will ""really reach biblical proportions within a few decades."" Mankind is urged to respect [[biodiversity]]: it is estimated that if a monetary value could be put on all that the world's [[ecosystem]]s do for humanity, it would total some [[US$]]30 trillion.
 |LineColor       = 00B050
}}{{Episode list
 |EpisodeNumber   = 2
 |Title           = Into the Wilderness
 |OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2006|12|03|df=y}}
 |ShortSummary    = The second part looks at man's potential effect on the world's areas of [[wilderness]]. As the [[human population]] has grown, only a quarter of Earth's land now remains uninhabited (aside from [[Antarctica]]). Although around 12% is protected, this may not be enough – providing such places are not just 'enclosures' and bordering territories are also managed. [[Ethiopia]]'s [[Semien Mountains]] are increasingly encroached upon for farming land, and this example leads to the question of [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]]. Some interviewees argue that it is not just about numbers: how humans consume their [[natural resources]] is also important. However, others believe that the world would be greatly more sustainable if the population level was reduced to about half its current level. [[Jonathon Porritt]] believes that this could be achieved simply: by good education on [[family planning]]. Consumption of [[fresh water]] is highlighted: there are now 40,000 more dams in existence than in 1950. The controversy over drilling for oil in the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] is discussed by both its advocates and opponents. [[E. O. Wilson]]'s concept of [[Biophilia hypothesis|biophilia]] is discussed, and David Attenborough believes that a child's innate love of wildlife, for whatever reason, is being lost in adulthood. An answer to [[deforestation]] is found in [[Costa Rica]], where farmers are paid to allow their pasture to revert to forest for its water [[ecosystem services]]. This episode also deals with [[climate change]] and related [[global warming]], which is now happening at a faster rate than ever before.
 |LineColor       = 00B050
}}{{Episode list
 |EpisodeNumber   = 3
 |Title           = Living Together
 |OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2006|12|10|df=y}}
 |ShortSummary    = The last episode deals with the future of conservation. It begins by looking at previous efforts. The 'Save The Whales' campaign, which started in the 1960s, is seen to have had a limited effect, as [[whaling]] continues and fish stocks also decline. In the 1990s, as head of the [[Kenya Wildlife Service]], [[Richard Leakey]] took on the poachers by employing armed units. Although it was successful in saving [[elephant]]s, the policy was detrimental to the [[Maasai people]], who were forced from their land. The need for ""fortress"" areas is questioned, and the recently highlighted [[Raja Ampat]] [[coral reef]] in [[Indonesia]] is an example. The more [[tourism]] it generates, the greater the potential for damage – and inevitable coastal construction. [[Sustainable development]] is viewed as controversial, and one contributor perceives it to currently be a ""contradiction in terms"". [[Trophy hunting]] is also contentious. Those that support it argue that it generates wealth for local economies, while its opponents point to the reducing numbers of species such as the [[markhor]]. [[Ecotourism]] is shown to be beneficial, as it is in the interests of its providers to protect their environments. However, in some areas, such as the [[Borneo]] [[rainforest]]s, the great diversity of species is being replaced by [[monoculture]]s. The role of both [[Religion and environmentalism|religion]] and the media in conservation is argued to be extremely important. Contributors to the programme admit a degree of worry about the future, but also optimism.
 |LineColor       = 00B050
}}
|}

==Participants==
The following is an alphabetical list of the interviewees featured in the series, with their titles and professions as credited on screen:

* Neville Ash, [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]], [[UN Environment Programme]]
* [[David Attenborough]], broadcaster
* Ulises Blanco, farmer
* Mark Brownlow, producer, ''Planet Earth''
* Martyn Colbeck, cameraman, ''Planet Earth''
* [[James Connaughton]], senior [[Council on Environmental Quality|White House environmental advisor]]
* Huw Cordey, producer, ''Planet Earth''
* [[Robert Costanza]], professor of [[ecological economics]], [[University of Vermont]]
* [[Ahmed Djoghlaf]], executive secretary, [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], UN Environment Programme
* Betsy Dresser, senior vice president, [[Audubon Nature Institute]]
* [[Johan Eliasch]], entrepreneur
* Simon Evans, big [[Game (food)|game]] hunter
* [[Alastair Fothergill]], series producer, ''Planet Earth''
* David Greer, park advisor, [[World Wide Fund for Nature]]
* Chadden Hunter, wildlife biologist
* [[Tony Juniper]], executive director, [[Friends of the Earth]]
* Peyton Knight, [[National Center for Public Policy Research]]
* Marek Kryda, consultant, [[Animal Welfare Institute]], [[Poland]]
* James Leape, Director General, [[Worldwide Fund for Nature]] (WWF International)
* Moisés Léon, Tropical Science Center{{clarify|date=April 2012}}
* [[Mark Linfield]], producer, ''Planet Earth''
* [[James Lovelock]], independent scientist and proponent of the [[Gaia hypothesis]]
* Barbara Maas, chief executive, Care for the Wild International
* [[Wangari Maathai|Professor Wangari Maathai]], founder, [[Green Belt Movement]]
* [[Richard Mabey]], writer
* Jeffrey A. McNeely, chief scientist, [[World Conservation Union]]
* Nisar Malik, [[conservation movement|conservationist]]
* Tony Martin, [[Natural Environment Research Council]]
* [[Robert May, Baron May of Oxford|Professor Robert M. May]], [[University of Oxford]]
* E.J. Milner-Gulland, [[Imperial College London]]
* [[Russell Mittermeier]], president, [[Conservation International]]
* Henry Ndede, chairman, Friends of [[Nairobi National Park]], Kenya
* Craig Packer, ecologist
* Martin Palmer, chief executive, [[Alliance of Religions and Conservation]]
* [[Roger Payne]], president, [[Ocean Alliance]]
* [[Jonathon Porritt]], chair, [[Sustainable Development Commission]], UK
* [[Sandra Postel]], author and global water analyst
* Mark Stanley Price, chief executive, [[Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust]]
* Carlos Quesada, [[University of Costa Rica]]
* Adam Ravetch, cameraman & Arctic wildlife specialist
* [[M. Sanjayan]], Lead Scientist, [[The Nature Conservancy]]
* [[Clare Short]], former [[Secretary of State for International Development]]
* Sakana Ole Turede, chair, Kitengela Pastoral Land Owners Association, [[Kenya]]
* Jan Kees Vis, director of [[sustainable agriculture]], [[Unilever]]
* [[Robert Watson (scientist)|Robert Watson]], chief scientist, [[World Bank]]
* [[Rowan Williams]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
* [[E. O. Wilson]], professor Emeritus, [[Harvard University]]

==DVD and book==
* All three episodes of ''Planet Earth - The Future'' are included as a bonus feature on the fifth disc of the British and [[NTSC#North America|North American]] versions of the ''Planet Earth'' DVD box set (BBCDVD1883 in the UK). It was omitted from the [[HD DVD]] and [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] sets because of the mixture of [[Standard-definition television|standard]] and [[high-definition television|high-definition]] footage.
* An accompanying book, ''Planet Earth - The Future: What the Experts Say'' ({{ISBN|978-0-563-53905-6}}), was published by [[BBC Books]] on 5 October 2006.<ref>{{cite book|title= Planet Earth - The Future: What the Experts Say|id= {{ASIN|0563539054|country=uk}}}}</ref> The editors are Rosamund Kidman-Cox and [[Fergus Beeley]], and [[Jonathon Porritt]] wrote the foreword.

==See also==
* ''[[Planet Earth (2006 TV series)|Planet Earth]]'', the television series which spawned ''Planet Earth - The Future''
* ''[[Earth (2007 film)|Earth]]'', the associated feature film released in 2007
* ''[[Saving Planet Earth]]'', a BBC series highlighting the plight of [[endangered species]] broadcast in 2007
* [[Media coverage of climate change]]
* [[Effects of global warming]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|1108512|Planet Earth: The Future}}

{{BBC Natural History Unit}}

[[Category:2006 British television series debuts]]
[[Category:2006 British television series endings]]
[[Category:BBC television documentaries]]
[[Category:Documentary films about nature]]
[[Category:Documentary films about environmental issues]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Planet Earth (franchise)]]"
Greenprinting,"'''Greenprinting''' relates to the [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]] of land. Greenprinting is the creation of conservation scenarios that help communities make informed conservation decisions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Living Melbourne: Greenprinting a Metropolis |url=https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-insights/perspectives/living-melbourne--greenprinting-a-metropolis/#:~:text=Greenprinting%20is%20the%20process%20of,green%20space%20provide%20to%20communities |website=The Nature Conservatory |access-date=14 March 2024}}</ref>

Greenprinting can galvanize public support and encourage partners to work toward common conservation goals. Greenprinting often involves use of state-of-the-art maps and models created with [[Geographic Information System]] ([[GIS]]) software that combines layers of spatial and [[demographic]] information to guide [[growth management]] efforts.

== Publications ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070108043102/http://www.tpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=10648&folder_id=175 Local Greenprinting for Growth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110101020710/http://www.tpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=20161&folder_id=3130 The Trust For Public Land - Greenprinting Case Studies]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110101041448/http://www.tpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=21160&folder_id=264 The Trust for Public Land - Greenprinting for Growth in Texas]
* [http://www.visionnorthtexas.org/documents/greenprinting_tplpresentation.pdf Vision North Texas Greenprinting Project Presentation Jan 27th 2007]
* [http://www.visionnorthtexas.org/documents/greenprinting/VNT_2007_Greenprint_Results_Report_update_31808.pdf Vision North Texas Greenprinting Project Status Report March 20th 2008]

==External links==
* [http://www.tpl.org The Trust for Public Land]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental planning]]
[[Category:Parks]]
{{planning-stub}}"
Habitats Directive,"{{Use British English|date=May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Short description|European Union directive on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora}}
The '''Habitats Directive''' (more formally known as '''Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora''')<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043&from=EN|title=Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora |website=Eur-Lex |access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref> is a [[European Union directive|directive]] adopted by the [[European Community]] in 1992 as a response to the [[Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats|Berne Convention]]. The European Community was reformed as the [[European Union]] the following year, but the directive is still recognised.

The Habitats Directive required national governments to specify areas that are expected to be ensuring the conservation of flora and fauna species. This led to the setting up of a network of [[protected area]]s across the EU, along with '[[Special Areas of Conservation]]', which together with the existing [[Special Protection Area]]s, became the so-called [[Natura 2000]] network established to protect species and habitats.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/index_en.htm|title=Natura 2000 - Environment |publisher=[[European Commission]] |website=ec.europa.eu|access-date=2020-03-09}}</ref> 

This directive is one of the main pillars of the European Union's system of wildlife and nature conservation, another being the [[Birds Directive]].<ref name=EUwebsite>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm |title=The Habitats Directive |website=Europa |publisher=European Commission |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref><ref name=JNCC-EUlaw>{{cite web |url=http://www.jncc.gov.uk/page-1372 |title=Joint Nature Conservation Committee – European Legislation |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref> The Habitats Directive, together with the Birds Directive, are also called the ""nature directives"".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://inspire.ec.europa.eu/codelist/ReferenceSpeciesSchemeValue/natureDirectives | title=Nature directives }}</ref>

The Habitats Directive consists of 24 articles of legislation to which all member states must comply. Article 17 of the directive sets the terms and standards for reporting on both the habitats and species listed in the annexes by the individual EU member countries. It stipulates a report from each member country on the state of nature every six years.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name=reporting>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/knowledge/rep_habitats/index_en.htm |title=Habitats Directive reporting |website=Europa |publisher=European Commission |access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref> The first preliminary reports were due in 2001 (but only published in 2004),<ref name=reporting/> the first actual assessments were due in 2007 (published 2009),<ref name=reporting/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043&from=EN |title=Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora |website=Eur-Lex |access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref> the second in 2013 (published 2015), and the third set of assessment reports were due in 2019 (published 2020).<ref name=reporting/> The assessments of conservation status differ markedly from those of the [[IUCN Red List]]. The aim in the case of the EU conservation status is to assess the distance from a defined favourable situation, as opposed to the distance from extinction. There are three classes of conservation status: favourable (FV), unfavourable-inadequate (U1) and unfavourable-bad (U2).<ref>{{cite report |author=Douglas Evans |author2=Marita Arvela |date=July 2011 |title=Assessment and reporting under Article 17 of the Habitats Directive Explanatory Notes & Guidelines for the period 2007-2012 |url=https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/2c12cea2-f827-4bdb-bb56-3731c9fd8b40/Art17%20-%20Guidelines-final.pdf |publisher=European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity |page=8, 9 |access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref>

The annexes of the directive outline the protected habitats and species:<ref name="":0"" /> 
*Annex I covers habitats, 
*Annex II species requiring designation of [[Special Areas of Conservation]], 
*Annex IV species in need of strict protection, and 
*Annex V species in which member countries may decide for themselves how to manage the population.

==History==
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2018}}
From 1988 to 1992, the policy was given importance at the national level by policy experts, scientists and ecologists; later on in the 1990s this spawned further political, social and administrative discussions among the relevant countries.

Due to differences in nature conservation traditions, national problems have arisen in the implementation of the directive. Since member states in the [[Southern Europe|south]] and [[Eastern Europe|east of Europe]] participated less in nature policies, these states experienced problems with the EU provisions. In [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Italy]] and [[Belgium]], the observation of conflicts between various government layers have caused prolonged delays in the management of nature policies. On the other hand, in member states such as the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Sweden]], positive outcomes have developed due to stakeholder involvement, pro-active authorities, agencies responsible for implementation and public participation.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}

According to one 2014 report there are increasing incompatibilities with the Natura 2000 policy on economic development.<ref>Suvi Borgström, Frederik H. Kistenkas, 'The Compatibility of the Habitats Directive with the Novel EU Green Infrastructure Policy' (2014) 23 European Energy and Environmental Law Review, Issue 2, pp. 36–44. http://www.kluwerlawonline.com/abstract.php?id=EELR2014004</ref>

==Annex I==
Annex I lists the specific [[habitat]]s which have been designated as the a [[Special Area of Conservation]], to which a common EU-wide legislation applies. Certain habitats among those are furthermore designated as ""priority habitat types"". Habitats in the EU are given codes. An area or habitat can combine two habitats, and be designated as for example code 35.2 × 64.1 - Open grassland with ''[[Corynephorus]]'' and ''[[Agrostis]]'' (35.2), in combination with continental dunes (64.1). Example Annex I habitats are: 

Open sea and tidal areas
*Sea cliffs and shingle or stony beaches
*Atlantic and continental salt marshes and salt meadows
*[[Mediterranean]] and thermo-Atlantic salt marshes and salt meadows
*Salt and gypsum continental steppes
Dunes
*Sea dunes of the Mediterranean coast
*Continental dunes, old and decalcified
Standing and running freshwater
*Sections of water courses with natural or semi-natural dynamics (minor, average and major beds) where the water quality shows no significant deterioration
Matorral
*Mediterranean arborescent [[matorral]]
*Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-steppe brush
*[[Phrygana]]
Grasslands
*Natural grasslands
*Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies
*Sclerophyllous grazed forests ([[dehesa]]s)
*Semi-natural tall-herb humid meadows
*Mesophile grasslands
Bogs, mires and fens
*Sphagnum acid bogs
*Calcareous fens
Rocky areas and caves
*Scree, chasmophytic vegetation on rocky slopes
*Other rocky habitats
Forests - Only (sub-)natural
*Forests of temperate Europe
*Mediterranean deciduous forests
*Mediterranean sclerophyllous forests
*Alpine and subalpine coniferous forests
*Mediterranean mountainous coniferous forests
The full list of habitats is distributed over 9 main categories.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EUR-Lex - 01992L0043-20130701 - EN - EUR-Lex|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A01992L0043-20130701|access-date=2021-01-03|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>

==Annex II==
Annex II lists species which determine if an area is a [[Special Area of Conservation]]. These include:<ref name="":0"" />

===Animals===
====Mammals====
*[[Pyrenean desman]] (''Galemys pyrenaicus'') 
*Bats: ''[[Rhinolophus blasii]]'', [[Rhinolophus euryale|''R. euryale'']], [[Rhinolophus ferrumequinum|''R. ferrumequinum'']], [[Rhinolophus hipposideros|''R. hipposideros'']], [[Rhinolophus mehelyi|''R. mehelyi'']], ''[[Barbastella barbastellus]]'', ''[[Miniopterus schreibersi]]'', ''[[Myotis bechsteini]]'', [[Myotis blythi|''M. blythi'']], [[Myotis capaccinii|''M. capaccinii'']], [[Myotis dasycneme|''M. dasycneme'']], [[Myotis emarginatus|''M. emarginatus'']], [[Myotis myotis|''M. myotis'']]
*Rodents: ''[[Spermophilus citellus]]'', ''[[Castor fiber]]'', ''[[Microtus cabrerae]]''
*Carnivores: Lynx (''[[Lynx lynx]]''), otter (''[[Lutra lutra]]'') and ''[[Mustela lutreola]]''
*[[Grey seal]] and [[harbour seal]]
*natural populations of wild goats (''[[Capra aegagrus]]'')
*natural populations of wild sheep (''[[Ovis ammon musimon]]'') on [[Corsica]] and [[Sardinia]].
*[[Rupicapra rupicapra|''Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica'']]
*the dolphin ''[[Tursiops truncatus]]'' and the harbour porpoise ''[[Phocoena phocoena]]''

====Reptiles and amphibians====
*Land tortoises: ''[[Testudo hermanni]]'', [[Testudo graeca|''T. graeca'']] and [[Testudo marginata|''T. marginata'']]
*Freshwater turtles: ''[[Emys orbicularis]]'', ''[[Mauremys caspica]]'' and [[Mauremys leprosa|''M. leprosa'']]
*Lizards: ''[[Iberolacerta monticola|Lacerta monticola]]'', [[Lacerta schreiberi|''L. schreiberi'']], [[Gallotia galloti|''Gallotia galloti insulanagae'']], ''[[Podarcis lilfordi]]'', [[Podarcis pityusensis|''P. pityusensis'']], ''[[Chalcides occidentalis]]'' (a skink) and ''[[Phyllodactylus europaeus]]'' (a gecko)
*Snakes: ''[[Elaphe quatuorlineata]]'', [[Elaphe situla|''E. situla'']] and ''[[Vipera ursinii]]''
*Salamanders: ''[[Chioglossa lusitanica]]'', ''[[Mertensiella luschani]]'', ''[[Salamandrina terdigitata]]'', ''[[Triturus cristatus]]'', [[olm]] (''Proteus anguinus''), ''[[Speleomantes ambrosii]]'', [[Speleomantes flavus|''S. flavus'']], [[Speleomantes genei|''S. genei'']], [[Speleomantes imperialis|''S. imperialis'']] and [[Speleomantes supramontes|''S. supramontes'']] 
*Toads: ''[[Bombina bombina]]'' and [[Bombina variegata|''B. variegata'']]
*Frogs: ''[[Rana latastei]]'', ''[[Discoglossus jeanneae]]'', [[Discoglossus montalentii|''D. montalentii'']] and [[Discoglossus sardus|''D. sardus'']]

====Fish====
*All ''[[Eudontomyzon]]'' species, ''[[Lampetra fluviatilis]]'', [[Lampetra planeri|''L. planeri'']], ''[[Lethenteron zanandrai]]'', ''[[Petromyzon marinus]]''
*''[[Aphanius iberus]]'' and [[Aphanius fasciatus|''A. fasciatus'']]
*only natural populations of ''[[Hucho hucho]]''
*only freshwater populations of salmon (''[[Salmo salar]]''), the trout [[Salmo marmoradus|''S. marmoradus'']] and [[Salmo macrostigma|''S. macrostigma'']]
*the [[Cyprinidae|cyprid]] fish ''[[Alburnus vulturius]]'', [[Alburnus albidus|''A. albidus'']], ''[[Anaecypris hispanica]]'', ''[[Aspius aspius]]'', ''[[Barbus plebejus]]'', [[Barbus meridionalis|''B. meridionalis'']], [[Barbus capito|''B. capito'']], [[Barbus comiza|''B. comiza'']], ''[[Chalcalburnus chalcoides]]'', ''[[Chondrostoma soetta]]'', [[Chondrostoma polylepis|''Ch. polylepis'']], [[Chondrostoma genei|''Ch. genei'']], [[Chondrostoma lusitanicum|''Ch. lusitanicum'']], [[Chondrostoma toxostoma|''Ch. toxostoma'']], ''[[Gobio albipinnatus]]'', [[Gobio uranoscopus|''G. uranoscopus'']], ''[[Iberocypris palaciosi]]'', ''[[Leuciscus lucomonis]]'', [[Leuciscus souffia|''L. souffia'']], all species of ''[[Phoxinellus]]'', ''[[Rutilus pigus]]'', [[Rutilus rubilio|''R. rubilio'']], [[Rutilus arcasii|''R. arcasii'']], [[Rutilus macrolepidotus|''R. macrolepidotus'']], [[Rutilus lemmingii|''R. lemmingii'']], [[Rutilus friesii|''R. friesii meidingeri'']], [[Rutilus alburnoides|''R. alburnoides'']], [[Rhodeus sericeus|''Rhodeus sericeus amarus'']], ''[[Scardinius graecus]]''
*the [[Cobitidae]] loaches ''[[Cobitis conspersa]]'', [[Cobitis larvata|''C. larvata'']], [[Cobitis trichonica|''C. trichonica'']], [[Cobitis taenia|''C. taenia'']], ''[[Misgurnis fossilis]]'', ''[[Sabanejewia aurata]]''
*of the perches: ''[[Gymnocephalus schraetzer]]'' and all ''[[Zingel]]'' species except [[Zingel asper|''Z. asper'']] and [[Zingel zingel|''Z. zingel'']]
*[[Gobiidae]]: ''[[Pomatoschistus canestrini]]'', ''[[Padogobius panizzai]]'', [[Padogobius nigricans|''P. nigricans'']]
*the [[Cottus (fish)|freshwater sculpins]] ''[[Cottus ferruginosus]]'', [[Cottus gobio|''C. gobio'']], [[Cottus petiti|''C. petiti'']]
*all ''[[Alosa]]'' species, the river herrings or scads.
*[[Aristotle's catfish]] (''Silurus aristotelis'')

====Crustaceans====
*the freshwater crayfish ''[[Austropotamobius pallipes]]''

====Insects====
*the beetles ''[[Buprestis splendens]]'', ''[[Cerambyx cerdo]]'', ''[[Cucujus cinnaberinus]]'',  ''[[Dytiscus latissimus]]'', ''[[Graphoderus bilineatus]]'', ''[[Limoniscus violaceus]]'', ''[[Lucanus cervus]]'' and ''[[Morimus funereus]]''
*the butterflies ''[[Coenonympha oedippus]]'', ''[[Erebia calcaria]]'', [[Erebia christi|''E. christi'']], ''[[Eriogaster catax]]'', ''[[Euphydryas aurinia]]'', ''[[Graellsia isabellae]]'', ''[[Hypodryas maturna]]'', ''[[Lycaena dispar]]'', ''[[Maculinea nausithous]]'', [[Maculinea teleius|''M. teleius'']], ''[[Melanagria arge]]'', ''[[Papilio hospiton]]'', ''[[Plebicula golgus]]''
*the praying mantis ''[[Apteromantis aptera]]''
*the dragonflies ''[[Coenagrion hylas]]'', [[Coenagrion mercuriale|''C. mercuriale'']], ''[[Cordulegaster trinacriae]]'', ''[[Gomphus graslinii]]'', ''[[Leucorrhina pectoralis]]'', ''[[Lindenia tetraphylla]]'', ''[[Macromia splendens]]'', ''[[Ophiogomphus cecilia]]'', ''[[Oxygastra curtisii]]''
*the grasshopper ''[[Baetica ustulata]]''

====Molluscs====
*[[Gastropods]] (snails): ''[[Caseolus calculus]]'', [[Caseolus commixta|''C. commixta'']], [[Caseolus sphaerula|''C. sphaerula'']], ''[[Discula leacockiana]]'', [[Discula tabellata|''D. tabellata'']], ''[[Discus defloratus]]'', [[Discus guerinianus|''D. guerinianus'']], ''[[Elona quimperiana]]'', ''[[Geomalacus maculosus]]'', ''[[Geomitra moniziana]]'', ''[[Idiomela subplicata]]'' (as ''Helix subplicata''), ''[[Leiostyla abbreviata]]'', [[Leiostyla cassida|''L. cassida'']], [[Leiostyla corneocostata|''L. corneocostata'']], [[Leiostyla gibba|''L. gibba'']], [[Leiostyla lamellosa|''L. lamellosa'']], ''[[Vertigo angustior]]'', [[Vertigo genesii|''V. genesii'']], [[Vertigo geyeri|''V. geyeri'']], [[Vertigo moulinsiana|''V. moulinsiana'']]
*Bivalves: ''[[Margaritifera margaritifera]]'' and ''[[Unio crassus]]''

===Plants===
Mosses and liverworts: ''[[Bruchia vogesiaca]]'', ''[[Buxbaumia viridis]]'', ''[[Dichelyma capillaceum]]'', ''[[Dicranum viride]]'', ''[[Distichophyllum carinatum]]'', ''[[Drepanocladus vernicosus]]'', ''[[Jungermannia handelii]]'', ''[[Mannia triandra]]'', ''[[Meesia longiseta]]'', ''[[Nothothylas orbicularis]]'', ''[[Orthotrichum rogeri]]'', ''[[Petalophyllum ralfsii]]'', ''[[Riccia breidleri]]'', ''[[Riella helicophylla]]'', ''[[Scapania massolongi]]'', ''[[Sphagnum pylaisii]]'', ''[[Tayloria rudolphiana]]''

Ferns and allies
*the ferns ''[[Asplenium jahandiezii]]'', ''[[Culcita macrocarpa]]'', ''[[Trichomanes speciosum]]'' and ''[[Woodwardia radicans]]''
*the water ferns ''[[Marsilea batardae]]'', [[Marsilea quadrifolia|''M. quadrifolia'']] and [[Marsilea strigosa|''M. strigosa'']]
*''[[Botrychium simplex]]'' and ''[[Ophioglossum polyphyllum]]''
*the squillworts ''[[Isoetes boryana]]'' and [[Isoetes malinverniana|''I. malinverniana'']]

Monocots
*[[Alismataceae]]: ''[[Caldesia parnassifolia]]'' and ''[[Luronium natans]]''
*''[[Allium grosii]]''
*''[[Eleocharis carniolica]]''
*''[[Juncus valvatus]]''
*''[[Hyacinthoides vicentina]]''
*''[[Leucojum nicaeense]]''
*Daffodils: ''[[Narcissus asturiensis]]'', [[Narcissus calcicola|''N. calcicola'']], [[Narcissus cyclamineus|''N. cyclamineus'']], [[Narcissus fernandesii|''N. fernandesii'']], [[Narcissus humilis|''N. humilis'']], [[Narcissus pseudonarcissus|''N. pseudonarcissus'' subsp. ''nobilis'']], [[Narcissus scaberulus|''N. scaberulus'']], [[Narcissus triandrus|''N. triandrus'' subsp. ''capax'']] and [[Narcissus viridiflorus|''N. viridiflorus'']]
*Grasses: ''[[Avenula hackelii]]'', ''[[Bromus grossus]]'', ''[[Coleanthus subtilis]]'', ''[[Festuca brigantina]]'', [[Festuca duriotagana|''F. duriotagana'']], [[Festuca elegans|''F. elegans'']], [[Festuca henriquesii|''F. henriquesii'']], [[Festuca sumilusitanica|''F. sumilusitanica'']], ''[[Gaudinia hispanica]]'', [[Holcus setiglumis|''Holcus setiglumis'' subsp. ''duriensis'']], ''[[Micropyropsis tuberosa]]''. ''[[Pseudarrhenatherum pallens]]'' and ''[[Puccinellia pungens]]''
*Orchids: ''[[Cypripedium calceolus]]'' and ''[[Liparis loeselii]]''
*Cretan date palm (''[[Phoenix theophrasti]]'')

Dicots
*[[Apiaceae]]: ''[[Angelica palustris]]'', ''[[Apium repens]]'', ''[[Athamanta cortiana]]'', ''[[Eryngium alpinum]]'', ''[[Petagnia saniculifolia]]'', ''[[Rouya polygama]]'' and ''[[Thorella verticillatinundata]]''
*''[[Aldrovanda vesiculosa]]''
*[[Asteraceae]]: ''[[Centaurea corymbosa]]'', [[Centaurea gadorensis|''C. gadorensis'']], [[Centaurea kartschiana|''C. kartschiana'']], [[Centaurea micrantha|''Centaurea micrantha'' subsp. ''herminii'']], [[Centaurea pulvinata|''C. pulvinata'']], [[Centaurea rothmalerana|''C. rothmalerana'']], [[Centaurea vicentina|''C. vicentina'']], ''[[Crepis granatensis]]'', ''[[Erigeron frigidus]]'', ''[[Hymenostemma pseudanthemis]]'', ''[[Leontodon microcephalus]]'', [[Leontodon boryi|''L. boryi'']], ''[[Leuzea longifolia]]'', ''[[Ligularia sibirica]]'', ''[[Santolina impressa]]'', [[Santolina semidentata|''S. semidentata'']] and ''[[Senecio nevadensis]]''
*[[Boraginaceae]]: ''[[Myosotis lusitanica]]'', [[Myosotis rehsteineri|''M. rehsteineri'']], [[Myosotis retusifolia|''M. retusifolia'']], ''[[Omphalodes kuzinskyana]]'' and ''[[Solenanthus albanicus]]''
*[[Brassicaceae]]: ''[[Alyssum pyrenaicum]]'', ''[[Arabis sadina]]'', ''[[Biscutella vincentina]]'',  ''[[Boleum asperum]]'', ''[[Brassica glabrescens]]'', [[Brassica insularis|''B. insularis'']], ''[[Coincya cintrana]]'', ''[[Diplotaxis ibicensis]]'', [[Diplotaxis vicentina|''D. vicentina'']], ''[[Erucastrum palustre]]'', [[Iberis procumbens|''Iberis procumbens'' subsp. ''microcarpa'']], ''[[Ionopsidium savianum]]'', ''[[Sisymbrium cavanillesianum]]'' and [[Sisymbrium supinum|''S. supinum'']]
*[[Campanulaceae]]: ''[[Asyneuma giganteum]]'', [[Jasione crispa|''Jasione crispa'' subsp. ''serpentinica'']] and [[Jasione lusitanica|''J. lusitanica'']]
*[[Caryophyllaceae]]: ''[[Arenaria provincialis]]'', [[Dianthus cintranus|''Dianthus cintranus'' subsp. ''cintranus'']], [[Dianthus marizii|''D. marizii'']], [[Dianthus rupicola|''D. rupicola'']], ''[[Herniaria algarvica]]'', [[Herniaria berlengiana|''H. berlengiana'']], [[Herniaria maritima|''H. maritima'']], ''[[Moehringia tommasinii]]'', ''[[Petrocoptis grandiflora]]'', [[Petrocoptis montsicciana|''P. montsicciana'']], [[Petrocoptis pseudoviscosa|''P. pseudoviscosa'']], ''[[Silene cintrana]]'', [[Silene hifacensis|''S. hifacensis'']], [[Silene longicilia|''S. longicilia'']] and [[Silene mariana|''S. mariana'']]
*''[[Centranthus trinervis]]''
*[[Cistaceae]]: ''[[Cistus palhinhae]]'', ''[[Halimium verticillatum]]'', ''[[Helianthemum alypoides]]'' and [[Helianthemum caput-felis|''H. caput-felis'']]
*''[[Daphne petraea]]''
*''[[Erodium paularense]]''
*''[[Euphorbia transtagana]]''
*[[Fabaceae]]: ''[[Anthyllis hystrix]]'', ''[[Astragalus alopecurus]]'' (as ''Astragalus centralpinus''), [[Astragalus tremolsianus|''A. tremolsianus'']], ''[[Genista dorycnifolia]]'', [[Genista holopetala|''G. holopetala'']], [[Melilotus segetalis|''Melilotus segetalis'' subsp. ''fallax'']] and ''[[Trifolium saxatile]]''
*[[Gentianaceae]]: ''[[Gentiana ligustica]]'' and ''[[Gentianella angelica]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: ''[[Dracocephalum austriacum]]'', ''[[Nepeta dirphya]]'', ''[[Origanum dictamnus]]'', [[Sideritis incana|''Sideritis incana'' subsp. ''glauca'']], [[Sideritis javalambrensis|''S. javalambrensis'']], [[Sideritis serrata|''S. serrata'']], ''[[Teucrium lepicephalum]]'', [[Teucrium turredanum|''T. turredanum'']] and ''[[Thymus carnosus]]''
*[[Malvaceae]]: ''[[Kosteletzkya pentacarpos]]''
*''[[Najas flexilis]]''
*[[Paeoniaceae]]: ''[[Paeonia cambessedesii]]'', [[Paeonia parnassica|''P. parnassica'']] and [[Paeonia clusii|''P. clusii'' subsp. ''rhodia'']]
*''[[Pinguicula nevadensis]]''
*''[[Plantago algarbiensis]]'' and [[Plantago almogravensis|''P. almogravensis'']]
*[[Plumbaginaceae]]: ''[[Armeria berlengensis]]'', [[Armeria negleta|''A. negleta'']], [[Armeria pseudarmeria|''A. pseudarmeria'']], [[Armeria soleirolii|''A. soleirolii'']], [[Armeria velutina|''A. velutina'']], [[Limonium dodartii|''Limonium dodartii'' subsp. ''lusitanicum'']], [[Limonium lanceolatum|''L. lanceolatum'']] and [[Limonium multiflorum|''L. multiflorum'']]
*[[Polygonaceae]]: ''[[Polygonum praelongum]]'' and ''[[Rumex rupestris ]]'' 
*[[Primulaceae]]: ''[[Androsace mathildae]]'', [[Androsace pyrenaica|''A. pyrenaica'']], ''[[Primula palinuri]]'' and ''[[Soldanella villosa]]''
*[[Ranunculaceae]]: ''[[Adonis distorta]]'', ''[[Aquilegia bertolonii]]'', ''[[Aquilegia kitaibelii|A. kitaibelii]]'' and ''[[Pulsatilla patens]]''
*[[Rosaceae]]: ''[[Potentilla delphinensis]]''
*[[Saxifragaceae]]: ''[[Saxifraga berica]]'', [[Saxifraga florulenta|''S. florulenta'']], [[Saxifraga hirculus|''S. hirculus'']] and [[Saxifraga tombeanensis|''S. tombeanensis'']]
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Antirrhinum charidemi]]'', [[Chaenorrhinum serpyllifolium|''Chaenorrhinum serpyllifolium'' subsp. ''lusitanicum'']], ''[[Euphrasia marchesettii]]'', ''[[Linaria algarviana]]'', [[Linaria coutinhoi|''L. coutinhoi'']], [[Linaria flava|''L. flava'']], [[Linaria tonzigii|''L. tonzigii'']], ''[[Odontites granatensis]]'', ''[[Verbascum litigiosum]]'' and ''[[Veronica micrantha]]''
*''[[Thesium ebracteatum]]''
*''[[Viola jaubertiana]]''
*Willow: [[Salix salviifolia|''Salix salviifolia'' subsp. ''australis'']]
*''[[Zelkova abelicea]]''

===Priority species===
There are also a number of priority species:<ref name="":0"" />

====Animals====
*[[Microtus oeconomus|Dutch tundra vole]] (''Microtus oeconomus arenicola'')
*Wolf (''Canis lupus''): Spanish populations: only those south of the [[Duero]]; Greek populations: only those south of the [[39th parallel north|39th parallel]])
*Brown bear
*[[Iberian lynx]]
*Monk seal (''[[Monachus monachus]]'')
*[[Corsican red deer]] (''Cervus elaphus corsicanus'')
*Pyrenean ibex (''[[Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica]]'')
*Apennine chamois (''[[Rupicarpa ornata]]'')
*[[Loggerhead sea turtle]] (''Caretta caretta'')
*the lizard ''[[Gallotia simonyi]]''
*the viper ''[[Vipera schweizeri]]''
*Fire salamander ([[Salamandra salamandra|''Salamandra salamandra aurorae'']])
*Majorcan midwife toad (''[[Alytes muletensis]]'')
*the frog [[Pelobates fuscus|''Pelobates fuscus insubricus'']]
*the sturgeons ''[[Acipenser naccarii]]'' and ''[[Acipenser sturio]]''
*the fish ''[[Valencia hispanica]]''
*some of the [[anadromous]] populations in certain sectors of the North Sea of ''[[Coregonus oxyrhynchus]]''
*the [[Cyprinidae|cyprid]] fish ''[[Ladigesocypris ghigii]]''
*the beetles ''[[Carabus olympiae]]'', ''[[Osmoderma eremita]]'' and ''[[Rosalia alpina]]''
*the butterfly ''[[Euplagia quadripunctaria]]'' (under the synonym ''Callimorpha quadripunctata'')

====Plants====
*the fern ''[[Dryopteris corleyi]]''
*the moss ''[[Bryoerythrophyllum machadoanum]]''
*the liverwort ''[[Marsupella profunda]]''
*the spruce ''[[Abies nebrodensis]]''

*''[[Androcymbium rechingeri]]'' 
*''[[Asphodelus bento-rainhae]]''
*''[[Muscari gussonei]]''
*the daffodil ''[[Narcissus nevadensis]]''
*''[[Carex panormitana]]''
*''[[Dioscorea chouardii]]'' (as ''Borderea chouardii'')
*Grasses: ''[[Stipa austroitalica]]'', [[Stipa bavarica|''S. bavarica'']] and [[Stipa veneta|''S. veneta'']]
*Orchids: ''[[Cephalanthera cucullata]]'' and ''[[Ophrys lunulata]]''

*[[Apiaceae]]: ''[[Angelica heterocarpa]]'', ''[[Apium bermejoi]]'', ''[[Bupleurum capillare]]'', [[Bupleurum kakiskalae|''B. kakiskalae'']], ''[[Eryngium viviparum]]'', ''[[Laserpitium longiradium]]'', ''[[Naufraga balearica]]'', ''[[Oenanthe conioides]]'' and ''[[Seseli intricatum]]''
*[[Asteraceae]]: ''[[Anthemis glaberrima]]'', ''[[Artemisia granatensis]]'', ''[[Aster pyrenaeus]]'', [[Aster sorrentinii|''A. sorrentinii'']], ''[[Carduus myriacanthus]]'', ''[[Centaurea alba]]'' subsp. ''heldreichii'' and subsp. ''princeps'', [[Centaurea attica|''C. attica'' subsp. ''megarensis'']], [[Centaurea balearica|''C. balearica'']], [[Centaurea borjae|''C. borjae'']], [[Centaurea citricolor|''C. citricolor'']], [[Centaurea horrida|''C. horrida'']], [[Centaurea kalambakensis|''C. kalambakensis'']], [[Centaurea lactiflora|''C. lactiflora'']], [[Centaurea niederi|''C. niederi'']], [[Centaurea peucedanifolia|''C. peucedanifolia'']], [[Centaurea pinnata|''C. pinnata'']], ''[[Crepis crocifolia]]'', ''[[Jurinea cyanoides]]'', [[Jurinea fontqueri|''J. fontqueri'']], ''[[Lamyropsis microcephala]]'', ''[[Leontodon siculus]]'' and ''[[Senecio elodes]]''
*''[[Atropa baetica]]''
*''[[Bassia saxicola]]''
*[[Boraginaceae]]: ''[[Anchusa crispa]]'', ''[[Lithodora nitida]]'', ''[[Omphalodes littoralis]]'' and ''[[Symphytum cycladense]]''
*[[Brassicaceae]]: ''[[Biscutella neustriaca]]'', ''[[Brassica macrocarpa]]'', ''[[Coincya rupestris]]'', ''[[Coronopus navasii]]'', ''[[Diplotaxis siettiana]]'', ''[[Iberis arbuscula]]'' and ''[[Ionopsidium acaule]]''
*''[[Campanula sabatia]]''
*[[Caryophyllaceae]]: ''[[Arenaria nevadensis]]'', ''[[Gypsophila papillosa]]'', [[Herniaria latifolia|''Herniaria latifolia'' subsp. ''litardierei'']], ''[[Silene hicesiae]]'', [[Silene holzmanii|''S. holzmanii'']], [[Silene orphanidis|''S. orphanidis'']], [[Silene rothmaleri|''S. rothmaleri'']] and [[Silene velutina|''S. velutina'']]
*[[Convolvulaceae]]: ''[[Convolvulus argyrothamnus]]'' and [[Convolvulus fernandesii|''C. fernandesii'']]
*[[Cistaceae]]: ''[[Tuberaria major]]''
*''[[Daphne rodriguezii]]''
*''[[Euphorbia margalidiana]]''
*[[Fabaceae]]: ''[[Astragalus algarbiensis]]'', [[Astragalus aquilanus|''A. aquilanus'']], [[Astragalus maritimus|''A. maritimus'']], [[Astragalus verrucosus|''A. verrucosus'']], ''[[Cytisus aeolicus]]'', ''[[Ononis hackelii]]'' and ''[[Vicia bifoliolata]]''
*[[Gentianaceae]]: ''[[Centaurium rigualii]]'' and [[Centaurium somedanum|''C. somedanum'']]
*[[Geraniaceae]]: ''[[Erodium astragaloides]]'' and [[Erodium rupicola|''E. rupicola'']]
*''[[Euphorbia margalidiana]]''
*''[[Hypericum aciferum]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: ''[[Micromeria taygetea]]'', ''[[Nepeta sphaciotica]]'', ''[[Thymus camphoratus]]'' and [[Thymus cephalotos|''T. cephalotos'']]
*''[[Linum muelleri]]''
*''[[Lythrum flexuosum]]''
*[[Plumbaginaceae]]: ''[[Armeria helodes]]'', [[Armeria rouyana|''A. rouyana'']], ''[[Limonium insulare]]'', [[Limonium pseudolaetum|''L. pseudolaetum'']] and [[Limonium strictissimum|''L. strictissimum'']]
*[[Primulaceae]]: ''[[Primula apennina]]''
*[[Ranunculaceae]]: ''[[Aconitum corsicum]]'', [[Aquilegia pyrenaica|''Aquilegia pyrenaica'' subsp. ''cazorlensis'']], ''[[Consolida samia]]'' and ''[[Ranunculus weyleri]]''
*''[[Reseda decursiva]]''
*''[[Ribes sardum]]'' a currant from Saridnia 
*[[Rubiaceae]]: ''[[Galium litorale]]'' and [[Galium viridiflorum|''G. viridiflorum'']]
*''[[Salicornia veneta]]''
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Euphrasia genargentea]]'', ''[[Globularia stygia]]'', ''[[Linaria ficalhoana]]'', [[Linaria hellenica|''L. hellenica'']], [[Linaria ricardoi|''L. ricardoi'']], [[Linaria tursica|''L. tursica'']] and ''[[Veronica oetaea]]''
*''[[Viola hispida]]''

===Macaronesia===
There is a separate list for plants from [[Macaronesia]].
*''[[Isoestes azorica]]''
*''[[Marsilea azorica]]''
*''[[Carex malato-belizii]]''
*Grasses: ''[[Deschampsia maderensis]]'', ''[[Phalaris maderensis]]''
*''[[Scilla maderensis]]''
*''[[Semele maderensis]]''
*Orchids: ''[[Goodyera macrophylla]]''

*[[Apiaceae]]: ''[[Ammi trifoliatum]]'', ''[[Bupleurum handiense]]'', ''[[Chaerophyllum azoricum]]'', ''[[Ferula latipinna]]'', ''[[Melanoselinum decipiens]]'', ''[[Monizia edulis]]'', ''[[Oenanthe divaricata]]'' and ''[[Sanicula azorica]]''
*''[[Arceuthobium azoricum]]''
*[[Asteraceae]]: ''[[Andryala crithmifolia]]'', ''[[Argyranthemum thalassophylum]]''. [[Argyranthemum winterii|''A. winterii'']], ''[[Atractylis preauxiana]]'', ''[[Calendula maderensis]]'', ''[[Cheirolophus duranii]]'', [[Cheirolophus ghomerytus|''Ch. ghomerytus'']], [[Cheirolophus junonianus|''Ch. junonianus'']], [[Cheirolophus massonianus|''Ch. massonianus'']], ''[[Cirsium latifolium]]'', ''[[Helichrysum gossypinum]]'', [[Helichrysum oligocephala|''H. oligocephala'']], ''[[Phagnalon benettii]]'', ''[[Stemmacantha cynaroides]]'' and ''[[Sventenia bupleuroides]]''
*''[[Beta patula]]''
*''[[Caralluma burchardii]]''
*[[Boraginaceae]]: ''[[Echium candicans]]'', ''[[Myosotis azorica]]'' and [[Myosotis maritima|''M. maritima'']]
*[[Brassicaceae]]: ''[[Crambe laevigata]]'' and ''[[Sinapidendron rupestre]]''
*[[Campanulaceae]]: ''[[Musschia aurea]]''
*[[Cistaceae]]: ''[[Cistus chinamadensis]]''
*[[Crassulaceae]]: ''[[Aeonium gomeraense]]'', [[Aeonium saundersii|''A. saundersii'']], ''[[Aichryson dumosum]]'', ''[[Monanthes wildpretii]]'' and ''[[Sedum brissemoretii]]''
*[[Caryophyllaceae]]: ''[[Spergularia azorica]]''
*''[[Erica azorica]]''
*''[[Euphorbia lambii]]'' and [[Euphorbia stygiana|''E. stygiana'']]
*[[Fabaceae]]: ''[[Anthyllis lemanniana]]'', ''[[Lotus callis-viridis]]'' and ''[[Vicia dennesiana]]''
*''[[Frangula azorica]]''
*''[[Kunkeliella subsucculenta]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: ''[[Sideritis infernalis]]'', [[Sideritis marmorea|''S. marmorea'']], ''[[Teucrium abutiloides]]'' and [[Teucrium betonicum|''T. betonicum'']]
*''[[Maytenus umbellata]]''
*[[Oleaceae]]: ''[[Jasminum azoricum]]'' and ''[[Picconia azorica]]''
*''[[Plantago malato-belizii]]''
*[[Plumbaginaceae]]: ''[[Limonium dendroides]]''
*''[[Rumex azoricus]]''
*[[Rosaceae]]: ''[[Bencomia sphaerocarpa]]'', ''[[Dendriopterium pulidoi]]'', ''[[Marcetella maderensis]]'', [[Prunus lusitanica|''Prunus lusitanica'' subsp. ''azorica'']] and ''[[Sorbus maderensis]]''
*''[[Scabiosa nitens]]''
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Euphrasia grandiflora]]'', ''[[Isoplexis isabelliana]]'', ''[[Odontites holliana]]'' and ''[[Sibthorpia peregrina]]''
*''[[Viola paradoxa]]''

====Macaronesian priority species====
*Mosses: ''[[Echinodium spinosum]]'' and ''[[Thamnobryum fernandesii]]''
''[[Androcymbium psammophilum]]''

*[[Asteraceae]]: ''[[Argyranthemum lidii]]'', ''[[Atractylis arbuscula]]'', ''[[Lactuca watsoniana]]'', ''[[Onopordum nogalesii]]'', [[Onopordum carduelinum|''O. carduelinum'']], ''[[Pericallis hadrosoma]]'' and ''[[Tanacetum ptarmiciflorum]]''
*[[Boraginaceae]]: ''[[Echium gentianoides]]''
*[[Brassicaceae]]: ''[[Crambe arborea]]'', [[Crambe sventenii|''C. sventenii'']] and ''[[Parolinia schizogynoides]]''
*[[Campanulaceae]]: ''[[Azorina vidalii]]'' and ''[[Musschia wollastonii]]''
*''[[Ceropegia chrysantha]]''
*[[Cistaceae]]: ''[[Helianthemum bystropogophyllum]]''
*[[Convolvulaceae]]: ''[[Convolvulus caput-medusae]]'', [[Convolvulus lopez-socasii|''C. lopez-socasii'']] and [[Convolvulus massonii|''C. massonii'']]
*''[[Euphorbia handiensis]]''
*[[Fabaceae]]: ''[[Anagyris latifolia]]'', ''[[Dorycnium spectabile]]'', ''[[Lotus azoricus]]'', ''[[Lotus kunkelii]]'', ''[[Teline rosmarinifolia]]'' and [[Teline salsoloides|''T. salsoloides'']]
*''[[Geranium maderense]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: ''[[Sideritis cystosiphon]]'' and [[Sideritis discolor|''S. discolor'']]
*''[[Myrica rivas-martinezii]]''
*''[[Pittosporum coriaceum]]''
*[[Plumbaginaceae]]: ''[[Limonium arborescens]]'', [[Limonium spectabile|''L. spectabile'']] and [[Limonium sventenii|''L. sventenii'']]
*[[Rosaceae]]: ''[[Bencomia brachystachya]]'' and ''[[Chamaemeles coriacea]]''
*''[[Sambucus palmensis]]''
*''[[Solanum lidii]]''
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Euphrasia azorica]]'', ''[[Globularia ascanii]]'', [[Globularia sarcophylla|''G. sarcophylla'']] and ''[[Isoplexis chalcantha]]''

==Annex III==
This annex explains the criteria which are used to select sites which are eligible to be recognised as important for Europe, or as [[Special Areas of Conservation]]. The process consists of two stages. The first stage is to assess the importance at a national level, based on the habitats and species listed in Annex I and II. The second stage is to assess the importance for Europe as a whole, again based on the two earlier annexes.<ref name="":0"" />

==Annex IV==
Annex IV lists species of interest to Europe which are in need of strict protection. 

===Mammals===
*Insectivores: [[Pyrenean desman]] (''Galemys pyrenaicus''), ''[[Erinaceus algirus]]'' and ''[[Crocidura canariensis]]''
*All species of [[Microchiroptera]]
*Rodents: Beaver (''[[Castor fiber]]''), ''[[Cricetus cricetus]]'', porcupine (''[[Hystrix cristata]]''), ''[[Sicista betulina]]'', suslik (''[[Citellus citellus]]''), ''[[Sciurus anomalus]]'', ''[[Microtus cabrerae]]'', [[Tundra vole|Dutch tundra vole]] (''Microtus oeconomus arenicola''), and all species of [[Gliridae]] except ''[[Glis glis]]'' and ''[[Eliomys quercinus]]'' 
*Carnivores: Grey wolf (except Spanish populations north of the Duero and Greek populations north of the 39th parallel), brown bear (''[[Ursus arctos]]''), otter {''[[Lutra lutra]]''}, ''[[Mustela lutreola]]'', wild cat (''[[Felis silvestris]]''), lynx (''[[Lynx lynx]]''), Iberian lynx (''[[Lynx pardinus]]'') and monk seal (''[[Monachus monachus]]'')
*Hoofed animals: [[Corsican red deer]] (''Cervus elaphus corsicanus''), natural populations of wild goats (''[[Capra aegagrus]]''), natural populations of wild sheep (''[[Ovis ammon musimon]]'') on [[Corsica]] and [[Sardinia]], Balcan ([[Rupicapra rupicapra|''Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica'']]) and Apennine chamois ([[Rupicapra ornata|''R. ornata'']])
*[[Cetacean]]s: All species

===Reptiles and amphibians===
Turtles
*Tortoises: ''[[Testudo hermanni]]'', [[Testudo graeca|''T. graeca'']] and [[Testudo marginata|''T. marginata'']]
*Sea turtles: ''[[Caretta caretta]]'', ''[[Chelonia mydas]]'', ''[[Lepidochelys kempii]]'', ''[[Eretmochelys imbricata]]'' and ''[[Dermochelys coriacea]]''
*Freshwater turtles: ''[[Emys orbicularis]]'', ''[[Mauremys caspica]]'' and [[Mauremys leprosa|''M. leprosa'']]

Lizards
*''[[Algyroides fitzingeri]]'', [[Algyroides marchi|''A. marchi'']], [[Algyroides moreoticus|''A. moreoticus'']] and [[Algyroides nigropunctatus|''A. nigropunctatus'']]
*''[[Chamaeleo chamaeleon]]''
*''[[Gallotia atlantica]]'', [[Gallotia galloti|''G. galloti'']] (including specifically the subspecies ''insulanagae''), [[Gallotia simonyi|''G. simonyi'']] and [[Gallotia stehlini|''G. stehlini'']]
*Geckoes: ''[[Cyrtopodion kotschyi]]'', ''[[Phyllodactylus europaeus]]'', ''[[Tarentola angustimentalis]]'', [[Tarentola boettgeri|''T. boettgeri'']], [[Tarentola delalandii|''T. delalandii'']] and [[Tarentola gomerensis|''T. gomerensis'']].
*''[[Lacerta agilis]]'', [[Lacerta bedriagae|''L. bedriagae'']], [[Lacerta danfordi|''L. danfordi'']], [[Lacerta dugesi|''L. dugesi'']], [[Lacerta graeca|''L. graeca'']], [[Lacerta horvathi|''L. horvathi'']], [[Iberolacerta monticola|''L. monticola'']], [[Lacerta schreiberi|''L. schreiberi'']], [[Lacerta trilineata|''L. trilineata'']] and [[Lacerta viridis|''L. viridis'']]
*''[[Ophisaurus apodus]]''
*''[[Ophisops elegans]]''
*''[[Podarcis erhardii]]'', [[Podarcis filfolensis|''P. filfolensis'']], [[Podarcis hispanica|''Podarcis hispanica atrata'']], [[Podarcis lilfordi|''P. lilfordi'']], [[Podarcis melisellensis|''P. melisellensis'']], [[Podarcis milensis|''P. milensis'']], [[Podarcis muralis|''P. muralis'']], [[Podarcis peloponnesiaca|''P. peloponnesiaca'']], [[Podarcis pityusensis|''P. pityusensis'']], [[Podarcis sicula|''P. sicula'']], [[Podarcis taurica|''P. taurica'']], [[Podarcis tiliguerta|''P. tiliguerta'']] and [[Podarcis wagleriana|''P. wagleriana'']]
*Skinks: ''[[Ablepharus kitaibelli]]'', ''[[Chalcides bedriagai]]'', [[Chalcides occidentalis|''Ch. occidentalis'']], [[Chalcides ocellatus|''Ch. ocellatus'']], [[Chalcides sexlineatus|''Ch. sexlineatus'']], [[Chalcides viridianus|''Ch. viridianus'']] and ''[[Ophiomorus punctatissimus]]''
*''[[Stellio stellio]]''

Snakes
*''[[Coluber caspius]]'', [[Coluber hippocrepis|''C. hippocrepis'']], [[Coluber jugularis|''C. jugularis'']], [[Coluber laurenti|''C. laurenti'']], [[Coluber najadum|''C. najadum'']], [[Coluber nummifer|''C. nummifer'']] and [[Coluber viridiflavus|''C. viridiflavus'']]
*''[[Coronella austriaca]]''
*''[[Eirenis modesta]]''
*''[[Elaphe longissima]]'', [[Elaphe quatuorlineata|''E. quatuorlineata'']] and [[Elaphe situla|''E. situla'']]
*''[[Eryx jaculus]]''
*[[Natrix natrix|''Natrix natrix cetti'']], [[Natrix natrix|''N. natrix corsa'']] and [[Natrix tessellata|''N. tessellata'']]
*''[[Telescopus falax]]''
*''[[Vipera ammodytes]]'', [[Vipera schweizeri|''V. schweizeri'']], [[Vipera seoanni|''V. seoanni'']] (except Spanish populations), [[Vipera ursinii|''V. ursinii'']] and [[Vipera xanthina|''V. xanthina'']]

Salamanders:
*''[[Chioglossa lusitanica]]''
*''[[Euproctus asper]]'', [[Euproctus montanus|''E. montanus'']] and [[Euproctus platycephalus|''E. platycephalus'']]
*[[Olm]] (''Proteus anguinus'')
*''[[Salamandra atra]]'', [[Salamandra salamandra|''S. salamandra aurorae'']], [[Salamandra lanzai|''S. lanzai'']] and [[Salamandra luschani|''S. luschani'']]
*''[[Salamandrina terdigitata]]''
*''[[Speleomantes ambrosii]]'', [[Speleomantes flavus|''S. flavus'']], [[Speleomantes genei|''S. genei'']], [[Speleomantes imperialis|''S. imperialis'']], [[Speleomantes italicus|''S. italicus'']] and [[Speleomantes supramontes|''S. supramontes'']]
*''[[Triturus carnifex]]'', [[Triturus cristatus|''T. cristatus'']], [[Triturus italicus|''T. italicus'']], [[Triturus karelinii|''T. karelinii'']] and [[Triturus marmoratus|''T. marmoratus'']]

Toads and frogs:
*''[[Alytes cisternasii]]'', [[Alytes muletensis|''A. muletensis'']] and [[Alytes obstetricans|''A. obstetricans'']]
*''[[Bombina bombina]]'' and [[Bombina variegata|''B. variegata'']]
*''[[Bufo calamita]]'' and [[Bufo viridis|''B. viridis'']]
*''[[Discoglossus galganoi]]'', [[Discoglossus jeanneae|''D. jeanneae'']], [[Discoglossus montalentii|''D. montalentii'']], [[Discoglossus pictus|''D. pictus'']] and [[Discoglossus sardus|''D. sardus'']]
*Treefrogs: ''[[Hyla arborea]]'', [[Hyla meridionalis|''H. meridionalis'']] and [[Hyla sarda|''H. sarda'']]
*''[[Pelobates cultripes]]'', [[Pelobates fuscus|''P. fuscus'']] and [[Pelobates syriacus|''P. syriacus'']]
*''[[Rana arvalis]]'', [[Rana dalmatina|''R. dalmatina'']], [[Rana graeca|''R. graeca'']], [[Rana iberica|''R. iberica'']], [[Rana latastei|''R. latastei'']] and [[Rana lessonae|''R. lessonae'']]

===Fish===
*Perches: ''[[Zingel asper]]''
*Sturgeons: ''[[Acipenser naccarii]]'' and [[Acipenser sturio|''A. sturio'']]
*''[[Coregonus oxyrhynchus]]'' (anadromous populations in certain sectors of the North Sea)
*''[[Valencia hispanica]]''

===Insects===
*Beetles: ''[[Buprestis splendens]]'', ''[[Carabus olympiae]]'', ''[[Cerambyx cerdo]]'', ''[[Cucujus cinnaberinus]]'', ''[[Dytiscus latissimus]]'', ''[[Graphoderus bilineatus]]'', ''[[Osmoderma eremita]]'' and ''[[Rosalia alpina]]''
*Dragonflies: ''[[Aeshna viridis]]'', ''[[Cordulegaster trinacriae]]'', ''[[Gomphus graslinii]]'', ''[[Leucorrhina albifrons]]'', [[Leucorrhina caudalis|''L. caudalis'']], [[Leucorrhina pectoralis|''L. pectoralis'']], ''[[Lindenia tetraphylla]]'', ''[[Macromia splendens]]'', ''[[Ophiogomphus cecilia]]'', ''[[Oxygastra curtisii]]'', ''[[Stylurus flavipes]]'' and ''[[Sympecma braueri]]''
*Grasshoppers: ''[[Baetica ustulata]]'' and ''[[Saga pedo]]''
*Lepidoptera: ''[[Apatura metis]]'', ''[[Coenonympha hero]]'', [[Coenonympha oedippus|''C. oedippus'']], ''[[Erebia calcaria]]'', [[Erebia christi|''E. christi'']], [[Erebia sudetica|''E. sudetica'']], ''[[Eriogaster catax]]'', ''[[Fabriciana elisa]]'', ''[[Hypodryas maturna]]'', ''[[Hyles hippophaes]]'', ''[[Lopinga achine]]'', ''[[Lycaena dispar]]'', ''[[Maculinea arion]]'', [[Maculinea nausithous|''M. nausithous'']], [[Maculinea teleius|''M. teleius'']], [[Melanagria arge|''M. arge'']], ''[[Papilio alexanor]]'', [[Papilio hospiton|''P. hospiton'']], ''[[Parnassius apollo]]'', [[Parnassius mnemosyne|''P. mnemosyne'']], ''[[Plebicula golgus]]'', ''[[Proserpinus proserpina]]'' and ''[[Zerynthia polyxena]]''
*Mantids: ''[[Apteromantis aptera]]''

===Spiders===
*''[[Macrothele calpeiana]]''

===Molluscs===
*[[Gastropod]]s (snails): ''[[Patella feruginea]]'', ''[[Caseolus calculus]]'', [[Caseolus commixta|''C. commixta'']], [[Caseolus sphaerula|''C. sphaerula'']], ''[[Discula leacockiana]]'', [[Discula tabellata|''D. tabellata'']], [[Discula testudinalis|''D. testudinalis'']], [[Discula turricula|''D. turricula'']], ''[[Discus defloratus]]'', [[Discus guerinianus|''D. guerinianus'']], ''[[Elona quimperiana]]'', ''[[Geomalacus maculosus]]'', ''[[Geomitra moniziana]]'', ''[[Helix subplicata]]'', ''[[Leiostyla abbreviata]]'', [[Leiostyla cassida|''L. cassida'']], [[Leiostyla corneocostata|''L. corneocostata'']], [[Leiostyla gibba|''L. gibba'']] and [[Leiostyla lamellosa|''L. lamellosa'']]
*Bivalves: ''[[Lithophaga lithophaga]]'', ''[[Pinna nobilis]]'', ''[[Margaritifera auricularia]]'' and ''[[Unio crassus]]''

===Echinoderms===
*''[[Centrostephanus longispinus]]''

===Plants===
Annex IV contains all the plant species listed in Annex II (except the mosses and lichens), plus the plant taxa listed below:
*Ferns: ''[[Asplenium hemionitis]]''
*''[[Dracaena draco]]''
*[[Iridaceae]]: ''[[Crocus etruscus]]'', ''[[Iris boissieri]]'' and [[Iris marisca|''I. marisca'']]
*[[Liliaceae]]: ''[[Androcymbium europeum]]'', ''[[Bellevalia hackelli]]'', ''[[Colchicum corsicum]]'', [[Colchicum cousturieri|''C. cousturieri'']], ''[[Fritillaria conica]]'', [[Fritillaria drenovskii|''F. drenovskii'']], [[Fritillaria gussichiae|''F. gussichiae'']], [[Fritillaria obliqua|''F. obliqua'']], [[Fritillaria rhodocanakis|''F. rhodocanakis'']], ''[[Ornithogalum reverchonii]]'', ''[[Scilla beirana]]'' and [[Scilla odorata|''S. odorata'']]
*''[[Narcissus longispathus]]'' and [[Narcissus triandrus|''N. triandrus'']]
*Orchids: ''[[Ophrys argolica]]'', ''[[Orchis scopulorum]]'' and ''[[Spiranthes aestivalis]]''

*[[Apiaceae]]: ''[[Bunium brevifolium]]''
*''[[Aquilegia alpina]]''
*[[Asteraceae]]: [[Argyranthemum pinnatifidum|''Argyranthemum pinnatifidum'' subsp. ''succulentum'']], ''[[Helichrysum sibthorpii]]'', ''[[Picris willkommii]]'', ''[[Santolina elegans]]'', ''[[Senecio caespitosus]]'', [[Senecio lagascanus|''S. lagascanus'' subsp. ''lusitanicus'']] and ''[[Wagenitzia lancifolia]]''
*''[[Berberis maderensis]]''
*''[[Campanula morettiana]]'' and ''[[Physoplexis comosa]]''
*''[[Euphorbia nevadensis]]''
*[[Gesneriad]]s: ''[[Ramonda heldreichii]]'' (as ''Jankaea heldreichii'') and ''[[Ramonda serbica]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: ''[[Rosmarinus tomentosus]]'', ''[[Teucrium charidemi]]'', ''[[Thymus capitellatus]]'' and [[Thymus villosus|''T. villosus'' subsp. ''villosus'']]
*''[[Mandragora officinarum]]''
*''[[Moehringia fontqueri]]''
*''[[Murbeckiella sousae]]''
*[[Primulaceae]]: ''[[Androsace cylindrica]]'', ''[[Primula glaucescens]]'' and [[Primula spectabilis|''P. spectabilis'']]
*''[[Saxifraga cintrana]]'', [[Saxifraga portosanctana|''S. portosanctana'']], [[Saxifraga presolanensis|''S. presolanensis'']], [[Saxifraga valdensis|''S. valdensis'']] and [[Saxifraga vayredana|''S. vayredana'']]
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Antirrhinum lopesianum]]'' and ''[[Lindernia procumbens]]''
*''[[Sideroxylon marmulano]]''
*''[[Thymelaea broterana]]''
*''[[Viola athois]]'', [[Viola cazorlensis|''V. cazorlensis'']] and [[Viola delphinanth|''V. delphinanth'']]

==Annex V==
Annex V details the species which are of 'interest' to the European Union, of which the taking or exploitation of wild may be subject to the management decisions of the individual countries concerned.<ref name="":0"" /> This largely concerns plants or animals in which the hunting or gathering was/is an economic activity.
Mammals
*Carnivores: golden jackal ([[European jackal|''Canis aureus moreoticus'']]), Spanish populations north of the Duera and Greek populations north of the 39th parallel of the grey wolf, ''[[Martes martes]]'', ''[[Mustela putorius]]'', all species of [[Phocidae]] (seals) not mentioned in Annex IV, ''[[Genetta genetta]]'' and ''[[Herpestes ichneumon]]''
*[[Mountain hare]] (''Lepus timidus'')
*Hoofed mammals: ''[[Capra ibex]]'', [[Capra pyrenaica|''C. pyrenaica'']] (except ''C. pyrenaica pyrenaica'') and ''[[Rupicapra rupicapra]]'' (except R. rupicapra balcanica and R. ornata)

Amphibians
*''[[Rana esculenta]]'', [[Rana perezi|''R. perezi'']], [[Rana ridibunda|''R. ridibunda'']] and [[Rana temporaria|''R. temporaria'']]

Fish
*Lampreys: ''[[Lampetra fluviatilis]]'' and ''[[Lethenteron zanandrai]]''
*All sturgeon species not mentioned in Annex IV
*[[Salmonidae]]: ''[[Thymallus thymallus]]'', ''[[Hucho hucho]]'', ''[[Salmo salar]]'' (only when in fresh water) and all ''[[Coregonus]]'' spp. (except ''[[Coregonus oxyrhynchus]]'' - anadromous populations in certain sectors of the North Sea)
*Cyprinids: all ''[[Barbus]]'' spp.
*[[Perciformes]]: ''[[Gymnocephalus schraetzer]]'' and ''[[Zingel zingel]]''
*All ''[[Alosa]]'' spp.
*Catfish: ''[[Silurus aristotelis]]''

Other
*Corals: ''[[Corallium rubrum]]''
*Molluscs: ''[[Helix pomatia]]'', ''[[Margaritifera margaritifera]]'', ''[[Microcondylaea compressa]]'' and ''[[Unio elongatulus]]''
*''[[Hirudo medicinalis]]''
*Crabs: ''[[Astacus astacus]]'', ''[[Austropotamobius pallipes]]'' and [[Austropotamobius torrentium|''A. torrentium'']]
*Lobster: ''[[Scyllarides latus]]''
*Moth: ''[[Graellsia isabellae]]''

Plants
*Red algae: ''[[Lithothamnium coralloides]]'' and ''[[Phymatholithon calcareum]]''
*Lichens: ''[[Cladonia]]'' subgenus ''Cladina''
*Mosses: ''[[Leucobryum glaucum]]'', all ''[[Sphagnum]]'' species except ''[[Sphagnum pylasii]]''
*:Clubmosses: all ''[[Lycopodium]]'' spp. (see [[lycopodium powder]])

*''[[Galanthus nivalis]]'', ''[[Narcissus bulbocodium]]'' and [[Narcissus juncifolius|''N. juncifolius'']]
*''[[Iris lusitanica]]''
*''[[Lilium rubrum]]''
*''[[Ruscus aculeatus]]''

*[[Asteraceae]]: ''[[Arnica montana]]'', ''[[Artemisia eriantha]]'', [[Artemisia genipi|''A. genipi'']], [[Doronicum plantagineum|''Doronicum plantagineum'' subsp. ''tournefortii'']] and ''[[Leuzea rhaponticoides]]''
*[[Brassicaceae]]: ''[[Alyssum pintadasilvae]]'', [[Malcolmia lacera|''Malcolmia lacera'' subsp. ''graccilima'']] and [[Murbeckiella pinnatifida|''Murbeckiella pinnatifida'' subsp. ''herminii'']]
*[[Gentianaceae]]: ''[[Gentiana lutea]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: [[Teucrium salviastrum|''Teucrium salviastrum'' subsp. ''salviastrum'']]
*[[Fabaceae]]: ''[[Anthyllis lusitanica]]'', [[Dorycnium pentaphyllum|''Dorycnium pentaphyllum'' subsp. ''transmontana'']] and ''[[Ulex densus]]''
*[[Plumbaginaceae]]: ''[[Armeria sampaio]]''
*[[Rosaceae]]: [[Rubus genevieri|''Rubus genevieri'' subsp. ''herminii'']]
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Anarrhinum longipedicelatum]]'', ''[[Euphrasia mendonçae]]''<!---obviously wrong spelling, but now found all over EU documentation--->, [[Scrophularia grandiflora|''Scrophularia grandiflora'' subsp. ''grandiflora'']], [[Scrophularia berminii|''S. berminii'']] and [[Scrophularia sublyrata|''S. sublyrata'']]

==Annex VI==
This annex compiles the types of capture and killing (i.e. hunting) which are prohibited in the European Community (and now the European Union), as well as prohibited modes of transport (while hunting). These can vary according to form of life.<ref name="":0"" /> Birds are covered by the older [[Birds Directive]].
*Mammals, for example, may not be hunted using explosives, gassing or smoking out burrows, poisons and poisoned or anaesthetic bait, tape recorders, artificial light sources, mirrors and other dazzling devices, blind or mutilated animals used as live decoys, non-selective nets or traps, crossbows and semi-automatic or automatic machine guns with a magazine capable of holding more than two rounds of ammunition. Other prohibited hunting devices are those to illuminate targets, electrical and/or electronic devices capable of killing or stunning and sighting scopes for night shooting with an electronic image magnifier or image converter.<ref name="":0"" />
*Fish may not be caught using poisons or explosives.<ref name="":0"" />

It is furthermore illegal to hunt wildlife in the European Union from an aircraft or moving motor vehicle.<ref name="":0"" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment}}
*[[List of European Union directives]]
*[[Conservation movement]]
*[[Environmental protection]]
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Lagoon]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm The Habitats Directive online at the EU's website]
*[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=104&CM=2&DF=9/4/2006&CL=ENG Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Bern (1982)]
*[http://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=439862 The Habitats Directive by Keulen, M. van (2002)]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:European Union directives]]
[[Category:European Union and the environment]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental law in the European Union]]
[[Category:1992 in law]]
[[Category:1992 in the environment]]
[[Category:1992 in the European Economic Community]]"
Riparian buffer,"{{Short description|Vegetated area near a stream, usually forested}}
[[File:Riparian buffer on Bear Creek in Story County, Iowa.JPG|thumb|right|A riparian buffer of vegetation lining a farm creek in [[Story County, Iowa]]]]
A '''riparian buffer''' or '''stream buffer''' is a [[vegetation|vegetated]] area (a ""[[buffer strip]]"") near a [[stream]], usually [[forest]]ed, which helps shade and partially protect the stream from the impact of adjacent [[land use]]s. It plays a key role in increasing [[water quality]] in associated streams, [[river]]s, and [[lake]]s, thus providing environmental benefits.  With the decline of many [[aquatic ecosystems]] due to [[agriculture]], [[Riparian zone|riparian]] buffers have become a very common [[conservation ethic|conservation]] practice aimed at increasing water quality and reducing [[water pollution|pollution]].

== Benefits ==
Riparian buffers act to intercept [[sediment]], [[nutrient]]s, [[pesticide]]s, and other materials in [[surface runoff]] and reduce nutrients and other [[pollutants]] in shallow [[Subsurface flow|subsurface water flow]].<ref>U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). (2006).
[ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/NHQ/practice-standards/standards/391.pdf ""National Conservation Practice Standard: Riparian Forest Buffer.""] Code 391. January 2006.</ref> They also serve to provide [[habitat]] and [[wildlife corridor]]s in primarily agricultural areas. They can also be key in reducing [[erosion]] by providing [[stream bank]] stabilization. Large scale results have demonstrated that the expansion of riparian buffers through the deployment of plantations systems can effectively reduce nitrogen emissions to water and soil loss by wind erosion, while simultaneously providing substantial environmental co-benefits, having limited negative effects on current agricultural production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Englund |first1=Oskar |last2=Börjesson |first2=Pål |last3=Mola-Yudego |first3=Blas |last4=Berndes |first4=Göran |last5=Dimitriou |first5=Ioannis |last6=Cederberg |first6=Christel |last7=Scarlat |first7=Nicolae |title=Strategic deployment of riparian buffers and windbreaks in Europe can co-deliver biomass and environmental benefits |journal=Communications Earth & Environment |date=2021 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=176 |doi=10.1038/s43247-021-00247-y |bibcode=2021ComEE...2..176E |s2cid=237310600 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Water quality benefits ===
Riparian buffers intercept sediment and nutrients. They counteract [[eutrophication]] in downstream lakes and ponds which can be detrimental to aquatic habitats because of large [[fish kill]]s that occur upon large-scale eutrophication. Riparian buffers keep chemicals, like pesticides, that can be harmful to aquatic life out of the water.  Some pesticides can be especially harmful if they [[bioaccumulate]] in the organism, with the chemicals reaching harmful levels once they are ready for human consumption. Riparian buffers also stabilise the bank surrounding the water body which is important since erosion can be a major problem in agricultural regions when cut (eroded) banks can take land out of production.  Erosion can also lead to [[sedimentation]] and [[siltation]] of downstream lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. Siltation can greatly reduce the life span of [[reservoir]]s and the [[dam]]s that create the reservoirs.

=== Habitat benefits ===
Riparian buffers can act as crucial habitat for a large number of species, especially those who have lost [[habitat]] due to agricultural land being put into production. The habitat provided by the buffers also double as corridors for species that have had their habitat fragmented by various land uses. By adding this vegetated area of land near a water source, it increases [[biodiversity]] by allowing species an area to re-establish after being displaced due to non-conservation land use.  With this re-establishment, the number of native species and biodiversity in general can be increased. The large [[tree]]s in the first zone of the riparian buffer provide shade and therefore cooling for the water, increasing productivity and increasing habitat quality for aquatic species. When branches and stumps ([[large woody debris]]) fall into the stream from the riparian zone, more stream habitat features are created. [[Carbon]] is added as an energy source for [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] in the stream.

=== Economic benefits ===
Buffers increase land value and allow for the production of profitable alternative crops. Vegetation such as [[black walnut]] and [[hazelnut]], which can be profitably harvested, can be incorporated into the riparian buffer. Lease fees for hunting can also be increased as the larger habitat means that the land will be more sought-after for hunting purposes. Designing buffer zones based on their hydrological function instead of a traditionally used fixed width method, can be economically beneficial in forestry practices.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tiwari |first1=T. |last2=Lundström |first2=J. |last3=Kuglerová |first3=L. |last4=Laudon |first4=H. |last5=Öhman |first5=K. |last6=Ågren |first6=A. M. |title=Cost of riparian buffer zones: A comparison of hydrologically adapted site-specific riparian buffers with traditional fixed widths |journal=Water Resources Research |date=February 2016 |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=1056–1069 |doi=10.1002/2015WR018014|bibcode=2016WRR....52.1056T |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Design ==
[[File:Late Winter Afternoon in Munson Park Wetlands.webm|thumb|Ground level view of riparian buffer between Munson Pond (off camera left) and an agricultural operation (off camera right), in [[Kelowna|Kelowna, British Columbia]]]]

A riparian buffer is usually split into three different zones, each having its own specific purpose for filtering runoff and interacting with the adjacent aquatic system. Buffer design is a key element in the effectiveness of the buffer. It is generally recommended that native species be chosen to plant in these three zones, with the general width of the buffer being {{convert|50|ft|m}} on each side of the stream.<ref>{{cite newsletter|last1=Dosskey |first1=M. |last2=Schultz |first2=D. |last3=Isenhart |first3=T. |title=Riparian Buffers for Agricultural Land |url=https://fs.usda.gov/nac/documents/agroforestrynotes/an03rfb02.pdf |date=January 1997 |work=Agroforestry Notes |issue=3 |publisher=National Agroforestry Center, US Forest Service |location=Lincoln, NE}}</ref>

;Zone 1
:This zone should function mainly to shade the water source and act as a bank stabilizer.  The zone should include large native tree species that grow fast and can quickly act to perform these tasks.  Although this is usually the smallest of the three zones and absorbs the fewest contaminants, most of the contaminants have been eliminated by Zone 2 and Zone 3.<ref name=""Maryland Cooperative Extension 1998"">{{cite report |author=Maryland Cooperative Extension |title=Riparian Forest Buffer Design, Establishment, and Maintenance |publisher=University of Maryland |date=1998}}</ref>

;Zone 2
:Usually made up of native [[shrubs]], this zone provides a habitat for wildlife, including nesting areas for [[bird]] species.  This zone also acts to slow and absorb contaminants that Zone 3 has missed.  The zone is an important transition between grassland and forest.<ref name=""Maryland Cooperative Extension 1998""/>

;Zone 3
:This zone is important as the first line of defense against contaminants.  It consists mostly of native [[grass]]es and serves primarily to slow water runoff and begin to absorb contaminants before they reach the other zones.  Although these grass strips should be one of the widest zones, they are also the easiest to install.<ref name=""Maryland Cooperative Extension 1998""/>

;Streambed Zone
:The streambed zone of the riparian area is linked closely to Zone 1.  Zone 1 provides fallen limbs, trees, and tree roots that in turn slow water flow, reducing erosional processes associated with increased water flow and flooding. This woody debris also increases habitat and cover for various aquatic species.

The US National Agroforestry Center has developed a filter strip design tool called AgBufferBuilder, which is a GIS-based computer program for designing vegetative filter strips around agricultural fields that utilizes terrain analysis to account for spatially non-uniform runoff.

== Forest management ==
[[Logging]] is sometimes recommended as a management practice in riparian buffers, usually to provide economic incentive. However, some studies have shown that logging can harm wildlife populations, especially birds.  A study by the University of Minnesota found that there was a correlation between the harvesting of timber in riparian buffers and a decline in bird populations.<ref>Journal of Wildlife Management; Apr 2005, Vol. 69 Issue 2, p689-698, 10p</ref> Therefore, logging is generally discouraged as an environmental practice, and left to be done in designated logging areas.

== Conservation incentives ==
The [[Conservation Reserve Program]] (CRP), a farming assistance program in the [[United States]], provides many incentives to landowners to encourage them to install riparian buffers around water systems that have a high chance of non-point water pollution and are highly erodible. For example, the [[Nebraska]] system of Riparian Buffer Payments offers payments for the cost of setup, a sign up bonus, and annual rental payments.

These incentives are offered to agriculturists to compensate them for their economic loss of taking this land out of production.  If the land is highly erodible and produces little economic gain, it can sometimes be more economic to take advantage of these CRP programs.<ref>University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension. ""Benefits of Riparian Forest Buffers (Streamside Plantings of Trees, Shrubs and Grasses).""  University Press, Lincoln, NE.</ref>

== Effectiveness ==
Riparian buffers have undergone much scrutiny about their effectiveness, resulting in thorough testing and monitoring.  A study done by the [[University of Georgia]], conducted over a nine-year period, monitored the amounts of fertilizers that reached the watershed from the source of the application.  It found that these buffers removed at least 60% of the [[nitrogen]] in the runoff, and at least 65% of the [[phosphorus]] from the fertilizer application.   The same study showed that the effectiveness of the Zone 3 was much greater than that of both Zone 1 and 2 at removing contaminants.<ref>Durham, Sharon. ""Riparian Buffers Effective.""  Southeast Farm Press. 4 Feb 2004. p26</ref> But another study in 2017 did not find efficiency (or a very limiting capacity) for reducing [[glyphosate]] and [[AMPA]] leaching to streams; spontaneous herbaceous vegetation RBS is as efficient as ''[[Salix]]'' plantations and measures of glyphosate in runoff after a year, suggest an unexpected persistence and even a capacity of RBS to potentially favor glyphosate infiltration up to 70&nbsp;cm depth in the soil.<ref name=study2017effic>Hénault-Ethier, L., Lucotte, M., Moingt, M., Paquet, S., Maccario, S., Smedbol, É., ... & Labrecque, M. (2017). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969717309397#f0030 Herbaceous or Salix miyabeana ‘SX64’narrow buffer strips as a means to minimize glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid leaching from row crop fields]''. Science of the Total Environment, 598, 1177-1186.</ref>{{Clarify|reason=This does not give context on what is being discussed—specifically, what is spontaneous herbaceous vegetation and RBS?|date=October 2019}}

== Long-term sustainability ==
After the initial installation of the riparian buffer, relatively little maintenance needs to be performed to keep the buffer in good condition.  Once the trees and grasses reach maturity, they regenerate naturally and make a more effective buffer.  The sustainability of the riparian buffer makes it extremely attractive to landowners, since they do relatively little work and still receive payments. Riparian buffers have the potential to be the most effective ways to protect aquatic biodiversity, water quality and manage water resources in developing countries that lack the funds to install water treatment and supply systems in midsize and small towns.

== Species selection ==
Species selection based on an area in Nebraska, as an example:

;In Zone 1
: Cottonwood, Bur Oak, Hackberry, Swamp White Oak, Siberian Elm, Honeylocust, Silver Maple, Black Walnut, and Northern Red Oak.<ref name=""NRDTree"">Nebraska Association of Resources Districts (2003). [http://www.nrdnet.org/trees/pdfs/tree_book.pdf ""Conservation Trees for Nebraska.""]</ref>

;In Zone 2
: [[Prunus mandshurica|Manchurian apricot]], Silver Buffaloberry, Caragana, Black Cherry, Chokecherry, Sandcherry, Peking Cotoneaster, Midwest Crabapple, Golden Currant, Elderberry, Washington Hawthorn, American Hazel, Amur Honeysuckle, Common Lilac, Amur Maple, American Plum, and Skunkbush Sumac.<ref name=""NRDTree"" />

;In Zone 3
: Western Wheatgrass, Big Bluestem, Sand Bluestem, Sideoats Grama, Blue Grama, Hairy Grama, Buffalo Grass, Sand Lovegrass, Switchgrass, Little Bluestem, Indiangrass, Prairie Cordgrass, Prairie Dropseed, Tall Dropseed, Needleandthread, Green Needlegrass.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Agricultural wastewater treatment]]
*[[Agroforestry]]
*[[Ecoscaping]]
*[[Erosion control]]
*[[Nonpoint source pollution]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commonscat}}
*[https://www.fs.usda.gov/nac/practices/riparianforestbuffers.shtml National Agroforestry Center (USDA)]
*[https://www.fs.usda.gov/nac/resources/tools/AgBufferBuilder.shtml Filter Strip Design Tool (AgBufferBuilder; USDA)]
*[https://www.fs.usda.gov/nac/resources/tools/riparian-bibliography.shtml Extensive Riparian Buffer bibliography]

{{conservation of species}}

[[Category:Agricultural soil science]]
[[Category:Agroforestry]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental soil science]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Forest management]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Hydrology]]
[[Category:Riparian zone]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Water and the environment]]
[[Category:Water pollution]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]"
Conservation headland,"A '''conservation headland''' is a strip along the edge of an [[agricultural]] field, where [[pesticide]]s are sprayed only in a selective manner. This increases the number and type of [[weed]] and insect species present, and benefits the bird species that depend on them. The [[grey partridge]] is one such bird.
Conservation headlands were introduced in the 1980s by scientists working for [[Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust]] in [[Great Britain]]. Trials have taken place in southern [[Sweden]].

*See also: [[beetle bank]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gwct.org.uk/education__advice/english_entry_level_stewardship/habitat_issues/336.asp Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust information on Conservation Headlands]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041118061536/http://www.rspb.org.uk/countryside/farming/advice/farmhabitats/headlands/index.asp RSPB information on Conservation Headlands]

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]


{{environment-stub}}"
Conservation photography,"{{Short description|Photography genre}}
[[File:Management sign.JPG|thumb|Photo of [[Natural resource management|Management sign]] encouraging [[wildlife conservation]]]]
[[File:Ansel Adams and camera.jpg|thumb|Ansel Easton Adams (1902–1984), an American [[photographer]] and [[environmentalist]], photo by [[J. Malcolm Greany]]]]

'''Conservation photography''' is the active use of the [[photographic process]] and its products, within the parameters of [[photojournalism]], to [[advocate]] for [[Conservation biology|conservation]] outcomes.

Conservation photography combines [[nature photography]] with the proactive, issue-oriented approach of [[documentary photography]] as an agent for protecting [[nature]] and improving the [[biosphere]] and [[natural environment]]. Conservation Photography furthers [[Nature conservation|environmental conservation]], [[wildlife conservation]], [[habitat conservation]] or cultural conservation by expanding public awareness of issues and stimulating remedial action.

==History==
[[File:Carleton E. Watkins - Mt. Broderick, Nevada Fall - SFM.95.98 01 d02.jpg|thumb|Photo by [[Carleton Watkins|Carleton E. Watkins]] (1829–1916) of Mt. Broderick and Nevada Fall (700 ft.) at Yosemite Valley in 1861]]
[[File:Ansel Adams-Half Dome, Apple Orchard, Yosemite.jpg|thumb|Photo by [[Ansel Adams]] of Yosemite Half Dome, Apple Orchard, trees with snow on branches in April 1933]]
Photography has developed as a powerful medium to empower conservation. Photography has served this role since the 1860s, although not widely acknowledged as such.<ref>{{Citation | url=http://www.conservationphotography.info/ | author=Carleton Ward Jr. | title=Conservation Photography | publisher=University of Florida | work=Master of Science Thesis | year=2008 | access-date=2012-02-27}}</ref> A notable example are the powerful images of [[Carleton Watkins]] which were successfully used to stimulate the establishment of [[Yosemite National Park]] in 1864 and [[William Henry Jackson]] and [[Ansel Adams]] who advocated for expansion and continued funding of the park.

Renewed emphasis on photography-for-conservation arose at the beginning of the 21st century, primarily in response to the human-caused [[environmental crisis]], recognizing that the global pattern of [[ecosystem]] degradation was not sustainable.

The modern field of conservation photography was formalized in October 2005 with the founding of the [[International League of Conservation Photographers]] by photographer [[Cristina Mittermeier]], during the 8th [[World Wilderness Congress]] in [[Anchorage, Alaska]]. Prior to 2005 ""conservation photography"" was not widely recognized as a discipline.

==Definition==
[[File:Seashell vendor.jpeg|thumb|Photo of a vendor in Tanzania in 2000 selling to tourists [[threatened species]] [[seashell]]s which have been taken alive from the sea, killing the animal inside.]]

Conservation and photography appear as two distinct fields, but their combined impact can be profound. Simply put, conservation photography is photography that empowers or enables conservation.

According to the photographer, [[Joel Sartore]], ""the typical nature photograph shows a butterfly on a pretty flower. The conservation photograph shows the same thing, but with a bulldozer coming at it in the background. This doesn't mean there's no room for beautiful pictures, in fact we need beautiful images just as much as the issues. It does mean that the images exist for a reason; to save the Earth while we still can.""

The serious conservation photographer brings to their work a deep empathy for the natural world. Proper use of the resulting images has the power to bring about positive change.

Conservation photographs fall into two broad categories, both of which are equally valuable:

*The snapshot: upon seeing a striking scene one pulls out a cell phone or point-and-shoot camera, and snaps some quick framed pictures without expending too much time or effort.
*The carefully crafted image:: One sees the same scene, but instead of quickly shooting it and moving on, they take a series of skillfully crafted, high-quality images that tell the story in a more powerful way. Dramatic framing enhances the influence of a picture.

Such photographs have a stronger impact on the audience. One may also proactively seek opportunities to take crafted conservation pictures. Determined effort can result in excellent photo stories that can move people's hearts and minds.<ref name=""CI""/>

==Applications==
[[File:Gp-esso.jpg|thumb|Photo of [[Greenpeace]] protest against [[Esso]] /[[ExxonMobil in 2003]]]]
[[File:2011 flooding in Ayutthaya Province-EO-1 merged.jpg|thumb|True-colour [[satellite image]] showing [[flood]]ing in Ayutthaya and Pathum Thani Provinces in Central [[Thailand]] (right), compared to before the flooding (left) in 2011]]
In order to create an impact, conservation pictures should be put to work for specific causes. Though not every picture may find an immediate use, a carefully catalogued archive of conservation pictures can help increase impact of conservation related news stories, provide material for public awareness campaigns, including [[internet activism]] and sometimes serve as [[Investigative journalism]] evidence in court proceedings. Images of [[habitat destruction]], especially in [[protected area]]s, can be important as legal evidence against the activity.
;Specialty fields
Several specialty fields benefit from their use of conservation photography, these include:
* [[Conservation movement]], to protect animals, fungi, plants and their habitats
** [[Conservation biology]], the science of the protection and management of biodiversity
** [[Conservation genetics]] - ""an interdisciplinary science that aims to apply genetic methods to the conservation and restoration of biodiversity.""
** [[Conservation (ethic)]], an ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection, especially of the natural environment
** [[Conservation organization]] typically an environmental organization
** [[Conservation movement|Conservationist]], a person who advocates for conservation of animals, fungi, plants and their habitats
** [[Energy conservation]], the reduction of non-renewable energy consumption
** [[Habitat conservation]], a land management practice that seeks to conserve, protect and restore, habitat areas for wild animals, fungi and plants
** [[Water conservation]], reducing the use of water to protect the environment
** [[Wetland conservation]], protecting wetlands to conserve their ecological processes
** [[Wildlife management]], multidisciplinary practices, including conservation of species and their habitats
** [[Conservation authority (Canada)]]
** [[Marine conservation]], the protection and preservation of ecosystems in oceans and seas
** [[Soil conservation]], management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded from the earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered
* [[Conservation-restoration]], the profession devoted to the preservation of cultural resources
** [[Art conservation]], protecting works of art
** [[Photograph conservation]]
** [[Architectural conservation]]

;Subjects
Some subjects of conservation photography include:
[[File:Illegallogginginchiangmai.jpg|thumb|Photo of Illegal logging in [[Thailand]] was taken from the roadside in [[Chiang Mai Province]] in 2011]]
*Destruction/construction activity inside a protected area.
*Commercial activity in ecologically sensitive zones (ESZs) – the areas immediately bordering national parks and reserves
*[[Illegal logging]] or [[mining]] activity
*[[Habitat fragmentation]] or destruction, ranging from individual tree felling to land clearing for a large hydroelectric project.
*[[Forest fire]]s.
*Cattle / goats inside protected areas.
*New roads inside or near a protected area.
[[File:Roadkill kangaroo.jpg|thumb|Photo of [[roadkill]]ed [[kangaroo]] in [[Australia]]]]
*Evidence of [[poaching]] or [[hunting]], such as empty gun shells, snares, jaw traps, skinned carcass etc.
*[[Road kill]]s.
*[[Wildlife]] kept as pets.
*[[Tourism]] and its impacts.
*Harvest of [[Non-timber forest product|forest produce]].
*Public exhibitions or appearances of [[environmental activist]]s
*[[Human-wildlife conflict]] events or results<ref name=""CI"">
{{citation
|url=http://www.conservationindia.org/resources/beyond-the-pretty-picture
|title=Beyond The Pretty Picture — Giving Back To Nature Through Photography
|work=RESOURCES » TOOLKIT
|author=Shekar Dattatri and Ramki Sreenivasan
|publisher=Conservation India
|date=2011-12-13 
|access-date=2012-02-27
}}</ref>

==Organizations==
There are many [[environmental organization]]s that effectively use conservation photography to help advocate their goals. Just a few are:

*[[ARKive]] is a global initiative with the mission of ""promoting the conservation of the world's threatened species, through the power of wildlife imagery"", which it does by locating and gathering films, photographs and audio recordings of the world's [[species]] into a centralised [[Digital data|digital]] [[archive]]. Its current priority is the completion of audio-visual profiles for the c. 17,000 species on the [[IUCN Red List]] of [[threatened species]].<ref name=""about"">{{cite web|url=http://www.arkive.org/about/|title=About ARKive|work=ARKive|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701182614/http://www.arkive.org/about/|archive-date=2011-07-01|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*[[Sanctuary Asia]] is [[India]]'s first and one of its leading [[Environmentalism|environmental]] [[news magazine]]s. It was founded in 1981 to raise awareness among [[Indian people]] of their disappearing [[natural heritage]]. The magazine is attractively packaged<ref>Various authors, India, pp. 76; [[Lonely Planet]] Publications, 2005</ref> with colored photographs. The ''Sanctuary Photo Library''' is a melting pot of natural history visuals, information and resources used to produce some of the finest wildlife and nature calendars, posters, slide shows, exhibitions and other products available in India.
*[[Sierra club]] maintains a publishing imprint, [[Sierra Club Books]], publishing books on environmental issues, wilderness photographic essays, nature guides, and other related subjects. They publish the Sierra Club Calendars, perennial bestsellers, featuring photographs by well-known nature photographers such as [[Galen Rowell]].
*The [[International League of Conservation Photographers]] (iLCP) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to furthering environmental and cultural conservation through ethical photography.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links ==
* {{Commons category inline}}

{{Conservation of species}}
{{Photography subject}}
{{Environmental humanities}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation Photography}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Photojournalism]]
[[Category:Stock photography]]
[[Category:Types of journalism]]
[[Category:Journalism occupations]]
[[Category:Photography by genre]]"
Site-based conservation,"{{unreferenced|date=April 2022}}
'''Site-based conservation''' is an approach to [[nature conservation]] that relies on the designation of important or representative examples of sites supporting key habitats or species, such as [[Key Biodiversity Areas]] (KBAs) or [[Important Bird Area]]s (IBAs). Whilst a rational way of ensuring that the very best resources are protected, it is open to a number of criticisms:
* It tends to focus resources and protection on only the best sites.
* With a changing climate, the best sites now may not be the best ones to protect for the future.
* Wildlife is ignorant of lines drawn on maps by humans.
On balance, site-based conservation is an essential part of nature conservation, along with initiatives such as environmental subsidies and planning controls that protect biodiversity across the whole landscape (the broad and shallow approach), and the more holistic ideas of [[landscape-scale conservation]].

{{conservation of species}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]


{{environment-stub}}"
Soil conservation,"{{Short description|Preservation of soil nutrients}}
[[File:Mmerosionrazorback.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Erosion barriers on disturbed slope, [[Marin County, California]]]]
[[File:Contour plowing.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Contour plowing]] in [[Pennsylvania]] in 1938. The rows formed slow surface water run-off during rainstorms to prevent [[soil erosion]] and allow the water time to [[infiltration (hydrology)|infiltrate]] into the soil.]]

'''Soil conservation''' is the prevention of loss of the topmost layer of the soil from [[erosion]] or prevention of reduced fertility caused by over usage, [[Soil acidification|acidification]], salinization or other chemical [[soil contamination]].

[[Slash-and-burn]] and other [[unsustainable]] methods of [[subsistence farming]] are practiced in some lesser developed areas. A consequence of deforestation is typically large-scale [[erosion]], loss of soil nutrients and sometimes total [[desertification]]. Techniques for improved soil conservation include [[crop rotation]], [[cover crop]]s, [[Tillage#Conservation tillage|conservation tillage]] and planted [[windbreak]]s, affect both [[erosion]] and [[fertility]]. When plants die, they decay and become part of the soil. Code 330 defines standard methods recommended by the U.S. [[Natural Resources Conservation Service]]. Farmers have practiced soil conservation for millennia. In Europe, policies such as the Common Agricultural Policy are targeting the application of best management practices such as reduced [[tillage]], winter cover crops,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Panagos |first1=Panos |last2=Borrelli |first2=Pasquale |last3=Meusburger |first3=Katrin |last4=Alewell |first4=Christine |last5=Lugato |first5=Emanuele |last6=Montanarella |first6=Luca |title=Estimating the soil erosion cover-management factor at the European scale |journal=Land Use Policy |volume=48 |pages=38–50 |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.05.021 |year=2015|doi-access=free }}</ref> plant residues and grass margins in order to better address soil conservation. [[Political]] and economic action is further required to solve the erosion problem. A simple [[governance]] [[hurdle]] concerns how we value the land and this can be changed by cultural adaptation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Panagos |first1=Panos |last2=Imeson |first2=Anton |last3=Meusburger |first3=Katrin |last4=Borrelli |first4=Pasquale |last5=Poesen |first5=Jean |last6=Alewell |first6=Christine |date=2016-08-01 |title=Soil Conservation in Europe: Wish or Reality? |journal=Land Degradation & Development |language=en |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=1547–1551 |doi=10.1002/ldr.2538 |issn=1099-145X|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Soil carbon]] is a [[carbon sink]], playing a role in [[climate change mitigation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amelung|first1=W.|last2=Bossio|first2=D.|last3=de Vries|first3=W.|last4=Kögel-Knabner|first4=I.|last5=Lehmann|first5=J.|last6=Amundson|first6=R.|last7=Bol|first7=R.|last8=Collins|first8=C.|last9=Lal|first9=R.|last10=Leifeld|first10=J.|last11=Minasny|first11=B.|date=2020-10-27|title=Towards a global-scale soil climate mitigation strategy|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=5427|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-18887-7|pmid=33110065|pmc=7591914|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5427A |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Methods==
=== Contour ploughing  ===
[[Contour ploughing]] orients furrows following the [[contour line]]s of the farmed area. Furrows move left and right to maintain a constant altitude, which reduces [[Surface runoff|runoff]]. Contour plowing was practiced by the ancient [[Phoenicia]]ns for slopes between two and ten percent.<ref>''Predicting Euler erosion by water, a guide to conservation planning in the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation'', [[United States Department of Agriculture]], Agricultural Research Service, Agricultural handbook no. 703 (1997)</ref> Contour plowing can increase crop yields from 10 to 50 percent, partially as a result of greater soil retention.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/contourfarmingbo23unit|title=Contour farming boosts yields: a farmer's guide in laying out key contour lines and establishing grassed seeds for the ways of life|last=United States. Department of Agriculture|first=National Agricultural Library|date=1943-01-01|publisher=[Washington, D.C.] : U.S. Dept. of Agriculture}}</ref>

=== Terrace farming ===
[[terrace (agriculture)|Terracing]] is the practice of creating nearly level areas in a hillside area. The terraces form a series of steps each at a higher level than the previous. Terraces are protected from erosion by other soil barriers. Terraced farming is more common on small farms. This involves creating a series of flats terraced levels on a sloping field.

=== Keyline design ===

[[Keyline design]] is the enhancement of contour farming, where the total watershed properties are taken into account in forming the [[contour line]]s.

=== Perimeter runoff control ===
[[File:Runoff and filtersoxx.ogv|thumb|350px|Stormwater management animation]]

Tree, [[shrub]]s and [[ground-cover]] are effective perimeter treatment for [[soil erosion]] prevention, by impeding surface flows. A special form of this perimeter or inter-row treatment is the use of a ""grass way"" that both [[Channel (geography)|channel]]s and dissipates runoff through surface friction, impeding [[surface runoff]] and encouraging infiltration of the slowed surface water.<ref>''Perimeter landscaping of Carneros Business Park'', Lumina Technologies, Santa Rosa, Ca., prepared for Sonoma County, Ca. (2002)</ref>

===Windbreaks===

Windbreaks are sufficiently dense rows of [[tree]]s at the [[Windward and leeward|windward]] exposure of an agricultural field subject to [[wind]] [[erosion]].<ref>Wolfgang Summer, ''Modelling Soil Erosion, Sediment Transport and Closely Related Hydrological Processes'' entry by Mingyuan Du, Peiming Du, Taichi Maki and Shigeto Kawashima, ""Numerical modeling of air flow over complex terrain concerning wind erosion"", International Association of Hydrological Sciences publication no. 249 (1998)  {{ISBN|1-901502-50-3}}</ref> [[Evergreen]] [[species]] provide year-round protection; however, as long as [[foliage]] is present in the seasons of bare [[soil]] surfaces, the effect of [[deciduous]] trees may be adequate.

=== Cover crops/crop rotation ===

Cover crops such as [[nitrogen-fixing]] [[legume]]s, white turnips, radishes and other species are rotated with cash crops to blanket the soil year-round and act as [[green manure]] that replenishes nitrogen and other critical nutrients. Cover crops also help to suppress weeds.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite news
|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/10/science/farmers-put-down-the-plow-for-more-productive-soil.html |title=Farmers Put Down the Plow for More Productive Soil |last=Goode |first=Erica |date=March 10, 2015 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |edition=New York |page=D1 |issn=0362-4331 |oclc=1645522 |access-date=April 5, 2015}}</ref>

=== Soil-conservation farming ===

Soil-conservation farming involves [[no-till farming]], ""green manures"" and other soil-enhancing practices which make it hard for the soils to be equalized.  Such farming methods attempt to mimic the biology of [[barren lands]]. They can revive damaged soil, minimize erosion, encourage plant growth, eliminate the use of nitrogen fertilizer or fungicide, produce above-average yields and protect crops during droughts or flooding. The result is less labor and lower costs that increase farmers’ profits. No-till farming and cover crops act as sinks for nitrogen and other nutrients. This increases the amount of [[soil organic matter]].<ref name="":0"" />

Repeated plowing/tilling degrades soil, killing its beneficial fungi and earthworms. Once damaged, soil may take multiple seasons to fully recover, even in optimal circumstances.<ref name="":0"" />

Critics argue that no-till and related methods are impractical and too expensive for many growers, partly because it requires new equipment. They cite advantages for conventional tilling depending on the geography, crops and soil conditions. Some farmers have contended that no-till complicates pest control, delays planting and that post-harvest residues, especially for corn, are hard to manage.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Reducing the use of pesticides ===
{{See also|Organic food#Environmental sustainability|Sustainable food system}}
The use of pesticides can contaminate the soil, and nearby vegetation and water sources for a long time. They affect soil structure and (biotic and abiotic) composition.<ref>{{cite web |title=Soil Conservation Guide: Importance and Practices |url=https://online.maryville.edu/blog/soil-conservation/ |website=Maryville Online |access-date=3 December 2022 |date=26 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Baweja |first1=Pooja |last2=Kumar |first2=Savindra |last3=Kumar |first3=Gaurav |title=Soil Health |chapter=Fertilizers and Pesticides: Their Impact on Soil Health and Environment |series=Soil Biology |date=2020 |volume=59 |pages=265–285 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-44364-1_15 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-44363-4 |s2cid=219811822 |language=en}}</ref> Differentiated taxation schemes are among the options investigated in the academic literature to reducing their use.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Finger |first1=Robert |last2=Möhring |first2=Niklas |last3=Dalhaus |first3=Tobias |last4=Böcker |first4=Thomas |title=Revisiting Pesticide Taxation Schemes |journal=Ecological Economics |date=April 2017 |volume=134 |pages=263–266 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.12.001|hdl=20.500.11850/128036 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
{{Excerpt|Pesticide|Alternatives}}

=== Salinity management===
[[File:Aralship2.jpg|thumb|Salt deposits on the former bed of the [[Aral Sea]]]]
{{Main|Soil salinity control}}
[[Salinity]] in soil is caused by irrigating with salty water. Water then evaporates from the soil leaving the salt behind. Salt breaks down the soil structure, causing infertility and reduced growth.{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}}
 
The [[ions]] responsible for salination are: [[sodium]] (Na<sup>+</sup>), [[potassium]] (K<sup>+</sup>), [[calcium]] (Ca<sup>2+</sup>), [[magnesium]] (Mg<sup>2+</sup>) and [[chlorine]] (Cl<sup>−</sup>). Salinity is estimated to affect about one third of the earth's [[arable land]].<ref>Dan Yaron, ''Salinity in Irrigation and Water Resources'', Marcel Dekker, New York (1981) {{ISBN|0-8247-6741-1}}</ref> Soil salinity adversely affects crop [[metabolism]] and erosion usually follows.

Salinity occurs on [[drylands]] from [[Irrigation| overirrigation]] and in areas with shallow saline water tables. Over-irrigation deposits salts in upper soil layers as a byproduct of soil [[infiltration (hydrology)|infiltration]]; irrigation merely increases the rate of salt deposition. The best-known case of shallow [[saline water]] table [[capillary action]] occurred in [[Egypt]] after the 1970 construction of the [[Aswan Dam]]. The change in the [[groundwater]] level led to high salt concentrations in the water table. The continuous high level of the [[water table]] led to [[soil salination]].

Use of [[humic acid]]s may prevent excess salination, especially given excessive irrigation.{{Citation needed|reason=this claim appears speculative. Sourcing is needed .|date=February 2019}} Humic acids can fix both [[anion]]s and [[cation]]s and eliminate them from [[root|root zones]].{{Citation needed|reason=dubious claim need sourcing. The ability of humic acid to fix solutes is not expected to work on a scale that is practical for salinity management. Solutes occur at tons per acre, humic acids are applied at pounds per acre. The limits of stoichiometry mean that only pounds per acre of salts will be fixed by adding pounds per acre of very expensive humic acids.|date=February 2019}}

Planting species that can tolerate saline conditions can be used to lower water tables and thus reduce the rate of capillary and evaporative enrichment of surface salts. Salt-tolerant plants include [[saltbush]], a plant found in much of [[North America]] and in the [[Mediterranean]] regions of [[Europe]].

=== Soil organisms ===
[[File:K 1033CR08-9 Yellow fungus on stalk.jpeg|thumb|upright|Yellow fungus, a [[mushroom]] that assists in organic decay]]

When worms excrete [[feces]] in the form of [[Vermicompost|casts]], a balanced selection of minerals and plant nutrients is made into a form accessible for [[root]] uptake. [[Earthworm]] casts are five times richer in available [[nitrogen]], seven times richer in available [[phosphate]]s and eleven times richer in available [[potash]] than the surrounding upper {{Convert|150|mm}} of soil. The weight of casts produced may be greater than 4.5&nbsp;kg per worm per year. By burrowing, the earthworm improves soil [[poros]]ity, creating channels that enhance the processes of aeration and drainage.<ref>Bill  Mollison, ''Permaculture: A Designer's Manual'', Tagari Press, (December 1, 1988), 576 pages, {{ISBN|0908228015}}. Increases in porosity enhance infiltration and thus reduce adverse effects of [[surface runoff]].</ref>

Other important soil organisms include [[nematodes]], [[mycorrhiza]] and [[bacteria]]. A quarter of all the animal species live underground. According to the 2020 [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization’s]] report ""State of knowledge of [[soil biodiversity]] – Status, challenges and potentialities"", there are major gaps in knowledge about biodiversity in soils.<ref>{{Cite book|last=FAO, ITPS, GSBI, SCBD and EC|date=2020|title=State of knowledge of soil biodiversity – Status, challenges and potentialities. Summary for policy makers|url=http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CB1929EN/|access-date=2020-12-04|website=www.fao.org|doi=10.4060/cb1929en |isbn=978-92-5-133583-3 |s2cid=240627544 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=2020-12-04|title=Global soils underpin life but future looks 'bleak', warns UN report|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/04/global-soils-underpin-life-but-future-looks-bleak-warns-un-report|access-date=2020-12-04|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

Degraded soil requires [[synthetic fertilizer]] to produce high yields. Lacking structure increases erosion and carries nitrogen and other pollutants into rivers and streams.<ref name="":0"" />

Each one percent increase in soil organic matter helps soil hold 20,000 gallons more water per acre.<ref name="":0"" />

===Mineralization===
To allow plants full realization of their [[phytonutrient]] potential, active [[mineralization (biology)|mineralization]] of the soil is sometimes undertaken. This can involve adding crushed rock or chemical soil supplements. In either case the purpose is to [[combat]] [[mineral]] depletion. A broad range of minerals can be used, including common substances such  as [[phosphorus]] and more exotic substances such as [[zinc]] and [[selenium]]. Extensive research examines the phase transitions of minerals in soil with aqueous contact.<ref>Arthur T. Hubbard, ''Encyclopedia of Surface and Colloid Science Vol 3'', Santa Barbara, California Science Project, Marcel Dekker, New York (2004) {{ISBN|0-8247-0759-1}}</ref>

Flooding can bring significant [[sediments]] to an [[alluvial]] plain. While this effect may not be desirable if floods endanger life or if the sediment originates from productive land, this process of addition to a [[floodplain]] is a natural process that can rejuvenate soil chemistry through mineralization.{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}}

==See also==

<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short  [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->

{{Div col|colwidth=20em|small=yes}}
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Environmental soil science]]
* [[Green Revolution]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[Keyline design]]
* [[Korean natural farming]]
* [[Land degradation]]
* [[Liming (soil)]]
* [[Microorganism]]
* [[Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage]]
* [[Natural resource]]
* [[No-till farming]]
* [[Restoration ecology]]
* [[Sediment transport]]
* [[Slash-and-burn]]
* [[Soil contamination]]
* [[Soils retrogression and degradation]]
* [[Soil steam sterilization]]
* [[Surface runoff]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Sustainable gardening]]
* [[Sustainable landscaping]]
* [[Tillage erosion]]
{{div col end}}
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<!-- <ref name=""Pesticide sustaining"">{{cite book|title=Sustaining the Earth|last=Miller|first=G. Tyler|publisher=Thompson Learning, Inc.|year=2004|isbn=9780495556879|edition=6th|location=Pacific Grove, CA|pages=211–216|chapter=Ch. 9. Biodiversity|oclc=52134759|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> -->
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Moorberg |editor1-first=Colby J. |title=Soil and Water Conservation: An Annotated Bibliography |date=2019 |publisher=NPP eBooks |isbn=978-1-944548-26-1}}
** [https://kstatelibraries.pressbooks.pub/soilandwater/ Online book] (the most current version of the text)
** [https://newprairiepress.org/ebooks/30 Download book] – Kindle, Nook, Apple, Kobo, and PDF

{{Sustainability}}
{{Natural resources}}{{Soil science topics}}{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Regional science]]
[[Category:Environmental soil science]]
[[Category:Soil]]
[[Category:Soil improvers]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Landscape architecture]]
[[Category:Horticulture]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]

[[hu:Talajvédelem]]"
Stewardship cessation,"{{One source|date=May 2007}}
'''Stewardship cessation'''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nInjCgAAQBAJ&q=The+technology+underlying+the+product+(for+example,+that+of+a+uniquely+flavoured+tea)+may+be+quite+marginal+but+the+process+of+creating+and+managing+its+life+as+a&pg=PA91|title=Proceedings of IAC-MEM 2015 in Vienna|last=group of authors|publisher=Czech Institute of Academic Education z.s., 2015|year=2015|isbn=9788090579156|pages=91}}</ref> is a concept useful in [[system engineering]]. Certain [[systems]] remain hazardous for a considerable period after their useful life, and will usually be managed to ensure that the public and the environment is not exposed to the hazard. It is incumbent on the [[systems designer]] to consider the outcome should this stewardship be discontinued for any reason, and to design a system which is as robust as possible in the event of stewardship cessation.

==Examples==
===Nuclear industry===
The most obvious example is the [[Nuclear power|nuclear]] industry, and the [[radioactive waste]] it generates which will be a hazard for many centuries. In the present era, most high level waste is in still in currently managed facilities, but various methods are being considered for disposal. Most of the proposed disposal methods are designed to put the waste in a place so isolated from the environment that (it is hoped) immediate stewardship cessation would be safe and appropriate. However, many people are more comfortable with systems where the waste is still accessible, so that if there is an unforeseen problem with the disposal method, the waste can still be accessed to rectify the problem. These systems will still require some level of stewardship, but the system designer must consider that this may not be available for the hundreds of years required.

===Satellites===
Another example is when [[geostationary]] [[telecommunication|communication]]s satellites reach the end of their useful lives. Stewardship cessation will occur hopefully in a planned manner, where the operator will move the [[satellite]] to a somewhat higher orbit to minimise the risk that the satellite will be a collision hazard to other satellites in the geostationary arc (graveyard burn). Unplanned stewardship cessation will occur if telecommand access to the satellite's systems is cut off due to a failure, for instance in the telecommand receivers.

==Reasons==
Reasons for stewardship cessation include:

*Illegal or inappropriate disposal by the last user
*Budgetary constraints from government or other body
*Total societal breakdown or partial sociocultural change leading to a reduction in the perceived need for stewardship or simply to negligence
*[[Climate change]] putting the system beyond reach (under sea or ice)
*[[Global war]]
*Other catastrophe (e.g. epidemic) reducing the number of available stewards below the threshold necessary to maintain a continuous stewardship system
*For remotely operated systems, loss of communication with the remote segment of the system.

==See also==
*[[Technology life cycle]]

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Systems engineering]]"
Umbrella effect (ecology),"#REDIRECT [[Umbrella species]]

{{R from merge}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Sustainable yield,"{{More citations needed|date=April 2008}}

The '''sustainable yield''' is a form of [[sustainability]] that refers to the maximum harvest that does not deplete or [[Overexploitation|over-harvest]] where the [[renewable resource]] can not grow back.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainability {{!}} Description, Theories, & Practices {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/sustainability |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In the simplest terms, sustainable yield is the largest amount of resource that humans can take or use without causing damage or allowing for a decline to happen in the specific population. In more formal terms, the sustainable yield of [[natural capital]] is the [[ecological yield]] that can be extracted without reducing the base of capital itself, i.e. the [[Economic surplus|surplus]] required to maintain [[ecosystem services]] at the same or increasing level over time. The term only refers to resources that are renewable in nature as extracting non-renewable resources will always diminish the natural capital. The sustainable yield of a given resource will generally vary over time with the [[ecosystem]]'s needs to maintain itself, e.g. a [[forest]] that has recently suffered a [[blight]] or [[flooding]] or [[fire]] will require more of its own ecological yield to sustain and re-establish a mature forest.  While doing so, the sustainable yield may be much less. The term sustainable yield is most commonly used in [[forestry]], [[Fishery|fisheries]], and [[groundwater]] applications.

A sustainable yield is calculated by the [[carrying capacity]] divided by 2.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Takashina |first1=Nao |last2=Mougi |first2=Akihiko |date=October 2015 |title=Maximum sustainable yields from a spatially-explicit harvest model |journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology |volume=383 |pages=87–92 |doi=10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.07.028 |pmid=26254215 |arxiv=1503.00997 |bibcode=2015JThBi.383...87T |s2cid=5211753 }}</ref> At half of the carrying capacity, the population can be harvested and quickly recover, allowing for more resources. Although this calculation seems easy, it is not because it is difficult to calculate the carrying capacity of a population in nature since it is almost always based on estimations.

== Importance ==
Understanding sustainable yield is essential to nature since it indicates how much a population can produce and what humans can glean from without causing fundamental problems in the specie's population. If the population is harvested above its [[maximum sustainable yield]], it can eventually risk extinction.<ref>{{Cite web |last=PEW |date=April 2012 |title=MSY - Maximum Sustainable Yield |url=https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2015/03/turning_the_tide_msy_explained.pdf |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=pewtrusts.org}}</ref>

== Forestry ==
Sustainable yield is an important component of sustainable [[forest management]]. In the forestry context it is the largest amount of harvest activity that can occur without degrading the productivity of the stock.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Elbakidze |first1=Marine |last2=Andersson |first2=Kjell |last3=Angelstam |first3=Per |last4=Armstrong |first4=W. Glen |last5=Axelsson |first5=Robert |last6=Doyon |first6=Frederik |last7=Hermansson |first7=Martin |last8=Jacobsson |first8=Jonas |last9=Pautov |first9=Yurij |date=March 2013 |title=Sustained Yield Forestry in Sweden and Russia: How Does it Correspond to Sustainable Forest Management Policy? |url= https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13280-012-0370-6 |journal=AMBIO |language=en |volume=42 |pages=160-173 |doi=10.1007/s13280-012-0370-6 |bibcode=2013AMBIO..42..160E}}</ref>The idea of sustainable yield of forests had shifted focus from only output, to include maintaining production capacity and maintaining the natural renewal capacity of forest vegetation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiersum |first=K. Freerk |date=May 1995 |title=200 years of sustainability in forestry: Lessons from history |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02471975 |journal=Environmental Management |language=en |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=321–329 |doi=10.1007/BF02471975 |bibcode=1995EnMan..19..321W |s2cid=153325794 |issn=0364-152X}}</ref> One of the first federal written laws to warrant that future generations will have a sufficient wood supply and regulate the wood harvest rate was the O & C Act.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustained Yield Forestry |url=http://www.oandc.org/o-c-lands/sustained-yield-forestry/ |access-date=2023-05-07 |website=Association of O&C Counties |language=en}}</ref> The O & C Act is a positive environmental impact since it helps maintain a viable, sustainable yield, and it ensures that trees will continue to be a significant part of the natural landscape everywhere and continue to supply wildlife habitats, carbon storage, and recreational activities.

== Fishery ==
[[File:Net fishing professionally 0544990019 KALFA.jpg|thumb|Fishery management utilizes the concept of sustainable yield to determine how much fish can be removed, so that the population remains sustainable.]]

This concept is important in [[Fisheries management|fishery management]], in which sustainable yield is defined as the number of fish that can be extracted without reducing the base of fish stock, and the [[maximum sustainable yield]] is defined as the amount of fish that can be extracted under given environmental conditions.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last=Ricker|first=W.E.|date=1975|title=Computation and Interpretation of Biological Statistics of Fish Populations|journal=Bulletin of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada|volume=191}}</ref> In fisheries, the basic natural capital or virgin population, must decrease with extraction. At the same time productivity increases. Hence, sustainable yield would be within the range in which the natural capital together with its production are able to provide satisfactory yield.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Reynolds|first1=John D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W8WldjwSjZYC&q=sustainable+yield+in+fisheries&pg=PA42|title=Conservation of Exploited Species|last2=Mace|first2=Georgina M.|last3=Redford|first3=Kent H.|last4=Robinson|first4=John G.|date=2001-10-18|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78733-8|language=en}}</ref> It may be very difficult to quantify sustainable yield, because every dynamic ecological conditions and other factors  not  related to harvesting induce changes and fluctuations in both, the natural capital and its productivity.<ref name="":0"" />

== Groundwater Application ==
In the case of [[groundwater]] there is a safe yield of water extraction per unit time, beyond which the [[aquifer]] risks the state of [[overdrafting]] or even depletion. Depletion of an aquifer, or a decline in groundwater levels has the potential to cause [[Subsidence|land subsidence]] which can cause sinkholes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Land Subsidence {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/land-subsidence#:~:text=The%20probable%20cause%20was%20declining,,%20sinkholes,%20and%20thawing%20permafrost. |access-date=2023-05-07 |website=www.usgs.gov}}</ref> In order to calculate this safe yield of water extraction in the area, a lot of considerations need to be taken into account. The first is the water budget, figuring out and understanding where water is used by humans, getting recharged, and being lost due to possible maintenance issues and natural phenomena. Another consideration is changing technology. Technology allows for possible gains in supply, for example, [[desalination]] technology, turning saltwater into drinking water. The other considerations include temporal, spatial, and monetary aspects, which all cause changes in the water system that change the amount of usable water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maimone |first=Mark |date=2004 |title=Defining and Managing Sustainable Yield |url=https://ponce.sdsu.edu/maimone_gw2004_809.pdf |journal=Ground Water |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=809–814|doi=10.1111/j.1745-6584.2004.tb02739.x |pmid=15584295 |bibcode=2004GrWat..42..809M |s2cid=29594099 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Sustainable yield in fisheries]]
* [[Maximum sustainable yield]]
* [[Hans Carl von Carlowitz]], who pioneered the mathematics behind sustained yield with his 1713 treatise

==References==

{{reflist}}

== Notes ==
{{Sustainability}}
{{forestry}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Renewable resources]]"
Nature Farming,"""'''Nature Farming'''"" was established in 1936 by [[Mokichi Okada]], the founder of the [[Church of World Messianity]], an agricultural system originally called {{nihongo|""no fertilizer farming""|[[:ja:自然農法|自然農法]]|shizen nōhō}}.<ref>Sustainable Agriculture: Definition and Terms. Special Reference Briefs Series no. SRB 99-02, September 1999. Compiled by: Mary V. Gold, Alternative Farming Systems Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture</ref>

Offshoots such as the Sekai Kyusei Kyo, promoting ‘Kyusei nature farming’, and the Mokichi Okada Association formed after his death to continue promoting the work in Japan and South-East Asia.<ref>Setboonsarng, S. and Gilman, J. 1999. Alternative Agriculture in Thailand and Japan. HORIZON Communications, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.</ref>

ZZ2, a farming conglomerate in South Africa has translated the term to [[Afrikaans]], ""Natuurboerdery"".<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Silent|first=Taurayi|title=An investigation of natuurboerdery (natural farming) approach : a ZZ2 case study|date=March 2011|publisher=Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch|url=http://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/6694|language=en-ZA}}</ref>

According to the International Nature Farming Research Center in [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]], Japan,<ref>Scientific Proof of Mokichi Okada's Nature Farming Theories by Xu, Hui-lian. Agricultural Experiment Station, International Nature Farming Research Center, Nagano</ref> it is based on the theories that:
* [[Fertilizer]]s pollute the soil and weaken its power of production.
* [[Pest (organism)|Pests]] would break out from the excessive use of fertilizers
* The difference in disease incidence between resistant and susceptible plants is attributed to nutritional conditions inside the body.
* Vegetables and fruits produced by nature farming taste better than those by [[Industrial agriculture|chemical farming]].
The term is sometimes used for an alternative farming philosophy of [[Masanobu Fukuoka]].

==Natural Farming==
{{Main|Natural Farming}}
Another Japanese farmer and philosopher, [[Masanobu Fukuoka]], conceived of an alternative farming system in the 1930s separately from Okada and used the same Japanese characters to describe it.<ref name=""NATURE FARMING-Xu1"">{{cite book|last=Xu|first=Hui-Lian|title=NATURE FARMING In Japan|type=Monograph|year=2001|publisher=Research Signpost|location=T. C. 37/661(2), Fort Post Office, Trivandrum - 695023, Kerala, India.|isbn=81-308-0111-6}}</ref> This is generally translated in English as ""[[Natural Farming]]"" although agriculture researcher Hu-lian Xu claims that ""nature farming"" is the correct literal translation of the Japanese term.<ref name=""NATURE FARMING-Xu1"" />

==See also==
* [[No-dig gardening]]
* [[No-till farming]]

==Bibliography==
* 自然農法解說 / Shizen nōhō kaisetsu by Mokichi Okada. Publisher: 榮光社出版部 Eikōsha Shuppanbu, Tōkyō 1951.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.infrc.or.jp/}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Organic farming]]
[[Category:Agriculture and the environment]]
[[Category:Rural community development]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]

{{agriculture-stub}}"
Natural farming,"{{Short description|Sustainable farming approach}}
[[File:Masanobu-Fukuoka.jpg|right|thumbnail|Masanobu Fukuoka, originator of the natural farming method]]

'''Natural farming''' ([[:ja:自然農法|自然農法]], shizen nōhō),<ref name=""One–Straw_Translator's_Notes"">1975 {{in lang|ja}} {{nihongo2|自然農法-わら一本の革命}} {{in lang|en}} 1978 re-presentation ''The One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farming''.</ref> also referred to as ""the Fukuoka Method"", ""the natural way of farming"", or ""do-nothing farming"", is an [[ecological farming]] approach established by [[Masanobu Fukuoka]] (1913–2008). Fukuoka, a Japanese [[farmer]] and philosopher, introduced the term in his 1975 book ''[[The One-Straw Revolution]]''. The title refers not to lack of effort, but to the avoidance of manufactured inputs and equipment. Natural farming is related to fertility farming, [[organic farming]], [[sustainable agriculture]], [[agroecology]], [[agroforestry]], [[ecoagriculture]] and [[permaculture]], but should be distinguished from [[biodynamic agriculture]].

The system works along with the natural biodiversity of each farmed area, encouraging the complexity of living organisms—both plant and animal—that shape each particular ecosystem to thrive along with food plants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.finalstraw.org/life-and-death/|title=Life and Death in the Field {{!}} Final Straw – Food {{!}} Earth {{!}} Happiness|website=www.finalstraw.org|date=29 May 2016 |language=en|access-date=2017-04-16}}</ref> Fukuoka saw farming both as a means of producing food and as an aesthetic or spiritual approach to life, the ultimate goal of which was, ""the cultivation and perfection of human beings"".<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.futures.2009.08.001| title = Linking foresight and sustainability: An integral approach| journal = Futures| volume = 42| pages = 59–68| year = 2010| last1 = Floyd | first1 = J. | last2 = Zubevich | first2 = K. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Agriculture: A Fundamental Principle |last=Hanley |first=Paul |journal=Journal of Bahá'í Studies |volume=3 |issue=1 |year=1990 |url=https://www.bahai-studies.ca/journal/files/jbs/3.1%20Hanley.pdf |access-date=April 28, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327202848/http://www.bahai-studies.ca/journal/files/jbs/3.1%20Hanley.pdf |archive-date=March 27, 2013 }}</ref> He suggested that farmers could benefit from closely observing local conditions.<ref name=""Duncan1996"">{{cite book|author=Colin Adrien MacKinley Duncan|title=The Centrality of Agriculture: Between Humankind and the Rest of Nature|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=c0ZcTTXw9a8C}}|year=1996|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-6571-5}}</ref> Natural farming is a closed system, one that demands no human-supplied inputs and mimics nature.<ref>Trees on Organic Farms, Mirret, Erin Paige. North Carolina State University, 2001</ref>

Fukuoka's natural farming practice rejected the use of modern technology, and after twenty-five years, his farm demonstrated consistently comparable yields to that of the most technologically advanced farms in Japan, doing so without the pollution, soil loss, energy consumption, and [[environmental degradation]] inherent in these modern types of farming. One of the main prompts of natural farming, is to ask why we should apply modern technology to the process of growing food, if nature is capable of achieving similar yields without the negative side-effects of these technologies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fukuoka|first=Masanobu|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/759171802|title=Sowing seeds in the desert : natural farming, global restoration, and ultimate food security|date=2012|publisher=Chelsea Green Pub|others=Larry Korn|isbn=978-1-60358-418-0|location=White River Junction, Vt.|pages=xix|oclc=759171802}}</ref> Such ideas radically challenged conventions that are core to modern agro-industries; instead of promoting importation of nutrients and chemicals, he suggested an approach that takes advantage of the local environment.<ref name=""stock and morse"">{{cite book|author1=Stephen Morse|author2=Michael Stockin|title=People and Environment: Development for the Future|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=nPeHlOh0y_UC}}|year=1995|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|isbn=978-1-85728-283-2}}</ref> Although natural farming is sometimes considered a subset of organic farming, it differs greatly from conventional [[organic farming]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Participating in Nature: Thomas J. Elpel's Field Guide to Primitive Living Skills |last=Elpel |first=Thomas J. |date=November 1, 2002 |publisher=HOPS Press |isbn=1892784122}}</ref> which Fukuoka considered to be another modern technique that disturbs nature.<ref>[http://www.jef.or.jp/backnumber/162th_promenade.pdf  What Does Natural Farming Mean?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720070520/http://www.jef.or.jp/backnumber/162th_promenade.pdf |date=2011-07-20 }} by Toyoda, Natsuko</ref>

Fukuoka claimed that his approach prevents [[water pollution]], [[biodiversity loss]] and [[soil erosion]], while providing ample amounts of food, and there is a growing body of scientific work in fields like [[agroecology]] and [[regenerative agriculture]], that lend support to these claims.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Science {{!}} Agroecology Knowledge Hub {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|url=http://www.fao.org/agroecology/knowledge/science/en/|access-date=2021-11-27|website=www.fao.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hilmi|first=Angela|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1012884027|title=Agroecology : reweaving a new landscape|date=2018|isbn=978-3-319-68489-5|location=Cham|oclc=1012884027}}</ref><ref name=""Reddystudies2010"">{{cite book|author1=Priya Reddy|author2=Prescott College Environmental studies|title=Sustainable Agricultural Education: An Experiential Approach to Shifting Consciousness and Practices|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=dtE8MwEACAAJ}}|year=2010|publisher=Prescott College|isbn=978-1-124-38302-6}}</ref>

== Masanobu Fukuoka's principles ==

In principle, practitioners of natural farming maintain that it is not a ''technique'' but a ''view'', or a way of seeing ourselves as a [[Nature connectedness|part of nature]], rather than separate from or above it.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.finalstraw.org/masanobu-fukuoka-and-natural-farming/|title=Masanobu Fukuoka and Natural Farming {{!}} Final Straw – Food {{!}} Earth {{!}} Happiness|website=www.finalstraw.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-11}}</ref> Accordingly, the methods themselves vary widely depending on culture and local conditions.

Rather than offering a structured method, Fukuoka distilled the natural farming mindset into five principles:<ref name=""Norberg-HodgeGoering2001"">{{cite book|author1=Helena Norberg-Hodge|author2=Peter Goering|author3=John Page|title=From the Ground Up: Rethinking Industrial Agriculture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I4sQTjNulnQC|date=1 January 2001|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-85649-994-1}}</ref>

# No [[tillage]]
# No [[fertilizer]]
# No [[pesticide]]s or [[herbicide]]s
# No [[weeding]]
# No [[pruning]]
[[File:Production still from ""Final Straw, Food, Earth, Happiness"" shows rice harvesting on a natural farm.jpg|alt=A young man helps harvest rice by hand at a natural farm in a production still from the film ""Final Straw: Food, Earth, Happiness""|thumb|A young man helps harvest rice by hand at a natural farm, in this production still from the film ""[http://www.finalstraw.org/ Final Straw: Food, Earth, Happiness]""]]

Though many of his plant varieties and practices relate specifically to Japan and even to local conditions in [[Humid subtropical climate|subtropical]] western [[Shikoku]], his philosophy and the governing principles of his farming systems have been applied widely around the world, from Africa to the [[temperate]] northern hemisphere.

Principally, natural farming minimises human labour and adopts, as closely as practical, nature's production of foods such as [[rice]], [[barley]], [[daikon]] or [[citrus]] in biodiverse agricultural [[ecosystem]]s. Without [[plow]]ing, [[seeds]] [[germination|germinate]] well on the surface if site conditions meet the needs of the seeds placed there. Fukuoka used the presence of [[spiders]] in his fields as a [[key performance indicator]] of [[sustainability]].{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}

Fukuoka specifies that the ground remain covered by [[weed]]s, [[white clover]], [[alfalfa]], [[herbaceous]] [[legume]]s, and sometimes deliberately sown [[herbaceous plant]]s. [[Ground cover]] is present along with grain, vegetable crops and [[orchards]]. Chickens run free in orchards and [[ducks]] and [[carp]] populate rice fields.<ref>1975 {{in lang|ja}} {{nihongo2|自然農法-わら一本の革命}} {{in lang|en}} 1978 re-presentation ''The One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farming''</ref>

Periodically ground layer plants including weeds may be cut and left on the surface, returning their nutrients to the soil, while suppressing weed growth. This also facilitates the sowing of seeds in the same area because the dense ground layer hides the seeds from animals such as birds.

For summer rice and winter barley grain crops, ground cover enhances [[nitrogen fixation]]. [[Straw]] from the previous crop [[mulch]]es the [[topsoil]]. Each grain crop is sown before the previous one is harvested by [[broadcast seeding|broadcasting]] the seed among the standing crop. Later, this method was reduced to a single direct seeding of clover, barley and rice over the standing heads of rice.<ref name=""Fukuoka1987"">{{cite book|author=Masanobu Fukuoka|title=The Natural Way of Farming: The Theory and Practice of Green Philosophy|url={{google books|plainurl=y |id=L3M_AAAAYAAJ}}|year=1987|publisher=Japan Publications|isbn=978-0-87040-613-3}}</ref> The result is a denser crop of smaller, but highly productive and stronger plants.

Fukuoka's practice and philosophy emphasised small scale operation and challenged the need for mechanised farming techniques for high productivity, efficiency and [[economies of scale]].  While his family's farm was larger than the Japanese average, he used one field of grain crops as a small-scale example of his system.

== Yoshikazu Kawaguchi ==
[[File:Natural farmer Yoshikazu Kawaguchi.jpg|thumb|Yoshikazu Kawaguchi at Akame Natural Farm School]]
Widely regarded as the leading practitioner of the second-generation of natural farmers, [[Yoshikazu Kawaguchi]] is the instigator of Akame Natural Farm School, and a related network of volunteer-based ""no-tuition"" natural farming schools in Japan that numbers 40 locations and more than 900 concurrent students.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=(Japan))|first1=Hokazono, S.(Mie Univ., Tsu|last2=K.|first2=Ohara|date=2007-01-01|title=The role of a learning site for urban residents hoping to do farming: Focusing on the spread of 'natural farming' by the Akame Natural Farming School|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=JP2008004433|journal=Journal of Rural Problems (Japan)|language=ja|issn=0388-8525}}</ref> Although Kawaguchi's practice is based on Fukuoka's principles, his methods differ notably from those of Fukuoka. He re-states the core values of natural farming as:

# Do not plow the fields
# Weeds and insects are not your enemies
# There is no need to add fertilizers
# Adjust the foods you grow based on your local climate and conditions

Kawaguchi's recognition outside of Japan has become wider after his appearance as the central character in the documentary ''[[Final Straw: Food, Earth, Happiness]]'', through which his interviews were translated into several languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.finalstraw.org|title=Final Straw – Food - Earth - Happiness|website=www.finalstraw.org}}</ref> He is the author of several books in Japan, though none have been officially translated into English.

Since 2016, Kawaguchi is no longer directly instructing at the Akame school which he founded. He is still actively teaching however, holding open farm days at his own natural farm in Nara prefecture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37510039 |title='Body and Earth Are Not Two': Kawaguchi Yoshikazu's NATURAL FARMING and American Agriculture Writers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2017-04-16}}</ref>

== No-till ==
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2012}}

Natural farming recognizes soils as a fundamental natural asset. Ancient soils possess physical and chemical attributes that render them capable of generating and supporting life abundance. It can be argued that tilling actually degrades the delicate balance of a climax soil:

# Tilling may destroy crucial physical characteristics of a soil such as ''[[water potential|water suction]]'', its ability to send moisture upwards, even during dry spells. The effect is due to pressure differences between soil areas. Furthermore, tilling most certainly destroys [[soil horizon]]s and hence disrupts the established flow of nutrients. A study suggests that reduced tillage preserves the crop residues on the top of the soil, allowing organic matter to be formed more easily and hence increasing the [[total organic carbon]] and nitrogen when compared to conventional tillage. The increases in organic carbon and nitrogen increase aerobic, facultative anaerobic and [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] [[bacteria]] populations.<ref>{{cite book| title=Principles and Applications of Soil Microbiology| last1=Sylvia |first1=D.M. |last2=Fuhrmann |first2=J.J. |last3=Hartel |first3=P.G. |last4=Zuberer |first4=D.A.| publisher=Prentice Hall| location=New Jersey| year=1999| isbn=0130941174| pages=39–41 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=tLjwAAAAMAAJ|p=39}}}}</ref>
# Tilling over-pumps oxygen to local soil residents, such as [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]]. As a result, the chemistry of the soil changes. Biological decomposition accelerates and the [[microbiota (microbiology)|microbiota]] mass increases at the expense of other organic matter, adversely affecting most plants, including trees and vegetables. For plants to thrive a certain quantity of organic matter (around 5%) must be present in the soil.
# Tilling uproots all the plants in the area, turning their roots into food for bacteria and fungi. This damages their ability to aerate the soil. Living roots drill millions of tiny holes in the soil and thus provide oxygen.<!-- just oxygen? --> They also create room for beneficial [[insect]]s and [[annelid]]s (the phylum of [[worm]]s). Some types of roots contribute directly to soil fertility by funding a [[mutualism (biology)|mutualistic relationship]] with certain kinds of bacteria (most famously the [[rhizobium]]) that can fix nitrogen.

Fukuoka advocated avoiding any change in the [[natural landscape]]. This idea differs significantly from some recent permaculture practice that focuses on permaculture design, which may involve the change in landscape. For example, [[Sepp Holzer]], an Austrian permaculture farmer, advocates the creation of terraces on slopes to control soil erosion. Fukuoka avoided the creation of terraces in his farm, even though terraces were common in China and Japan in his time. Instead, he prevented soil erosion by simply growing trees and shrubs on slopes.

== Other forms of natural farming ==
[[File:P-14 lady beetle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ladybird]]s consume [[aphid]]s and are considered beneficial by natural farmers that apply [[biological control]].]]Although the term ""natural farming"" came into common use in the English language during the 1980s with the translation of the book ''One Straw Revolution'', the natural farming mindset itself has a long history throughout the world, spanning from historical Native American practices to modern day urban farms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenatureofcities.com/2015/09/16/a-restaurant-and-garden-serving-up-connections-to-urban-nature/|title=Social Practice Artwork: A Restaurant and Garden Serving up Connections to Urban Nature|last=Lydon|first=Patrick|date=2015-09-16|website=The Nature of Cities|access-date=2017-04-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sociecity.org/post/2015/urban-empathy-garden/|title=Artwork / Urban Empathy Garden {{!}} SocieCity|website=sociecity.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-11|date=2015-06-23}}</ref><ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1ppfn4|title=Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and the Management of California's Natural Resources|last=ANDERSON|first=M. KAT|date=2005-01-01|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520238565|edition=1|chapter=Native American Knowledge and the Management of California's Natural Resources}}</ref>

Some variants, and their particularities include:

=== Fertility farming ===

In 1951, [[Frank Newman Turner|Newman Turner]] advocated the practice of ""fertility farming"", a system featuring the use of a cover crop, no tillage, no chemical fertilizers, no pesticides, no weeding and no composting. Although Turner was a commercial farmer and did not practice random seeding of [[seed balls]], his ""fertility farming"" principles share similarities with Fukuoka's system of natural farming. Turner also advocated a ""natural method"" of [[animal husbandry]].<ref>{{cite book| author=Newman Turner| title=Fertility Farming| isbn=978-1601730091| year=1951| publisher=Faber and Faber Limited| url=http://www.journeytoforever.org/farm_library/turner/turnerToC.html}}</ref>

=== Native American ===
Recent research in the field of [[traditional ecological knowledge]] finds that for over one hundred centuries, Native American tribes worked the land in strikingly similar ways to today's natural farmers. Author and researcher M. Kat Anderson writes that ""According to contemporary Native Americans, it is only through interaction and relationships with native plants that mutual respect is established.""<ref name="":0"" />

=== Nature Farming (Mokichi Okada) ===
{{main|Nature Farming}}
Japanese farmer and philosopher [[Mokichi Okada]], conceived of a ""no fertilizer"" farming system in the 1930s that predated Fukuoka. Okada used the same [[Chinese characters]] as Fukuoka's ""natural farming"" however, they are translated into English slightly differently, as [[nature farming]].<ref name=""NATURE FARMING-Xu1"">{{cite book|url=http://www.ressign.com/UserBookDetail.aspx?bkid=460&catid=140|title=NATURE FARMING In Japan|last=Xu|first=Hui-Lian|publisher=Research Signpost|year=2001 |location=T. C. 37/661(2), Fort Post Office, Trivandrum - 695023, Kerala, India |type=Monograph|isbn=81-308-0111-6 |access-date=6 March 2011}}</ref> Agriculture researcher Hu-lian Xu claims that ""nature farming"" is the correct literal translation of the Japanese term.<ref name=""NATURE FARMING-Xu1"" />

=== Rishi Kheti ===
In [[India]], natural farming of Masanobu Fukuoka was called ""Rishi Kheti"" by practitioners like Partap Aggarwal.<ref name=""Mr. Fukuoka news article 2010 Mumbai India"">[http://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report_masanobu-fukuoka-the-man-who-did-nothing_1426864 ""Masanobu Fukuoka: The man who did nothing By Malvika Tegta""] ""DNA Daily News and Analysis"". ""Published: Sunday, Aug 22, 2010, 2:59 IST"". ""Place: Mumbai"", India. (Retrieved 1 December 2010)</ref><ref name=""Nature Farmers-India Rishi Keti"">[http://www.satavic.org/rishikheti.htm ""Natural farming succeeds in Indian village By Partap C Aggarwal"" in the 1980s] [http://www.satavic.org/media.htm ''Satavic Farms''] (India), ""Slowly, bit by bit, we found ourselves close to what is called ‘natural farming’, pioneered in Japan by Masanobu Fukuoka. At Rasulia we called it 'rishi kheti' (agriculture of the sages).""</ref> The Rishi Kheti use cow products like buttermilk, milk, curd and its waste urine for preparing growth promoters. The Rishi Kheti is considered to be non-violent farming<ref>{{Cite web|title=Introductory Agriculture: Student Handbook NSQF Level 1 Class IX|url=http://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/Curriculum/Vocational/2018/Introductory%20Agriculture%20IX%20(408).pdf|page=121}}</ref> without any usage of chemical fertilizer and pesticides. They obtain high quality{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} natural or organic produce having medicinal values. Today still a small number of farmers in Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu use this farming method in India.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

===Zero Budget Farming===
{{Main|Zero Budget Natural Farming}}
Zero Budget Farming is a variation on natural farming developed in, and primarily practiced in southern India. It is also called spiritual farming. The method involves [[mulching]], [[intercropping]], and the use of several preparations which include [[cow dung]]. These preparations, generated on-site, are central to the practice, and said to promote microbe and earthworm activity in the soil.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zero Budget Natural Farming in India|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-bl990e.pdf|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=25 January 2018}}</ref> Indian agriculturist [[Subhash Palekar]] has researched and written extensively on this method.

== See also ==<!-- New links in alphabetical order please -->
{{Portal|Systems science|Ecology}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Agrarianism]]
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Biomimicry]]
* [[Conservation agriculture]]
* [[Ecoagriculture]]
* [[Ethnobotany]]
* [[Forest gardening]]
* [[Green manure]] (plants)
* [[Holzer Permaculture]]
* [[Hydroculture]]
* [[Korean natural farming]]
* [[No-dig gardening]]
* [[No-till farming]]
* [[Seed saving]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.finalstraw.org/ Final Straw: Food, Earth, Happiness] documentary exploring the natural farming philosophy in Korea, Japan, and USA (2015)
* [https://natural-farming.org/en/ The Natural Farming Center of Greece]

{{agriculture}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Natural farming}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Organic farming]]
[[Category:Agriculture and the environment]]
[[Category:Permaculture concepts]]
[[Category:Agroforestry]]
[[Category:Organic farming in Asia| ]]"
National Resources Inventory,"The '''National Resources Inventory''' (NRI) is a periodic assessment of the status and changing conditions of the soil, water, and related resources on private land conducted by [[USDA]]’s [[Natural Resources Conservation Service]] (NRCS). The survey has been conducted at 5-year intervals since 1977, most recently in 2007, though a 2010 mid-cycle data release occurred in December 2013. NRCS released initial results from the 1997 survey in late 1999. The 2010 report includes comparison of the data relative to 1982.

Summary pages exist for [[soil erosion]], land use status and trends, development of non-federal rural land, and rangeland.

==External links==
* [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/technical/nra/nri/ NRI website] (contains results from the 2010 survey, as well as archived results from 1997.

== References ==
* {{CRS|article = Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition|url = http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/05jun/97-905.pdf|author= Jasper Womach}}

[[Category:United States Department of Agriculture]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]


{{soil-stub}}
{{mining-stub}}"
Myth of superabundance,"{{Short description|Belief that earth has more than wanted natural resources}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Globalize|1=article|2=United States|date=December 2020}}
{{Peacock|date=December 2020}}
{{POV|date=December 2020}}
{{Original research|date=December 2020}}
{{Primary sources|date=December 2020}}
}}
The '''myth of superabundance''' is the belief that [[Earth]] has more than sufficient [[natural resources]] to satisfy humanity's wants, and that no matter how much of these resources humanity uses, the planet will continuously replenish the supply. The term was coined by US politician [[Stewart Udall]] — a member of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] — in 1964 in his book ''The Quiet Crisis'', though the idea had existed previously among 19th-century US [[conservation movement|conservationist]]s.

Udall described the myth as the belief that there was ""so much land, so much water, so much timber, so many birds and beasts""<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|22}} that humans did not envision a time where the planet would not replenish what had been sowed. The myth of superabundance began to circulate during [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s presidency at the beginning of the nineteenth century and persuaded many Americans to exploit natural resources as they pleased with no concern of possible long-term consequences.<ref name=Udall/> According to historian of the [[North American West]] George Colpitts, ""no theme became as integral to [[Manifest destiny|western promotion]] as natural abundance.""<ref name=Colpitts/>{{rp|104}} Especially with respect to the American West after 1890, promotional literature encouraged migration by invoking the idea that God had provided an abundant environment where no person or family would fail if they sought to farm or otherwise live off the land.<ref name=Colpitts/>

At that time, [[environmental science]] and the study of [[ecology]] barely allowed for the possibility of animal [[extinction]] and did not provide tools for measuring [[biomass]] or the limits of natural resources; therefore many [[Land speculation|speculators]], [[settler]]s, and other parties were unaware of the potential impact of unsustainable practices that led to various extinctions, the [[Dust Bowl]] phenomenon, and other [[environmental catastrophe]]s.

== 18th century manifestations in the US==
In 1784, [[John Filson]] wrote ''The Discovery, Settlement And present State of [[Kentucky]]'',<ref name=Filson/> which included the chapter ""The Adventures of Colonel [[Daniel Boone|Daniel Boon]]"". This work represents an early instance of the myth of superabundance, enticing settlers to Kentucky based on its abundance of resources.<ref name=Udall/>

== 19th century manifestations in the US ==
Udall described the impacts of the myth on natural resources as ""The Big Raid on resources"".<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|54}} Udall describes the need for [[logging|lumber]] in a growing nation for [[fuel]], housing, and paper as the first big raid on the Earth's natural resources that began to expose the myth of superabundance. It was only late in the nineteenth century that people became aware of empty hillsides and blackened woods from the [[lumber industry]]. [[Petroleum]] followed, as it was widely believed that [[Fossil fuel|oil]] was constantly made inside the Earth, and so, like everything else, was inexhaustible. Then came [[seal hunting]], with a population that was estimated to be approximately five million cut in half by 1866.<ref name=Udall/> The [[Fur Seal Treaty]] (1911) saved the seals from becoming the first major [[marine species]] to become extinct as a consequence of the myth of superabundance.

The [[passenger pigeon]] was the largest wildlife species known to humanity in the early nineteenth century, when the bird's population was estimated at five billion. By the early 20th century, due to [[overhunting]] and [[habitat destruction]] brought about by the [[Wood industry|timber industry]], the species had become extinct, the last passenger pigeon having died in the Cincinnati Zoo.<ref name=IUCN/>

The [[American bison|American buffalo]] was threatened by the myth of superabundance. They were considered to be the largest and most valuable resource because just about every piece of them was usable. The big kill of the buffalo began at the end of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] when armies began killing the animals in an attempt to starve the [[Plains Indians]]. Railroad men wanted them killed in order to create more profit for the hides. Buffalo were killed for their tongues and hides, and some hunters simply wanted them as [[Trophy hunting|trophies]]. Pleas of protection for the buffalo were ignored, nearly wiping out the species.<ref name=Udall/>

During the [[Great Leap Forward]] in [[China]] in 1958 economic planners reduced the acreage space for planting [[wheat]] and [[grain]]s, trying to force farmers and [[Farmworker|agricultural laborers]] into accepting new forms of [[Industrial sector|industry]]. As a result, production of wheat and grain was slowed dangerously, and floods in [[Southern China|the South]] and droughts in the [[North China|North]] struck in 1959, helping create the conditions that led to the [[Great Chinese Famine]].<ref name=Mokyr/>

=== US conservationists warnings ===
[[George Perkins Marsh]], who wrote ''[[Man and Nature]]'' in 1864, rejected the idea that any resource could be indefinitely exploited. Perkins had been witness to natural destruction and its impact on present prosperity. He believed that nature should not be exploited for economic or political gain. He was, after all, ""forest born"".<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|72}} Man's role as a catalyst of change in the natural world intrigued him. He believed that progress was entirely possible and necessary if only men used wisdom in the [[Natural resource management|management of resources]]. He cast doubt around the myth of superabundance<ref name=Marsh/> and helped make way for [[John Muir]] in 1874.

Muir, who had grown up surrounded by [[wilderness]], believed that wildlife and nature could provide people with a heightened sense of abilities and experiences of awe that could not be found elsewhere.<ref name=""Udall"" /> He advocated for the preservation of what he believed to be America's most beautiful nature, building on steps already taken by [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], a young landscape architect who designed [[Central Park]] in [[New York City]]. Olmsted had persuaded [[United States Congress|Congress]] to pass a bill preserving much of [[Yosemite Valley]], which [[Abraham Lincoln|President Lincoln]] had then approved in 1864. In 1872, [[Ulysses S. Grant|President Grant]] signed the [[Yellowstone National Park|Yellowstone Park]] Bill, which saved over two million acres of wildlife.<ref name=""Udall"" />

== Early successes ==
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2023}}
Muir saw [[overgrazing]] destruction in Yosemite, in those parts which were not under protection. It was a result of nearby [[Sheep husbandry|sheep farmers]] and their herds.<ref group=Notes>Overgrazing would later spark a feud of conflicting beliefs between Muir and Glifford Pinchot, the Department of Agriculture’s Chief Forester, who were actually friends. They clashed over sheep-grazing practices, because Pinchot believed that controlled grazing was useful in the forest preserves, but Muir believed that it was a bad practice to use at all. Pinchot is known to have later rescinded his argument, saying that Muir was indeed, right.</ref> In 1876, Muir wrote an article ""God’s First Temples – How Shall We Preserve Our Forests"", which he published in the newspaper, pleading for help with protection of the forests. At first, he failed against the overriding ideal of the myth of superabundance, but he did inspire bills in the 1880s that sought to enlarge Yosemite's reservation.

Muir formed the [[Sierra Club]], a group of [[Mountaineering|mountaineers]] and conservationists like him who had responded to his many articles. [[Sierra Club|The Sierra Club]]'s first big fight came as a counter-attack on lumbermen and [[Cowboy|stockmen]] who wanted to monopolize some of Yosemite County. Yosemite Valley, which was still owned by the state, was mismanaged and natural reserves like the meadows and [[Mirror Lake (California)|Mirror Lake]], which was dammed for [[irrigation]], were still being destroyed even under supposed protection. In 1895, Muir and the Sierra Club began a battle that would span over ten years, fighting for natural management of Yosemite Valley. [[Theodore Roosevelt]] met with Muir in 1903 and was instantly fascinated with Muir's passion for the wilderness. Roosevelt approved Muir's argument for Yosemite Valley, and so the Sierra Club took their decade–long campaign to [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], where they won against the California legislature in 1905. With Roosevelt on Muir's side, Yosemite Valley became part of Yosemite National Park and was allowed natural management.

== 20th century manifestations ==
According to Udall the myth of superabundance was replaced in the 20th century by the ''myth of scientific supremacy'': the belief that science can eventually find a solution to any problem.<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|178}} This leads to behaviors which, while recognizing that resources are not infinite, still fail to properly preserve those resources, putting the problem off to future generations to solve through science.<ref name=Udall/> ""Present the repair bill to the next generation"" is their silent motto.<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|178}} George Perkins Marsh had said that conservation's greatest enemies were ""greed and shortsightedness"".<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|178}}

== Next steps ==
Patsy Hallen wrote in the article, ""The Art of Impurity"" that an ethics development must occur in which respect for nature and our radical dependency on it can take place. [[Great chain of being|Humans see themselves as superior to nature]], and yet are in a constant state of continuity with it. Hallen argues that humanity cannot afford such an irrational state of mind and ecological denial if it expects to prosper in the future.<ref name=Hallen/>

== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Carrying capacity]]
* [[John L. McKenzie]]
* [[Peak oil]]
* [[Overexploitation]]
* [[Planetary boundaries]]
* [[Precautionary principle]]
* [[Stewart Udall]]
*''[[To Autumn]]'' (poem)
{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Notes}}

== References ==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=IUCN>
{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2019 |title=''Ectopistes migratorius'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T22690733A152593137 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22690733A152593137.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}
</ref>
<ref name=Colpitts>
{{cite book
  |last=Colpitts|first=George
  |title=Game in the Garden: A Human History of Wildlife in Western Canada to 1940
  |year=2002
  |publisher=UBC Press
  |location=Vancouver
  |isbn=0774809620
}}
</ref>
<ref name=Marsh>
{{cite book
  |last=Marsh|first=George Perkins
  |title=Man and Nature
  |year=1965
  |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
  |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts
  |isbn=0-674-54452-8
}}</ref>
<ref name=Udall>
{{cite book
  |last=Udall|first=Stuart, L.
  |title=The Quiet Crisis and the Next Generation
  |year=1988
  |publisher=Gibbs Smith Publisher
  |location=Salt Lake City
  |isbn=087905333X
}}
</ref>
<ref name=Filson>
{{cite journal
  |last=Filson|first=John|authorlink=John Filson
  |title=The Discovery, Settlement and Present State of Kentucke
  |journal=Electronic Texts in American Studies|year=1784
  |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/etas/3/
}}
</ref>
<ref name=Mokyr>
{{cite book
 |last=Ed, Mokyr|first=Joel
 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History 
 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordencycloped0000unse|url-access=registration|year=2003
 |publisher=Oxford University Press
}}
</ref>
<ref name=Hallen>
{{cite news
 |last=Hallen|first=Patsy
 |title=The Art of Impurity in Ethics and the Environment 
 |year=2003
 |publisher=Indiana University Press
 |volume=8
 |issue=1
 |jstor=40339057
}}
</ref>
}}

{{conservation of species}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental issues]]
[[Category:Scarcity]]
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]"
Dead hedge,"{{Short description|Artificial barrier constructed from foliage}}
[[File:Takkenwal.jpg|thumb|260px|A dead hedge used as a roadside boundary]]
A '''dead hedge''' is a barrier constructed from cut branches, [[sapling]]s, and [[foliage]]. The material can be gathered from activities such as [[pruning]] or clearing, and in traditional forms of [[woodland management]],<ref name=RHS>{{cite web |title=Dead wood and compost heap habitats |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/garden-health/wildlife/dead-wood-compost-heap-habitats |website=www.rhs.org.uk |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223155349if_/https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/garden-health/wildlife/dead-wood-compost-heap-habitats |archive-date=23 February 2021 |language=en-gb}}</ref> such as [[coppicing]]. Its [[ecological succession]] can be a [[beetle bank]] or [[hedge]].

==Restoration ecology and biological pest control== 
In coppicing, dead hedges are useful for keeping compartments of a coppice tidy, and keeping the public from certain areas. At the same time, they can provide excellent [[habitat]]s and [[Wildlife corridor|corridor]]s for wildlife [[habitat conservation]] and [[restoration ecology]]. They offer habitats for insects such as beetles, and [[Refuge (ecology)|shelter]] and feeding opportunities for small mammals<ref name=RHS/> and birds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://handbooks.btcv.org.uk/handbooks/content/chapter/65 |title=Hedging |work=BTCV handbook |author=[[BTCV]] |accessdate=2008-01-20}}{{Dead link|date=February 2021}}</ref> Dead hedges can be used to create habitats for natural 'biological control agents' to provide [[biological pest control]].{{Cn|date=January 2021}} They have roles in the tending of [[natural landscape]]s, [[wildlife gardening]], and [[organic gardening]].

[[File:Dead hedge in Meephill Copice April 2019 3.jpg|thumb|274x274px|A dead hedge that has been freshly built after [[coppicing]] (at Meephill Coppice, Worcestershire, England).]]

==Agriculture==
Dead hedges can provide enclosures for livestock.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northwichcommunitywoodlands.org.uk/events-hedgelaying.shtml |accessdate=2008-01-20 |work=Northwich Community Woodlands |title=Hedge-laying - alive and well in the Northwich Community Woodlands |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071110021455/http://www.northwichcommunitywoodlands.org.uk/events-hedgelaying.shtml |archivedate=November 10, 2007 }}</ref> They can also play a role in [[biological pest control]] (for example, in [[organic farming]] and [[sustainable agriculture]]).{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

Dead hedges provide a [[carbon footprint|carbon-efficient]] way of recycling [[biomass]], without the need for transport or burning.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Syke Barrien 0032.JPG |A dead hedge on farmland (at [[Barrien station|Barrien]] near Syke, Germany).
File:Klövensteen Waldweg mit Benjeshecke 01.jpg |A dead hedge can be seen bordering this forest path in [[Klövensteen]], near Hamburg, Germany.
File:Dead hedge Royal Fort Gardens, Bristol.jpg |This dead hedge in [[Royal Fort Gardens]], Bristol (England) is being used as a boundary to a [[Habitat conservation|protected wildlife habitat]].
File:Kingfisher Pool, Myton Fields - geograph.org.uk - 1196614.jpg |The dead hedge alongside this cycleway is protecting a [[Pond|wildlife pond]] among the 'Kingfisher Pools' at [[St Nicholas' Park, Warwick]], England.
File:Benjeshecke_(Illingen)_2020-05-21_(01).jpg |A dead hedge in a private [[wildlife garden]] (in [[Illingen, Saarland]], Germany).
File:Benjeshecke.jpg |This dead hedge is made from small conifer branches placed around freshly planted saplings (in Hundorf near [[Schwerin]], Germany).
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Beetle bank]]
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Coarse woody debris]]
* [[Hedge laying]]
* [[Hibernaculum (zoology)]]
* [[Insect hotel]]
* [[Windrow]] (dead hedges may be thought of as ""tidy wind-rows"")<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Oaks R |title=Coppicing and coppice crafts: a comprehensive guide |date=2012 |publisher=Crowood |isbn=978-1-84797-467-9 |pages=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iwg9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT119 |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Dead hedges}}

[[Category:Agricultural terminology]]
[[Category:Habitat management equipment and methods]]
[[Category:Biological pest control]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]

{{Horticulture-stub}}
{{Agri-stub}}"
Defaunation,"{{short description|Loss or extinctions of animals in the forests}}
[[File:1970- Decline in species populations - Living Planet Index.svg |thumb |The World Wildlife Fund’s Living Planet Report 2022 found that wildlife populations declined by an average 69% since 1970.<ref name=LivingPlanetIndex_2018>{{cite web |title=Living Planet Index, World |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-living-planet-index |publisher=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008181057/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-living-planet-index |archive-date=8 October 2023 |date=13 October 2022 |quote=Data source: World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Zoological Society of London |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=WEforum_20221017>{{cite web |last1=Whiting |first1=Kate |title=6 charts that show the state of biodiversity and nature loss - and how we can go 'nature positive' |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/nature-loss-biodiversity-wwf/ |publisher=World Economic Forum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925025824/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/nature-loss-biodiversity-wwf/ |archive-date=25 September 2023 |date=17 October 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=LPI_by_Region_1970>Regional data from {{cite web |title=How does the Living Planet Index vary by region? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/living-planet-index-region |publisher=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920042759/https://ourworldindata.org/living-planet-index-region |archive-date=20 September 2023 |date=13 October 2022 |quote=Data source: Living Planet Report (2022). World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Zoological Society of London. - |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
'''Defaunation''' is the global, local, or functional [[extinction]] of animal populations or species from [[ecological communities]].<ref name=""def ant"">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dirzo R, Young HS, Galetti M, Ceballos G, Isaac NJ, Collen B |title=Defaunation in the Anthropocene |journal= [[Science (journal)|Science]]|date= 2014|doi= 10.1126/science.1251817 |pmid= 25061202 |volume= 345| issue=6195 |pages=401–406 |url=http://www.uv.mx/personal/tcarmona/files/2010/08/Science-2014-Dirzo-401-6-2.pdf|bibcode= 2014Sci...345..401D|s2cid=206555761 }}</ref> The [[Human overpopulation|growth of the human population]], combined with advances in harvesting technologies, has led to more intense and efficient exploitation of the environment.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book|title = Essentials of Conservation Biology|last = Primack|first = Richard|publisher = Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers|year = 2014|isbn = 9781605352893|location = Sunderland, MA USA|pages = 217–245}}</ref> This has resulted in the [[depletion of natural resources|depletion]] of large vertebrates from ecological communities, creating what has been termed ""[[empty forest]]"".<ref name=Harrison2016>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harrison R, Sreekar R, Brodie JF, Brook S, Luskin M | display-authors = 2 | title = Impacts of hunting on tropical forests in Southeast Asia | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 30 | issue = 5 | pages = 972–981 | date = September 2016 | doi = 10.1111/cobi.12785 | pmid = 27341537 | s2cid = 3793259 }}</ref><ref name="":1"" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vignieri|first=Sacha |date = 2014 | title =Vanishing fauna|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=345|issue=6195| pages =392–395 |doi= 10.1126/science.345.6195.392|pmid=25061199 | bibcode=2014Sci...345..392V|doi-access=free}}</ref> Defaunation differs from [[extinction]]; it includes both the disappearance of species and declines in abundance.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|title = Tracking and combatting our current mass extinction|url = https://arstechnica.com/science/2014/07/tracking-and-combatting-our-current-mass-extinction/|website = Ars Technica|date = 25 July 2014|access-date = 2015-11-30}}</ref> Defaunation effects were first implied at the Symposium of Plant-Animal Interactions at the University of Campinas, Brazil in 1988 in the context of [[Neotropical realm|Neotropical]] forests.<ref name=""eco and evo"" /> Since then, the term has gained broader usage in conservation biology as a global phenomenon.<ref name=""def ant"" /><ref name=""eco and evo"">Dirzo, R. and Galetti, M. ""[https://www.academia.edu/download/31402133/Galetti_Dirzo.pdf Ecological and Evolutionary Consequences of Living in a Defaunated World.]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}"" ''Biological Conservation'' 163 (2013): 1-6.</ref>

It is estimated that more than 50 percent of all [[wildlife]] has been lost in the last 40 years.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/report-wildlife-numbers-drop-by-half-since-1970-1412085197 | title=Wildlife Numbers Drop by Half Since 1970, Report Says| newspaper=Wall Street Journal| date=30 September 2014| last1=Naik| first1=Gautam}}</ref> In 2016, it was estimated that by 2020, 68% of the world's wildlife would be lost.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/oct/27/world-on-track-to-lose-two-thirds-of-wild-animals-by-2020-major-report-warns|title=World on track to lose two-thirds of wild animals by 2020, major report warns|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=2016-10-26|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-04-12|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In [[South America]], there is believed to be a 70 percent loss.<ref>Ceballos, G.; Ehrlich, A. H.; Ehrlich, P. R. (2015). ''The Annihilation of Nature: Human Extinction of Birds and Mammals''. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 135 {{ISBN|1421417189}} – via Open Edition.</ref> A 2021 study found that only around 3% of the planet's terrestrial surface is ecologically and [[fauna|faunally]] intact, with healthy populations of native animal species and little to no human footprint.<ref>{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=April 15, 2021 |title=Just 3% of world's ecosystems remain intact, study suggests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/15/just-3-of-worlds-ecosystems-remain-intact-study-suggests |work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=April 18, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Plumptre|first1=Andrew J. |last2=Baisero |first2=Daniele |display-authors=etal. |date=2021 |title=Where Might We Find Ecologically Intact Communities? |url= |journal=Frontiers in Forests and Global Change |volume=4 |issue= |pages= |doi=10.3389/ffgc.2021.626635|doi-access=free |hdl=10261/242175 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In November 2017, over 15,000 scientists around the world issued a second [[World Scientists' Warning to Humanity|warning to humanity]], which, among other things, urged for the development and implementation of policies to halt ""defaunation, the [[poaching]] crisis, and the exploitation and [[wildlife trade|trade of threatened species]].""<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF|title=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice|journal=[[BioScience]]|date=13 November 2017|volume=35|issue=12|pages=1026–1028|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix125|doi-access=free|hdl=11336/71342|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

== Drivers ==

=== Overexploitation ===
{{main|overexploitation}}
[[File:Rhino poaching.jpg|thumb|Rhino poaching]]The intensive hunting and harvesting of animals threatens endangered vertebrate species across the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van Uhm |first1=D.P. |title=A green criminological perspective on environmental crime: the anthropocentric, ecocentric and biocentric impact of defaunation |journal=Revue Internationale de Droit Pénal |date=2017 |volume=87 |issue=1 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313502962}}</ref><ref name="":1"" /> Game [[vertebrate]]s are considered valuable products of tropical forests and savannas. In Brazilian Amazonia, 23 million vertebrates are killed every year;<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Effects of Subsistence Hunting on Vertebrate Community Structure in Amazonian Forests|journal = Conservation Biology|date = 2000-02-01|issn = 1523-1739|pages = 240–253|volume = 14|issue = 1|doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98485.x|first = Carlos A.|last = Peres|s2cid = 85726080}}</ref> [[Primate|large-bodied primates]], [[tapir]]s, [[White-lipped peccary|white-lipped peccaries]], [[Armadillo|giant armadillos]], and [[tortoise]]s are some of the animals most sensitive to harvest.<ref name="":0"" /> [[Overhunting]] can reduce the local population of such species by more than half, as well as reducing [[population density]]. Populations located nearer to villages are significantly more at risk of depletion.<ref name="":0"">Peres, Carlos A., and Hilton S. Nascimento. ""[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Peres/publication/226584770_Impact_of_game_hunting_by_the_Kayapo_of_south-eastern_Amazonia_Implications_for_wildlife_conservation_in_tropical_forest_indigenous_reserves/links/0912f50c262d0e43f9000000.pdf Impact of Game Hunting by the Kayapo´ of South-eastern Amazonia: Implications for Wildlife Conservation in Tropical Forest Indigenous Reserves.]"" ''Biodiversity and Conservation'' 15.8 (2006): 2627-653.</ref> Abundance of local game species declines as density of local settlements, such as villages, increases.<ref>Altrichter, M., and Boaglio, G., ""[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mariana_Altrichter/publication/222127957_Distribution_and_relative_abundance_of_peccaries_in_the_Argentine_Chaco_Associations_with_human_factors/links/54d16af80cf25ba0f0413879.pdf Distribution and Relative Abundance of Peccaries in the Argentine Chaco: Associations with Human Factors.]"" ''Biological Conservation'' 116.2 (2004): 217-25.</ref>

[[File:Number of African elephants.svg|thumb|""There were around 10,000,000 African elephants at the beginning of the 20th century, and now there are only about 450,000 remaining. In several countries, all elephant populations have gone EX, and the great beasts are now absent from many large regions of other countries they once occupied.""—Gerardo Ceballos and [[Paul R. Ehrlich]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Ceballos|first1=Gerardo|last2=Ehrlich|first2=Paul R.|date=2023 |title=Mutilation of the tree of life via mass extinction of animal genera|url= |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|volume=120 |issue=39 |pages=e2306987120|doi=10.1073/pnas.2306987120|access-date=|doi-access=free|pmc=10523489}}</ref>]]

[[Hunting]] and [[poaching]] may lead to local population declines or [[extinction]] in some species.<ref>Redford, K. H. (1992). ''The empty forest.'' ''BioScience'' 42(6): 412–422.</ref> Most affected species undergo pressure from multiple sources but the scientific community is still unsure of the complexity of these interactions and their feedback loops.<ref name=""def ant"" /><ref>Sreekar, R., Huang, G., Zhao, J., Pasion, B.O. et al. ""The use of species–area relationships to partition the effects of hunting and deforestation on bird extirpations in a fragmented landscape"" ''Diversity and Distributions'', Vol. 21. No. 4 (2015). pp. 441-450. [https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12292].</ref>

One case study in Panama found an inverse relationship between poaching intensity and abundance for 9 of 11 mammal species studied.<ref name=""poachers alter"" /> In addition, preferred game species experienced greater declines and had higher spatial variation in abundance.<ref name=""poachers alter"">Wright, S. J., Zeballos, H., Domínguez, I., Gallardo, M. M., Moreno, M. C. and Ibáñez, R. ""[http://stri.si.edu/sites/publications/PDFs/2000_Cons_Biol.pdf Poachers Alter Mammal Abundance, Seed Dispersal, and Seed Predation in a Neotropical Forest.]"" ''Conservation Biology'' 14.1 (2000): 227-239.</ref>

=== Habitat destruction and fragmentation ===
[[File:Lacanja burn.JPG|thumb|Lacanja burn shows deforestation]]

Human population growth results in changes in [[land-use]], which can cause natural [[habitat]]s to become [[habitat fragmentation|fragmented]], altered, or destroyed.<ref name="":1"" /> Large mammals are often more vulnerable to extinction than smaller animals because they require larger [[home range]]s and thus are more prone to suffer the effects of [[deforestation]]. Large species such as [[elephant]]s, [[rhinoceros]]es, large [[primate]]s, [[tapir]]s and [[Peccary|peccaries]] are the first animals to disappear in fragmented [[rainforest]]s.<ref>Kinnaird, M. F., Sanderson, E. W., O'Brien, T. G., Wibisono, H. T. and Woolmer, G., ""[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eric_Sanderson2/publication/227602224_Deforestation_Trends_in_a_Tropical_Landscape_and_Implications_for_Endangered_Large_Mammals/links/0912f5108705b72742000000.pdf Deforestation Trends in a Tropical Landscape and Implications for Endangered Large Mammals.]"" ''Conservation Biology'' (2003) 17: 245–257.</ref>

A case study from [[Amazonian Ecuador]] analyzed two [[oil-road]] management approaches and their effects on the surrounding wildlife communities. The free-access road had forests that were cleared and fragmented and the other had enforced access control. Fewer species were found along the first road with density estimates being almost 80% lower than at the second site that which had minimal disturbance.<ref name=""oil roads"">Suárez, E., Morales, M., Cueva, R., Utreras Bucheli, V., Zapata-Ríos, G., Toral, E., Torres, J., Prado, W. and Vargas Olalla, J., ""[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Galo_Zapata-Rios/publication/229528550_Oil_Industry_Wild_Meat_Trade_and_Roads_Indirect_Effects_of_Oil_Extraction_Activities_in_a_Protected_Area_in_North-Eastern_Ecuador/links/02e7e528ccfdcbb399000000/Oil-Industry-Wild-Meat-Trade-and-Roads-Indirect-Effects-of-Oil-Extraction-Activities-in-a-Protected-Area-in-North-Eastern-Ecuador.pdf Oil Industry, Wild Meat Trade and Roads: Indirect Effects of Oil Extraction Activities in a Protected Area in North-Eastern Ecuador.]"" ''Animal Conservation'' 12 (2009): 364–373.</ref> This finding suggests that disturbances affected the local animals' willingness and ability to travel between patches.

[[File:Sugarcane Deforestation, Bolivia, 2016-06-15 by Planet Labs.jpg|thumb|right|Fishbone deforestation pattern. This was found in [[Bolivia]] and is visible from satellite]]

[[Habitat fragmentation|Fragmentation]] lowers populations while increasing extinction risk when the remaining [[habitat]] size is small.<ref name="":2"" /> When there is more unfragmented land, there is more habitat for more diverse species. A larger land patch also means it can accommodate more species with larger [[home range]]s.  However, when patch size decreases, there is an increase in the number of isolated fragments which can remain unoccupied by local [[fauna]]. If this persists, species may become extinct in the area.<ref name="":2"">Rybicki, J., ""[http://izt.ciens.ucv.ve/ecologia/Archivos/ECO_POB%202013/ECOPO2_2013/Ecological%20effects%20of%20environ.%20change/Rybicki%20y%20Hanski%202013.pdf Species–area Relationships and Extinctions Caused by Habitat Loss and Fragmentation.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110201636/http://izt.ciens.ucv.ve/ecologia/Archivos/ECO_POB%25202013/ECOPO2_2013/Ecological%2520effects%2520of%2520environ.%2520change/Rybicki%2520y%2520Hanski%25202013.pdf |date=2019-11-10 }}"" ''Ecology Letters'' 16 (2013): 27-38.</ref>

A study on [[deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|deforestation in the Amazon]] looked at two patterns of [[habitat fragmentation]]: ""fish-bone"" in smaller properties and another unnamed large property pattern. The large property pattern contained fewer fragments than the smaller fish-bone pattern. The results suggested that higher levels of fragmentation within the fish-bone pattern led to the [[loss of species]] and decreased diversity of large vertebrates.<ref>Saunders, D. A., Hobbs, R. J. and Margules, C. R., ""[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Denis_Saunders/publication/227638151_Saunders_D_Hobbs_R_Margules_C_Biological_Consequences_of_Ecosystem_Fragmentation_A_Review_Conservation_Biology/links/53d20be10cf2a7fbb2e9620f/Saunders-D-Hobbs-R-Margules-C-Biological-Consequences-of-Ecosystem-Fragmentation-A-Review-Conservation-Biology.pdf Biological Consequences of Ecosystem Fragmentation: A Review.]"" ''Conservation Biology'' 5 (1991): 18–32.</ref> Human impacts, such as the fragmentation of forests, may cause large areas to lose the ability to maintain [[biodiversity]] and [[ecosystem function]] due to loss of key ecological processes.<ref>Jorge, M. L. S. P., Galetti, M., Ribeiro, M. C., Ferraz, K.M.P.M.B. ""[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Malu_Jorge/publication/256669321_Mammal_defaunation_as_surrogate_of_trophic_cascades_in_hotspot/links/00b7d52aafdb4d98da000000.pdf Mammal Defaunation as Surrogate of Trophic Cascades in A Biodiversity Hotspot.]"" ''Biological Conservation'' 163 (2013): 49–57.</ref> This can consequently cause changes within environments and skew evolutionary processes.<ref name=""eco and evo"" />

In North America, wild bird populations have declined by 29%, or around three billion, since 1970, largely as the result of anthropogenic causes such as [[habitat loss]] for human use, the primary driver of the decline, along with widespread use of [[neonicotinoid]] insecticides and the proliferation of domesticated cats allowed to roam outdoors.<ref>{{cite news |last= Deaton|first=Jeremy|date=September 19, 2019|title=U.S., Canada have lost 3 billion birds since 1970. Scientists say 'nature is unraveling.'|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/u-s-canada-have-lost-3-billion-birds-scientists-say-ncna1055961|work=[[NBC News]] |access-date=September 20, 2019}}</ref> 

=== Invasive species ===

Human influences, such as [[colonization]] and agriculture, have caused species to become distributed outside of their native ranges.<ref name="":1"" /> Fragmentation also has cascading effects on native species, beyond reducing habitat and [[resource availability]]; it leaves areas vulnerable to non-native invasions. [[Invasive species]] can out-compete or directly prey upon native species, as well as alter the habitat so that native species can no longer survive.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name=""oil roads""/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeschke |first1=Jonathan M. |last2=Bacher |first2=Sven |last3=Blackburn |first3=Tim M. |last4=Dick |first4=Jaimie T. A. |last5=Essl |first5=Franz |last6=Evans |first6=Thomas |last7=Gaertner |first7=Mirijam |last8=Hulme |first8=Philip E. |last9=Kühn |first9=Ingolf |last10=Mrugała |first10=Agata |last11=Pergl |first11=Jan |last12=Pyšek |first12=Petr |last13=Rabitsch |first13=Wolfgang |last14=Ricciardi |first14=Anthony |last15=Richardson |first15=David M. |last16=Sendek |first16=Agnieszka |last17=Vilà |first17=Montserrat |author-link17=Montserrat Vilà |last18=Winter |first18=Marten |last19=Kumschick |first19=Sabrina |title=Defining the Impact of Non‐Native Species |journal=Conservation Biology |date=October 2014 |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1188–1194 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12299|pmid=24779412 |pmc=4282110 }}</ref>

In extinct animal species for which the cause of [[extinction]] is known, over 50% were affected by invasive species. For 20% of extinct animal species, invasive species are the only cited cause of extinction. Invasive species are the second-most important cause of extinction for mammals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clavero |first1=M |last2=Garciaberthou |first2=E |title=Invasive species are a leading cause of animal extinctions |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=March 2005 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=110 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2005.01.003|pmid=16701353 |hdl=10256/12285 |url=http://dugi-doc.udg.edu:8080/bitstream/handle/10256/12285/InvasiveSpeciesLeading.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref>

== Global patterns ==

Tropical regions are the most heavily impacted by defaunation.<ref name=""def ant"" /><ref name="":1"" /><ref name=""eco and evo"" /> These regions, which include the [[Brazilian Amazon]], the [[Congo Basin]] of Central Africa, and [[Indonesia]], experience the greatest rates of overexploitation and [[habitat degradation]].<ref name="":5"" /> However, specific causes are varied, and areas with one endangered group (such as birds) do not necessarily also have other endangered groups (such as mammals, insects, or amphibians).<ref>{{cite news|title=Press release: Global map shows new patterns of extinction risk|url=http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_2-11-2006-10-49-47|work=Imperial College London and the Natural Environment Research Council|date=2 November 2006}}</ref>

Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon leads to habitat fragmentation and overexploitation. Hunting pressure in the Amazon rainforest has increased as traditional hunting techniques have been replaced by modern weapons such as shotguns.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":3"" /> Access roads built for mining and logging operations fragment the forest landscape and allow hunters to move into forested areas which previously were untouched.<ref name="":3"" /> The bushmeat trade in Central Africa incentivizes the overexploitation of local fauna.<ref name="":1"" /> Indonesia has the most endangered animal species of any area in the world.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web|title = Endangered Species in Indonesia - Australian Science|url = http://www.australianscience.com.au/environmental-science/endangered-species-in-indonesia/|website = Australian Science|access-date = 2015-11-30|language = en-US|first = Ivanovic|last = Josip|date = 30 August 2011}}</ref> International trade in wild animals, as well as extensive logging, mining and agriculture operations, drive the decline and extinction of numerous species.<ref name="":6"" />

== Ecological impacts ==

=== Genetic loss ===
[[Inbreeding]] and [[genetic diversity]] loss often occur with endangered species populations because they have small and/or declining populations. Loss of genetic diversity lowers the ability of a population to deal with change in their environment and can make individuals within the community [[homogeneous]]. If this occurs, these animals are more susceptible to [[disease]] and other occurrences that may target a specific [[genome]]. Without genetic diversity, one disease could eradicate an entire species. Inbreeding lowers reproduction and [[survival rate]]s. It is suggested that these genetic factors contribute to the extinction risk in threatened/endangered species.<ref>Frankham, R., ""Genetics and Conservation Biology."" C. R. ''Biologies'' 326 (2003): S22-S29.</ref>

=== Seed dispersal ===

==== Effects on plants and forest structure ====
The consequences of defaunation can be expected to affect the plant community. There are three non-mutually exclusive conclusions as to the consequences on tropical forest plant communities:

# If seed dispersal agents are targeted by hunters, the effectiveness and amount of dispersal for those plant species will be reduced<ref name=""eco and evo"" /><ref>Fedriani JM, D Ayllón, T Wiegand, and V. Grimm. 2020. Intertwined effects of defaunation, increased tree mortality, and density compensation on seed dispersal. Ecography 43: 1352-1363.</ref> 
# The [[species composition]] of the [[seedling]] and [[sapling]] layers will be altered by hunting,<ref name=""eco and evo"" /> and
# Selective hunting of medium/large-sized animals instead of small-sized animals will lead to different seed predation patterns, with an emphasis on smaller seeds<ref name=""eco and evo"" /><ref name=""Galetti 2–7"">{{Cite journal|title = Defaunation affects the populations and diets of rodents in Neotropical rainforests|journal = Biological Conservation|date = 2015-10-01|pages = 2–7|volume = 190|doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2015.04.032|first1 = Mauro|last1 = Galetti|first2 = Roger|last2 = Guevara|first3 = Carolina L.|last3 = Neves|first4 = Raisa R.|last4 = Rodarte|first5 = Ricardo S.|last5 = Bovendorp|first6 = Marcelo|last6 = Moreira|first7 = John B.|last7 = Hopkins III|first8 = Justin D.|last8 = Yeakel|hdl = 11449/171874|hdl-access = free}}</ref>

One recent study analyzed seedling density and composition from two areas, Los Tuxtlas and Montes Azules. Los Tuxtlas, which is affected more by human activity, showed higher seedling density and a smaller average number of different species than in the other area. Results suggest that an absence of vertebrate dispersers can change the structure and diversity of forests.<ref>Dirzo, R. and Miranda, A. ""Altered Patterns of Herbivory and Diversity in the Forest Understory: A Case Study of the Possible Consequences of Contemporary Defaunation."" In: ''Plant-Animal Interactions: Evolutionary ecology in tropical and temperate regions''. P. W. Price, T. M. Lewinsohn, G. W. Fernandes & W. W. Benson (Eds.). Wiley and Sons Pub. New York pp: 273-287.</ref> As a result, a plant community that relies on animals for dispersal could potentially have an altered [[biodiversity]], species [[Dominance (ecology)|dominance]], survival, [[demography]], and spatial and genetic structure.<ref>Beaune, David. ""[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Beaune/publication/256303581_Seed_dispersal_strategies_and_the_threat_of_defaunation_in_a_Congo_forest/links/00b4952246469ee96c000000.pdf Seed Dispersal Strategies and the Threat of Defaunation in a Congo Forest]."" ''Biodiversity and Conservation'' 22.1 (2013): 225-38.</ref>

Poaching is likely to alter plant composition because the interactions between game and plant species varies in strength. Some game species interact strongly, weakly, or not at all with species. A change in plant [[species composition]] is likely to be a result because the net effect removal of game species varies among the plant species they interact with.<ref name=""poachers alter""/>

==== Effects on small-bodied seed dispersers and predators ====

As large-bodied vertebrates are increasingly lost from seed-dispersal networks, small-bodied seed dispersers (i.e. bats, birds, dung beetles) and seed predators (i.e. rodents) are affected. Defaunation leads to reduced species diversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Seed predation in a human-modified tropical landscape|journal = Journal of Tropical Ecology|date = 2015-07-01|issn = 1469-7831|pages = 379–383|volume = 31|issue = 4|doi = 10.1017/S026646741500019X|first1 = Jenny|last1 = Zambrano|first2 = Rosamond|last2 = Coates|first3 = Henry F.|last3 = Howe|s2cid = 87170069}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Selective defaunation affects dung beetle communities in continuous Atlantic rainforest|journal = Biological Conservation|date = 2013-07-01|pages = 79–89|volume = 163|series = Special Issue: Defaunation's impact in terrestrial tropical ecosystems|doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2013.04.004|first1 = Laurence|last1 = Culot|first2 = Emilie|last2 = Bovy|first3 = Fernando|last3 = Zagury Vaz-de-Mello|first4 = Roger|last4 = Guevara|first5 = Mauro|last5 = Galetti}}</ref> This is due to relaxed competition; small-bodied species normally compete with large-bodied vertebrates for food and other resources. As an area becomes defaunated, dominant small-bodied species take over, crowding out other similar species and leading to an overall reduced species diversity.<ref name=""Galetti 2–7""/> The loss of species diversity is reflective of a larger [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]], which has consequences for the maintenance of [[ecosystem services]].<ref name="":1"" />

The quality of the physical habitat may also suffer. Bird and bat species (many of who are small bodied seed dispersers) rely on [[Geophagy|mineral licks]] as a source of sodium, which is not available elsewhere in their diets. In defaunated areas in the Western Amazon, mineral licks are more thickly covered by vegetation and have lower water availability. Bats were significantly less likely to visit these degraded mineral licks.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|title = Defaunation of tropical forests reduces habitat quality for seed-dispersing bats in Western Amazonia: an unexpected connection via mineral licks|journal = Animal Conservation|date = 2014-02-01|issn = 1469-1795|pages = 44–51|volume = 17|issue = 1|doi = 10.1111/acv.12055|first1 = S. J.|last1 = Ghanem|first2 = C. C.|last2 = Voigt|s2cid = 85597982}}</ref> The degradation of such licks will thus negatively affect the health and reproduction of bat populations.<ref name="":3"" />

Defaunation has negative consequences for seed dispersal networks as well. In the western Amazon, birds and bats have separate diets and thus form separate [[Guild (ecology)|guilds]] within the network.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal|title = Partitioning of seed dispersal services between birds and bats in a fragment of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest|journal = Zoologia (Curitiba)|issn = 1984-4670|pages = 245–255|volume = 31|issue = 3|doi = 10.1590/S1984-46702014000300006|first1 = Raissa|last1 = Sarmento|first2 = Cecília P.|last2 = Alves-Costa|first3 = Adriana|last3 = Ayub|first4 = Marco A. R.|last4 = Mello|year = 2014|doi-access = free}}</ref> It is hypothesized that large-bodied vertebrates, being generalists, connect separate guilds, creating a stable, [[Ecological resilience|resilient]] network. Defaunation results in a highly modular network in which specialized frugivores instead act as the connector hubs.<ref name="":4"" />

===Food webs===

According to a 2022 study published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', terrestrial mammal [[food web]] links have declined by 53% over the past 130,000 years as a result of human population expansion and accompanying defaunation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fricke|first1=Evan C. |last2=Hsieh |first2=Chia |display-authors=etal. |date=August 25, 2022 |title=Collapse of terrestrial mammal food webs since the Late Pleistocene |journal=Science |volume=377 |issue=6609 |pages=1008–1011 |doi=10.1126/science.abn4012|pmid=36007038 |s2cid=251843290 }}</ref>

===Ecosystem services===
{{main|ecosystem services}}
Changes in predation dynamics, seed predation, seed dispersal, carrion removal, dung removal, vegetation trampling, and other ecosystem processes as a result of defaunation can affect ecosystem supporting and regulatory services, such as [[nutrient cycling]] and [[decomposition]], crop pollination, [[pest control]], and [[water quality]].<ref name=""def ant"" />

=== Conservation ===
Efforts against defaunation include [[wildlife overpass]]es<ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal|last1=Pell|first1=Stuart|last2=Jones|first2=Darryl|date=2015-04-01|title=Are wildlife overpasses of conservation value for birds? A study in Australian sub-tropical forest, with wider implications|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=184|pages=300–309|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2015.02.005}}</ref> and [[riparian corridor]]s.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite journal|last1=Şekercioğlu|first1=Çağan H.|last2=Loarie|first2=Scott R.|last3=Oviedo-Brenes|first3=Federico|last4=Mendenhall|first4=Chase D.|last5=Daily|first5=Gretchen C.|last6=Ehrlich|first6=Paul R.|date=2015-12-01|title=Tropical countryside riparian corridors provide critical habitat and connectivity for seed-dispersing forest birds in a fragmented landscape|journal=Journal of Ornithology|language=en|volume=156|issue=1|pages=343–353|doi=10.1007/s10336-015-1299-x|s2cid=14503270|issn=2193-7192}}</ref> Both of these can be otherwise known as [[wildlife crossing]] mechanisms. Wildlife overpasses are specifically used for the purpose of protecting many animal species from the roads.<ref name="":7"" /> Many countries use them and they have been found to be very effective in protecting species and allowing forests to be connected.<ref name="":7"" /> These overpasses look like bridges of forest that cross over many roads, like a walk bridge for humans, allowing animals to migrate from one side of the forest to the other safely since the road cut off the original connectivity.<ref name="":7"" /> It was concluded in a study done by Pell and Jones, looking at bird use of these corridors in Australia, that many birds did, in fact, use these corridors to travel from one side of forest to the other and although they did not spend much time in the corridor specifically, they did commonly use them.<ref name="":7"" /> Riparian corridors are very similar to overpasses they are just on flat land and not on bridges, however, they also work as connective ""bridges"" between fragmented pieces of forest. One study done connected the corridors with bird habitat and use for seed dispersal.<ref name="":8"" /> The conclusions of this study showed that some species of birds are highly dependent on these corridors as connections between forest, as flying across the open land is not ideal for many species.<ref name="":8"" /> Overall both of these studies agree that some sort of connectivity needs to be established between fragments in order to keep the forest ecosystem in the best health possible and that they have in fact been very effective.<ref name="":7"" /><ref name="":8"" />

== Marine ==
Defaunation in the [[marine biology|ocean]] has occurred later and less intensely than on land. A relatively small number of marine species have been driven to extinction. However, many species have undergone local, ecological, and commercial extinction.<ref name=""mar def"">McCauley, D. J., Pinsky, M. L., [[Stephen R. Palumbi|Palumbi, S. R.]], Estes, J. A., Joyce, F. H., and Warner, R. R., ""[http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1gj9w82r.pdf Marine defaunation: Animal loss in the global ocean.]"" ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' 347 (2015): 12555641.</ref> Most large marine animal species still exist, such that the size distribution of global species assemblages has changed little since the Pleistocene, but individuals of each species are smaller on average, and [[overfishing]] has caused reductions in genetic diversity. Most extinctions and population declines to date have been driven by human overexploitation.<ref>Dulvy, N. K., Pinnegar, J. K., and Reynolds, J. D. ""[http://www.dulvy.com/uploads/2/1/0/4/21048414/dulvy_holoceneextinctions2009.pdf Holocene extinctions in the sea.]"" Pages 129-150 Turvey., S. T., editor. Holocene Extinctions. Oxford University Press, New York.</ref>

Overfishing has reduced populations of oceanic [[sharks]] and [[Batoidea|rays]]  by 71% since 1970, with more than three quarters of species facing extinction.<ref>{{cite news |last=Einhorn |first=Catrin |date=January 27, 2021 |title=Shark Populations Are Crashing, With a 'Very Small Window' to Avert Disaster |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/27/climate/sharks-population-study.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |location= |access-date=January 31, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pacoureau|first1=Nathan|last2=Rigby|first2=Cassandra L.|last3=Kyne|first3=Peter M.|last4=Sherley|first4=Richard B.|last5=Winker|first5=Henning|last6=Carlson|first6=John K.|last7=Fordham|first7=Sonja V.|last8=Barreto|first8=Rodrigo|last9=Fernando|first9=Daniel|last10=Francis|first10=Malcolm P.|last11=Jabado|first11=Rima W.|date=January 2021|title=Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03173-9|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=589|issue=7843|pages=567–571|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-03173-9|pmid=33505035|bibcode=2021Natur.589..567P|hdl=10871/124531|s2cid=231723355|issn=1476-4687|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

===Consequences===
Marine defaunation has a wide array of effects on ecosystem structure and function. The loss of animals can have both top-down (cascading) and bottom-up effects,<ref>Myers, R. A., [[Julia K. Baum|Baum, J. K.]], Shepherd, T. D.,  Powers, S. P., and Peterson, C. H. ""[http://people.umass.edu/bethanyb/GCE/Myers%20et%20al.,%202007%20sharks.pdf Cascading effects of the loss of apex predatory sharks from a coastal ocean] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509183756/http://people.umass.edu/bethanyb/GCE/Myers%20et%20al.,%202007%20sharks.pdf |date=2016-05-09 }}"". ''Science'' 315 (2007):1846–1850.</ref><ref>Cury, P. M., Boyd, I. L., Bonhommeau, S., Anker-Nilssen, T., Crawford, R. J., Furness, R. W., ... & Sydeman, W. J., ""[http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00056/16770/14307.pdf Global seabird response to forage fish depletion—one-third for the birds]"". ''Science'', 334(2011), 1703-1706.</ref> as well as consequences for [[biogeochemical cycling]] and [[ecosystem stability]].

Two of the most important ecosystem services threatened by marine defaunation are the provision of food and coastal storm protection.<ref name=""mar def"" />

==See also==
*[[Anthropocene]]
*[[Anthropocentrism]]
*[[Bushmeat]]
*[[Holocene extinction]]
*[[Human impact on the environment]]
*[[Human overpopulation]]
*[[Insect population decline]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |last1= Benítez-López|first1=A.|last2= Alkemade|first2=R.|last3=Schipper|first3=A. M. |last4= Ingram|first4=D. J.|last5= Verweij|first5= P. A.|last6= Eikelboom|first6=J. A. J.|last7= Huijbregts|first7=M. A. J.|date=April 14, 2017 |title=The impact of hunting on tropical mammal and bird populations|url= http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10058583/7/Ingram%20aaj1891_ArticleContent_v3.pdf|journal= [[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=356 |issue=6334 |pages=180–83|doi=10.1126/science.aaj1891|pmid=28408600|bibcode=2017Sci...356..180B|hdl=1874/349694|s2cid=19603093}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Finn|first1=Catherine|last2=Grattarola|first2=Florencia |last3=Pincheira-Donoso|first3=Daniel |date=2023 |title=More losers than winners: investigating Anthropocene defaunation through the diversity of population trends|url= |journal=Biological Reviews|volume= |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1111/brv.12974|access-date=|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Fricke|first1=Evan C |last2=Ordonez|first2=Alejandro |last3=Rogers|first3=Haldre S|last4=Svenning|first4= Jens-Christian|date=2022 |title=The effects of defaunation on plants' capacity to track climate change|url= |journal=Science|volume=375 |issue=6577 |pages=210–214 |doi=10.1126/science.abk3510|pmid=35025640|s2cid=245933147 }}
*{{cite journal |last1= Hallmann|first1=Caspar A.|last2= Sorg|first2=Martin|last3= Jongejans|first3=Eelke|last4= Siepel|first4=Henk|last5= Hofland|first5=Nick|last6= Schwan|first6=Heinz|last7=Stenmans|first7=Werner 
|last8= Müller|first8=Andreas|last9= Sumser|first9=Hubert|last10= Hörren|first10=Thomas|last11= Goulson|first11=Dave|last12= de Kroon|first12=Hans|date=October 18, 2017|title=More than 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect biomass in protected areas|journal=[[PLOS One]]|volume=12 |issue=10|pages=e0185809|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0185809|pmid=29045418|pmc=5646769|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1285809H|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal |last1= Young|first1=Hillary S.|last2=McCauley|first2=Douglas J.|last3=Galetti|first3=Mauro |last4= Dirzo|first4=Rodolfo|author-link4=Rodolfo Dirzo|date=2016 |title=Patterns, Causes, and Consequences of Anthropocene Defaunation|url= |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]]|volume=47 |issue= |pages=333–358|doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-112414-054142|access-date=}}

==External links==
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090713085836/http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0520-interview_dirzo.html Mongobay.com : ''Defaunation, like deforestation, threatens global biodiversity: Interview with Rodolfo Dirzo''] (archived 13 July 2009)

{{human impact on the environment}}
{{Population}}
{{Global catastrophic risks}}

[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Landscape-scale conservation,"{{Short description|Holistic approach to landscape management}}
[[File:Little Malvern Hills panorama.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Landscape scale conservation attempts to reconcile competing pressures on the designated [[Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] across the United Kingdom.<ref name=""Phillips 2005""/>]]
'''Landscape-scale conservation''' is a [[holistic]] approach to [[landscape]] management, aiming to reconcile the competing objectives of [[nature conservation]] and economic activities across a given landscape. Landscape-scale conservation may sometimes be attempted because of [[climate change]]. It can be seen as an alternative to [[site based conservation]].

Many global problems such as [[poverty]], [[food security]], [[climate change]], [[water scarcity]], [[deforestation]] and [[biodiversity loss]] are connected.<ref name=""LSLB"" /><ref name=""learning"" /> For example, lifting people out of poverty can increase consumption and drive climate change.<ref name=""Stern"">{{cite book |last1=Stern |first1=N |title=The Economics of Climate Change: the Stern Review |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge UK}}</ref> [[agricultural expansion|Expanding agriculture]] can exacerbate [[water scarcity]] and drive [[habitat loss]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tilman |first1=D |title=Global environmental impacts of agricultural expansion: the need for sustainable and efficient practices |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=96 |issue=11 |pages=5995–6000 |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.11.5995 |pmid=10339530 |pmc=34218 |date=1999-05-25|bibcode=1999PNAS...96.5995T |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Laurance |first1=W F |last2=Sayer |first2=J |last3=Cassman |first3=KG |title=Agricultural expansion and its impacts on tropical nature |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=2014 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=107–116 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2013.12.001 |pmid=24388286}}</ref> Proponents of landscape management argue that as these problems are interconnected, coordinated approaches are needed to address them, by focussing on how landscapes can generate multiple benefits. For example, a river basin can supply water for towns and [[agriculture]], timber and food crops for people and industry, and habitat for biodiversity; and each one of these users can have impacts on the others.<ref name=""LSLB"" /><ref name=""learning"" /><ref name=""Hart"">{{cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=A K |last2=McMichael |first2=P |last3=Milder |first3=J C |last4=Scherr |first4=Sara J |title=Multi-functional landscapes from the grassroots? The role of rural producer movements |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |date=2015 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=305–322 |doi=10.1007/s10460-015-9611-1|s2cid=153211771 }}</ref>

Landscapes in general have been recognised as important units for conservation by intergovernmental bodies,<ref name=""SBSTTA report"" /> government initiatives,<ref name=""GMS BLL"" /><ref name=""IINDC"" /> and research institutes.<ref name=""CIFOR landscapes pg"" />

Problems with this approach include difficulties in monitoring, and the proliferation of definitions and terms relating to it.<ref name=""learning"" />

== Definitions ==
[[File:Maintenance Burn (16917515735).jpg|thumb|[[Bureau of Land Management]] [[Controlled burn|using fire to maintain a landscape]] in Western [[Oregon]]]]

There are many overlapping terms and definitions,<ref name=""Reed"" /><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://forestsnews.cifor.org/23834/landscape-approach-defies-simple-definition-and-thats-good?fnl=en |title='Landscape approach' defies simple definition — and that's good |date=2014-08-27 |work=CIFOR Forests News |access-date=2017-09-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> but many terms have similar meanings.<ref name=""learning"" /><ref name=""Minang"" /> A [[sustainable]] landscape, for example, meets ""the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.""<ref name=""LSLB"">{{cite book |last1=Denier |first1=L. |last2=Scherr |first2=S. |last3=Shames |first3=S. |last4=Chatterton |first4=P. |last5=Hovani |first5=L. |last6=Stam |first6=N. |title=The Little Sustainable Landscapes Book |date=2015 |publisher=Global Canopy Programme |location=Oxford |url=http://globalcanopy.org/sustainablelandscapes}}</ref>

Approaching conservation by means of landscapes can be seen as ""a conceptual framework whereby [[Project stakeholder|stakeholder]]s in a landscape aim to reconcile competing social, economic and environmental objectives"". Instead of focussing on a single use of the land it aims to ensure that the interests of different stakeholders are met.<ref name=""LSLB""/>

The starting point for all landscape-scale conservation schemes must be an understanding of the character of the landscape. Landscape character goes beyond [[wikt:aesthetic|aesthetic]]. It involves understanding how the landscape functions to support communities, cultural heritage and development, the economy, as well as the wildlife and natural resources of the area. Landscape character requires careful assessment according to accepted methodologies. Landscape character assessment will contribute to the determination of what scale is appropriate in which landscape. ""Landscape scale"" does not merely mean acting at a bigger scale: it means conservation is carried out at the correct scale and that it takes into account the human elements of the landscape, both past and present.

== History ==
[[File:Schotse hooglander.JPG |thumb |[[Highland cattle|Highland cow]] helping to maintain the landscape near [[Hilversum]] in the Netherlands]]

The word 'landscape' in English is a loanword from [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''landschap'' introduced in the 1660s and [[Landscape painting|originally meant a painting]]. The meaning a ""tract of land with its distinguishing characteristics"" was derived from that in 1886. This was then used as a verb as of 1916.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/landscape |title=landscape {{!}} Origin and meaning of landscape |last=Harper |first=Douglas |date=2019 |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Douglas Harper |access-date=24 October 2019}}</ref>

The German [[geographer]] [[Carl Troll]] coined the German term ''Landschaftsökologie''–thus '[[landscape ecology]]' in 1939.<ref>Troll, C. 1939. Luftbildplan und ökologische Bodenforschung (Aerial photography and ecological studies of the earth). Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde, Berlin: 241-298.</ref> He developed this terminology and many early concepts of landscape ecology as part of this work, which consisted of applying [[aerial photograph]] interpretation to studies of interactions between environment, agriculture and vegetation.

In the UK conservation of landscapes can be said to have begun in 1945 with the publication of the ''Report to the Government on National Parks in England and Wales''. The [[National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949]] introduced the legislation for the creation [[Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] (AONB).<ref name=""AONB story"">{{cite web|url=http://www.landscapesforlife.org.uk/aonb-story.html|title=NAAONB|access-date=16 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829080922/http://www.landscapesforlife.org.uk/aonb-story.html|archive-date=29 August 2017}}</ref><ref name=Gov>{{cite web|url= https://www.gov.uk/guidance/areas-of-outstanding-natural-beauty-aonbs-designation-and-management|title=Areas of outstanding natural beauty (AONBs): designation and management|work=gov.uk}}</ref> [[Northern Ireland]] has the same system after adoption of the Amenity Lands (NI) Act 1965.<ref>[http://www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/protected_areas_home/aonb.htm Northern Ireland Environment Agency] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902035244/http://www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/protected_areas_home/aonb.htm |date=2 September 2014 }}</ref> The first of these AONB were defined in 1956, with the last being created in 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tamarvalley.org.uk/about/what-is-the-tamar-valley-aonb/|title=Tamar Valley - What is the Tamar Valley AONB?|website=www.tamarvalley.org.uk|access-date=16 February 2018}}</ref>

The [[Permanent European Conference for the Study of the Rural Landscape]] was established in 1957.<ref>Baker, Alan R.H. (1988) Historical Geography and the Study of the European Rural Landscape. ''Geografiska Annaler'' 70B (1) 5-16.</ref><ref>Helmfrid, Staffan (2004)  The Permanent European Conference and the Study of the Rural Landscape. In Palang, Hannes (red.) (2004). ''European rural landscapes: persistence and change in a globalising environment''. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 467 -</ref> The [[European Landscape Convention]] was initiated by the Congress of Regional and Local Authorities of the [[Council of Europe]] (CLRAE) in 1994, was adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the [[Council of Europe]] in 2000,<ref name=""Explanatory Report"">[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Reports/Html/176.htm Explanatory Report], Art. 4.</ref> and came into force in 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/heritage/Landscape/Publications/ATEP-93_bil.pdf |title= Eighth Council of Europe Workshops for the implementation of the European Landscape Convention, Landscape and driving forces |author = Council of Europe – Cultural heritage, Landscape and Spatial planning Division and Swedish National Heritage Board |date= 2009 | publisher= Malmö, Sweden | access-date = 7 July 2012}}</ref>

The conservation community began to take notice of the science of landscape ecology in the 1980s.<ref name=""learning"">{{cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=J. |last2=Van Vianen |first2=J. |last3=Deakin |first3=E. L. |last4=Barlow |first4=J. |last5=Sunderland |first5=T. |title=Integrated landscape approaches to managing social and environmental issues in the tropics: learning from the past to guide the future |journal=Global Change Biology |date=2016 |doi=10.1111/gcb.13284 |pmid=26990574 |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=2540–2554|bibcode=2016GCBio..22.2540R |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/49345/1/49345_Reed%20et%20al_2016.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Efforts to develop concepts of landscape management that integrate international social and economic development with biodiversity conservation began in 1992.<ref name=""learning"" />

Landscape management now exists in multiple iterations and alongside other concepts<ref name=""learning"" /><ref name=""Reed"">{{cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=J. |last2=Deakin |first2=E. |last3=Sunderland |first3=T. |title=What are 'Integrated Landscape Approaches' and how effectively have they been implemented in the tropics: a systematic map protocol |journal=Environmental Evidence |date=2015 |volume=4 |issue=2 |url=http://www.cifor.org/library/5422/what-are-integrated-landscape-approaches-and-how-effectively-have-they-been-implemented-in-the-tropics-a-systematic-map-protocol/ |issn=2047-2382}}</ref><ref name=""Scherr Shames Friedman 2013"">{{cite journal |last1=Scherr |first1=Sara J. |last2=Shames |first2=S. |last3=Friedman |first3=R. |title=Defining Integrated Landscape Management for Policy Makers |journal=Ecoagriculture Policy Focus |date=2013 |issue=10 |url=http://ecoagriculture.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/DefiningILMforPolicyMakers.pdf}}</ref><ref name=""Minang"">{{cite book |last1=Minang |first1=P. A. |last2=van Noordwijk |first2=M. |last3=Freeman |first3=O. E. |last4=Mbow |first4=C. |last5=de Leeuw |first5=J. |last6=Catacutan |first6=D. |title=Climate-Smart Landscapes: Multifunctionality In Practice |date=2015 |publisher=World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) |location=[[Nairobi]]}}</ref> such as [[watershed management]], [[landscape ecology]]<ref name=""Sayer"">{{cite journal |last1=Sayer |first1=J. |title=Reconciling conservation and development: are landscapes the answer? |journal=Biotropica |date=2009 |volume=41 |issue=6 |doi=10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00575.x |pages=649–652|s2cid=85171847 }}</ref> and [[cultural landscape]]s.<ref name=IIED>{{cite web |title=Indigenous Biocultural Territories |url=http://www.biocultural.iied.org/indigenous-biocultural-territories |publisher=IIED}}</ref><ref>UNESCO (2012) Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention [https://whc.unesco.org/archive/opguide12-en.pdf]. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Paris. Page 14.</ref>

==International==

The [[UN Environment Programme]] stated in 2015 that the landscape approach embodies [[ecosystem management]]. UNEP uses the approach with the Ecosystem Management of Productive Landscapes project.<ref name=""UNEPEMPL"">{{cite web|title=Ecosystems Management of Productive Landscapes |url=https://unepempl.wordpress.com/about/|publisher=UN Environment Programme |date=2015-04-08}}</ref> The scientific committee of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] also considers the perspective of a landscape the most important scale for improving sustainable use of biodiversity.<ref name=""SBSTTA report"">{{cite web|last1=Convention on Biological Diversity|first1=SBSTTA |title=Report on how to improve sustainable use of biodiversity in a landscape perspective (UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/15/13)|url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/sbstta-15/official/sbstta-15-13-en.pdf |website=Convention on Biological Diversity}}</ref> There are global fora on landscapes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Landscape Forum - the Investment Case speakers|url=http://www.landscapes.org/london-2016/speakers/|website=Global Landscape Forum}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=2014 Global Landscapes Forum Final Report|url=http://www.landscapes.org/publication/2014-global-landscapes-forum-final-report/|website=Global Landscapes Forum}}</ref> During the Livelihoods and Landscapes Strategies programme the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] applied this approach to locations worldwide, in 27 landscapes in 23 different countries.<ref>{{cite report |date=2012 |title=Livelihoods and Landscapes Strategy - Results and Reflections |url=https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/lls_final_report_public_1.pdf |publisher=IUCN |page=4 |isbn=978-2-8317-1548-3 |access-date=20 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417065128/https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/lls_final_report_public_1.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2015  }}</ref>

Examples of landscape approaches can be global<ref name=""Reed"" /><ref name=""Minang"" /><ref>Landscapes for People Food and nature case studies http://peoplefoodandnature.org/analysis/all-publications/case-studies/</ref> or continental, for example in Africa,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milder |first1=J C |last2=Hart |first2=A K |last3=Dobie |first3=P |last4=Minai |first4=J |last5=Zaleski |first5=C |title=Integrated landscape initiatives for African agriculture, development, and conservation: a region-wide assessment |journal=World Development |date=2014 |volume=54 |pages=68–80 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.07.006}}</ref> Oceania<ref>{{cite web |url=https://livelihoodsandlandscapes.com/about/ |title=Livelihoods and Landscapes |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research |access-date=20 October 2019}}</ref> and Latin America.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Estrada-Carmona |first1=N |last2=Hart |first2=A K |last3=Declerk |first3=F A J |last4=Harvey |first4=C A |last5=Milder |first5=J C |title=Integrated landscape management for agriculture, rural livelihoods, and ecosystem conservation: an assessment of experience from Latin America and the Caribbean |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |date=2014 |volume=129 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.05.001|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development]] plays an important part in funding landscape conservation in Europe.<ref>Deutscher Verband für Landschaftspflege (DVL) e.&nbsp;V. (2008): Natur als Motor ländlicher Entwicklung, DVL Schriftenreihe „Landschaft als Lebensraum"", Heft 14</ref>

=== Relevance to international commitments ===
Some argue landscape management can address the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref name=""learning"" /><ref name=""SDG briefing"">{{cite press release |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Integrated Landscape Management: The Means of Implementation for the Sustainable Development Goals - Policy Brief |url=http://peoplefoodandnature.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ILM-for-the-SDGs-Two-Page-Statement-Sept-21-2015-FINAL-FINAL.pdf |agency=Landscapes for People Food and Nature |date=2015 |access-date=2019-10-19}}</ref><ref name=""Reed J 2015"">Reed J, van Vianen J, Sunderland T. 2015. From global complexity to local reality: Aligning implementation pathways for the Sustainable Development Goals and landscape approaches. Infobrief No. 129. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research.</ref> Many of these goals have potential synergies or trade-offs: some therefore argue that addressing these goals individually may not be effective, and landscape approaches provide a potential framework to manage them. For example, increasing areas of irrigated agricultural land to end hunger could have adverse impacts on terrestrial ecosystems or sustainable water management.<ref name=""Reed J 2015""/> Landscape approaches intend to include different sectors, and thus achieve the multiple objectives of the Sustainable Development Goals – for example, working within catchment area of a river to enhance agricultural productivity, flood defence, biodiversity and carbon storage.<ref name=""LSLB"" />

Climate change and agriculture are intertwined<ref>Beddington J, Asaduzzaman M, Fernandez A, Clark M, Guillou M, Jahn M, Erda L, Mamo T, Van Bo N, Nobre CA, Scholes R, Sharma R, Wakhungu J. 2011. Achieving food security in the face of climate change: Summary for policy makers from the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen, Denmark https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/35589/climate_food_commission-final-mar2012.pdf?sequence=1,</ref> so production of food and climate mitigation can be a part of landscape management.<ref name=""Smart ag"">{{cite journal |last1=Scherr |first1=S |last2=Shames |first2=S |last3=Friedman |first3=R |title=From climate-smart agriculture to climate-smart landscapes |journal=Agriculture & Food Security |date=2012 |volume=1 |issue=12 |page=12 |doi=10.1186/2048-7010-1-12|doi-access=free }}</ref> The agricultural sector accounts for around 24% of [[Anthropogenic greenhouse gases|anthropogenic emissions]]. Unlike other sectors that emit greenhouse gases, agriculture and forestry have the potential to mitigate climate change by reducing or removing [[greenhouse gas emission]]s, for example by [[reforestation]] and landscape restoration.<ref>Smith P., M. Bustamante, H. Ahammad, H. Clark, H. Dong, E. A. Elsiddig, H. Haberl, R. Harper, J. House, M. Jafari, O. Masera, C. Mbow, N. H. Ravindranath, C. W. Rice, C. Robledo  Abad, A. Romanovskaya, F. Sperling, and F. Tubiello, 2014: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). In: Climate Change 014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.</ref> Advocates of landscape management argue that '[[climate-smart agriculture]]' and [[Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation|REDD+]] can draw on landscape management.<ref name=""Smart ag""/>

[[File:Kali_Gandaki_Valley227,_Nepal.JPG|thumb|upright|The marketing of products from specific landscapes can assist conservation. This is apple juice from [[Tukuche]] village in the [[Kali Gandaki Gorge]], [[Nepal]]]]

==Regional==
===Germany===

Because a large proportion of the biodiversity of Germany was able to invade from the south and east after human activities altered the landscape, maintaining such artificial landscapes is an integral part of nature conservation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lpv-augsburg.de/landschaftspflege/ |title=Landschaftspflege |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=Landschaftspflegeverband Stadt Augsburg |publisher=Landschaftspflegeverbands Augsburg |language=de |access-date=31 July 2013}}</ref> The full name of the main nature conservation law in Germany, the ''Bundesnaturschutzgesetzes'', is thus titled in its entirety ''Gesetz über Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buzer.de/gesetz/8972/index.htm |title=BNatSchG Bundesnaturschutzgesetz |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2006 |publisher=Gesetz über Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege |language=de |access-date=19 October 2019}}</ref> where [[:de:Landschaftspflege|''Landschaftspflege'']] translates literally to ""landscape maintenance"" (see reference for more).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dict.cc/german-english/Landschaftspflege.html |title=Landschaftspflege |last=Hemetsberger |first=Paul |date=2019 |website=dict.cc English-German Dictionary |publisher=Paul Hemetsberger |access-date=19 October 2019}}</ref> Related concepts are [[:de:Landschaftsschutz|''Landschaftsschutz'']], ""landscape protection/conservation"",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dict.cc/?s=Landschaftsschutz |title=Landschaftsschutz |last=Hemetsberger |first=Paul |date=2019 |website=dict.cc English-German Dictionary |publisher=Paul Hemetsberger |access-date=19 October 2019}}</ref> and [[:de:Landschaftsschutzgebiet|''Landschaftsschutzgebiet'']], a ""nature preserve"", or literally a (legally) ""protected landscape area"".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dict.cc/german-english/Landschaftsschutzgebiet.html |title=Landschaftsschutzgebiet |last=Hemetsberger |first=Paul |date=2019 |website=dict.cc English-German Dictionary |publisher=Paul Hemetsberger |access-date=19 October 2019}}</ref> The ''[[:de:Deutscher Verband für Landschaftspflege|Deutscher Verband für Landschaftspflege]]'' is the main organisation which protects landscapes in Germany. It is an umbrella organisation which coordinates the regional landscape protection organisations of the different [[States of Germany|German states]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lpv.de/ |title=Deutsche Verband für Landschaftspflege e.V. |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2019 |publisher=Deutsche Verband für Landschaftspflege |access-date=20 October 2019}}</ref><ref name=""DVL2000"">{{cite book |date=2000 |title=Fortbildung zum Geprüften Natur- und Landschaftspfleger/zur Geprüften Natur und Landschaftspflegerin – Tätigkeit, Einsatzbereiche und Perspektiven in der Landschaftspflege, BfN-Skripten 24 |location=Bonn – Bad Godesberg |publisher=Deutscher Verband für Landschaftspflege (DVL) e.&nbsp;V. }}</ref> Classically, there are four methods which can be done in order to conserve landscapes:<ref>{{cite book |last=Hundsdorfer |first=M. |date=1988 |title=Studien zur Wirtschafts- und Organisationslehre der Landespflege Heft 2 - Aktive Landschaftspflege – Inhalte, Durchführung, Erhebung von Planungsdaten und Kostenkalkulation |location=Munich |publisher=Lehrstuhl für Wirtschaftslehre des Gartenbaues der TU München-Weihenstephan }}</ref><ref name=""Jedicke96"">Jedicke et al. (1996): Praktische Landschaftspflege – Grundlagen und Maßnahmen. Eugen Ulmer, Hohenheim</ref> maintenance,<ref name=""DVL2000"" /> improvement,<ref name=""DVL2000"" /> protection<ref name=""DVL2000"" /><ref name=""Baals2010"">Baals, C.(2010): Qualitätsmanagement in der aktiven Landschaftspflege – unter Berücksichtigung ihrer Entwicklung im Freistaat Bayern. Herbert Utz Verlag – Wissenschaft, München</ref> and redevelopment.<ref name=""Baals2010"" /> The marketing of products such as meat from alpine meadows or apple juice from traditional [[Orchard#Central Europe|''Streuobstwiese'']] can also be an important factor in conservation.<ref name=""DVL2000"" /> Landscapes are maintained by three methods: biological - such as [[conservation grazing|grazing by livestock]], manually (although this is rare due to the high cost of labour) and commonly mechanically.<ref name=""Jedicke96""/>

===The Netherlands===
{{multiple image
 |image1  =HYMAC 370C.FR.jpg
 |image2  =EresusSandaliatusHogeVeluwe.JPG
 |footer=The ladybird spider, ''[[Eresus sandaliatus]]'' lives on inland shifting [[dunes]], created by [[deforestation|forest clearance]] and [[overgrazing]] on poor, sandy soils. Today [[backhoe loader]]s can scrape off topsoil, maintaining the low-nutrient soil that such heath and dune species need.<ref>{{cite report |author=Michel Riksen |author2=Laurens Sparrius |author3=Marijn Nijssen |author4=Marcel d'Anjou |date=2011 |title=Stuifzanden Advies voor beheer en herstel van stuifzanden |url=https://www.natuurkennis.nl/Uploaded_files/Publicaties/obn-brochure-stuifzanden.4f9fea.pdf |publisher=Kennisnetwerk Ontwikkeling + Beheer Natuurkwaliteit (O+BN) |page=22 |language=nl |access-date=21 October 2019}}</ref>
}}

''Staatsbosbeheer'', the Dutch governmental forest service, considers landscape management an important part of managing their lands.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.staatsbosbeheer.nl/over-staatsbosbeheer/dossiers/landschap/visie-en-beleid |title=Visie en beleid Landschap |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2019 |publisher=Staatsbosbeheer |language=nl |access-date=17 October 2019 |quote=Landschappelijk en cultuurhistorische beheer heeft daarmee een volwaardige plaats in ons terreinbeheer.}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |author=Moniek Nooren |date=March 2006 |title=Landschap leeft! Visie op ontwikkeling en beheer van het landschap bij Staatsbosbeheer |url=https://www.staatsbosbeheer.nl/-/media/08-dossiers/landschap/visie-landschap-leeft.pdf?la=nl-nl&hash=DC9F5CE7866FB6B75B6BD39A88F1EB0DC4D4E944 |publisher=Staatsbosbeheer |pages=1–40 |language=nl |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> [[:nl:Landschapsbeheer Nederland|''Landschapsbeheer Nederland'']] is an umbrella organisation which promotes and helps fund the interests of the different provincial landscape management organisations, which between them include 75,000 volunteers and 110,000 hectares of protected nature reserves.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.landschappen.nl/organisatie/over-landschappennl/ |title=Over LandschappenNL  |date=2019 |publisher=LandschappenNL |language=nl |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> Sustainable landscape management is being researched in the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vhluniversity.com/research/delta-areas-and-resources-applied-research-centre/sustainable-landscape-management |title=Sustainable Landscape Management |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=Van Hall Larenstein |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref>

===Peru===

An example of a producer movement managing a multi-functional landscape is the Potato Park in [[Pisac District|Písac]], Peru, where local communities protect the ecological and cultural diversity of the 12,000ha landscape.<ref name=""Hart""/><ref name=IIED/>
[[File:Papa andina.jpg|thumb|A variety of Peruvian potatoes from the [[Andes]]]]

===Sweden===
{{See also |Agricultural landscape of southern Öland}}
In Sweden, the Swedish National Heritage Board, or ''Riksantikvarieämbetet'', is responsible for landscape conservation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.raa.se/kulturarv/landskap/landskapsvard/ |title=Landskapsvård |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=Riksantikvarieämbetet |language=sv |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> Landscape conservation can be studied at the Department of Cultural Conservation (at [[:sv:Dacapo|Dacapo Mariestad]]) of the University of Gothenburg, in both Swedish and English.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://utbildning.gu.se/program/programinriktning/?programid=N1TLH |title=Trädgårdens och landskapsvårdens hantverk, kandidatprogram, 180 hp |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=Göteborgs Universitetet |language=sv |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref>

===Thailand===

An example of cooperation between very different actors is from the [[Doi Mae Salong]] watershed in northwest Thailand, a Military Reserved Area under the control of the [[Royal Thai Armed Forces]]. Reforestation activities led to tension with local [[Hill tribe (Thailand)|hill tribes]]. In response, an agreement was reached with them on land rights and use of different parts of the reserve.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=R J |last2=Kugel |first2=C |last3=Rattanasorn |first3=T |title=Unusual partnerships: lessons for landscapes and livelihoods from the Doe Mae Salong landscape, Thailand. |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/10215 |website=IUCN |isbn=978-2-8317-1498-1 |year=2012}}</ref>

{{wide image|2014 June 1, Mae Fa Luang District.jpg|750px|[[Doi Mae Salong]] landscape in Thailand is managed by agreement between the [[Royal Thai Armed Forces|army]] and local [[Hill tribe (Thailand)|hill tribes]].}}

===United Kingdom===

Among the leading exponents of UK landscape scale conservation are the [[Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] (AONB). There are 49 AONB in the UK. The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] has categorised these regions as ""category 5 protected areas"" and in 2005 claimed the AONB are administered using what the IUCN coined the ""protected landscape approach"".<ref name=""Phillips 2005"">""Protected Areas in the United Kingdom"" by Phillips, A. and Partington, R. in ""The Protected Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community"" Brown, J, Mitchell, N & Beresford, M (Eds) (2005) IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. pp 119-130.</ref> In Scotland there is a similar system of [[national scenic area]]s.<ref name=SNH>{{cite web|url=https://www.nature.scot/professional-advice/safeguarding-protected-areas-and-species/protected-areas/national-designations/national-scenic-areas/|title=National Scenic Areas|publisher=Scottish Natural Heritage|access-date=2018-01-17}}</ref>

The UK [[Biodiversity Action Plan]] protects semi-natural grasslands, among other habitats, which constitute landscapes maintained by [[extensive agriculture|low-intensity grazing]]. Agricultural environment schemes reward farmers and land managers financially for maintaining these habitats on registered agricultural land. Each of the four
countries in the UK has its own individual scheme.<ref>{{cite report |author=James M. Bullock |author2=Richard G. Jefferson |author3=Tim H. Blackstock |author4=Robin J. Pakeman |author5=Bridget A. Emmett |author6=Richard J. Pywell |author7=J. Philip Grime |author8=Jonathan Silvertown |date=June 2011 |title=UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report |url=http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/ |chapter=Chapter 6 - Semi-natural Grasslands |chapter-url=http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=Y4pLIpagaf0%3d&tabid=82 |publisher=UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre |pages=162, 165, 167 |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref>

Studies have been carried out across the UK looking at much wider range of habitats. In [[Wales]] the [[Plynlimon|Pumlumon]] Large Area Conservation Project focusses on upland conservation in areas of marginal agriculture and forestry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.montwt.co.uk/pumlumon.html|title = Pumlumon Project &#124; Montgomeryshire Wildlife Trust}}</ref> The North [[Somerset]] Levels and [[moorland|Moors]] Project addresses wetlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avonwildlifetrust.org.uk/level1/level2/project_nslm.htm |title=North Somerset Levels and Moors Project |access-date=2007-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428170209/http://www.avonwildlifetrust.org.uk/level1/level2/project_nslm.htm |archive-date=2007-04-28 }}</ref>

===Other===
[[File:Kiiji, Haratani village 02.jpg|thumb|The landscape to the left is known as ''[[satoyama]]''; a traditional human-influenced secondary forest bordering agricultural fields in Japan. The [[Satoyama#Conservation|''satoyama'' conservation movement]] spread in the 1980s in Japan and by 2001 there were more than 500 environmental groups involved.<ref>Takeuchi Kazuhiko, Wahitani Izumi and Tsunekawa Atsushi (2001). Satoyama: The Traditional Rural Landscape of Japan. University Tokyo Press 133–135 {{ISBN|4-13-060301-9}}</ref>]]
Landscape approaches have been taken up by governments in for example the [[Greater Mekong Subregion]] project<ref name=""GMS BLL"">{{cite web|title=Biodiversity Landscapes and Livelihoods|url=http://www.gms-eoc.org/biodiversity-conservation-corridors-initiative|website=Greater Mekong Subregion - Core Environment Program}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=GMS Workshop on Landscape Approaches|url=http://www.gms-eoc.org/events/gms-workshop-on-landscape-approaches|website=Greater Mekong Subregion - Core Environment Program}}</ref> and in Indonesia's [[Paris Agreement|climate change commitments]],<ref name=""IINDC"">{{cite web |last1=Republic of Indonesia |title=Intended Nationally Determined Contribution |url=http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Indonesia/1/INDC_REPUBLIC%20OF%20INDONESIA.pdf |date=2015 |website=UNFCCC submissions}}</ref> and by international research bodies such as the [[Center for International Forestry Research]],<ref name=""CIFOR landscapes pg"">{{cite web |last1=Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)|url=http://www.cifor.org/sustainable-landscapes/ |website=Sustainable Landscapes|title=Sustainable Landscapes}}</ref> which convenes the Global Landscapes Forum.<ref name=""GLF homepage"">{{cite web|url=http://www.landscapes.org/|website=Global Landscapes Forum |title=Home}}</ref>

The [[Mount Kailash]] region is where the [[Indus River]], the [[Karnali River]] (a major tributary of the [[Ganges River]]), the [[Brahmaputra River]] and the [[Sutlej]] river systems originate. With assistance from the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, the three surrounding countries (China, India and Nepal) developed an integrated management approach to the different conservation and development issues within this landscape.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wallrapp |first1=C |title=Transboundary landscape management in the Kailash Sacred Landscape |url=http://peoplefoodandnature.org/blog/transboundary-landscape-management-in-the-kailash-sacred-landscape/ |publisher=Landscapes for People Food and Nature |date=2015-12-03}}</ref>

Six countries in [[West Africa]] in the [[Volta River]] basin using the 'Mapping Ecosystems Services to Human well-being' toolkit, use landscape modelling of alternative scenarios for the riparian buffer to make land-use decisions such as conserving hydrological [[ecosystem services]] and meeting national [[Sustainable development goals|SDG commitments]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wood |first1=S |last2=Jones |first2=S |title=Balancing multiple SDG-related outcomes of riparian buffers in the Volta Basin |url=http://peoplefoodandnature.org/blog/balancing-multiple-sdg-related-outcomes-of-riparian-buffers-in-the-volta-basin/ |publisher=Landscapes for People Food and Nature |date=2015-11-27}}</ref>

==Variations==
===Ecoagriculture===
In a 2001 article published by Sara J. Scherr and Jeffrey McNeely,<ref name=McNeely2001>{{cite book |last1=McNeely |first1=Jeffrey A. |last2=Scherr |first2=Sara J. |title=Common Ground, Common Future |date=2001 |url=http://www.ecoagriculturepartners.org/documents/reports/FinalPrintingReport2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516213355/http://www.ecoagriculturepartners.org/documents/reports/FinalPrintingReport2.pdf  |archive-date=2008-05-16 }}</ref> soon expanded into a book,<ref name=McNeely2003>{{cite book |last1=McNeely |first1=Jeffrey A. |last2=Scherr |first2=Sara J. |title=Ecoagriculture: Strategies to Feed the World and Save Wild Biodiversity |publisher=[[Island Press]] |date=2003 |isbn=978-1-55963-645-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ecoagriculturest0000mcne }}</ref> Scherr and McNeely introduced the term ""ecoagriculture"" to describe their vision of rural development while advancing the environment, claim that agriculture is the dominant influence on wild species and habitats, and point to a number of recent and potential future developments they identified as beneficial examples of land use.<ref name=McNeely2001/><ref name=Scherr2013>{{cite journal |last1=Scherr |first1=Sara J. |last2=Shames |first2=S. |last3=Friedman |first3=R. |title=Defining Integrated Landscape Management for Policy Makers |journal=Ecoagriculture Policy Focus |date=2013 |issue=10 |url=http://ecoagriculture.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/DefiningILMforPolicyMakers.pdf}}</ref> They incorporated the non-profit [[EcoAgriculture Partners]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecoagriculture.org |title=EcoAgriculture Partners |access-date=14 October 2019}}</ref> in 2004 to promote this vision, with Scherr as President and CEO, and McNeely as an independent governing board member. Scherr and McNeely edited a second book in 2007.<ref name=""Scherr 2007"">{{cite book | last=Scherr | first=Sara | title=Farming with nature: the science and practice of ecoagriculture | publisher=[[Island Press]] | location=Washington | year=2007 | isbn=978-1-59726-128-9 | oclc=427509919 }}</ref> Ecoagriculture had three elements in 2003.<ref name=McNeely2003/>

===Integrated landscape management===
In 2012 Scherr invented a new term, integrated landscape management(ILM), to describe her ideas for developing entire regions, not at just a farm or plot level.<ref name=Scherr2013/><ref name=""LSLB""/> Integrated landscape management is a way of managing [[sustainable]] landscapes by bringing together multiple stakeholders with different land use objectives. The integrated approach claims to go beyond other approaches which focus on users of the land independently of each other, despite needing some of the same resources.<ref name=""LSLB"" /> It is promoted by the conservation NGOs [[Worldwide Fund for Nature]], Global Canopy Programme, [[The Nature Conservancy]], The Sustainable Trade Initiative, and EcoAgriculture Partners.<ref name=""LSLB"" /> Promoters claim that integrated landscape management will maximise collaboration in planning, policy development and action regarding the interdependent [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref name=""SDG briefing"" /> It was defined by four elements in 2013:<ref name=""Scherr"">{{cite journal|last1=Scherr|first1=S J|last2=Shames|first2=S|last3=Friedman|first3=R|title=Defining Integrated Landscape Management for Policy Makers|journal=Ecoagriculture Policy Focus|date=2013|issue=10|url=http://ecoagriculture.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/DefiningILMforPolicyMakers.pdf}}</ref>

# Large scale: It plans land uses at the landscape scale. Wildlife population dynamics and watershed functions can only be understood at the landscape scale. Assuming short-term trade-offs may lead to long-term synergies, conducting analyses over long time periods is advocated.
# Emphasis on synergies: It tries to exploit ""synergies"" among conservation, agricultural production, and rural livelihoods. 
# Emphasis on collaboration: It can not be achieved by individuals. The management of landscapes require different land managers with different environmental and socio-economic goals to achieve conservation, production, and livelihood goals at a landscape scale.
# Importance of both conservation and agricultural production: bringing conservation into the agricultural and rural development discourse by highlighting the importance of ecosystem services in supporting agricultural production. It supports conservationists to more effectively conserve nature within and outside protected areas by working with the agricultural community by developing conservation-friendly livelihoods for rural land users.

By 2016 it had five elements, namely:

# stakeholders come together for cooperative dialogue and action; 
# they exchange information systematically and discuss perspectives to achieve a shared understanding of the landscape conditions, challenges and opportunities; 
# collaborative planning to develop an agreed action plan; 
# implementation of the plan; 
# monitoring and dialogue to adapt management.<ref name=""LSLB""/>

===Ecosystem approach===
The [[ecosystem approach]], promoted by the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], is a strategy for the integrated [[ecosystem management]] of land, water, and living resources for conservation and sustainability.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ecosystem Approach Introduction|date=23 August 2021|url=https://www.cbd.int/ecosystem/|publisher=CBD}}</ref>

===Ten Principles===

This approach includes continual learning and [[adaptive management]]: including monitoring, the expectation that actions take place at multiple scales and that landscapes are multifunctional (e.g. supplying both goods, such as timber and food, and services, such as water and biodiversity protection). There are multiple stakeholders, and it assumes they have a common concern about the landscape, negotiate change with each other, and their rights and responsibilities are clear or will become clear.<ref name=""Ten P"">{{cite journal|last1=Sayer|first1=J|last2=Sunderland|first2=T|last3=Ghazoul|first3=J|display-authors=etal|title=Ten principles for a landscape approach to reconciling agriculture, conservation, and other competing land uses|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA|date=2013|volume=110|issue=21|pages=8349–8356|doi=10.1073/pnas.1210595110|pmid=23686581|url=http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/ASunderland1302.pdf|pmc=3666687|bibcode=2013PNAS..110.8349S|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Criticisms==
A literature review identified five main barriers, as follows:<ref name=""learning"" />

# Terminology confusion: the variety of definitions creates confusion and resistance to engage. This resistance has emerged, often independently, from different fields.<ref name=""Reed"" /><ref name=""learning"" /> As stated by Scherr ''et al''.: ""People are talking about the same thing ... This can lead to fragmentation of knowledge, unnecessary re-invention of ideas and practices, and inability to mobilize action at scale. ... this rich diversity is often simply overwhelming: they receive confusing messages""<ref name=""Scherr"" /> This problem is not unique to landscape approaches: since the 1970s it has been recognised that the constant emergence of new terminology can be harmful if they promote rhetoric at the expense of action.<ref name=""ODI"">{{cite journal|last1=Overseas Development Institute|title=Integrated Rural Development|journal=ODI Briefing Paper|date=1979|issue=4|url=https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/6626.pdf}}</ref> Because landscapes approaches develop from, and aim to integrate, a wide variety of sectors, makes it vulnerable to overlapping definitions and parallel concepts.<ref name=""Scherr"" /> Like other approaches to conservation, it may be a fad.<ref name=""fads"">{{cite journal|last1=Redford|first1=K|last2=Padoch|first2=C|last3=Sunderland|first3=T|title=Fads, funding and forgetting in three decades of conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|date=2013|volume=27|issue=3|pages=437–438|doi=10.1111/cobi.12071|pmid=23692015|doi-access=free}}</ref>
# Time lags: substantial time and resources are invested in developing and planning, while resources are inadequate for implementation.<ref name=""learning"" /><ref name=""Sayer"" /> 
# Operating silos: Each sector pursues its goals without giving consideration to the others. This may arise because of a lack in established objectives, operating norms and funding that effectively bridge different sectors.<ref name=""learning"" /> Working across sectors at the landscape scale requires a range of skills, different from those traditionally used by conservation organisations.<ref name=""Sayer"" />  
# Engagement: Stakeholders may not desire to be engaged in the process,<ref name=""LSLB"" /><ref name=""Reed"" /> engagement may be trivial or inaccessible,<ref name=""learning"" /> and the discussions may hinder efficient decision-making.<ref name=""LSLB"" /> 
# Monitoring: There is lack of monitoring to check whether the objectives have been achieved.<ref name=""learning"" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Agriculture and Agronomy|Agropedia|Earth sciences|Ecology|Trees}}
* [[Agriculture in Concert with the Environment]]
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Agroforestry]]
* [[Anthropogenic biome]]
* [[Conservation development]]
* [[Ecosystem approach]]
* [[Global biodiversity]]
* [[Landscape ecology]]
* [[Multifunctional landscape]]
* [[Working landscape]]
* [[Landscape Institute]]
* [[Landscape urbanism]]
* [[Polder model]]
* [[Sustainable forest management]]
* [[Sustainable landscaping]]
* [[Topocide]]
* [[Watershed management]]

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.civilscape.eu/ CIVILSCAPE - We are the landscape people!] (CIVILSCAPE)
*[http://www.landscape-europe.net/index.php/home Landscape Europe]
*[http://landscapecharacter.org.uk/ Landscape Character Network]

{{conservation of species}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Landscape ecology]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Latent extinction risk,"In [[conservation biology]], '''latent extinction risk''' is a measure of the potential for a species to become threatened.

Latent risk can most easily be described as the difference, or discrepancy, between the current observed extinction risk of a species (typically as quantified by the [[IUCN Red List]]) and the theoretical extinction risk of a species predicted by its biological or [[Biological life cycle|life history]] characteristics.<ref name=""10.1073/pnas.0510541103"">{{citation|last1=Cardillo|first1=M.|last2=Mace|first2=G. M.|last3=Gittleman|first3=J. L.|last4=Purvis|first4=A.|title=Latent extinction risk and the future battlegrounds of mammal conservation|year=2006|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4157–61|doi=10.1073/pnas.0510541103|pmid=16537501|pmc=1449663|bibcode=2006PNAS..103.4157C|doi-access=free}}.</ref>

==Calculation==
Because latent risk is the discrepancy between current and predicted risks, estimates of both of these values are required (See [[population modeling]] and [[population dynamics]]). Once these values are known, the latent extinction risk can be calculated as ''Predicted Risk - Current Risk = Latent Extinction Risk.''

When the latent extinction risk is a positive value, it indicates that a species is currently less threatened than its biology would suggest it ought to be. For example, a species may have several of the characteristics often found in threatened species, such as large body size, small geographic distribution, or low reproductive rate, but still be rated as ""least concern"" in the IUCN Red List. This may be because it has not yet been exposed to serious threatening processes such as [[Habitat conservation|habitat degradation]].

Conversely, negative values of latent risk indicate that a species is already more threatened than its biology would indicate, probably because it inhabits a part of the world where it has been exposed to extreme endangering processes.  Species with severely low negative values are usually listed as an [[endangered species]] and have associated recovery and conservation plans.<ref name=""10.1073/pnas.0510541103"" />

==Limits==
One of the issues associated with latent extinction risk is its difficulty to calculate because of the limited availability of data for predicting extinction risk across large numbers of species.  Hence, the only study of latent risk to date <ref name=""10.1073/pnas.0510541103"" /> has focused on mammals, which are one of the best-studied groups of organisms.

==Effects on conservation==
A study of latent extinction risk in mammals identified a number of ""hotspots"" where the average value of latent risk for mammal species was unusually high.<ref name=""10.1073/pnas.0510541103"" /> This study suggested that these areas represented an opportunity for proactive conservation efforts, because these could become the ""future battlegrounds of mammal conservation"" if levels of human impact increase. Unexpectedly, the hotspots of mammal latent risk include large areas of Arctic America, where overall mammal diversity is not high, but where many species have the kind of biological traits (such as large body size and slow reproductive rate) that could render them extinction-prone. Another notable region of high latent risk for mammals is the island chain of Indonesia and Melanesia, where there are large numbers of restricted-range endemic species.

Because it is much more cost-effective to prevent species declines before they happen than to attempt to rescue species from the brink of extinction, latent risk hotspots could form part of a global scheme to prioritize areas for conservation effort, together with other kinds of priority areas such as biodiversity hotspots.

<ref>{{citation|last1=Cardillo|first1=M.|first2=G. M.|last2=Mace|first3=K. E.|last3=Jones|first4=J.|last4=Bielby|first5=O. R. P.|last5=Bininda-Emonds|first6=W.|last6=Sechrest|first7=C. D. L.|last7=Orme|first8=A.|last8=Purvis|title=Multiple causes of high extinction risk in large mammal species|year=2005|journal=Science|volume=309|issue=5738|pages=1239–41|doi=10.1126/science.1116030|pmid=16037416|bibcode=2005Sci...309.1239C|citeseerx=10.1.1.327.7340|s2cid=378183}}.</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=McKenzie|first1=N. L.|first2=A. A.|last2=Burbidge|first3=A.|last3=Baynes|first4=R. N.|last4=Brereton|first5=C. R.|last5=Dickman|first6=G.|last6=Gordon|first7=L. A.|last7=Gibson|first8=P. W.|last8=Menkhorst|first9=A. C.|last10=Williams|first10=M. R.|last11=Woinarski|first11=J. C. Z.|last9=Robinson|title=Analysis of factors implicated in the recent decline of Australia's mammal fauna|year=2007|journal=Journal of Biogeography|volume=34|issue=4|pages=597–611|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01639.x|s2cid=84254399 |display-authors=8}}.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Extinction}}
{{Threatened species}}
{{Conservation of species}}

[[Category:Ecological metrics]]
[[Category:Extinction]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Community-based conservation,"{{Short description|Conservation movement emerging in the 1980s}}
'''Community-based conservation''' is a [[conservation movement]] that emerged in the 1980s, in response to escalating protests and subsequent dialogue with local communities affected by international attempts to protect the [[biodiversity]] of the earth. These contentions were a reaction against traditional 'top down' conservation practices, whereby governments or large organisations exert control at a local level, which were perceived as disregarding the interests of local inhabitants.<ref>Brockington, D. (2002) Fortress Conservation: The Preservation of the Mkomazi Game Reserve, Tanzania. International African Institute, Oxford( {{ISBN|0-253-34079-9}})</ref> This stems from the [[Western culture|Western]] idea on which the conservation movement was founded, of [[nature]] being separate from [[culture]]. The objective of community-based conservation is to actively involve and give some control to members of local communities in conservation efforts which may affect them, and incorporate improvement to the lives of local people while conserving areas through the creation of national parks or wildlife refuges.<ref>Gezon, Lisa. (1997) Institutional structure and the effectiveness of integrated conservation and development projects: case study from Madagascar, Human Organization 56(4), pp. 462–470 (ISSN 0093-2930)</ref>

==History==
The conflicts that led to the growth of community-based conservation are indicative of the historical connection between European colonialism and 'classical' conservation.  The classical 'national park' model of conservation, first established through the creation of Yellowstone National Park in 1872 and Yosemite National Park in 1890, aimed to preserve what European settlers perceived as 'pristine natural wilderness'. However, this perception largely ignored the widespread anthropogenic changes to these landscapes generated by indigenous land management, and also justified the expulsion of those indigenous peoples. <ref>Cholchester, M. (2004) Conservation Policy and Indigenous Peoples. Environmental Science & Policy 7(3), pp.145-153</ref> Thus, classical conservation created protected areas based on a highly exclusionary model of protectionism, with an estimated 20 million people displaced from their land.<ref>Veit, P. G., Benson, C. (2004) When Parks and People Collide. Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs. 16 Oct. 2009</ref> This conservation strategy was used widely until the 1970s when indigenous people started to fight for their rights and land. In 1975 the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) and the World Parks Congress recognized the rights of indigenous people and to recognize their rights of the protected areas.<ref>Cholchester, M. (2004) Conservation Policy and Indigenous Peoples. Environmental Science & Policy 7(3), pp.145-153</ref> More policy changes came about that increased the rights of indigenous people. Community-based conservation came into action from these changes.

==Strategies==
One strategy of community-based conservation is co-management or joint management of a protected area. Co-management combines local peoples’ [[traditional knowledge]] of the environment with modern scientific knowledge of scientists.<ref>WPC Recommendation 25 Co-management of Protected Areas, World Parks Congress (2003) {{cite web |url=http://www.cceia.org/resources/publications/dialogue/2_11/section_2/4449.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-12-11 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927164214/http://www.cceia.org/resources/publications/dialogue/2_11/section_2/4449.html |archivedate=2006-09-27 }}</ref><ref>Child, B.;Jones, B. (2006), Practical tools for community conservation in southern Africa, Participatory Learning and Action 55 (ISSN 1357-938X)

</ref> This combination of knowledge can lead to increased biodiversity and better management of the protected area. 

After thoroughly researching an area, having a solid grasp of the ecosystem can result in different strategies to pursue. Engaging the community is crucial, including building partnerships with scientists, researchers, students, children, parents, and government officials etc. It is important to take into account power dynamics within networks and among groups at various levels of organization, as well as considerations of global and local commons, in order to adequately address biodiversity and livelihood needs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berkes |first=Fikret |date=2007-09-25 |title=Community-based conservation in a globalized world |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0702098104 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=39 |pages=15188–15193 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702098104 |issn=0027-8424|pmc=2000555 }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Community-based management]]
*[[Conservation community]]
*[[Indigenous and community conserved area]]
*[[Communal Wildlife Conservancies in Namibia]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Conservation of species}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Community]]"
Subnational rank,"'''SRANK''' or '''Subnational Rank''' seeks to ascertain the rarity of [[species]] within subnational boundaries (such as a [[province]] or [[State (administrative division)|state]]).

Below is the ranking definitions used by the [[Ontario]] [[Ministry of Natural Resources (Ontario)|Ministry of Natural Resources]], and will vary by province or state.  This ranking system is widely used by the conservation data centres in each of the provinces and states.  Refer to NatureServe for the overall ranking system used by conservation data centres (CDCs) across North America as well as the actual S-ranks of all the species evaluated.  OMNR is one such CDC.

* '''SX — Presumed Extirpated'''  Species or community is believed to be extirpated from the province or state.  Not located despite intensive searches of historical sites and other appropriate habitat, and virtually no likelihood that it will be rediscovered.
* '''SH — Possibly Extirpated (Historical)'''  Species or community occurred historically in the province or state, and there is some possibility that it may be rediscovered.  Its presence may not have been verified in the past 20–40 years. A species or community could become SH without such a 20-40 year delay if the only known occurrences in a province or state were destroyed or if it had been extensively and unsuccessfully looked for. The SH rank is reserved for species or communities for which some effort has been made to relocate occurrences, rather than simply using this status for all elements not known from verified extant occurrences.
* '''S1 — Critically Imperiled'''  Critically imperiled in the province or state because of extreme rarity (often 5 or fewer occurrences) or because of some factor(s) such as very steep declines making it especially vulnerable to extirpation from the province or state.
* '''S2 — Imperiled'''  Imperiled in the province or state because of rarity due to very restricted range, very few populations (often 20 or fewer), steep declines, or other factors making it very vulnerable to extirpation from the province or state.
* '''S3 — Vulnerable'''  Vulnerable in the province or state due to a restricted range, relatively few populations (often 80 or fewer), recent and widespread declines, or other factors making it vulnerable to extirpation.
* '''S4 — Apparently Secure'''  Uncommon but not rare; some cause for long-term concern due to declines or other factors.
* '''S5 — Secure'''  Common, widespread, and abundant in the state or province.
* '''SNR — Unranked'''  Province or state conservation status not yet assessed.
* '''SU — Unrankable'''  Currently unrankable due to lack of information or due to substantially conflicting information about status or trends.
* '''SNA — Not Applicable'''  A conservation status rank is not applicable because the species is not a suitable target for conservation activities.
* '''S#S# — Range Rank'''  A numeric range rank (e.g., S2S3) is used to indicate any range of uncertainty about the status of the species or community. Ranges cannot skip more than one rank (e.g., SU is used rather than S1S4).

A similar ranking system is used for the ""G-ranks"" and ""N-ranks"" which are the Global (G) and National (N) status ranks for species.  Again refer to NatureServe.org for additional details.

== External links ==
* [http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/MNR/index.html Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR)/ ''Ministère des richesses naturelles de l'Ontario (MRNO)'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060615010752/http://nhic.mnr.gov.on.ca/nhic_.cfm OMNR Natural Heritage Information Centre / ''MRNO Centre d'information des heritages naturelles'']
* Nature Serve www.natureserve.org

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Population ecology]]"
Biodiversity hotspot,"{{Short description|Biodiverse region under threat}}

A '''biodiversity hotspot''' is a [[ecoregion|biogeographic region]] with significant levels of [[biodiversity]] that is threatened by human habitation.<ref name=hotspots>{{cite web|url=http://www.bsienvis.nic.in/Database/Biodiversity-Hotspots-in-India_20500.aspx|title=Biodiversity Hotspots in India|website=www.bsienvis.nic.in}}</ref><ref name=conservation>{{cite web|url=http://www.conservation.org/How/Pages/Hotspots.aspx|title=Why Hotspots Matter|website=Conservation International}}</ref> [[Norman Myers]] wrote about the concept in two articles in ''The Environmentalist'' in 1988 <ref>{{cite journal|last=Myers|first=N.|journal=Environmentalist|volume=8|pages=187–208|year=1988|title=Threatened biotas: ""Hot spots"" in tropical forests|issue=3|doi=10.1007/BF02240252|pmid=12322582|bibcode=1988ThEnv...8..187M |s2cid=2370659}}</ref> and 1990,<ref>Myers, N. The Environmentalist 10 243-256 (1990)</ref> after which the concept was revised following thorough analysis by Myers and others into “Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions”<ref>Russell A. Mittermeier, Norman Myers and Cristina Goettsch Mittermeier, ''Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions,'' Conservation International, 2000 {{ISBN|978-968-6397-58-1}}</ref> and a paper published in the journal ''Nature'', both in 2000.<ref name=""MyersMittermeier2000""/>

To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers' 2000 edition of the hotspot map, a region must meet two strict criteria: it must contain at least 1,500 species of [[vascular plant]]s (more than 0.5% of the world's total) as [[Endemism|endemics]], and it has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.<ref name=""MyersMittermeier2000"">{{cite journal|last1=Myers|first1=Norman|last2=Mittermeier|first2=Russell A.|last3=Mittermeier|first3=Cristina G.|last4=da Fonseca|first4=Gustavo A. B.|last5=Kent|first5=Jennifer|journal=Nature|volume=403|issue=6772|year=2000|pages=853–858|title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities|url=https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v403/n6772/pdf/403853a0.pdf|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/35002501|pmid=10706275|bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M|s2cid=4414279}}</ref> Globally, 36 zones qualify under this definition.<ref name=""auto"">{{cite web|title=Biodiversity hotspots defined|url=https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/hotspots-defined|website=Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund|publisher=Conservation International|access-date=10 August 2020}}</ref> These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian [[species]], with a high share of those species as endemics. Some of these hotspots support up to 15,000 endemic plant species, and some have lost up to 95% of their natural habitat.<ref name=""auto""/>

Biodiversity hotspots host their diverse ecosystems on just 2.4% of the planet's surface.<ref name=conservation/> Ten hotspots were originally identified by Myer;<ref name=hotspots/> the current 36 used to cover more than 15.7% of all the land but have lost around 85% of their area.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog30/book/export/html/393|title=Biodiversity Hotspots|website=www.e-education.psu.edu}}</ref> This [[habitat destruction|loss of habitat]] is why approximately 60% of the world's terrestrial life lives on only 2.4% of the land surface area. Caribbean Islands like Haiti and Jamaica are facing serious pressures on the populations of endemic plants and vertebrates as a result of rapid deforestation. Other areas include the Tropical Andes, Philippines, Mesoamerica, and Sundaland, which, under the current levels at which deforestation is occurring, will likely lose most of their plant and vertebrate species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=Thomas M.|last2=Mittermeier|first2=Russell A.|last3=Mittermeier|first3=Cristina G.|last4=da Fonseca|first4=Gustavo A. B.|last5=Rylands|first5=Anthony B.|last6=Konstant|first6=William R.|last7=Flick|first7=Penny|last8=Pilgrim|first8=John|last9=Oldfield|first9=Sara|last10=Magin|first10=Georgina|last11=Hilton-Taylor|first11=Craig|date=August 2002|title=Habitat Loss and Extinction in the Hotspots of Biodiversity|url=https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00530.x|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=16|issue=4|pages=909–923|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00530.x|bibcode=2002ConBi..16..909B |s2cid=44009934|issn=0888-8892}}</ref>

==Hotspot conservation initiatives==
Only a small percentage of the total land area within biodiversity hotspots is now protected. Several international organizations are working to conserve biodiversity hotspots.
* [[Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund]] (CEPF) is a global program that provides funding and technical assistance to nongovernmental organizations in order to protect the Earth's richest regions of plant and animal diversity, including biodiversity hotspots, high-biodiversity wilderness areas and important marine regions.
* The [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] has devised a system called the ""[[Global 200|Global 200 Ecoregions]]"", the aim of which is to select priority ecoregions for conservation from fourteen terrestrial, three freshwater, and four marine habitat types. They are chosen for species richness, endemism, taxonomic uniqueness, unusual ecological or evolutionary phenomena, and global rarity. All biodiversity hotspots contain at least one Global 200 Ecoregion.
* [[Birdlife International]] has identified 218 “[[Endemic Bird Areas]]” (EBAs) each of which holds two or more bird species found nowhere else. Birdlife International has identified more than 11,000 Important Bird Areas<ref>[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sites/index.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808183125/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sites/index.html|date=August 8, 2007}}</ref> all over the world.
* [[Plant life International]] coordinates programs aiming to identify and manage [[Important Plant Areas]].
* [[Alliance for Zero Extinction]] is an initiative of scientific organizations and conservation groups who co-operate to focus on the most threatened endemic species of the world. They have identified 595 sites, including many ''Birdlife’s Important Bird Areas''.
* The [[National Geographic Society]] has prepared a world map<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/Documents/cihotspotmap.pdf|title=Conservation International|publisher=The Biodiversity Hotspots|date=2010-10-07|access-date=2012-06-22|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327075212/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/Documents/cihotspotmap.pdf|archive-date=2012-03-27}}</ref> of the hotspots and ArcView shapefile and metadata for the Biodiversity Hotspots<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/Documents/hotspots_revisited_2004.zip|title=Conservation International|publisher=The Biodiversity Hotspots|date=2010-10-07|access-date=2012-06-22|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320054336/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/Documents/hotspots_revisited_2004.zip|archive-date=2012-03-20}}</ref> including details of the individual endangered fauna in each hotspot, which is available from [[Conservation International]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/resources/pages/maps.aspx|title=Resources|publisher=Biodiversityhotspots.org|date=2010-10-07|access-date=2012-06-22|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324024634/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/resources/pages/maps.aspx|archive-date=2012-03-24}}</ref>
* The [[Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016|Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority]] (CAMPA) seeks to control the destruction of forests in India.

==Distribution by region==
[[File:Biodiversity Hotspots.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Biodiversity hotspots. Original proposal in green, and added regions in blue.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biodiversity Hotspots|url=https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog30/node/393|website=GEOG 30N: Environment and Society in a Changing World|publisher=John A. Dutton e-Education Institute, College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, [[Pennsylvania State University]]|access-date=3 August 2022}}</ref>]]

A majority of biodiversity exists within the tropics; likewise, most biodiversity hotspots are within the tropics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Harvey|first1=Michael G.|last2=Bravo|first2=Gustavo A.|last3=Claramunt|first3=Santiago|last4=Cuervo|first4=Andrés M.|last5=Derryberry|first5=Graham E.|last6=Battilana|first6=Jaqueline|last7=Seeholzer|first7=Glenn F.|last8=McKay|first8=Jessica Shearer|last9=O’Meara|first9=Brian C.|last10=Faircloth|first10=Brant C.|last11=Edwards|first11=Scott V.|last12=Pérez-Emán|first12=Jorge|last13=Moyle|first13=Robert G.|last14=Sheldon|first14=Frederick H.|last15=Aleixo|first15=Alexandre|date=2020-12-11|title=The evolution of a tropical biodiversity hotspot|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaz6970|journal=Science|language=en|volume=370|issue=6522|pages=1343–1348|doi=10.1126/science.aaz6970|pmid=33303617 |bibcode=2020Sci...370.1343H |hdl=10138/329703 |s2cid=228084618 |issn=0036-8075|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Of the 36 biodiversity hotspots, 15 are classified as old, climatically-buffered, infertile landscapes (OCBILs). <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/133/2/266/6118895|access-date=2023-03-23}}</ref> These areas have been historically isolated from interactions with other climate zones, but recent human interaction and encroachment have put these historically safe hotspots at risk. OCBILs have mainly been threatened by the relocation of indigenous groups and military actions as the infertile ground has previously dissuaded human populations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hopper|first1=Stephen D.|last2=Silveira|first2=Fernando A. O.|last3=Fiedler|first3=Peggy L.|date=2016-06-01|title=Biodiversity hotspots and Ocbil theory|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-015-2764-2|journal=Plant and Soil|language=en|volume=403|issue=1|pages=167–216|doi=10.1007/s11104-015-2764-2|bibcode=2016PlSoi.403..167H |s2cid=254948226 |issn=1573-5036}}</ref> The conservation of OCBILs within biodiversity hotspots has started to garner attention because current theories believe these sites provide not only high levels of biodiversity, but they have relatively stable lineages and the potential for high levels of speciation in the future. Because these sites are relatively stable, they can be classified as [[Refugium (population biology)|refugia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hopper|first=Stephen D.|date=2009-09-01|title=OCBIL theory: towards an integrated understanding of the evolution, ecology and conservation of biodiversity on old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0068-0|journal=Plant and Soil|language=en|volume=322|issue=1|pages=49–86|doi=10.1007/s11104-009-0068-0|bibcode=2009PlSoi.322...49H |s2cid=28155038 |issn=1573-5036}}</ref>

'''[[Northern America|North]] and [[Central America]]'''
* [[California Floristic Province]] (8)
* [[Madrean pine–oak woodlands]] (26)
* [[Mesoamerica]] (2)
* North American [[Coastal Plain]] (36)<ref>{{cite web|title=North American Coastal Plain|publisher=Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund|url=https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/north-american-coastal-plain|access-date=7 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Reed F.|last1=Noss|first2=William J.|last2=Platt|first3=Bruce A.|last3=Sorrie|first4=Alan S.|last4=Weakley|first5=D. Bruce|last5=Means|first6=Jennifer|last6=Costanza|first7=Robert K.|last7=Peet|title=How global biodiversity hotspots may go unrecognized: lessons from the North American Coastal Plain|journal=Diversity and Distributions|year=2015|volume=21|issue=2|pages=236–244|doi=10.1111/ddi.12278|bibcode=2015DivDi..21..236N |url=http://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/bitstream/1840.2/2642/1/Noss%20et%20al%202014%20Coastal%20Plain%20hotspot%20D%26D.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>

'''The [[Caribbean]]'''
* [[Caribbean Islands]] (3)

'''[[South America]]''' 
* [[Atlantic Forest]] (4)
* [[Cerrado]] (6)
* [[Valdivian temperate rain forests|Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests]] (7)
* [[Tumbes–Chocó–Magdalena]] (5)
* [[Tropical Andes]] (1)

'''[[Europe]]'''
* [[Mediterranean Basin]] (14)

'''[[Africa]]'''
* [[Cape Floristic Region]] (12)
* [[Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa]] (10)
* [[Eastern Afromontane]] (28)
* [[Guinean Forests of West Africa]] (11)
* [[Horn of Africa]] (29)
* [[Ecoregions of Madagascar|Madagascar]] [[Mascarene Islands|and the Indian Ocean Islands]] (9)
* [[Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany]] (27)
* [[Succulent Karoo]] (13)

'''[[Central Asia]]'''
* [[Mountains of Central Asia]] (31)

'''[[South Asia]]'''
* [[Eastern Himalaya]] (32)
* [[Indo-Burma]], [[Wildlife of Bangladesh|Bangladesh]], [[Wildlife of India|India]] and [[Myanmar]] (19)
* [[Western Ghats]] and [[Wildlife of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] (21)

'''[[Southeast Asia]] and [[Asia-Pacific]]'''
* [[East Melanesian Islands]] (34)
* [[Biodiversity of New Caledonia|New Caledonia]] (23)
* [[Biodiversity of New Zealand|New Zealand]] (24)
* [[Ecoregions of the Philippines|Philippines]] (18)
* [[Oceanian realm|Polynesia-Micronesia]] (25)
* [[Eastern Australian temperate forests]] (35)
* [[Southwest Australia]] (22)
* [[Sundaland]], [[Fauna of Indonesia|Indonesia]] and [[Nicobar islands]] of [[Wildlife of India|India]] (16)
* [[Wallacea]] of [[Fauna of Indonesia|Indonesia]] (17)

'''[[East Asia]]'''
* [[Ecoregions of Japan|Japan]] (33)
* [[Mountains of Southwest China]] (20)

'''[[Western Asia|West Asia]]'''
* [[Caucasus]] (15)
* [[Irano-Anatolian]] (30)

==Criticism==
The high profile of the biodiversity hotspots approach has resulted in some criticism. Papers such as Kareiva & Marvier (2003)<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kareiva|first1=Peter|last2=Marvier|first2=Michelle|title=Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots: Recent calls to direct conservation funding to the world's biodiversity hotspots may be bad investment advice|journal=American Scientist|date=2003|volume=91|issue=4|pages=344–351|doi=10.1511/2003.4.344|jstor=27858246|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27858246|access-date=10 May 2022|issn=0003-0996}}</ref> have argued that the biodiversity hotspots:

* Do not adequately represent other forms of species richness (e.g. total species richness or threatened species richness).
* Do not adequately represent taxa other than vascular plants (e.g. vertebrates and fungi).
* Do not protect smaller scale richness hotspots.
* Do not make allowances for changing [[land use]] patterns. Hotspots represent regions that have experienced considerable [[habitat destruction|habitat loss]], but this does not mean they are experiencing ongoing habitat loss. On the other hand, regions that are relatively intact (e.g. the [[Amazon basin]]) have experienced relatively little [[land loss]], but are currently losing habitat at tremendous rates.
* Do not protect [[ecosystem services]].
* Do not consider [[phylogenetic diversity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Daru|first1=Barnabas H.|last2=van der Bank|first2=Michelle|last3=Davies|first3=T. Jonathan|year=2014|title=Spatial incongruence among hotspots and complementary areas of tree diversity in southern Africa|journal=[[Diversity and Distributions]]|volume=21|issue=7|pages=769–780|doi=10.1111/ddi.12290|s2cid=18417574|doi-access=free}}</ref>

A recent series of papers has pointed out that biodiversity hotspots (and many other priority region sets) do not address the concept of cost.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Possingham|first1=Hugh P.|last2=Wilson|first2=Kerrie A.|title=Turning up the heat on hotspots|journal=Nature|date=August 2005|volume=436|issue=7053|pages=919–920|doi=10.1038/436919a|pmid=16107821|s2cid=4398455|language=en|issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free}}</ref> The purpose of biodiversity hotspots is not simply to identify regions that are of high biodiversity value, but to prioritize conservation spending. The regions identified include some in the developed world (e.g. the [[California Floristic Province]]), alongside others in the developing world (e.g. [[Madagascar]]). The cost of land is likely to vary between these regions by an order of magnitude or more, but the biodiversity hotspot designations do not consider the conservation importance of this difference. However, the available resources for conservation also tend to vary in this way.

==See also==
{{div col}}
* {{annotated link|Biodiversity}}
* {{annotated link|Conservation biology}}
* {{annotated link|Crisis ecoregion}}
* {{annotated link|Ecoregion}}
* {{annotated link|Global 200}}
* {{annotated link|Hawaiian honeycreeper conservation}}
* {{annotated link|High-Biodiversity Wilderness Area}}
* {{annotated link|Hope spot}}: biodiversity hotspots in the open sea
* {{annotated link|Key Biodiversity Area}}
* {{annotated link|Megadiverse countries}}
* {{annotated link|Protected area}}
* {{annotated link|Wilderness}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* [https://archive.today/20080521135926/http://publishing.royalsociety.org/biodiversity-hotspots Dedicated issue of ''Philosophical Transactions B'' on Biodiversity Hotspots. Some articles are freely available.]
* Spyros Sfenthourakis, Anastasios Legakis: ''Hotspots of endemic terrestrial invertebrates in Southern Greece''. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}

*[http://www.biodiversitya-z.org/areas/9/ A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Biodiversity Hotspots]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070101130955/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/ Conservation International's Biodiversity Hotspots project]
*[http://www.awdconservancy.org/ African Wild Dog Conservancy's Biodiversity Hotspots Project]
*[http://www.biodiversityofindia.org/index.php?title=Biodiversity_hotspots_in_India Biodiversity hotspots in India]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120926034031/http://savingspecies.org/2012/stunning-new-biodiversity-maps-show-where-to-prioritize-conservation/ New biodiversity maps color-coded to show hotspots]
*[https://zenodo.org/record/3261807#.XXua0ShKh9M Shapefile of the Biodiversity Hotspots (v2016.1)]

{{Biodiversity of South Africa|biohot}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Biodiversity Hotspot}}
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:International environmental organizations]]"
Cave conservation,"'''Cave conservation''' is the protection and restoration of [[cave]]s to prevent or minimise the effects of human activities.

Some caves have delicate features that can be disturbed by changes in light levels, humidity, temperature or air flow.  Caves that have lighting that remains on are prone to having algae grow within the cave changing the appearance and ecology.  [[Speleothems]] grow as a result of water both on cave surfaces and the humidity of the cave air. Changes to these because of a high number of visitors, changes to the cave air flow and changes to the [[hydrology]] will alter speleothem development.

Speleothems can have a slow growth rate and therefore removing them as souvenirs or breakage due to movement within the cave will be visible for a long time, often throughout several generations of human interaction.

The use of [[calcium carbide]] for lamps has led to soot marks and deposits of discarded spent carbide. Using electric lamps avoids these problems.

==Cave conservation by region==

===New Zealand===
The [[New Zealand Speleological Society]] (NZSS), a recreational caving organisation, promotes cave conservation by its members.  The [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] (DoC) is responsible for caves on land under its administration and has developed a management policy for caves and [[karst]]. DoC publish a ""Caving care code"" which is in turn based in part on the caving ethics of NZSS.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/templates/page.aspx?id=38542|title=Minimising your impact - Caving care code|last=DoC|publisher=Department of Conservation|accessdate=2008-10-03}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===

The [[British Cave Research Association]] administers the United Kingdom Cave Conservation Emergency Fund (UKCCEF), a charitable fund for protection of caves and cave features. The aims are:
* To assist in the publication of material intended to promote the conservation of caves and features therein or the conservation of a specific site or group of caves     
* To assist with the physical protection of features within a specific cave or group of caves
* To assist in works designed to maintain access to a cave or part of a cave, but not solely to assist exploration
* To assist in the purchase of land or property where such acquisition is intended to ensure the protection of, or maintenance of access to, a cave or caves.<ref>[http://bcra.org.uk/ukccef/ ukccef info<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

The [[National Caving Association]] has a Cave Conservation Code with the following recommendations:<ref>[http://www.caveinfo.org.uk/nca/canda/concode.htm Conservation Code<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415231401/http://www.caveinfo.org.uk/nca/canda/concode.htm |date=2008-04-15 }}</ref>
*Cave with care and within your abilities
*Keep to marked routes and do not cross conservation tapes and barriers
*Protect cave wildlife and do not disturb bats
*Do not pollute the cave, leave nothing behind
*Archaeological and other remains should not be disturbed
*Do not interfere with scientific equipment
*Set a good example for others to follow
*Avoid touching or damaging formations
*Take nothing but photographs
*Comply with any access requirements
*Respect the rights and privacy of land owners

===United States===
The [[National Speleological Society]] believes:
* Caves have unique scientific, recreational, and scenic values
* These values are endangered by both carelessness and intentional vandalism
* These values, once gone, cannot be recovered
* The responsibility for protecting caves must be formed by those who study and enjoy them. 
* A common phrase on ethical caving: ""Take nothing but pictures, leave nothing but footprints, waste nothing but time.""
Also involved in cave conservation are the:
* [[Butler Cave Conservation Society]]
* [[Cave Research Foundation]]
* [http://scci.org Southeastern Cave Conservancy]

===India===

The [[National Cave Research and Protection Organization]] is formed to protect the caves and explore the caves scientifically to know them better.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Cave conservation}}
*[http://www.ackma.org/ Australasian Cave and Karst Management Association Inc. (ACKMA)] 
*[http://bcra.org.uk/ukccef/ United Kingdom Cave Conservation Emergency Fund]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080513070334/http://cavern.org/acca/accahome.html American Cave Conservation Association]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091104064355/http://www.caves.org/committee/conservation/ National Speleological Society] - cave conservation page
*[http://www.caves.res.in National Cave Research and Protection Organization]
{{Caves}}

{{Subterranea}}

[[Category:Caves]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Buffer zone,"{{about|buffer zones in general|use relating to abortion|Legal protection of access to abortion|the Karachi neighbourhood|Buffer Zone, Karachi}}
{{Short description|Intermediate region, typically between belligerent entities}}
[[File:Cyprus BufferZoneInBlue.png|right|thumb|Map of the [[Cyprus Buffer Zone|current buffer zone in Cyprus]], between the [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]] in the south and the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] in the north]]
[[File:Заграждение, КСП и ДОТ на белорусско-польской границе 01.jpg|right|thumb|Modern buffer zone on the Belarus-Poland border in [[Brest, Belarus|Brest]] with a [[Security alarm#Security electric fence|security electric fence]], a ploughed trace-control strip to show signs of passage, and a [[Pillbox (military)|pillbox]].]]
A '''buffer zone''' is a neutral [[wikt:zone|zonal]] area that lies between two or more bodies of land, usually pertaining to [[country|countries]]. Depending on the type of buffer zone, it may serve to separate regions or conjoin them.
Common types of buffer zones are [[demilitarized zone]]s, [[border zone]]s and certain restrictive easement zones and [[Green Belt|green belts]]. Such zones may be comprised by a sovereign state, forming a [[buffer state]].

Buffer zones have various purposes, politically or otherwise. They can be set up for a multitude of reasons, such as to prevent violence, protect the environment, shield residential and commercial zones from industrial accidents or natural disasters, or even isolate prisons. Buffer zones often result in large uninhabited regions that are themselves noteworthy in many increasingly developed or crowded parts of the world.{{examples|date=October 2013}}

== Conservation ==
[[File:Lake Hiawatha shoreline restoration sign.jpg|thumb|Sign marking the buffer zone of a habitat restoration project at [[Lake Hiawatha]] in Minneapolis, Minnesota.]]
For use in nature conservation, a buffer zone is often created to enhance the protection of areas under management for their [[biodiversity]] importance. The buffer zone of a [[protected area]] may be situated around the periphery of the region or may be a connecting zone within it that links two or more protected areas, therefore increasing their dynamics and conservation productivity. A buffer zone can also be one of the [[IUCN Protected Area Management Categories|protected area categories]] (e.g. category V or VI of IUCN Protected Area) or a classification scheme (e.g. NATURA 2000) depending on the conservation objective.<ref>[http://www.biodiversitya-z.org/areas/10/ A–Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Buffer Zones]</ref> The term 'buffer zone' initially gained prominence in the conservation of natural and cultural heritage through its usage in the establishment of [[UNESCO]]'s World Heritage Convention, and the term was intended to be used as follows:

{{cquote|A buffer zone serves to provide an additional layer of protection to a [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage property]]. The concept of a buffer zone was first included in the ''Operational Guidelines for the implementation of the World Heritage Convention'' in 1977. In the most current version of the ''Operational Guidelines'' of 2005 the inclusion of a buffer zone into a nomination of a site to the World Heritage List is strongly recommended but not mandatory.|cquote}}
—[[World Heritage Convention]]<ref>{{cite web
|url= https://whc.unesco.org/en/events/473/
|title= International Expert meeting on World Heritage and buffer zones
|access-date= 24 Nov 2010
|publisher= [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Convention]]
|quote= Background and contents
}}</ref>

The buffer zone is one of the [[Best management practice for water pollution|Best Management Practices]] (BMPs). A buffer zone is intended to avert the effect of negative environmental or human influences, whether or not it embodies natural or cultural value itself.<ref>Martin, Oliver, and Piatti, Giovanna (ed.) ''World Heritage and Buffer Zones'', International Expert Meeting on World Heritage and Buffer Zones Davos, Switzerland 11 – 14 March 2008 (Paris: UNESCO, 2009)</ref> The importance and function of a buffer zone and the necessary protective measures derived thereof is a relatively new concept in conservation science and can differ greatly for each site.<ref>Ebregt, Arthur and de Greve, Pol, ''Buffer Zones and their Management: Policy and Best Practices for Terrestrial Ecosystems in Developing Countries'' (Wageningen: Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2000)</ref>

== Ecological functions of conservation ==

=== Water quality improvement ===
The [[water quality|quality of surface water]] in many countries is getting worse due to the misuse of land.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=S. R .|last2=Caraco |first2=N. F. |last3=Correll |first3=D. L. |last4=Howarth |first4=R. W. |last5=Sharpley |first5=A. N. |last6=Smith |first6=V. H. |date=August 1998 |title=Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=559 |doi=10.2307/2641247 |issn=1051-0761 |jstor=2641247|hdl=1813/60811|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/60811/1/Carpenter_et_al-1998-Ecological_Applications.pdf|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Although the buffer zone occupies a small area, it greatly improves the quality of water in the agricultural [[wikt:drainage basin|watershed]] due to its filtering effect on nutrients in the underground water and surface water.

Because farmland is sprayed with large amounts of pesticides, some of which can seep into surface water, fish and other aquatic life can be negatively affected, which in turn can lead to environmental damage. Vegetation buffer has been proved to be an effective filter for sediment, especially for sediment-bound pesticides.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Syversen|first1=Nina|last2=Bechmann|first2=Marianne|date=May 2004|title=Vegetative buffer zones as pesticide filters for simulated surface runoff|journal=Ecological Engineering|volume=22|issue=3|pages=175–184|doi=10.1016/j.ecoleng.2004.05.002|issn=0925-8574}}</ref> When pesticides are sprayed in excess, a vegetation buffer can be built to reduce the penetration of pesticides into surface water. The buffer zone also prevents heavy metals or toxins from spreading to [[protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Deroanne-Bauvin|first1=J|last2=Delcarte|first2=E|last3=Impens|first3=R|date=January 1987|title=Monitoring of lead deposition near highway: A ten years study|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=59|pages=257–266|doi=10.1016/0048-9697(87)90447-5|bibcode=1987ScTEn..59..257D|issn=0048-9697}}</ref>

=== Riverbank stabilization ===
When riverbanks are low due to plant roots entering the interior of the riverbank vertically, the sediment of riverbank is affected by the action of said plant roots, and the ability to resist erosion is higher than that without plant roots. But when the riverbanks are higher, the roots of the plants do not penetrate deeply into the soil, and the lakeshore soil is not very strong. Herbaceous plants can play a role to some extent, but in the long term, vegetation buffer zone can effectively solve the problem of water level rise and water erosion.

The adsorption capacity of a buffer zone can reduce the speed of [[surface runoff]] and increase the effective water content of soil. Through increasing [[soil organic matter]] content and improving soil structure, a buffer zone can have a positive effect on soil water storage performance. In addition, plant roots make the soil stronger, withstand waves and rainstorm, mitigate the erosion of riverbanks by [[flood]]s, and effectively control the erosion of the beach.

=== Wildlife food and habitat ===
[[File:Riparian buffer on Bear Creek in Story County, Iowa.JPG|thumb|upright|A riparian buffer in Story County, Iowa, protecting a creek]]

[[Riparian buffer]] zones have been used in many areas to protect the habitats of many animals which are being devastated by increased human activity. The areas around the buffer zone can form the habitat of many animals, and plants can become food for small [[aquatic animal]]s. The buffer zone itself can also support the life activities of various [[amphibian]]s and [[bird]]s. Plants and animals can [[migration (ecology)|migrate]] or spread in response to these buffer zones, thus increasing the [[biodiversity]] in the area.

A 1998 study shows that the species and number of animals and plants in riparian zones are higher than in other ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sturtevant|first=Brian R |date=October 1998 |title=A model of wetland vegetation dynamics in simulated beaver impoundments |journal=Ecological Modelling |volume=112 |issue=2–3 |pages=195–225 |doi=10.1016/s0304-3800(98)00079-9 |issn=0304-3800}}</ref> Because of their ability to provide abundant water, soft soil and stable climate, small animals such as ''[[Mouse-eared bat|Myotis]]'' and ''[[Marten|Martes]]'' prefer to live along riverbanks rather than in hilly areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doyle |first=A. T. |date=1990-02-20 |title=Use of Riparian and Upland Habitats by Small Mammals |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=14–23 |doi=10.2307/1381312 |issn=1545-1542 |jstor=1381312}}</ref> The buffer zone can also provide a good environment for upland habitat, which is in line with the living conditions of freshwater [[turtle]]s, making them more dependent on the wetland environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burke |first1=Vincent J. |last2=Gibbons |first2=J. Whitfield |date=December 1995|title=Terrestrial Buffer Zones and Wetland Conservation: A Case Study of Freshwater Turtles in a Carolina Bay|journal=Conservation Biology |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=1365–1369 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09061365.x |bibcode=1995ConBi...9.1365B |issn=0888-8892}}</ref> The protection level of the buffer zones will affect the habitat range of amphibians and [[reptile]]s, and the environmental management of the wetland habitat around buffer zone is extremely important.

=== Providing aesthetic value ===
As an important part of riparian zone, the vegetation buffer zones form a variety of [[landscape]], and the landscape pattern of combining land and water improves the aesthetic value of river basin landscape. The riparian buffer is rich in plant resources, and the wetland, grassland and forest ecosystem make the landscape more beautiful. In addition, some recreational facilities can be built in the buffer zone to provide better living conditions for residents or tourists and improve people's quality of life.

In the buffer zone, trees up to 6 meters tall greatly enhance the aesthetic value of the landscape.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Borin |first1=Maurizio |last2=Passoni |first2=Matteo |last3=Thiene |first3=Mara |last4=Tempesta |first4=Tiziano |date=January 2010 |title=Multiple functions of buffer strips in farming areas |journal=European Journal of Agronomy |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=103–111 |doi=10.1016/j.eja.2009.05.003 |issn=1161-0301}}</ref> These tall trees have luxuriant branches and leaves, especially their upright posture, making them of higher ornamental value. Some colorful landscape tree species can be planted on both sides of rivers with tourism and sightseeing value to improve the aesthetic value of the place. The establishment of vegetation in the buffer zone can increase green land, improve [[forest cover]]age, beautify the environment and visual effect, improve people's living environment, enrich humanistic landscape, and enhance aesthetic value. By emphasizing the importance of the buffer zone, local residents can be encouraged to participate in the protection and management of the buffer zone, and set up checkpoints around the buffer zone to make it more secure and effective.

==See also==
* [[Buffer state]]
* [[Buffer strip]]
* [[Demilitarized zone]] (DMZ)
* [[European Green Belt]]
* [[March (territory)|March]]
* [[Seam Zone]]
* [[Shatter belt (geopolitics)]]
* [[United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links==
*{{cite web
 |url         = https://www.theidioms.com/buffer-zone/
 |title       = Buffer Zone
 |access-date  = 28 Sep 2020
 |date        = November 28–29, 2006
 |work        = Theidioms.com
 |publisher   = The Idioms Dictionary
}}
*{{cite web
|url= https://whc.unesco.org/documents/publi_wh_papers_25.pdf
|title= World Heritage and Buffer Zones Patrimoine mondial et zones tampons
|access-date= 24 Nov 2010
|format= PDF/Adobe Acrobat 3.76 MB
|work= International Expert Meeting on World Heritage and Buffer Zones, Davos, Switzerland 11–14 March 2008
|publisher= World Heritage Centre
|quote= Buffer zones are an important tool for conservation of properties inscribed on the World Heritage List. All along the history of implementation of the World Heritage Convention, the protection of the “surroundings” of the inscribed properties was considered an essential component of the conservation strategy, for cultural and natural sites alike.
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Buffer Zone}}
[[Category:Political terminology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Borders]]"
Common species,"{{About|an ecological term||Common (disambiguation)}}

'''Common species''' and '''uncommon species''' are designations used in [[ecology]] to describe the population status of a species.  Commonness is closely related to [[abundance (ecology)|abundance]].  Abundance refers to the frequency with which a species is found in controlled samples; in contrast, species are defined as common or uncommon based on their overall presence in the environment.  A species may be locally abundant without being common.

However, ""common"" and ""uncommon"" are also sometimes used to describe levels of abundance, with a common species being less abundant than an abundant species, while an uncommon species is more abundant than a rare species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/birds/stcroix/methods.htm|work=Birds of the St. Croix River Valley: Minnesota and Wisconsin|title=Methods, Terminology, and Nomenclature|author=Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center|accessdate=2006-12-31|year=2006|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061222235623/http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/birds/stcroix/methods.htm|archivedate=2006-12-22}}</ref>

Common species are frequently regarded as being at low risk of extinction simply because they exist in large numbers, and hence their conservation status is often overlooked. While this is broadly logical, there are several cases of once common species being driven to extinction such as the [[passenger pigeon]] and the [[Rocky Mountain locust]], which numbered in the billions and trillions respectively before their demise. Moreover, a small proportional decline in a common species results in the loss of a large number of individuals, and the contribution to ecosystem function that those individuals represented. A recent paper argued that because common species shape ecosystems, contribute disproportionately to ecosystem functioning, and can show rapid population declines, conservation should look more closely at how the trade-off between species extinctions and the depletion of populations.<ref name=gaston>Gaston, K.J. & Fuller, R.A. 2008. Commonness, population depletion and conservation biology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 23, 14-19. {{doi|10.1016/j.tree.2007.11.001}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Rare species]]
*[[Abundance (ecology)]]

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Ecology terminology]]"
Marxan,"[[File:Marxan logo.jpg|thumb|Marxan logo]]
'''MARXAN''' is a family of software designed to aid systematic [[Nature reserve|reserve]] design on [[Conservation biology|conservation]] planning. With the use of stochastic optimisation routines ([[Simulated Annealing]]) Marxan generates spatial reserve systems that achieve particular biodiversity representation goals with reasonable optimality. Over the years, Marxan has grown from its standard two zone application to consider more complex challenges like incorporating connectivity, probabilities and multiple zones. Along the way, Marxan’s user community has also built plug-ins and interfaces to assist with planning projects.

Computationally, Marxan provides solutions to a conservation version of the 0-1 [[knapsack problem]], where the objects of interest are potential reserve sites with given biological attributes. The simulated annealing algorithm attempts to minimise the total cost of the reserve system, while achieving a set of conservation goals (typically that a certain percentage of each geographical/biological feature is represented by the reserve system).

== History ==
Marxan is a portmanteau acronym, fusing '''MAR'''ine, and SPE'''XAN''', itself an acronym for '''SP'''atially '''EX'''plicit '''AN'''nealing. It was a product of Ian R. Ball's PhD thesis, while he was a student at the [[University of Adelaide]] in 2000, and was supervised and funded by Professor [[Hugh Possingham]], the state of Queensland's (Australia) current Chief Scientist who holds a [[Federation Fellowship]] at the [[University of Queensland]]. It was an extension of the existing SPEXAN program.

In 2018, the vision of “Democratizing Marxan” began. Through the [https://biopama.org/ Biodiversity and Protected Areas Management programme (BIOPAMA)], funded by the European Union, the Joint Research Centre worked closely with The Nature Conservancy to prototype a web-based Marxan platform that improves accessibility to non-experts and supports our common vision of providing accessible tools for evidence-based conservation planning. This led to a partnership with Microsoft in 2020, which aims to scale Marxan’s infrastructure for global accessibility and empowering users with the tools and data they need to make smarter decisions for the planet. In late 2020 and early 2021 Microsoft's Azure Quantum team made [https://cloudblogs.microsoft.com/quantum/2021/03/09/modernizing-conservation-planning-software-for-broader-global-impact/#:~:text=Using%20techniques%20inspired%20by%20quantum%20methods%2C%20the%20Azure,the%20conservation%20planning%20space%3A%20The%20Marxan%20planning%20engine. several open source contributions to Marxan] resulting in increased performance when running on multi-core machines and cloud environments. The resulting [https://github.com/Marxan-source-code/marxan version 4 of Marxan] is now available from [https://marxansolutions.org/ marxansolutions.org].

== Applications ==
[[File:Image for website.png|thumb|Example Marxan outputs - selection frequency (the summed solution of each planning unit across all runs in a Marxan analysis). Figure 7 from McGowan et al. 2013,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McGowan J, Hines E, Elliott M, Howar J, Dransfield A, Nur N, Jahncke J | title = Using seabird habitat modeling to inform marine spatial planning in central California's National Marine Sanctuaries | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = e71406 | date = 2013-08-13 | pmid = 23967206 | pmc = 3742767 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0071406 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...871406M | doi-access = free }}</ref> a comparison of Marxan results prioritizing conservation of seabird habitat alone (scenario 1) and with the inclusion of human activities (scenario 2), shown by the cell selection frequency for 10, 30, and 50% conservation targets.]]
MARXAN is the most widely used systematic reserve planning software in the world,<ref>Ball, I. R., Possingham, H. P., & Watts, M. E. (2009). Marxan and relatives: Software for spatial conservation prioritization. In A. Moilanen, K. A. Wilson, & H. P. Possingham (Eds.), Spatial conservation prioritisation: Quantitative methods and computational tools (pp. 185–210). Oxford University Press.</ref> and has been used to create the marine reserve network on the [[Great Barrier Reef]], in [[Queensland]], [[Australia]], the largest marine protected area in the world.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Environment News Service | work = International Daily Newswire | date = 2004 | title = Fish Boats Barred From One-Third of Great Barrier Reef | url = http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jul2004/2004-07-01-06.asp | access-date = 28 May 2006 }}</ref> It has been used for many other marine and terrestrial reserve planning applications.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ecology.uq.edu.au/index.html?page=29781 | title = Ecology Centre MARXAN Homepage }}</ref>

* [[Channel Islands of California]]<ref>Airame S. 2005. Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary: advancing the science and policy of marine protected areas. In: A Scholz and D Wright (Eds). ''Place matters: geospatial tools for marine science, conservation, and management in the Pacific Northwest''. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press.</ref>
* [[Gulf of Mexico]]<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Chatwin A, Huggins A, Kramer P, Wear S, Zenny N, Jeo R | chapter = The greater Caribbean marine ecoregional assessment. Chapter IV. 1. Part IV: conservation initiatives in the Caribbean. Caribbean marine biodiversity: the known and the unknown. | veditors = Miloslavich P, Klein E | title = Census of Marine Life Caribbean. | publisher = DEStech Publications Inc. | location = Lancaster | date = 2005 | pages = 293–8 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060523043432/http://www.intecmar.usb.ve/CoMLCaribbean/Summaries/summary_TNC.htm | archive-date = 2006-05-23 | chapter-url = http://www.intecmar.usb.ve/CoMLCaribbean/Summaries/summary_TNC.htm }}</ref>
* [[Galapagos Islands]]
* [[South Australia]]<ref>{{cite web |title = Selection Frequencies of Cells in the Australian South-East Marine Region |url = http://www.marine.csiro.au/nddq/ndd_search.Browse_Citation?txtSession=184 |work = Neptune - the National Oceans Office Data Directory   |archive-url=https://archive.today/20041222042932/http://www.marine.csiro.au/nddq/ndd_search.Browse_Citation?txtSession=184 |archive-date=22 December 2004 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[British Columbia]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA57.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181925/http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA57.htm | archive-date = 3 March 2016 | title = Using Computer Software To Design Marine Reserve Networks: Planners Discuss Their Use Of Marxan | work =  MPA News }}</ref>
* [[Connecticut]]/[[New York (state)|New York]]
* [[Central Coast of California]]
* [[Baltic Sea]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Helsinki Commission. | title = Towards an ecologically coherent network of well-managed Marine Protected Areas–Implementation report on the status and ecological coherence of the HELCOM BSPA network. | journal =  Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings B | date = 2010 | volume = 124A | page = 147 | url = http://www.helcom.fi/stc/files/Publications/Proceedings/bsep124A.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110717130731/http://www.helcom.fi/stc/files/Publications/Proceedings/bsep124A.pdf | archive-date=2011-07-17 }}</ref>
Beyond protected area network design, MARXAN has been applied to hundreds of conservation planning challenges, from designing optimal poaching patrols for game reserves and identifying where to conserve essential ecosystem services, to helping with transboundary ocean planning and understanding where transnational collaborations might best be prioritized to achieve conservation goals. While it would be almost impossible to list all of MARXAN's applications, here are a few examples beyond protected area network design. For software specific examples, see the Software section.

* '''Restoration activities''' in the Atlantic Forest, Brazil,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Crouzeilles R, Beyer HL, Mills M, Grelle CE, Possingham HP |date=2015|title=Incorporating habitat availability into systematic planning for restoration: a species-specific approach for Atlantic Forest mammals |journal=Diversity and Distributions|language=en|volume=21|issue=9|pages=1027–1037|doi=10.1111/ddi.12349|issn=1472-4642|doi-access=free}}</ref> in the Yucatan Peninsula in the Mexican Caribbean,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Adame MF, Hermoso V, Perhans K, Lovelock CE, Herrera-Silveira JA | title = Selecting cost-effective areas for restoration of ecosystem services | language = es | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 493–502 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25199996 | doi = 10.1111/cobi.12391 | hdl = 10072/124929 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> in the Murray–Darling Basin in South Australia,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Jellinek S |date=2017|title=Using prioritisation tools to strategically restore vegetation communities in fragmented agricultural landscapes |journal=Ecological Management & Restoration|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=45–53|doi=10.1111/emr.12224|issn=1442-8903|hdl=11343/291727|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and southwestern Alberta, Canada<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Braid AC, Nielsen SE | title = Prioritizing Sites for Protection and Restoration for Grizzly Bears (Ursus arctos) in Southwestern Alberta, Canada | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 7 | pages = e0132501 | date = 2015-07-13 | pmid = 26168055 | pmc = 4500459 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0132501 | bibcode = 2015PLoSO..1032501B | doi-access = free }}</ref> 
* '''Provision of ecosystem services''' in Central Coast ecoregion of California, United States,<ref name=""pmid17076586""/> Telemark in southern Norway,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schröter M, Remme RP | title = Spatial prioritisation for conserving ecosystem services: comparing hotspots with heuristic optimisation | journal = Landscape Ecology | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 431–450 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26843784 | pmc = 4722056 | doi = 10.1007/s10980-015-0258-5 }}</ref> and Vermont, United States<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Watson KB, Galford GL, Sonter LJ, Koh I, Ricketts TH | title = Effects of human demand on conservation planning for biodiversity and ecosystem services | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 33 | issue = 4 | pages = 942–952 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 30614054 | pmc = 6850574 | doi = 10.1111/cobi.13276 }}</ref>
* '''Understanding trade-offs''' between competing objectives in the Andes of Bolivia,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fastré C, Possingham HP, Strubbe D, Matthysen E | title = Identifying trade-offs between biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services delivery for land-use decisions | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 7971 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32409694 | pmc = 7224365 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-020-64668-z | bibcode = 2020NatSR..10.7971F }}</ref> and Central Kalimantan, Indonesia<ref name = ""Law_2017"">{{cite journal| vauthors = Law EA, Bryan BA, Meijaard E, Mallawaarachchi T, Struebig MJ, Watts ME, Wilson KA |date=2017|title=Mixed policies give more options in multifunctional tropical forest landscapes |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|language=en|volume=54|issue=1|pages=51–60|doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12666|issn=1365-2664|doi-access=free|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30102070|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
*'''Identifying management priorities''' in the Danube River Basin, Europe,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Domisch S, Kakouei K, Martínez-López J, Bagstad KJ, Magrach A, Balbi S, Villa F, Funk A, Hein T, Borgwardt F, Hermoso V, Jähnig SC, Langhans SD | display-authors = 6 | title = Social equity shapes zone-selection: Balancing aquatic biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services delivery in the transboundary Danube River Basin | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 656 | pages = 797–807 | date = March 2019 | pmid = 30530149 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.348 | bibcode = 2019ScTEn.656..797D | doi-access = free | hdl = 10810/44159 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> and South Africa's grassland biome<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Egoh BN, Reyers B, Rouget M, Richardson DM | title = Identifying priority areas for ecosystem service management in South African grasslands | journal = Journal of Environmental Management | volume = 92 | issue = 6 | pages = 1642–50 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21334134 | doi = 10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.01.019 | hdl = 2263/15971 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
*'''Law enforcement activities''' in the Greater Virunga Landscape, in central Africa,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Plumptre AJ, Fuller RA, Rwetsiba A, Wanyama F, Kujirakwinja D, Driciru M, Nangendo G, Watson JE, Possingham HP | display-authors = 6 |date=2014|title=Efficiently targeting resources to deter illegal activities in protected areas |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|language=en|volume=51|issue=3|pages=714–725|doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12227|issn=1365-2664|doi-access=free}}</ref> and the Patos Lagoon estuary along the Brazilian coast<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Duarte de Paula Costa M, Mills M, Richardson AJ, Fuller RA, Muelbert JH, Possingham HP | title = Efficiently enforcing artisanal fisheries to protect estuarine biodiversity | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 28 | issue = 6 | pages = 1450–1458 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 29944185 | doi = 10.1002/eap.1744 | url = https://eprints.utas.edu.au/30081/1/131775%20-%20Efficiently%20enforcing%20artisanal%20fisheries%20to%20protect%20estuarine%20biodiversity.pdf }}</ref>

MARXAN has been used extensively by [[The Nature Conservancy]], and is a major part of the systematic planning tools being used in the Global Marine Initiative. The [[World Wildlife Fund]] used MARXAN to define a Global set of Marine Protected Areas, the ''Roadmap to Recovery'', which they used to petition the UN about the creation of open ocean marine reserve networks.

The software has also been used in terrestrial applications, such as:
* The North American [[Wildlands Project]].
* Selecting priority areas for Global Mammal Assemblages.<ref name=""pmid16040704"">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Soberón J, Salazar I, Fay JP | title = Global mammal conservation: what must we manage? | journal = Science | volume = 309 | issue = 5734 | pages = 603–7 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 16040704 | doi = 10.1126/science.1114015 | bibcode = 2005Sci...309..603C | s2cid = 44377512 }}</ref>
* Planning the conservation of [[ecosystem services]].<ref name=""pmid17076586"">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chan KM, Shaw MR, Cameron DR, Underwood EC, Daily GC | title = Conservation planning for ecosystem services | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 4 | issue = 11 | pages = e379 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17076586 | pmc = 1629036 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0040379 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* The Great Sand Hills of Saskatchewan Regional Environmental Study <ref>{{cite web | title = Great Sand Hills Environmental Study | url = http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca/Default.aspx?DN=8663b7a6-5eb3-4e0b-b59b-0a0c81fdbc9f | work = The Government of Saskatchewan |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080729080500/http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca/Default.aspx?DN=8663b7a6-5eb3-4e0b-b59b-0a0c81fdbc9f|archive-date = 2008-07-29}}</ref>

== Software ==
=== Marxan ===
Marxan is the most widely used decision-support software for conservation planning globally, and has been used to build marine and terrestrial conservation systems covering approximately 5% of the Earth’s surface. Marxan supports the design of cost-efficient networks that meet conservation targets for biodiversity.

=== Marxan with Zones ===
Marxan with Zones has the same functionality as Marxan but extends on the range of problems the software can solve and allows for the incorporation of multiple costs and zones into a systematic planning framework. Applications could be zoning for marine protected areas with various protection levels or landscapes that balance agriculture, biodiversity protection, and sustainable forestry zones. Marxan with Zones assigns each planning unit in a study region to a particular zone in order to meet a number of ecological, social and economic objectives at a minimum total cost.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Watts ME, Ball IR, Stewart RS, Klein CJ, Wilson K, Steinback C, Lourival R, Kircher L, Possingham HP | display-authors = 6 |date=2009-12-01|title=Marxan with Zones: Software for optimal conservation based land- and sea-use zoning |journal=Environmental Modelling & Software|language=en|volume=24|issue=12|pages=1513–1521|doi=10.1016/j.envsoft.2009.06.005|issn=1364-8152 }}</ref> Some example locations where it has been used to inform decisions includes Raja Ampat, Indonesia,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Grantham HS, Agostini VN, Wilson J, Magubhai S, Hidayat N, Muljadi A, Muhajir RC, Mongdong M, Beck MW, Possingham HP | display-authors = 6 |date=2013-03-01|title=A comparison of zoning analyses to inform the planning of a marine protected area network in Raja Ampat, Indonesia |journal=Marine Policy|language=en|volume=38|pages=184–194|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2012.05.035|issn=0308-597X }}</ref> Tun Mustapha Park in Sabah, Malaysia,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Jumin R, Binson A, McGowan J, Magupin S, Beger M, Brown CJ, Possingham HP, Klein C |date=October 2018|title=From Marxan to management: ocean zoning with stakeholders for Tun Mustapha Park in Sabah, Malaysia |journal=Oryx|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=775–786|doi=10.1017/S0030605316001514|issn=0030-6053|doi-access=free}}</ref> Central Kalimantan, Indonesia,<ref name = ""Law_2017"" /> and Indonesian Borneo.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Venter O, Possingham HP, Hovani L, Dewi S, Griscom B, Paoli G, Wells P, Wilson KA |date=2013|title=Using systematic conservation planning to minimize REDD+ conflict with agriculture and logging in the tropics |journal=Conservation Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=116–124|doi=10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00287.x |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Marxan with Connectivity ===
Marxan with Connectivity is an extension of the Marxan software family that allows for more sophisticated connectivity considerations in spatial planning. For example, sites may be connected through processes such as larval dispersal, animal migrations, and genetic flows which are desirable objectives in conservation plans. Marxan with Connectivity has been applied in freshwater, marine, terrestrial and land-sea systems to conserve sites that may be spatially distanced but ecologically connected. Some examples include planning for threatened loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the Mediterranean,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Mazor T, Beger M, McGowan J, Possingham HP, Kark S |date=2016|title=The value of migration information for conservation prioritization of sea turtles in the Mediterranean |journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|language=en|volume=25|issue=5|pages=540–552|doi=10.1111/geb.12434|issn=1466-8238|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/105068/1/Mazor%20et%20al.pdf}}</ref> and accounting for river connectivity in the Guadiana River basin in the southwestern Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Hermoso V, Linke S, Prenda J, Possingham HP |date=2011|title=Addressing longitudinal connectivity in the systematic conservation planning of fresh waters | journal=Freshwater Biology|language=en|volume=56|issue=1|pages=57–70|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02390.x|issn=1365-2427|hdl=10272/4384|hdl-access=free}}</ref> It has been recently operationalized through ‘Marxan Connect’ - a new open source, open access Graphical User Interface (GUI) tool designed to assist conservation planners with the appropriate use of data on ecological connectivity in protected area network planning.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Daigle RM, Metaxas A, Balbar AC, McGowan J, Treml EA, Kuempel CD, Possingham HP, Beger M |date=2020|title=Operationalizing ecological connectivity in spatial conservation planning with Marxan Connect |journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=570–579|doi=10.1111/2041-210X.13349|issn=2041-210X|doi-access=free|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30135307|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

=== Marxan with Probability ===
Marxan with Probability (MarProb) is Marxan with an additional objective function term that incorporates the probability of a site being destroyed at some point in the future. This function helps plan for persistence in protected area networks (see Game et al. 2008<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Game ET, Watts ME, Wooldridge S, Possingham HP | title = Planning for persistence in marine reserves: a question of catastrophic importance | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 670–80 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18488626 | doi = 10.1890/07-1027.1 | url = https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:161584/UQ161584_OA.pdf }}</ref>). Some examples where it has been used includes planning for Iberian herptile conservation while accounting for uncertainty in their predicted distributions due to climate change,<ref>{{cite journal|date=2011-07-01|title=Conservation planning under climate change: Toward accounting for uncertainty in predicted species distributions to increase confidence in conservation investments in space and time |journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=144|issue=7|pages=2020–2030|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2011.04.024|issn=0006-3207| vauthors = Carvalho SB, Brito JC, Crespo EG, Watts ME, Possingham HP }}</ref> and accounting for the inherent uncertainty associated with coral reef habitat maps in conservation planning, in the Kubulau District fisheries management area, Fiji.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2013-06-01|title=Incorporating uncertainty associated with habitat data in marine reserve design |journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=162|pages=41–51|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2013.03.003|issn=0006-3207| vauthors = Tulloch VJ, Possingham HP, Jupiter SD, Roelfsema C, Tulloch AI, Klein CJ |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:306560/UQ306560OA.pdf }}</ref>

=== Companion Tools ===

==== Zonae Cogito ====
Zonae Cogito is a freely available software package that help manage and visualise Marxan projects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Segan DB, Game ET, Watts ME, Stewart RR, Possingham HP |date=2011-12-01|title=An interoperable decision support tool for conservation planning |journal=Environmental Modelling & Software|language=en|volume=26|issue=12|pages=1434–1441|doi=10.1016/j.envsoft.2011.08.002|issn=1364-8152 |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:265709/UQ265709_OA.pdf}}</ref> The interface streamlines and simplifies the development and evaluation of alternative planning scenarios, allows direct editing to input files, calibrates parameters, and helps users easily access important output files for evaluation.

==== CLUZ ====
CLUZ (Conservation Land-Use Zoning software) is a QGIS plug-in that allows users to design protected area networks and other conservation landscapes and seascapes.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Smith R |date=2019-01-31|title=The CLUZ plugin for QGIS: designing conservation area systems and other ecological networks |journal=Research Ideas and Outcomes|language=en|volume=5|pages=e33510|doi=10.3897/rio.5.e33510|issn=2367-7163|doi-access=free}}</ref> It can be used for on-screen planning and also acts as a link for the Marxan conservation planning software. It was developed by Bob Smith and funded by the UK Government’s Darwin Initiative.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.darwininitiative.org.uk/ | title = Darwin Initiative | work = UK Government }}</ref>

==== Marxan toolboxes ====
Helpful tools developed by Trevor Wiens from Apropos Information Systems are available for both ArcGIS and QGIS users.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://qgis.org/en/site/forusers/download.html | title = Open Source Desktop GIS | work = qgis.org }}</ref>

==== Prioritizr ====
Systematic Conservation Prioritization in [[R (programming language)|R]] – The prioritizr R package<ref>{{cite web | url = https://github.com/prioritizr/prioritizr | title = prioritizr R package | work = GitHub | date = 11 May 2021 }}</ref> uses integer linear programming (ILP) techniques to provide a flexible interface for building and solving conservation planning problems. It supports a broad range of objectives, constraints, and penalties that can be used to custom-tailor conservation planning problems to the specific needs of a conservation planning exercise. Once built, conservation planning problems can be solved using a variety of commercial and open-source exact algorithm solvers. In contrast to the algorithms conventionally used to solve conservation problems, such as heuristics or simulated annealing, the exact algorithms used here are guaranteed to find optimal solutions. Furthermore, conservation problems can be constructed to optimize the spatial allocation of different management actions or zones, meaning that conservation practitioners can identify solutions that benefit multiple stakeholders. Finally, this package has the functionality to read input data formatted for the ''Marxan'' conservation planning program, and find much cheaper solutions in a much shorter period of time than ''Marxan''.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web | url = https://marxansolutions.org/ | title = MARXAN Homepage, information and download }}
* {{cite web | url = http://pacmara.org/tikiwiki/tiki-index.php?page=Marxan+Resources+and+Training | title = Marxan resources and training materials, PacMARA Marxan course information }}
* {{cite web | url = http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA57.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181925/http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA57.htm | archive-date = 3 March 2016 | title = Using Computer Software To Design Marine Reserve Networks: Planners Discuss Their Use Of Marxan | work =  MPA News }}
* {{cite report | vauthors = Gordon SN, Johnson KN, Reynolds KM, Crist P, Brown N | title = Decision support systems for forest biodiversity evaluation of current systems and future needs. Final Report-Project A-10 | publisher = National Commission on Science and Sustainable Forestry. | url = http://ncseonline.org/NCSSF/DSS/Documents/search/detail.cfm?key=MARXAN | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927215653/http://ncseonline.org/NCSSF/DSS/Documents/search/detail.cfm?key=MARXAN | archive-date = 2007-09-27 }}
{{Conservation of species}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Decision support systems]]
[[Category:Protected areas]]"
Debt-for-nature swap,"'''Debt-for-nature swaps''' are financial transactions in which a portion of a [[developing nation]]'s foreign debt is forgiven in exchange for local investments in environmental conservation measures.

==History==
The debt-for-nature swaps concept was first given birth by [[Thomas Lovejoy]] of the [[World Wildlife Fund]] in 1987 as an opportunity to deal with the problems of developing-nation indebtedness and its consequent deleterious effect on the environment.<ref name=Visser>{{cite journal |last1=Visser |first1=Dana R. |first2=Guillermo A. |last2=Mendoza |year=1994 |title=Debt-for-Nature Swaps in Latin America |journal=Journal of Forestry |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=13–6 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/openurl?genre=article&issn=0022-1201&volume=92&issue=6&spage=13&epage=16&aulast=Visser }}</ref> In the wake of the [[Latin American debt crisis]] that resulted in steep reductions to the environmental conservation ability of highly indebted nations, Lovejoy suggested that ameliorating debt and promoting conservation could be done at the same time. Since the first swap occurred between [[Conservation International]] and Bolivia in 1987, many national governments and conservation organizations have engaged in debt-for-nature swaps. Most swaps occur in tropical countries, which contain many [[biodiversity|diverse species]] of flora and fauna.<ref name=Reilly>{{cite book |last1=Reilly |first1=William |year=2006 |chapter=Using International Finance to Further Conservation: The First 15 Years of Debt-for-Nature Swaps |pages=197–214 |chapter-url={{Google books|HuPwt987R7gC|page=197|plainurl=yes}} |title=Sovereign Debt at the Crossroads: Challenges and Proposals for Resolving the Third World Debt Crisis |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor1-first=Chris |editor1-last=Jochnick |editor2-first=Fraser A. |editor2-last=Preston |isbn=978-0-19-803752-1 }}</ref> Also, countries that have engaged in debt-for-nature swaps typically have several threatened or endangered species, experience rapid [[deforestation]], and have relatively stable, often democratic, political systems.<ref name=Deacon>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/3147074 |jstor=3147074 |title=The Structure of an Environmental Transaction: The Debt-for-Nature Swap |journal=Land Economics |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |year=1997 |last1=Deacon |first1=Robert T |last2=Murphy |first2=Paul }}</ref> Since 1987, debt-for-nature agreements have generated over US$1 billion for conservation in developing countries.<ref name=Sheikh>{{cite web |first=Pervaze A. |last=Sheikh |date=March 30, 2010 |title=Debt-for-Nature Initiatives and the Tropical Forest Conservation Act: Status and Implementation |url=https://www.cbd.int/financial/debtnature/g-inventory2010.pdf |publisher=Congressional Research Service }}</ref>

==Process==
The financing mechanism for debt-for-nature swaps is an agreement among the funder(s), the national government of the debtor country, and the conservation organization(s) using the funds.  The national government of the indebted country agrees to a payment schedule on the amount of the debt forgiven, usually paid through the nation’s central bank, in local currency or ponds. The process is shown in Figure 1.
Participation in debt-for-nature swaps has been restricted primarily to countries where the risk of default on debt payments is high.<ref name=Greiner>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2006.07.001 |title=Supporting on-farm biodiversity conservation through debt-for-conservation swaps: Concept and critique |journal=Land Use Policy |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=458–71 |year=2007 |last1=Greiner |first1=Romy |last2=Lankester |first2=Allyson }}</ref> In these circumstances, the funder can purchase the debt at well below its [[face value]].
[[File:Debt-for-nature.png|thumb|Figure 1: The general mechanics of a debt-for-nature swap.]]

==Types==
In a '''commercial debt-for-nature swap''' or '''three-party debt-for-nature swap''', a [[non-governmental organization]] (NGO) acts as the funder/donor and purchases debt titles from commercial banks on the [[secondary market]]. Since the late 1980s, organizations such as [[Conservation International]], [[The Nature Conservancy]], and the [[World Wildlife Fund]] have participated in international debt-for-nature swaps. The NGO transfers the debt title to the debtor country, and in exchange the country agrees to either enact certain environmental policies or endow a government bond in the name of a conservation organization, with the aim of funding conservation programs. In total, recorded third-party debt-for-nature swaps have generated nearly US$140 million in conservation funding from 1987-2010 (see Table 1).<ref name=Sheikh />

'''Bilateral debt-for-nature swaps''' take place between two governments. In a bilateral swap, a creditor country forgives a portion of the public bilateral debt of a debtor nation in exchange for environmental commitments from that country.<ref name=Deacon /> An example of a bilateral swap occurred when the U.S. Government, under the Enterprise for the Americas Initiative, forgave a portion of Jamaica's official debt obligations and allowed the payments on the balance to go into national funds that finance environmental conservation. These funds established the Environmental Foundation of Jamaica in 1993. '''Multilateral debt-for-nature swaps''' are similar to bilateral swaps but involve international transactions of more than two national governments. Recorded bilateral and multilateral debt-for-nature swaps have generated nearly US$900 million in total conservation funding from 1987-2010 (see Table 1).<ref name=Sheikh /> A closely related form of debt swap is a debt-for-efficiency swap.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1057/ejdr.2013.34 |title=Financing the Clean Development Mechanism through Debt-for-Efficiency Swaps? Case Study Evidence from a Uruguayan Wind Farm Project |journal=The European Journal of Development Research |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=142–59 |year=2013 |last1=Cassimon |first1=Danny |last2=Prowse |first2=Martin |last3=Essers |first3=Dennis |s2cid=53524876 |url=http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/5152380 |hdl=10067/910030151162165141 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==Participation and yields==
The following table shows the countries which have received funds from swaps and the total recorded funds generated by each kind of swap.<br />
{| class=""wikitable sortable""
|+'''Table 1. Recorded DFNS Transactions by Country, Conservation Funds Generated, 1987-2010 (Millions US$)'''<ref name=Sheikh />
|-
! scope=""col"" width=""100""| Country !!scope=""col"" width=""100""| Three-party Swap Funding !!scope=""col"" width=""100""| Non-US Bilateral and Multilateral Swap Funding!!scope=""col"" width=""100""| US Bilateral Swap Funding !! scope=""col"" width=""100""|Total
|-
| Argentina || || ||$3.1||$3.1
|-
| Bangladesh || || ||$8.5||$8.5
|-
| Belize || || ||$9.0||$9.0
|-
| Bolivia ||$3.1||$9.6||$21.8||$34.5
|-
| Botswana || || ||$8.3||$8.3
|-
| Brazil ||$2.2|| || ||$2.2
|-
| Bulgaria || ||$16.2|| ||$16.2
|-
| Cameroon|| ||$25.0|| ||$25.0
|-
| Chile|| || ||$18.7||$18.7
|-
| Colombia|| ||$12.0||$51.6||$63.6
|-
| Costa Rica||$42.9||$43.3||$26.0||$112.2
|-
| Dominican Republic||$0.6|| || ||$0.6
|-
| Ecuador||$7.4||$10.8|| ||$18.2
|-
| Egypt|| ||$29.6|| ||$29.6
|-
| El Salvador|| ||$6.0||$55.2||$61.2
|-
| Ghana||$1.1|| || ||$1.1
|-
| Guatemala||$1.4|| ||$24.4||$25.8
|-
| Guinea Bissau|| ||$0.4|| ||$0.4
|-
| Honduras|| ||$21.4|| ||$21.4
|-
| Indonesia|| || ||$30.0||$30.0
|-
| Jamaica||$0.4|| ||$37.5||$37.9
|-
| Jordan|| ||$45.5|| ||$45.5
|-
| Madagascar||$30.9||$14.8|| ||$45.8
|-
| Mexico||$4.2||$0.0|| ||$4.2
|-
| Nicaragua|| ||$2.7|| ||$2.7
|-
| Nigeria||$0.1|| || ||$0.1
|-
| Panama|| || ||$20.9||$20.9
|-
| Paraguay|| || ||$7.4||$7.4
|-
| Peru||$12.2||$52.7||$58.4||$123.3
|-
| Philippines||$29.1||$21.9||$8.3||$59.3
|-
| Poland||$0.1||$141.0|| ||$141.1
|-
| Syria|| ||$15.9|| ||$15.9
|-
| Tanzania|| ||$18.7|| ||$18.7
|-
| Tunisia|| ||$1.6|| ||$1.6
|-
| Uruguay|| || ||$7.0||$7.0
|-
| Vietnam|| ||$10.4|| ||$10.4
|-
| Zambia||$2.5|| || ||$2.5
|-
| Total by Swap Type||$138.1||$499.6||$396.2||$1,033.9
|}

===Funders===
[[Nature Conservancy]], [[Leonardo DiCaprio|Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation]], Oak Foundation and [[Global Environment Facility]] have previously provided funds to pay to the debts.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.undp.org/content/sdfinance/en/home/solutions/debt-for-nature-swaps.html | title=Debt for nature swaps | access-date=2017-10-23 | archive-date=2018-01-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102123551/http://www.undp.org/content/sdfinance/en/home/solutions/debt-for-nature-swaps.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.leonardodicaprio.org/ldf-supports-first-ever-debt-for-nature-swap-in-seychelles/ | title=LDF Supports First Ever Debt-for-Nature Swap in Seychelles | access-date=2017-10-23 | archive-date=2016-09-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917013402/http://leonardodicaprio.org/ldf-supports-first-ever-debt-for-nature-swap-in-seychelles/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Benefits==
Debt for nature swaps have often been described as agreements in which all parties benefit and that there are no disadvantages. The benefits to the debtor country, creditor, and conservation organizations are outlined below.

===For debtors===
Through a debt-for-nature swap, a debtor country reduces its total outstanding external debt. The debtor country is able to buy back part of its debt in more favorable terms and pay for conservation initiatives rather than debt service.<ref name=""Potier"">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0264-8377(91)90034-G |title=Debt-for-nature swaps |journal=Land Use Policy |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=211–3 |year=1991 |last1=Potier |first1=Michael }}</ref> This leads to higher international purchasing power for the debtor country.<ref name=""Cassimon"">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.10.001 |title=The pitfalls and potential of debt-for-nature swaps: A US-Indonesian case study |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=93–102 |year=2011 |last1=Cassimon |first1=Danny |last2=Prowse |first2=Martin |last3=Essers |first3=Dennis |url=http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/5152375 |hdl=10067/798940151162165141 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Also, some argue that converting outstanding debts in USD to local currency debts lowers the long-term debt burden on developing countries.<ref name=Sheikh /><ref name=Greiner /> Additionally, debt-for-nature terms enable long-term planning and funding.<ref name=Greiner />

If the country is interested in funding conservation, debt-for-nature swaps provide an additional source of funds for that purpose. In contrast to [[debt-for-equity swap]]s, debt-for-nature swaps do not compromise national sovereignty since no property exchange takes place.<ref name=Potier />

Environmental benefits to the debtor country include but are not limited to:
* promoting [[sustainable development|responsible resource use]]
* helping to preserve [[biodiversity]] 
* maintaining [[ecosystem services]]
* reducing [[deforestation]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1573-7861.2011.01245.x |title=Do Commercial Debt-for-Nature Swaps Matter for Forests? A Cross-National Test of World Polity Theory |journal=Sociological Forum |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=381–410 |year=2011 |last1=Shandra |first1=John M |last2=Restivo |first2=Michael |last3=Shircliff |first3=Eric |last4=London |first4=Bruce }}</ref>

Investment in conservation also demonstrates economic returns. For example, Costa Rica has put debt-for-nature funds to good use in establishing and improving parks and preserves, and it has seen marked improvements in tourism, improved water quality, and increased energy output even in the short term.<ref name=Potier />

===For creditors===
Creditors see debt-for-nature swaps as a method to rid themselves of high-risk claims. By selling the debt claim, they can re-invest the proceeds from the sale in higher-performing ventures. Creditors faced with low-performance loans may also seek to limit their exposure, that is, to avoid further lending to debtor countries until their loans are serviced.<ref name=Greiner/>

===For conservation organizations===
Debt-for-nature agreements are a long-term source of funding for conservation initiatives, so both international organizations acting as donors and local organizations using funds are able to further their goals of conservation. The donor organizations also purchase the debt at a value below its face value and usually redeem it above its market value. In this way, swaps are thought to generate conservation funds at a discount.<ref name=Greiner />

==Decline==
The decline in the number of debt-for-nature swaps in recent years likely results in part from the higher prices of commercial debt in secondary markets.<ref name=Cassimon /><ref name=Resor>{{cite journal |last1=Resor |first1=J.P. |year=1997 |title=Debt-for-nature swaps: a decade of experience and new directions for the future |journal=Unasylva |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3247e/w3247e06.htm }}</ref> In the late 1980s and early 1990s, conservation organizations could purchase relatively large debt obligations on the secondary market at highly discounted rates. During this period, conservation organizations and national governments negotiated swaps at a rate of approximately five agreements per year. Since 2000, the number of swap agreements has dropped to about two per year.<ref name=Sheikh />
Additionally, other agreements for [[debt restructuring]] and cancellation, such as the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, lower a developing country’s debt obligation by much more than the relatively small contribution debt-for-nature swaps make.<ref name=Sheikh />
Also, debt-for-nature swaps have undergone thorough critique by skeptics; these criticisms may have contributed to the decline of the debt-for-nature financing mechanism.

==Criticism==

===Overstated financial benefits===
Debt-for-nature swaps produce only minor debt reductions and generate far less funding than the face value of the debt purchased in the secondary market.<ref name=Cassimon /> The amount of public debt relieved by debt-for-nature swaps, even in the countries that participate in swaps regularly, accounts for less than 1% of total external debt.<ref name=Didia>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00213624.2001.11506382 |title=Debt-for-Nature Swaps, Market Imperfections, and Policy Failures as Determinants of Sustainable Development and Environmental Quality |journal=Journal of Economic Issues |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=477–86 |year=2016 |last1=Didia |first1=Dal |s2cid=156065544 }}</ref>
Also, if the indebted country does not engage in conservation in the absence of a debt-for-nature agreement, the swap may not provide the indebted country a [[welfare economics|social welfare improvement]] or any [[fiscal space]] in the national budget.<ref name=Cassimon /><ref name=Garvie>{{cite journal |last1=Garvie |first1=Devon A. |year=2002 |title=When are Debt for Nature Swaps Welfare—Improving? |journal=International Review of Economics and Business |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=165–73 |url=http://econ.queensu.ca/faculty/garvie/mini/garviedfns.pdf }}</ref> The government of the indebted country is still responsible for payment of the debt, albeit to a conservation organization rather than to the creditor. Also, the funds produced through the agreement may replace other forms of aid, debt assistance, or conservation funding.

===Misdirection of funds===
Critics of debt-for-nature swaps argue that they do not generate funds where the needs are greatest.<ref name=Didia /> Early in the history of debt-for-nature swaps, nearly three-quarters of the total funds generated went to Costa Rica, while other countries with needs equal to or exceeding those of Costa Rica did not receive any.<ref name=Kraemer>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/107049659300200203 |title=Policy Responses to Tropical Deforestation: Are Debt-for-Nature Swaps Appropriate? |journal=The Journal of Environment & Development |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=41–65 |year=1993 |last1=Kraemer |first1=Moritz |last2=Hartmann |first2=Jörg |s2cid=151041138 }}</ref> Brazil, for example, has had limited involvement in debt-for-nature swaps though it has experienced rapid deforestation.<ref name=Sheikh />

===Environmental degradation and external debt===
Research has shown that debt relief alone does not spur environmental conservation. Though debt shows a positive correlation with deforestation levels, most researchers believe that highly indebted countries lack political institutions and enforcement structures that would limit [[environmental degradation]].<ref name=Didia /> Heavily indebted countries may engage in high levels of deforestation due to shortsighted policies.<ref name=Bhattarai>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00019-5 |title=Institutions and the Environmental Kuznets Curve for Deforestation: A Crosscountry Analysis for Latin America, Africa and Asia |journal=World Development |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=995–1010 |year=2001 |last1=Bhattarai |first1=Madhusudan |last2=Hammig |first2=Michael }}</ref> Some suggest that the solutions to environmental degradation are effective political institutions, democracy, property rights, and market structures,<ref name=Didia /> and this development theory matches many of the principles of the [[Washington Consensus]]. Others suggest that primarily wealth creation and increased income have a positive impact on environmental conservation.<ref name=Bhattarai /> This approach considers an environmental [[Kuznets curve]], by which environmental degradation increases, reaches a tipping point, then decreases as income or wealth increases.

===Insufficient funding of environmental protection===
Ultimately, the responsibility of conservation lies with the local non-governmental organization implementing the protection measures. Debt-for-nature swaps are only effective when the conservation organizations are respected by local residents, have a good financial management capacity, and have a good relationship with government and other non-governmental organizations.<ref name=Potier /><ref name=Resor />

===Impacts on the poor===
Debt for nature swaps are usually actioned by an indebted nation's elite, not the peasantry who may traditionally have owned or at least used the land in question. Land rights are often expressed in different ways and ownership takes many forms. Some early debt-for-nature swaps tended to overlook the people living on the land set aside for conservation.<ref name=Choudry>{{cite web |last=Choudry |first=Aziz |date=October 2003 |title=Conservation International: Privatizing Nature, Plundering Biodiversity |work=Seedling |url=https://www.grain.org/es/article/entries/406-conservation-international-privatizing-nature-plundering-biodiversity }}</ref> Subsequent swaps have sought to include local residents, especially indigenous peoples, in the decision making process and the management of lands.<ref name=Reilly /> Although ""seeking"" to include does not mean that local residents have been included. Reports of recent debt swap cases in Madagascar, for instance, indicate local resentment towards conservation projects.<ref name=Eurozine>{{cite web |first=Maarja |last=Kaaristo |title=The reluctant anthropologist | website=eurozine.com | date=29 July 2007 | url=http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2008-02-28-bloch-en.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131133942/http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2008-02-28-bloch-en.html | archive-date=January 31, 2016 | url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Meddling in the internal affairs===
It was feared that the however well-intentioned environmental protection programs could be perceived as middlesome and imperialistic.<ref name=""ecocolonialism"">{{cite journal |last1=Dillon |first1=Nina M. |title=The Feasibility of Debt-For-Nature Swaps |journal=North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation |date=1991 |volume=16 |pages=127 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ncjint16&div=15&id=&page= |access-date=28 August 2022}}</ref> The establishment of [[national parks]] in Africa has in some cases led to the impoverishment and displacement of local populations.<ref name=safeafricans>{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Robert H. |title=Environmental Colonialism: ""Saving"" Africa from Africans |journal=The Independent Review |date=2003 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=65–86 |jstor=24562597 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24562597 |issn=1086-1653}}</ref> This kind of intervention was labeled as environmental or [[eco-colonialism]].<ref name=""ecocolonialism""/><ref name=safeafricans/>

==See also==

* [[Green Imperialism]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Debt]]"
Exclosure,"{{Short description|Area protected from livestock grazing}}
{{Distinguish|Enclosure}}
[[File:Ruba Dirho.jpg|thumb|Ruba Dirho exclosure in [[Tigray Region|Tigray]]]]
[[File:Bee exclosure.jpg|thumb|An insect exclosure used to investigate pollination. A specific bee species is inserted into the exclosure with no other pollinators present.]]

An '''exclosure''', in an area being used extensively for grazing, is a limited area from which unwanted [[browsing (herbivory)|browsing]] animals, such as domestic [[cattle]] or wildlife such as [[deer]], are excluded by fencing or other means.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Cleemput |first1= Stijn |last2= Muys |first2= Bart |last3= Kleinn |first3= Christoph |last4= Janssens |first4= Marc J.J. |date= 2004|title= Biomass estimation techniques for enclosures in a semi-arid area: a case study in Northern Ethiopia |url= http://www.tropentag.de/2004/abstracts/full/3.pdf |access-date= 19 Aug 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Ubuy|first1= Mengesteab Hailu |last2= Eid |first2= Tron |last3= Bollandsås |first3= Ole Martin |last4= Birhane |first4= Emiru |date= 21 May 2018|title= Aboveground biomass models for trees and shrubs of exclosures in the drylands of Tigray, northern Ethiopia |journal= Journal of Arid Environments|volume= 156 |pages= 9–18|doi= 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2018.05.007|doi-access= free |bibcode= 2018JArEn.156....9U }}</ref>

==Environmental protection==
Most commonly, exclosures are areas that are set aside for regreening.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aerts |first1=R |last2=Nyssen |first2=J|last3=Mitiku Haile |title= On the difference between ""exclosures"" and ""enclosures"" in ecology and the environment |journal=Journal of Arid Environments |date=2009|volume=73 |issue=8 |pages= 762–763 |doi=10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.01.006 |bibcode=2009JArEn..73..762A |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/239842 }}</ref> Wood harvesting and livestock range are not allowed there. 
=== Effects on environment ===
The establishment of an exclosure has positive effects on:
* [[biodiversity]]<ref name=""ALN2019"">{{cite book |last1=Aerts |first1=R. |last2=Lerouge |first2=F. |last3=November |first3=E. |title=Birds of forests and open woodlands in the highlands of Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mastewal Yami |first1=and colleagues |title= Impact of Area Enclosures on Density and Diversity of Large Wild Mammals: The Case of May Ba'ati, Douga Tembien Woreda, Central Tigray, Ethiopia |journal=East African Journal of Sciences |date=2007|volume=1 |pages=1–14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aerts |first1=R |last2=Lerouge |first2=F |last3=November |first3=E |last4=Lens |first4=L |last5=Hermy |first5=M |last6=Muys |first6=B |title=Land rehabilitation and the conservation of birds in a degraded Afromontane landscape in northern Ethiopia |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |date=2008 |volume=17 |pages=53–69 |doi=10.1007/s10531-007-9230-2 |s2cid=37489450 |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/145812 }}</ref> 
* [[water infiltration]]
* protection from flooding<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2006 |volume=331 |issue=1–2 |pages=219–241 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|bibcode= 2006JHyd..331..219D|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl= 1854/LU-378900 |hdl-access= free }}</ref>
* [[sediment]] deposition<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Descheemaeker |first1=K. and colleagues |title= Sediment deposition and pedogenesis in exclosures in the Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia.  |journal=Geoderma |date=2006 |volume=132 |issue= 3–4|pages=291–314 |doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.04.027 |bibcode=2006Geode.132..291D }}</ref>
* [[carbon sequestration]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolde Mekuria |first1=and colleagues |title= Restoration of Ecosystem Carbon Stocks Following Exclosure Establishment in Communal Grazing Lands in Tigray, Ethiopia |journal= Soil Science Society of America Journal |date=2011 |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=246–256|doi=10.2136/sssaj2010.0176 |bibcode=2011SSASJ..75..246M }}</ref>

=== Economic benefits ===
In developing countries, people commonly have economic benefits from these exclosures through grass harvesting, beekeeping and other [[non-timber forest product]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bedru Babulo |first1=and colleagues |title= Economic valuation methods of forest rehabilitation in exclosures |journal=Journal of the Drylands |date=2006 |volume=1 |pages=165–170 }}</ref> The local inhabitants also consider it as “land set aside for future generations”.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues | title= Exclosures as Primary Option for Reforestation in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref> 
=== Carbon credits ===
Exclosures have as an additional benefit that the surrounding communities may receive [[carbon credit]]s for the [[Carbon sequestration|sequestered]] CO<sub>2</sub>,<ref name=""chapter"">{{cite book |last1=Reubens |first1=B. and colleagues | title= Research-based development projects in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref> as part of a [[carbon offset]] programme.<ref name=""vivo"">[https://www.planvivo.org/project-network/ethiotrees-tembien-highlands/ EthioTrees on Plan Vivo website]</ref> 
In the [[Tigray Region]], in [[Ethiopia]], several exclosures are managed by the [[EthioTrees]] project. The revenues are then reinvested in the villages, according to the priorities of the communities;<ref name=""davines"">[https://www.davines.com/blogs/projects/ethiotrees EthioTrees on Davines website]</ref> it may be for an additional class in the village school, a water pond, conservation in the exclosures, or a store for [[incense]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moens |first1=T |title=Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains |last2=Lanckriet |first2=S |last3=Jacob |first3=M |chapter=Boswellia Incense in the Giba River Gorge |date=2019 |publisher=Springer Nature |pages=293–300 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_19 |series=GeoGuide |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |s2cid=199113310 }}</ref> 

==Range management==
Exclosures are sometimes constructed by government agencies that manage livestock use on public lands—a practice in which private owners of cattle pay, though often only a nominal sum, for the right to graze their livestock on the public lands.{{fact|date=January 2020}}
[[File:Exclusion plot on Island Saddle.jpg|thumb|An exclusion plot on [[Island Saddle]] in the [[South Island]] of New Zealand. Introduced browsing mammals often have a detrimental effect on New Zealand's native vegetation.]]
==Experimental sites==
One purpose of the exclosure is to determine how the area would develop (in [[biodiversity]], vegetation height, [[ecology|ecological]] characteristics, etc.) if grazing were not conducted.{{fact|date=January 2020}}

==Protection of humans==
Another purpose is to demarcate an area safe for humans by excluding potentially deadly animals.  For example, a beach may have a shark net around it to prevent sharks from attacking human swimmers.  Another example is at wild animal preserves which provide fenced in areas for humans to safely watch lions, tigers, or other large predators.{{fact|date=January 2020}}

==See also==
*[[Predator proof fence]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite journal |last1=Aerts |first1=R. |last2=Nyssen |first2=J. |last3=Haile |first3=M. |title=On the difference between 'exclosures' and 'enclosures' in ecology and the environment |journal=Journal of Arid Environments |date=1 August 2009 |volume=73 |issue=8 |pages=762–763 |doi=10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.01.006 |bibcode=2009JArEn..73..762A |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/239842 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100610211330/http://tpyoung.ucdavis.edu/KLEE/index.html The Kenya Long-term Exclosure Experiment] - An exclosure experiment in Africa with both livestock and wildlife.
*[http://www.mikehudak.com/PhotoEssays/BurntCreek2002/index.html Burnt Creek Exclosure] - photos of a [[Bureau of Land Management]] exclosure in the [[Pahsimeroi River|Pahsimeroi River Valley]] of [[Idaho]]

[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Biophilia hypothesis,"{{See also|Ecological empathy}}{{Short description|Idea that humans innately seek connections with the natural world}}
The '''biophilia hypothesis''' (also called BET) suggests that humans possess an innate tendency to seek connections with [[nature]] and other forms of life. [[E. O. Wilson|Edward O. Wilson]]  introduced and popularized the hypothesis in his book, ''Biophilia'' (1984).<ref>{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Edward O.|title=Biophilia|year=1984|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge, MA]]|isbn=0-674-07442-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/biophilia00wils}}</ref> He defines biophilia as ""the urge to affiliate with other forms of life"".<ref>Kellert & Wilson 1995, p. 416.</ref>

== Natural affinity for living systems ==
""Biophilia"" is an innate affinity of life or living systems. The term was first used by [[Erich Fromm]] to describe a [[Erich Fromm|psychological orientation]] of being attracted to all that is alive and vital.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fromm|first=Erich|title=The Heart of Man|url=https://archive.org/details/heartofmanitsgen00from|url-access=registration|year=1964|publisher=[[Harper & Row]]}}</ref> Wilson uses the term in a related sense when he suggests that biophilia describes ""the connections that human beings subconsciously seek with the rest of life."" He proposed the possibility that the deep affiliations humans have with other life forms and nature as a whole are rooted in our biology. Both positive and negative (including phobic) affiliations toward natural objects (species, phenomenon) as compared to artificial objects are evidence for biophilia.

Although named by Fromm, the concept of biophilia has been proposed and defined many times over. [[Aristotle]] was one of many to put forward a concept that could be summarized as ""love of life"". Diving into the term ''philia'', or friendship, Aristotle evokes the idea of reciprocity and how friendships are beneficial to both parties in more than just one way, but especially in the way of happiness.<ref>Santas, Aristotelis. ""Aristotelian Ethics And Biophilia."" Ethics & The Environment 19.1 (2014): 95-121. https://www.academia.edu/13211214/Aristotelian_Ethics_and_Biophilia</ref>

The hypothesis has since been developed as part of theories of [[evolutionary psychology]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28181961 |title=The Biophilia hypothesis |date=1993 |others=Stephen R. Kellert, Edward O. Wilson |isbn=1-55963-148-1 |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=28181961}}</ref> Taking on an evolutionary perspective people are drawn towards life and nature can be explained in part due to our evolutionary history of residing in natural environments, only recently in our history have we shifted towards an urbanized lifestyle.<ref name="":0"" /> These connections to nature can still be seen in people today as people gravitate towards, identify with, and desire to connect with nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Riechers |first1=Maraja |last2=Martín-López |first2=Berta |last3=Fischer |first3=Joern |date=2022 |title=Human–nature connectedness and other relational values are negatively affected by landscape simplification: insights from Lower Saxony, Germany |journal=Sustainability Science |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=865–877 |doi=10.1007/s11625-021-00928-9 |s2cid=233187431 |issn=1862-4065|doi-access=free }}</ref> These connections are not limited to any one component part of nature, in general people show connections to a wide range of natural things including plants, animals, and environmental landscapes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frumkin |first=Howard |date=2001 |title=Beyond toxicity: human health and the natural environment |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0749379700003172 |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=234–240 |doi=10.1016/S0749-3797(00)00317-2|pmid=11275453 }}</ref> One possible explanation is that our ancestors who had stronger connections to nature would hold an evolutionary advantage over less connected people as they would have better knowledge and therefore access to food, water, and shelter. In a broader and more general sense research has suggested that our modern urban environments are not suited for minds that evolved in natural environments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buss |first=David M. |date=2000 |title=The evolution of happiness. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.15 |journal=American Psychologist |language=en |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=15–23 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.15 |pmid=11392858 |issn=1935-990X}}</ref>

Human preferences toward things in [[nature]], while refined through experience and culture, are hypothetically the product of biological evolution. For example, adult mammals (especially humans) are generally attracted to baby mammal faces and find them [[Cuteness|appealing]] across species. The large eyes and small features of any young mammal face are far more appealing than those of the mature adults. Similarly, the hypothesis helps explain why<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-19 |title=Affiliate Program |url=https://betvisa1.in/affiliate-program/ |access-date=2022-08-15 |language=en-US}}</ref> ordinary people care for and sometimes risk their lives to save domestic and wild animals, and keep plants and flowers in and around their homes. In the book ''Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations'' edited by Peter Kahn and Stephen Kellert,<ref name=""childrennature"">{{cite book|title=Children and nature: psychological, sociocultural, and evolutionary investigations|first1=Peter |last1=Kahn|first2=Stephen |last2=Kellert|year=2002 |publisher=[[MIT Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RCjdKjI_qIcC&pg=PA153|isbn=0-262-11267-1 |page=153}}</ref> the importance of animals, especially those with which a child can develop a nurturing relationship, is emphasized particularly for early and middle childhood. Chapter 7 of the same book reports on the help that animals can provide to children with [[Autistic Spectrum|autistic-spectrum]] disorders.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Animals in Therapeutic Education: Guides into the Liminal State|first=Aaron|last=Katcher|title=Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations|year=2002|editor1-last=Kahn|editor1-first=Peter H.|editor2-last=Kellert|editor2-first=Stephen R|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RCjdKjI_qIcC&pg=PA179|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=0-262-11267-1|access-date=January 30, 2013}}</ref>

== Biophilic design ==
{{main|Biophilic design}}In [[architecture]], biophilic design is a [[sustainable design]] strategy that incorporates reconnecting people with the natural environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Söderlund |first1=Jana |last2=Newman |first2=Peter |last3=Söderlund |first3=Jana |last4=Newman |first4=Peter |date=2015 |title=Biophilic architecture: a review of the rationale and outcomes |url=http://www.aimspress.com/rticle/doi/10.3934/environsci.2015.4.950 |journal=AIMS Environmental Science |language=en |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=950–969 |doi=10.3934/environsci.2015.4.950 |issn=2372-0352|hdl=20.500.11937/8179 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It may be seen as a necessary complement to [[Sustainable architecture|green architecture]], which decreases the environmental impact of the built world but does not address human reconnection with the natural world.<ref name=""kellert-film"">{{cite web | url=http://www.stephenrkellert.net/biophilic-design.html | title=Biophilic Design: The Architecture of Life | work=www.stephenrkellert.net | access-date=29 February 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306072842/http://www.stephenrkellert.net/biophilic-design.html | archive-date=6 March 2016 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
Caperna and Serafini<ref>Caperna A., Serafini S. (2015). [https://www.acco.be/nl-be/items/9789462920880/Architecture-and-sustainability--critical-perspectives-for-integrated-design Biourbanism as new epistemological perspective between Science, Design and Nature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321082826/https://www.acco.be/nl-be/items/9789462920880/Architecture-and-sustainability--critical-perspectives-for-integrated-design |date=2020-03-21 }}. In Architecture & Sustainability: Critical Perspectives. ""Generating sustainability concepts from an architectural perspective"", KU Leuven - Faculty of Engineering, Belgium). {{ISBN|9789462920880}}</ref> define biophilic design as that kind of architecture, which is able to supply our inborn need of connection to life and to the vital processes. Biophilic space has been defined as the environment that strengthens life and supports the sociological and psychological components.<ref>Caperna, A., Tracada, E. (2012). [http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/294089 Biourbanism for a Healthy City. Biophilia and sustainable urban theories and practices] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524082448/http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/294089 |date=2018-05-24 }}. Bannari Amman Institute of Technology (BIT), Sathyamangalam, India, 3–5 September 2012</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joye |first=Yannick |date=2007 |title=Architectural Lessons from Environmental Psychology: The Case of Biophilic Architecture |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.305 |journal=Review of General Psychology |language=en |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=305–328 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.305 |s2cid=14485090 |issn=1089-2680}}</ref> These spaces can have positive health effects on people including reducing mental health issues in stressful spaces such as prisons,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Söderlund |first1=Jana |last2=Newman |first2=Peter |date=2017 |title=Improving Mental Health in Prisons Through Biophilic Design |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0032885517734516 |journal=The Prison Journal |language=en |volume=97 |issue=6 |pages=750–772 |doi=10.1177/0032885517734516 |s2cid=149435309 |issn=0032-8855}}</ref> reducing chronic pain,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huntsman |first1=Dorothy Day |last2=Bulaj |first2=Grzegorz |date=2022-02-16 |title=Healthy Dwelling: Design of Biophilic Interior Environments Fostering Self-Care Practices for People Living with Migraines, Chronic Pain, and Depression |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=2248 |doi=10.3390/ijerph19042248 |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=8871637 |pmid=35206441|doi-access=free }}</ref> improving memory, and lowering blood pressure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yin |first1=Jie |last2=Zhu |first2=Shihao |last3=MacNaughton |first3=Piers |last4=Allen |first4=Joseph G. |last5=Spengler |first5=John D. |date=2018 |title=Physiological and cognitive performance of exposure to biophilic indoor environment |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360132318300064 |journal=Building and Environment |language=en |volume=132 |pages=255–262 |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.01.006}}</ref> Examples of this being studied in medical settings include having a window looking out to see living plants is also shown to help speed up the healing process of patients in hospitals.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Hospital Gardens Help Patients Heal |website=[[Scientific American]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621074523/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nature-that-nurtures/ |archive-date=2023-06-21 |url-status=live |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nature-that-nurtures/}}</ref> Similarly, having plants in the same room as patients in hospitals also speeds up their healing process.<ref>{{cite journal| pmid=19715461 | doi=10.1089/acm.2009.0075 | volume=15 | title=Ornamental indoor plants in hospital rooms enhanced health outcomes of patients recovering from surgery | year=2009 | journal=J Altern Complement Med | pages=975–80 | last1 = Park | first1 = SH | last2 = Mattson | first2 = RH| issue=9 }}</ref>

== Biophilia and conservation ==
Because of our technological advancements and more time spent inside buildings and cars disconnects us from nature, biophilic activities and time spent in nature may be strengthening our connections as humans to nature, so people continue to have strong urges to reconnect with nature. 
The concern for a lack of connection with the rest of nature outside of us, is that a stronger disregard for other plants, animals and less appealing wild areas could lead to further ecosystem degradation and species loss. Therefore, reestablishing a connection with nature has become more important in the field of conservation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=James R. |title=Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=1 August 2005 |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=430–434 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2005.05.013 |pmid=16701413 |s2cid=11639153 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169534705001643 |issn=0169-5347}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Rogers|first1=Kara|title=Biophilia Hypothesis|url=http://www.britannica.com/science/biophilia-hypothesis|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |access-date=10 Feb 2015}}</ref><ref>Milstein, T. & Castro-Sotomayor, J. (2020). Routledge Handbook of Ecocultural Identity. London, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351068840</ref> Examples would be more available green spaces in and around cities, more classes that revolve around nature and implementing smart design for greener cities that integrate ecosystems into them such as biophilic cities. These cities can also become part of wildlife corridors to help with migrational and territorial needs of other animals.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biophilic Cities | url=http://biophiliccities.org|website=Biophilic Cities|access-date=10 Mar 2015}}</ref>

==Biophilia in fiction==
Canadian author [[Hilary Cunningham Scharper|Hilary Scharper]] explicitly adapted [[E. O. Wilson|E.O. Wilson]]'s  concept of biophilia for her ecogothic novel, ''Perdita''.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Arousing Biophilia|url = http://arts.envirolink.org/interviews_and_conversations/EOWilson.html|website = arts.envirolink.org|access-date = 2015-11-03|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081136/http://arts.envirolink.org/interviews_and_conversations/EOWilson.html|archive-date = 2016-03-04|url-status = dead}}</ref> In the novel, Perdita (meaning ""the lost one"") is a [[mythology|mythological figure]] who brings biophilia to humanity.

==Biophilia and technology==
American philosopher Francis Sanzaro has put forth the claim that because of advances in technological connectivity, especially the internet of things (IOT), our world is becoming increasingly driven by the biophilia hypothesis, namely, the desire to connect to forms of life.<ref>See Sanzaro's extended treatment of how algorithms are helping fuel techno-biophilia, ""[https://www.amazon.com/Society-Elsewhere-Gravest-Threat-Humanity/dp/1785354701 Society Elsewhere: Why the Gravest Threat to Humanity Will Come From Within].""</ref> Sanzaro applies Wilson's theories to trends in artificial intelligence and psychoanalysis and argues that technology is not an antithesis to nature, but simply another form of seeking intimacy with nature.

== See also ==

* [[Biocultural evolution]]
* [[Biomimetics]]
* [[Deep ecology]]
* [[Ecopsychology]]
* [[Environmental psychology]]
* [[Healthy building]]
* [[Nature deficit disorder]]
* [[Ecosexuality]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Wikiversity|Human-animal bond}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140420131338/http://www.wilderdom.com/evolution/BiophiliaHypothesis.html Edward O. Wilson's Biophilia Hypothesis]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090803114304/http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/westcoasthomes/story.html?id=80606332-50e8-42d7-bb11-9f92a2dc3045 Biophilia, biomimicry, and sustainable design]
* [http://www.terrapinbrightgreen.com/report/economics-of-biophilia/ The Economics of Biophilia] - Terrapin Bright Green
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20050403152846/http://biophile.co.za/biophilia Biophilia]'', website for ''Biophilia'' magazine
*[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286055566_Biophilic_design_patterns_Emerging_nature-based_parameters_for_health_and_well-being_in_the_built_environment ""Biophilic Design Patterns: Emerging Nature-Based Parameters for Health and Well-Being in the Built Environment""] by Catherine O. Ryan, William D Browning, Joseph O Clancy, Scott L Andrews, Namita B Kallianpurkar (ArchNet-''International Journal of Architectural Research'')
* [http://www.terrapinbrightgreen.com/report/14-patterns/ 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design] - Terrapin Bright Green
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760412 ""Biophilia: Does Visual Contact with Nature Impact on Health and Well-Being?""] - National Center for Biotechnology Information
* [http://www.slideshare.net/antcap/biophilic-design-by-antonio-caperna ""Biophilic Architecture and Biophilic Design""] by Antonio Caperna, International Society of Biourbanism
* [http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/294089 ""Biourbanism for a healthy city: biophilia and sustainable urban theories and practices""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524082448/http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/294089 |date=2018-05-24 }} by Antonio Caperna and Eleni Tracada, University of Derby (UK) - UDORA Repository
* [http://www.biourbanism.org/introduction-to-biophilic-design/ ""Introduction to Biophilic Biophilic Design""] by Antonio Caperna, International Society of Biourbanism
* [https://journalofbiourbanism.org/2018/03/20/jbu-volume-vi-12-2017/ ""Biophilic Design""], Journal of Biourbanism Volume VI (1&2/2017) by Antonio Caperna Editor in Chief, International Society of Biourbanism
{{Environmentalism}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Biophilia Hypothesis}}
[[Category:Biophilia hypothesis| ]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental psychology]]
[[Category:Evolutionary psychology]]
[[Category:Hypotheses]]
[[Category:Biological hypotheses]]"
Floristic Quality Assessment,"{{short description|Ecological integrity assessment}}
'''Floristic Quality Assessment''' (FQA) is a tool used to assess an area's ecological integrity based on its plant [[species composition]].<ref name=fqa1995/> Floristic Quality Assessment was originally developed in order to assess the likelihood that impacts to an area ""would be irreversible or irretrievable...to make standard comparisons among various open land areas, to set [[conservation (ethic)| conservation]] priorities, and to monitor site management or [[habitat restoration|restoration]] efforts.""<ref name=swink1994/> The concept was developed by [[Gerould Wilhelm]] in the 1970s in a report on the natural lands of [[Kane County, Illinois]].<ref name=wilhelm1977/> In 1979 Wilhelm and [[Floyd Swink]] codified this ""scoring system"" <ref name=""Young"">{{cite book|last1=Young|first1=Dick|date=1994|title=Kane County Wild Plants And Natural Areas, 2nd edition|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/31441931|page=4|publisher=Kane County Forest Preserve District|oclc=31441931 }}</ref>
for the 22-county Chicago Region.<ref name=swink1979/>

==Coefficient of conservatism==
[[File:North American Regions with C-values for their flora.tif|thumb|Regions with C-values assigned to their flora ({{as of|2019|lc=y}})<ref name=spyreas2019/>]]

Each plant species in a region is assigned a '''coefficient of conservatism''', also known as a '''C-value''', ranging between 0 and 10.<ref name=fqa1995 /> A plant species with a higher score (e.g. 10) has a ''lower'' tolerance to [[environmental degradation]] such as [[overgrazing]] or [[land development|development]] and therefore is naturally restricted to undisturbed, [[remnant natural area|remnant habitats]]. Non-native plants are either assigned a C-value of 0 or are excluded from assessments.<ref name=freyman2016/> In the Chicago Region, 84% of the native plant species have a C-value of 4 or greater.<ref name=fotcr2017/> Plants with a C-value of 4 or greater rarely naturally move from a remnant area to surrounding degraded land.<ref name=fotcr2017 /> For example, the federally [[Endangered species|endangered]] ''[[Dalea foliosa]]'' has a '''C-value''' of 10.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://peterchen.nicerweb.com/pix/PRAIRIE/|title=Russell R. Kirt Prairie Plant Gallery, College of DuPage|last1=Chen|first1=Peter}}</ref>

C-values are assigned within specific ecological and geographic regions by [[botanist|botanical experts]] familiar with the species' [[autecology]] within the respective regions.<ref name=matthews2015/> {{As of|February 2018}}, there were more than 50 different FQA databases ranging from the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]] to western [[Washington (state)|Washington]], though most databases represented regions in the eastern and central United States and Canada.<ref name=universalfqa>{{cite web |url=http://universalfqa.org |title=Universal FQA|access-date=2018-02-16}}</ref><ref name=spyreas2019>{{Cite journal|last=Spyreas|first=Greg|date=2019|title=Floristic Quality Assessment: a critique, a defense, and a primer|journal=Ecosphere|language=en|volume=10|issue=8|pages=e02825|doi=10.1002/ecs2.2825|bibcode=2019Ecosp..10E2825S |issn=2150-8925|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The '''mean C-value''' (<math> \bar{C}</math>) is calculated based on an inventory of plants. An area with a native mean C-value of 3.5  or higher likely has ""sufficient floristic quality to be of at least marginal natural area quality.""<ref name=""swink1994"" /> Remnant natural areas with mean C-values of 4.0 or greater are [[environmental mitigation|unmitigable]].<ref name=""fotcr2017"" />

==Floristic Quality Index==
The '''Floristic Quality Index''' (FQI, or '''Rating Index''' according to Swink and Wilhelm<ref name=""swink1994"" />{{rp|855}}) is calculated by multiplying the mean C value by the square root of the total number of species:

<math> \bar{C}\sqrt{n}</math>

For example, the FQI for [https://www2.illinois.gov/dnr/INPC/Pages/Area2KaneNelsonLakeMarsh.aspx Nelson Lake Marsh] was 78 in 1994 <ref name=""Young""/>{{rp|186}} and that for [[Russell R. Kirt Prairie]] was about 30 in 1999.<ref name=""Sixteen"">{{cite journal|last1=Kirt|first1=Russell R.|editor1-last=Bernstein|editor1-first=Neil P.|editor2-last=Ostrander|editor2-first=Laura J.|date=2001|title=A Sixteen Year Assessment of Vegetational Changes in Prairie Seed Broadcast and Seedling Transplant Sites|url=https://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/EcoNatRes/EcoNatRes-idx?type=article&id=EcoNatRes.NAPC17&did=EcoNatRes.NAPC17.RKirt|journal=Proceedings of the Seventeenth North American Prairie Conference|pages=98–106|publisher=University of Wisconsin Digital Collections}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=fotcr2017>{{cite book |last1=Wilhelm |first1=Gerould |last2=Rericha |first2=Laura |author-link2=Laura Rericha |date=2017 |title=Flora of the Chicago Region: A Floristic and Ecological Synthesis}}</ref>
<ref name=fqa1995>{{cite report |first1=Gerould |last1=Wilhelm |author-link1=Gerould Wilhelm |first2=Linda |last2=Masters |date=June 1995 |title=Floristic Quality Assessment in the Chicago Region and Application Computer Programs |publisher=The Morton Arboretum}}</ref>
<ref name=freyman2016>{{cite journal |last1=Freyman |first1=William A. |last2=Master |first2=Linda A. |last3=Packard |first3=Stephen |date=2016 |title=The Universal Floristic Quality Assessment (FQA) Calculator: an online tool for ecological assessment and monitoring |journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution |volume=7 |issue= 3|pages=380–383 |doi=10.1111/2041-210X.12491 |bibcode=2016MEcEv...7..380F |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name=matthews2015>{{cite journal |last1=Matthews |first1=Jeffrey W. |last2=Spyreas |first2=Greg |last3=Long |first3=Colleen M. |title=A null model test of Floristic Quality Assessment: Are plant species' Coefficients of Conservatism valid? |journal=Ecological Indicators |date=May 2015 |volume=52 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.11.017}}</ref>
<ref name=swink1979>{{cite book |last1=Swink |first1=Floyd |last2=Wilhelm |first2=Gerould |date=1979 |title=Plants of the Chicago Region, 3rd Edition}}</ref> 
<ref name=swink1994>{{cite book |last1=Swink |first1=Floyd |author-link1=Floyd Swink |last2=Wilhelm |first2=Gerould  |date=1994 |title=Plants of the Chicago Region, 4th Edition}}</ref>
<ref name=wilhelm1977>{{cite report |first1=Gerould S. |last1=Wilhelm |date=1977 |title=Ecological assessment of open land areas in Kane County, Illinois |publisher=Kane County Urban Development Division}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
* [http://universalfqa.org Universal FQA]

[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Community ecology]]
[[Category:Measurement of biodiversity]]
[[Category:Index numbers]]
[[Category:Summary statistics for categorical data]]"
Perceptual trap,"[[File:Perceptual Trap.png|thumb|350px|right|Conceptual representation (2x2 table) of [[source–sink dynamics|sources and sinks]], [[ecological traps]], and perceptual traps. Adapted from Patten and Kelly (2010)<ref name=Patten/>]]
A '''perceptual trap''' is an [[ecology|ecological]] scenario in which [[environmental change]], typically [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]], leads an organism to avoid an otherwise high-quality [[habitat]]. The concept is related to that of an [[ecological trap]], in which environmental change causes preference towards a low-quality habitat.

==History==
In a 2004 article discussing [[source–sink dynamics]], James Battin did not distinguish between high-quality habitats that are preferred or avoided, labelling both ""sources"".<ref name=Battin>Battin, J. (2004) [http://courses.nres.uiuc.edu/nres407/Readings/battin_ecological%20traps.pdf ""When good animals love bad habitats: ecological traps and the conservation of animal populations""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813074823/http://courses.nres.uiuc.edu/nres407/Readings/battin_ecological%20traps.pdf |date=2011-08-13 }} (PDF), ''Conservation Biology,'' '''18''': 1482–1491</ref> The latter scenario, in which a high-quality habitat is avoided, was first recognised as an important phenomenon in 2007 by Gilroy and Sutherland,<ref name=Gilroy>Gilroy, J. J., and W. J. Sutherland. (2007) ""Beyond ecological traps: perceptual errors and undervalued resources,"" ''Trends in Ecology and Evolution,'' '''22''': 351–356</ref> who described them as ""undervalued resources"". The term ""perceptual trap"" was first proposed by Michael Patten and Jeffrey Kelly in a 2010 article.<ref name=Patten>Patten, M.A., and Kelly, J.F. (2010) ""Habitat selection and the perceptual trap,"" ''Ecological Applications,'' '''20''': 2148–2156.</ref> Hans Van Dyck<ref name=VanDyck>Van Dyck, H. (2012) ""Changing organisms in rapidly changing anthropogenic landscapes: the significance of the 'Umwelt'-concept and functional habitat for animal conservation,"" ''Evolutionary Applications,'' '''5(2)''': : 144–153.</ref> argues that the term is misleading because perception is also a major component in other cases of trapping.

==Description==
Animals use discrete environmental cues to select habitat.<ref name=Kristan>Kristan, W. B. (2003) ""The role of habitat selection behavior in population dynamics: source–sink systems and ecological
traps,"" ''Oikos,'' '''103''': 457–468</ref> A perceptual trap occurs if change in an environmental cue leads an organism to avoid a high-quality habitat.<ref name=Patten/> It differs, therefore, from simple habitat avoidance, which may be a correct decision given the habitat's quality.<ref name=Patten/> The concept of a perceptual trap is related to that of an [[ecological trap]], in which environmental change causes preference towards a low-quality habitat.<ref name=Patten/> There is expected to be strong [[natural selection]] against ecological traps, but not necessarily against perceptual traps, as [[Allee effect]]s may restrict a population’s ability to establish itself.<ref name=Patten/>

==Examples==
[[File:Lesser Prairie Chicken.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Patten and Kelly<ref name=Patten/> propose that a perceptual trap is acting on populations of the [[lesser prairie chicken]]]]
To support the concept of a perceptual trap, Patten and Kelly<ref name=Patten/> cited a study of the [[lesser prairie chicken]] (''Tympanuchus pallidicinctus''). The species' natural environment, [[shinnery oak]] [[grassland]], is often treated with the [[herbicide]] [[tebuthiuron]] to increase grass cover for [[grazing|cattle grazing]].<ref name=Patten/> Herbicide treatment resulted in less shrub cover, a habitat cue that caused female lesser prairie-chickens to avoid the habitat in favour of untreated areas. However, females who nested in  herbicide-treated areas achieved comparable nesting successes and [[clutch size]]s to those in untreated areas.<ref name=Patten/> Patten and Kelly suggest that the adverse effects of tebuthiuron treatment on nesting success are countered by various effects, such as greater nest concealment through increased grass cover.<ref name=Patten/> Therefore, female birds are erroneously avoiding a high-quality habitat. Patten and Kelly<ref name=Patten/> also cited as a possible perceptual trap the cases of the [[spotted towhee]] (''Pipilo maculatus'') and [[rufous-crowned sparrow]] (''Aimophila ruficeps''), which tend to avoid habitat fragments, even though birds nesting in habitat fragments achieve increased nesting success due to a reduction in [[snake]] predation.<ref name=Patten2>Patten, M. A., and D. T. Bolger (2003) ""Variation in top-down control of avian reproductive success across a fragmentation gradient"", ''Oikos,'' '''101''':479–488</ref>

==See also==
* [[Ecological trap]]
* [[Source–sink dynamics]]
* [[Type I and type II errors]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Biology terminology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Landscape ecology]]"
Category:Marine conservation,"{{Commons category|Marine conservation}}
{{portal|Environment|Marine life|Oceans}}
{{Cat main|Marine conservation}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Oceans]]"
Index of conservation articles,"{{Short description|none}}
This is an '''index of conservation topics'''. It is an alphabetical index of articles relating to [[conservation biology]] and conservation of the [[natural environment]].

{{horizontal TOC}}

==A==
* [[Abiotic stress]] - [[Adaptive management]] - [[Adventive plant]] - [[Aerial-seeding]] - [[Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora]] - [[Agroecology]] - [[American Prairie Foundation]] - [[Anti-whaling]] - [[Assisted migration]] - [[Assisted migration of forests in North America]]

==B==
* [[Biodegradation]] - [[Biodiversity]] - [[Biodiversity action plan]] - [[Biodiversity hotspot]] - [[Biogenic]] - [[Biodiversity Outcomes Framework]] - [[Biogeographic realm]] - [[Biogeography]] - [[Bioinformatics]] - [[Biological integrity]] - [[Biomagnification]] - [[Biomaterial]] - [[Biome]] - [[Biomimicry]] - [[Biomonitoring]] - [[Biophilia hypothesis]] - [[Biophilic design]] - [[Biopiracy]] - [[Bioregion]] - [[Bioregionalism]] - [[Biosafety]] - [[Biosalinity]] - [[Biosecurity]] - [[Biosphere]] - [[Biosphere reserve]] - [[Biostatistics]] - [[Biosurvey]] - [[Biotechnology]] - [[Bioterrorism]] - [[Biotransference]] - [[Bird conservation]] - [[Blue-listed]] - [[Bottom trawling]] - [[Buffer zone]]

==C==
* [[Captive breeding]] - [[Cave conservation]] - [[Charismatic megafauna]] - [[CITES]] - [[Common species]] - [[Community-based conservation]] - [[Compassionate conservation]] - [[Conference of Governors]] - [[Conservation agriculture]] - [[Conservation area]] - [[Conservation authority (Canada)|Conservation authority]] - [[Conservation biology]] - [[Conservation Commons]] - [[Conservation community]] - [[Conservation dependent]] - [[Conservation designation]] - [[Conservation development]] - [[Conservation easement]] - [[Conservation ethic]] - [[Conservation grazing]] - [[Conservation headland]] - [[Conservation land trust]] – [[Conservation management system]] - [[Conservation movement]] - [[Conservation of American bison]]  - [[Conservation park (disambiguation)|Conservation park]] - [[Conservation photography]] - [[Conservation psychology]] - [[Conservation-reliant species]] - [[Conservation status]] - [[Conservation welfare]] - [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] - [[COTES]] - [[Critically endangered species]] - [[Cross-boundary subsidy]] - [[Cross-fostering]] (conservation of resources)

==D==
* [[Data deficient]] - [[Debt-for-nature swap]] - [[Deforestation]]

==E==
* [[Ecoregion]] - [[Ecosystem restoration]] - [[Ecosystem services]] - [[Ecological crisis]] - [[Ecological island]] - [[Ecological niche]] - [[Ecological selection]] - [[Ecotone]] - [[Edge effect]] - [[Endangered species]] - [[Endangered species recovery plan]] - [[Endemic Bird Area]] - [[Endemism]] - [[Environmental stewardship]] - [[Evolutionarily Significant Unit]] - [[Extinction]] - [[Extinction event]] - [[Ex-situ conservation]] - [[Extinct in the wild]] - [[Extinction threshold]]

==F==
* [[Flagship species]] - [[Forest fragmentation]] - [[Fortress conservation]]

==G==
* [[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theory]] - [[Gaia philosophy]] - [[Gaian (disambiguation)|Gaian]] -  [[Game Warden]] - [[GPS Wildlife Tracking]] - [[GRANK]] - [[Gap analysis (conservation)|Gap analysis]] - [[Genetic pollution]] - [[Genetic erosion]] - [[Global strategy for plant conservation]] - [[Greenprinting]]

==H==
* [[Habitat (ecology)|Habitat]] - [[Habitat fragmentation]] - [[Habitat conservation]] - [[Habitat destruction]] - [[Habitat fragmentation]] - [[Habitats Directive]]

==I==
* [[Illegal logging]] - [[Important Bird Area]] - [[In-situ conservation]] - [[Index of biological integrity]] - [[Indianapolis Prize]] - [[Indigenous and community conserved area]] - [[The Institute for Bird Populations]] - [[Integrated Conservation and Development Project]] - [[Invader potential]] - [[Island restoration]]

==K==
* [[Keystone species]]

==L==
* [[Landscape-scale conservation]] - [[Lists of ecoregions by country]] - [[List of extinct birds]] - [[List of solar energy topics]] - [[List of threatened species of the Philippines]] - [[Local nature reserve]] - [[Logging]] - [[Latent extinction risk]] - [[Lower risk]]

==M==
* [[Marine Protected Area]] - [[Marine conservation]] - [[Marine park]] - [[Marine reserve]] - [[Marxan]] - [[Millennium Seed Bank Partnership]] - [[Minimal impact code]] - [[Mission blue butterfly habitat conservation]] - [[Monarch butterfly conservation in California]]

==N==
* [[National Cleanup Day]] -   [[National Conservation Commission]] - [[National Conservation Exposition]] - [[National marine conservation area]] - [[National nature reserve]] - [[National park]] - [[NATURA 2000]] - [[Natural heritage]] - [[Natural monument]] – [[Nature reserve]] - [[Nest box]] - [[North American Game Warden Museum]]

==O==
* [[Old growth forest]] - Operation Wallacea

==P==
* [[Penguin sweater]] - [[Pollinator decline]] - [[Protected area]]

==R==
* [[Ramsar site]] - [[Rare species]] - [[Red-listed]] - [[Regional Forest Agreement]] - [[Regional Red List]] - [[Reforestation]] - [[Reintroduction]] - [[Resource management]] - [[Restoration ecology]] - [[Rewilding (conservation biology)|Rewilding]] - [[Roadless area conservation]]

==S==
* [[Scaling pattern of occupancy]] - [[Seedbank]] - [[Site based conservation]] - [[Site of Nature Conservation Interest]] - [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] - [[Small population size]] - [[Soil salination]] - [[Soils retrogression and degradation]] - [[Solar air conditioning]] - [[Solar energy]] - [[Solar thermal energy]] - [[Shifting baseline syndrome]] - [[Soil conservation]] - [[Source-sink dynamics]] - [[Special Area of Conservation]] - [[Special Protection Area]] - [[Species richness]] - [[Species Survival Plan]] - [[Species of concern]] - [[Species translocation]] - [[Stewardship cessation]] [[Strict nature reserve]] - [[Subnational rank]] - [[Sustainability]] - [[Sustainable forest management]] - [[Sustainable habitat]] - [[Sustainable industries]] - [[Sustainable procurement]] - [[Sustainable seafood]] - [[Sustainable yield]]

==T==
* [[Terraforming]] - [[Terrestrial ecoregion]] - [[The Nature Conservancy]] - [[30 by 30]] - [[Threatened species]] - [[Trail ethics]] - [[Translocation (Wildlife conservation)|Translocation]]

==U==
* [[Urban biosphere reserve]]

==V==
* [[Variable retention]] - [[Vulnerability and susceptibility in conservation biology]] - [[Vulnerable species]]

==W==
* [[Water Conservation Order]] - [[Waterbar]] - [[Waterway restoration]] - [[Weed]] - [[Wetland conservation]] - [[Wilderness area]] - [[Wildlife corridor]] - [[Wildlife Conservation Society]] - [[Wildlife reserve]] - [[Wildlife trade]] - [[Woodland management]] - [[World Cleanup Day]] - [[World Commission on Protected Areas]] - [[World Conference on Breeding Endangered Species in Captivity as an Aid to their Survival]] - [[World Heritage Site]] - [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves]]

==Z==
* [[Zoo]] - [[Zoogeography]]

==Conventions, protocols, panels and summits==
* [[Biosafety protocol]] - [[Montreal]] 2000
* [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]
* [[Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals]]
* [[Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas]]
* [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] ([[CITES]])
* [[Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes]]
* [[Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat]] - [[Ramsar Convention]] 
* [[Earth Summit 2002]] (World Summit on Sustainable Development), [[Johannesburg]] 2002
* [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]
* [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]]
* [[International Seabed Authority]]
* [[International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture]]
* [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983]]
* [[IUCN protected area categories]]
* [[IUCN Red List]]
* [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]]
* [[World Commission on Protected Areas]] - WCPA

==United Nations bodies==
* [[UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre]] (WCMC)
* [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]]
* [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP)
* [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment}}
* [[Index of environmental articles]]
* [[List of endangered species]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[List of invasive species]]
* [[Environmental agreements]]
* [[Environmentalism]]

{{Conservation of species}}
{{Conservation organisations}}
{{Zoos}}
{{Lists of World Heritage Sites}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Index Of Conservation Articles}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Indexes of environmental topics|Conservation Articles]]
[[Category:Nature-related lists|Conservation Articles]]"
Nondegradation standard,"In [[USDA|United States agricultural]] policy, a '''nondegradation standard''' is defined in the [[2002 Farm Bill]] provisions establishing the [[Conservation Security Program]] (CSP; P.L. 107-171, Sec. 2001) to mean the level of measures required to protect and prevent degradation of 1 or more natural resources, as determined by the [[Natural Resources Conservation Service]]. Participating farmers’ conservation security plans must address resources of concern and meet the appropriate nondegradation standard.

== References ==

*{{CRS|article = Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition|url = http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/05jun/97-905.pdf|author= Jasper Womach}}

[[Category:United States Department of Agriculture]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Maximum sustainable yield,"{{Short description|Management concept}}
In [[population ecology]] and [[economics]], '''maximum sustainable yield''' ('''MSY''') is theoretically, the largest yield (or catch) that can be taken from a species' stock over an indefinite period.  Fundamental to the notion of [[sustainable harvest]], the concept of MSY aims to maintain the population size at the point of maximum growth rate by harvesting the individuals that would normally be added to the population, allowing the population to continue to be productive indefinitely.  Under the assumption of [[logistic function|logistic growth]], resource limitation does not constrain individuals' reproductive rates when populations are small, but because there are few individuals, the overall yield is small.  At intermediate population densities, also represented by half the [[carrying capacity]], individuals are able to breed to their maximum rate.  At this point, called the maximum sustainable yield, there is a surplus of individuals that can be harvested because growth of the population is at its maximum point due to the large number of reproducing individuals.  Above this point, density dependent factors increasingly limit breeding until the population reaches carrying capacity.  At this point, there are no surplus individuals to be harvested and yield drops to zero.  The maximum sustainable yield is usually higher than the [[optimum sustainable yield]] and [[maximum economic yield]].

MSY is extensively used for [[fisheries management]]. Unlike the logistic ([[Milner Baily Schaefer|Schaefer]]) model,<ref name=""Schaefer"">{{Citation
| last = Schaefer
| first = Milner B.
| title = Some aspects of the dynamics of populations important to the management of commercial marine fisheries
| journal = Bulletin of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
| volume = 1
| issue = 2
| year = 1954
| pages = 27–56
| url = http://aquacomm.fcla.edu/3530/
| doi = 10.1007/BF02464432
| s2cid = 189885665
| edition = reprinted in Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, Vol. 53, No. 1/2, pp. 253-279, 1991
| hdl = 1834/21257
| hdl-access = free
}}</ref> MSY has been refined in most modern fisheries models and occurs at around 30% of the unexploited population size.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bousquet | first1 = N. | last2 = Duchesne | first2 = T. | last3 = Rivest | first3 = L.-P. | year = 2008 | title = Redefining the maximum sustainable yield for the Schaefer population model including multiplicative environmental noise | url = http://mat.ulaval.ca/pages/duchesne/BDR.pdf | journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume = 254 | issue = 1| pages = 65–75 | doi = 10.1016/j.jtbi.2008.04.025 | pmid = 18571675 | bibcode = 2008JThBi.254...65B }}</ref><ref name =""Thorpe"">{{cite journal | last1 = Thorpe | first1 = R.B. | last2 = LeQuesne | first2 = W.J.F. | last3 = Luxford | first3 = F. | last4 = Collie | first4 = J.S. | last5 = Jennings | first5 = S. | year = 2015 | title = Evaluation and management implications of uncertainty in a multispecies size-structured model of population and community responses to fishing | journal = Methods in Ecology and Evolution | volume = 6 | issue = 1| pages = 49–58 | doi = 10.1111/2041-210X.12292 | pmid = 25866615 | pmc = 4390044 }}</ref> This fraction differs among populations depending on the life history of the species and the age-specific selectivity of the fishing method.

==History==
The concept of MSY as a fisheries management strategy developed in [[Belmar, New Jersey|Belmar]], [[New Jersey]], in the early 1930s.<ref name=""Russell1931"">{{cite journal|last1=Russell|first1=E. S.|title=Some theoretical Considerations on the ""Overfishing"" Problem|journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science|volume=6|issue=1|year=1931|pages=3–20|issn=1054-3139|doi=10.1093/icesjms/6.1.3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hjort | first1 = J. | last2 = Jahn | first2 = G. | last3 = Ottestad | first3 = P. | year = 1933 | title = The optimum catch | journal = Hvalradets Skrifter | volume = 7 | pages = 92–127 }}</ref><ref name=""Graham1935"">{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=M.|title=Modern Theory of Exploiting a Fishery, and Application to North Sea Trawling|journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science|volume=10|issue=3|year=1935|pages=264–274|issn=1054-3139|doi=10.1093/icesjms/10.3.264}}</ref>  It increased in popularity in the 1950s with the advent of surplus-production models with explicitly estimate MSY.<ref name=""Schaefer""/>  As an apparently simple and logical management goal, combined with the lack of other simple management goals of the time, MSY was adopted as the primary management goal by several international organizations (e.g., [[International Whaling Commission|IWC]], [[Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission|IATTC]],<ref>IATTC, Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission</ref> [[International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas|ICCAT]], [[Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization|ICNAF]]), and individual countries.<ref name=""Mace"">{{cite journal | last1 = Mace | first1 = P.M. | year = 2001 | title = A new role for MSY in single-species and ecosystem approaches to fisheries stock assessment and management | url = http://courses.washington.edu/susfish/2002/p.mace.pdf | journal = Fish and Fisheries | volume = 2 | pages = 2–32 | doi = 10.1046/j.1467-2979.2001.00033.x }}</ref>

Between 1949 and 1955, the U.S. maneuvered to have MSY declared the goal of international fisheries management (Johnson 2007).  The international MSY treaty that was eventually adopted in 1955 gave foreign fleets the right to fish off any coast. Nations that wanted to exclude foreign boats had to first prove that its fish were overfished.<ref name=""Botsford"">{{cite journal | last1 = Botsford | first1 = L.W. | last2 = Castilla | first2 = J.C. | last3 = Peterson | first3 = C.H. | year = 1997 | title = The management of fisheries and marine ecosystems | journal = Science | volume = 277 | issue = 5325 | pages = 509–515 | doi = 10.1126/science.277.5325.509 }}</ref>

As experience was gained with the model, it became apparent to some researchers that it lacked the capability to deal with the real world operational complexities and the influence of [[Trophic level|trophic]] and other interactions. In 1977, [[Peter Anthony Larkin|Peter Larkin]] wrote its epitaph, challenging the goal of maximum sustained yield on several grounds: It put populations at too much risk; it did not account for spatial variability in productivity; it did not account for species other than the focus of the fishery; it considered only the benefits, not the costs, of fishing; and it was sensitive to political pressure.<ref name=""Larkin"">{{cite journal|last1=Larkin|first1=P. A.|title=An epitaph for the concept of maximum sustained yield|journal=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society|volume=106|issue=1|year=1977|pages=1–11|issn=0002-8487|doi=10.1577/1548-8659(1977)106<1:AEFTCO>2.0.CO;2}}</ref> In fact, none of these criticisms was aimed at sustainability as a goal. The first one noted that seeking the absolute MSY with uncertain parameters was risky. The rest point out that the goal of MSY was not holistic; it left out too many relevant features.<ref name=""Botsford""/>

Some managers began to use more conservative quota recommendations, but the influence of the MSY model for [[fisheries management]] still prevailed. Even while the scientific community was beginning to question the appropriateness and effectiveness of MSY as a management goal,<ref name=""Larkin""/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sissenwine | first1 = M.P. | year = 1978 | title = Is MSY an adequate foundation for optimum yield? | journal = Fisheries | volume = 3 | issue = 6| pages = 22–42 | doi = 10.1577/1548-8446(1978)003<0022:IMAAFF>2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> it was incorporated into the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|1982 United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea]], thus ensuring its integration into national and international fisheries acts and laws.<ref name=""Mace""/> According to Walters and Maguire, an ‘‘institutional juggernaut had been set in motion’’, climaxing in the early 1990s with the [[Collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery|collapse of northern cod]].<ref name=Lessons />

== Modelling MSY ==

=== Population growth ===
{{see also|Population growth}}

The key assumption behind all [[sustainable harvest]]ing models such as MSY is that populations of organisms grow and replace themselves – that is, they are renewable resources.  Additionally it is assumed that because the growth rates, survival rates, and reproductive rates increase when harvesting reduces [[population density]],<ref name=""Russell1931""/> they produce a surplus of biomass that can be harvested.  Otherwise, [[sustainable harvest]] would not be possible.

Another assumption of renewable resource harvesting is that populations of [[organisms]] do not continue to grow indefinitely; they reach an equilibrium population size, which occurs when the number of individuals matches the resources available to the population (i.e., assume classic [[logistic function|logistic growth]]).  At this equilibrium population size, called the [[carrying capacity]], the population remains at a stable size.<ref name=""ReferenceA"">Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998, pp. 14-17.</ref>

[[Image:logisticpopulationgrowth2.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Figure 1]]

The logistic model (or [[logistic function]]) is a function that is used to describe bounded [[population growth]] under the previous two assumptions.  The [[logistic function]] is bounded at both extremes: when there are not individuals to reproduce, and when there is an equilibrium number of individuals (i.e., at [[carrying capacity]]).  Under the logistic model, population growth rate between these two limits is most often assumed to be [[sigmoid function|sigmoidal]] (Figure 1).  There is scientific evidence that some populations do grow in a logistic fashion towards a stable equilibrium – a commonly cited example is the [[logistic growth]] of [[yeast]].

The equation describing logistic growth is:<ref name=""ReferenceA""/>

:: <math> N_{t} = \frac{K}{1 + \frac{K-N_0}{N_0} e^{-rt}}</math> (equation 1.1)

The parameter values are:
:: <math> N_{t}</math>=The population size at time t

:: <math> K</math>=The carrying capacity of the population

:: <math> N_{0}</math>= The population size at time zero

:: <math> r</math>= the intrinsic rate of population increase (the rate at which the population grows when it is very small)

From the logistic function, the population size at any point can be calculated as long as <math> r</math>, <math> K</math>, and <math> N_{0}</math> are known.

[[Image:growthratevs.populationsize.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Figure 2]]

Differentiating equation 1.1 give an expression for how the rate of population increases as N increases.  At first, the population growth rate is fast, but it begins to slow as the population grows until it levels off to the maximum growth rate, after which it begins to decrease (figure 2).

The equation for figure 2 is the differential of equation 1.1 ([[Pierre François Verhulst|Verhulst's]] 1838 [[Logistic function#In ecology: modeling population growth|growth model]]):<ref name=""ReferenceA""/>

::<math> \frac{dN}{dt} = r N \left(1 - \frac {N}{K} \right)</math> (equation 1.2)

<math> \frac{dN}{dt}</math> can be understood as the change in population (N) with respect to a change in time (t).  Equation 1.2 is the usual way in which logistic growth is represented mathematically and has several important features.  First, at very low population sizes, the value of <math> \frac{N}{K}</math> is small, so the population growth rate is approximately equal to <math> rN</math>, meaning the population is growing exponentially at a rate r (the intrinsic rate of population increase).  Despite this, the population growth rate is very low (low values on the y-axis of figure 2) because, even though each individual is reproducing at a high rate, there are few reproducing individuals present.  Conversely, when the population is large the value of <math> \frac{N}{K}</math> approaches 1 effectively reducing the terms inside the brackets of equation 1.2 to zero.  The effect is that the population growth rate is again very low, because either each individual is hardly reproducing or mortality rates are high.<ref name=""ReferenceA""/>   As a result of these two extremes, the population growth rate is maximum at an intermediate population or half the carrying capacity (<math>N= \frac{K}{2}</math>).

=== MSY model ===

[[Image:harvestingrates.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Figure 3]]

The simplest way to model harvesting is to modify the logistic equation so that a certain number of individuals is continuously removed:<ref name=""ReferenceA""/>

:: <math> \frac{dN}{dt} = rN\left(1-\frac{N}{K}\right) - H </math> (equation 1.3)

Where H represents the number of individuals being removed from the population – that is, the harvesting rate.  When H is constant, the population will be at equilibrium when the number of individuals being removed is equal to the population growth rate (figure 3). The equilibrium population size under a particular harvesting regime can be found when the population is not growing – that is, when <math> \frac{dN}{dt} = 0</math>.  This occurs when the population growth rate is the same as the harvest rate:

:: <math> rN\left(1-\frac{N}{K}\right) = H </math>

Figure 3 shows how growth rate varies with population density.  For low densities (far from carrying capacity), there is little addition (or ""recruitment"") to the population, simply because there are few organisms to give birth.  At high densities, though, there is intense competition for resources, and growth rate is again low because the death rate is high.  In between these two extremes, the population growth rate rises to a maximum value (<math> N_{MSY}</math>).   This maximum point represents the maximum number of individuals that can be added to a population by natural processes.  If more individuals than this are removed from the population, the population is at risk for decline to extinction.<ref name=""Jennings"">Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J. and Reynolds, J.D. (2001), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_J_E8O33E2gC&q=%22Marine+Fisheries+Ecology%22 ''Marine Fisheries Ecology''] Blackwell Science Ltd. Malden, MA. {{ISBN|0-632-05098-5}}</ref>  The maximum number that can be harvested in a sustainable manner, called the maximum sustainable yield, is given by this maximum point.

Figure 3 also shows several possible values for the harvesting rate, H.  At <math>H_1</math>, there are two possible population equilibrium points: a low population size (<math>N_a</math>) and a high one (<math>N_b</math>).  At <math>H_2</math>, a slightly higher harvest rate, however there is only one equilibrium point (at <math> N_{MSY}</math>), which is the population size that produces the maximum growth rate.  With logistic growth, this point, called the maximum sustainable yield, is where the population size is half the carrying capacity (or <math> N = \frac{K}{2}</math>). The maximum sustainable yield is the largest yield that can be taken from a population at equilibrium.
In figure 3, if <math>H</math> is higher than <math>H_2</math>, the harvesting would exceed the population's capacity to replace itself at any population size (<math> H_3</math> in figure 3).  Because harvesting rate is higher than the population growth rate at all values of <math>N</math>, this rate of harvesting is not sustainable.

An important feature of the MSY model is how harvested populations respond to environmental fluctuations or illegal offtake.  Consider a population at <math>N_b</math> harvested at a constant harvest level <math>H_1</math>.  If the population falls (due to a bad winter or illegal harvest) this will ease density-dependent population regulation and increase yield, moving the population back to <math>N_b</math>, a stable equilibrium.  In this case, a negative feedback loop creates stability.  The lower equilibrium point for the constant harvest level <math>H_1</math> is not stable however; a population crash or illegal harvesting will decrease population yield farther below the current harvest level, creating a [[positive feedback]] loop leading to extinction.  Harvesting at <math>N_{MSY}</math> is also potentially unstable.  A small decrease in the population can lead to a positive feedback loop and extinction if the harvesting regime (<math>H_2</math>) is not reduced.  Thus, some consider harvesting at MSY to be unsafe on ecological and economic grounds.<ref name=""Jennings""/><ref name=""Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998"">Milner-Gulland, E.J., Mace, R. (1998), [https://books.google.com/books?id=SfozQRjheekC&q=%22Conservation+of+biological+resources%22 ''Conservation of biological resources''] Wiley-Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0-86542-738-9}}.</ref>  The MSY model itself can be modified to harvest a certain percentage of the population or with constant effort constraints rather than an actual number, thereby avoiding some of its instabilities.<ref name=""Jennings""/>

The MSY equilibrium point is semi-stable – a small increase in population size is compensated for, a small decrease to extinction if H is not decreased.  Harvesting at MSY is therefore dangerous because it is on a knife-edge – any small population decline leads to a positive feedback, with the population declining rapidly to extinction if the number of harvested stays the same.<ref name=""Jennings""/><ref name=""Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998""/>

The formula for maximum sustained harvest (<math>H</math>) is one-fourth the maximum population or carrying capacity (<math>K</math>) times the intrinsic rate of growth (<math>r</math>).<ref>Bolden, E.G., Robinson, W.L. (1999), [https://books.google.com/books?id=PL6r1Ir_x_oC&q=%22Wildlife+ecology+and+management%22 ''Wildlife ecology and management''] 4th ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. {{ISBN|0-13-840422-4}}</ref>

<math> H = \frac{Kr}{4}</math>

=== For demographically structured populations ===
The principle of MSY often holds for age-structured populations as well.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last=Reed|first=William J.|date=1980-01-01|title=Optimum Age-Specific Harvesting in a Nonlinear Population Model|jstor=2556112|journal=Biometrics|volume=36|issue=4|pages=579–593|doi=10.2307/2556112}}</ref> The calculations can be more complicated, and the results often depend on whether density dependence occurs in the larval stage (often modeled as density dependent reproduction) and/or other life stages.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HjvNbzWuTMC |title=Optimal Control of Age-structured Populations in Economy, Demography, and the Environment |last1=Boucekkine |first1=Raouf |last2=Hritonenko |first2=Natali |last3=Yatsenko |first3=Yuri |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1136920936 }}</ref> It has been shown that if density dependence only acts on larva, then there is an optimal life stage (size or age class) to harvest, with no harvest of all other life stages.<ref name="":0"" />  Hence the optimal strategy is to harvest this most valuable life-stage at MSY.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Getz|first=Wayne M.|date=1980-01-01|title=The ultimate-sustainable-yield problem in nonlinear age-structured populations|url=https://www.mysciencework.com/publication/show/157dcc9f75a6172a154d8c9da5c7e7bb|journal=Mathematical Biosciences|language=en|volume=48|issue=3–4|pages=279–292|doi=10.1016/0025-5564(80)90062-0|issn=0025-5564|access-date=2017-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203111733/https://www.mysciencework.com/publication/show/157dcc9f75a6172a154d8c9da5c7e7bb|archive-date=2017-02-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, in age and stage-structured models, a constant MSY does not always exist. In such cases, cyclic harvest is optimal where the yield and resource fluctuate in size, through time.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Optimal Harvesting of Age-structured Fish Populations|journal=Marine Resource Economics|language=en-US|doi=10.5950/0738-1360-24.2.147|year=2009|volume=24|issue=2|pages=147–169|s2cid=153448834|last1=Tahvonen|first1=Olli}}</ref> In addition, environmental stochasticity interacts with demographically structured populations in fundamentally different ways than for unstructured populations when determining optimal harvest. In fact, the optimal biomass to be left in the ocean, when fished at MSY, can be either higher or lower than in analogous deterministic models, depending on the details of the density dependent recruitment function, if stage-structure is also included in the model.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holden|first1=Matthew H.|last2=Conrad|first2=Jon M.|date=2015-11-01|title=Optimal escapement in stage-structured fisheries with environmental stochasticity|journal=Mathematical Biosciences|volume=269|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mbs.2015.08.021|pmid=26362229}}</ref>

=== Implications of MSY model ===
Starting to harvest a previously unharvested population will always lead to a decrease in the population size.   That is, it is impossible for a harvested population to remain at its original carrying capacity.  Instead, the population will either stabilize at a new lower equilibrium size or, if the harvesting rate is too high, decline to zero.

The reason why populations can be sustainably harvested is that they exhibit a density-dependent response.<ref name=""Jennings""/><ref name=""Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998""/> This means that at any population size below K, the population is producing a surplus yield that is available for harvesting without reducing population size. Density dependence is the regulator process that allows the population to return to equilibrium after a perturbation.  The logistic equation assumes that density dependence takes the form of negative feedback.<ref name=""Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998""/>

If a constant number of individuals is harvested from a population at a level greater than the MSY, the population will decline to extinction.  Harvesting below the MSY level leads to a stable equilibrium population if the starting population is above the unstable equilibrium population size.

=== Uses of MSY ===
MSY has been especially influential in the management of renewable biological resources such as commercially important fish and wildlife.  In fisheries terms, '''maximum sustainable yield''' (MSY) is the largest average catch that can be captured from a stock under existing environmental conditions.<ref>National Research Council (NRC). 1998. Improving Fish Stock Assessments. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</ref> MSY aims at a balance between too much and too little harvest to keep the population at some intermediate abundance with a maximum replacement rate.

Relating to MSY, the [[maximum economic yield]] (MEY) is the level of catch that provides the maximum net economic benefits or profits to society.<ref>Clark, C.W. (1990), ''Mathematical Bioeconomics: The Optimal Management of Renewable Resources'', 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience, New York</ref><ref>National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 1996. OUr Living Oceans: Report on the Status of U.S. Living Marine Resources 1995. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS0F/SPO-19. NMFS, Silver Springs, Md.</ref>  Like [[optimum sustainable yield]], MEY is usually less than MSY.

=== Limitations of MSY approach ===
Although it is widely practiced by state and federal government agencies regulating wildlife, forests, and fishing, MSY has come under heavy criticism by ecologists and others from both theoretical and practical reasons.<ref name=""Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998""/>  The concept of maximum sustainable yield is not always easy to apply in practice.  Estimation problems arise due to poor assumptions in some models and lack of reliability of the data.<ref name=""Mace""/><ref name=""Townsend"">Townsend, C.R., Begon, M., and Harper, J.L. (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=pQTNFYPgDdEC&q=%22Essentials+of+Ecology%22 ''Essentials of Ecology''] Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-4051-5658-5}}</ref>  Biologists, for example, do not always have enough data to make a clear determination of the population's size and growth rate.  Calculating the point at which a population begins to slow from competition is also very difficult.  The concept of MSY also tends to treat all individuals in the population as identical, thereby ignoring all aspects of population structure such as size or age classes and their differential rates of growth, survival, and reproduction.<ref name=""Townsend""/>

As a management goal, the static interpretation of MSY (i.e., MSY as a fixed catch that can be taken year after year) is generally not appropriate because it ignores the fact that fish populations undergo natural fluctuations (i.e., MSY treats the environment as unvarying) in abundance and will usually ultimately become severely depleted under a constant-catch strategy.<ref name=""Townsend""/>  Thus, most fisheries scientists now interpret MSY in a more dynamic sense as the [[maximum average yield]] (MAY) obtained by applying a specific harvesting strategy to a fluctuating resource.<ref name=""Mace""/> Or as an optimal ""escapement strategy"", where escapement means the amount of fish that must remain in the ocean [rather than the amount of fish that can be harvested]. An escapement strategy is often the optimal strategy for maximizing expected yield of a harvested, stochastically fluctuating population.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reed|first=William J|date=1979-12-01|title=Optimal escapement levels in stochastic and deterministic harvesting models|journal=Journal of Environmental Economics and Management|volume=6|issue=4|pages=350–363|doi=10.1016/0095-0696(79)90014-7}}</ref>

However, the limitations of MSY, does not mean it performs worse than humans using their best intuitive judgment. Experiments using students in natural resource management classes suggest that people using their past experience, intuition, and best judgement to manage a fishery generate far less long term yield compared to a computer using an MSY calculation, even when that calculation comes from incorrect population dynamic models.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holden|first1=Matthew H.|last2=Ellner|first2=Stephen P.|date=2016-07-01|title=Human judgment vs. quantitative models for the management of ecological resources|journal=Ecological Applications|language=en|volume=26|issue=5|pages=1553–1565|doi=10.1890/15-1295|pmid=27755756|issn=1939-5582|arxiv=1603.04518|s2cid=1279459}}</ref>

For a more contemporary description of MSY and its calculation see <ref name=""Maunder"">{{cite book|doi=10.1016/B978-008045405-4.00522-X|chapter=Maximum Sustainable Yield|title=Encyclopedia of Ecology|pages=2292–2296|year=2008|last1=Maunder|first1=M.N.|isbn=9780080454054}}</ref>

==== Orange roughy ====
{{see also|Orange roughy}}
An example of errors in estimating the [[population dynamics]] of a species occurred within the New Zealand [[Orange roughy]] fishery. Early quotas were based on an assumption that the orange roughy had a fairly short lifespan and bred relatively quickly. However, it was later discovered that the [[orange roughy]] lived a long time and had [[k-selection|bred slowly]] (~30 years). By this stage stocks had been largely depleted.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}

== Criticism ==

The approach has been widely criticized as ignoring several key factors involved in fisheries management and has led to the devastating collapse of many fisheries. Among [[Conservation biology|conservation biologists]] it is widely regarded as dangerous and misused.<ref name=Epitaph>Larkin PA (1977) [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:0ZITmBnzlDUJ:fiesta.bren.ucsb.edu/~gsd/595e/docs/22.%2520Larkin_Epitaph_Max_Sust_Yield.pdf+Larkin+1977+%22An+epitaph+for+the+concept+of+maximum+sustained+yield%22&hl=en&gl=nz&sig=AHIEtbSBFh-w5xzWiBK7rnHSLBmolsfaWA ""An epitaph for the concept of maximum sustained yield""]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Transactions of the American Fisheries Society'', '''106''': 1–11.</ref><ref name=Lessons>{{cite journal | last1 = Walters | first1 = C | author-link = Carl Walters | last2 = Maguire | first2 = J | year = 1996 | title = Lessons for stock assessment from the northern cod collapse | journal = Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries | volume = 6 | issue = 2| pages = 125–137 | doi = 10.1007/bf00182340 | s2cid = 20224324 }}</ref>

== Overfishing ==
{{see also|Overfishing}}
Across the world there is a crisis in the world's fisheries.<ref>[https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1132294 sciencemag.org Worm, Boris, ''et. a;.'' ""Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services,"" ''Science'', 3 November 2006.]</ref> In recent years an accelerating decline has been observed in the productivity of many important fisheries.<ref>Christy, F.T., and Scott, A.D. (1965), ''The common Wealth in Ocean Fisheries'', Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore</ref> Fisheries which have been devastated in recent times include (but are not limited to) the great whale fisheries, the Grand Bank fisheries of the western Atlantic, and the Peruvian anchovy fishery.<ref name=""Clark 1973"">{{cite journal | last1 = Clark | first1 = C.W. | year = 1973 | title = The Economics of Overexploitation | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/181/4100/630 | journal = Science | volume = 118 | issue = 4100| pages = 630–634 | doi = 10.1126/science.181.4100.630 | pmid = 17736970 | bibcode = 1973Sci...181..630C | s2cid = 30839110 }}</ref> Recent assessments by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the state of the world's fisheries indicate a levelling off of landings in the 1990s, at about 100 million tons.<ref>FAO, Review of the State of World Marine Fishery Resources, FAO Technical Paper 335 (1994).</ref>

In addition, the composition of global catches has changed.<ref>[[Callum Roberts (biologist)|Roberts, C.]] (2007), ''The Unnatural History of the Sea'', Island Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59726-102-9}}</ref> As fishers deplete larger, long-lived predatory fish species such as cod, tuna, shark, and snapper, they move down to the next level – to species that tend to be smaller, shorter-lived, and less valuable.<ref name=""Pauly1998"">{{cite journal|last1=Pauly|first1=D.|title=Fishing Down Marine Food Webs|journal=Science|volume=279|issue=5352|year=1998|pages=860–863|issn=0036-8075|doi=10.1126/science.279.5352.860|pmid=9452385|bibcode=1998Sci...279..860P}}</ref>

Overfishing is a classic example of the [[tragedy of the commons]].<ref name=""Clark 1973""/>

== Optimum sustainable yield ==
{{see also|Optimum sustainable yield}}
In [[population ecology]] and [[economics]], '''optimum sustainable yield''' is the [[Level of Effort|level of effort]] (LOE) that maximizes the difference between total revenue and total cost. Or, where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. This level of effort maximizes the economic profit, or rent, of the resource being utilized. It usually corresponds to an effort level lower than that of maximum sustainable yield.
In [[environmental science]], '''optimum sustainable yield''' is the largest economical yield of a renewable resource achievable over a long time period without decreasing the ability of the population or its environment to support the continuation of this level of yield.

==See also==
* ''[[All the Fish in the Sea: Maximum Sustainable Yield and the Failure of Fisheries Management]]''
* [[Ecological yield]]
* [[Fisheries management]]
* [[List of harvested aquatic animals by weight]]
* [[Maximum economic yield]] (MEY)
* [[Population dynamics]]
* [[Population dynamics of fisheries]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{fishery science topics|expanded=management}}
{{modelling ecosystems|expanded=none}}

[[Category:Fisheries science]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Renewable resources]]
[[Category:Sustainability metrics and indices]]
[[Category:Fishing and the environment]]"
Conservation movement,"{{Short description|Social and political advocacy for protecting natural resources}}
{{Distinguish|Conservatism}}
{{For|specific types of conservation|Conservation (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Conservationism|biological conservationism management|Conservation biology}}
{{Party politics}}

The '''conservation movement''', also known as '''[[nature conservation]]''', is a political, environmental, and social movement that seeks to manage and protect [[natural resource]]s, including animal, fungus, and plant species as well as their habitat for the future.  Conservationists are concerned with leaving the environment in a better state than the condition they found it in.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harding|first=Russ|title=Conservationist or Environmentalist?|url=http://www.mackinac.org/9852|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-02|website=[[Mackinac Center for Public Policy]]|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203181206/http://www.mackinac.org/9852 |archive-date=2008-12-03 }}</ref> [[Evidence-based conservation]] seeks to use high quality scientific evidence to make conservation efforts more effective.

The early conservation movement evolved out of necessity to maintain natural resources such as [[fisheries]], [[wildlife management]], [[water]], [[soil]], as well as [[conservation (ethic)|conservation]] and [[sustainable forestry]]. The contemporary conservation movement has broadened from the early movement's emphasis on use of sustainable yield of natural resources and preservation of [[wilderness]] areas to include preservation of [[biodiversity]]. Some say the conservation movement is part of the broader and more far-reaching [[environmental movement]], while others argue that they differ both in ideology and practice. Conservation is seen as differing from [[environmentalism]] and it is generally a conservative school of thought which aims to preserve natural resources expressly for their continued [[sustainable]] use by humans.<ref>{{cite book
| last      = Gifford
| first     = John C.
| title     = Living by the Land
| publisher = Glade House
| year      = 1945
| location  = Coral Gables, Florida
| pages     = 8
| asin      = B0006EUXGQ }}</ref>

== History ==
{{See also|Timeline of environmental events}}

===Early history===
[[File:Sylva paper 1662.jpg|right|thumb| ''Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions,'' title page of the first edition (1664)]]
The conservation movement can be traced back to [[John Evelyn]]'s work ''[[Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber|Sylva]]'', presented as a paper to the [[Royal Society]] in 1662. Published as a book two years later, it was one of the most highly influential texts on [[forestry]] ever published.<ref>[[John Evelyn]], ''Sylva, Or A Discourse of Forest Trees ... with an Essay on the Life and Works of the Author by John Nisbet'', Fourth Edition (1706), reprinted London: Doubleday & Co., 1908, V1, p. lxv; online edn, March 2007 [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20778/20778-h/20778-h.htm], accessed 29 Dec 2012. This source (John Nisbet) states: ""There can be no doubt that John Evelyn, both during his own lifetime and throughout the two centuries which have elapsed since his death in 1706, has exerted more individual influence, through his charming ''Sylva'', ... than can be ascribed to any other individual."" Nisbet adds that ""Evelyn was by no means the first [author] who wrote on [forestry]. That honour belongs to Master [[Anthony Fitzherbert|Fitzherbert]], whose ''Boke of Husbandrie'' was published in 1534"" (V1, p. lxvi).</ref> Timbre resources in England were becoming dangerously depleted at the time, and Evelyn advocated the importance of conserving the forests by managing the rate of depletion and ensuring that the cut down trees get replenished.

The field developed during the 18th century, especially in [[Prussia]] and France where scientific forestry methods were developed. These methods were first applied rigorously in [[British India]] from the early 19th century. The government was interested in the use of [[forest produce]] and began managing the forests with measures to reduce the risk of wildfire in order to protect the ""household"" of nature, as it was then termed. This early ecological idea was in order to preserve the growth of delicate [[teak]] trees, which was an important resource for the [[Royal Navy]].

Concerns over teak depletion were raised as early as 1799 and 1805 when the Navy was undergoing a massive expansion during the [[Napoleonic War]]s; this pressure led to the first formal conservation Act, which prohibited the felling of small teak trees. The first forestry officer was appointed in 1806 to regulate and preserve the trees necessary for shipbuilding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/forestry/history.htm|title=History of forests in India|access-date=2013-10-13|archive-date=2018-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904091500/http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/forestry/history.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

This promising start received a setback in the 1820s and 30s, when [[laissez-faire]] economics and complaints from private landowners brought these early conservation attempts to an end.

In 1837, American poet [[George Pope Morris]] published ""Woodman, Spare that Tree!"", a [[Romantic poetry|Romantic]] poem urging a lumberjack to avoid an [[Oak|oak tree]] that has sentimental value. The poem was set to music later that year by [[Henry Russell (musician)|Henry Russell]]. Lines from the song have been quoted by environmentalists.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26401592|title=Best remembered poems|date=1992|publisher=Dover Publications|others=Martin Gardner|isbn=0-486-27165-X|location=New York|pages=118|language=English|oclc=26401592}}</ref>

===Origins of the modern conservation movement===
Conservation was revived in the mid-19th century, with the first practical application of scientific conservation principles to the forests of India. The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: that human activity damaged the [[Natural environment|environment]], that there was a [[civic duty]] to maintain the environment for future generations, and that scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out. Sir [[James Ranald Martin]] was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing many medico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for the institutionalization of forest conservation activities in [[British India]] through the establishment of [[Indian Forest Service|Forest Departments]].<ref>Stebbing, E.P (1922)''The forests of India'' vol. 1, pp. 72-81</ref> [[Edward Percy Stebbing]] warned of [[desertification]] of India. The [[Madras]] Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed by [[Alexander Gibson (botanist)|Alexander Gibson]], a professional [[botany|botanist]] who systematically adopted a forest conservation program based on scientific principles. This was the first case of state management of forests in the world.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barton |first=Greg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDYlNljAP5AC|title=Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=48|isbn=9781139434607 }}</ref>

These local attempts gradually received more attention by the British government as the unregulated felling of trees continued unabated. In 1850, the [[British Association]] in Edinburgh formed a committee to study forest destruction at the behest of [[Hugh Francis Cleghorn|Hugh Cleghorn]] a pioneer in the nascent conservation movement.

He had become interested in [[Sustainable forest management|forest conservation]] in [[Mysore]] in 1847 and gave several lectures at the Association on the failure of agriculture in India. These lectures influenced the government under [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] to introduce the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation program in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread to [[British empire|other colonies]], as well the [[United States]]. In the same year, Cleghorn organised the [[Tamil Nadu Forest Department|Madras Forest Department]] and in 1860 the department banned the use [[shifting cultivation]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/11/05/stories/2007110550080500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071108213227/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/11/05/stories/2007110550080500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 8, 2007|title=A life for forestry|last=MUTHIAH|first=S. |date=Nov 5, 2007|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=2009-03-09}}</ref> Cleghorn's 1861 manual, ''The forests and gardens of South India'', became the definitive work on the subject and was widely used by forest assistants in the subcontinent.<ref name=""Cleghorn"">{{cite book|last=Cleghorn|first=Hugh Francis Clarke |title=The Forests and Gardens of South India |publisher=W. H. Allen|location=London|year= 1861|edition=Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized Feb 10, 2006|oclc= 301345427|url=http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/301345427?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ZbC9FY1JqIC%26checksum%3D374d90c92770a514a51708f07461f0b3&title=&linktype=digitalObject&detail=}}</ref> In 1861, the Forest Department extended its remit into the [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Oliver|first=J.W.|title=The Indian Forester|publisher=R. P. Sharma, Business Manager, Indian Forester|location=Allahabad|year=1901|edition=Original from Harvard University, Digitized Apr 4, 2008|volume= v.27 |pages=617–623|chapter=Forestry in India|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2U8YAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Douglas+Hamilton%22+madras++-johnson+-elephant+-whale+-william+1862&pg=PA623}}</ref>

[[File:Sir William Schlich07.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Schlich, in the middle of the seated row, with students from the forestry school at Oxford, on a visit to the forests of Saxony in the year 1892]]
Sir [[Dietrich Brandis]], a [[Germany|German]] forester, joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the teak forests of Pegu division in eastern [[Myanmar|Burma]]. During that time Burma's [[teak]] forests were controlled by militant [[Karen people|Karen]] tribals. He introduced the ""taungya"" system,<ref>King KFS (1968). ""Agro-silviculture (the taungya system)"". University of Ibadan / Dept. of Forestry, Bulletin no. 1, 109</ref> in which Karen villagers provided labor for clearing, planting and weeding teak plantations. After seven years in Burma, Brandis was appointed Inspector General of Forests in India, a position he served in for 20 years. He formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. The [[Imperial Forest School]] at [[Dehradun]] was founded by him.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weil|first1=Benjamin|title=Conservation, Exploitation, and Cultural Change in the Indian Forest Service, 1875-1927|journal=Environmental History|date=1 April 2006|volume=11|issue=2|pages=319–343|doi=10.1093/envhis/11.2.319|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233861694}}</ref><ref>Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, ''This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India'' (1993)</ref>

Germans were prominent in the forestry administration of British India. As well as Brandis, [[Berthold Ribbentrop]] and [[Sir William P.D. Schlich]] brought new methods to Indian conservation, the latter becoming the Inspector-General in 1883 after Brandis stepped down. Schlich helped to establish the journal ''[[Indian Forester]]'' in 1874, and became the founding director of the first [[forestry]] school in England at [[Royal Indian Engineering College|Cooper's Hill]] in 1885.<ref>Burley, Jeffery, et al. 2009. ""A History of Forestry at Oxford"", ''British Scholar'', Vol. 1, No. 2., pp.236-261. Accessed: May 6, 2012.</ref> He authored the five-volume ''Manual of Forestry'' (1889–96) on [[silviculture]], [[forest management]], [[forest protection]], and forest utilization, which became the standard and enduring textbook for forestry students.

===Conservation in the United States===
[[File:Yellowstone 1871b.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden|F. V. Hayden]]'s map of [[Yellowstone National Park]], 1871]]
{{Main|Conservation in the United States}}
The American movement received its inspiration from 19th century works that exalted the inherent value of nature, quite apart from human usage. Author [[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817–1862) made key philosophical contributions that exalted nature. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book ''[[Walden]],'' which argued that people should become intimately close with nature.<ref>{{Citation|author=Thoreau, Henry David|title=Walden|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1189910652|oclc=1189910652|access-date=2022-02-26}}</ref> The ideas of [[Dietrich Brandis|Sir Brandis]], [[Sir William P.D. Schlich]] and [[Carl A. Schenck]] were also very influential—[[Gifford Pinchot]], the first chief of the [[USDA Forest Service]], relied heavily upon Brandis' advice for introducing professional forest management in the U.S. and on how to structure the Forest Service.<ref>[http://www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/journals/Golden_jubilee_vol/articles/H_468%20(Brett%20M%20Benet).htm America has been the context for both the origins of conservation history and its modern form, environmental history] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313144333/http://www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/journals/Golden_jubilee_vol/articles/H_468%20%28Brett%20M%20Benet%29.htm |date=2012-03-13 }}. Asiaticsociety.org.bd. Retrieved on 2011-09-01.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rawat |first=Ajay Singh |title=Indian Forestry: A Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5IZYFP15OscC&pg=PA85|year=1993|publisher=Indus Publishing|pages=85–88|isbn=9788185182780 }}</ref>

Both conservationists and preservationists appeared in political debates during the [[Progressive Era]] (the 1890s–early 1920s). There were three main positions.

* '''Laissez-faire:''' The laissez-faire position held that owners of private property—including lumber and mining companies, should be allowed to do anything they wished on their properties.<ref>Samuel P. Hays, ''Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920'' (1959)</ref>
* '''Conservationists:''' The conservationists, led by future President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and his close ally [[George Bird Grinnell]], were motivated by the wanton waste that was taking place at the hand of market forces, including logging and hunting.<ref>Benjamin Redekop, ""Embodying the Story: The Conservation Leadership of Theodore Roosevelt"" in ''Leadership'' (2015).  DOI: 10.1177/1742715014546875.  [http://cnu.edu/leadershipstudies/faculty/pdf/redekop-embodying_the_story_theodore_roosevelts_conservation_leadership.pdf online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114045519/http://cnu.edu/leadershipstudies/faculty/pdf/redekop-embodying_the_story_theodore_roosevelts_conservation_leadership.pdf |date=2016-01-14 }}</ref> This practice resulted in placing a large number of North American game species on the edge of extinction. Roosevelt recognized that the laissez-faire approach of the U.S. Government was too wasteful and inefficient. In any case, they noted, most of the natural resources in the western states were already owned by the federal government.  The best course of action, they argued, was a long-term plan devised by national experts to maximize the long-term economic benefits of natural resources. To accomplish the mission, Roosevelt and Grinnell formed the [[Boone and Crockett Club]], whose members were some of the best minds and influential men of the day. Its contingency of conservationists, scientists, politicians, and intellectuals became Roosevelt's closest advisers during his march to preserve wildlife and habitat across North America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archives of the Boone and Crockett Club|url=http://cdm16013.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p16013coll13/id/1220/rec/1}}</ref> 
* '''Preservationists:''' Preservationists, led by [[John Muir]] (1838–1914), argued that the conservation policies were not strong enough to protect the interest of the natural world because they continued to focus on the natural world as a source of economic production.

The debate between conservation and preservation reached its peak in the public debates over the construction of California's [[O'Shaughnessy Dam (California)|Hetch Hetchy dam]] in [[Yosemite National Park]] which supplies the water supply of San Francisco. Muir, leading the [[Sierra Club]], declared that the valley must be preserved for the sake of its beauty: ""No holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man.""

President [[Theodore Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] put conservationist issues high on the national agenda.<ref>Douglas G. Brinkley, ''The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America'' (2009)</ref> He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter, [[Gifford Pinchot]] and was deeply committed to conserving natural resources. He encouraged the [[Newlands Reclamation Act]] of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup> or 930,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) under federal protection. Roosevelt set aside more federal land for [[national park]]s and [[nature preserve]]s than all of his predecessors combined.<ref>W. Todd Benson, ''President Theodore Roosevelt's Conservations Legacy'' (2003)</ref>
[[File:TR-Enviro.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Roosevelt was a leader in conservation, fighting to end the waste of natural resources.]]

Roosevelt established the [[United States Forest Service]], signed into law the creation of five national parks, and signed the year 1906 [[Antiquities Act]], under which he proclaimed 18 new [[National monument (United States)|national monuments]]. He also established the first 51 [[bird reserve]]s, four [[game preserve]]s, and 150 [[United States National Forest|national forests]], including [[Shoshone National Forest]], the nation's first. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately {{convert|230000000|acre|km2}}.

[[Gifford Pinchot]] had been appointed by McKinley as chief of Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture. In 1905, his department gained control of the national forest reserves.  Pinchot promoted private use (for a fee) under federal supervision. In 1907, Roosevelt designated 16 million acres (65,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) of new national forests just minutes before a deadline.<ref>Char Miller, ''Seeking the Greatest Good: The Conservation Legacy of Gifford Pinchot'' (2013)</ref>

In May 1908, Roosevelt sponsored the [[Conference of Governors]] held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use. Roosevelt delivered the opening address: ""Conservation as a National Duty"".

In 1903 Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with [[John Muir]], who had a very different view of conservation, and tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests.  Working through the Sierra Club he founded, Muir succeeded in 1905 in having Congress transfer the [[Mariposa Grove]] and Yosemite Valley to the federal government.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Statutes at Large, Vol. 26, Chap. 1263, pp. 650-52. ""An act to set apart certain tracts of land in the State of California as forest reservations."" [H.R. 12187]|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=amrvl&fileName=vl044//amrvlvl044.db&recNum=1&itemLink=r?ammem/consrvbib:@FIELD%28NUMBER%28vl044+v1512%29%29&linkText=0|work=Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850-1920|publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref> While Muir wanted nature preserved for its own sake, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, ""to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees.""<ref>Gifford Pinchot, ''Breaking New Ground,'' (1947) p. 32.</ref>

Theodore Roosevelt's view on conservationism remained dominant for decades; [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] authorised the building of many large-scale dams and water projects, as well as the expansion of the National Forest System to buy out sub-marginal farms.  In 1937, the [[Pittman–Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act]] was signed into law, providing funding for state agencies to carry out their conservation efforts.
[[File:Theodore Roosevelt with dead lion.jpg|thumb|Theodore Roosevelt with trophy killing]]
====Since 1970====
Environmental reemerged on the national agenda in 1970, with Republican [[Richard Nixon]] playing a major role, especially with his creation of the [[Environmental Protection Agency]]. The debates over the public lands and environmental politics played a supporting role in the decline of liberalism and the rise of modern environmentalism. Although Americans consistently rank environmental issues as ""important"", polling data indicates that in the voting booth voters rank the environmental issues low relative to other political concerns.

The growth of the Republican party's political power in the inland West (apart from the Pacific coast) was facilitated by the rise of popular opposition to public lands reform.  Successful Democrats in the inland West and Alaska typically take more conservative positions on environmental issues than Democrats from the Coastal states.  Conservatives drew on new organizational networks of think tanks, industry groups, and citizen-oriented organizations, and they began to deploy new strategies that affirmed the rights of individuals to their property, protection of extraction rights, to hunt and recreate, and to pursue happiness unencumbered by the federal government at the expense of resource conservation.<ref>* Turner, James Morton, ""The Specter of Environmentalism"": Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the Evolution of the New Right. ''The Journal of American History'' 96.1 (2009): 123-47 [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/96.1/turner.html online at History Cooperative] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703095241/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/96.1/turner.html |date=2009-07-03 }}</ref>

In 2019, convivial conservation was an idea proposed by Bram Büscher and Robert Fletcher. Convivial conservation draws on social movements and concepts like [[environmental justice]] and structural change to create a post-capitalist approach to conservation.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183pdh2|title=Nature Inc.|date=2014-05-29|publisher=University of Arizona Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt183pdh2|isbn=978-0-8165-9885-4|editor-last=Büscher|editor-first=Bram|editor-last2=Dressler|editor-first2=Wolfram|editor-last3=Fletcher|editor-first3=Robert}}</ref> Convivial conservation rejects both human-nature dichotomies and capitalistic political economies. Built on a politics of equity, structural change and  environmental  justice, convivial conservation is considered a radical theory as it focuses on the structural political-economy of modern nation states and the need to create structural change.<ref name="":4"">Büscher, B. and Fletcher, R., 2019. Towards convivial conservation. ''Conservation & Society'', ''17''(3), pp.283-296.  </ref> Convivial conservation creates a more integrated approach which reconfigures the nature-human configuration to create a world in which humans are recognized as a part of nature. The emphasis on nature as for and by humans creates a human responsibility to care for the environment as a way of caring for themselves. It also redefines nature as not only being pristine and untouched, but cultivated by humans in everyday formats. The theory is a long term process of structural change to move away from capitalist valuation in favor of a system emphasizing everyday and local living.<ref name="":4"" /> Convivial conservation creates a nature which includes humans rather than excluding them from the necessity of conservation. While other conservation theories integrate some of the elements of convivial conservation, none move away from both dichotomies and capitalist valuation principles. 

===== The five elements of convivial conservation =====
Source:<ref name="":4"" />

# The promotion of nature for, to and by humans
# The movement away from the concept of conservation as saving only nonhuman nature
# Emphasis on the long-term democratic engagement with nature rather than elite access and tourism,
# The movement away from the spectacle of nature and instead focusing on the mundane ‘everyday nature’
# The democratic management of nature, with nature as commons and in context

=== Racism and the Conservation Movement ===
The early years of the environmental and conservation movements were rooted in the safeguarding of game to support the recreation activities of elite white men, such as hunting.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal |last=Hellegers |first=Desiree |date=December 2017 |title=The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege and Environmental Protection by Dorceta E. Taylor |url=https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/cjh.ach.52.3.rev22 |journal=Canadian Journal of History |language=en |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=609–611 |doi=10.3138/cjh.ach.52.3.rev22 |issn=0008-4107}}</ref> This led to an economy to support and perpetuate these activities as well as the continued wilderness conservation to support the corporate interests supplying the hunters with the equipment needed for their sport.<ref name="":5"" /> Game parks in England and the United States allowed wealthy hunters and fishermen to deplete wildlife, while hunting by Indigenous groups, laborers and the working class, and poor citizens--especially for the express use of sustenance--was vigorously monitored.<ref name="":5"" /> Scholars have shown that the establishment of the U.S. national parks, while setting aside land for preservation, was also a continuation of preserving the land for the recreation and enjoyment of elite white hunters and nature enthusiasts.<ref name="":5"" />

While Theodore Roosevelt was one of the leading activists for the conservation movement in the United States, he also believed that the threats to the natural world were equally threats to white Americans. Roosevelt and his contemporaries held the belief that the cities, industries and factories that were overtaking the wilderness and threatening the native plants and animals were also consuming and threatening the racial vigor that they believed white Americans held which made them superior.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite book |author=Powell, Miles A. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/973532814 |title=Vanishing America : species extinction, racial peril, and the origins of conservation |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-674-97295-7 |oclc=973532814}}</ref> Roosevelt was a big believer that white male virility depended on wildlife for its vigor, and that, consequently, depleting wildlife would result in a racially weaker nation.<ref name="":2"" /> This lead Roosevelt to support the passing of many immigration restrictions, eugenics legislations and wildlife preservation laws.<ref name="":2"" /> For instance, Roosevelt established the first national parks through the Antiquities Act of 1906 while also endorsing the removal of Indigenous Americans from their tribal lands within the parks.<ref name="":6"">Purdy, Jedediah (August 13, 2015). ""Environmentalism's Racist History"". ''The New Yorker''.</ref> This move was promoted and endorsed by other leaders of the conservation movement, including Frederick Law Olmsted, a leading landscape architect, conservationist, and supporter of the national park system, and Gifford Pinchot, a leading eugenicist and conservationist.<ref name="":6"" /> Furthering the economic exploitation of the environment and national parks for wealthy whites was the beginning of ecotourism in the parks, which included allowing some Indigenous Americans to remain so that the tourists could get what was to be considered the full ""wilderness experience"".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Merchant |first=Carolyn |date=2003-07-01 |title=Shades of Darkness: Race and Environmental History |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/3986200 |journal=Environmental History |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=380–394 |doi=10.2307/3986200 |issn=1084-5453}}</ref>

Another long-term supporter, partner, and inspiration to Roosevelt, Madison Grant was a well known American eugenicist and conservationist.<ref name="":2"" /> Grant worked alongside Roosevelt in the American conservation movement and was even secretary and president of the Boone and Crockett Club.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite book |last=Peter. |first=Spiro, Jonathan |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/227929377 |title=Defending the master race : conservation, eugenics, and the legacy of Madison Grant |date=2009 |publisher=University of Vermont Press |isbn=978-1-58465-715-6 |oclc=227929377}}</ref> In 1916, Grant published the book ""The Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History"", which based its premise on eugenics and outlined a hierarchy of races, with white, ""Nordic"" men at the top, and all other races below.<ref name="":3"" /> The German translation of this book was used by Nazi Germany as the source for many of their beliefs<ref name="":3"" /> and was even proclaimed by Hitler to be his ""Bible"".<ref name="":6"" />

One of the first established conservation agencies in the United States is the National Audubon Society. Founded in 1905, its priority was to protect and conserve various waterbird species.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite web |date=2015-01-09 |title=The History of Audubon |url=https://www.audubon.org/about/history-audubon-and-waterbird-conservation |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=Audubon |language=en}}</ref> However, the first state-level Audubon group was created in 1896 by Harriet Hemenway and Minna B. Hall to convince women to refrain from buying hats made with bird feathers- a common practice at the time.<ref name="":02"" /> The organization is named after John Audubon, a naturalist and legendary bird painter.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite web |date=2020-07-31 |title=The Myth of John James Audubon |url=https://www.audubon.org/news/the-myth-john-james-audubon |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=Audubon |language=en}}</ref> Audubon was also a slaveholder who also included many racist tales in his books.<ref name="":12"" /> Despite his views of racial inequality, Audubon did find black and Indigenous people to be scientifically useful, often using their local knowledge in his books and relying on them to collect specimens for him.<ref name="":12"" />

The ideology of the conservation movement in Germany paralleled that of the U.S. and England.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal |last=Landry |first=Marc |date=February 2010 |title=How Brown were the Conservationists? Naturism, Conservation, and National Socialism, 1900–1945 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0960777309990208/type/journal_article |journal=Contemporary European History |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=83–93 |doi=10.1017/S0960777309990208 |issn=0960-7773}}</ref> Early German naturalists of the 20th century turned to the wilderness to escape the industrialization of cities. However, many of these early conservationists became part of and influenced the Nazi party. Like elite and influential Americans of the early 20th century, they embraced eugenics and racism and promoted the idea that Nordic people are superior.<ref name="":7"" />

=== Conservation in Costa Rica ===
[[File:Areas Conservacion CR.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Costa Rica divided into different areas of conservation]]{{Excerpt|Conservation in Costa Rica}}

=== World Wide Fund for Nature ===
{{Main|World Wide Fund for Nature}}

{{Cquote|quote=You know, when we first set up WWF, our objective was to save endangered species from extinction. But we have failed completely; we haven't managed to save a single one. If only we had put all that money into condoms, we might have done some good.|author=[[Sir Peter Scott]], Founder of the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]]|source=''Cosmos Magazine'', 2010<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.cosmosmagazine.com/opinion/a-plague-people/|title=A plague of people|work=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]]|date=13 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106130856/http://archive.cosmosmagazine.com/opinion/a-plague-people/|archive-date=6 November 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>}}

The [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) is an [[Internationalism (politics)|international]] [[non-governmental organization]] founded in 1961, working in the field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of [[human impact on the environment]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last1=Troëng|first1=Sebastian|last2=Rankin|first2=Eddy|date=2005-01-01|title=Long-term conservation efforts contribute to positive green turtle Chelonia mydas nesting trend at Tortuguero, Costa Rica|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=121|issue=1|pages=111–116|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2004.04.014|issn=0006-3207}}</ref> It was formerly named the ""World Wildlife Fund"", which remains its official name in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]].<ref name="":0"" />

WWF is the world's largest [[environmental organization|conservation organization]] with over five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries, supporting around 1,300 conservation and environmental projects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/project/|title=WWF conservation projects around the world}}</ref>  They have invested over $1 billion in more than 12,000 conservation initiatives since 1995.<ref name=""WorldWildLife"">{{cite web|title=WWF - Endangered Species Conservation|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org|website=World Wildlife Fund|access-date=18 April 2018}}</ref> WWF is a [[Foundation (nonprofit)|foundation]] with 55% of funding from individuals and bequests, 19% from government sources (such as the [[World Bank]], [[Department for International Development|DFID]], [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]]) and 8% from corporations in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwf.panda.org/who_we_are/organization/|title=How is WWF run?|access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref><ref name=""WWF-INT Annual Review"">{{cite book |title = WWFN-International Annual Review|year = 2014|publisher = World Wide Fund for Nature|url = http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/ar2014_v13_final_lr_sp.pdf|access-date = 17 September 2015|page = 37}}</ref>

WWF aims to ""stop the degradation of the planet's natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.""<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wwf.panda.org/mission_principles_goals.cfm |title=WWF's Mission, Guiding Principles and Goals |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=<!--Not stated--> |website=WWF |access-date=2019-01-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113210818/https://wwf.panda.org/mission_principles_goals.cfm| archive-date=2019-01-13}}</ref> The [[Living Planet Report]] is published every two years by WWF since 1998; it is based on a [[Living Planet Index]] and [[ecological footprint]] calculation.<ref name="":0"" /> In addition, WWF has launched several notable worldwide campaigns including [[Earth Hour]] and [[Debt-for-Nature Swap]], and its current work is organized around these six areas: food, climate, freshwater, wildlife, forests, and oceans.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name=""WorldWildLife"" />

==== ""Conservation Far"" approach ====
Institutions such as the WWF have historically been the cause of the displacement and divide between Indigenous populations and the lands they inhabit. The reason is because of the organization's historically colonial, paternalistic, and neoliberal approaches to conservation. Claus, in her article ""Drawing the Sea Near: Satoumi and Coral Reef Conservation in Okinawa"", expands on this approach, called ""conservation far"", in which access to lands is open to  external foreign entities, such as researchers and/or tourists, but prohibited to local populations. The conservation initiatives are therefore taking place ""far"" away. This entity is largely unaware of the customs and values held by those within the territory surrounding nature and their role within it.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book |last=Claus |first=C. Anne |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1156432505 |title=Drawing the sea near : satoumi and coral reef conservation in Okinawa |date=2020 |isbn=978-1-4529-5947-4 |location=Minneapolis |oclc=1156432505}}</ref> 

==== ""Conservation Near"" Approach ====
In Japan, the town of Shiraho had traditional ways of tending to nature that were lost due to colonization and militarization by the United States. The return to traditional sustainability practices constituted a “conservation near” approach. This engages those near in proximity to the lands in the conservation efforts.and holds them accountable for their direct effects on its preservation. While conservation-far drills visuals and sight as being the main interaction medium between people and the environment, conservation near includes a hands-on, full sensory experience permitted by conservation-near methodologies.<ref name="":1"" /> An emphasis on observation only stems from a deeper association with intellect and observation. The alternative to this is more of a bodily or ""primitive"" consciousness, which is associated with lower-intelligence and people of color. A new, integrated approach to conservation is being investigated in recent years by institutions such as WWF.<ref name="":1"" /> The socionatural relationships centered on the interactions based in reciprocity and empathy, making conservation efforts being accountable to the local community and ways of life, changing in response to values, ideals, and beliefs of the locals. Japanese seascapes are often integral to the identity of the residents and includes historical memories and spiritual engagements which need to be recognized and considered.<ref name="":1"" /> The involvement of communities gives residents a stake in the issue, leading to a long-term solution which emphasizes sustainable resource usage and the empowerment of the communities. Conservation efforts are able to take into consideration cultural values rather than the foreign ideals that are often imposed by foreign activists. 

==Evidence-based conservation==
{{Excerpt|Evidence-based conservation}}

== Areas of concern ==
[[File:Suojelutaulu.JPG|thumb|A conservation area's sign in the [[Finland|Finnish]] forest. It says, ""A conservation area protected by law"".]]
[[Deforestation]] and [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]] are issues affecting all regions of the world.  The consequent destruction of wildlife habitat has prompted the creation of conservation groups in other countries, some founded by local hunters who have witnessed declining wildlife populations first hand.  Also, it was highly important for the conservation movement to solve problems of living conditions in the cities and the overpopulation of such places.

=== Boreal forest and the Arctic ===
The idea of incentive conservation is a modern one but its practice has clearly defended some of the sub Arctic wildernesses and the wildlife in those regions for thousands of years, especially by indigenous peoples such as the Evenk, Yakut, Sami, Inuit and Cree. The fur trade and hunting by these peoples have preserved these regions for thousands of years. Ironically, the pressure now upon them comes from non-renewable resources such as oil, sometimes to make synthetic clothing which is advocated as a humane substitute for fur. (See [[Raccoon dog]] for case study of the conservation of an animal through fur trade.) Similarly, in the case of the beaver, hunting and fur trade were thought to bring about the animal's demise, when in fact they were an integral part of its conservation. For many years children's books stated and still do, that the decline in the beaver population was due to the fur trade. In reality however, the decline in beaver numbers was because of habitat destruction and deforestation, as well as its continued persecution as a pest (it causes flooding). In Cree lands, however, where the population valued the animal for meat and fur, it continued to thrive. The Inuit defend their relationship with the seal in response to outside critics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icc.gl/UserFiles/File/sealskin/2006-03-07_icc_saelskind_pressemeddelse_eng.pdf|title=Inuit Ask Europeans to Support Its Seal Hunt and Way of Life|date=6 March 2006|access-date=12 July 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070628204105/http://www.icc.gl/UserFiles/File/sealskin/2006-03-07_icc_saelskind_pressemeddelse_eng.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 28 June 2007}}</ref>

=== Latin America (Bolivia) ===
The [[Izoceño people|Izoceño]]-[[Guaraní people|Guaraní]] of [[Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia)|Santa Cruz Department]], [[Bolivia]], is a tribe of hunters who were influential in establishing the Capitania del Alto y Bajo Isoso (CABI). CABI promotes economic growth and survival of the Izoceno people while discouraging the rapid destruction of habitat within Bolivia's [[Gran Chaco]]. They are responsible for the creation of the 34,000 square kilometre Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Area (KINP).  The KINP protects the most biodiverse portion of the Gran Chaco, an ecoregion shared with Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. In 1996, the [[Wildlife Conservation Society]] joined forces with CABI to institute wildlife and hunting monitoring programs in 23 Izoceño communities. The partnership combines traditional beliefs and local knowledge with the political and administrative tools needed to effectively manage habitats. The programs rely solely on voluntary participation by local hunters who perform self-monitoring techniques and keep records of their hunts.  The information obtained by the hunters participating in the program has provided CABI with important data required to make educated decisions about the use of the land. Hunters have been willing participants in this program because of pride in their traditional activities, encouragement by their communities and expectations of benefits to the area.

=== Africa (Botswana) ===
In order to discourage illegal South African hunting parties and ensure future local use and sustainability, indigenous hunters in [[Botswana]] began lobbying for and implementing conservation practices in the 1960s. The Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland (FPS) was formed in 1962 by the husband and wife team: Robert Kay and June Kay, environmentalists working in conjunction with the Batawana tribes to preserve wildlife habitat.

The FPS promotes habitat conservation and provides local education for preservation of wildlife. Conservation initiatives were met with strong opposition from the Botswana government because of the monies tied to big-game hunting. In 1963, BaTawanga Chiefs and tribal hunter/adventurers in conjunction with the FPS founded [[Moremi Wildlife Reserve|Moremi National Park and Wildlife Refuge]], the first area to be set aside by tribal people rather than governmental forces. Moremi National Park is home to a variety of wildlife, including lions, giraffes, elephants, buffalo, zebra, cheetahs and antelope, and covers an area of 3,000 square kilometers.  Most of the groups involved with establishing this protected land were involved with hunting and were motivated by their personal observations of declining wildlife and habitat.

== See also ==
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Politics|Society|Earth sciences|Energy}}
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Australian Grains Genebank]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation ethic]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Ecology movement]]
* [[Energy conservation]]
* [[Environmental history]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Environmentalism]]
* ''[[Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850–1920]]''
* [[Factor 10]]
* [[Forest protection]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[Marine conservation]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Natural landscape]]
* [[Soil conservation]]
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[National Park Service|U.S. National Park Service]]
* [[Water conservation]]
* [[Wetland conservation]]
* [[Wildlife conservation]]
* [[Wildlife management]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
===World===
* Barton, Gregory A.  ''Empire, Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism,'' (2002), covers British Empire
* Clover, Charles.  ''The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat''. (2004) Ebury Press, London. {{ISBN|0-09-189780-7}}
* Haq, Gary, and Alistair Paul. ''Environmentalism since 1945'' (Routledge, 2013).
* Jones, Eric L. ""The History of Natural Resource Exploitation in the Western World,"" ''Research in Economic History,'' 1991 Supplement 6, pp 235–252
* McNeill, John R. ''Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth Century'' (2000).

===Regional studies===
====Africa====
* Adams, Jonathan S.; McShane, Thomas O. ''Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation without Illusion'' (1992) 266p; covers 1900 to 1980s
* Anderson, David; Grove, Richard. ''Conservation in Africa: People, Policies & Practice'' (1988), 355pp
* Bolaane, Maitseo.  ""Chiefs, Hunters & Adventurers:  The Foundation of the Okavango/Moremi National Park, Botswana"".  ''Journal of Historical Geography.'' 31.2 (Apr. 2005): 241–259.
*  Carruthers, Jane. ""Africa: Histories, Ecologies, and Societies,"" Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp.&nbsp;379–406;
* Showers, Kate B. ''Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho'' (2005) 346pp

====Asia-Pacific====
* Bolton, Geoffrey. ''Spoils and Spoilers: Australians Make Their Environment, 1788-1980'' (1981) 197pp
* Economy, Elizabeth. ''The River Runs Black: The Environmental Challenge to China's Future'' (2010)
* Elvin, Mark. ''The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China''  (2006)
* Grove, Richard H.; Damodaran, Vinita Jain; Sangwan, Satpal. ''Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia'' (1998) 1036pp
* Johnson, Erik W., Saito, Yoshitaka, and Nishikido, Makoto. ""Organizational Demography of Japanese Environmentalism,"" ''Sociological Inquiry,'' Nov 2009, Vol. 79 Issue 4, pp 481–504
* [[Valmik Thapar|Thapar, Valmik]]. ''Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent'' (1998) 288pp

====Latin America====
* Boyer, Christopher. ''Political Landscapes: Forests, Conservation, and Community in Mexico''. Duke University Press (2015)
* [[Warren Dean|Dean, Warren]]. ''With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest'' (1997)
* Evans, S. ''The Green Republic: A Conservation History of Costa Rica''. University of Texas Press. (1999)
* Funes Monzote, Reinaldo. ''From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492'' (2008)
* Melville, Elinor G. K. ''A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico'' (1994) 
* Miller, Shawn William. ''An Environmental History of Latin America'' (2007)
* Noss, Andrew and Imke Oetting.  ""Hunter Self-Monitoring by the Izoceño -Guarani in the Bolivian Chaco"".  ''Biodiversity & Conservation''. 14.11 (2005): 2679–2693.
* Simonian, Lane. ''Defending the Land of the Jaguar: A History of Conservation in Mexico'' (1995) 326pp
* Wakild, Emily. ''An Unexpected Environment:  National Park Creation, Resource Custodianship, and the Mexican Revolution''. University of Arizona Press (2011).

====Europe and Russia====
* [[Lorenzo Arnone Sipari|Arnone Sipari, Lorenzo]], ''Scritti scelti di Erminio Sipari sul Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo (1922–1933)'' (2011), 360pp.
* Barca, Stefania, and Ana Delicado. ""Anti-nuclear mobilisation and environmentalism in Europe: A view from Portugal (1976–1986)."" ''Environment and History'' 22.4 (2016): 497–520. [https://www.academia.edu/download/41270815/advance_access.pdf online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Bonhomme, Brian. ''Forests, Peasants and Revolutionaries: Forest Conservation & Organization in Soviet Russia, 1917–1929'' (2005) 252pp.
* Cioc, Mark. ''The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815–2000'' (2002).
* Dryzek, John S., et al. ''Green states and social movements: environmentalism in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, and Norway'' (Oxford UP, 2003).
* Jehlicka, Petr. ""Environmentalism in Europe: an east-west comparison."" in ''Social change and political transformation'' (Routledge, 2018) pp.&nbsp;112–131.
* Simmons, I.G. ''An Environmental History of Great Britain: From 10,000 Years Ago to the Present'' (2001).
* Uekotter, Frank. ''The greenest nation?: A new history of German environmentalism'' (MIT Press, 2014).
* Weiner, Douglas R. ''Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia'' (2000) 324pp; covers 1917 to 1939.

====United States====
* Bates, J. Leonard.  ""Fulfilling American Democracy: The Conservation Movement, 1907 to 1921"", ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' (1957), 44#1 pp.&nbsp;29–57. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1898667 in JSTOR]
* Brinkley, Douglas G. ''The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America,'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0060565314/  excerpt and text search]
* Cawley, R. McGreggor. ''Federal Land, Western Anger: The Sagebrush Rebellion and Environmental Politics'' (1993), on conservatives
* Flippen, J. Brooks. ''Nixon and the Environment'' (2000).
* Hays, Samuel P. ''Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955–1985'' (1987), the standard scholarly history
** Hays, Samuel P. ''A History of Environmental Politics since 1945'' (2000), shorter standard history
* Hays, Samuel P.  ''Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency'' (1959), on Progressive Era.
* King, Judson. ''The Conservation Fight, From Theodore Roosevelt to the Tennessee Valley Authority'' (2009)
* Nash, Roderick. ''Wilderness and the American Mind,'' (3rd ed. 1982), the standard intellectual history
* {{Cite EB1922 |last=Pinchot |first=Gifford |author-link=Gifford Pinchot |wstitle=Conservation Policy |short=x}}
* Rothmun,  Hal K. ''The Greening of a Nation? Environmentalism in the United States since 1945'' (1998)
* Scheffer, Victor B. ''The Shaping of Environmentalism in America'' (1991).
* Sellers, Christopher. ''Crabgrass Crucible: Suburban Nature and the Rise of Environmentalism in Twentieth-Century America'' (2012)
* Strong, Douglas H.  ''Dreamers & Defenders: American Conservationists.'' (1988) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8516594 online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201192945/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8516594 |date=2007-12-01 }}, good biographical studies of the major leaders
* Taylor, Dorceta E. ''The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection''  (Duke U.P. 2016) x, 486 pp. 
* Turner, James Morton, ""The Specter of Environmentalism"": Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the Evolution of the New Right. ''The Journal of American History'' 96.1 (2009): 123-47 [https://web.archive.org/web/20090703095241/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/96.1/turner.html online at History Cooperative]
* Vogel, David. ''California Greenin': How the Golden State Became an Environmental Leader'' (2018) 280 pp  [http://eh.net/?s=vogel+david online review]

===Historiography===
* Cioc, Mark, [[Björn-Ola Linnér]], and Matt Osborn, ""Environmental History Writing in Northern Europe,"" ''Environmental History,'' 5 (2000), pp.&nbsp;396–406
* Bess, Michael, Mark Cioc, and James Sievert, ""Environmental History Writing in Southern Europe,"" ''Environmental History,'' 5 (2000), pp.&nbsp;545–56;
* Coates, Peter. ""Emerging from the Wilderness (or, from Redwoods to Bananas): Recent Environmental History in the United States and the Rest of the Americas,"" Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp.&nbsp;407–38
* Hay, Peter. ''Main Currents in Western Environmental Thought'' (2002), standard scholarly history [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0253215110/ excerpt and text search]
* McNeill, John R. ""Observations on the Nature and Culture of Environmental History,"" ''History and Theory,'' 42 (2003), pp.&nbsp;5–43.
* Robin, Libby,  and Tom Griffiths, ""Environmental History in Australasia,"" ''Environment and History,'' 10 (2004), pp.&nbsp;439–74
* Worster, Donald, ed. ''The Ends of the Earth: Perspectives on Modern Environmental History'' (1988)

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080830075158/http://www.teara.govt.nz/TheBush/Conservation/ConservationAHistory/en A history of conservation in New Zealand]
* [http://nfb.ca/film/For_Future_Generations/ ''For Future Generations'', a Canadian documentary on conservation and national parks]

{{Sustainability}}{{Environmentalism}}{{Conservation of species}}{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation Movement}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]
[[Category:Environmental movements]]

[[el:Κίνημα Διατήρησης]]
[[fr:Conservation de la nature]]
[[sv:Naturskydd]]"
Rangeland management,"{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2023}}
[[File:Range management graduate research student collecting line point intercept data .jpg|thumb|307x307px|Range Management [[Research assistant|graduate research assistant]] recording line point intercept data on southern [[New Mexico|New Mexican]] [[rangeland]].]] 
'''Rangeland management''' (also '''range management''', '''range science''', or '''arid-land management''') is a [[natural science]] that centers around the study of [[rangeland]]s and the ""conservation and sustainable management [of Arid-Lands] for the benefit of current societies and future generations"".<ref>[http://www.rangelands.org/ Society for range Management. Society for Range Management, 2016. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.]</ref> Range management is defined by Holechek et al. as the ""manipulation of rangeland components to obtain optimum combination of [[Ecosystem services|goods and services]] for society on a sustained basis"".<ref>Holechek, Jerry L., Rex D. Pieper, and Carlton H. Herbel. Range Management: Principles and Practices (6th Edition). 6th ed. N.p.: Pearson, 2011. 5. Print.</ref>

==History==
The earliest form of Rangeland Management is not formally deemed part of the natural science studied today, although its roots can be traced to [[Nomad|nomadic grazing]] practices of the [[neolithic agricultural revolution]] when humans [[Domestication|domesticated]] plants and animals under pressures from population growth and environmental change.<ref>{{Cite book|title=An Ecological History of Agriculture 10,000 B.C.-A.D. 10,000|last=Vasey|first=Daniel A.|publisher=Iowa State University Press|year=1992|location=Ames, Iowa|pages=23}}</ref> Humans might even have altered the environment in times preceding the  [[Neolithic]] through hunting of [[Big-game hunting|large-game]], whereby large losses of [[Grazing|grazing herbivores]] could have resulted in altered ecological states; meaning humans have been inadvertently managing land throughout prehistory.<ref>Stephen Wroe , Judith Field , Richard Fullagar , Lars S. Jermin. ""Megafaunal extinction in the late Quaternary and the global overkill hypothesis."" ''Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology.'' Vol. 28, Iss. 1, (2004).</ref><ref>Mazoyer, Marcel, and Laurence Roudart. ''A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis''. New York: Monthly review Press, 2006. Print.</ref>

Rangeland management was developed in the United States in response to rangeland deterioration and in some cases, [[denudation]], due to [[overgrazing]] and other misuse of arid lands as demonstrated by the 20th century ""[[Dust Bowl]]"" and described in [[Garrett Hardin|Hardin]]'s 1968 ""[[Tragedy of the Commons]]"".<ref>Morris, Melvin S. ""History of Range Management Education."" Rangelands 3.3 (1981): 119-20. Print.</ref><ref>Talbot, M W., and F P. Cronemiller. ""Some of the Beginnings of Range Management."" Journal of Range Management 14.2 (1961): 95-102. Print</ref><ref>Nathan F. Sayre, William deBuys, Brandon T. Bestelmeyer, and Kris M. Havstad. ""'The Range  Problem' After a Century of Rangeland Science: New Research Themes for Altered  Landscapes."" Rangeland Ecol Manage 545-552: 65 (2012)</ref> Historically, the discipline focused on the manipulation of [[grazing]] and the proper use of rangeland vegetation for [[livestock]].<ref>Parker, Kenneth W., W R. Chapline, Lloyd W. Swift, George W. Craddock, and Donald R. Cornelius. ""Arthur W. Sampson- Pioneer Range Scientist."" Journal of Range Management 20.6 (1967): 245-351. Print.</ref>

==Modern application==
[[File:Rangeland Water Development May 1954 (9824825465).jpg|alt=Rangeland Water Development May 1954 (9824825465) We uncovered these photos from the early days of the BLM's Burns District.  Located in eastern Oregon, the Burns District manages over three million acres of public lands starting at the Oregon-Nevada border and heading up to the Blue Mountains.  Some highlights include Steens Moutain, the Donner and Blitzen National Wild and Scenic River, and the Diamond Craters Outstanding Natural Area.  In total, Burns features 23 Wilderness Study Areas which protect the natural values of over one million acres|thumb|Burns District, [[Oregon]], [[Watering trough|rangeland water infrastructure]] development: May, 1954.]]

=== Global ===
Range management's focus has been expanded to include the host of [[ecosystem services]] that rangelands provide to humans world-wide. Key management components seek to optimize such goods and services through the protection and enhancement of [[soils]], [[riparian zones]], [[Drainage basin|watersheds]], and vegetation complexes, [[sustainably]] improving outputs of consumable range products such as [[red meat]], [[wildlife]], water, wood, [[fiber]], [[leather]], energy resource extraction, and [[outdoor recreation]], as well as maintaining a focus on the [[Grazing management|manipulation of grazing]] activities of large herbivores to maintain or improve animal and plant production.<ref>J. E. Herrick, J.R. Brown, B.T. Bestelmeyer, S.S. Andrews, G. Baldi, J. Davies, M. Duniway, K.M.  Havstad, J.W. Karl, D.L. Karlen, D.P.C. Peters, J.N. Quinton, C. Riginos, P.L. Shaver, D. Stainaker, S. Twomlow. ""Revolutionary Land Use Change in the 21st Century: Is (Rangeland) Science Relevant? Rangeland Ecol Manage 590-598: 65 (2012).</ref> With increasing levels of rangeland degradation, for example as evident through [[woody plant encroachment]], active rehabilitation efforts become part of rangeland management.<ref>Archer, S.R., Davies, K.W., Fulbright, T.E., Mcdaniel, K.C., Wilcox, B.P., Predick, K.I. 2011. [https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publication/?seqNo115=268913 Brush management as a rangeland conservation strategy: A critical evaluation]. In: Briske,D.D., editor. Conservation benefits of rangeland practices: Assessment, recommendations, and knowledge gaps. Washington, DC:USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. p. 105-170.</ref>

[[Pastoralism]] has become a contemporary anthropological and ecological study as it faces many threats including fragmentation of land, conversion of rangeland into urban development, lack of grazing movement, impending threats on global diversity, damage to species with large terrain, decreases in shared public goods, decreased [[Animal migration|biological movements]], threats of a ""tragedy of enclosures"", limitation of key resources, reduced biomass and invasive plant species growth.<ref>Reid, Robin S.; Fernández-Giménes, María E.; Galvin, Kathleen A. ""Dynamics and Resilience of Rangelands and Pastoral Peoples Around the Globe."" ''Annu. Rev. Environ. Resource''. 39:217-249 (2014).</ref> Interest in contemporary pastoralist cultures like the [[Maasai people|Maasai]] has continued to increase, especially because the traditional syncreticly-adaptive ability of pastoralists could promise lessons in collaborative and [[adaptive management]] for contemporary pastoralist societies threatened by [[globalization]] as well as for contemporary non-pastoralist societies that are managing livestock on rangelands.<ref>Reid, Robin S.; Fernández-Giménes, María E.; Galvin, Kathleen A. ""Dynamics and Resilience of Rangelands and Pastoral Peoples Around the Globe."" ''Annu. Rev. Environ. Resource''. 39:217-249 (2014).</ref><ref>Briske, D.D.; Sayre, Nathan F.; Huntsoinger; Fernandez-Gimenez, M.; Budd, B.; Derner, J.D. ""Origin, Persistence, and Resolution of the Rotational Grazing Debate: Integrating Human Dimensions Into Rangeland research."" ''Rangeland Ecol Manage''. 64(4): 325-334 (2011).</ref>

[[File:Maasai man with cattle.jpg|thumb|593x593px|Maasai man herding cattle]]

=== United States of America ===
The United States Society for Range Management is ""the professional society dedicated to supporting persons who work with rangelands and have a commitment to their sustainable use"".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rangelands.org/|title=Society for Range Management|website=www.rangelands.org|access-date=2016-06-17}}</ref> The primary Rangeland Management publications include the ''Journal of Range Management'', ''Rangelands'', and ''Rangeland Ecology & Management''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rangelands.org/publications.shtml|title=Publications|website=www.rangelands.org|access-date=2016-06-17}}</ref>

As [[climate change]] continues to disrupt a host of rangeland functions,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Polley|first1=H. Wayne|last2=Briske|first2=David D.|last3=Morgan|first3=Jack A.|last4=Wolter|first4=Klaus|last5=Bailey|first5=Derek W.|last6=Brown|first6=Joel R.|date=2013-09-01|title=Climate Change and North American Rangelands: Trends, Projections, and Implications|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550742413500595|journal=Rangeland Ecology & Management|language=en|volume=66|issue=5|pages=493–511|doi=10.2111/REM-D-12-00068.1|issn=1550-7424|hdl=10150/642737|s2cid=55826305 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> the Society for Range Management has declared that it ""is committed to promoting adaptation to and mitigation of climate change through the sponsorship of workshops, symposia, research and educational publications, and appropriate policy recommendations. The Society will strive to maximize opportunities and minimize challenges posed by climate change to promote productive rangeland ecosystems that ensure food security, human livelihoods, and continued delivery of diverse ecosystem services"".""<ref>{{Cite web|title=SRM Climate Change Position Statement|url=http://rangelands.org/pdf/SRM-CC-Position-Statement-5-17-12R-FINAL%20APPROVED.PDF}}</ref> Emerging evidence suggests that rangelands are extremely vulnerable to the threats of climate change,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Briske|first1=D. D.|last2=Fuhlendorf|first2=S. D.|last3=Smeins|first3=F. E.|date=2003|title=Vegetation Dynamics on Rangelands: A Critique of the Current Paradigms|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=40|issue=4|pages=601–614|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00837.x|jstor=3505834|issn=0021-8901|doi-access=}}</ref> as more severe [[Heat wave|heatwaves]], [[drought]]s, [[evaporation]], and catastrophic flood events will consequentially alter ecological states,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Havstad|first1=K. M.|last2=Brown|first2=J. R.|last3=Estell|first3=R.|last4=Elias|first4=E.|last5=Rango|first5=A.|last6=Steele|first6=C.|date=2018-06-01|title=Vulnerabilities of Southwestern U.S. Rangeland-based animal agriculture to climate change|journal=Climatic Change|language=en|volume=148|issue=3|pages=371–386|doi=10.1007/s10584-016-1834-7|bibcode=2018ClCh..148..371H |issn=1573-1480|doi-access=free}}</ref> and negatively affect [[forage]] production,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Augustine|first1=David J.|last2=Blumenthal|first2=Dana M.|last3=Springer|first3=Tim L.|last4=LeCain|first4=Daniel R.|last5=Gunter|first5=Stacey A.|last6=Derner|first6=Justin D.|date=2018|title=Elevated CO2 induces substantial and persistent declines in forage quality irrespective of warming in mixedgrass prairie|journal=Ecological Applications|language=en|volume=28|issue=3|pages=721–735|doi=10.1002/eap.1680|pmid=29297964|issn=1939-5582|doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Izaurralde|first1=R. C.|last2=Thomson|first2=A. M.|last3=Morgan|first3=J. A.|last4=Fay|first4=P. A.|last5=Polley|first5=H. W.|last6=Hatfield|first6=J. L.|date=2011|title=Climate Impacts on Agriculture: Implications for Forage and Rangeland Production|url=https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/agronj2010.0304|journal=Agronomy Journal|language=en|volume=103|issue=2|pages=371–381|doi=10.2134/agronj2010.0304|s2cid=52257348 |issn=1435-0645}}</ref> both of which will negatively impact [[ecosystem function]]ing and the sustainable production of [[ecosystem service]]s. In an open letter to the [[White House]] in 2017, the president of the SRM offered [[Donald Trump|President Trump]] the society's support in seeking management strategies to mitigate climate-induced phenomenon like drought and [[Wildfire|forest fires]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=SRM 2017 Priorities Letter to President Trump|url=https://rangelands.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/SRM-2017-Priorities-Letter-to-President-Trump.pdf}}</ref> a subject which was brought to the national debate stage and which has received significant [[Climate change denial|push-back]] by [[Environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration|Trump and his administration.]]<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Aton|first1=Adam |work= E&E News |date=2020-09-30|title='Try to be serious.' Climate policy gets rare notice in chaotic presidential debate|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/try-be-serious-climate-policy-gets-rare-notice-chaotic-presidential-debate|access-date=2020-10-01|via=Science |language=en}}</ref> Likewise in 2021 the SRM and several other institutions sent an open letter to President Biden urging for more research and development funding to be provisioned toward agricultural and food systems research, especially as climate change threatened national security of agricultural resources.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ag-Research-Letter-to-Congressional-Leadership|url=https://rangelands.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Ag-Research-Letter-to-Congressional-Leadership-June-2021-TRANSMITTED.pdf |website=Society for Range Management |date=June 8, 2021}}</ref>

=== Australia ===
The [https://austrangesoc.com.au Australian Rangeland Society] is the peak group of rangeland professionals in Australia. It is an independent and non-aligned association of people interested in the management and sustainable use of rangelands.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us|url=https://austrangesoc.com.au/about-us/|access-date=23 February 2022|website=Australian Rangeland Society}}</ref> Rangeland Management publications from the Society include ''The Rangeland Journal'' <ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rangeland Journal|url=https://austrangesoc.com.au/about-us/the-rangeland-journal/|access-date=23 February 2022|website=Australian Rangeland Society}}</ref> and the ''Range Management Newsletter.''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Range Management Newsletter|url=https://austrangesoc.com.au/about-us/range-management-newsletter/|access-date=23 February 2022|website=Australian Rangeland Society}}</ref>
[[File:Grazing cattle, Oxley Creek Common, Rocklea, Queensland 02.jpg|thumb|Grazing cattle, Oxley Creek Common, Rocklea, Queensland, Australia]]


==Education and employment==
[[File:Rangeland monitoring - actual use studies (IA rangelandmonitor00unit).pdf|thumb|[[Bouteloua gracilis]] illustration on the cover of a rangeland monitoring guide book developed by the [[Bureau of Land Management]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/rangelandmonitor00unit|title=Rangeland monitoring: actual use studies|date=1984|location=Denver, CO |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Denver Service Center}}</ref>]]
In the United States, the study of range science is commonly offered at [[Land-grant university|land-grant universities]] including [[New Mexico State University]], [[Colorado State University]], [[Oregon State University]], [[North Dakota State University]], [[South Dakota State University]], [[Texas A&M University]], [[Texas Tech University]], the [[University of Arizona]], the [[University of Idaho]], the [[University of Wyoming]], [[Utah State University]], and [[Montana State University]].<ref>[http://www.rangelands.org/education_universities.shtml Society for Range Management. Society for Range Management Universities and Colleges, 2016. Web. 22 Apr. 2016. ]</ref> The Range Science curriculum is strongly tied to [[animal science]], as well as [[plant ecology]], [[soil science]], [[wildlife management]], [[climatology]] and [[anthropology]]. Courses in a typical Range Science curriculum may include [[ethology]], range [[animal nutrition]], [[plant physiology]], [[plant ecology]], [[plant identification]], [[plant communities]], [[microbiology]], [[soil sciences]], [[fire control]], [[agricultural economics]], [[Wildlife management|wildlife ecology]], [[ranch management]], [[Socioeconomics]], [[cartography]], [[hydrology]], [[Ecophysiology]], and [[environmental policy]]. These courses are essential to entering a range science profession.

Students with degrees in range science are eligible for a host of technician-type careers working for the federal government under the [[Bureau of Land Management]], the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]], the [[Agricultural Research Service]], the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]], the [[Natural Resources Conservation Service|NRCS]], or the [[US Forest Service]] as range conservationists, inventory technicians, range monitoring/animal science agents, field botanists, natural-resource technicians, vegetation/habitat monitors, [[Geographic information system|GIS]] programming assistants, general range technicians, and as [[Ecological technology|ecological]] assessors, as well as working in the private sector as range managers, [[Rancher|ranch managers]], producers, commercial consultants, mining and agricultural real estate agents, or as Range/ Ranch Consultants. Individuals who complete degrees at the [[Master's degree|M.S.]] or [[Doctor of Philosophy|P.h.D.]] level, can seek academic careers as [[professor]]s, [[Agricultural extension|extension specialists]], research assistants, and [[Adjunct professor|adjunct]] staff, in addition to a number of professional research positions for government agencies such as the [[US Department of Agriculture]] and other state run departments.<ref>[http://rangelands.org/jobs/listings.html#free Society for Range Management. Society for Range Management Jobs and Employment, 2016. Web. 22 Apr. 2016. ]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Conservation grazing]]
*[[Land management]]
*[[Natural Resources Conservation Service]]
*[[Range condition scoring]]
*[[Wildlife management]]
*[[Upland pasture]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Land management in the United States]]
[[Category:Natural sciences]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
World Charter for Nature,"{{wikisource}}
The '''World Charter for Nature''' was adopted by [[United Nations]] member nation-states on October 28, 1982. It proclaims five ""principles of conservation by which all human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged.""

# Nature shall be respected and its essential processes shall not be impaired. 
# The genetic viability on the earth shall not be compromised; the population levels of all life forms, wild and domesticated, must be at least sufficient for their survival, and to this end necessary habitats shall be safeguarded.
# All areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems and to the habitats of rare or endangered species.
# Ecosystems and organisms, as well as the land, marine and atmospheric resources that are utilized by man, shall be managed to achieve and maintain optimum sustainable productivity, but not in such a way as to endanger the integrity of those other ecosystems or species with which they coexist. 
# Nature shall be secured against degradation caused by warfare or other hostile activities.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Charter for Nature|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=25 August 2013|author=United Nations General Assembly|date=28 October 1982}}</ref>

The vote was 111 for, one against ([[United States]]), 18 abstentions.<ref>{{cite book | title = International Environmental Standards Handbook | author = Scott S. Olson | isbn = 1-56670-270-4 | year = 1999 | pages = 39 }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] (16 June 1972)
** [A/35/141 Annex I]
* The [[Earth Charter]] (29 June 2000)

== References ==
<references/>

== External links ==
* [https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/39295 Text from UN.org]
* [http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/world.charter.for.nature.1982.html Full text]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=68ap9hdp8D8C Monitoring Ecological Change] by Ian F. Spellerberg

[[Category:United Nations General Assembly resolutions]]
[[Category:1982 in the United Nations]]
[[Category:October 1982 events]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]


{{International-law-stub}}"
Conservation psychology,"{{More footnotes|date=August 2008}}
'''Conservation psychology''' is the scientific study of the reciprocal relationships between [[human]]s and the rest of [[nature]], with a particular focus on how to encourage [[conservation movement|conservation]] of the [[natural environment|natural world]].<ref name=""Saunders"">Saunders, C.D. 2003. The Emerging Field of Conservation Psychology. Human Ecology Review, Vol. 10, No, 2. 137–49.</ref> Rather than a specialty area within [[psychology]] itself, it is a growing field for scientists, researchers, and practitioners of all disciplines to come together and better understand the Earth and what can be done to preserve it. This network seeks to understand why humans hurt or help the environment and what can be done to change such behavior. The term ""conservation psychology"" refers to any fields of psychology that have understandable knowledge about the environment and the effects humans have on the natural world. Conservation psychologists use their abilities in ""greening"" psychology and make society [[ecologically sustainable]].<ref name=""Myers"">[http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~gmyers/cp/ Myers, Gene. ''Conservation Psychology''. WWU. January 20, 2002.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219133545/http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~gmyers/cp/ |date=December 19, 2007 }}</ref> The science of conservation psychology is oriented toward [[environmental sustainability]], which includes concerns like the conservation of [[natural resources|resources]], conservation of [[ecosystem]]s, and quality of life issues for humans and other [[species]].<ref name=""Saunders""/>

One common issue is a lack of understanding of the distinction between conservation psychology and the more-established field of [[environmental psychology]], which is the study of transactions between individuals and all their physical settings, including how people change both the built and the natural environments and how those environments change them.<ref>Gifford, R. 2007. Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practice (4th ed.). Colville, WA: Optimal Books.</ref> Environmental psychology began in the late 1960s (the first formal program with that name was established at the City University of New York in 1968), and is the term most commonly used around the world. Its definition as including human transactions with both the natural and built environments goes back to its beginnings, as exemplified in these quotes from three 1974 textbooks: ""Environmental psychology is the study of the interrelationship between behavior and the built and natural environment""<ref>Bell, P.A., Fisher, J. D., & Loomis, R.J.  1974. Environmental Psychology. Philadelphia PA: Saunders (p. 6).</ref> and ""...the natural environment is studied as both a problem area, with respect to [[environmental degradation]], and as a setting for certain recreational and psychological needs"",<ref>Ittelson, W.H., Proshansky, H.M., Rivlin, L.G., Winkel, G.H. 1974. Environmental Psychology: An Introduction. New York: Hold, Rinehart, and Winston (p. 6),</ref> and a third that included a chapter entitled The Natural Environment and Behavior.<ref>Heimstra, N.W. & McFarling, L.H.  1974. Environmental Psychology. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole</ref>

Conservation psychology, proposed more recently in 2003 and mainly identified with a group of US academics with ties to zoos and environmental studies departments, began with a primary focus on the relations between humans and animals. Introduced in ecology, policy, and biology journals, some{{who|date=November 2019}} have suggested that it should be expanded to try to understand why humans feel the need to help or hurt the environment, along with how to promote conservation efforts.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Clayton|first=S|author2=Brook, A|title=Can Psychology Save the World? A Model for Conservation Psychology|journal=[[Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy]] |date=Dec 2005|volume=5|issue=1|pages=87–102|doi=10.1111/j.1530-2415.2005.00057.x}}</ref>

==Pioneers in this field==
{{empty section|date=November 2019}}

== Who is involved ==
{{one source|section|date=November 2019}}
Psychologists from all fields including philosophy, biology, sociology, industrial and organizational, health, and consumer psychology, along with many other subfields like environmental education and [[conservation biology]] come together to put their knowledge to practice in educating others to work together and encourage a congruous relationship between humans and the environment around them. These psychologists work together with places such as zoos and aquariums. Zoos and aquariums may seem to only be places of recreation and fun but are actually trying hard to put positive messages out and to educate the public on the homes and needs of the animals that live there.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bitgood|first=Stephen C.|title=Environmental psychology in museums, zoos, and other exhibition centers|year=2002|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Inc|location=NJ|isbn=978-0-471-40594-8|pages=461–480}}</ref>  They are trying to find ways to interact and teach the public the consequences of their day to day actions to the animals and the environment rather than simply viewing the animals. Psychologists and sociologists have been visiting workshops and think tanks at the zoos to evaluate if the animals are being viewed and shown to the best of their ability while still giving informative knowledge to the public.

==Research to consider==
What characterizes conservation psychology research is that in addition to descriptive and theoretical analyses, studies will explore how to cause the kinds of changes that lessen the impact of human behavior on the natural environment, and that lead to more sustainable and harmonious relationships.<ref>Zelezny, L.C. & Schultz, P.W. (eds.). 2000. Promoting environmentalism. Journal of Social Issues 56, 3, 365–578.</ref><ref>Werner, C.M. 1999. Psychological perspectives on sustainability. In E. Becker and T. Jahn (eds.), Sustainability and the Social Sciences: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach to Integrating Environmental Considerations into Theoretical Reorientation, 223–42. London: Zed Books.</ref> Some of the research being done with respect to conservation is estimating exactly how much land and water resources are being used by each human at this point along with projected future growth.  Also important to consider is the partitioning of land for this future growth.  Additionally, conservation efforts look at the positive and negative consequences for the biodiversity of plant and animal life after humans have used the land to their advantage.  In addition to creating better conceptual models, more applied research is needed to: 1) identify the most promising strategies for fostering ways of caring about nature, 2) find ways to reframe debates and strategically communicate to the existing values that people have, 3) identify the most promising strategies for shifting the societal discourse about human–nature relationships, and 4) measure the success of these applications with respect to the conservation psychology mission.<ref name=""Saunders""/> The ultimate success of conservation psychology will be based on whether its research resulted in programs and applications that made a difference with respect to environmental sustainability. We need to be able to measure the effectiveness of the programs in terms of their impact on behavior formation or behavior change, using tools developed by conservation psychologists.<ref name=""Saunders""/>

== Present research and future planning ==
Conservation psychology research has broken down the four most important tenets of promoting positive conservation attitudes into ""the four 'I's"".<ref name=""Van Vugt 169–173"">{{cite journal|last=Van Vugt|first=Mark|title=Averting the Tragedy of the Commons: Using Social Psychological Science to Protect the Environment|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|date=1 June 2009|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–173|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01630.x|citeseerx=10.1.1.331.8518}}</ref>  These include: Information, Identity, Institutions, and Incentives.  Research has been done in all four categories.

=== Information ===
Studies have shown that the way in which crises are presented is a key predictor for how people will react to them.  When people hear that they personally can help to alleviate a crisis through their conservation efforts, just by simple actions with their personal energy use, they are more likely to conserve.  However, if people are told that the other people around them are overusing energy, it increases selfish behavior and causes people to actually consume more.<ref name=""SAUNDERS 702–705"">{{cite journal|last=SAUNDERS|first=CAROL D. |author2=BROOK, AMARA T. |author3=EUGENE MYERS, OLIN|title=Using Psychology to Save Biodiversity and Human Well-Being|journal=Conservation Biology|date=1 June 2006|volume=20|issue=3|pages=702–705|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00435.x|pmid=16909560 |s2cid=40788902 }}</ref> Other studies show that when people believe in the efficacy of collective action, awareness of the predicament climate change places on society can lead to pro-environmental behaviour. Furthermore, when adequate support is provided for climate related emotions to be reflected on and processed, this leads to an increase in resilience and community engagement.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kieft|first1=J.|last2=Bendell|first2=J|year=2021|title=The responsibility of communicating difficult truths about climate influenced societal disruption and collapse: an introduction to psychological research
|url=https://insight.cumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/5950
|journal=Institute for Leadership and Sustainability (IFLAS) Occasional Papers
|volume=7|pages=1–39}}</ref>

Teaching people about the benefits of conservation, including easy ways to help conserve, is an effective way to inform about and promote more environmentally friendly behavior.<ref name=""Huber 409–425"">{{cite journal|last=Huber|first=Patrick R.|author2=Greco, Steven E. |author3=Thorne, James H. |title=Boundaries Make a Difference: The Effects of Spatial and Temporal Parameters on Conservation Planning*|journal=The Professional Geographer|date=24 June 2010|volume=62|issue=3|pages=409–425|doi=10.1080/00330121003788309|s2cid=130790846 }}</ref>  Additionally, research has shown that making sure people understand more about the boundaries of land they can help preserve actually improves positive attitudes towards conservation.  When people know more about local regions they can help protect, they will care more.  Knowing more about the regions includes knowing the extent of the [[biodiversity]] in that region, and being sure that the ecosystem will remain healthy and protected.  Cost analysis is another important factor.  People do not want to take risks on valuable lands, which in places like California, could be worth billions.<ref name=""Huber 409–425""/>

=== Identity ===
In general, people like to fit in and identify with their peer social groups.  Studies have shown people identify more intimately with close friends and family, which is why conservation campaigns try to directly address the most people.<ref name=""SAUNDERS 702–705""/>  The ""think of the children"" argument for conservation follows this logic by offering a group everyone can relate to and feel close to.  Studies have also shown that this need to fit in among peer social groups can be reinforced positively or negatively: giving positive feedback on energy bills for conserving in their homes encourages people to continue lower energy use.  Examples of negative [[reinforcement]] include the use of negative press against companies infamous for heavy pollution.<ref name=""Van Vugt 169–173""/>

Another interesting line of research looks at how people identify positively or negatively with certain issues.  One relevant idea is the notion of ""consistency attitudes"".  Studies have shown that people tend to take a good association they have, and then use this to make positive or negative links with other, related things.  For example, if someone thinks it is a good idea to protect old Pacific forests, this will positively form a link to also want to protect smaller forests and even grasslands.<ref name=""Bright 2301–2321"">{{cite journal|last=Bright|first=Alan D.|author2=Barro, Susan C. |author3=Burtz, Randall T. |title=Attitudes Toward the Protection and Restoration of Natural Areas Across Three Geographic Levels: An Examination of Interattitude Consistency1|journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|date=1 November 2001|volume=31|issue=11|pages=2301–2321|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb00177.x}}</ref>  This same line of thinking can cause someone who supports the protection of old Pacific forests to start thinking negatively about the creation of more logging roads.  Other studies on consistency attitudes have shown that, with one particular issue, people like to align their preferences with each other.  This has been shown repeatedly while looking at political ideologies and racial attitudes, and studies have shown that this can also include environmental issues.<ref name=""Bright 2301–2321""/>  Finally, other studies have shown that how people identify an ecosystem geographically can affect their concern for it.<ref name=""Bright 2301–2321""/>  For instance, when people think of saving the rainforests, they often think of this as a global problem and support it more readily.  However, lesser known but still significant local ecosystems remain ignored and unprotected.

=== Institutions ===
{{one source|section|date=November 2019}}
Another approach that has been considered is the use of organized institutions and government as the leaders for promoting conservation.  However, these leaders can only be effective if they are trusted.  Studies from previous crises where conserving resources was extremely necessary showed that people were more likely to obey energy restrictions and follow certain leaders when they felt they could trust the people directing them.<ref name=""Van Vugt 169–173""/>  That is, people are more likely to obey restrictions when they believe that they are being encouraged to act a certain way out of necessity and that they are not being misled.

=== Incentives ===
{{one source|section|date=November 2019}}
Incentivizing conservation through rewards and fines is another approach.  Studies have shown that people who identify more with their community need less incentives to conserve than those who do not identify strongly with their surrounding community.<ref name=""Van Vugt 169–173""/>  For corporations, monetary incentives have been shown to work for companies showing some effort to make their buildings and practices more ""green"".<ref name=""Van Vugt 169–173""/>  Studies have also shown that doing something as simple as putting a water meter in homes has helped incentivize conservation by letting people track their energy consumption levels.  Finally, studies have shown that when giving fines, it is better to start with very small and then raise it for repeated violations.  If the fines are too high, the issue becomes too economic, and people start to mistrust the authorities enforcing the fines.<ref name=""Van Vugt 169–173""/>

==Main concepts==
Conservation psychology assesses as a whole four different concepts. At the country's first Conservation Psychology conference these four things were discussed. The first is the main original topic of the field, and the other three are topics with a previous history in [[environmental psychology]].

The first topic being discussed is the connection of humans and animals. The Multi-Institutional Research Project (MIRP) works diligently on finding ways to develop a compassionate stance towards animals in the public eye. Many different questions were assessed to find answers to questions concerning ways to help develop loving attitudes for animals and the earth. With these questions and answers, effective educational and interpretive programs were made that would help review the progress.

The second concept that was discussed at the conference concerned connections of humans and places. A new language of conservation will be supported if there are abundant opportunities for meaningful interactions with the natural world in both urban and rural settings. Unfortunately, as biodiversity is lost, every generation has fewer chances to experience nature.<ref>Kahn, P.K., Jr. 1999. The human relationship with nature. Development and culture. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.</ref><ref>Miller, J. 2006. Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience. Trends in Ecology & Evolution: in press.</ref> There were many questions asked concerning how humans in their everyday lives could be persuaded or educated well enough to make them want to join in programs or activities that help maintain biodiversity in their proximity. Local public and private organizations were asked to come together to help find ways to protect and manage local land, plants, and animals. Other discussions came to whether people on an individual or community level would voluntarily choose to become involved in maintaining and protecting their local biodiversity. These plus many other important questions were contemplated. Techniques in marketing are a key tool in helping people connect to their environment. If an identity could be connected from the environment to towns becoming more urbanized, maybe those living there would be more prone to keep it intact.

The third discussion covered the aspects of producing people who act [[environmentally friendly]]. Collectively, any activities that support sustainability, either by reducing harmful behaviors or by adopting helpful ones, can be called conservation behaviors. Achieving more sustainable relationships with nature will basically require that large numbers of people change their reproductive and consumptive behaviors.<ref name=""Saunders""/> Any action, small or large, that helps the environment in any way is a good beginning to a future of generations who only practice environmentally friendly behavior. This may seem to be a far-fetched idea but with any help at all in educating those who do not know the repercussions of their actions could help achieve this. Approaches to encouraging a change in behavior were thought about carefully. Many do not want to change their way of life. A more simplistic lifestyle rather than their materialistic, current lives hurt their environment around them rather than help, but could people willingly change? To take public transportation rather than drive a car, recycling, turning off lights when they are not needed, all these things are very simple yet a nuisance to actually follow through with. Would restructuring tax-code help people to want to change their attitudes? Any concept to reach the goal of helping people act ecologically aware was discussed and approached. Some empirical evidence shows that simply ""being the change you want to see in the world"" can influence others to behave in more environmentally friendly ways as well.<ref>Sussman, R., & Gifford, R. (2013). Be the Change You Want to See: Modeling Food Composting in Public Places. Environment & Behavior, 45, 323-343, DOI: 10.1177/0013916511431274.</ref>

The fourth and final point at the first Conservation Psychology convention was the discussion of the values people have to their environment. Understanding our relationship to the natural world well enough so that we have a language to celebrate and defend that relationship is another research area for conservation psychology. According to the [[biophilia hypothesis]], the [[human]] species evolved in the company of other life forms, and we continue to rely physically, emotionally, and intellectually on the quality and richness of our affiliations with natural diversity.<ref name=""Saunders""/> A healthy and diverse natural environment is considered an essential condition for human lives of satisfaction and fulfillment.<ref>Kellert, S.R. & Wilson E.O. (eds.). 1993. The Biophilia Hypothesis. Washington, DC: Island Press.</ref> Where did they get these values and are they ingrained to the point they cannot be changed? How can environmentally educated people convey value-based communication to a community, a nation, or even on a global level? National policy for this model is something that is desired but under such a strong political scrutiny this could be very challenging. Advocates for biodiversity and different programs came together to try to find methods of changing Americans' values concerning their environment and different methods to express and measure them.

==Connection of conservation in biology and psychology==
[[Conservation biology]] was originally conceptualized as a crisis-oriented discipline, with the goal of providing principles and tools for preserving biodiversity.<ref>Soule, M.E. (1987). History of the Society for Conservation Biology: How and why we got here. Conservation Biology, 1, 4–5.</ref> This is a branch of biology that is concerned with preserving genetic variation in plants and animals. This scientific field evolved to study the complex problems surrounding [[habitat destruction]] and species protection. The objectives of conservation biologists are to understand how humans affect biodiversity and to provide potential solutions that benefit both humans and non-human species. It is understood in this field that there are underlying fields of biology that could readily help to have a better understanding and contribute to conservation of biodiversity. Biological knowledge alone is not sufficient to solve conservation problems, and the role of the social sciences in solving these problems has become increasingly important.<ref>Mascia, M.B.; Brosius, J.P.; Dobson, T.A.; Forbes, B.C.; Horowitz, L.; McKean, M.A. & N.J. Turner. 2003. Conservation and the social sciences. Conservation Biology 17: 649–50.</ref> With the knowledge of conservation biology combined with other fields, much was thought to be gained. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human thought, feeling, and behavior.<ref name=""Myers""/> Psychology was one of the fields that could take its concepts and apply them to conservation. It was also always understood that in the field of psychology there could be much aid to be given, the field only had to be developed. Psychology can help in providing insight into moral reasoning and moral functioning, which lie in the heart of human–nature relationships.<ref name=""Saunders""/>

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Conservation movement]]
* [[Conservation ethic]]
* [[Ecopsychology]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Environmental psychology]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Sustainability]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Notes==
* Brook, Amara; Clayton, Susan. Can Psychology Help Save the World? A Model for Conservation Psychology. ''Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy'', Vol. 5, No. 1, 2005, pp.&nbsp;87–102.
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259286195_Environmental_Psychology_Overview De Young, R. (2013). ""Environmental Psychology Overview."" In Ann H. Huffman & Stephanie Klein [Eds.<nowiki>]</nowiki> ''Green Organizations: Driving Change with IO Psychology.'' (Pp. 17-33). NY: Routledge.]
* Exploring the Potential of Conservation Psychology. ''Human Ecology Review'', Vol 10. No. 2. 2003. pp. iii–iv.
* Kahn, P.K., Jr. 1999. The human relationship with nature. ''Development and culture''. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
* Kellert, S.R. & Wilson E.O. (eds.). 1993. ''The Biophilia Hypothesis''. Washington, DC: Island Press.
* Mascia, M.B.; Brosius, J.P.; Dobson, T.A.; Forbes, B.C.; Horowitz, L.; McKean, M.A. & N.J. Turner. 2003. Conservation and the social sciences. ''Conservation Biology'' 17: 649–50.
* Miller, J. 2006. Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience. ''Trends in Ecology & Evolution'': in press.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071219133545/http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~gmyers/cp/ Myers, Gene. ''Conservation Psychology''. WWU. January 20, 2002.]
* Myers, D.G. 2003. ''Psychology, 7th Edition''. New York: Worth Publishers.
* Saunders, C.D. 2003. The Emerging Field of Conservation Psychology. ''Human Ecology Review'', Vol. 10, No, 2. 137–49.
* Soule, M.E. (1987). History of the Society for Conservation Biology: How and why we got here. ''Conservation Biology'', 1, 4–5.
* Werner, C.M. 1999. Psychological perspectives on sustainability. In E. Becker and T. Jahn (eds.), ''Sustainability and the Social Sciences: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach to Integrating Environmental Considerations into Theoretical Reorientation'', 223–42. London: Zed Books.
* Zelezny, L.C. & Schultz, P.W. (eds.). 2000. Promoting environmentalism. ''Journal of Social Issues'' 56, 3, 365–578.

{{conservation of species|state=expanded}}
{{Environmental social science}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation Psychology}}
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental psychology]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]"
Tourism with a Hand Lens,"""'''Ecotourism with a Hand Lens'''"" is a term coined by Dr. [[Ricardo Rozzi]]<ref>Rozzi, R., J. Armesto, B. Goffinet, W. Buck, F. Massardo, J. Silander, Jr., M.T.K. Arroyo, S. Russell, C.B. Anderson, L. Cavieres & J.B. Callicott (2008). Changing biodiversity conservation lenses: Insights from the subantarctic non-vascular flora of southern South America. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6:131-137</ref> and his colleagues to refer to a new speciality tourism being promoted in the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve. Given the discovery of the archipelago's outstanding diversity of mosses, lichens and liverworts (5% of the world's total), Rozzi has called upon tourism operators to place this narrative into their offering for the region and take advantage of this biodiversity hotspot for non-vascular flora.<ref>Hargrove, E., M. T. K. Arroyo, P. H. Raven, and H. Mooney. 2008. Omora Ethnobotanical Park and the UNESCO Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve. Ecology and Society 13(2): 49. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art49/</ref>

In turn, Rozzi and the [[Omora Ethnobotanical Park]] have metaphorically called these small plant communities the '''""Miniature Forests of Cape Horn""''' to help the broader society understand the ecological role played by these tiny, but diverse, abundant and important organisms. In the Magellanic Subantarctic ecoregion, the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve and the Chilean Antarctic Peninsula, the number of foreign
tourists has doubled in the last decade, with nature tourism being the principal attraction for visitors to the region. With the aim of preventing negative impacts of tourism activity on the biological and cultural diversity, and to contribute to sustainable tourism the Sub-Antarctic Biocultural Conservation Program at the Omora Ethnobotanical Park, in collaboration with local actors, has developed the field environmental philosophy methodological approach.<ref>Ricardo Rozzi, Ximena Arango, Francisca Massardo, Christopher Anderson, Kurt Heidinger, Kelli Moses. 2008. Field Environmental Philosophy and Biocultural Conservation: The Omora Ethnobotanical Park Educational Program. Environmental Ethics 30 (3): 325-336. [online] URL: {{cite web |url=http://www.secure.pdcnet.org/enviroethics/content/enviroethics_2008_0030_0003_0325_0336 |title=Ricardo Rozzi, Ximena Arango, Francisca Massardo, Christopher Anderson, Kurt Heidinger, Kelli Moses, Field Environmental Philosophy and Biocultural Conservation, Environmental Ethics (Philosophy Documentation Center) |accessdate=2012-03-05 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120909135054/http://www.secure.pdcnet.org/enviroethics/content/enviroethics_2008_0030_0003_0325_0336 |archivedate=2012-09-09 }}</ref>

Field environmental philosophy  methodology integrates ecological sciences and [[environmental ethics]] through a four-step cycle consisting of: (i) interdisciplinary ecological and philosophical research; (ii) composition of metaphors and communication of simple narratives; (iii) design of field activities guided with an ecological and an ethical orientation; and (iv) implementation of in situ conservation areas. Under the perspective of field environmental philosophy we have defined ecotourism as “an invitation to have a tour or trip to share and appreciate the oikos of the diverse human and nonhuman inhabitants, their habits and habitats.” <ref>Rozzi, R. J.J. Armesto, J. Gutierrez, F. Massardo, G. Likens et al. 2012. Integrating Ecology and Environmental Ethics: Earth Stewardship in the Southern End of the Americas. BioScience 62(3): 226-236</ref> This methodological approach is implemented with the activity of “ecotourism with a hand-lens” at Omora Park. ""Ecotourism with a hand-lens” aims to demonstrate that when adequately planned and administered, ecotourism can contribute to biocultural conservation hand in hand with environmental, economic, and social sustainability.<ref>Galapagos and Cape Horn: Ecotourism or Greenwashing in Two Emblematic Latin American Archipelagoes? Ricardo Rozzi, Francisca Massardo, Felipe Cruz, Christophe Grenier, Andrea Muñoz & Eduard Mueller. 2010. Environmental Philosophy 7 (2): 1-32 (Special Issue on Ecotourism and Environmental Justice) http://secure.pdcnet.org/envirophil/content/envirophil_2010_0007_0002_0001_0032</ref>

""Tourism with a hand lens"" has been likened to a nature-venerating ritual by the ethnographer [[Bron Taylor]] in his book ''[[Dark Green Religion]].''<ref>Taylor, Bron. 2010. ''Dark Green Religion: Nature Spirituality and the Planetary Future''. University of California Press, 171-73. {{ISBN|978-0-520-26100-6}}</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Children entering Omora Ethnobotanical Park.jpg|Children entering Omora Ethnobotanical Park
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art43/ Omora Biocultural Conservation Approach: Ecology & Society 2006]
*[http://rchn.biologiachile.cl/suppmat/2010/1/MC_Rozzi_et_al_2010.pdf  Field environmental philosophy and biocultural conservation at the Omora Ethnobotanical Park: Methodological approaches to broaden the ways of integrating the social component(“S”) in Long-Term Socio-Ecological Research (LTSER) Sites]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLvw0Ub0oKk ''TV UMAG'' Ecotourism with a Hand Lens - Ecoturismo con Lupa]
* [http://www.cipma.cl/images/stories/pdf/RAD%2024%20Rozzi.pdf  ''Ecoturismo con lupa: integración de las ciencias ecológicas y la ética ambiental'']
*[http://www.umag.cl/facultades/williams/ Universidad de Magallanes (UMAG), Puerto Williams, Chile] 
*[http://www.ieb-chile.cl/ Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity, Chile (IEB)] 
*[http://www.chile.unt.edu/ Sub-Antarctic Biocultural Conservation Program, coordinated by UMAG & IEB in Chile, and the University of North Texas in the US]
*[http://www.cep.unt.edu/ Center for Environmental Philosophy]

[[Category:Sustainable tourism]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Endangered species,"{{Short description|Species of organisms facing a very high risk of extinction}}
{{Redirect|Endangered|other uses|Endangered (disambiguation)|and|Endangered species (disambiguation)|lists|Lists of IUCN Red List endangered species}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Conservation status}}
[[File:Golden lion tamarin portrait3.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Golden lion tamarin]], an endemic and one of the endangered species saved from extinction in Brazil]]
[[File:Trends in Endangered Species- A Visual Representation of Plant and Animal Conservation in Brazil (2014-2022).pdf|thumb|285x285px|A visual representation of the declining percentages of endangered plant and animal species in Brazil from 2014 to 2022. The sidebar graph highlights the contrast between plant and animal conservation efforts.]]
[[File:Gymnogyps californianus -Bitter Creek National Wildlife Refuge, California, USA -flying-8.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[California condor]] is a [[critically endangered]] species. Note the [[Bird ringing|wing tags]] used for population monitoring.]]
An '''endangered species''' is a [[species]] that is very likely to become [[extinct]] in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as [[habitat loss]], [[poaching]], and [[invasive species]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why do animals and plants become endangered? {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/why-do-animals-and-plants-become-endangered |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=www.usgs.gov}}</ref> The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) [[IUCN Red List|Red List]] lists the global [[conservation status]] of many species, and various other agencies assess the status of species within particular areas. Many nations have [[Environmental law|law]]s that protect [[conservation-reliant species]] which, for example, forbid [[hunting]], restrict [[land development]], or create [[protected area]]s. Some endangered species are the target of extensive conservation efforts such as [[captive breeding]] and [[habitat restoration]].

Human activity is a significant cause in causing some species to become endangered.<ref>{{cite web|title=Giant Panda WWF|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/giant-panda|accessdate = 19 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Grey Long-Eared Bat Mammal Society|url=https://www.mammal.org.uk/species-grey-long-eared-bat|accessdate = 19 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Endangered Species |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/endangered-species/ |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |publisher=[[National Geographic]] |access-date=27 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tollefson |first1=Jeff |title=Humans are driving one million species to extinction |journal=Nature |date=6 May 2019 |volume=569 |issue=7755 |pages=171 |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-01448-4 |pmid=31065101 |bibcode=2019Natur.569..171T |s2cid=256768064 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Conservation status ==
{{Main|Conservation status}}
[[File:Pusa hispida saimensis ca 1956.jpg|thumb|upright|Photo of ''Pusa hispida saimensis'', also known as [[Saimaa ringed seal]], from 1956. Living only in [[Lake Saimaa]], [[Finland]], Saimaa ringed seals are among the most endangered seals in the world, having a total population of only about 400 individuals.<ref>{{cite web |title= Saimaa Ringed Seal |url= https://wwf.fi/en/saimaaringedseal/ |access-date= 22 December 2018 |archive-date= 25 December 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181225014047/https://wwf.fi/en/saimaaringedseal/ |url-status= live }}</ref>]]
The [[conservation status]] of a [[species]] indicates the likelihood that it will become [[extinct]].  Multiple factors are considered when assessing the status of a species; e.g., such statistics as the number remaining, the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, or known threats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.natureserve.org/infonatura/Lnsstatus.htm |title=NatureServe Conservation Status |date=April 2007 |publisher=NatureServe |access-date=2 June 2012 |archive-date=21 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055302/http://www.natureserve.org/infonatura/Lnsstatus.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>  The [[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] is the best-known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/about/red-list-overview |title=Red List Overview |date=February 2011 |publisher=IUCN |access-date=2 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527175928/http://www.iucnredlist.org/about/red-list-overview |archive-date=May 27, 2012 }}</ref>

Over 50% of the world's species are estimated to be at risk of extinction,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conservationandwildlife.com/threatened-species/ |title=Threatened Species |publisher=Conservation and Wildlife |access-date=2 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913043721/http://www.conservationandwildlife.com/threatened-species |archive-date=September 13, 2012 }}</ref> but the frontier between categories such as 'endangered', 'rare', or 'locally extinct' species is often difficult to draw given the general paucity of data on most of these species. This is notably the case in the world Ocean where endangered species not seen for decades may go extinct unnoticed.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Briand |first1=Frederic |title=Species Missing in Action - Rare or Already Extinct? |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233408388 |work=National Geographic |date=October 2012}}</ref>

Internationally, 195 countries have signed an accord to create [[Biodiversity Action Plan]]s that will protect endangered and other threatened species. In the United States, such plans are usually called [[Endangered Species Recovery Plan|Species Recovery Plan]]s.

== IUCN Red List ==
{{Main|Endangered species (IUCN status)}}
[[File:Panthera tigris altaica 13 - Buffalo Zoo.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Siberian tiger]] is an Endangered&nbsp;(EN) [[Tiger#Subspecies|tiger subspecies]]. Three tiger subspecies are already extinct (see [[List of carnivorans by population]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sundarbantigerproject.info/viewpage.php?page_id=2 |title=The Tiger |publisher=Sundarbans Tiger Project |access-date=2 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120917192637/http://www.sundarbantigerproject.info/viewpage.php?page_id=2 |archive-date=17 September 2012 }}</ref>]]
[[File:AraGlaucogularisFull.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Blue-throated macaw]], a critically endangered bird]]
[[File:BrownSpiderMonkey (edit2).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Brown spider monkey]], a critically endangered mammal]]
[[File:Siamese Crocodiles.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Siamese crocodile]], a critically endangered reptile]]
[[File:Nicrophorus americanus - Sankt-Peterburg.jpg|thumb|upright|[[American burying beetle]], an endangered species of insect]]
[[File:Lepidochelys kempii.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kemp's ridley sea turtle]], a critically endangered reptile]]
[[File:Mexican_Wolf_2_yfb-edit_1.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Mexican wolf]], the most endangered subspecies of the North American [[grey wolf]]. Approximately 143 are living in the wild.]]

Though labeled a list, the [[IUCN Red List]] is a system of assessing the global conservation status of species that includes ""Data Deficient""&nbsp;(DD) species&nbsp;– species for which more data and assessment is required before their situation may be determined&nbsp;– as well species comprehensively assessed by the IUCN's species assessment process.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |date=2018-02-07 |title=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/conservation-tools/iucn-red-list-threatened-species |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=IUCN |language=en}}</ref> The species under the index include: mammals, birds, amphibians, cycads, and corals. Those species of ""[[Near-threatened species|Near Threatened]]""&nbsp;(NT) and ""[[Least concern|Least Concern]]""&nbsp;(LC) status have been assessed and found to have relatively robust and healthy populations, though these may be in decline. Unlike their more general use elsewhere, the List uses the terms ""endangered species"" and ""threatened species"" with particular meanings: ""Endangered""&nbsp;(EN) species lie between ""[[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]]""&nbsp;(VU) and ""[[Critically Endangered species|Critically Endangered]]""&nbsp;(CR) species. In 2012, the IUCN Red List listed 3,079 animal and 2,655 plant species as endangered (EN) worldwide.<ref name="":0"" />

== In Brazil ==
Brazil is one of the most [[Biodiversity|biodiverse]] countries in the world, if not the most. It houses not only the Amazon forest but the [[Atlantic Forest|Atlantic forest]], the savanna-like [[Cerrado]] among other [[Biomes in Brazil|biomes]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-05-21 |title=The top 10 most biodiverse countries |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2016/05/top-10-biodiverse-countries/ |access-date=2022-12-03 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref> Due to the high density of some of its well-preserved rainforests, [[Wildlife smuggling|wildlife trafficking]], which along with deforestation is one of the biggest endangerment drivers in Brazil, has become a challenge. Brazil has a broad legal system meant to protect the environment, including its [[Constitution of Brazil|Constitution]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=Brazilian Constitution of 1988 - Article 23 ""The Union, the states, the federal district and the municipalities, in common, have the power: [...] VI – to protect the environment and to fight pollution in any of its forms; VII – to preserve the forests, fauna and flora |url=https://www.oas.org/es/sla/ddi/docs/acceso_informacion_base_dc_leyes_pais_b_1_en.pdf |access-date= |website=OAS (Organization of American States)}}</ref> as well as several federal, state and local government agencies tasked with protecting the [[fauna]] and [[flora]], fining individuals or companies linked to [[environmental crime]]s and confiscating illegally taken wildlife. Though such agencies can collect their data, each system operates relatively on its own when it comes to wildlife trafficking. However, both the agencies and the [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]'s working in Brazil agree that the birds account for about 80% of trafficked species in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A máfia dos bichos: Muito além de reality, tráfico de animais no Brasil tira 38 milhões de bichos da mata por ano e gira R$ 3 bi |url=https://www.uol.com.br/ecoa/reportagens-especiais/trafico-no-brasil-tira-por-ano-35-milhoes-de-animais-da-floresta-e-gira-r-3-bilhoes/ |access-date=2022-12-03 |website=www.uol.com.br |language=pt-br}}</ref>

The relation between wildlife smuggling, other environment crimes under the Brazilian law such as [[deforestation]], and endangered species is particularly intricate and troubling since the rarer the animal or plant gets the most targeted and valuable they become in the [[black market]], which leads to more endangered species in its turn.<ref>{{Cite web |last=KKIENERM |title=Wildlife, Forest & Fisheries Crime Module 1 Key Issues: Implications of Wildlife Trafficking |url=https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/wildlife-crime/module-1/key-issues/implications-of-wildlife-trafficking.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www.unodc.org |language=en}}</ref>

Additionally, some environment experts and scientists point to the disbanding of environment agencies and the repeal of laws in Brazil under the [[presidency of Jair Bolsonaro]] as one of the reasons behind a surge in the number of endangered species.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magazine |first=Hakai |title=In COVID's Shadow, Illegal Fishing Flourishes |url=https://hakaimagazine.com/news/in-covids-shadow-illegal-fishing-flourishes/ |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=Hakai Magazine |language=en}}</ref> In one occasion during his presidency some fines totaling US$3.1 billion on environment criminals were revoked and at least one fine (related to [[Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing|illegal fishing]]) imposed on Bolsonaro himself was cancelled and the agent who fined him was [[Demotion|demoted]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ato do governo Bolsonaro deve anular até R$ 16 bilhões em multas ambientais |url=https://noticias.uol.com.br/meio-ambiente/ultimas-noticias/redacao/2022/09/20/ibama-multa-ambiental-eduardo-bim-governo-bolsonaro-notificacao-por-edital.htm |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=noticias.uol.com.br |language=pt-br}}</ref>

In the past, Brazil has successfully saved the endemic [[golden lion tamarin]] from [[extinction]]. Massive campaigns to raise awareness among people by NGO's and governments, which included printing depictions of the golden lion tamarin in the [[Brazilian real|20 reais Brazilian banknotes]] (still in circulation), are credited with getting the species out of the [[Critically Endangered|critically endangered]] animals list.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mico-leão-dourado é ""case"" de sucesso para preservação, mas vê nova ameaça |url=https://www.uol.com.br/ecoa/ultimas-noticias/2020/06/05/mico-leao-dourado-e-case-de-sucesso-para-preservacao-mas-ve-nova-ameaca.htm |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www.uol.com.br |language=pt-br}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-01 |title=How Brazil is working to save the rare lion tamarins of the Atlantic Forest |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/06/how-brazil-is-working-to-save-the-rare-lion-tamarins-of-the-atlantic-forest/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref>

== In the United States ==
There is data from the United States that shows a correlation between human populations and threatened and endangered species. Using species data from the Database on the Economics and Management of Endangered Species (DEMES) database and the period that the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973|Endangered Species Act]] (ESA) has been in existence, 1970 to 1997, a table was created that suggests a positive relationship between human activity and species endangerment.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Shogren|editor1-first=Jason F.|editor2-last=Tschirhart|editor2-first=John |title=Protecting Endangered Species in the United States: Biological Needs, Political Realities, Economic Choices|year=2001 |url=https://archive.org/details/protectingendang00shog|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521662109|pages=[https://archive.org/details/protectingendang00shog/page/n25 1]}}</ref>

'''Impact of Climate Change on Endangered Species'''

Carbon dioxide in our atmosphere is asserted to be one of the leading cause of animal endangerment. <blockquote>""If we can sufficiently reduce greenhouse gas emissions, many of them will still have a chance to survive and recover"". NASA scientist James Hanson has warned that in order to maintain a climate similar to that under which human civilization developed and similar to that which so many organisms are adapted, we need to quickly reduce the carbon dioxide in our atmosphere to 350 parts per million (ppm). Before the industrial revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rarely rose above 280 ppm; during the 2014 calendar year, carbon dioxide levels fluctuated between 395 and 402"" - US National Park Service.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/pore/learn/nature/climatechange_wildlife.htm#:~:text=Biologists%20are%20becoming%20more%20and,due%20to%20global%20climate%20change. |title=Climate Change Endangers Wildlife |access-date=14 September 2023 |publisher=US National Park Service |date=25 March 2020 }}</ref></blockquote>

[[File:U.S. Endangered Species Count by State.gif|thumb|A proportional symbol map of each state's endangered species count]]

===Endangered Species Act===
Under the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973]] in the United States, species may be listed as ""endangered"" or ""threatened"". The [[Salt Creek tiger beetle]] (''Cicindela nevadica lincolniana'') is an example of an endangered subspecies protected under the ESA. The [[US Fish and Wildlife Service]], as well as the [[National Marine Fisheries Service]] are held responsible for classifying and protecting endangered species. They are also responsible for adding a particular species to the list, which can be a long, controversial process.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilcove |first1=D.S. |last2=Master |first2=L.L. |title=How Many Endangered Species are there in the United States? |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=2005 |volume=3 |issue=8 |page=414 |doi=10.2307/3868657 |jstor=3868657 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868657 |access-date=2021-06-01 |archive-date=2021-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602231055/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868657 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some endangered species laws are controversial. Typical areas of controversy include criteria for placing a species on the endangered species list and rules for removing a species from the list once its population has recovered. Whether restrictions on land development constitute a ""taking"" of land by the [[government]]; the related question of whether private landowners should be compensated for the loss of uses of their areas; and obtaining reasonable exceptions to protection laws. Also lobbying from [[hunting|hunters]] and various industries like the [[petroleum industry]], [[construction]] industry, and [[logging]], has been an obstacle in establishing endangered species laws.

The [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush administration]] lifted a policy that required federal officials to consult a wildlife expert before taking actions that could damage endangered species. Under the [[Obama administration]], this policy was reinstated.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2009-03-03|title=Reversing Bush Rule, Obama Resumes Safeguards for Endangered Species|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/science-jan-june09-speciesrule_03-03|access-date=2021-07-23|website=PBS NewsHour|language=en-us|archive-date=2019-09-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903123529/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/science-jan-june09-speciesrule_03-03|url-status=live}}</ref>

Being listed as an endangered species can have negative effect since it could make a species more desirable for collectors and poachers.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Courchamp |first=Franck |author2=Elena Angulo |author3=Philippe Rivalan |author4=Richard J. Hall |author5=Laetitia Signoret |author6=Leigh Bull |author7=Yves Meinard |title=Rarity Value and Species Extinction: The Anthropogenic Allee Effect |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=e415 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0040415 |pmid=17132047 |pmc=1661683 |year=2006 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This effect is potentially reducible, such as in China where commercially farmed turtles may be reducing some of the pressure to poach endangered species.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dharmananda |first=Subhuti |title=Endangered Species issues affecting turtles and tortoises used in Chinese medicine |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=e415 |publisher=Institute for Traditional Medicine, Portland, Oregon |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0040415 |pmid=17132047 |pmc=1661683 |year=2006 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Another problem with the listing species is its effect of inciting the use of the ""shoot, shovel, and shut-up"" method of clearing endangered species from an area of land. Some landowners currently may perceive a diminution in value for their land after finding an endangered animal on it. They have allegedly opted to kill and bury the animals or destroy habitat silently. Thus removing the problem from their land, but at the same time further reducing the population of an endangered species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/34933.html |title=Shoot, Shovel and Shut Up |work=Reasononline |publisher=Reason Magazine |date=2003-12-31 |access-date=2006-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090921131035/http://www.reason.com/news/show/34933.html |archive-date=2009-09-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The effectiveness of the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973|Endangered Species Act]]&nbsp;– which coined the term ""endangered species""&nbsp;– has been questioned by business advocacy groups and their publications but is nevertheless widely recognized by wildlife scientists who work with the species as an effective recovery tool. Nineteen species have been delisted and recovered<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/DelistingReport.do |title=USFWS Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS) |publisher=U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service |access-date=2007-08-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728035106/http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/DelistingReport.do |archive-date=2007-07-28 }}</ref> and 93% of listed species in the northeastern United States have a recovering or stable population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esasuccess.org/reports/|title=ESA Successes|website=www.esasuccess.org|access-date=2007-01-24|archive-date=2010-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210193041/http://www.esasuccess.org/reports/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Currently, 1,556 endangered species are under protection by government law. This approximation, however, does not take into consideration the species threatened with endangerment that are not included under the protection of laws like the Endangered Species Act. According to [[NatureServe conservation status|NatureServe's global conservation status]], approximately thirteen percent of vertebrates (excluding marine fish), seventeen percent of vascular plants, and six to eighteen percent of fungi are considered imperiled.<ref name=""WM2005"">Wilcove & Master 2005.</ref>{{refpages|415|16}} Thus, in total, between seven and eighteen percent of the United States' known animals, fungi and plants are near extinction.<ref name=""WM2005"" />{{refpage|416}} This total is substantially more than the number of species protected in the United States under the Endangered Species Act.

[[File:2010-bald-eagle-kodiak.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bald eagle]]]]
[[File:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[American bison]]]]
Ever since humankind began hunting to preserve itself, over-hunting and fishing have been a large and dangerous problem. Of all the species who became extinct due to interference from humankind, the [[dodo]], [[passenger pigeon]], [[great auk]], [[Tasmanian tiger]] and [[Steller's sea cow]] are some of the more well known examples; with the [[bald eagle]], [[grizzly bear]], [[American bison]], [[Eastern timber wolf]] and [[sea turtle]] having been poached to near-extinction.  Many began as food sources seen as necessary for survival but became the target of sport. However, due to major efforts to prevent extinction, the bald eagle, or ''[[Bald eagle|Haliaeetus leucocephalus]]'' is now under the category of Least Concern on the red list.<ref>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T22695144A93492523 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22695144A93492523.en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> A present-day example of the over-hunting of a species can be seen in the oceans as populations of certain whales have been greatly reduced. Large whales like the [[blue whale]], [[bowhead whale]], [[Fin whale|finback whale]], [[gray whale]], [[sperm whale]], and [[humpback whale]] are some of the eight whales which are currently still included on the Endangered Species List. Actions have been taken to attempt a reduction in whaling and increase population sizes.  The actions include prohibiting all whaling in United States waters, the formation of the CITES treaty which protects all whales, along with the formation of the [[International Whaling Commission|International Whaling Commission (IWC)]].  But even though all of these movements have been put in place, countries such as [[Japan]] continue to hunt and harvest whales under the claim of ""scientific purposes"".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Freedman |first=Bill |title=Endangered species |journal=Gale |volume=46 |issue=44 |pages=25 |year=2008 |edition=4th|pmid=30399289 }}</ref> Over-hunting, climatic change and habitat loss leads in landing species in endangered species list. It could mean that extinction rates could increase to a large extent in the future.

== In Canada ==
Endangered species are addressed through Canada's [[Species at Risk Act]]. A species is deemed threatened or endangered when it is on the verge of extinction or [[Local extinction|extirpation]]. Once a species is deemed threatened or endangered, the Act requires that a recovery plan to be developed that indicates how to stop or reverse the species' population decline.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=Environment and Climate Change |date=2018-02-26 |title=Species at Risk Act: recovery strategies |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/recovery-strategies.html |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=www.canada.ca}}</ref> As of 2021, the [[Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada|Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife In Canada]] (COSEWIC) has assessed 369 species as being endangered in Canada.

== In India ==
The World Wide Fund-India raises concern in the longevity of the following animal species: the Red Panda, the Bengal Tiger, the Ganges River Dolphin, the Asian Elephant.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Duffy |first1=Molly |title=The endangered animals of India |url=https://www.thegazette.com/kids-articles/the-endangered-animals-of-india/ |website=The Gazette |access-date=22 April 2022}}</ref>

India signed the [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972|Wildlife Protection Act]] and the also joined the Convention on the International Trade in 1976, to prevent poaching from harming its wildlife.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kabała |first1=Natasha |title=India's Wildlife Trade: Success and Failures of Protecting Endangered Species |url=https://www.stoppoaching-now.org/post/india-s-wildlife-trade-success-and-failures-of-protecting-endangered-species#:~:text=Wildlife%20Protection&text=Many%20endangered%20animals%2C%20including%20tigers,wild%20animals%20or%20animal%20parts. |website=Stop Poaching Now! |date=29 April 2019 |access-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126151045/https://www.stoppoaching-now.org/post/india-s-wildlife-trade-success-and-failures-of-protecting-endangered-species |archive-date=26 November 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Invasive species ==
{{Main|Introduced species}}

The introduction of non-indigenous species to an area can disrupt the ecosystem to such an extent that native species become endangered. Such introductions may be termed alien or invasive species. In some cases, the invasive species compete with the native species for food or prey on the natives. In other cases, a stable ecological balance may be upset by predation or other causes leading to unexpected species decline. New species may also carry diseases to which the native species have no exposure or resistance.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chiras |first=Daniel D. |title=Invader Species |url=http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753825 |journal=Grolier |year=2011 |series=Online |access-date=2015-03-04 |archive-date=2018-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009013252/http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753825 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Climate change ==
[[The World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF) emphasizes that our planet is warming at a rate faster than any time in the past 10,000 years, necessitating species to adapt to new climate patterns, such as variations in rainfall and longer, warmer summers.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |title=Impact of climate change on species |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/our_focus/wildlife_practice/problems/climate_change/ |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=wwf.panda.org |language=en}}</ref> For example, the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service]] highlighted efforts to understand and mitigate the impact of climate change on species through scientific research, modeling, and conservation actions. This includes evaluating the current condition of species, their genetic variation, and how changes in their environment may affect their survival.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-04 |title=Protecting threatened and endangered species in a changing climate {{!}} U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service |url=https://www.fws.gov/story/2024-01/protecting-threatened-and-endangered-species-changing-climate |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=www.fws.gov |language=en}}</ref>

The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) reports that the approximately 1°C rise in mean global temperature due to human activities is causing serious impacts on species, including changes in abundance, genetic composition, behavior, and survival. The IUCN stresses the importance of environmental policies aimed at reducing CO2 emissions to lessen the impact of climate change on species. Tools like the IUCN Red List and guidelines for assessing species' vulnerability to climate change are vital for conservation efforts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Species and climate change |url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/species-and-climate-change |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=www.iucn.org |language=en}}</ref>

In addition, climate change can lead to species disappearing from areas where they once thrived, or even going extinct. A study cited by WWF found that one in six species is at risk of extinction due to climate change if no action is taken. The phenomenon of species shifting their ranges in response to changing climates, finding new or shrinking habitats, illustrates the direct impact of global warming on biodiversity.<ref name="":1"" />

For example the [[Emperor penguin|Emperor Penguins]], which rely on Antarctic sea ice for breeding, shelter, and food. The melting of ice sheets poses a direct threat to their survival. Similarly, the Mount Rainier [[white-tailed ptarmigan]], adapted to alpine mountaintops, faces habitat loss due to climate changes in snowfall patterns and rising temperatures. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-26 |title=Preventing Extinctions in a Changing Climate {{!}} U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service |url=https://www.fws.gov/story/2022-05/preventing-extinctions-changing-climate |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=www.fws.gov |language=en}}</ref>

== Conservation ==
[[File:Dhole.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|The [[dhole]], Asia's most endangered [[top predator]], is on the edge of extinction.]]

===Captive breeding===
{{Main|Captive breeding}}

Captive breeding is the process of breeding rare or endangered species in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos, and other conservation facilities. Captive breeding is meant to save species from extinction and so stabilise the population of the species that it will not disappear.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/EndangeredSpecies/CapBreedPops/default.cfm |title=Captive Breeding Populations – National Zoo |publisher=Nationalzoo.si.edu |access-date=2009-12-06 |archive-date=2009-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015180848/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/EndangeredSpecies/CapBreedPops/default.cfm |url-status=live }}</ref>

This technique has worked for many species for some time, with probably the oldest known such instances of captive mating being attributed to menageries of European and Asian rulers, an example being the [[Père David's deer]]. However, captive breeding techniques are usually difficult to implement for such highly mobile species as some migratory birds (e.g. cranes) and fishes (e.g. [[hilsa]]). Additionally, if the captive breeding population is too small, then inbreeding may occur due to a reduced [[gene pool]] and reduce [[immunity (medical)|resistance]].[[File:Status ESA LE.svg|upright=1.1|left|thumb|""Endangered"" in relation to ""threatened"" under the ESA]]In 1981, the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] (AZA) created a [[Species Survival Plan]] (SSP) to help preserve specific endangered and threatened species through captive breeding.  With over 450 SSP Plans, some endangered species are covered by the AZA with plans to cover population management goals and recommendations for breeding for a diverse and healthy population, created by Taxon Advisory Groups. These programs are commonly created as a last resort effort. SSP Programs regularly participate in species recovery, veterinary care for wildlife disease outbreaks, and some other wildlife conservation efforts. The AZA's Species Survival Plan also has breeding and transfer programs, both within and outside of AZA – certified zoos and aquariums. Some animals that are part of SSP programs are [[giant pandas]], lowland gorillas, and [[California condors]].<ref>{{Cite web|url =https://www.aza.org/species-survival-plan-program/|archive-url =https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090803071836/http://www.aza.org/species-survival-plan-program/|url-status =dead|archive-date =2009-08-03|title =Association of Zoos and Aquariums Species Survival Programs}}</ref>

===Private farming===
[[File:Ostafrikanisches Spitzmaulnashorn.JPG|thumb|upright=0.7|Black rhino]]
[[File:Thmac u0.gif|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Southern bluefin tuna]]]]
Whereas poaching substantially reduces endangered animal populations, legal, for-profit, private farming does the opposite. It has substantially increased the populations of the southern [[black rhinoceros]] and southern [[white rhinoceros]]. Richard Emslie, a scientific officer at the IUCN, said of such programs, ""Effective law enforcement has become much easier now that the animals are largely privately owned... We have been able to bring local communities into conservation programs. There are increasingly strong economic incentives attached to looking after rhinos rather than simply poaching: from Eco-tourism or selling them on for a profit. So many owners are keeping them secure. The private sector has been key to helping our work.""<ref>""[https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/hes-black-and-hes-back-private-enterprise-saves-southern-africas-rhino-from-extinction-848482.html He's black, and he's back! Private enterprise saves southern Africa's rhino from extinction]"" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926073032/http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/hes-black-and-hes-back-private-enterprise-saves-southern-africas-rhino-from-extinction-848482.html |date=2017-09-26 }}, [[The Independent]], June 17, 2008</ref>

Conservation experts view the effect of China's [[turtle farming]] on the wild turtle populations of China and [[South-Eastern Asia]]&nbsp;– many of which are endangered&nbsp;– as ""poorly understood"".<ref name=""scale"">{{cite news |title=Evidence for the massive scale of turtle farming in China |last1=Shi |first1=Haitao |last2=Parham |first2=James F. |last3=Fan |first3=Zhiyong |last4=Hong |first4=Meiling |last5=Yin |first5=Feng |date=2008-01-01 |periodical=Oryx |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=42 |pages=147–150 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=1738732&jid=ORX&volumeId=42&issueId=01&aid=1738724 |doi=10.1017/S0030605308000562 |access-date=2009-12-26 |archive-date=2011-06-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605040805/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=1738732&jid=ORX&volumeId=42&issueId=01&aid=1738724 |url-status=live }}</ref> Although they commend the gradual replacement of turtles caught wild with [[Turtle farming|farm-raised turtles]] in the marketplace&nbsp;– the percentage of farm-raised individuals in the ""visible"" trade grew from around 30% in 2000 to around 70% in 2007<ref name=""ff"">""[http://www.fishfarmer-magazine.com/news/fullstory.php/aid/993/Turtle_farms_threaten_rare_species,_experts_say.html Turtle farms threaten rare species, experts say] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218191219/http://www.fishfarmer-magazine.com/news/fullstory.php/aid/993/Turtle_farms_threaten_rare_species%2C_experts_say.html |date=2012-02-18 }}"". ''Fish Farmer'', 30 March 2007. Their source is an article by James Parham, Shi Haitao and two other authors, published in February 2007 in the journal ''Conservation Biology''.</ref>&nbsp;– they worry that many wild animals are caught to provide farmers with breeding stock. The conservation expert Peter Paul van Dijk noted that turtle farmers often believe that animals caught wild are superior breeding stock. Turtle farmers may, therefore, seek and catch the last remaining wild specimens of some endangered turtle species.<ref name=""ff""/>

In 2015, researchers in Australia managed to coax [[southern bluefin tuna]] to breed in landlocked tanks, raising the possibility that [[fish farming]] may be able to save the species from [[overfishing]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091213010512/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1945379_1944416_1944425,00.html The Top 10 Everything of 2009: Top 10 Scientific Discoveries: 5. Breeding Tuna on Land], Time magazine, December 8, 2009.</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths=""180px"">
File: Sea otter cropped.jpg|Though endangered, the [[sea otter]] has a relatively large population.
File: Bison skull pile edit.jpg|1870s photo of [[American bison]] skulls. By 1890, overhunting had reduced the&nbsp;population to 750.
File:Pediocactus knowltonii fh 27 5 COL NM border in cultur B.jpg|[[Pediocactus knowltonii|Knowlton cactus]] 
File:Caretta caretta01.jpg|[[Loggerhead sea turtle]]
File:Arowana.jpg|[[Asian arowana]]
File:Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Critically Endangered Species).jpg | [[Hawksbill sea turtle]]
File:Pelochelys_cantorii.jpg|[[Cantor's giant softshell turtle]]
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[ARKive]]
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Center for Biological Diversity]]
* [[Conservation cloning]]
* [[Critically Endangered]]
* [[Ex situ conservation|''Ex situ'' conservation]]
* [[Genome sequencing of endangered species]]
* [[Habitat fragmentation]]
* [[Holocene extinction]]
* [[International Rhino Foundation]]
* [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN)
* [[Overexploitation]]
* [[Rare species]]
* [[Red Data Book of the Russian Federation]]
* [[Threatened species]]
* [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF)

===IUCN Red List===
* [[List of Chromista by conservation status]]
* [[List of endangered amphibians]]
* [[List of endangered arthropods]]
* [[List of endangered birds]]
* [[List of endangered fishes]]
* [[List of endangered insects]]
* [[List of endangered invertebrates]]
* [[List of endangered mammals]]
* [[List of endangered molluscs]]
* [[List of endangered plants]]
* [[List of endangered reptiles]]
* [[List of fungi by conservation status]]
* [[Lists of IUCN Red List endangered species]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* Glenn, C. R. 2006. [http://earthsendangered.com ""Earth's Endangered Creatures""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915063352/http://earthsendangered.com/ |date=2019-09-15 }}.
* Ishwaran, N., & Erdelen, W. (2005, May). [http://jstor.org/stable/3868449 Biodiversity Futures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107005312/http://jstor.org/stable/3868449 |date=2015-11-07 }}, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(4), 179.
* Kotiaho, J. S., Kaitala, V., Komonen, A., Päivinen, J. P., & Ehrlich, P. R. (2005, February 8). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3374545 Predicting the Risk of Extinction from Shared Ecological Characteristics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913184903/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3374545 |date=2018-09-13 }}, proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(6), 1963–1967.
* Minteer, B. A., & Collins, J. P. (2005, August). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868567 Why we need an ""Ecological Ethics""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913184916/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868567 |date=2018-09-13 }}, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(6), 332–337.
* Raloff, J. (2006, August 5). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4017054 Preserving Paradise] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913190621/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4017054 |date=2018-09-13 }}, [[Science News]], 170(6), 92.
* Wilcove, D. S., & Master L. L. (2008, October). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868674 How Many Endangered Species are there in the United States?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913223300/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868674 |date=2018-09-13 }} Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(8), 414–420.
* Freedman, Bill. ""endangered species."" Gale Encyclopedia of Science. Ed. K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner. 4th ed. Detroit: Gale Group, 2008. Discovering Collection. Gale.
* Chiras, Daniel D. ""Invader Species."" Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Online, 2011.
* ""endangered Species."" Current Issues: Macmillan Social Science Library. Detroit: Gale, 2010.
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?redListCategory=en List of species with the category Endangered] as identified by the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080820164159/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/species.htm Endangered Species] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs.''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190713215604/http://www.eswr.com/ Endangered Species & Wetlands Report] Independent print and online newsletter covering the ESA, wetlands and regulatory takings.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041108000216/http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSBoxscore USFWS numerical summary of listed species in US and elsewhere]
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50788571 Extinction: A million species at risk, so what is saved?] [[BBC]]. December 28, 2019.
* [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/04/generally-ignored-species-face-twice-the-extinction-threat-warns-study-aoe 'Generally ignored' species face twice the extinction threat, warns study]. [[The Guardian]]. August 4, 2022

{{threatened species|state=expanded}}
{{Zoos}}

{{Portal bar|Ecology|Environment|Biology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Endangered species| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List endangered species]]"
Category:Endangered species,"{{Commons cat|Endangered species}}
{{Cat main|Endangered species}}
{{CatRel|Extinct species}}

[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Species by conservation status]]"
Monarch Watch,"{{Short description|Volunteer science organization}}
{{Infobox organization
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| type                = Volunteer-based citizen science organization
| tax_id              = <!-- or | vat_id = (for European organizations) -->
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| purpose             = Tracks the fall migration of the monarch butterfly
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[[File:Monarch Watch (18383721733).jpg|alt=Chip Taylor, Director of Monarch Watch, holding a monarch butterfly|thumb|Chip Taylor, Director of Monarch Watch, holding a monarch butterfly]]
'''Monarch Watch''' is a volunteer-based [[citizen science]] organization that tracks the fall migration of the [[monarch butterfly]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Monarch butterfly biology & conservation|date=2004|publisher=Cornell University Press|others=Oberhauser, Karen Suzanne., Solensky, Michelle J.|isbn=978-0801441882|location=Ithaca|oclc=54046294|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/monarchbutterfly00mich}}</ref> It is self-described as ""a nonprofit education, conservation, and research program based at the [[University of Kansas]] that focuses on the monarch butterfly, its habitat, and its spectacular fall [[Monarch butterfly migration|migration]].""<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=https://monarchwatch.org/about/index.htm|title=Monarch Watch : About Us : Introduction|last=jlovett@ku.edu|first=Jim Lovett -|website=monarchwatch.org|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref>

==Organization==
The informal organization is largely supported by teachers and students participating in ""classroom projects, collaborative research"" among other opportunities.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite journal|last=Williamson|first=Brad|last2=Taylor|first2=Orley|date=May 1996|title=Monarch migration|journal=The Science Teacher|volume=63|issue=5|pages=26|issn=0036-8555|via=ProQuest}}</ref> Its founder and director is Orley R. ""Chip"" Taylor, a ""world-renowned expert on butterflies and their migration patterns.""<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite news|title=Monarch Watch sets open house|last=Kealing|first=Jonathan|date=Sep 7, 2007|work=McClatchy - Tribune Business News|id={{ProQuest|462300037}}}}</ref> The organization creates and distributes tags to place on monarch butterflies in order to track their migration path from [[Canada]] and the [[United States]] to south-central [[Mexico]].<ref name="":22"">{{Cite journal|last=Holzberg|first=Carol S.|date=Nov 1999|title=Monarch watch|journal=Technology & Learning|volume=20|issue=4|pages=46|issn=1053-6728|via=ProQuest}}</ref> The tagging method used is derived from the one that was developed by [[Canadians|Canadian]] scientist, [[Fred Urquhart]].<ref name="":12""/> The tagging process was adapted by Orley Taylor to minimize the damage to the butterflies. Color-coded tags are glued to a monarch butterfly's wing.<ref name="":12""/> Volunteers have tagged over 1.5 million monarchs in the last 26 years from Colorado to Canada.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://monarchwatch.org/blog/2018/08/03/a-message-to-all-taggers/|title=A Message to all Taggers|date=2018-08-03|work=Monarch Watch|access-date=2018-10-06|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Monarch Waystation Program ==
[[File:Monarch Waystation Sign.jpg|alt=Monarch Waystation Sign|thumb|Monarch Waystation Sign]]
The monarch butterfly is also known as the milkweed butterfly due to its subsistence on the [[Asclepias|milkweed plant]] for its habitat.<ref name="":12""/> Largely due to commercial farming practices, the habitats of monarch butterflies have declined.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://monarchwatch.org/waystations/|title=Monarch Watch : Monarch Waystation Program|last=jlovett@ku.edu|first=Jim Lovett -|website=monarchwatch.org|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref> In an effort to mitigate the destruction of the monarch butterflies natural habitat, Monarch Watch has called for volunteers to plant milkweed wherever possible. Milkweed is essential to the life-cycle of the monarch butterfly as they lay their eggs on the underside of the plant's leaves.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last=Spangler|first=Holly|date=Mar 16, 2018|title=Farmers for Monarchs -- and milkweed?|journal=Western Farm Press|issn=1525-1217|via=ProQuest}}</ref> It is possible to register and certify a site that is designated as a ""Monarch Waystation.""<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://monarchwatch.org/waystations/certify.html|title=Monarch Watch : Monarch Waystation Program|last=jlovett@ku.edu|first=Jim Lovett -|website=monarchwatch.org|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref> These sites can also be added to an interactive map that is monitored by Monarch Watch. The program also offers free milkweed plugs to people that engage in the creation of habitats for monarchs and pollinators.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.monarchwaystationnetwork.res.ku.edu/|title=Monarch Waystation Network|website=Monarch Waystation Network|language=en-US|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref> Primary consideration is given to non-profits and schools. There is an application process to receive the milkweed from Monarch Watch.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://biosurvey.ku.edu/application-free-milkweed-nonprofits-and-schools|title=Free Milkweed for Schools and NonProfits Application|date=2016-11-22|work=Kansas Biological Survey|access-date=2018-10-07|language=en}}</ref>

== Bring Back the Monarchs Campaign ==
Monarch Watch is not only focused on tracking the fall migration of monarchs, but also on the [[Conservation movement|conservation]] of the monarch butterfly through the preservation and restoration of monarch habitats.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|url=https://monarchwatch.org/about/index.htm|title=Bring Back The Monarchs|website=monarchwatch.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-10-06}}</ref> The destruction of habitats has negatively affected the monarch butterfly population as well as that of other [[pollinator]]s.<ref name="":4"" /> Habitat shrinkage has resulted in the extinction of several species of pollinators over the last 50 years.<ref name="":22""/> The monarch butterfly is also affected by parasites and the ""declining winter habitat in Mexico.""<ref name="":3"" /> Monarch Watch's efforts in this arena are specifically referred to at the ""Bring Back the Monarchs Campaign.""<ref name="":4"" /> The Bring Back the Monarchs Campaign is an offshoot of the Monarch Waystation Program.

=== Milkweed Market ===
Beyond offering free [[Asclepias|milkweed]] plugs, Monarch Watch also offers a shop by which an individual can purchase milkweed for the purpose of creating monarch habitats. The milkweed species offered to the buyer is contingent on the buyer's zip code, in an effort to ensure that only native milkweed is planted in the appropriate regional areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://monarchwatch.org/milkweed/market/|title=Monarch Watch Milkweed Market|website=monarchwatch.org|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Butterfly organizations]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Animal migration]]
[[Category:Conservation biology| ]]
[[Category:Landscape ecology|+]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation|*]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Philosophy of biology]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organizations based in Canada]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in Mexico]]"
Riparian zone,"{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Short description|Interface between land and a river or stream}}
{{Redirect|Riparian|the legal doctrine|riparian water rights}}
{{Distinguish|Ripuarian language}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=August 2009}}
[[File:Example of a riparian area.png|thumb|upright=1.5|A riparian area is the transition from the aquatic area to the upland area. Vegetation is expected to change from species adapted to wetter sites near the channel to species adapted to drier sites in the upland, with a mixture of species occurring in between. In this example, an assessment of riparian function would consider the riparian areas, mixed riparian/upland areas, and aquatic area in the reach. Not all riparian areas have all of these features.<ref>Dickard, M., M. Gonzalez, W. Elmore, S. Leonard, D. Smith, S. Smith, J. Staats, P. Summers, D. Weixelman, S. Wyman (2015). [https://www.blm.gov/sites/default/files/documents/files/TR_1737-15.pdf ""Riparian area management: Proper functioning condition assessment for lotic areas""]. Technical Reference 1737-15. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Denver, CO.</ref>]]

A '''riparian zone''' or '''riparian area''' is the interface between land and a [[river]] or [[stream]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Riparian Areas Environmental Uniqueness, Functions, and Values|url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199#what|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611200856/https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199#what|archive-date=2020-06-11}}</ref> In some regions, the terms '''riparian woodland''', '''[[riparian forest]]''', '''[[riparian buffer]] zone,''' '''riparian corridor,''' and '''riparian strip''' are used to characterize a riparian zone. The word ''riparian'' is derived from [[Latin]] ''[[wiktionary:ripa|ripa]]'', meaning ""[[bank (geography)|river bank]]"".<ref name=""Read Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management at NAP.edu"">{{Cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10327/chapter/4 |title=Read ""Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management"" at NAP.edu |date=2002 |doi=10.17226/10327 |isbn=978-0-309-08295-2 |language=en}}</ref>

'''Riparian''' is also the proper nomenclature for one of the terrestrial [[biome]]s of the [[Earth]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-17 |title=Riparian Zone: Definition and Characteristics |url=https://biologydictionary.net/riparian-zone/ |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=Biology Dictionary |language=en-US}}</ref> Plant habitats and communities along the river margins and banks are called riparian vegetation, characterized by [[aquatic plant|hydrophilic plants]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10327/chapter/3 |title=Read ""Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management"" at NAP.edu |date=2002 |doi=10.17226/10327 |isbn=978-0-309-08295-2 |language=en}}</ref> Riparian zones are important in [[ecology]], [[environmental resource management]], and [[civil engineering]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burdon |first1=Francis J. |last2=Ramberg |first2=Ellinor |last3=Sargac |first3=Jasmina |last4=Forio |first4=Marie Anne Eurie |last5=de Saeyer |first5=Nancy |last6=Mutinova |first6=Petra Thea |last7=Moe |first7=Therese Fosholt |last8=Pavelescu |first8=Mihaela Oprina |last9=Dinu |first9=Valentin |last10=Cazacu |first10=Constantin |last11=Witing |first11=Felix |last12=Kupilas |first12=Benjamin |last13=Grandin |first13=Ulf |last14=Volk |first14=Martin |last15=Rîşnoveanu |first15=Geta |date=April 2020 |title=Assessing the Benefits of Forested Riparian Zones: A Qualitative Index of Riparian Integrity Is Positively Associated with Ecological Status in European Streams |journal=Water |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=1178 |doi=10.3390/w12041178 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free |hdl=1854/LU-8662065 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> because of their role in [[soil conservation]], their habitat [[biodiversity]], and the influence they have on [[terrestrial animal|terrestrial]] and [[semiaquatic]] [[fauna]] as well as [[aquatic ecosystem]]s, including [[grassland]]s, [[woodland]]s, [[wetland]]s, and even non-vegetative areas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IUFRO: 8.01.05 - Riparian and coastal ecosystems / 8.01.00 - Forest ecosystem functions / 8.00.00 - Forest Environment |url=https://www.iufro.org/science/divisions/division-8/80000/80100/80105/ |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=www.iufro.org}}</ref>

Riparian zones may be natural or engineered for soil stabilization or [[Land rehabilitation|restoration]].<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web |title=Riparian Ecosystem - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/riparian-ecosystem |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> These zones are important natural [[biofilter]]s, protecting aquatic environments from excessive [[sediment]]ation, polluted [[surface runoff]], and [[erosion]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gregory |first1=Stanley V. |last2=Swanson |first2=Frederick J. |last3=McKee |first3=W. Arthur |last4=Cummins |first4=Kenneth W. |date=1991 |title=An Ecosystem Perspective of Riparian Zones |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1311607 |journal=BioScience |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=540–551 |doi=10.2307/1311607 |issn=0006-3568 |jstor=1311607}}</ref> They supply shelter and food for many [[aquatic animal]]s and shade that limits stream temperature change.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian zone - NatureSpots App - Let's explore Nature together |url=https://www.naturespots.net/habitats/freshwater/12769-riparian-zone |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.naturespots.net |language=en-GB}}</ref> When riparian zones are damaged by [[construction]], [[agriculture]] or [[silviculture]], biological restoration can take place, usually by human intervention in [[erosion control]] and revegetation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian Zone - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/riparian-zone |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> If the area adjacent to a [[watercourse]] has standing water or saturated soil for as long as a season, it is normally termed a [[wetland]] because of its [[hydric soil]] characteristics. Because of their prominent role in supporting a [[biodiversity|diversity of species]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Ecology of Interfaces—Riparian Zones |url=http://www.nativefishlab.net/library/textpdf/19487.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123141108/http://www.nativefishlab.net/library/textpdf/19487.pdf |archive-date=2018-11-23 |access-date=2020-06-11}}</ref> riparian zones are often the subject of national protection in a [[biodiversity action plan]]. These are also known as a ""plant or vegetation waste buffer"".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian zone - NatureSpots App - Let's explore Nature together |url=https://www.naturespots.net/habitats/freshwater/12769-riparian-zone |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=www.naturespots.net |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Research shows that riparian zones are instrumental in [[water quality]] improvement for both surface runoff and water flowing into streams through subsurface or [[groundwater]] flow.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dosskey |first1=Michael G. |last2=Vidon |first2=Philippe |last3=Gurwick |first3=Noel P. |last4=Allan |first4=Craig J. |last5=Duval |first5=Tim P. |last6=Lowrance |first6=Richard |date=April 2010 |title=The Role of Riparian Vegetation in Protecting and Improving Chemical Water Quality in Streams 1: T he R ole of R iparian V egetation in P rotecting and I mproving C hemical W ater Q uality in S treams |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00419.x |journal=JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=261–277 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00419.x |s2cid=1485368}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tomer |first1=Mark D. |last2=Dosskey |first2=Michael G. |last3=Burkart |first3=Michael R. |last4=James |first4=David E. |last5=Helmers |first5=Matthew J. |last6=Eisenhauer |first6=Dean E. |date=2005 |title=Placement of riparian forest buffers to improve water quality |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/21369 |journal=In: Brooks, K.N. And Ffolliot, P.F. (Eds) Moving Agroforestry into the Mainstream. Proc. 9th N. Am. Agroforest. Conf. Rochester, MN. 12–15 June 2005 |language=en}}</ref> Riparian zones can play a role in lowering nitrate contamination in surface runoff, such as manure and other [[fertilizer]]s from [[Field (agriculture)|agricultural fields]], that would otherwise damage [[ecosystem]]s and human health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pedraza |first1=Sara |last2=Clerici |first2=Nicola |last3=Zuluaga Gaviria |first3=Jennifer D. |last4=Sanchez |first4=Adriana |date=January 2021 |title=Global Research on Riparian Zones in the XXI Century: A Bibliometric Analysis |journal=Water |language=en |volume=13 |issue=13 |pages=1836 |doi=10.3390/w13131836 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Particularly, the attenuation of [[nitrate]] or [[denitrification]] of the nitrates from [[fertilizer]] in this buffer zone is important.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Chukwuka |first1=Azubuike Victor |title=Riparian-Buffer Loss and Pesticide Incidence in Freshwater Matrices of Ikpoba River (Nigeria): Policy Recommendations for the Protection of Tropical River Basins |date=2021-04-21 |url=https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/75214 |work=River Basin Management - Sustainability Issues and Planning Strategies |access-date=2023-05-21 |publisher=IntechOpen |language=en |isbn=978-1-83968-131-8 |last2=Ogbeide |first2=Ozekeke}}</ref> The use of wetland riparian zones shows a particularly high rate of removal of nitrate entering a stream and thus has a place in agricultural management.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lowrance |first1=Richard |last2=Todd |first2=Robert |last3=Fail |first3=Joseph |last4=Hendrickson |first4=Ole |last5=Leonard |first5=Ralph |last6=Asmussen |first6=Loris |date=1984 |title=Riparian Forests as Nutrient Filters in Agricultural Watersheds |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1309729 |journal=BioScience |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=374–377 |doi=10.2307/1309729 |issn=0006-3568 |jstor=1309729}}</ref> Also in terms of carbon transport from terrestrial ecosystems to aquatic ecosystems, riparian groundwater can play an important role.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ledesma |first1=José L. J. |last2=Grabs |first2=Thomas |last3=Bishop |first3=Kevin H. |last4=Schiff |first4=Sherry L. |last5=Köhler |first5=Stephan J. |date=August 2015 |title=Potential for long-term transfer of dissolved organic carbon from riparian zones to streams in boreal catchments |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-259485 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=21 |issue=8 |pages=2963–2979 |bibcode=2015GCBio..21.2963L |doi=10.1111/gcb.12872 |pmid=25611952 |doi-access=free}}</ref> As such, a distinction can be made between parts of the riparian zone that connect large parts of the landscape to streams, and riparian areas with more local groundwater contributions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leach |first1=J. A. |last2=Lidberg |first2=W. |last3=Kuglerová |first3=L. |last4=Peralta-Tapia |first4=A. |last5=Ågren |first5=A. |last6=Laudon |first6=H. |date=July 2017 |title=Evaluating topography-based predictions of shallow lateral groundwater discharge zones for a boreal lake-stream system |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=53 |issue=7 |pages=5420–5437 |bibcode=2017WRR....53.5420L |doi=10.1002/2016WR019804 |s2cid=134913198}}</ref>

== Characteristics ==

=== Key features of a typical riparian forest include ===

==== 1. Location and Hydrological Context ====
   - Riparian forests are primarily situated alongside rivers or streams, with varying degrees of proximity to the water's edge.

   - These ecosystems are intimately connected with dynamic water flow and soil processes, influencing their characteristics.

==== 2.Diverse Ecosystem Components ====
   - Riparian forests feature a diverse combination of elements, including:

   - Mesic terrestrial vegetation (vegetation adapted to moist conditions).

   - Dependent animal life, relying on the riparian environment for habitat and resources.

   - Local microclimate influenced by the presence of water bodies.

==== 3. Distinct Vegetation Structure ====
   - The vegetation in riparian forests exhibits a multi-layered structure.

   - Moisture-dependent trees are the dominant feature, giving these forests a unique appearance, especially in savanna regions.

   - These moisture-dependent trees define the landscape, accompanied by a variety of mesic [[Understory|understorey]], shrub, and ground cover species.

==== 4. Floristic Composition ====
   - Riparian forests often host plant species that have high moisture requirements.

   - The flora typically includes species native to the region, adapted to the moist conditions provided by proximity to water bodies.

In summary, riparian forests are characterized by their location along waterways, their intricate interplay with water and soil dynamics, a diverse array of vegetation layers, and a plant composition favoring moisture-dependent species.[[File:Riparian strip.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|A well-preserved natural riparian strip on a tributary to [[Lake Erie]]]]

== Roles and functions ==
[[File:Pisuerga2.JPG|thumb|right|Thick riparian vegetation along the [[Pisuerga|Pisuerga River]] in [[Spain]]]]
Riparian zones dissipate stream energy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Importance of Streamside Plants & Trees {{!}} Shore Stewards {{!}} Washington State University |url=https://shorestewards.cw.wsu.edu/faq/the-importance-of-streamside-plants-trees/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Shore Stewards |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[meander]]ing curves of a river, combined with vegetation and root systems, slow the flow of water, which reduces soil erosion and flood damage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Christos |date=2017-01-23 |title=What are Riparian Areas and Why are They Important? |url=https://tucanada.org/2017/01/23/what-are-riparian-areas-and-why-are-they-important/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Trout Unlimited Canada |language=en-US}}</ref> Sediment is trapped, reducing suspended solids to create less [[turbidity|turbid]] water, replenish soils, and build stream banks.<ref name=""Riparian Mitigation – Mitico"">{{Cite web |title=Riparian Mitigation – Mitico |url=https://miticomo.com/mitigation/riparian-mitigation/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |language=en-US}}</ref> Pollutants are filtered from surface runoff, enhancing water quality via biofiltration.<ref name=""Read Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management at NAP.edu"" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-08-18 |title=The Riparian Zone |url=https://slco.org/watershed/streams-101/the-riparian-zone/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=slco.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Swanson |first1=S. |last2=Kozlowski |first2=D. |last3=Hall |first3=R. |last4=Heggem |first4=D. |last5=Lin |first5=J. |date=2017-03-01 |title=Riparian proper functioning condition assessment to improve watershed management for water quality |url=https://www.jswconline.org/content/72/2/168 |journal=Journal of Soil and Water Conservation |language=en |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=168–182 |doi=10.2489/jswc.72.2.168 |issn=0022-4561 |pmc=6145829 |pmid=30245529}}</ref>

The riparian zones also provide [[wildlife]] [[habitat]], increased biodiversity, and [[wildlife corridor]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian Habitat {{!}} Wildlife Heritage Foundation |url=https://www.wildlifeheritage.org/riparian-habitats-life-blood-for-the-overall-ecosystem/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.wildlifeheritage.org}}</ref> enabling aquatic and riparian organisms to move along river systems avoiding isolated communities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kjartanson |first=Meghan |title=Riparian zones |url=https://forestryandland.gov.scot/blog/riparian-zones |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Forestry and Land Scotland |language=en-GB}}</ref> Riparian vegetation can also provide [[Fodder|forage]] for wildlife and livestock.<ref name=""Riparian Mitigation – Mitico"" />

Riparian zones are also important for the fish that live within rivers, such as brook and charr.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10327/chapter/2 |title=Read ""Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management"" at NAP.edu |date=2002 |doi=10.17226/10327 |isbn=978-0-309-08295-2 |language=en}}</ref> Impacts on riparian zones can affect fish, and restoration is not always sufficient to recover fish populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sievers |first1=Michael |last2=Hale |first2=Robin |last3=Morrongiello |first3=John R. |title=Do trout respond to riparian change? A meta-analysis with implications for restoration and management |journal=Freshwater Biology |date=March 2017 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=445–457 |doi=10.1111/fwb.12888|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017FrBio..62..445S |hdl=10072/409161 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sabo |first1=John L. |last2=Sponseller |first2=Ryan |last3=Dixon |first3=Mark |last4=Gade |first4=Kris |last5=Harms |first5=Tamara |last6=Heffernan |first6=Jim |last7=Jani |first7=Andrea |last8=Katz |first8=Gabrielle |last9=Soykan |first9=Candan |last10=Watts |first10=James |last11=Welter |first11=Jill |date=2005 |title=Riparian Zones Increase Regional Species Richness by Harboring Different, Not More, Species |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3450987 |journal=Ecology |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=56–62 |doi=10.1890/04-0668 |jstor=3450987 |bibcode=2005Ecol...86...56S |hdl=10161/8362 |issn=0012-9658|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

They provide native [[landscape]] irrigation by extending seasonal or perennial flows of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter 8 : Riparian Zone {{!}} Friends of Reservoirs |url=https://www.friendsofreservoirs.com/science/best-management-practices-manual/chapter-8-riparian-zone/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.friendsofreservoirs.com}}</ref> Nutrients from terrestrial vegetation (e.g. [[plant litter]] and insect drop) are transferred to aquatic food webs, and are a vital source of energy in aquatic food webs.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last1=Pusey |first1=Bradley J. |last2=Arthington |first2=Angela H. |date=2003 |title=Importance of the riparian zone to the conservation and management of freshwater fish: a review |url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/mf/mf02041 |journal=Marine and Freshwater Research |language=en |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1071/mf02041 |hdl=10072/6041 |issn=1448-6059|hdl-access=free }}</ref> The vegetation surrounding the stream helps to shade the water, mitigating [[thermal pollution|water temperature changes]]. Thinning of riparian zones has been observed to cause increased maximum temperatures, higher fluctuations in temperature, and elevated temperatures being observed more frequently and for longer periods of time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roon |first1=David A. |last2=Dunham |first2=Jason B. |last3=Groom |first3=Jeremiah D. |date=2021-02-16 |title=Shade, light, and stream temperature responses to riparian thinning in second-growth redwood forests of northern California |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=e0246822 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0246822 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=7886199 |pmid=33592001 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1646822R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Extreme changes in water temperature can have lethal effects on fish and other organisms in the area.<ref name="":0"" /> The vegetation also contributes wood debris to streams, which is important to maintaining [[geomorphology]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vidon |first1=Philippe G. F. |last2=Hill |first2=Alan R. |date=2004-06-15 |title=Landscape controls on the hydrology of stream riparian zones |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169404000150 |journal=Journal of Hydrology |language=en |volume=292 |issue=1 |pages=210–228 |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.01.005 |bibcode=2004JHyd..292..210V |issn=0022-1694}}</ref>

Riparian zones also act as important buffers against nutrient loss in the wake of natural disasters, such as hurricanes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Establishment and restoration of riparian buffers — English |url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/metadata/adaptation-options/establishment-and-restoration-of-riparian-buffer-s |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian Buffers for Field Crops, Hay, and Pastures |url=https://extension.psu.edu/riparian-buffers-for-field-crops-hay-and-pastures |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=extension.psu.edu |language=en}}</ref> Many of the characteristics of riparian zones that reduce the inputs of nitrogen from agricultural runoff also retain the necessary nitrogen in the ecosystem after hurricanes threaten to dilute and wash away critical nutrients.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McDowell |first=William H. |date=2001-12-01 |title=Hurricanes, people, and riparian zones: controls on nutrient losses from forested Caribbean watersheds |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037811270100514X |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |series=New Directions in Tropical Forest Research |language=en |volume=154 |issue=3 |pages=443–451 |doi=10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00514-X |issn=0378-1127}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian Buffers - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/riparian-buffers |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Shaoteng |last2=Bashir |first2=Muhammad Amjad |last3=Raza |first3=Qurat-Ul-Ain |last4=Rehim |first4=Abdur |last5=Geng |first5=Yucong |last6=Cao |first6=Lei |date=2023 |title=Application of riparian buffer zone in agricultural non-point source pollution control—A review |journal=Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fsufs.2023.985870 |issn=2571-581X |doi-access=free }}</ref>

From a social aspect, riparian zones contribute to nearby property values through amenity and views, and they improve enjoyment for footpaths and bikeways through supporting [[Greenway (landscape)#Foreshoreway|foreshoreway]] networks. Space is created for riparian sports such as fishing, swimming, and launching for vessels and paddle craft.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Importance of Riparian Buffers |url=https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=dep.wv.gov |language=en}}</ref>

The riparian zone acts as a sacrificial erosion buffer to absorb impacts of factors including [[climate change]], increased runoff from [[urbanization]], and increased [[Wake (physics)|boat wake]] without damaging structures located behind a setback zone.<ref>{{Citation |last=Ma |first=Maohua |title=Riparian Buffer Zone for Wetlands |date=2016 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6172-8_53-7 |work=The Wetland Book: I: Structure and Function, Management and Methods |pages=1–9 |editor-last=Finlayson |editor-first=C. Max |access-date=2023-05-22 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6172-8_53-7 |isbn=978-94-007-6172-8 |editor2-last=Everard |editor2-first=Mark |editor3-last=Irvine |editor3-first=Kenneth |editor4-last=McInnes |editor4-first=Robert J.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian vegetation {{!}} environmentdata.org |url=http://www.environmentdata.org/archive/vocabpref:21475 |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.environmentdata.org}}</ref>

""Riparian zones play a crucial role in preserving the vitality of streams and rivers, especially when faced with challenges stemming from catchment land use, including agricultural and urban development. These changes in land utilization can exert adverse impacts on the health of streams and rivers and, consequently, contribute to a decline in their reproductive rates.""

== Role in logging ==
The protection of riparian zones is often a consideration in [[logging]] operations.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://extension.unh.edu/goodforestry/html/4-3.htm |access-date=27 August 2023 |title=Forest Management in Riparian Areas |website=extension.unh.edu}}</ref> The undisturbed soil, soil cover, and vegetation provide shade, plant litter, and woody material and reduce the delivery of [[soil erosion|soil eroded]] from the harvested area.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Rinku |last2=Tiwari |first2=A. K. |last3=Singh |first3=G. S. |date=2021-04-01 |title=Managing riparian zones for river health improvement: an integrated approach |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-020-00436-5 |journal=Landscape and Ecological Engineering |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=195–223 |doi=10.1007/s11355-020-00436-5 |s2cid=234186133 |issn=1860-188X}}</ref> Factors such as soil types and [[root]] structures, [[Climate|climatic]] conditions, and vegetative cover determine the effectiveness of riparian buffering. Activities associated with logging, such as sediment input, introduction or removal of species, and the input of polluted water all degrade riparian zones.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last=Bren |first=L. J. |date=1993-10-01 |title=Riparian zone, stream, and floodplain issues: a review |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694%2893%2990113-N |journal=Journal of Hydrology |language=en |volume=150 |issue=2 |pages=277–299 |doi=10.1016/0022-1694(93)90113-N |bibcode=1993JHyd..150..277B |issn=0022-1694}}</ref>

== Vegetation ==
[[File:Willow Creek, Trout Creek Mountains, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Riparian zone along Trout Creek in the [[Trout Creek Mountains]], part of the Burns Bureau of Land Management District in southeastern [[Oregon]]. The creek provides critical habitat for [[trout]].]]

The assortment of riparian zone trees varies from those of wetlands and typically consists of plants that are either emergent aquatic plants, or [[herb]]s, [[tree]]s and [[shrub]]s that thrive in proximity to water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beavers Ecosystem in Toronto |url=https://prezi.com/cpep0dh6rcxg/beavers-ecoysystem-in-toronto/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=prezi.com |language=en}}</ref>  In South Africa's fynbos biome, Riparian ecosystem are heavily invaded by alien [[Woody plant|woody plants]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ruwanza |first1=S. |last2=Gaertner |first2=M. |last3=Esler |first3=K. J. |last4=Richardson |first4=D. M. |date=2013-09-01 |title=The effectiveness of active and passive restoration on recovery of indigenous vegetation in riparian zones in the Western Cape, South Africa: A preliminary assessment |journal=South African Journal of Botany |volume=88 |pages=132–141 |doi=10.1016/j.sajb.2013.06.022 |issn=0254-6299|doi-access=free }}</ref> Riparian plant communities along lowland streams exhibit remarkable species diversity, driven by the unique environmental gradients inherent to these ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garssen |first1=Annemarie G. |last2=Verhoeven |first2=Jos T. A. |last3=Soons |first3=Merel B. |date=May 2014 |title=Effects of climate-induced increases in summer drought on riparian plant species: a meta-analysis |journal=Freshwater Biology |language=en |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=1052–1063 |doi=10.1111/fwb.12328 |issn=0046-5070 |pmc=4493900 |pmid=26180267}}</ref> 

== Riparian zones in Africa ==
Riparian forest can be found in Benin, West Africa. In Benin, where the savanna ecosystem prevails, ""riparian forests"" include various types of woodlands, such as [[semi-deciduous]] forests, dry forests, open forests, and [[Savanna|woodland savannas]]. These woodlands can be found alongside rivers and streams.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=http://www.fao.org/home/en |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=FAOHome |language=en}}</ref> In Nigeria, you can also discover riparian zones within the Ibadan region of Oyo state. Ibadan, one of the oldest towns in Africa, covers a total area of 3,080 square kilometers and is characterized by a network of perennial water streams that create these valuable riparian zones.<ref name="":2"" /> In the research conducted by Adeoye et al. (2012) on land use changes in Southwestern Nigeria, it was observed that 46.18 square kilometers of the area are occupied by water bodies. Additionally, most streams and rivers in this region are accompanied by riparian forests. Nevertheless, the study also identified a consistent reduction in the extent of these riparian forests over time, primarily attributed to a significant deforestation rate.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last1=Borisade |first1=Tolulope Victor |last2=Odiwe |first2=Anthony Ifechukwude |last3=Akinwumiju |first3=Akinola Shola |last4=Uwalaka |first4=Nelson Obinna |last5=Orimoogunje |first5=Oluwagbenga Isaac |date=2021-09-01 |title=Assessing the impacts of land use on riparian vegetation dynamics in Osun State, Nigeria |journal=Trees, Forests and People |volume=5 |pages=100099 |doi=10.1016/j.tfp.2021.100099 |issn=2666-7193|doi-access=free }}</ref> In Nigeria, according to Momodu et al. (2011), there has been a notable decline of about 50% in the riparian forest coverage within the period of 1978 to 2000. This reduction is primarily attributed to alterations in land use and land cover. Additionally, their research indicates that if current trends continue, the riparian forests may face further depletion, potentially leading to their complete disappearance by the year 2040.<ref name="":3"" /> Riparian  zones can also be found in Cape Agulhas region of South Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ScienceDirect.com {{!}} Science, health and medical journals, full text articles and books. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/ |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Riparian areas along South African rivers have experienced significant deterioration as a result of human activities. Similar to many other developed and developing areas worldwide, the extensive building of dams in upstream river areas and the extraction of water for irrigation purposes have led to diminished water flows and changes in the riparian environment.<ref name="":4"" />

== North America ==

=== Water's edge ===
'''Herbaceous Perennial''': 
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
*''[[Peltandra virginica]]'' – Arrow Arum
*''[[Sagittaria lancifolia]]'' – Arrowhead
*''[[Carex stricta]]'' – Tussock Sedge
*''[[Iris virginica]]'' – Southern Blue Flag [[Iris (plant)|Iris]]
{{Div col end}}

=== Inundated riparian zone ===
'''Herbaceous Perennial''':<ref name=silvics>{{cite web|title=List of trees and plants |format=xls |access-date=2010-09-29 |url=http://charmeck.org/mecklenburg/county/SolidWaste/MasterComposters/NativePlants/Documents/treeslist.xls |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718190816/http://charmeck.org/mecklenburg/county/SolidWaste/MasterComposters/NativePlants/Documents/treeslist.xls |archive-date=July 18, 2011 }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|reason=originally mislabeled as ""USDA Silvics"", which is a site on forestry; actually a government site giving a list of trees used in plantings?|date=September 2016}}
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Sagittaria latifolia]]'' – Duck Potato
*''[[Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani]]'' – Softstem [[Bulrush]]
*''[[Scirpus americanus]]'' – Three-square Bulrush
*''[[Eleocharis quadrangulata]]'' – Square-stem Spikerush
*''[[Eleocharis obtusa]]'' – [[Spikerush]]
{{Div col end}}

=== Western ===
In western North America and the Pacific coast, the riparian vegetation includes:

'''Riparian trees'''<ref name=cooke>{{cite book|last=Cooke|first=Sarah Spear|title=A Field Guide to the Common Wetland Plants of Western Washington and Northwestern Oregon|year=1997|publisher=Seattle Audubon Society|location=Seattle, Washington|isbn=978-0-914516-11-8}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Sequoia sempervirens]]'' – Coast Redwood
*''[[Thuja plicata]]'' – Western Redcedar
*''[[Abies grandis]]'' – Grand Fir
*''[[Picea sitchensis]]'' – Sitka Spruce
*''[[Chamaecyparis lawsoniana]]'' – Port Orford-cedar
*''[[Taxus brevifolia]]'' – Pacific Yew
*''[[Populus fremontii]]'' – Fremont Cottonwood
*''[[Populus trichocarpa]]'' – Black Cottonwood
*''[[Platanus racemosa]]'' – California Sycamore
*''[[Alnus rhombifolia]]'' – White Alder
*''[[Alnus rubra]]'' – Red Alder
*''[[Acer macrophyllum]]'' – Big-leaf Maple
*''[[Fraxinus latifolia]]'' – Oregon ash
*''[[Prunus emarginata]]'' – Bitter Cherry
*''[[Salix lasiolepis]]'' – Arroyo Willow
*''[[Salix lucida]]'' – Pacific Willow
*''[[Quercus agrifolia]]'' – Coast live oak
*''[[Quercus garryana]]'' – Garry oak
*''[[Populus tremuloides]]'' – Quaking Aspen
*''[[Umbellularia californica]]'' – California Bay Laurel
*''[[Cornus nuttallii]]'' – Pacific Dogwood
{{Div col end}}

'''Riparian shrubs'''<ref name=cooke />
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Acer circinatum]]'' – Vine Maple
*''[[Ribes|Ribes spp.]]'' – Gooseberies and Currants
*''[[Rosa pisocarpa]]'' – Swamp Rose or Cluster Rose
*''[[Symphoricarpos albus]]'' – Snowberry
*''[[Spiraea douglasii]]'' – Douglas spirea
*''[[Rubus|Rubus spp.]]'' – Blackberries, Raspberries, Thimbleberry, Salmonberry
*''[[Rhododendron occidentale]]'' – Western Azalea
*''[[Oplopanax horridus]]'' – Devil's Club
*''[[Oemleria cerasiformis]]'' – Indian Plum, Osoberry
*''[[Lonicera involucrata]]'' – Twinberry
*''[[Cornus stolonifera]]'' – Red-osier Dogwood
*''[[Salix|Salix spp.]]'' – Willows
{{Div col end}}

'''Other plants'''
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Polypodium]]'' – Polypody Ferns
*''[[Polystichum]]'' – Sword Ferns
*''[[Woodwardia]]'' – Giant Chain Ferns
*''[[Pteridium]]'' – Goldback Ferns
*''[[Dryopteris]]'' – Wood Ferns
*''[[Adiantum]]'' – Maidenhair Ferns
*''[[Carex|Carex spp.]]'' – Sedges
*''[[Juncus|Juncus spp.]]'' – Rushes
*''[[Festuca californica]]'' – California Fescue bunchgrass
*''[[Leymus condensatus]]'' – Giant Wildrye bunchgrass
*''[[Melica californica]]'' – California Melic bunchgrass
*''[[Mimulus|Mimulus spp.]]'' – Monkeyflower and varieties
*''[[Aquilegia|Aquilegia spp.]]'' – Columbine
{{Div col end}}

== Asia ==
In [[Asia]] there are different types of riparian vegetation,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Qinghe |last2=Ding |first2=Shengyan |last3=Liu |first3=Qian |last4=Wang |first4=Shuoqian |last5=Jing |first5=Yaru |last6=Lu |first6=Mengwen |date=2020-08-13 |title=Vegetation influences soil properties along riparian zones of the Beijiang River in Southern China |url=https://peerj.com/articles/9699 |journal=PeerJ |language=en |volume=8 |pages=e9699 |doi=10.7717/peerj.9699 |s2cid=221653372 |issn=2167-8359|doi-access=free }}</ref> but the interactions between hydrology and ecology are similar as occurs in other geographic areas.<ref name=mission>{{cite web | title = Riparian Vegetation Along the Middle and Lower Zones of the Chalakkudy River, Kerala, India | publisher = Kerala Research Programme Centre for Development Studies | access-date = 2009-10-02 | url = http://krpcds.org/report/amita.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090319060415/http://krpcds.org/report/amita.pdf | archive-date = 2009-03-19 }}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Carex|Carex spp.]]'' – Sedges
*''[[Juncus|Juncus spp.]]'' – Rushes
{{Div col end}}

== Australia ==
[[File:Swamp Oak Forest.jpg|thumb|A riparian zone in [[Western Sydney]]|250px]]
Typical riparian vegetation in temperate New South Wales, [[Australia]] include:
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Acacia melanoxylon]]'' – Blackwood
*''[[Acacia pravissima]]'' – Ovens Wattle
*''[[Acacia rubida]]'' – Red Stem Wattle
*''[[Bursaria lasiophylla]]'' – Blackthorn
*''[[Callistemon citrinus]]'' – Crimson Bottlebrush
*''[[Callistemon sieberi]]'' – River Bottlebrush
*''[[Casuarina cunninghamiana]]'' – River She-Oak
*''[[Eucalyptus bridgesiana]]'' – Apple Box
*''[[Eucalyptus camaldulensis]]'' – River Red Gum
*''[[Eucalyptus melliodora]]'' – Yellow Box
*''[[Eucalyptus viminalis]]'' – Manna Gum
*''[[Kunzea ericoides]]'' – Burgan
*''[[Leptospermum obovatum]]'' – River Tea-Tree
*''[[Melaleuca ericifolia]]'' – Swamp Paperbark
{{Div col end}}

== Central Europe ==
Typical riparian zone trees in [[Central Europe]] include:
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Acer campestre]]'' – Field Maple
*''[[Acer pseudoplatanus]]'' – Sycamore Maple
*''[[Alnus glutinosa]]'' – Black Alder
*''[[Carpinus betulus]]'' – European Hornbeam
*''[[Fraxinus excelsior]]'' – European Ash
*''[[Juglans regia]]'' – Persian Walnut
*''[[Malus sylvestris]]'' – European Wild Apple
*''[[Populus alba]]'' – White Poplar
*''[[Populus nigra]]'' – Black Poplar
*''[[Quercus robur]]'' – Pedunculate Oak
*''[[Salix alba]]'' – White Willow
*''[[Salix × fragilis|Salix fragilis]]'' – Crack Willow
*''[[Tilia cordata]]'' – Small-leaved Lime
*''[[Ulmus laevis]]'' – European White Elm
*''[[Ulmus minor]]'' – Field Elm
{{Div col end}}

==Repair and restoration==
Land clearing followed by floods can quickly erode a riverbank, taking valuable grasses and soils downstream, and later allowing the sun to bake the land dry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Types of erosion |url=https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/management/soil/erosion/types |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.qld.gov.au |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Dumbrovsky |first1=Miroslav |title=Optimization of Soil Erosion and Flood Control Systems in the Process of Land Consolidation |date=2012-11-21 |url=https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/37815 |work=Research on Soil Erosion |access-date=2023-05-22 |publisher=IntechOpen |language=en |isbn=978-953-51-0839-9 |last2=Korsun |first2=Svatopluk}}</ref> Riparian zones can be restored through relocation (of human-made products), rehabilitation, and time.<ref name="":1"" /> [[Natural Sequence Farming]] techniques have been used in the [[Upper Hunter Shire|Upper Hunter]] Valley of [[New South Wales]], Australia, in an attempt to rapidly restore eroded farms to optimum productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fryirs |first1=Kirstie |last2=Brierley |first2=Gary J. |date=April 2010 |title=Antecedent controls on river character and behaviour in partly confined valley settings: Upper Hunter catchment, NSW, Australia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.11.015 |journal=Geomorphology |volume=117 |issue=1–2 |pages=106–120 |doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.11.015 |bibcode=2010Geomo.117..106F |issn=0169-555X}}</ref>

The Natural Sequence Farming technique involves placing obstacles in the water's pathway to lessen the energy of a flood, and help the water to deposit soil and [[Seep (hydrology)|seep]] into the flood zone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riverbank Restoration {{!}} Helping farmers in Scotland {{!}} Farm Advisory Service |url=https://www.fas.scot/environment/water-management/water-margins-2/riverbank-restoration/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=FAS |language=en-GB}}</ref> Another technique is to quickly establish [[ecological succession]] by encouraging fast-growing plants such as ""weeds"" ([[pioneer species]]) to grow.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Secondary Succession |url=https://www.vedantu.com/geography/secondary-succession |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=VEDANTU |language=en}}</ref> These may spread along the watercourse and cause [[environmental degradation]], but may stabilize the soil, place carbon into the ground, and protect the land from drying. The weeds will improve the streambeds so that trees and grasses can return, and later ideally replace the weeds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Connell |first1=Joseph H. |last2=Slatyer |first2=Ralph O. |date=1977 |title=Mechanisms of Succession in Natural Communities and Their Role in Community Stability and Organization |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2460259 |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=111 |issue=982 |pages=1119–1144 |doi=10.1086/283241 |jstor=2460259 |s2cid=3587878 |issn=0003-0147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ecological Succession |url=http://yennieapes.weebly.com/ecological-succession.html |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Yennie Ho - Apes :*}}</ref> There are several other techniques used by government and non-government agencies to address riparian and streambed degradation, ranging from the installation of bed control structures such as log sills to the use of pin groynes or rock emplacement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ecological Weed Control |url=https://www.ecofarmingdaily.com/ecological-weed-control/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=EcoFarming Daily |language=en-US}}</ref> Other possible approaches include control of invasive species, monitoring of herbivore activity, and cessation of human activity in a particular zone followed by natural re-vegetation.<ref name=""sciencedirect.com"">{{Cite journal |last1=González |first1=Eduardo |last2=Felipe-Lucia |first2=María R. |last3=Bourgeois |first3=Bérenger |last4=Boz |first4=Bruno |last5=Nilsson |first5=Christer |last6=Palmer |first6=Grant |last7=Sher |first7=Anna A. |date=2017-07-01 |title=Integrative conservation of riparian zones |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320716306887 |journal=Biological Conservation |series=Small Natural Features |language=en |volume=211 |pages=20–29 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2016.10.035 |bibcode=2017BCons.211...20G |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> Conservation efforts have also encouraged incorporating the value of [[ecosystem service]]s provided by riparian zones into management plans, as these benefits have traditionally been absent in the consideration and designing of these plans.<ref name=""sciencedirect.com""/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-06-18 |title=Permaculture Design Principle 8 – Accelerating Succession and Evolution |url=https://deepgreenpermaculture.com/permaculture/permaculture-design-principles/8-accelerating-succession-and-evolution/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Deep Green Permaculture |language=en-US}}</ref>

<gallery mode=""packed"" heights=""160px"">
File:Cottonwood Creek, BLM, Oregon, 1988.jpg|alt=A rocky, brown stream bank mostly bare of vegetation, with a few aspen trees in the background|Cottonwood Creek riparian area in southeastern [[Oregon]] before restoration, 1988
File:Cottonwood Creek, BLM, Oregon, 2000.jpg|alt=The same stream bank lined with short grasses, with more aspen trees in the background|Cottonwood Creek riparian area during recovery, 2000
File:Cottonwood Creek, BLM, Oregon, 2002.jpg|alt=The same stream bank lined with higher grasses that obscure most of the water, with a thicker aspen grove behind|Cottonwood Creek riparian area after restoration, 2002
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Wetlands}}
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Accropode]]
* [[Aquatic ecosystem]]
* [[Bioswale]]
* [[Bosque]]
* [[Canebrake]]
* [[Constructed wetland]]
* [[Endorheic basin]]
* [[Flood-meadow]]
* [[Floodplain]]
* [[Freshwater swamp forest]]
* [[Gallery forest]]
* [[Green belt]]
* [[Marsh]]
* [[Outwelling]]
* [[Riparian water rights]]
* [[Riparian-zone restoration]]
* [[Riprap]]
* [[Várzea forest]]
* [[Vernal pool]]
* [[Vulnerable waters]]
* [[Water-meadow]]
* [[Wetland]]
{{Div col end}}
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Nakasone|first1= H.|last2= Kuroda|first2= H.|last3= Kato|first3= T. |last4 =Tabuchi |first4=T. |date=2003|title= Nitrogen removal from water containing high nitrate nitrogen in a paddy field (wetland)|journal=Water Science and Technology| volume=48|issue=10|pages=209–216|doi=10.2166/wst.2003.0576|pmid= 15137172}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Mengis|first1=M.|last2=Schif|first2=S. L.|last3=Harris|first3=M.|last4=English|first4=M. C.|last5=Aravena|first5=R.|last6=Elgood|first6=R. J.|last7=MacLean|first7=A.|title=Multiple Geochemical and Isotopic Approaches for Assessing Ground Water NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> Elimination in a Riparian Zone|journal=Ground Water|date=1999|volume=37|issue=3|pages=448–457|doi=10.1111/j.1745-6584.1999.tb01124.x|bibcode=1999GrWat..37..448M |s2cid=131501907 }}
*Parkyn, Stephanie. (2004). ''Review of Riparian Buffer Zone Effectiveness''. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (New Zealand), www.maf.govt.nz/publications.
* {{cite journal|last1=Tang|first1=C.|last2=Azuma|first2=K.|last3=Iwami|first3=Y.|last4=Ohji|first4=B.|last5=Sakura|first5=Y.|title=Nitrate behaviour in the groundwater of a headwater wetland, Chiba, Japan|journal=Hydrological Processes|date=2004|volume=18|issue=16|pages=3159–3168|doi=10.1002/hyp.5755|bibcode=2004HyPr...18.3159T|s2cid=129664003 }}
*[http://nac.unl.edu/tools/riparianbibliography.htm Riparian Bibliography, National Agroforestry Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424001523/http://nac.unl.edu/tools/riparianbibliography.htm |date=2015-04-24 }}
*[http://nac.unl.edu/buffers/index.html Conservation Buffer Design Guidelines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512105645/http://nac.unl.edu/buffers/index.html |date=2015-05-12 }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Riparian forests}}
*[http://nac.unl.edu/practices/riparianforestbuffers.htm Riparian Forest Buffers, National Agroforestry Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529225708/http://nac.unl.edu/practices/riparianforestbuffers.htm |date=2016-05-29 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090319060415/http://krpcds.org/report/amita.pdf Dissertation on riparian vegetation of Chalakudy River]
*[https://archive.today/20121212224326/https://www.denix.osd.mil/denix/Public/ES-Programs/Conservation/Legacy/Riparian/riparian2.html Restoration strategies for riparian habitats, U.S. military]
*[http://www.blm.gov/or/programs/nrst/index.php# National Riparian Service Team, Bureau of Land Management]
*[http://riparianhabitatrestoration.ca/LAME/lvw.htm Riparian Habitat Restoration in the Las Vegas Wash]
*[http://www.health.state.nd.us/rrbrp/ Red River Basin Riparian Project]
*[http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/forst2/mf2724.pdf Riparian Forest Buffers, Kansas State University]{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=org.centerforagroforestry.practices.2|name=Agroforestry Practices – Riparian Forest Buffers (2004)}}

{{River morphology}}
{{Aquatic ecosystem topics}}
{{Biomes}}
{{Wetlands}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Riparian Zone}}
[[Category:Riparian zone| ]]
[[Category:Terrestrial biomes]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Hydrology]]
[[Category:Water streams]]
[[Category:Rivers]]
[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Water and the environment]]
[[Category:Freshwater ecology]]"
Man and Nature,"{{Short description|1864 book by George Perkins Marsh}}
{{Italic title}}
[[File:Title page Man and Nature.jpg|thumb|Title page 1864 edition]]
'''''Man and Nature: Or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action''''', first published in 1864, was written by American polymath scholar and diplomat [[George Perkins Marsh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/MARMAN.html|title=University of Washington Press - Books - Man and Nature|website=www.washington.edu|access-date=2017-12-02}}</ref> Marsh intended it to show that ""whereas [others] think the earth made man, man in fact made the earth"".<ref>G. P. Marsh, Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action (New York 1864); Marsh to Spencer F. Baird, 21 May 1860, Baird Corr., Smithsonian Institution.</ref> As a result, he warned that man could destroy himself and the Earth if we don't restore and sustain [[natural resources|global resources]] and raise awareness about our actions. It is one of the first works to document the effects of human action on the [[Natural environment|environment]] and it helped to launch the modern [[conservation movement]].

Marsh is remembered by scholars as a profound and observant student of men, books and nature with a wide range of interests ranging from history to poetry and literature. His wide array of knowledge and great natural powers of mind gave him the ability to speak and write about every topic of inquire with the assertive authority of a genuine investigator. He initially got the idea for ""man and Nature"" from his observations in his New England home and his foreign travels devoted to similar inquiries.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1864/07/25/news/man-nature-man-nature-physical-geography-modified-human-action-george-p-marsh.html ""MAN AND NATURE.; MAN AND NATURE; or PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, AS MODIFIED BY HUMAN ACTION. By GEORGE P. MARSH. 8vo. New-York: CHARLES SCRIENER""]. ''The New York Times''. 1864-07-25. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] [https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331 0362-4331]. Retrieved 2017-11-20.</ref>  Marsh wrote the book in line with the view that human life and action is a transformative phenomenon, especially in relation to nature, and due to personal economic interests. He felt that men were too quick to lessen their sense of responsibility and he was  ""unwilling to leave the world worse than he found it"".<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1864/07/25/news/man-nature-man-nature-physical-geography-modified-human-action-george-p-marsh.html MAN AND NATURE.; MAN AND NATURE; or PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, AS MODIFIED BY HUMAN ACTION. By GEORGE P. MARSH. 8vo. New-York: CHARLES SCRIENER""]. ''The New York Times''. 1864-07-25. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] [https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331 0362-4331]. Retrieved 2017-11-20.</ref>

The book challenges the myth of the inexhaustibility of the earth and the belief that [[human impact on the environment]] is negligible by drawing similarities to the [[ancient civilization]] of the Mediterranean.<ref>[http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/MARMAN.html University of Washington Press - Books - Man and Nature""]. ''www.washington.edu''. Retrieved 2017-11-20.</ref> Marsh argued that ancient [[Mediterranean]] civilizations collapsed through [[environmental degradation]]. [[Deforestation]] led to eroded soils that led to decreased soil productivity. Additionally, the same trends could be found occurring in the United States. The book was one of the most influential books of its time, next to Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'', inspiring conservation and reform in the USA since it forebode what happened to an ancient civilisation when it [[resource depletion|depleted]] and exhausted its [[natural resources]].<ref>[http://www.environmentandsociety.org/mml/marsh-george-perkins-man-and-nature-or-physical-geography-modified-human-action ""Marsh, George Perkins, Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action | Environment & Society Portal""]. ''www.environmentandsociety.org''. Retrieved 2017-11-02.</ref> The book was instrumental in the creation of [[Adirondack Park]] in [[New York (state)|New York]] and the [[United States National Forest]]. [[Gifford Pinchot]], first Chief of the [[United States Forest Service]], called it ""epoch making"" and [[Stewart Udall]] wrote that it was ""the beginning of land wisdom in this country.""

The book is divided into six chapters.
* Introductory
* Transfer, Modification, and [[Local extinction|Extirpation]] of [[Plants|Vegetable]] and of [[Animal|Animal Species]]
* The [[Forests|Woods]]
* The [[Body of water|Waters]]
* The [[Soil|Sands]]
* Projected or Possible Geographical Changes by Man

==See also==
*[[Anthropocene]]
* ''[[Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]''

==References==
<references />

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|title=American Canopy: Trees, Forests, and the Making of a Nation|first=Eric|last=Rutkow|publisher=Scribner|pages=93–98|location=New York|date=2012|isbn=978-1-4391-9354-9}}

== External links ==
* [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22Man%20and%20Nature%22%20AND%20marsh ''Man and Nature''] at [[Internet Archive]] (digital editions)
* [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/consrvbib:@FIELD(NUMBER(vg07))  Full Text of Book from the Library of Congress]

[[Category:1864 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:1860s in the environment]]
[[Category:Environmental non-fiction books]]
[[Category:George Perkins Marsh]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Books about environmentalism]]
[[Category:Works about societal collapse]]"
Decline in insect populations,"{{Short description|Ecological trend recorded since the late 20th century}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2021}}
[[File:Journal.pone.0185809.g004.PNG|thumb|An annual decline of 5.2% in flying insect [[biomass (ecology)|biomass]] found in nature reserves in Germany – about 75% loss in 26 years<ref name=Hallmann2017PLoS/>]]

[[Insect]]s are the most numerous and widespread [[class (biology)|class]] in the animal [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]], accounting for up to 90% of all animal species.<ref name=""number"">{{cite book |author=Erwin, Terry L. |url=http://entomology.si.edu/StaffPages/Erwin/T's%20updated%20pub%20PDFs%2010Jan2014/121_1995_Biodiversity-at-its-utmost.pdf |title=Biodiversity at its utmost: Tropical Forest Beetles |year=1997 |pages=27–40 |access-date=16 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109151957/https://entomology.si.edu/staffpages/Erwin/T's%20updated%20pub%20PDFs%2010Jan2014/121_1995_Biodiversity-at-its-utmost.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2018 |url-status=live}} In: {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/biodiversityiiun00reak |title=Biodiversity II |publisher=Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C. |year=1997 |isbn=9780309052276 |editor1=Reaka-Kudla, M.L. |editor2=Wilson, D. E. |editor3=Wilson, E. O. |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Erwin |first=Terry L. |year=1982 |title=Tropical forests: their richness in Coleoptera and other arthropod species |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/4383/Classic_papers_in_Foundations.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live |journal=The Coleopterists Bulletin |volume=36 |pages=74–75 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923014947/https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/4383/Classic_papers_in_Foundations.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date=23 September 2015 |access-date=16 September 2018}}</ref> In the 2010s, reports emerged about the widespread '''decline in insect populations''' across multiple insect [[order (biology)|orders]]. The reported severity shocked many observers, even though there had been earlier findings of [[pollinator decline]]. There has also been anecdotal reports of greater insect abundance  earlier in the 20th century. Many car drivers know this anecdotal evidence through the [[windscreen phenomenon]], for example.<ref name=""Leather2017"" /><ref name=""SchwägerlYale2016"" />  Causes for the decline in insect population are similar to those driving other [[biodiversity loss]]. They include [[habitat destruction]], such as [[intensive agriculture]], the use of [[pesticide]]s (particularly [[insecticide]]s), [[introduced species]], and – to a lesser degree and only for some regions – the [[effects of climate change]].<ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /> An additional cause that may be specific to insects is [[light pollution]] (research in that area is ongoing).<ref name=""OwensLewis2018"" /><ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" />  

Most commonly, the declines involve reductions in abundance, though in some cases entire species are going extinct. The declines are far from uniform. In some localities, there have been reports of increases in overall insect population, and some types of insects appear to be increasing in abundance across the world.<ref name=""Vogel2017"" /> Not all insect orders are affected in the same way; most affected are [[bee]]s, [[butterflies]], [[moth]]s, [[beetle]]s, [[dragonflies]] and [[damselflies]]. Many of the remaining insect groups have received less research to date. Also, comparative figures from earlier decades are often not available.<ref name=""Vogel2017"" /> In the few major global studies, estimates of the total number of insect species at risk of extinction range between 10% and 40%,<ref name=""IPBES"" /><ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /><ref name=""vanKlink2020"" /><ref name=""Isbell2022"">{{Cite journal |last1=Isbell |first1=Forest |last2=Balvanera |first2=Patricia |last3=Mori |first3=Akira S |last4=He |first4=Jin-Sheng |last5=Bullock |first5=James M |last6=Regmi |first6=Ganga Ram |last7=Seabloom |first7=Eric W |last8=Ferrier |first8=Simon |last9=Sala |first9=Osvaldo E |last10=Guerrero-Ramírez |first10=Nathaly R |last11=Tavella |first11=Julia |last12=Larkin |first12=Daniel J |last13=Schmid |first13=Bernhard |last14=Outhwaite |first14=Charlotte L |last15=Pramual |first15=Pairot |date=18 July 2022 |title=Expert perspectives on global biodiversity loss and its drivers and impacts on people |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2536 |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=94–103 |doi=10.1002/fee.2536 |s2cid=250659953 |hdl-access=free |last16=Borer |first16=Elizabeth T |last17=Loreau |first17=Michel |last18=Crossby Omotoriogun |first18=Taiwo |last19=Obura |first19=David O |last20=Anderson |first20=Maggie |last21=Portales-Reyes |first21=Cristina |last22=Kirkman |first22=Kevin |last23=Vergara |first23=Pablo M |last24=Clark |first24=Adam Thomas |last25=Komatsu |first25=Kimberly J |last26=Petchey |first26=Owen L |last27=Weiskopf |first27=Sarah R |last28=Williams |first28=Laura J |last29=Collins |first29=Scott L |last30=Eisenhauer |first30=Nico |last31=Trisos |first31=Christopher H |last32=Renard |first32=Delphine |last33=Wright |first33=Alexandra J |last34=Tripathi |first34=Poonam |last35=Cowles |first35=Jane |last36=Byrnes |first36=Jarrett EK |last37=Reich |first37=Peter B |last38=Purvis |first38=Andy |last39=Sharip |first39=Zati |last40=O’Connor |first40=Mary I |last41=Kazanski |first41=Clare E |last42=Haddad |first42=Nick M |last43=Soto |first43=Eulogio H |last44=Dee |first44=Laura E |last45=Díaz |first45=Sandra |last46=Zirbel |first46=Chad R |last47=Avolio |first47=Meghan L |last48=Wang |first48=Shaopeng |last49=Ma |first49=Zhiyuan |last50=Liang |first50=Jingjing Liang |last51=Farah |first51=Hanan C |last52=Johnson |first52=Justin Andrew |last53=Miller |first53=Brian W |last54=Hautier |first54=Yann |last55=Smith |first55=Melinda D |last56=Knops |first56=Johannes MH |last57=Myers |first57=Bonnie JE |last58=Harmáčková |first58=Zuzana V |last59=Cortés |first59=Jorge |last60=Harfoot |first60=Michael BJ |last61=Gonzalez |first61=Andrew |last62=Newbold |first62=Tim |last63=Oehri |first63=Jacqueline |last64=Mazón |first64=Marina |last65=Dobbs |first65=Cynnamon |last66=Palmer |first66=Meredith S |hdl=10852/101242}}</ref> though all of these estimates have been fraught with controversy.<ref name=Komonen2019>{{cite journal |last1=Komonen |first1=Atte |last2=Halme |first2=Panu |last3=Kotiaho |first3=Janne S. |title=Alarmist by bad design: Strongly popularized unsubstantiated claims undermine credibility of conservation science |journal=Rethinking Ecology |volume=4 |date=19 March 2019 |pages=17–19 |doi=10.3897/rethinkingecology.4.34440|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Thomas2019"" /><ref name=""Desquilbet2020"">{{Cite journal |last1=Desquilbet |first1=Marion |last2=Gaume |first2=Laurence |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Céréghino |first4=Régis |last5=Humbert |first5=Jean-François |last6=Bonmatin |first6=Jean-Marc |last7=Cornillon |first7=Pierre-André |last8=Maes |first8=Dirk |last9=Dyck |first9=Hans Van |last10=Goulson |first10=David |date=2020-12-18 |title=Comment on 'Meta-analysis reveals declines in terrestrial but increases in freshwater insect abundances' |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=370 |issue=6523 |pages=eabd8947 |doi=10.1126/science.abd8947 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=33335036 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=""Jähnig2021"">{{cite journal |last1=Jähnig |first1=Sonja C. |last2=et. |first2=al. |year=2021 |title=Revisiting global trends in freshwater insect biodiversity |journal=[[Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water]] |volume=8 |issue=2 |doi=10.1002/wat2.1506 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=1885/275614}}</ref>

Studies concur that in areas where insects are declining, their abundance had been diminishing for decades. Yet, those trends had not been spotted earlier, as there has historically been much less interest in studying insects in comparison to [[mammal]]s, [[bird]]s and other [[vertebrate]]s. One reason is the comparative lack of [[charismatic species]] of insects. In 2016, it was observed that while 30,000 insect species are known to inhabit [[Central Europe]], there are practically no specialists in the region devoted to full-time monitoring.<ref name=""Leather2017"" /> This issue of insufficient research is even more acute in the [[developing countries]]. As of 2021, nearly all of the studies on regional insect population trends come from [[Europe]] and the [[United States]], even though they account for less than 20% of insect species worldwide. In [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[South America]] there are hardly any observations of insects that span several decades. Such studies would be required to draw conclusions about population trends on a large scale.<ref name=""Wagner2021"">{{cite journal | publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] | last1=Wagner | first1=David L. | last2=Grames | first2=Eliza M. | last3=Forister | first3=Matthew L. | last4=Berenbaum | first4=May R. | last5=Stopak | first5=David | title=Insect decline in the Anthropocene: Death by a thousand cuts | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=118 | issue=2 | date=2021-01-12 | pages=e2023989118 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=33431573 | doi=10.1073/pnas.2023989118| pmc=7812858 | bibcode=2021PNAS..11823989W | doi-access=free }}</ref>

To respond to these declines, various governments have introduced conservation measures to help insects. For example, the German government started an ''Action Programme for Insect Protection'' in 2018.<ref name=FAO2019/><ref name=BMU/> The goals of this program include promoting insect habitats in the agricultural landscape, and reducing [[environmental impact of pesticides|pesticide use]], [[light pollution]], and pollutants in [[soil degradation|soil]] and water.<ref name=""BMU"" /> 

==Context==
[[File:Melanoplus spretusAnnReportAgExpStaUM1902B.jpg|thumb|A 1902 illustration of a [[Rocky Mountain locust]]. These insects were seen in swarms estimated at over 10 trillion members as late as 1875. Soon after, their population rapidly declined, with the last recorded sighting in 1902, and the species formally declared extinct in 2014.]]

The fossil record concerning insects stretches back hundreds of millions of years. It suggests there are ongoing background levels of both [[speciation|new species appearing]] and [[extinctions]]. Very occasionally, the record also appears to show mass extinctions of insects, understood to be caused by natural phenomena such as volcanic activity or meteor impact. The [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]] saw the greatest level of insect extinction, and the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|Cretaceous–Paleogene]] the second highest. Insect diversity has recovered after mass extinctions, as a result of periods in which new species originate with increased frequency, although the recovery can take millions of years.<ref name=fossil/>

Concern about a human-caused [[Holocene extinction]] has been growing since the late 20th century, although much of the early concern was not focused on insects. In a report on the world's [[invertebrate]]s, the [[Zoological Society of London]] suggested in 2012 that insect populations were in decline globally, affecting [[pollination]] and food supplies for other animals.<ref name=ZSL/><ref name=BorrellSA4Sept2012/><ref name=""SchwägerlYale2016""/><ref name=NYTeditorial29Oct2017/> It estimated that about 20 percent of all invertebrate species were threatened with extinction, and that species with the least mobility and smallest ranges were most at risk.<ref name=ZSL/>

Studies finding insect decline have been available for decades—one study tracked a decline from 1840 to 2013—but it was the 2017 re-publication of the [[#Krefeld|German nature reserves study]]<ref name=Hallmann2017PLoS/> that saw the issue receive widespread attention in the media.<ref name=Leather2017/><ref name=""SchwägerlYale2016""/> The press reported the decline with alarming headlines, including ""Insect [[Apocalypse]]"".<ref name=NYTeditorial29Oct2017/><ref name=JarvisNYT27Nov2018/> Ecologist [[Dave Goulson]] told ''The Guardian'' in 2017: ""We appear to be making vast tracts of land inhospitable to most forms of life, and are currently on course for ecological [[Armageddon]].""<ref name=DCGuardian18Oct2017/> For many studies, factors such as [[Relative species abundance|abundance]], biomass, and [[species richness]] are often found to be declining for some, but not all locations; some species are in decline while others are not.<ref name=""Thomas2019""/> The insects studied have mostly been butterflies and moths, bees, beetles, dragonflies, damselflies and [[stoneflies]]. Every species is affected in different ways by changes in the environment, and it cannot be inferred that there is a consistent decrease across different insect groups. When conditions change, some species adapt easily to the change while others struggle to survive.<ref name=Reckhaus2017/>

A March 2019 statement by the [[Entomological Society of America]] said there was not yet sufficient data to predict an imminent mass extinction of insects and that some of the extrapolated predictions might ""have been extended well past the limits of the data or have been otherwise over-hyped"".<ref name=FAQEntSocAm2019/> For some insect groups such as some butterflies, moths, bees, and beetles, declines in abundance and diversity have been documented in European studies. These have generally led to an overall pattern of decline, but there are variable trends for individual species within groups. For instance, a minority of British moths are becoming more common.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boyes|first1=Douglas H.|last2=Fox|first2=Richard|last3=Shortall|first3=Chris R.|last4=Whittaker|first4=Robert J.|date=2019|title=Bucking the trend: the diversity of Anthropocene 'winners' among British moths|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6hz0x33v|journal=[[Frontiers of Biogeography]]|volume=11|issue=3|doi=10.21425/F5FBG43862|s2cid=204900275 |doi-access=free}}</ref>  Other areas have shown increases in some insect species, although trends in most regions are currently unknown. It is difficult to assess long-term trends in insect abundance or diversity because historical measurements are generally not known for many species. Robust data to assess at-risk areas or species is especially lacking for arctic and tropical regions and a majority of the southern hemisphere.<ref name=FAQEntSocAm2019/>

In March 2019 [[Chris D. Thomas]] and other scientists wrote in response to the apocalyptic ""Insectageddon"" predictions of Sánchez-Bayo, ""we respectfully suggest that accounts of the demise of insects may be slightly exaggerated"". They called for ""joined-up thinking"" in responding to insect declines, backed up by more robust data than were currently available.<ref name=""Thomas2019"" />

== Global estimates ==
[[File:Percent of insect species.svg|thumb|Insects with population trends documented by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]], for orders [[Collembola]], [[Hymenoptera]], [[Lepidoptera]], [[Odonata]], and [[Orthoptera]]]]A 2020 meta-analysis found that globally terrestrial insects appear to be declining in abundance at a rate of about 9% per decade, while the abundance of freshwater insects appears to be increasing by 11% per decade. The study analysed 166 long-term studies, involving 1676 different sites across the world. It found considerable variations in insect decline depending on locality – the authors considered this a hopeful sign, as it suggests local factors, including conservation efforts, can make a big difference. The article stated that the increase in freshwater insects may in part be due to efforts to clean up lakes and rivers, and may also relate to global warming and enhanced primary productivity driven by increased nutrient inputs.<ref name=""vanKlink2020"" />  However, the data selection and methodology of the article were criticised in several publications.<ref name=""Desquilbet2020"" /><ref name=""Jähnig2021"" />

In 2022, 66 researchers conducted a survey of 3331 biodiversity experts (meaning scientists who published a study on the subject of biodiversity over the past decade). This included 629 experts in terrestrial and freshwater [[invertebrate]]s: on average, they believed that around 30% (with an uncertainty range between 20 and 50%) of these species are or have been threatened with extinction (including the species which had already gone extinct since 1500).  As insects account for the vast majority of the world's invertebrates, this figure by extension applies to them as well.<ref name=""Isbell2022"" />

A 2019 survey of 24 entomologists working on six continents found that on a scale of 0 to 10, with 10 being the worst, all the scientists rated the severity of the insect decline crisis as being between 8–10.<ref name=""Hance2019"" />

=== Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services ===
{{main|Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services}}

The [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]] reported its assessment of global biodiversity in 2019.  Its summary for insect life was that ""Global trends in insect populations are not known but rapid declines have been well documented in some places.&nbsp;... Local declines of insect populations such as wild bees and butterflies have often been reported, and insect abundance has declined very rapidly in some places even without large-scale [[land-use change]], but the global extent of such declines is not known.&nbsp;... The proportion of insect species threatened with extinction is a key uncertainty, but available evidence supports a tentative estimate of 10 per cent.""<ref name=""IPBES"" /> In 2022, some researchers had expressed concern about the apparent mismatch between this tentative IPBES estimate, and that of 629 experts on invertebrate biodiversity they surveyed, which was closer to 30%. They argued that more investigations into insects and other ""hyperdiverse and understudied taxa"" are urgently required to clarify the matter.<ref name=""Isbell2022"" />  

== Causes ==
{{See also|Environmental impact of pesticides}}

=== Destruction and pollution ===
The causes of the declines in insect populations, and their relative importance, are not fully understood. They are likely to vary between different insect groups and geographical regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wagner|first=David L.|date=2020-01-07|title=Insect Declines in the Anthropocene|journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]]|volume=65|issue=1|pages=457–480|doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-025151|pmid=31610138 |s2cid=204702504 |issn=0066-4170|doi-access=free}}</ref> A study placed these causes in the order of importance as follows: ""(i) [[Habitat destruction|habitat loss]] and conversion to [[intensive agriculture]] and [[Urbanization|urbanisation]]; ii) pollution,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eggleton |first1=Paul |year=2020 |title=The State of the World's Insects |journal=[[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] |volume=45 |pages=61–82 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-050035 |doi-access=free}}</ref> mainly that by synthetic pesticides and fertilisers; iii) biological factors, including pathogens and introduced species; and iv) climate change.""<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sánchez-Bayo |first=Francisco |last2=Wyckhuys |first2=Kris A.G. |date=2019 |title=Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320718313636 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=232 |pages=8–27 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.020}}</ref> 

[[Light pollution]] also plays a role.<ref name=""OwensLewis2018"" /><ref name="":0"">[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/nov/22/light-pollution-insect-apocalypse Light pollution is key 'bringer of insect apocalypse'] The Guardian, 2019</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last1=Boyes |first1=Douglas H. |last2=Evans |first2=Darren M. |last3=Fox |first3=Richard |last4=Parsons |first4=Mark S. |last5=Pocock |first5=Michael J. O. |date=August 2021 |title=Street lighting has detrimental impacts on local insect populations |journal=[[Science Advances]] |language=EN |volume=7 |issue=35 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.8322B |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abi8322 |pmc=8386932 |pmid=34433571}}</ref> Other factors that are thought to be important are [[introduced species]]<ref name=""Wagner2010"" /><ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /> and [[eutrophication]] from fertilisers. 

The use of increased quantities of [[insecticide]]s and [[herbicide]]s on crops have affected not only non-target insect species, but also the plants on which they feed. 

For example, a review in 2017 commented on a large study in Germany about insect population decline as follows: ""The authors of the German study were not able to link the observed decline to climate change or pesticide use; although agricultural intensification and the practices associated with it, were, however, suggested as likely to be involved in some way.""<ref name=Leather2017/>

===Climate change===
Climate change and the introduction of exotic species (see [[climate change and invasive species]]) that compete with the [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] ones put the native species under stress, and as a result they are more likely to succumb to pathogens and parasites.<ref name=""Reckhaus2017"" /> Plants grow faster in presence of increased CO<sub>2</sub> (due to the [[CO2 fertilization effect|CO<sub>2</sub> fertilisation effect]]) but the resulting plant biomass contains fewer nutrients.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Welti |first1=Ellen A. R. |last2=Roeder |first2=Karl A. |last3=Beurs |first3=Kirsten M. de |last4=Joern |first4=Anthony |last5=Kaspari |first5=Michael |title=Nutrient dilution and climate cycles underlie declines in a dominant insect herbivore |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |date=31 March 2020 |volume=117 |issue=13 |pages=7271–7275 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1920012117 |pmid=32152101 |pmc=7132292 |bibcode=2020PNAS..117.7271W |language=en |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free }}</ref> While some species such as [[flies]] and [[cockroach]]es might increase as a result,<ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /> the total [[biomass (ecology)|biomass]] of insects is estimated to be decreasing by between about 0.9 to 2.5% per year.<ref name=""MainNatGeographic14Feb2019"" /><ref name=""vanKlink2020"" />

{{excerpt|Extinction risk from climate change#Insects|paragraphs=1-3|file=no}}

==Methodology==
Three principal metrics are used to capture and report on insect declines:
* ''Abundance'' – simply put the numerical total of individual insects. Depending on context, it can refer to the number of insects in a particular assembly, in a geographical area, or the sum total of insects globally  (regardless of which species the individuals belong to).
* ''Biomass'' – the total weight of insects (again regardless of species).
* ''Biodiversity'' – the number of extant insect species. Depending on context, a reduction in biodiversity can mean certain species of insects have vanished locally, though it may mean species have gone totally extinct across the entire planet.<ref name=WagnerJ2020/><ref name=vanKlink2020/><ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019""/>

Most of the individual studies tracking insect declines report just abundance, others just on biomass, some on both, and yet others report on all three metrics. Data directly related to diversity loss at global level is more sparse than for abundance or biomass declines. Estimates for diversity loss at a planetary level tend to involve extrapolating from abundance or biomass data; while studies sometimes show [[Local extinction|local extirpation]] of an insect species, actual world wide extinctions are challenging to discern. In a 2019 review, [[David L. Wagner|David Wagner]] noted that currently the [[Holocene extinction]] is seeing animal species loss at about  100–1,000 times the planet's normal background rate, and that various studies found a similar, or possibly even faster extinction rate for insects. Wagner opines that serious though this [[biodiversity loss]] is, it is the decline in abundance that will have the most serious ecological impact.<ref name=WagnerJ2020/><ref name=vanKlink2020/><ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019""/><ref name=Dirzo2014/>

In theory it is possible for the three metrics to be independent. For instance, a decline in biomass might not involve a decrease in abundance or diversity if all that was happening was that typical insects were getting smaller. In practice though,  abundance and biomass tend to be closely related, typically showing a similar level of decline. Change in biodiversity is often, though not always,
directly proportional to the other two metrics.<ref name=vanKlink2020/><ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019""/> Some studies find cases where, in certain locations, change in biodiversity is inversely proportional to the other metrics. For example, a 42 year study of insects in the pristine Breitenbach stream near [[Schlitz, Hesse|Schlitz]], which is believed to have been unaffected by [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] decline related causes except for climate change, found that while abundance of insects decreased, biodiversity actually rose, especially during the first half of the study.<ref name= Baranov2020/>

== Survey results for specific regions ==
===United Kingdom===
The Rothamsted Insect Survey at [[Rothamsted Research]], [[Harpenden]], England, began monitoring insect suction traps across the UK in 1964. According to the group, these have produced ""the most comprehensive standardised long-term data on insects in the world"".<ref>{{cite web |title=About The Insect Survey |url=https://insectsurvey.com/about |publisher=Rothamsted Research}}</ref> The traps are ""effectively upside-down [[Vacuum cleaner|Hoovers]] running 24/7, continually sampling the air for migrating insects"", according to James Bell, the survey leader, in an interview in 2017 with the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''. Between 1970 and 2002, the insect biomass caught in the traps declined by over two-thirds in southern [[Scotland]], although it remained stable in England. The scientists speculate that insect abundance was already lost in England by 1970 (figures in Scotland were higher than in England when the survey began), or that [[aphid]]s and other pests increased there in the absence of their insect predators.<ref name=""Vogel2017"" />

A 2014 review noted: ""Of all insects with [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]]-documented population trends [203 insect species in five orders], 33% are declining, with strong variation among orders."" In the UK, ""30 to 60% of species per order have declining ranges"". Insect pollinators, ""needed for 75% of all the world's food crops"", appear to be ""strongly declining globally in both abundance and diversity"", which has been linked in Northern Europe to the decline of plant species that rely on them. The study referred to the human-caused loss of [[vertebrate]]s and invertebrates as the ""Anthropocene [[defaunation]]"".<ref name=""Dirzo2014"" /><ref name=""JarvisNYT27Nov2018"" />

Anecdotal evidence for insect decline has been offered by those who recall apparently greater insect abundance in the 20th century. Entomologist [[Simon Leather]] recalls that, in the 1970s, windows of [[Yorkshire]] houses he visited on his early-morning paper round would be ""plastered with tiger moths"" attracted by the house's lighting during the night. [[Arctiinae (moth)|Tiger moths]] have now largely disappeared from the area.<ref name=""McKieObserver17June2018"" /> Another anecdote is recalled by environmentalist [[Michael McCarthy (journalist)|Michael McCarthy]] concerning the vanishing of the ""moth snowstorms"", a relatively common sight in the UK in the 1970s and earlier. Moth snowstorms occurred when moths congregated with such density that they could appear like a blizzard in the beam of automobile headlights.<ref name=""McCarthyGuardian21Oct2017"" />

In 2004 the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] organised a Big Bug Count, issuing ""splatometers"" to about 40,000 volunteers to help count the number of insects colliding with their [[vehicle registration plate|number plate]]s. They found an average of one insect per 5 miles (8&nbsp;km), which was less than expected.<ref name=""KnaptonTelegraph17June2018"" /><ref name=""BBC04"" />

===Germany{{anchor|Krefeld}}===
[[File:Malaise trap, Germany.jpg|thumb|left|[[Malaise trap]]s in German nature reserves<ref name=""Hallmann2017PLoS"" />]]

In 2013 the [[Entomologischer Verein Krefeld|Krefeld Entomological Society]] reported a ""huge reduction in the biomass of insects""<ref name=""Leather2017"" /> caught in [[malaise trap]]s in 63 [[list of nature parks in Germany|nature reserves in Germany]] (57 in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], one in [[Rheinland-Pfalz]] and one in [[Brandenburg]]).<ref name=""Sorg2013"" /><ref name=""Bundestag2017p5"">{{cite web |title=Zum Insektenbestand in Deutschland: Reaktionen von Fachpublikum und Verbänden auf eine neue Studie |url=https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/536702/5537cc08d8f54d93ac042fb36bde811e/wd-8-039-17-pdf-data.pdf |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Dienste, Deutscher Bundestag (German parliament) |date=13 November 2017 |page=5 |ref = {{sfnref|Deutscher Bundestag|2017}} }}</ref> A reanalysis published in 2017 suggested that, in 1989–2016, there had been a ""seasonal decline of 76%, and mid-summer decline of 82%, in flying insect biomass over the 27 years of study"". The decline was ""apparent regardless of habitat type"" and could not be explained by ""changes in weather, land use, and habitat characteristics"". The authors suggested that not only butterflies, moths and wild bees appear to be in decline, as previous studies indicated, but ""the flying insect community as a whole"".<ref name=""Hallmann2017PLoS"" /><ref name=""Leather2017"" /><ref name=""Nature18Oct2017"" /><ref name=""Guarino18Oct2017"" /><ref name=""StagerNYT26May2018"" />

Scientists stated in 2019: ""In 2017, a 27-year long population monitoring study revealed a shocking 76% decline in flying insect biomass at several of Germany's protected areas (Hallmann et al., 2017). This represents an average 2.8% loss in insect biomass per year in habitats subject to rather low levels of human disturbance, which could either be undetectable or regarded statistically non-significant if measurements were carried out over shorter time frames. Worryingly, the study shows a steady declining trend over nearly three decades.""<ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" />

According to ''[[The Economist]]'', the study was the ""third most frequently cited scientific study (of all kinds) in the media in 2017"". It ""pushed the governments of Germany and the Netherlands into setting up programmes to protect insect diversity.""<ref name=""Economist23March2019"" /> The British entomologist [[Simon Leather]] said that he hoped media reports, following the study, of an ""ecological Armageddon"" had been exaggerated; he argued that the Krefeld and other studies should be a wake-up call, and that more funding is needed to support long-term studies.<ref name=""Leather2017"" /><ref name=""DCGuardian18Oct2017"" /><ref name=""McGraneNYT4Dec2017"" /> The Krefeld study's authors were not able to link the decline to climate change or pesticides, he wrote, but they suggested that intensive farming was involved. While agreeing with their conclusions, he cautioned that ""the data are based on biomass, not species, and the sites were not sampled continuously and are not globally representative"".

=== Puerto Rico ===
A 2018 study of the [[El Yunque National Forest]] in [[Puerto Rico]] reported a decline in [[arthropod]]s, and in lizards, frogs, and birds ([[insectivore|insect-eating]] species) based on measurements in 1976 and 2012.<ref name=""Lister2018"" /><ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /> The American entomologist [[David L. Wagner|David Wagner]] called the study a ""clarion call"" and ""one of the most disturbing articles"" he had ever read.<ref name=""Guarino15Oct2018"" /> The researchers reported ""biomass losses between 98% and 78% for ground-foraging and canopy-dwelling arthropods over a 36-year period, with respective annual losses between 2.7% and 2.2%"".<ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /> The decline was attributed to a rise in the average temperature; tropical insect species cannot tolerate a wide range of temperatures.<ref name=""Lister2018"" /><ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /><ref name=""MainNatGeographic14Feb2019"" /> The researchers were shocked by the results: ""We couldn't believe the first results. I remember [in the 1970s] butterflies everywhere after rain. On the first day back [in 2012], I saw hardly any.""<ref name=""Economist23March2019"" />

===Netherlands ===
In 2019 a study of butterfly numbers in the [[Netherlands]] from 1890 to 2017 reported an estimated decline of 84 percent. When analysed by type of habitat, the trend was found to have stabilised in [[grassland]] and [[woodland]] in recent decades but the decline continued in [[heathland]]. The decline was attributed to changes in land use due to more efficient farming methods, which has caused a decline in weeds. The recent up-tick in some populations documented in the study was attributed to (conservationist) changes in land management and thus an increase in suitable habitat.<ref name=""vanStrien2019"" /><ref name=""CBS29March2019"">{{cite web |title=Over 80% decline in butterflies since late 1800s |url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2019/13/ruim-80-procent-minder-vlinders-dan-eind-19e-eeuw |publisher=Statistics Netherlands (Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330114126/https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2019/13/ruim-80-procent-minder-vlinders-dan-eind-19e-eeuw |archive-date=30 March 2019 |date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=""Telegraaf29March2019"">{{cite news |title=Veel minder vlinders |url=https://www.telegraaf.nl/nieuws/3364801/veel-minder-vlinders |work=[[De Telegraaf]] |date=29 March 2019 |access-date=14 April 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428064838/https://www.telegraaf.nl/nieuws/3364801/veel-minder-vlinders |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=""Barkham2019"" /> 

=== Switzerland ===
A report by the [[Swiss Academy of Natural Sciences]] in April 2019 reported that 60 percent of the insects that had been studied in Switzerland were at risk, mostly in farming and aquatic areas; that there had been a 60 percent decline in insect-eating birds since 1990 in rural areas; and that urgent action was needed to address the causes.<ref name=""SWI"" /><ref name=""SANS"" />

===United States and Western Europe {{anchor|Sánchez-Bayo}}===
[[File:SympetrumInfuscatum.jpg|thumb|Except for [[taxa]] regarded as beneficial or charismatic, such as the pictured [[dragonfly]], there is relatively little population decline data available for specific insect species.]]
A 2019 review analysed 73 long-term insect surveys that had shown decline, most of them in the United States and Western Europe.<ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /><ref>[https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0006320718313636-gr1_lrg.jpg ""Fig. 1. Geographic location of the 73 reports studied on the world map""], Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys 2019.</ref> While noting population increases for certain species of insects in particular areas, the authors reported an annual 2.5% loss of biomass. They wrote that the review ""revealed dramatic rates of decline that may lead to the extinction of 40% of the world's insect species over the next few decades"",<ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /><ref name=""LePageNewScientist11Feb2019"" /> a conclusion that was challenged.<ref name=""Wagner2019"" /><ref name=""Simmons2019"" /> They did note the review's limitations, namely that the studies were largely concentrated on popular insect groups (butterflies and moths, bees, dragonflies and beetles); few had been done on groups as [[Diptera]] (flies), [[Orthoptera]] (which includes [[grasshopper]]s and [[Cricket (insect)|cricket]]s), and [[Hemiptera]] (such as [[aphid]]s); data from the past from which to calculate trends is largely unavailable; and the data that does exist mostly relates to Western Europe and North America, with the tropics and southern hemisphere (major insect habitats) under-represented.<ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /><ref name=""DCObserver10Feb2019"" />

The methodology and strong language of the review were questioned.<ref name=""Wagner2019"" /><ref name=""Simmons2019"" /><ref name=""Sanders16Feb2019"" /> Other criticism included that the authors attributed the decline to particular threats based on the studies they reviewed, even when those studies had simply suggested threats rather than clearly identifying them.<ref name=""Simmons2019"" /> Some reviewers said the study might underestimate the rate of insect decline in the [[tropics]].<ref name=""LePageNewScientist11Feb2019"" /> Some reviewers also had concerns about the review's search terms, geographic biases, calculations of extinction rates, and inaccurate assessment of drivers of population change. Nevertheless, they found that while it was ""a useful review of insect population ''declines'' in North America and Europe, it should not be used as evidence of global insect population ''trends'' and threats.""<ref name=""Simmons2019"" />

In a 2020 paper that studied insects and other arthropods across all Long-term Ecological Research (LTER) sites in the U.S., the authors found some declines, some increases, but generally few consistent losses in arthropod abundance or diversity. This study found some variation in location, but generally stable numbers of insects. As noted in the paper, the authors did not do any ''a priori'' selection of arthropod taxa. Instead, they tested the hypothesis that if the arthropod decline was pervasive, it would be detected in monitoring programs not originally designed to look for declines. They suggest that overall numbers of insects vary but overall show no net change.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crossley |first1=Michael |date=10 August 2020 |title=No net insect abundance and diversity declines across US Long Term Ecological Research sites |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1269-4 |journal=[[Nature Ecology and Evolution]] |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=1368–1376 |doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1269-4 |pmid=32778751 |s2cid=221099483 |access-date=11 August 2020}}</ref> However, the methodology of the article was criticised because it failed to account for changes in sampling location and sampling effort at LTER sites and for the impact of experimental conditions, had inconsistencies in the database constitution and relied on an inadequate statistical analysis.<ref>Welti, E.A.R., Joern, A., Ellison, A.M. et al. [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01424-0#citeas Studies of insect temporal trends must account for the complex sampling histories inherent to many long-term monitoring efforts]. ''Nature Ecology and Evolution'' '''5''' 589–591 (2021). {{doi|10.1038/s41559-021-01424-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Desquilbet |first1=Marion |last2=Cornillon |first2=Pierre-André |last3=Gaume |first3=Laurence |last4=Bonmatin |first4=Jean-Marc |year=2021 |title=Adequate statistical modelling and data selection are essential when analysing abundance and diversity trends |url=http://publications.ut-capitole.fr/43237/1/articles/s41559-021-01427-x.epdf_sharing_token%3DtDqmFjgCiz4n48ij_fI079RgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0O4mO5CkzfI-WdkSWvtSxayB2To9R1gzYOnve4_aEe4G8rqfGbOk0XrGRUQlGA03a6cVB3e3UP2cPmJ4vZ19RirZFY_MEwFEIuxiGzghVmUfF1WXdY390OkC8nJZo7-xzU%3D |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=592–594 |doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01427-x |pmid=33820967 |s2cid=233037619}}</ref>[[File:Windshield phenomenon, Australia, March 2009 (2).jpg|thumb|left|Bug splats, [[New South Wales]], 2009]]
The [[windshield phenomenon]] – car windscreens covered in dead insects after even a short drive through a rural area in Europe and North America – seems also largely to have disappeared; in the 21st century, drivers find they can go an entire summer without noticing it.<ref name=""Vogel2017"" /><ref name=""KnaptonTelegraph17June2018"" /> John Rawlins, head of invertebrate zoology at the [[Carnegie Museum of Natural History]], speculated in 2006 that more aerodynamic car designs could explain the change.<ref name=""LinnPost-Gazette4June2006"" /> Entomologist Martin Sorg told ''Science'' in 2017: ""I drive a Land Rover, with the aerodynamics of a refrigerator, and these days it stays clean.""<ref name=""Vogel2017"" /> Rawlins added that land next to high-speed highways has become more manicured and therefore less attractive to insects.<ref name=""LinnPost-Gazette4June2006"" />
== Impacts ==
[[File:00_1680_Bumblebee.gif|thumb|Bumblebee collecting pollen]]
Insect population decline affects ecosystems, and other animal populations, including [[humans]]. Insects are at ""the structural and functional base of many of the world's ecosystems.""<ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /> A [[#Sánchez-Bayo|2019 global review]] warned that, if not mitigated by decisive action, the decline would have a catastrophic impact on the planet's ecosystems.<ref name=""Sánchez-Bayo2019"" /> Birds and larger mammals that eat insects can be directly affected by the decline. Declining insect populations can reduce the [[ecosystem services]] provided by [[Beneficial insect|beneficial bugs]], such as [[pollination]] of agricultural crops, and biological waste disposal.<ref name=""MainNatGeographic14Feb2019"" /> 

According to the [[Zoological Society of London]], in addition to such loss of [[instrumental value]], the decline also represents a loss of the declining species' [[Intrinsic value (ethics)|intrinsic value]].<ref name=""ZSL"" />
== Countermeasures ==

=== Overall policies and conventions ===
The most influential factors, that can be counteracted, are habitat loss and degradation, pesticide use, and climate change. Policies at all levels of government across the globe are required to address these in a meaningful way.<ref name=""10.1111/csp2.80"">{{cite journal |last1=Forister |first1=Matthew L. |last2=Pelton |first2=Emma M. |last3=Black |first3=Scott H. |date=2019 |title=Declines in insect abundance and diversity: We know enough to act now |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |language=en |volume=1 |issue=8 |pages=e80 |doi=10.1111/csp2.80 |issn=2578-4854 |s2cid=196681430 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Much of the world's efforts to retain biodiversity at national level is reported to the United Nations as part of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]. Reports typically describe policies to prevent the loss of diversity generally, such as habitat preservation, rather than specifying measures to protect particular taxa. Pollinators are the main exception to this, with several countries reporting efforts to reduce the decline of their pollinating insects.<ref name=""FAO2019"" />

Following the [[#Krefeld study, Germany|2017 Krefeld]] and other studies, Germany's environment ministry, the [[Federal Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety|BMU]], started an ''Action Programme for Insect Protection'' (''Aktionsprogramm Insektenschutz'').<ref name=""FAO2019"" /> Their goals include promoting insect habitats in the agricultural landscape, and reducing [[environmental impact of pesticides|pesticide use]], [[light pollution]], and pollutants in [[soil degradation|soil]] and water.<ref name=""BMU"" /> 

=== Reduction of pesticide-use ===
Beyond halting habitat loss and fragmentation and [[climate change mitigation|limiting climate change]], reducing pesticide use is required for preserving insect populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Basset |first1=Yves |last2=Lamarre |first2=Greg P. A. |date=28 June 2019 |title=Toward a world that values insects |journal=Science |language=EN |volume=364 |issue=6447 |pages=1230–1231 |bibcode=2019Sci...364.1230B |doi=10.1126/science.aaw7071 |pmid=31249044 |s2cid=195750374 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pesticides have been found far from their application source and [[law-making|legislatively mandated]] elimination of cosmetic pesticide use, as well as general reductions of pesticide use, could greatly benefit insects.<ref name=""10.1073/pnas.2002547117"" /> [[Organic food]]/[[organic farming|farming]]-related measures can be solutions.<ref name=""10.1111/csp2.80"" />

However, some scientists warned that excessive focus on reducing pesticide use could be counterproductive as pests already cause a 35 percent yield loss in crops, which can rise to 70 percent if pesticides are not used. If the yield loss was compensated for by expanding agricultural land with [[deforestation]] and other habitat destruction, it could exacerbate insect decline.<ref name=""Thomas2019"" /><!--not clear what this refers to: Citing a 2010 warning from [[Robert May, Baron May of Oxford|Lord May]], the authors of the 2019 worldwide review suggest decisive action is needed ""to avert a catastrophic collapse of nature's [[ecosystem]]s.""<ref name=Sánchez-Bayo2019/>-->

=== Wildflower strips and buffer zones ===
[[File:Mechtenberg2009.jpg|thumb|A flowering strip with cornflower dominance between cereal fields as a field trial in Germany]]
A [[wildflower strip]] is a strip of land sown with seeds of biodiverse<!-- unmaintained--> [[Pollinator garden|insect- and pollinator-friendly]] flowering plant species, usually at the edge of an [[agricultural field]], intended to sustain local [[biodiversity]], conserve insects, restore farmland birds and counteract the negative consequences of agricultural intensification.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haaland |first1=Christine |last2=Naisbit |first2=Russell E. |last3=Bersier |first3=Louis-Félix |title=Sown wildflower strips for insect conservation: a review |journal=Insect Conservation and Diversity |date=2011 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=60–80 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-4598.2010.00098.x |s2cid=55210072 |language=en |issn=1752-4598|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/28343/files/ber_sws.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ganser |first1=Dominik |last2=Mayr |first2=Barbara |last3=Albrecht |first3=Matthias |last4=Knop |first4=Eva |title=Wildflower strips enhance pollination in adjacent strawberry crops at the small scale |journal=Ecology and Evolution |date=December 2018 |volume=8 |issue=23 |pages=11775–11784 |doi=10.1002/ece3.4631 |pmid=30598775 |pmc=6303775 |issn=2045-7758}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Annika |last2=Fartmann |first2=Thomas |last3=Kiehl |first3=Kathrin |last4=Kirmer |first4=Anita |last5=Tischew |first5=Sabine |title=Effects of perennial wildflower strips and landscape structure on birds in intensively farmed agricultural landscapes |journal=Basic and Applied Ecology |date=1 February 2022 |volume=58 |pages=15–25 |doi=10.1016/j.baae.2021.10.005 |s2cid=240256023 |language=en |issn=1439-1791|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grass |first1=Ingo |last2=Albrecht |first2=Jörg |last3=Farwig |first3=Nina |last4=Jauker |first4=Frank |title=Plant traits and landscape simplification drive intraspecific trait diversity of Bombus terrestris in wildflower plantings |journal=Basic and Applied Ecology |date=1 December 2021 |volume=57 |pages=91–101 |doi=10.1016/j.baae.2021.10.002 |s2cid=240241322 |language=en |issn=1439-1791|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Buffer-zones around [[nature reserve]]s where pesticide-use is drastically reduced has been proposed for inclusion in the countermeasures. Scientists who proposed the measure conducted a Germany-wide field study and found that insect samples in these areas are contaminated with ~16 pesticides on average, proportionate to the agricultural production area in a radius of 2 km.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brühl |first1=Carsten A. |last2=Bakanov |first2=Nikita |last3=Köthe |first3=Sebastian |last4=Eichler |first4=Lisa |last5=Sorg |first5=Martin |last6=Hörren |first6=Thomas |last7=Mühlethaler |first7=Roland |last8=Meinel |first8=Gotthard |last9=Lehmann |first9=Gerlind U. C. |date=16 December 2021 |title=Direct pesticide exposure of insects in nature conservation areas in Germany |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=24144 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1124144B |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-03366-w |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8677746 |pmid=34916546}}</ref>

=== Wildlife gardens ===
{{Further|Wildlife garden}}
The [[Entomological Society of America]] suggests that people maintain plant diversity in their gardens and leave ""natural habitat, like leaf litter and dead wood"".<ref name=FAQEntSocAm2019/> The [[Xerces Society]] in the U.S. has been doing a Western Monarch Thanksgiving Count which includes observations from volunteers for 22 years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Record Low Number of Overwintering Monarch Butterflies in California—They Need Your Help! |url=https://xerces.org/2019/01/17/record-low-overwintering-monarchs-in-california/ |website=Xerces Society}}</ref>

It has been suggested that ""Because many insects need little space to survive, even partial conversion of [[lawn]]s to minimally disturbed natural vegetation—say 10%—could significantly aid insect conservation, while simultaneously lowering the cost of lawn maintenance"".<ref name=""10.1073/pnas.2002547117"">{{cite journal |last1=Kawahara |first1=Akito Y. |last2=Reeves |first2=Lawrence E. |last3=Barber |first3=Jesse R. |last4=Black |first4=Scott H. |title=Opinion: Eight simple actions that individuals can take to save insects from global declines |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=12 January 2021 |volume=118 |issue=2 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2002547117 |pmid=33431563 |pmc=7812750 |language=en |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Awareness raising ===
In the UK, 27 British [[entomologist]]s and [[ecologist]]s signed an open letter to ''[[The Guardian]]'' in March 2019, calling on the British research establishment to investigate the decline. Signatories included [[Simon Leather]], [[Stuart Edward Reynolds|Stuart Reynolds]] (former president of the [[Royal Entomological Society]]), [[John Krebs]] and [[John Lawton (biologist)|John Lawton]] (both former presidents of the [[Natural Environment Research Council]]), [[Paul Brakefield]], [[George McGavin]], [[Michael Hassell]], [[Dave Goulson]], Richard Harrington (editor of the Royal Entomological Society's magazine, ''Antenna''), [[Kathy Willis]] and [[Jeremy A. Thomas|Jeremy Thomas]].<ref name=""Leather2019"" /> The letter requested action ""to enable intensive investigation of the real threat of ecological disruption caused by insect declines without delay"".<ref name=""Leather2019"" />

[[Science journalism#Criticism|More media coverage]] has been proposed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Samways |first1=Michael J. |last2=Barton |first2=Philip S. |last3=Birkhofer |first3=Klaus |last4=Chichorro |first4=Filipe |last5=Deacon |first5=Charl |last6=Fartmann |first6=Thomas |last7=Fukushima |first7=Caroline S. |last8=Gaigher |first8=René |last9=Habel |first9=Jan C. |last10=Hallmann |first10=Caspar A. |last11=Hill |first11=Matthew J. |last12=Hochkirch |first12=Axel |last13=Kaila |first13=Lauri |last14=Kwak |first14=Mackenzie L. |last15=Maes |first15=Dirk |date=1 February 2020 |title=Solutions for humanity on how to conserve insects |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=242 |pages=108427 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108427 |issn=0006-3207 |s2cid=213927925 |doi-access=free |last16=Mammola |first16=Stefano |last17=Noriega |first17=Jorge A. |last18=Orfinger |first18=Alexander B. |last19=Pedraza |first19=Fernando |last20=Pryke |first20=James S. |last21=Roque |first21=Fabio O. |last22=Settele |first22=Josef |last23=Simaika |first23=John P. |last24=Stork |first24=Nigel E. |last25=Suhling |first25=Frank |last26=Vorster |first26=Carlien |last27=Cardoso |first27=Pedro|hdl=2066/216853 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In a 2019 paper, scientists listed 100 studies and other references suggesting that insects can help meet the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDG) adopted in 2015 by the [[United Nations]]. They argued that the global policy-making community should continue its transition from seeing insects as enemies, to the current view of insects as ""providers of ecosystem services"", and should advance to a view of insects as ""solutions for SDGs"" (such as using them as food and [[biological pest control]]).<ref name=""Dangles2019"" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300 |publisher=Division for Sustainable Development Goals, United Nations}}</ref> The public in many countries is largely unaware of benefits and [[Ecosystem service|services]] that insects provide (such as honey, ecosystem balance, food for other animals, pollination, soil health, etc.), and negative perceptions of insects are widespread.<ref name=""10.1073/pnas.2002547117"" />

== Society and culture ==

=== In arts ===
In April 2019, in response to the studies about insect decline, [[Carol Ann Duffy]] released several poems, by herself and others, to mark the end of her tenure as Britain's [[poet laureate]] and to coincide with protests that month by the environmentalist movement [[Extinction Rebellion]]. The poets included [[Fiona Benson (poet)|Fiona Benson]], [[Imtiaz Dharker]], [[Matthew Hollis]], [[Michael Longley]], [[Daljit Nagra]], [[Alice Oswald]], and [[Denise Riley]]. Duffy's contribution was ""The Human Bee"".<ref name=""Duffy27April2019"" />

=== Decline of professionals studying insects ===
One reason that studies into the decline are limited is that [[entomology]] and [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] are themselves in decline.<ref name=Yong2019/><ref name=Time/><ref name=Wired/> At the 2019 Entomology Congress, leading entomologist Jürgen Gross said that ""We are ourselves an endangered species"" while Wolfgang Wägele – an expert in [[systematics|systematic zoology]] – said that ""in the universities we have lost nearly all experts"".<ref name=DW/> In 2016, Jürgen Deckert of Berlin Natural History Museum commented that while around 30,000 insect species are known to inhabit [[Central Europe]], there are ""only a few specialists"" dedicated to the region, and even they often do monitoring as a side job.<ref name=""SchwägerlYale2016""/> General biology courses in college give less attention to insects, and the number of biologists specialising in entomology is decreasing as specialities such as genetics expand.<ref name=Leather2007/><ref name=AE/><ref name=PS/> In addition, studies investigating the decline tend to be done by collecting insects and killing them in traps, which poses an [[environmental ethics|ethical]] problem for conservationists.<ref name=RSB/><ref name=ICD/>

Further, the above describes the situation in the [[developed countries]]: the [[developing countries]] have typically not had time to build up their entomology in the first place. Consequently, nearly all of the major insect studies to date are from [[Europe]] and the [[United States]], even though it's estimated that fewer than 20% of insect species worldwide are in those countries.<ref name=""Wagner2021"" />

==See also==
* [[Biodiversity loss]]
* [[Colony collapse disorder]]
* [[Decline in amphibian populations]]
* [[List of endangered insects]]
* [[Defaunation]]

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<ref name=Thomas2019>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Chris D. |last2=Jones |first2=T. Hefin |last3=Hartley |first3=Sue E. |title='Insectageddon': A call for more robust data and rigorous analyses |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=1891–1892 |department=Invited letter to the editor|date=18 March 2019 |doi=10.1111/gcb.14608|pmid=30821400|bibcode=2019GCBio..25.1891T |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name=Time>{{citation |url=http://time.com/5144257/fewer-scientists-studying-insects-entomology/ |title=Fewer Scientists Are Studying Insects. Here's Why That's So Dangerous |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |author=Alexandra Sifferlin |date=14 February 2018}}</ref>
<ref name=vanStrien2019>{{citation |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=234 |pages=116–122 |title=Over a century of data reveal more than 80% decline in butterflies in the Netherlands |first1=Arco J. |last1=van Strien |first2=Chris A. M. |last2=van Swaay |first3=Willy T. F. H. |last3=van Strien-van Liempt |first4=Martin J. M. |last4=Poot |first5=Michiel F. |last5=Wallis De Vries |date=27 March 2019 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.03.023|s2cid=133314379 |postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=Vogel2017>{{citation |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/where-have-all-insects-gone |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |title=Where have all the insects gone? |first1=Gretchen |last1=Vogel |date=10 May 2017|postscript=.|doi=10.1126/science.aal1160}}</ref>
<ref name=Wagner2010>{{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=David L. |last2=Van Driesche |first2=Roy G. |title=Threats Posed to Rare or Endangered Insects by Invasions of Nonnative Species |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=January 2010 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=547–568 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-112408-085516|pmid=19743915 }}</ref>
<ref name=Wagner2019>{{citation |last1=Wagner |first1=David L. |author-link=David L. Wagner |title=Global insect decline: Comments on Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys (2019) |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=233 |date=4 March 2019 |pages= 332–333|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.03.005|s2cid=108591790 |postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=Wired>{{citation |url=https://www.wired.com/2011/01/extinction-of-taxonomists/ |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] | title=The Mass Extinction of Scientists Who Study Species |first=Craig |last=McLain |date=19 January 2011}}</ref>
<ref name=Yong2019>{{citation |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/02/insect-apocalypse-really-upon-us/583018/ |title=Is the Insect Apocalypse Really Upon Us? |last=Yong |first=Ed |author-link=Ed Yong |date=19 February 2019|journal=[[The Atlantic]]|postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=ZSL>{{citation |url=https://www.zsl.org/sites/default/files/document/2014-02/spineless-lr-2039.pdf |title=Spineless – Status and trends of the world's invertebrates |publisher=[[Zoological Society of London]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-900881-70-1 |last1=Collen |first1=Ben |last2=Böhm |first2=Monika |last3=Kemp |first3=Rachael |last4=Baillie |first4=Jonathan E. M. |postscript=. |access-date=2019-02-16 |archive-date=2019-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217143739/https://www.zsl.org/sites/default/files/document/2014-02/spineless-lr-2039.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name=Hance2019>{{citation |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2019/06/the-great-insect-dying-a-global-look-at-a-deepening-crisis/ |title=Butterfly numbers fall by 84% in Netherlands over 130 years – study |newspaper=Mongabay|first=Jeremy |last=Hance |date=3 June 2019|postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=vanKlink2020>{{citation |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |title=Meta-analysis reveals declines in terrestrial but increases in freshwater insect abundances|first1=Roel |last1=van Klink |date=24 April 2020|volume=368 |issue=6489 |pages=417–420 |doi=10.1126/science.aax9931|pmid=32327596 |bibcode=2020Sci...368..417V |s2cid=216106896 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name=WagnerJ2020>{{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=David L|title=Insect Declines in the Anthropocene |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=January 2010 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=547–568 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-025151|pmid=31610138|doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name= Baranov2020>{{cite journal |last1=Baranov |first1=Viktor |title=Complex and nonlinear climate‐driven changes in freshwater insect communities over 42 years|journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |date=February 2020 |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=1241–1251 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13477|pmid=32022305 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
}}

{{human impact on the environment}}
{{Insects in culture}}
{{insecticides}}
{{pesticides}}
{{Doomsday}}
{{Extinction}}

[[Category:Entomology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Insect ecology]]
[[Category:Population ecology]]"
Dispersal of invasive species by ballast water,"{{refimprove|date=February 2019}}

The '''dispersal of invasive species by ballast water''' refers to the unintentional introduction of [[invasive species]] to new habitats via the [[ballast water]] carried by [[Container ship|commercial shipping vessels]]. Ballast water spreads an estimated 7000 living species to new habitats across the globe. These species can affect the [[ecological balance]] of their new regions by outcompeting native species or otherwise impacting native [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]].<ref name=elcicek>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301821711|title=Effect of Ballast Water on Marine and Coastal Ecology|language=en|access-date=2019-02-07|last1=Elçiçek|first1=H.|last2=Parlak|first2=A.|last3=Cakmakci|first3=M.|year=2013|journal=Journal of Selçuk University Natural and Applied Science|volume=1|pages=454–463}}</ref>

== Ballast water ==
[[File:Ballast water en.svg|thumb|Diagram depicts invasive species being transported to and discharged into non-native habitats.]]
The purpose of ballast water is to provide [[transverse stability]], improve propulsion and maneuverability, and to compensate for weight loss due to fuel and water consumption. Approximately 10 billion tons of ballast water is transported each year, accounting for 90% of our world trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Bacterial Diversity in Ships Ballast Water Ballast-Water Exchange, and Implications for Ship-Mediated Dispersal of Microorganisms|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b03108.s001|doi-access=free}}</ref> Typically, ballast water discharge contains a variety of biological materials including non-native, invasive, and [[exotic species]] that can cause extensive ecological and economic damage to aquatic ecosystems.<ref name=elcicek/> 

Throughout this process, large ships withdraw up to 20 million gallons of water at their specific loading ports. Including native species; both plant and animal, before disposing them at their next destination.  However, when these invasive species are unloaded, specific conditions like temperature, [[salinity]], lack of resources, and predator-to-prey competition affects how foreign species survive in non-native habitats.{{cn|date=February 2019}} These factors cause stress within the ecosystems, throwing off ecological and environmental balance.

As new species are introduced to non-native ecosystems, [[interspecific competition]] often becomes more intense. If native species are outcompeted by invasive species, it can affect the established predator-prey relationships within that region, possibly having disruptive effects on the wider [[food web]].{{cn|date=February 2018}}

== Invasive species ==

=== Freshwater zebra mussel ===
''[[Dreissena polymorpha]]'', commonly known as the zebra mussel, live in [[Fresh water|freshwater]] and are native to southern lakes in [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]]. The zebra mussel has become an invasive species that is frequently spread via ballast water. In North America, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and Sweden, the species has invaded native habitats. The mussels take oxygen and food from the water, limiting the resources available for native species and disrupting local ecosystems. Zebra mussels can have a significant impact on [[algae]] in the habitats they invade.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} Invasive zebra mussels, often in [[Monotypic habitat|monotypic]] populations, have been shown to damage [[Abiotic component|abiotic]] components found in invaded habitats such as boats, waterways, harbors, water treatment plants, and power plants.{{cn|date=February 2019}}

=== Sea walnut ===
[[File:Sea walnut, Boston Aquarium.jpg|thumb|''[[Mnemiopsis leidyi]],'' commonly known as the Sea Walnut.]]
''[[Mnemiopsis leidyi]]'', commonly known as the sea walnut, is a [[Ctenophora|ctenophore]] species in the class [[Tentaculata]].{{cn|date=February 2019}} This species is native to the eastern coast of North and South America. Currently, ''Mnemiopsis leidyi'' has become invasive through the transfer of ballast water to the [[Black Sea|Black]], [[Sea of Azov|Azov]], [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and [[Sea of Marmara|Marmara Seas]], west coast of Sweden, and the Southern and Northern [[Baltic Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/species/comb_jelly|title=Comb Jelly (Sea Walnut)|last=Pacific|first=Aquarium of the|website=www.aquariumofpacific.org|language=en|access-date=2019-02-07}}</ref> This carnivorous species feeds on [[zooplankton]], [[Crustacean|crustaceans]], fish eggs and larvae. Some individuals are known to consume individuals of their own species. Specifically, ''Mnemiopsis sp.'' has become an ecological problem for local [[Fishery|fisheries]] because they have been linked to the diminishing zooplankton population.

=== Green crab ===
''[[Carcinus maenas]],'' commonly known as the green crab, is native to the [[Baltic Sea]] and the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. This species has become invasive to North America, South Africa, South America, Asia, and Australia. This widely spread invasive species is often distributed by ship ballast water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/5-invasive-species-you-should-know|title=5 Invasive Species You Should Know|last=Tennessen|first=Tina|website=ocean.si.edu|language=en|access-date=2019-02-07}}</ref> ''C. maenas'' is a voracious predator to many species such as worms, [[Mollusca|mollusks]], [[Oyster|oysters]], and [[Clam|clams]]. The competitiveness and efficiency of this species out-competes native crabs and lobsters. Specifically, the green crab disrupts [[eelgrass]] beds, often home to diverse fish populations. For [[aquaculture]] and fishing industries, ''C. maenas'' poses a particular threat due to its appetite for valuable farmed mollusks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/profiles-profils/europeangreencrab-crabevert-eng.html|title=Fisheries and Oceans Canada|website=www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca|access-date=2019-02-07}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Ballast water discharge and the environment]]
*[[Climate change and invasive species]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web | title=Conservation groups criticize new EPA ballast water rule exemption | website=Water Tech Online | url=http://www.watertechonline.com/industry/article/14189223/conservation-groups-criticize-new-epa-ballast-water-rule-exemption | access-date=2020-12-24}} about the [[Great Lakes]]
* {{cite web | title=EPA releases proposal concerning discharges of marine vessels | website=Water Tech Online | url=http://www.watertechonline.com/industry/article/14185191/epa-releases-proposal-concerning-discharges-of-marine-vessels | access-date=2020-12-24}} about the [[Great Lakes]]

[[Category:Invasive species]]
[[Category:Environmental impact of shipping]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Pest control]]"
Friends of Lake Turkana,"'''Friends of Lake Turkana''' (FoLT) is a nonprofit organization in Kenya that was founded in 2007 by Kenyan environmentalist Ikal Angelei.<ref name=""thornton"">{{cite news |last1=Thornton |first1=Stuart |title=Case Study. Friends of Lake Turkana work to preserve the lake's ecology by halting construction of an upstream dam. |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/news/case-study-friends-lake-turkana/ |accessdate=13 May 2019 |agency=National Geographic |date=16 May 2012}}</ref> The organization has worked to stop the construction of the Ethiopian Gilgel Gibe III Dam on the Omo River, Lake Turkana's primary source of water.<ref name=""thornton"" /> Due to FoLT and other partner's advocacy work on saving Lake Turkana, the Lake was added to the list of world Heritage sites in Danger by UNESSCO in June 2018.  

Angelei continues to advocate for the sovereignty of local people to work for development that is sustainable.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gworo |first1=Alice |title=Government Urged To Audit Firms Exploring Oil In Turkana |url=http://www.kenyanews.go.ke/government-urged-to-audit-firms-exploring-oil-in-turkana/ |accessdate=13 May 2019 |publisher=Kenya News Agency |date=10 April 2019}}</ref>

==Structure==
Friends of Lake Turkana is located off Lodwar-Kalakol road in Turkana County, Kenya. The organization serves the communities living around the Lake Turkana Basin, The Turkana, Rendile, Borana, Galla, Elmolo, Burji and the Dasanach. Some of FoLT key partners are Ford Foundation, FAO and Kenya Market Trust.
FoLT focuses her operations on four key areas, Extractives Governance, [[environmental justice]], Policy Advocacy and Women and Youth.



==Extractives Governance== 
FoLT works towards maximizing community inclusion and benefits in the oil and minerals developments in Turkana by  increasing debate on adoption of Free Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) in extractives and infrastructural development

==Environmental Justice==
FoLT focuses on increasing community understanding of the linkages between environmental impacts and livelihoods to demand appropriate accountability as well as researching and documenting possible climate impacts related to extractives development.

==Policy Advocacy==
FoLT works to ensure increased capacity to represent community interests in the extractives and development agenda within the community and Increase the use of research and evidence based data to inform changes in policy implementation to ensure public resources are used transparently and can be accounted for

==Youth & Women Engagements==
FoLT advocates for the recognition of youth and women and other marginalized groups as key agents of change by ensuring their increased participation in decision making processes and demanding of accountability.


==Gilgel Gibe Dams==

Lake Turkana, in Northern Kenya, is a part of the 70,000-square-kilometer [[Turkana Basin]], and is the most saline lake in east Africa.<ref name=""thornton"" /> Because the Omo River provides Lake Turkana with 90% of its water, the planned Gilgel Gibe III Dam would lower the lake's water levels by 5–12 meters, changing its environment, chemistry, shoreline and ecology.<ref name=""thornton"" /> This would also disrupt local economic practices including fishing, pastoralism and agricultural production.<ref name=""thornton"" />

The dam site is 160 kilometers north of Lake Turkana, in the Lower Omo Valley.<ref name=""thornton"" /> Dam construction began in 2006.<ref name=""thornton"" /> FoLT has stated that the Gibe III dam will destroy important components of Lake Turkana's ecology, and the economy it provides for local people.<ref name=""thornton"" /> FoLT has estimated that 200,000 people or more, belonging to eight ethnic groups, rely upon the lake for their sustenance.<ref name=""thornton"" />

Friends of Lake Turkana has made efforts to increase awareness about the construction of the Gibe III Dam and its potential impact on Lake Turkana among local Turkana people.<ref name=""vidal1"">{{cite news |last1=Vidal |first1=John |title=Ethiopia dam will turn Lake Turkana into 'endless battlefield', locals warn |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jan/13/ethiopia-gibe-iii-dam-kenya |accessdate=13 May 2019 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=13 January 2015}}</ref> As a result of FoLT's activities, the World Bank, the European Investment Bank and the African Development Bank chose to cancel their funding of Gibe III.<ref name=""gogetter"">{{cite news |title=Kenya's bold and audacious go-getters |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/Kenya-s-bold-and-audacious-go-getters/1056-5059080-5o6i4kz/index.html |accessdate=13 May 2019 |publisher=The Nation (Kenya) |date=6 April 2019}}</ref>

The organization has advocated for responsible ecological practices for further planned dams in Ethiopia.<ref name=""mwanza1"">{{cite news |last1=Mwanza |first1=Kevin |title=Ethiopia's dams threaten thousands of Kenyans: environmentalists |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-water-ethiopia/ethiopias-dams-threaten-thousands-of-kenyans-environmentalists-idUSKBN1JT1QU |accessdate=13 May 2019 |work=Reuters |date=3 July 2018}}</ref>

==Oil==

The director of FoLT, Angelei, has stated that Tullow Oil's exploration projects in Turkana have used large quantities of water, threatening local communities' scarce water resources.<ref name=""SQ1"">{{cite news |last1=Kamau |first1=Macharia |title=Fight for water by oil firms may fuel conflict in Turkana |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/article/2001321151/fight-for-water-by-oil-firms-may-fuel-conflict-in-turkana |accessdate=13 May 2019 |newspaper=The Standard (Kenya)}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Habitat destruction]]


==References==
{{reflist}}

{{morecat|date=October 2023}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Category:Water conservation,"{{Commons category|Water conservation}}
{{Portal|Water}}
{{Cat main|Water conservation}}

==See also==
*[[:Category:Sustainable gardening]]
*[[:Category:Horticulture]]
*[[:Category:Hydrology and urban planning]]

[[Category:Water and politics|Conservation]]<!-- Although this is in parent (water) and child (Water and politics) categories, which is not usual practice, it should be noted that it would be more natural to look for water conservation via Water supply than via Water and politics. --Singkong2005 -->
[[Category:Water management]]
[[Category:Water and the environment]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]

{{CatTrack}}"
In-situ conservation,"{{Use Indian English|date = February 2019}}
{{Short description|Conservation process}}
{{Use dmy dates|date = February 2019}}
{{More citations needed|date = November 2017}}
'''In situ conservation''' is the on-site [[Conservation movement|conservation]] or the conservation of [[genetic resources]] in natural populations of plant or animal species, such as [[forest genetic resources]] in natural populations of tree species.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PjfVFGM4p6wC|title=Biodiversity and Its Conservation in India|last=Negi|first=Sharad Singh|date=1993-01-01|publisher=Indus Publishing|isbn=9788185182889|page=40|language=en}}</ref> This process protects the inhabitants and ensures the sustainability of the environment and ecosystem.

Its converse is [[ex situ conservation]], where threatened species are moved to another location.

==Methods==
===Nature reserves===
[[File:Blackiston Falls Upper, Waterton National Park.jpg|thumb|[[Waterton Biosphere Reserve]] in Canada]]
[[Nature reserve]]s (or biosphere reserves) cover very large areas, often more than 5000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. They are used to protect species for a long time.

===National parks===
A [[national park]] is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. A national park is an area which is used to conserve scenery, natural and historical objects. It is usually a small reserve covering an area of about 100 to 500 square kilometers. Within biosphere reserves, one or more national parks may also exist. 

===Wildlife sanctuaries===
A wildlife sanctuary is an area which is reserved for the conservation of animals only. 

===Biodiversity hotspots===
[[File:Biodiversity Hotspots 2015.svg|thumb|Biodiversity hotspots across the world]]
Several international organizations focus their conservation work on areas designated as [[biodiversity hotspot]]s. 

According to [[Conservation International]], to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot a region must meet two strict criteria:
* it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (∆ 0.5% of the world's total) as endemics,
* it has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat.

===Gene sanctuary===
A gene sanctuary is an area where plants are conserved. It includes both biosphere reserves as well as national parks.

==Benefits==
One benefit of ''in situ'' conservation is that it maintains recovering populations in the environment where they have developed their distinctive properties. Another benefit is that this strategy helps ensure the ongoing processes of evolution and adaptation within their environments. As a last resort, [[ex-situ conservation|''ex situ'' conservation]] may be used on some or all of the population, when ''in situ'' conservation is too difficult, or impossible. The species gets adjusted to the natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires and this method is very cheap and convenient.

==Reserves==
Wildlife and livestock conservation is mostly based on nothing.{{clarify inline|date=February 2024}} This involves the protection of wildlife habitats. Also, sufficiently large reserves are maintained to enable the target species to exist in large numbers. The population size must be sufficient to enable the necessary [[genetic diversity]] to survive within the population, so that it has a good chance of continuing to [[Adaptation (biology)|adapt]] and [[evolution|evolve]] over time. This reserve size can be calculated for target species by examining the population density in naturally occurring situations. The reserves must then be protected from intrusion or destruction by man, and against other catastrophes.

==Agriculture==
In [[agriculture]], ''in situ'' conservation techniques are an effective way to improve, maintain, and use traditional or native varieties of agricultural crops. Such methodologies link the positive output of scientific research with farmers' experience and field work.

First, the accessions of a variety stored at a [[germplasm]] bank and those of the same variety multiplied by farmers are jointly tested in the producers field and in the laboratory, under different situations and stresses. Thus, the scientific knowledge about the production characteristics of the native varieties is enhanced. Later, the best tested accessions are crossed, mixed, and multiplied under replicable situations. At last, these improved accessions are supplied to the producers. Thus, farmers are enabled to crop improved selections of their own varieties, instead of being lured to substitute their own varieties with commercial ones or to abandon their crop. This technique of conservation of agricultural biodiversity is more successful in marginal areas, where commercial varieties are not expedient, due to climate and [[soil fertility]] constraints, or where the taste and cooking characteristics of traditional varieties compensate for their lower yields.<ref>G. Avila, L. Guzmán, M. Céspedes 2004. ''Estrategias para la conservación in situ de razas de maíz boliviano''. SINALERC, [[Mar del Plata]]</ref>

==In India==
About 4% of the total geographical area of India is used for ''[[in situ]]'' conservation.

There are 18 [[Biosphere reserves of India|biosphere reserves in India]], including [[Nanda Devi]] in Uttarakhand, [[Nokrek]] in Meghalaya, [[Manas National Park]] in Assam and [[Sundarban]] in West Bengal.

There are 106 [[List of national parks of India|national parks in India]], including [[Kaziranga National Park]] which conserves the [[one-horned rhino]], [[Periyar National Park]] conserving the tiger and elephant, and [[Ranthambore National Park]] conserving the tiger.

There are 551 [[wildlife sanctuaries in India]].

Biodiversity hotspots include the [[Himalayas]], [[the Western Ghats]], the [[Indo-Burma region]]<ref>WILDLIFE INSTITUTE OF INDIA DEHRADUN</ref> and the [[Sundaland]].

India has set up its first gene sanctuary in the [[Garo Hills]] of Meghalaya for wild relatives of citrus. Efforts are also being made to set up gene sanctuaries for banana, sugarcane, rice and mango.

Community reserves were established as a type of protected area in India in the Wildlife Protection Amendment Act 2002, to provide legal support to community or privately owned reserves which cannot be designated as national park or wildlife sanctuary.

Sacred groves are tracts of forest set aside where all the trees and wildlife within are venerated and given total protection.

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences}}
* [[Arid Forest Research Institute]]
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Food plot]] – the practice of planting crops specifically to support wildlife
* [[Genetic erosion]]
* [[Habitat corridor]]
* [[Habitat fragmentation]]
* [[Refuge (ecology)]]
* [[Reintroduction]]
* [[Regional Red List]]
* [[Restoration ecology]]
* [[Wildlife corridor]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
 |author1     = Scheldeman, X.
 |author2     = van Zonneveld, M.
 |year        = 2010
 |title       = Training Manual on Spatial Analysis of Plant Diversity and Distribution
 |publisher   = Bioversity International
 |url         = http://www.bioversityinternational.org/training/training_materials/gis_manual.html
 |url-status     = dead
 |archiveurl  = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927164904/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/training/training_materials/gis_manual.html
 |archivedate = 2011-09-27
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.cbd.int/convention/articles/default.shtml?a=cbd-08 In-Situ Conservation, The Convention on Biological Diversity]
* [https://www.cbd.int/convention/articles/default.shtml?a=cbd-09 Ex-Situ Conservation, The Convention on Biological Diversity]
* [https://iucn-ctsg.org/ IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140627000000/http://www.iucnredlist.org/ IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060829232148/http://www.biodiv.org/default.shtml The Convention on Biological Diversity]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071225164307/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/Themes/Conservation_and_Use/index.asp#In_situ_conservation In situ conservation]
* [https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/Bios-Cons-Gen-040.pdf Guidelines: In vivo conservation of animal genetic resources, Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN]
{{conservation of species}}

{{Zoos}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:In-Situ Conservation}}
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Len Clark (countryside campaigner),"{{Short description|English civil servant (1916–2019)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
[[File:Len Clark in 2016.jpg|thumb|right|Clark in 2016, one month before his centenary.]]
[[File:Kinder Scout, the northern edge - geograph.org.uk - 80958.jpg|thumb|right|The northern edge of [[Kinder Scout]], a high moorland landscape in the Peak District that became the first English national park in 1951. Clark advised on its purchase, citing an essential link with people in northern cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/kinder-edale-and-the-dark-peak/projects/art-project-planned-for-2019|title=Kinder's spirit lives on in the Peak District|website=www.nationaltrust.org.uk|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref><ref name=""The Times"">{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/len-clark-103-countryside-campaigner-who-exuded-calm-and-tact-hstrrth27|title=Countryside campaigner who exuded calm and tact|work=[[The Times]]|date=2 November 2019|access-date=20 December 2019|url-access=registration}}</ref>]]
[[File:Abergwesyn Common - geograph.org.uk - 391588.jpg|thumb|right|Abergwesyn Common became a [[National Trust]] property in 1984. Work goes on to conserve peatlands there.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/abergwesyn-common/features/welsh-peatland-sustainable-management-scheme-sms-project|title=Welsh Peatland Sustainable Management Scheme (SMS) Project|website=www.nationaltrust.org.uk|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref>]]
[[File:South Downs from way post. - geograph.org.uk - 366592.jpg|thumb|right|A view from the South Downs facing Clayton Hill. The South Downs and adjoining areas became a national park in 2009 after 4 decades of Clark's support.<ref name=""oss"">{{cite web|url=https://www.oss.org.uk/len-clark-1916-2019/|title=Len Clark, 1916-2019|website=www.oss.org.uk|date=24 October 2019 |access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref>]]
'''Leonard Joseph John Clark''' [[CBE]] (19 August 1916 – 11 September 2019) was an English [[Environmental movement#Conservation_movement|countryside campaigner]] and [[civil servant]]. He was the last surviving member of the committee that led to the [[National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949|National Parks and Countryside Act]] in [[England]] and [[Wales]] being passed in 1949.

==Biography==
He was born in 1916 in [[Islington]], [[London]], to Edie (née Symonds) and Joseph Clark. His mother was a seamstress and his father a shop assistant. He went to [[City of London Academy Highbury Grove#History|Highbury Grammar School]] on a scholarship. An article in the ''[[News of the World]]'' encouraged his teenage interest in hiking, which he did initially in the [[Chiltern Hills]] and in [[Surrey]]. He passed the [[London County Council]] exam and began a career in local government for the Council and then the [[National Health Service]] (from which he retired in 1977 as senior administrator of the [[London Ambulance Service]]). He joined the [[Youth Hostel Association]] (YHA) in 1937. During [[World War II]] he was assigned to a non-combat role, having been refused registration as a [[conscientious objector]]; he was posted to [[Hereford]] and the Welsh capital, [[Cardiff]], where he began a youth hostel club. He hiked in Wales and the [[March (territory)#British_Isles|Marches]]. He met a like-minded partner, Isobel Hoggan, through the YHA. On their first date, the couple watched the passage of the National Parks and Countryside Act in [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] in 1949, on which Clarke had worked. They married in 1952 and lived in [[Guildford]] and later near [[Godalming]]. Hoggan was a committed feminist; both became active [[Quakers]] and vegetarians.<ref name=""The Guardian"">{{cite news|last=Ashbrook|first=Kate|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/11/len-clark-obituary|title=Len Clark obituary|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=11 October 2019|access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=""The Times""/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://livemore.yha.org.uk/yha-news/new-film-with-caroline-quentin-uncovers-the-moving-history-one-of-the-uks-greatest-environment-achievements-national-parks|title=New film with Caroline Quentin uncovers the moving history one of the UK's greatest environment achievements – National Parks|website=www.yha.org.uk|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref>

Clark's passion was for the countryside. He joined the YHA executive committee in 1948; he was national treasurer and then chairman till 1963. He worked for the general public to gain access to land e.g. working for the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] (on the properties and executive committees for 23 years) as their YHA representative (from 1961), the [[Campaign for National Parks]] and the [[Open Spaces Society]], the latter from 1978 as commons liaison officer and he was vice-president at the time of his death. He toured widely on his scooter to view potential acquisitions for the National Trust. He supported and argued for the Trust's founders' emphasis on protecting the landscape, rather than ownership of buildings thereon. In 1967, his tact and diplomacy avoided a schism at the Trust and he was on the committee which drove through a change to a more inclusive organisation. Through his influence, the moorland plateau of [[Kinder Scout]] in [[Derbyshire]] and the archaeological and environmental resources of the [[Abergwesyn]] Commons in Wales (which would have been planted with forest) were purchased by the Trust. After a 40-year effort, his campaign for the [[South Downs National Park|South Downs]] to become a national park was successful. He was the chair of the YHA and the National Trust's southern regional committee, voluntary director of the [[Samaritans (charity)|Samaritans]] in Guildford (active for three decades after his retirement), a member of the [[Department for Transport]]'s advisory committee and a member of the [[Campaign for State Education]]. From 1983 to 1986, he was secretary of the Common Land Forum whose recommendations were passed to the Government. For his 100th birthday, the National Trust planted trees in his honour at its site at [[Polesden Lacey]], Surrey. He was awarded their founders medal and was appointed a [[Order of the British Empire#Current_classes|CBE]] for his conservation work.<ref name=""The Guardian""/><ref name=""The Times""/><ref name=""oss"" />

His wife, Isobel, died in 2016. Clark's memoirs were published in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://isbnsearch.org/isbn/9781291526332|title=Out of the Wind|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref> He died in 2019, aged 103; he is survived by his sons – Alistair, Stuart, and Neil – and his grandchildren.<ref name=""The Guardian""/><ref name=""The Times""/>

{{Portal|England}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clark, Len}}
[[Category:1916 births]]
[[Category:2019 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century British civil servants]]
[[Category:21st-century British civil servants]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:English centenarians]]
[[Category:English civil servants]]
[[Category:English conscientious objectors]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Men centenarians]]"
EthioTrees,"{{Short description|Project for woodland restoration in Ethiopia}}
{{Lead too short|date=October 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date= February 2020}}
{{Infobox project
| name = EthioTrees
| logo = 
| image = ethiotrees exclosure.jpg
| caption = An [[exclosure]] managed by EthioTrees
| mission_statement = Promotion of [[forest restoration]] and non-timber forest production, by supporting woodland natural regeneration and ecosystem services<ref name=""project"">[http://ethiotrees.com EthioTrees project website]</ref>

| commercial = 
| type = 
| products = Carbon offset, Incense, Ground water
| location = [[Hagere Selam (Degua Tembien)|Hagere Selam]], [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]]
| country = [[Ethiopia]]
| owner = Non-Profit Organisation
| founder = 
| primeminister = 
| key_people = Sil Lanckriet, Seifu Gebreselassie, Hannes Cosyns, Gebrekidan Mesfin, Jan Nyssen, Miro Jacob, Meybale
| established = {{Start date|2016|df=y}}
| disestablished = <!-- {{End date|YYYY|MM|DD|df=y}} -->
| funding = 
| budget = 
| current_status =
| website = {{URL|ethiotrees.com}}
}}
The '''EthioTrees Ecosystem Restoration Association''', in short '''EthioTrees''', established in 2016, is a project for environmental rehabilitation and [[woodland]] restoration in [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] (Ethiopia).

==Context==
Since many years, there has been severe [[land degradation]] and [[desertification]] in [[Tigray (region)|Tigray]] and the area became also impoverished; however, a lot of efforts are done to rehabilitate these semi-arid mountain landscapes.<ref name=""davines"">[https://www.davines.com/blogs/projects/ethiotrees EthioTrees on Davines website]</ref> Since 1994, researchers, students, and field assistants have studied the environment of [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]]. To contribute to the ongoing effort for rehabilitation, they initiated development projects that addressed in the first place land conservation, ecosystem services, and livelihood.<ref name=""chapter"">{{cite book |last1=Reubens |first1=B. and colleagues | title= Research-based development projects in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref> EthioTrees is one of these projects.

==Objectives==
EthioTrees has as objectives:<ref name=""chapter""/> 
* to enhance community-driven woodland restoration in [[exclosure]]s
* to sequester carbon in exclosures, both as above-ground biomass and soil organic matter
* to develop and valorise [[ecosystem services]], including:
: * [[ground water]] availability
: * [[honey]] production
: * [[incense]] (oil) production

==Associations of landless farmers==
EthioTrees not only improves soil organic carbon, biomass, [[groundwater recharge]], or biodiversity but also cash income for landless farmers. Most farmers estimate that lack of access to water is the main problem for their livelihood. In addition, landless youngsters derive much less income from sales of livestock or agricultural produce, in comparison to farmers with land.<ref name=""vivo"">[https://www.planvivo.org/project-network/ethiotrees-tembien-highlands/ EthioTrees on Plan Vivo website]</ref>  The communities are invited to design and implement the project themselves; for this purpose, EthioTrees uses a participatory mapping approach during all phases of the project.<ref name=""chapter""/>
[[File:Ethiotrees project meeting.jpg|thumb|Ethiotrees project meeting]]

==EthioTrees’ exclosures==
The EthioTrees project manages these [[exclosure]]s:<ref name=""jona"">{{cite book |last1=De Deyn |first1=Jonathan |title= Benefits of reforestation on Carbon storage and water infiltration in the context of climate mitigation in North Ethiopia. Master thesis, Ghent University| date=2019}}</ref>
* [[Addi Lihtsi (exclosure)|Addi Lihtsi]], near the village of [[Addi Lihtsi]] (412 ha)
* [[Addi Meles]], near the village of [[Migichi]] (65 ha)
* [[Addilal (exclosure)|Addilal]], near the village of [[Addilal]] (144.81 ha)
* [[Afedena (exclosure)|Afedena]], near the village of [[Afedena]] (70 ha)
* [[Ch'elaqo (exclosure)|Ch'elaqo]], near the village of [[Ch'elaqo]] (50 ha)
* [[Gemgema]], near the village of [[Ayninbirkekin|Tsigaba]] (92 ha)
* [[Kidmi Gestet]], near the village of [[Gestet]] (46 ha)
* [[Lafa (exclosure)|Lafa]], near the village of Lafa in [[Mizane Birhan]] municipality (45.25 ha)
* [[May Be'ati (exclosure)|May Be'ati]], near the village of [[May Be'ati]] (46 ha)
* [[Mi'am Atali (exclosure)|Mi'am Atali]], near the village of [[Mi'am Atali]] (83 ha)
* [[May Genet (exclosure)|May Genet]], near the village of [[May Genet]] (60 ha)
* [[May Hib'o]], near the village of [[Addi Lihtsi]] (50 ha)
* [[Sesemat (exclosure)|Sesemat]], near the village of [[Tahtay Sesemat]] (46 ha)
* [[Togogwa (exclosure)|Togogwa]], near the village of [[Togogwa]] (196 ha)
* [[Tukhul (exclosure)|Tukhul]], near the village of Tukhul, in [[Addi Azmera]] municipality (36 ha)
* [[Ziban Dake]], near the village of [[Didiben]] (300 ha)
* Gojam Sfra, near the village of [[Migichi]] (275 ha)
* Katina Ruba, near the village of [[Didiben]] (48 ha)

==Ecosystem restoration and valorisation==
EthioTrees manages 18 [[exclosure]]s with a total area of 1174 hectares in 2017<ref>Davines presenta il bilancio di sostenibilità 2018  https://www.greenplanner.it/2019/07/19/davines-bilancio-sostenibilita-2018/</ref> and 1596 ha in 2018.<ref name=""jona""/><ref name=""tesfay"">[http://tesfayblog.blogspot.com/2019/03/la-derniere-lettre-de-tesfay_20.html La Lettre de Tesfay, N° 28, September 2019 (Liége, Belgium) ]</ref> The older the exclosures, the higher is the total carbon content in vegetation and soil.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolde Mekuria |first1=and colleagues |title= Restoration of Ecosystem Carbon Stocks Following Exclosure Establishment in Communal Grazing Lands in Tigray, Ethiopia |journal= Soil Science Society of America Journal |date=2011 |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=246–256|doi=10.2136/sssaj2010.0176 |bibcode=2011SSASJ..75..246M }}</ref> EthioTrees has calculated that they manage to [[Carbon sequestration|sequester]] 9.2 tonnes CO<sub>2</sub> per year per hectare.<ref name=""chapter""/>

==Carbon offset==
The sequestered carbon is certified using the [[Carbon offset#Accounting for and verifying reductions|Plan Vivo]] voluntary carbon standard,<ref name=""vivo""/> after which carbon credits are sold, among others to Davines, an Italian producer of beauty products. This company at the same time wishes to create a virtuous impact on people and the environment.<ref name=""davines""/> The revenues are then reinvested in the villages, according to the priorities of the communities; it may be for an additional class in the village school, a water pond, conservation in the exclosures, or a store for incense.<ref name=""chapter""/>

==Partners==
Main partners of Ethiotrees are<ref name=""project""/>
* [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] District Administration (Ethiopia)
* Municipal administrations (Ethiopia)
* [[Incense]] producing cooperatives (Ethiopia)
* [[Carbon offset#Accounting for and verifying reductions|Plan Vivo]] (U.K.)
* [[Mekelle University]] (Ethiopia)
* VLIR-UOS (Belgium)
* Davines (Italy)
* [[Ghent University]] (Belgium)
* Province [[East Flanders]] (Belgium)
* [[King Baudouin Foundation]] (Belgium)
* Bos Plus (Belgium)
* Province [[West Flanders]] (Belgium)
* Ñangareko Consultores (Bolivia)
* Association Tesfay (Liége, Belgium)

==References==
{{reflist|32em}}

==External links==
* [https://www.davines.com/blogs/projects/ethiotrees EthioTrees on Davines website]
* [http://ethiotrees.com EthioTrees project website]
* [https://www.planvivo.org/project-network/ethiotrees-tembien-highlands/ EthioTrees on Plan Vivo website]
* [https://www.un.org/esa/forests Link For Forestry Projects]

[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Greenhouse gas emissions]]
[[Category:Emissions reduction]]
[[Category:Carbon finance]]
[[Category:2016 establishments in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Exclosures of Tigray Region]]"
Lafa (exclosure),"{{Short description|Exclosure for woodland restoration in Ethiopia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date= February 2020}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Lafa exclosure
| iucn_category = 
| photo = Lafa exclosure.jpg
| photo_caption = Lafa exclosure
| location = [[Mizane Birhan]] municipality, in [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] district, [[Ethiopia]]
| nearest_city = [[Hagere Selam (Degua Tembien)|Hagere Selam]]
| map = Ethiopia | relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|13.596|N|39.294|E|display=inline, title}}
| area_ha = 45
| established = 1988
| visitation_num = 
| visitation_year = 
| website = https://ethiotrees.com
}}
'''Lafa''' is an [[exclosure]] located in the [[Degua Tembien|Dogu'a Tembien]] ''woreda'' of the [[Tigray Region]] in [[Ethiopia]]. The area has been protected since 1988 by the local community.<ref name=""jona"">{{cite book |last1=De Deyn |first1=Jonathan |title= Benefits of reforestation on Carbon storage and water infiltration in the context of climate mitigation in North Ethiopia. Master thesis, Ghent University| date=2019}}</ref>

==Timeline<ref name=""jona""/>==
* 1988: established as exclosure by the community
* 2017: support by the [[EthioTrees]] project

==Environmental characteristics<ref name=""jona""/>==
* Area: 45 ha
* Average slope gradient: 41%
* Aspect: the exclosure is oriented towards the south
* Minimum altitude: 2008 metres
* Maximum altitude: 2088 metres
* Lithology: [[Antalo Limestone]]

[[File:Lafa exclosure 3.jpg|thumb|Typical in Lafa and other exclosures: a larger tree as evidence of an earlier forest, and numerous smaller trees of approximately the same height that have grown since 1988]]

==Management==
As a general rule, cattle ranging and wood harvesting are not allowed. The grasses are harvested once yearly and taken to the homesteads of the village to feed livestock. There are two guards to protect the exclosure. Field observations showed that however some illegal grazing occurred in the exclosure in 2018.<ref name=""jona""/>

==Benefits for the community==
Setting aside such areas fits with the long-term vision of the communities were ''hiza’iti'' lands are set aside for use by the future generations. It has also direct benefits for the community:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues | title= Exclosures as Primary Option for Reforestation in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>
* improved [[ground water]] availability
* [[honey]] production
* climate ameliorator (temperature, moisture)
* the sequestered carbon (in total 75 tonnes per ha, dominantly sequestered in the soil, and additionally in the woody vegetation)<ref name=""jona""/> is certified using the [[Carbon offset#Accounting for and verifying reductions|Plan Vivo]] voluntary carbon standard,<ref name=""vivo"">[https://www.planvivo.org/project-network/ethiotrees-tembien-highlands/ EthioTrees on Plan Vivo website]</ref> after which carbon credits are sold
* the revenues are then reinvested in the villages, according to the priorities of the communities; it may be for an additional class in the village school, a water pond, or conservation in the exclosure.<ref name=""chapter"">{{cite book |last1=Reubens |first1=B. and colleagues | title= Research-based development projects in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>

==Biodiversity==
With vegetation growth, biodiversity in this exclosure hast strongly improved: there is more varied vegetation and [[Degua Tembien#Wildlife|wildlife]]. 
[[File:Lafa exclosure 2.jpg|thumb|Young trees as undergrowth in Lafa]]

==References==
{{reflist|32em}}

==External links==
* [https://www.davines.com/blogs/projects/ethiotrees EthioTrees on Davines website]
* [http://ethiotrees.com EthioTrees project website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215154255/https://ethiotrees.com/ |date=15 February 2020 }}
* [https://www.planvivo.org/project-network/ethiotrees-tembien-highlands/ EthioTrees on Plan Vivo website]
* [https://www.un.org/esa/forests Link For Forestry Projects]
[[Category:1988 establishments in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Exclosures of Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]]"
Extinction,"{{Short description|Termination of a taxon by the death of its last member}}
{{Redirect|Extinct|other uses|Extinct (disambiguation)|and|Extinction (disambiguation)|lists|Lists of extinct species}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
[[File:Thylacinus cynocephalus (Gould).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[thylacine]] (''Thylacinus cynocephalus'') is an example of an extinct species.]]
{{Conservation status}}
{{Evolutionary biology}}

'''Extinction''' is the termination of a [[taxon]] by the [[death]] of its [[Endling|last member]]. A taxon may become [[Functional extinction|functionally extinct]] before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to [[Reproduction|reproduce]] and recover. Because a species' potential [[Range (biology)|range]] may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as [[Lazarus taxon|Lazarus taxa]], where a species presumed extinct abruptly ""reappears"" (typically in the [[Fossil|fossil record]]) after a period of apparent absence.

More than 99% of all [[species]] that ever [[Life|lived]] on [[Earth]], amounting to over five billion species,<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-5874-9_7 |chapter=How do rare species avoid extinction? A paleontological view |title=The Biology of Rarity |year=1997 |last1=McKinney |first1=Michael L. |pages=110–129 |isbn=978-94-010-6483-5 |editor1-last=Kunin |editor1-first=W. E. |editor2-last=Gaston |editor2-first=K. J. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4LHnCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 |access-date=26 May 2015 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203051637/https://books.google.com/books?id=4LHnCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 |url-status=live }}</ref> are estimated to have [[died]] out.<ref name=""Jablonski2004"">{{cite journal | title=Extinction: past and present | last=Jablonski | first=D. | journal=Nature | year=2004 | volume=427 | issue=6975 | page=589 | doi=10.1038/427589a| pmid=14961099 | bibcode=2004Natur.427..589J | s2cid=4412106 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""StearnsStearns2000"">{{cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Beverly Peterson |last2=Stearns |first2=S.C. |last3=Stearns |first3=Stephen C. |title=Watching, from the Edge of Extinction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0BHeC-tXIB4C&q=99%20percent |year=2000 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-08469-6 |page=preface x |access-date=30 May 2017 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203051614/https://books.google.com/books?id=0BHeC-tXIB4C&q=99%20percent |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""NYT-20141108-MJN"">{{cite news |last=Novacek |first=Michael J. |title=Prehistory's Brilliant Future |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/09/opinion/sunday/prehistorys-brilliant-future.html |date=8 November 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=2014-12-25 |archive-date=29 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229225657/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/09/opinion/sunday/prehistorys-brilliant-future.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""Newman"" /> It is estimated that there are currently around 8.7&nbsp;million species of [[eukaryote]] globally,<ref name=""PLoSbiologyspeciescensus"">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127| title=How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?| year=2011| last1=Mora| first1=Camilo| last2=Tittensor| first2=Derek P.| last3=Adl| first3=Sina| last4=Simpson| first4=Alastair G. B.| last5=Worm| first5=Boris| journal=PLOS Biology| volume=9| issue=8| pages=e1001127| pmid=21886479| pmc=3160336| doi-access=free}}</ref> and possibly many times more if [[microorganism]]s, like [[bacteria]], are included.<ref name=""NSF-2016002"">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Researchers find that Earth may be home to 1 trillion species |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=138446 |date=2 May 2016 |work=[[National Science Foundation]] |access-date=6 May 2016 |archive-date=4 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504111108/https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=138446 |url-status=live }}</ref> Notable extinct animal species include [[Dinosaur|non-avian dinosaurs]], [[Machairodontinae|saber-toothed cats]], [[dodo]]s, [[mammoth]]s, [[ground sloth]]s, [[thylacine]]s, [[trilobite]]s, and [[golden toad]]s.

Through [[evolution]], species arise through the process of [[speciation]]—where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an [[ecological niche]]—and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior [[Competition (biology)|competition]]. The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established.<ref name=""SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"">{{cite journal | last1=Sahney | first1=S. | last2=Benton | first2=M.J. | last3=Ferry | first3=P.A. | year=2010 | title=Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land | journal=Biology Letters | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 | volume=6 | pages=544–547 | issue=4 | pmid=20106856 | pmc=2936204 }}</ref> A typical species becomes extinct within 10&nbsp;million years of its first appearance,<ref name=""Newman"">{{cite journal | last1 = Newman | first1 = Mark | year = 1997 | title = ''A model of mass extinction''| journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume = 189 | issue = 3| pages = 235–252 | doi=10.1006/jtbi.1997.0508| pmid = 9441817 | arxiv = adap-org/9702003| bibcode = 1997JThBi.189..235N | s2cid = 9892809 }}</ref> although some species, called [[living fossil]]s, survive with little to no [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] change for hundreds of millions of years.

[[Extinction event|Mass extinctions]] are relatively rare events; however, isolated extinctions of species and clades are quite common, and are a natural part of the evolutionary process.<ref name=""Sudakow2022"">{{cite journal |last1=Sudakow |first1=Ivan |last2=Myers |first2=Corinne |last3=Petrovskii |first3=Sergei |last4=Sumrall |first4=Colin D. |last5=Witts |first5=James |date=July 2022 |title=Knowledge gaps and missing links in understanding mass extinctions: Can mathematical modeling help? |journal=Physics of Life Reviews |volume=41 |pages=22–57 |doi=10.1016/j.plrev.2022.04.001 |pmid=35523056 |bibcode=2022PhLRv..41...22S |s2cid=248215038 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the [[Holocene extinction#Contemporary extinction|current high rate of extinctions]].<ref name=""MSNBC"">{{cite news |title=Species disappearing at an alarming rate, report says |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna6502368 |work=NBC News |date=17 November 2004 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209131517/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna6502368 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{YouTube|z9gHuAwxwAs|The Sixth Extinction}} ([[PBS Digital Studios]], November 17, 2014)</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ceballos | first1 = Gerardo| last2 =Ehrlich | first2 = Paul R.| last3 = Barnosky| first3= Anthony D.|author-link3=Anthony David Barnosky | last4 = García | first4 = Andrés | last5 = Pringle | first5 = Robert M.| last6 = Palmer| first6 =Todd M. | year = 2015 | title = Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction | journal = [[Science Advances]] | volume = 1 | issue = 5 | page = e1400253 |doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1400253| pmid = 26601195| pmc = 4640606| bibcode = 2015SciA....1E0253C}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF|title=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice|journal=[[BioScience]]|date=13 November 2017|volume=67|issue=12|pages=1026–1028|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix125|quote=Moreover, we have unleashed a mass extinction event, the sixth in roughly 540 million years, wherein many current life forms could be annihilated or at least committed to extinction by the end of this century.|title-link=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity|doi-access=free|hdl=11336/71342|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cowie |first1=Robert H. |last2=Bouchet |first2=Philippe |last3=Fontaine |first3=Benoît |title=The Sixth Mass Extinction: fact, fiction or speculation? |journal=Biological Reviews |date=10 January 2022 |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=640–663 |doi=10.1111/brv.12816 |pmid=35014169 |pmc=9786292 |s2cid=245889833 |url=https://hal.sorbonne-universite.fr/hal-03525883/document |doi-access=free |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209132106/https://hal.sorbonne-universite.fr/hal-03525883/document |url-status=live }}</ref> Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented. Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100.<ref name=""Wilson"">[[E.O. Wilson|Wilson, E.O.]], ''The Future of Life'' (2002) ({{ISBN|0-679-76811-4}}). See also: [[Richard Leakey|Leakey, Richard]], ''The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind'', {{ISBN|0-385-46809-1}}</ref> A 2018 report indicated that the [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic diversity]] of 300 mammalian species erased during the human era since the [[Late Pleistocene]] would require 5 to 7&nbsp;million years to recover.<ref name=""davis2018"">{{cite journal |pmid=30322924|pmc=6217385|doi=10.1073/pnas.1804906115|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A|year=2018|volume=115|issue=44|pages=11262–11267|title=Mammal diversity will take millions of years to recover from the current biodiversity crisis|vauthors=Davis M, Faurby S, Svenning JC|bibcode=2018PNAS..11511262D |doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to the 2019 ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'' by [[IPBES]], the biomass of wild mammals has fallen by 82%, natural ecosystems have lost about half their area and a million species are at risk of extinction—all largely as a result of human actions. Twenty-five percent of plant and animal species are [[Threatened species|threatened]] with extinction.<ref>{{cite news|last=Watts|first=Jonathan|date=May 6, 2019|title=Human society under urgent threat from loss of Earth's natural life|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=May 6, 2019|archive-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614160705/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=""NYT-20190506"">{{cite news |last=Plumer |first=Brad |title=Humans Are Speeding Extinction and Altering the Natural World at an 'Unprecedented' Pace |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/06/climate/biodiversity-extinction-united-nations.html |date=May 6, 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=May 6, 2019 |archive-date=14 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614201836/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/06/climate/biodiversity-extinction-united-nations.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""IPBES-20190506"">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Media Release: Nature's Dangerous Decline 'Unprecedented'; Species Extinction Rates 'Accelerating' |url=https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment |date=May 6, 2019 |work=[[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]] |access-date=May 6, 2019 |archive-date=14 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614220133/https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment |url-status=live }}</ref> In a subsequent report, IPBES listed unsustainable fishing, hunting and logging as being some of the primary drivers of the global extinction crisis.<ref>{{cite news|last=Briggs|first=Helen|date=July 8, 2022|title=Unsustainable logging, fishing and hunting 'driving extinction'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-62094405|work=BBC|location=|access-date=August 2, 2022|archive-date=1 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801105751/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-62094405|url-status=live}}</ref> 

In June 2019, one million species of plants and animals were at risk of extinction. At least 571 plant species have been lost since 1750, but likely many more. The main cause of the extinctions is the destruction of natural habitats by human activities, such as cutting down forests and converting land into fields for farming.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/10/frightening-number-of-plant-extinctions-found-in-global-survey|title='Frightening' number of plant extinctions found in global survey|website=The Guardian|date=10 June 2019|access-date=11 June 2019|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422133201/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/10/frightening-number-of-plant-extinctions-found-in-global-survey|url-status=live}}</ref>

A [[Dagger (mark)|dagger symbol]] (†) placed next to the name of a species or other taxon normally indicates its status as extinct.

{{TOC limit}}

== Examples ==
Examples of species and subspecies that are extinct include:

* [[Steller's sea cow]]
* [[Dodo]] 
* [[Chinese paddlefish]] (last seen in 2003; declared extinct in 2022)
* [[Great auk]] (last confirmed pair was killed in the 1840s)
* [[Thylacine]] (the last thylacine killed in the wild was shot in 1930; the last captive tiger lived in [[Hobart Zoo]] until 1936)
* [[Kauaʻi ʻōʻō|Kauai O'o]] (last known member was heard in 1987; the entire [[Mohoidae]] became extinct with it)
* [[Spectacled cormorant]] (last known members were said to live in the 1850s)
* [[Carolina parakeet]] (last known member named [[Incas (Carolina parakeet)|Incas]] died in captivity in 1918; declared extinct in 1939)
* [[Passenger pigeon]] (last known member named [[Martha (passenger pigeon)|Martha]] died in captivity in 1914)
* [[Tasmanian emu]] (the last claimed sighting of the emu was in 1839)
* [[Japanese Sea Lion]] (the last confirmed record was a juvenile specimen captured in 1974)
* [[Schomburgk's deer]] (became [[extinct in the wild]] in 1932; the last captive deer was killed in 1938)
* [[Quagga]] (hunted to extinction in the late 19th century)

==Definition==
[[File:LepidodendronOhio.jpg|thumb|right|External mold of the extinct ''[[Lepidodendron]]'' from the [[Upper Carboniferous]] of [[Ohio]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kenrick |first1=Paul |last2=Davis |first2=Paul |title=Fossil Plants |date=2004 |publisher=Smithsonian Books |isbn=978-0-565-09176-7 }}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Moran |first1=Robbin Craig |title=A Natural History of Ferns |date=2004 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=978-0-88192-667-5 }}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref>]]

A species is extinct when the last existing member dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become [[functional extinction|functionally extinct]] when only a handful of individuals survive, which cannot reproduce due to poor health, age, sparse distribution over a large range, a lack of individuals of both sexes (in [[sexual reproduction|sexually reproducing]] species), or other reasons.

Pinpointing the extinction (or [[pseudoextinction]]) of a species requires a [[Theory of species|clear definition of that species]]. If it is to be declared extinct, the species in question must be uniquely distinguishable from any ancestor or daughter species, and from any other closely related species. Extinction of a species (or replacement by a daughter species) plays a key role in the [[punctuated equilibrium]] hypothesis of [[Stephen Jay Gould]] and [[Niles Eldredge]].<ref>See: Niles Eldredge, ''Time Frames: Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria'', 1986, Heinemann {{ISBN|0-434-22610-6}}</ref>

[[File:Various dinosaurs.png|thumb|left|Skeleton of various extinct [[dinosaur]]s; some other dinosaur lineages still flourish in the form of [[birds]]]]
In [[ecology]], ''extinction'' is sometimes used informally to refer to [[local extinction]], in which a species ceases to exist in the chosen area of study, despite still existing elsewhere. Local extinctions may be made good by the reintroduction of individuals of that species taken from other locations; [[wolf reintroduction]] is an example of this. Species that are not globally extinct are termed [[Extant taxon|extant]]. Those species that are extant, yet are threatened with extinction, are referred to as [[threatened]] or [[endangered species]].

[[File:Edwards' Dodo.jpg|thumb|The [[dodo]] of [[Mauritius]], shown here in a 1626 illustration by [[Roelant Savery]], is an often-cited example of [[Holocene extinction|modern extinction]].<ref name=""Diamond"">{{cite book | last = Diamond | first = Jared | author-link = Jared Diamond | title = Guns, Germs, and Steel | publisher = W.W. Norton|year = 1999| isbn = 978-0-393-31755-8 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/gunsgermssteelfa00diam/page/43 43–44] |chapter=Up to the Starting Line | title-link = Guns, Germs, and Steel }}</ref>]]
Currently, an important aspect of extinction is human attempts to preserve critically endangered species. These are reflected by the creation of the [[conservation status]] [[extinct in the wild|""extinct in the wild"" (EW)]]. Species listed under this status by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) are not known to have any living specimens in the wild and are maintained only in [[zoo]]s or other artificial environments. Some of these species are functionally extinct, as they are no longer part of their natural habitat and it is unlikely the species will ever be restored to the wild.<ref name=""Maas"">Maas, Peter. ""[http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/wilduk.htm Extinct in the Wild"" ''The Extinction Website''. URL accessed January 26 2007.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216030551/http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/wilduk.htm |date=February 16, 2007 }}</ref> When possible, modern [[zoology|zoological]] institutions try to maintain a [[viable population]] for species preservation and possible future [[reintroduction]] to the wild, through use of carefully planned [[breeding program]]s.

The extinction of one species' wild population can have knock-on effects, causing further extinctions. These are also called ""chains of extinction"".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Quince |first1=Christopher |last2=Higgs |first2=Paul G. |last3=McKane |first3=Alan J. |title=Deleting species from model food webs |journal=Oikos |date=August 2005 |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=283–296 |doi=10.1111/j.0030-1299.2005.13493.x |arxiv=q-bio/0401037 |bibcode=2005Oikos.110..283Q |s2cid=16750824 }}</ref> This is especially common with extinction of [[keystone species]].

A 2018 study indicated that the [[sixth mass extinction]] started in the [[Late Pleistocene]] could take up to 5 to 7&nbsp;million years to restore 2.5&nbsp;billion years of unique mammal diversity to what it was before the human era.<ref name=davis2018/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mosbergen |first1=Dominique |title=Mammals Will Still Be Recovering From Human Destruction Long After We're Gone |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mammal-diversity-extinction-study_n_5bc59f68e4b055bc94796ecf |work=HuffPost |date=16 October 2018 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209131519/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mammal-diversity-extinction-study_n_5bc59f68e4b055bc94796ecf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Pseudoextinction===
{{Main|Pseudoextinction}}

Extinction of a parent species where daughter species or subspecies are still extant is called pseudoextinction or phyletic extinction. Effectively, the old taxon vanishes, transformed ([[anagenesis]]) into a successor,<ref>{{cite book |last1=King |first1=Michael |last2=Mulligan|first2=Pamela |last3=Stansfield |first3=William |title=A Dictionary of Genetics |chapter=Pseudoextinction |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=8th|isbn=978-0-19-976644-4 |url = https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199766444.001.0001/acref-9780199766444-e-5536?rskey=f8g543&result=5527}}</ref> or split into more than one ([[cladogenesis]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leighton |first=Lindsey R.|title=Taxon Characteristics That Promote Survivorship Through the Permian-Triassic Interval: Transition from the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic Brachiopod Fauna|journal=Paleobiology |date=2009 |volume=34 |pages=65–79 |doi=10.1666/06082.1|s2cid=86843206}}</ref>

Pseudoextinction is difficult to demonstrate unless one has a strong chain of evidence linking a living species to members of a pre-existing species. For example, it is sometimes claimed that the extinct ''[[Hyracotherium]]'', which was an early horse that shares a common ancestor with the modern [[horse]], is pseudoextinct, rather than extinct, because there are several extant species of ''[[Equus (genus)|Equus]]'', including [[zebra]] and [[donkey]]; however, as fossil species typically leave no genetic material behind, one cannot say whether ''Hyracotherium'' [[Evolution of the horse|evolved into more modern horse species]] or merely evolved from a common ancestor with modern horses. Pseudoextinction is much easier to demonstrate for larger taxonomic groups.

===Lazarus taxa===
{{Main|Lazarus taxa}}
The [[coelacanth]], a fish related to [[lungfish]] and [[tetrapod]]s, was considered to have been extinct since the end of the [[Cretaceous Period]]. In 1938, however, a living specimen was found off the [[Chalumna River]] (now Tyolomnqa) on the east coast of South Africa.<ref name=""dinofish"">{{cite web| url = http://www.dinofish.com/discoa.htm| title = ""Discovery"" of the Coelacanth| access-date = 2 March 2013| archive-date = 21 January 2013| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130121205250/http://www.dinofish.com/discoa.htm| url-status = live}}</ref> Museum curator [[Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer]] discovered the fish among the catch of a local trawler operated by Captain Hendrick Goosen, on December 23, 1938.<ref name=""dinofish""/> A local chemistry professor, [[James Leonard Brierley Smith|JLB Smith]], confirmed the fish's importance with a famous cable: ""MOST IMPORTANT PRESERVE SKELETON AND GILLS = FISH DESCRIBED"".<ref name=""dinofish"" />

Far more recent possible or presumed extinctions of species which may turn out still to exist include the [[thylacine]], or Tasmanian tiger (''Thylacinus cynocephalus''), the last known example of which died in Hobart Zoo in Tasmania in 1936; the [[Honshū wolf|Japanese wolf]] (''Canis lupus hodophilax''), last sighted over 100 years ago; the [[Ivory-billed woodpecker|American ivory-billed woodpecker]] (''Campephilus principalis''), with the last universally accepted sighting in 1944; and the [[slender-billed curlew]] (''Numenius tenuirostris''), not seen since 2007.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Platt |first1=John R. |title=4 Extinct Species That People Still Hope to Rediscover |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/4-extinct-species-hope-rediscover/ |work=Scientific American Blog Network |date=21 February 2013 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209131524/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/4-extinct-species-hope-rediscover/ |url-status=live }}{{self-published inline|date=February 2022}}</ref>

==Causes==
[[File:Ectopistes migratoriusMCN2P28CA.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[passenger pigeon]], one of the hundreds of species of extinct birds, was hunted to extinction over the course of a few decades.]]

As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average lifespan of a species is 1–10&nbsp;million years,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Conservation of Wildlife Populations: Demography, Genetics and Management|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fVLEV64qYfcC|publisher = John Wiley & Sons|year= 2009|isbn = 978-1-4443-0893-8|language = en|first = L. Scott|last = Mills|page = 13}}</ref> although this varies widely between taxa.
A variety of causes can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species or group of species. ""Just as each species is unique"", write Beverly and [[Stephen C. Stearns]], ""so is each extinction&nbsp;... the causes for each are varied—some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple"".<ref name=""Stearns"">{{cite book | last = Stearns | first = Beverly Peterson and Stephen C. | title = Watching, from the Edge of Extinction | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-300-08469-6 | pages = x | chapter = Preface | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300084696 }}</ref> Most simply, any species that cannot [[Survival skills|survive]] and [[reproduction|reproduce]] in its environment and cannot move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when [[toxic]] [[pollution]] renders its entire [[habitat]] unliveable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as [[extinction debt]].

Assessing the relative importance of genetic factors compared to environmental ones as the causes of extinction has been compared to the debate on [[nature and nurture]].<ref name=""Raup"">{{cite journal |last=Raup |first=David M. |author2=J. John Sepkoski Jr. |s2cid=43002817 |date=March 1982 |title=Mass extinctions in the marine fossil record |journal=Science |volume=215 |issue=4539|pages = 1501–1503 |doi=10.1126/science.215.4539.1501 |pmid=17788674 |bibcode=1982Sci...215.1501R}}</ref> The question of whether more extinctions in the [[fossil]] record have been caused by [[evolution]] or by competition or by predation or by disease or by catastrophe is a subject of discussion; Mark Newman, the author of ''Modeling Extinction'', argues for a mathematical model that falls in all positions.<ref name=""Newman"" /> By contrast, [[conservation biology]] uses the [[extinction vortex]] model to classify extinctions by cause. When concerns about [[human extinction]] have been raised, for example in Sir [[Martin Rees]]' 2003 book ''[[Our Final Hour]]'', those concerns lie with the effects of [[climate change]] or [[technology|technological]] disaster.

Human-driven extinction started as humans migrated out of Africa more than 60,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |editor1-last=Johns|editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Crist|editor2-first=Eileen|editor3-last= Sahgal|editor3-first=Bittu|date=2022 |title=Ending the Colonization of the Non-Human World|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/biological-conservation/special-issue/10574WDL8SQ|journal=[[Biological Conservation (journal)|Biological Conservation]]|volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |access-date=}}</ref> Currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with the extinction of species caused by humanity, and they try to prevent further extinctions through a variety of [[conservation movement|conservation]] programs.<ref name=""MSNBC"" /> Humans can cause extinction of a species through [[overharvesting]], [[pollution]], [[habitat destruction]], introduction of [[invasive species]] (such as new [[predator]]s and food [[competitors]]), overhunting, and other influences. Explosive, unsustainable human [[population growth]] and [[Overconsumption|increasing per capita consumption]] are essential drivers of the extinction crisis.<ref name=""Ceballos2017""/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stokstad |first1=Erik |title=Landmark analysis documents the alarming global decline of nature |journal=Science |date=6 May 2019 |doi=10.1126/science.aax9287 |s2cid=166478506 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Andermann |first1=Tobias |last2=Faurby |first2=Søren |last3=Turvey |first3=Samuel T. |last4=Antonelli |first4=Alexandre |last5=Silvestro |first5=Daniele |title=The past and future human impact on mammalian diversity |journal=Science Advances |date=1 September 2020 |volume=6 |issue=36 |pages=eabb2313 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abb2313 |pmid=32917612 |s2cid=221498762 |doi-access=free |pmc=7473673 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.2313A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]]  Text and images are available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=16 October 2017 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Lewis |first=Sophie |date=September 9, 2020 |title=Animal populations worldwide have declined by almost 70% in just 50 years, new report says |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/biodiversity-endangered-species-animal-population-decline-world-wildlife-fund-report-2020-09-09/ |work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=October 22, 2020 |archive-date=10 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200910152119/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/biodiversity-endangered-species-animal-population-decline-world-wildlife-fund-report-2020-09-09/ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), 784 extinctions have been recorded since the year 1500, the arbitrary date selected to define ""recent"" extinctions, up to the year 2004; with many more likely to have gone unnoticed. Several species have also been listed as extinct since 2004.<ref name=""IUCNno"">{{cite web | publisher = [[World Conservation Union]] | url = http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/red_list_2004/GSAexecsumm_EN.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060827093621/http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/red_list_2004/GSAexecsumm_EN.htm | url-status = dead | archive-date = 27 August 2006 | title = 2004 Red List | work = IUCN Red List of Threatened Species | access-date = September 20, 2006 }}</ref>

=== Genetics and demographic phenomena ===
{{See also|Extinction vortex|Genetic erosion|Mutational meltdown}}
If [[adaptation]] increasing population [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] is slower than [[environmental degradation]] plus the accumulation of slightly deleterious [[mutation]]s, then a population will go extinct.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bertram|first1=J|last2=Gomez|first2=K|last3=Masel|first3=J|title=Predicting patterns of long-term adaptation and extinction with population genetics|journal=Evolution|date=February 2017|volume=71|issue=2|pages=204–214|doi=10.1111/evo.13116|pmid=27868195|arxiv=1605.08717|s2cid=4705439}}</ref> Smaller populations have fewer beneficial mutations entering the population each generation, slowing adaptation. It is also easier for slightly deleterious mutations to [[fixation (population genetics)|fix]] in small populations; the resulting positive feedback loop between small population size and low fitness can cause [[mutational meltdown]].

Limited geographic range is the most important determinant of [[genus]] extinction at background rates but becomes increasingly irrelevant as [[#Mass extinctions|mass extinction]] arises.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Payne, J.L.|author2=S. Finnegan | year=2007 | title=The effect of geographic range on extinction risk during background and mass extinction | journal=[[PNAS|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.]] | volume=104 | issue=25 | pages=10506–10511 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0701257104 | pmid=17563357| pmc=1890565|bibcode = 2007PNAS..10410506P |doi-access=free }}</ref> Limited geographic range is a cause both of small population size and of greater vulnerability to local environmental catastrophes.

Extinction rates can be affected not just by population size, but by any factor that affects [[evolvability]], including [[balancing selection]], [[cryptic genetic variation]], [[phenotypic plasticity]], and [[robustness (evolution)|robustness]]. A diverse or deep [[gene pool]] gives a population a higher chance in the short term of surviving an adverse change in conditions. Effects that cause or reward a loss in [[genetic diversity]] can increase the chances of extinction of a species. [[Population bottleneck]]s can dramatically reduce genetic diversity by severely limiting the number of reproducing individuals and make [[inbreeding]] more frequent.

=== Genetic pollution ===
{{Main|Genetic pollution}}
Extinction sometimes results for species evolved to specific ecologies<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mooney |first=H.A. |author2=Cleland, E.E. |year=2001 |title=The evolutionary impact of invasive species |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=98 |issue=10 |pages=5446–5451 |doi=10.1073/pnas.091093398 |pmid=11344292 |pmc=33232 |bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.5446M |doi-access=free }}</ref> that are subjected to [[genetic pollution]]—i.e., uncontrolled [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]], [[introgression]] and genetic swamping that lead to homogenization or [[Fitness (biology)|out-competition]] from the introduced ([[Heterosis|or hybrid]]) species.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/article_view?id=13 |title = Glossary: definitions from the following publication: Aubry, C., R. Shoal and V. Erickson. 2005. Grass cultivars: their origins, development, and use on national forests and grasslands in the Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service. 44 pages, plus appendices.; Native Seed Network (NSN), Institute for Applied Ecology, 563 SW Jefferson Ave, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222092651/http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/article_view?id=13 |archive-date=22 February 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Endemic populations can face such extinctions when new populations are imported or [[selective breeding|selectively bred]] by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact. Extinction is likeliest for [[rare species]] coming into contact with more abundant ones;<ref name=""RareEucalypts""/> [[interbreeding]] can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool (for example, the endangered [[wild water buffalo]] is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from [[Water buffalo|the abundant domestic water buffalo]]). Such extinctions are not always apparent from [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] (non-genetic) observations. Some degree of [[gene flow]] is a normal evolutionary process; nevertheless, hybridization (with or without introgression) threatens rare species' existence.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Extinction by Hybridization and Introgression |first1 = J.M. |last1 = Rhymer |first2= D. |last2= Simberloff |journal = Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |date=November 1996 |volume= 27 |pages= 83–109 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83 |publisher= Annual Reviews |quote= Introduced species, in turn, are seen as competing with or preying on native species or destroying their habitat. Introduces species (or [[subspecies]]), however, can generate another kind of extinction, a genetic extinction by hybridization and introgression with native flora and fauna|jstor=2097230}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Genetic pollution from farm forestry using eucalypt species and hybrids : a report for the RIRDC/L&WA/FWPRDC Joint Venture Agroforestry Program |first1 = Brad M. |last1= Potts |others= Robert C. Barbour, Andrew B. Hingston |date=September 2001 |isbn= 978-0-642-58336-9 |publisher= Australian Government, Rural Industrial Research and Development Corporation }}</ref>

The gene pool of a [[species]] or a [[population]] is the variety of genetic information in its living members. A large gene pool (extensive [[genetic diversity]]) is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense [[Selection (biology)|selection]]. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see [[inbreeding]] and [[population bottlenecks]]) reduces the range of adaptions possible.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/brsShop/data/12858_10_1_3.pdf |title=Genetic diversity|page=104 |year=2003 |access-date=2010-05-30 |quote=In other words, greater genetic diversity can offer greater resilience. In order to maintain the capacity of our forests to [[adaption|adapt]] to future changes, therefore, genetic diversity must be preserved |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313092336/http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/brsShop/data/12858_10_1_3.pdf |archive-date=2011-03-13}}</ref> Replacing native with alien genes narrows genetic diversity within the original population,<ref name=""RareEucalypts"">
{{cite web |url=http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/brsShop/data/12858_10_1_3.pdf |title=Australia's state of the forests report |page=107 |year=2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313092336/http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/brsShop/data/12858_10_1_3.pdf |archive-date=2011-03-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindenmayer |first1=D. B. |last2=Hobbs |first2=R. J. |last3=Salt |first3=D. |title=Plantation forests and biodiversity conservation |journal=Australian Forestry |date=January 2003 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=62–66 |doi=10.1080/00049158.2003.10674891 |bibcode=2003AuFor..66...62L |s2cid=53968395 |url=https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/4637/1/plantation_forests.pdf |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217143102/https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/4637/1/plantation_forests.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> thereby increasing the chance of extinction.
[[File:DirkvdM santa fe scorched.jpg|thumb|Scorched land resulting from [[slash-and-burn]] agriculture]]

=== Habitat degradation ===
{{Main|Habitat destruction}}
Habitat degradation is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with [[urban sprawl]], logging, mining, and some fishing practices close behind. The degradation of a species' [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] may alter the [[fitness landscape]] to such an extent that the species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming [[toxicity|toxic]], or indirectly, by limiting a species' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species.

Habitat degradation through toxicity can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through [[contamination]] or [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilizing]] them. It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness.

Habitat degradation can also take the form of a physical destruction of niche habitats. The widespread destruction of [[tropical rainforest]]s and replacement with open pastureland is widely cited as an example of this;<ref name=""Wilson"" /> elimination of the dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed by many species to survive. For example, a [[fern]] that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. Another example is the destruction of ocean floors by [[bottom trawling]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Clover |first=Charles |year=2004 |title=The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat |publisher=Ebury Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-09-189780-2 }}</ref>

Diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. [[Global warming]] has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing competition to other species that previously occupied that area. Sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. Vital resources including [[water]] and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction.
[[File:Bufo periglenes2.jpg|thumb|The [[golden toad]] was last seen on May 15, 1989. [[Decline in amphibian populations]] is ongoing worldwide.]]

=== Predation, competition, and disease ===
{{See also|Island restoration}}
In the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, [[interspecific competition]], inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction of some species, either as a new mega-predator or by [[introduced species|transporting]] [[animal]]s and [[plant]]s from one part of the world to another. Such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. [[livestock]] released by sailors on islands as a future source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. [[rat]]s escaping from boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an [[Invasive species|invasive alien species]] does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect [[Endemic (ecology)|native]] species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing [[pathogen]]s or [[parasite]]s that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the ""overkill hypothesis"", the swift extinction of the [[megafauna]] in areas such as Australia (40,000 years before present), [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] (12,000 years before present), [[Madagascar]], [[Hawaii]] (AD 300–1000), and New Zealand (AD 1300–1500), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques.<ref name=""Lee"">Lee, Anita. ""[http://geography.berkeley.edu/ProgramCourses/CoursePagesFA2002/geog148/Term%20Papers/Anita%20Lee/THEPLE~1.html The Pleistocene Overkill Hypothesis] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014100508/http://geography.berkeley.edu/ProgramCourses/CoursePagesFA2002/geog148/Term%20Papers/Anita%20Lee/THEPLE~1.html |date=October 14, 2006 }}."" ''University of California at Berkeley Geography Program.'' Retrieved January 11, 2007.</ref>

=== Coextinction ===
{{Main|Coextinction}}
[[File:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg|thumb|The large [[Haast's eagle]] and [[moa]] from New Zealand]]

Coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another; for example, the extinction of [[parasitism|parasitic]] insects following the loss of their hosts. Coextinction can also occur when a species loses its [[pollinator]], or to [[predator]]s in a [[food chain]] who lose their prey. ""Species coextinction is a manifestation of one of the interconnectednesses of organisms in complex ecosystems&nbsp;... While coextinction may not be the most important cause of species extinctions, it is certainly an insidious one.""<ref name=""Koh"">{{cite journal |last1=Koh |first1=Lian Pin |last2=Dunn |first2=Robert R. |last3=Sodhi |first3=Navjot S. |last4=Colwell |first4=Robert K. |last5=Proctor |first5=Heather C. |last6=Smith |first6=Vincent S. |title=Species Coextinctions and the Biodiversity Crisis |journal=Science |date=10 September 2004 |volume=305 |issue=5690 |pages=1632–1634 |doi=10.1126/science.1101101 |pmid=15361627 |bibcode=2004Sci...305.1632K |s2cid=30713492 }}</ref> Coextinction is especially common when a [[keystone species]] goes extinct. Models suggest that coextinction is the most common form of [[biodiversity loss]]. There may be a cascade of coextinction across the [[trophic level]]s. Such effects are most severe in [[mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] and parasitic relationships. An example of coextinction is the [[Haast's eagle]] and the [[moa]]: the Haast's eagle was a predator that became extinct because its food source became extinct. The moa were several species of flightless birds that were a food source for the Haast's eagle.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=Robert R. |last2=Harris |first2=Nyeema C. |last3=Colwell |first3=Robert K. |last4=Koh |first4=Lian Pin |last5=Sodhi |first5=Navjot S. |title=The sixth mass coextinction: are most endangered species parasites and mutualists? |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=7 September 2009 |volume=276 |issue=1670 |pages=3037–3045 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2009.0413 |pmid=19474041 |pmc=2817118 }}</ref>

=== Climate change ===
{{Main|Extinction risk from climate change}}
{{See also|Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity|Effects of climate change on marine mammals}}

Extinction as a result of [[climate change]] has been confirmed by fossil studies.<ref name=""SahneyBentonFalconLang 2010RainforestCollapse"">{{cite journal|url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079|last1=Sahney|first1=S.|last2=Benton|first2=M.J.|last3=Falcon-Lang|first3=H.J.|year=2010|title=Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica|journal=Geology|doi=10.1130/G31182.1|volume=38|pages=1079–1082|format=PDF|issue=12|bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S|access-date=28 August 2011|archive-date=11 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011144357/http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079|url-status=live}}</ref> Particularly, the extinction of amphibians during the [[Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse]], 305&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name=""SahneyBentonFalconLang 2010RainforestCollapse"" /> A 2003 review across 14 biodiversity research centers predicted that, because of climate change, 15–37% of land species would be ""committed to extinction"" by 2050.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Chris D. |last2=Cameron |first2=Alison |last3=Green |first3=Rhys E. |last4=Bakkenes |first4=Michel |last5=Beaumont |first5=Linda J. |last6=Collingham |first6=Yvonne C. |last7=Erasmus |first7=Barend F. N. |last8=de Siqueira |first8=Marinez Ferreira |last9=Grainger |first9=Alan |last10=Hannah |first10=Lee |last11=Hughes |first11=Lesley |last12=Huntley |first12=Brian |last13=van Jaarsveld |first13=Albert S. |last14=Midgley |first14=Guy F. |last15=Miles |first15=Lera |last16=Ortega-Huerta |first16=Miguel A. |last17=Townsend Peterson |first17=A. |last18=Phillips |first18=Oliver L. |last19=Williams |first19=Stephen E. |title=Extinction risk from climate change |journal=Nature |date=January 2004 |volume=427 |issue=6970 |pages=145–148 |doi=10.1038/nature02121 |pmid=14712274 |bibcode=2004Natur.427..145T |s2cid=969382 |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/733227/Thomas%26Cameron_Extinctions_Cover%26Article_Nature_2004.pdf |access-date=30 November 2019 |archive-date=29 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429130413/https://pure.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/733227/Thomas%26Cameron_Extinctions_Cover%26Article_Nature_2004.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""Bhattacharya"">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4545-global-warming-threatens-millions-of-species.html |title=Global warming threatens millions of species |date=7 January 2004 |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |access-date=2010-05-28 |last=Bhattacharya |first=Shaoni |quote=the effects of climate change should be considered as great a threat to biodiversity as the ""Big Three""—[[habitat destruction]], [[Invasive species|invasions by alien species]] and overexploitation by humans. |archive-date=21 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421082210/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4545-global-warming-threatens-millions-of-species.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The ecologically rich areas that would potentially suffer the heaviest losses include the [[Cape Floristic Region]] and the [[Caribbean Basin]]. These areas might see a doubling of present carbon dioxide levels and rising temperatures that could eliminate 56,000 plant and 3,700 animal species.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Handwerk|first1=Brian|last2=Hendwerk|first2=Brian|title=Global Warming Could Cause Mass Extinctions by 2050, Study Says|publisher=National Geographic News|date=April 2006|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/04/0412_060412_global_warming.html|access-date=27 October 2017|archive-date=12 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612161507/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/04/0412_060412_global_warming.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Climate change has also been found to be a factor in [[habitat loss]] and [[desertification]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibbon |first1=J. Whitfield |last2=Scott |first2=David E. |last3=Ryan |first3=Travis J. |last4=Buhlmann |first4=Kurt A. |last5=Tuberville |first5=Tracey D. |last6=Metts |first6=Brian S. |last7=Greene |first7=Judith L. |last8=Mills |first8=Tony |last9=Leiden |first9=Yale |last10=Poppy |first10=Sean |last11=Winne |first11=Christopher T. |title=The Global Decline of Reptiles, Déjà Vu Amphibians |journal=BioScience |date=2000 |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=653 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050[0653:TGDORD]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=12094030 |url=https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/facsch_papers/536 |access-date=14 July 2019 |archive-date=13 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213114220/https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/facsch_papers/536/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Sexual selection and male investment ===
Studies of fossils following species from the time they evolved to their extinction show that species with high [[sexual dimorphism]], especially characteristics in males that are used to compete for mating, are at a higher risk of extinction and die out faster than less sexually dimorphic species, the least sexually dimorphic species surviving for millions of years while the most sexually dimorphic species die out within mere thousands of years. Earlier studies based on counting the number of currently living species in modern taxa have shown a higher number of species in more sexually dimorphic taxa which have been interpreted as higher survival in taxa with more sexual selection, but such studies of modern species only measure indirect effects of extinction and are subject to error sources such as dying and doomed taxa speciating more due to splitting of habitat ranges into more small isolated groups during the habitat retreat of taxa approaching extinction. Possible causes of the higher extinction risk in species with more sexual selection shown by the comprehensive fossil studies that rule out such error sources include expensive sexually selected ornaments having negative effects on the ability to survive [[natural selection]], as well as [[sexual selection]] removing a diversity of genes that under current ecological conditions are neutral for natural selection but some of which may be important for surviving climate change.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martins |first1=Maria João Fernandes |last2=Puckett |first2=T. Markham |last3=Lockwood |first3=Rowan |last4=Swaddle |first4=John P. |last5=Hunt |first5=Gene |title=High male sexual investment as a driver of extinction in fossil ostracods |journal=Nature |date=April 2018 |volume=556 |issue=7701 |pages=366–369 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0020-7 |pmid=29643505 |bibcode=2018Natur.556..366M |s2cid=4925632 |url=https://aquila.usm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=17927&context=fac_pubs |access-date=16 September 2022 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002122147/https://aquila.usm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=17927&context=fac_pubs |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Mass extinctions ==
{{Main|Extinction event}}
{{annotated image/Extinction|float=right}}
There have been at least five mass extinctions in the history of life on earth, and four in the last 350&nbsp;million years in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period of geological time. A massive eruptive event that released large quantities of [[tephra]] particles into the atmosphere is considered to be one likely cause of the ""[[Permian–Triassic extinction event]]"" about 250&nbsp;million years ago,<ref name=""SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction"">{{ cite journal|url= |last1=Sahney |first1=S. |last2=Benton |first2=M.J. |year=2008 |title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 |volume=275 |pages=759–765 |pmid=18198148 |issue=1636 |pmc=2596898 }}</ref> which is estimated to have killed 90% of species then existing.<ref>{{cite book|last=Benton|first=M.J.|year=2005|title=When Life Nearly Died: The Greatest Mass Extinction of All Time|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-28573-2}}</ref> There is also evidence to suggest that this event was preceded by another mass extinction, known as [[Olson's Extinction]].<ref name=""SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction"" /> The [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] (K–Pg) occurred 66&nbsp;million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period; it is best known for having wiped out non-avian [[dinosaur]]s, among many other species.

=== Modern extinctions ===
{{Main|Holocene extinction}}
{{Further|Anthropocene|Defaunation|Deforestation}}
[[File:Decline-of-the-worlds-wild-mammals.png|thumb|upright=1.5|The changing distribution of the world's land mammals in tonnes of carbon. The [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] of wild land mammals has declined by 85% since the emergence of humans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ourworldindata.org/wild-mammal-decline|title=Wild mammals have declined by 85% since the rise of humans, but there is a possible future where they flourish|last=Ritchie|first=Hannah |date=April 20, 2021|website=[[Our World in Data]]|publisher= |access-date=April 19, 2023 |quote=}}</ref>]]

According to a 1998 survey<!-- Needs updating. Survey is now 20+ years old.  --> of 400 biologists conducted by [[New York City|New York]]'s [[American Museum of Natural History]], nearly 70% believed that the Earth is currently in the early stages of a human-caused mass extinction,<ref name=""AMNH"">[[American Museum of Natural History]]. ""[http://www.well.com/~davidu/amnh.html National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis – Scientific Experts Believe We are in the Midst of the Fastest Mass Extinction in Earth's History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120410162439/http://www.well.com/~davidu/amnh.html |date=10 April 2012 }}"". Retrieved September 20, 2006.</ref> known as the [[Holocene extinction]]. In that survey, the same proportion of respondents agreed with the prediction that up to 20% of all living populations could become extinct within 30 years (by 2028). A 2014 special edition of ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' declared there is widespread consensus on the issue of human-driven mass species extinctions.<ref>{{Cite journal|date = 25 July 2014 | title = Vanishing fauna (Special issue)|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=345|issue=6195| pages = 392–412 |doi=10.1126/science.345.6195.392| pmid = 25061199| bibcode= 2014Sci...345..392V| last = Vignieri | first = S.| doi-access = free}}</ref>  A 2020 study published in ''[[PNAS]]'' stated that the contemporary extinction crisis ""may be the most serious environmental threat to the persistence of civilization, because it is irreversible.""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ceballos|first1=Gerardo|last2=Ehrlich |first2=Paul R.|last3= Raven|first3=Peter H.|date=June 1, 2020 |title=Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction |journal=[[PNAS]] |volume=117 |issue=24 |pages=13596–13602 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1922686117|pmid=32482862|pmc=7306750|bibcode=2020PNAS..11713596C|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Biologist [[E. O. Wilson]] estimated<ref name=""Wilson"" /> in 2002 that if current rates of human destruction of the biosphere continue, one-half of all plant and animal species of life on earth will be extinct in 100 years.<ref name=""Wilson2"">{{cite interview | last= Wilson | first= E.O. | interviewer= Lisa Hymas | title= ""E. O. Wilson wants to know why you're not protesting in the streets"" | url= http://grist.org/article/e-o-wilson-wants-to-know-why-youre-not-protesting-in-the-streets/ | date= April 30, 2012 | work= Grist | access-date= January 16, 2014 | archive-date= 4 November 2017 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171104234523/http://grist.org/article/e-o-wilson-wants-to-know-why-youre-not-protesting-in-the-streets/ | url-status= live }} E.O. Wilson repeats his estimation in 2012.</ref> More significantly, the current rate of global species extinctions is estimated as 100 to 1,000 times ""background"" rates (the average extinction rates in the [[evolution]]ary time scale of planet Earth),<ref>J.H.Lawton and R.M.May, ''Extinction rates'', [[Oxford University]] Press, Oxford, UK</ref><ref name=""DeVos2014"">{{cite journal |last1=De Vos |first1=Jurriaan M. |last2=Joppa |first2=Lucas N. |last3=Gittleman |first3=John L. |last4=Stephens |first4=Patrick R. |last5=Pimm |first5=Stuart L. |title=Estimating the normal background rate of species extinction: Background Rate of Extinction |journal=Conservation Biology |date=April 2015 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=452–462 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12380 |pmid=25159086 |s2cid=19121609 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/98443/1/Conservation_Biology_2014_early-view.pdf |access-date=30 November 2019 |archive-date=4 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104111411/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/98443/1/Conservation_Biology_2014_early-view.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> faster than at any other time in human history,<ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Carrington D |date=February 2, 2021 |title=Economics of biodiversity review: what are the recommendations? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/02/economics-of-biodiversity-review-what-are-the-recommendations |work=[[The Guardian]] |location= |access-date=December 21, 2021 |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524182314/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/02/economics-of-biodiversity-review-what-are-the-recommendations |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf |title=The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review Headline Messages |last=Dasgupta |first=Partha |author-link=Partha Dasgupta |date=2021 |website= |publisher=UK government |page=1 |access-date=December 21, 2021 |quote=Biodiversity is declining faster than at any time in human history. Current extinction rates, for example, are around 100 to 1,000 times higher than the baseline rate, and they are increasing. |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520070152/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> while future rates are likely 10,000 times higher.<ref name=DeVos2014 /> However, some groups are going extinct much faster. Biologists [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] and [[Stuart Pimm]], among others, contend that [[human population growth]] and [[overconsumption]] are the main drivers of the modern extinction crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pimm |first1=S. L. |last2=Jenkins |first2=C. N. |last3=Abell |first3=R. |last4=Brooks |first4=T. M. |last5=Gittleman |first5=J. L. |last6=Joppa |first6=L. N. |last7=Raven |first7=P. H. |last8=Roberts |first8=C. M. |last9=Sexton |first9=J. O. |title=The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection |journal=Science |date=30 May 2014 |volume=344 |issue=6187 |pages=1246752 |doi=10.1126/science.1246752 |pmid=24876501 |s2cid=206552746 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/|title=How to stop the sixth mass extinction|first=John D.|last=Sutter|date=December 12, 2016|work=CNN|access-date=January 3, 2017|archive-date=13 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213131234/http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=""Ceballos2017"">{{cite journal| last1=Ceballos|first1=Gerardo|last2=Ehrlich|first2=Paul R |last3=Dirzo|first3=Rodolfo|date=23 May 2017|title=Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]]|doi=10.1073/pnas.1704949114|pmc=5544311|pmid=28696295|volume=114|issue=30|pages=E6089–E6096|bibcode=2017PNAS..114E6089C |quote=Much less frequently mentioned are, however, the ultimate drivers of those immediate causes of biotic destruction, namely, human overpopulation and continued population growth, and overconsumption, especially by the rich. These drivers, all of which trace to the fiction that perpetual growth can occur on a finite planet, are themselves increasing rapidly.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Graham |first=Chris|date=July 11, 2017 |title=Earth undergoing sixth 'mass extinction' as humans spur 'biological annihilation' of wildlife|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/11/earth-undergoing-sixth-mass-extinction-humans-spur-biological/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/11/earth-undergoing-sixth-mass-extinction-humans-spur-biological/ |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work= The Telegraph|access-date=July 23, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In January 2020, the UN's [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] drafted a plan to mitigate the contemporary extinction crisis by establishing a deadline of 2030 to protect 30% of the Earth's land and oceans and reduce pollution by 50%, with the goal of allowing for the restoration of ecosystems by 2050.<ref>{{cite news|last=Greenfield|first=Patrick|date=January 13, 2020|title=UN draft plan sets 2030 target to avert Earth's sixth mass extinction|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/13/un-draft-plan-sets-2030-target-to-avert-earths-sixth-mass-extinction-aoe|work=The Guardian|access-date=January 14, 2020|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224095816/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/13/un-draft-plan-sets-2030-target-to-avert-earths-sixth-mass-extinction-aoe|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Yeung|first=Jessie|date=January 14, 2020|title=We have 10 years to save Earth's biodiversity as mass extinction caused by humans takes hold, UN warns|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/14/world/un-biodiversity-draft-plan-intl-hnk-scli-scn/index.html|work=CNN|access-date=January 14, 2020|archive-date=15 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215051020/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/14/world/un-biodiversity-draft-plan-intl-hnk-scli-scn/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The 2020 [[United Nations]]' ''Global Biodiversity Outlook'' report stated that of the 20 biodiversity goals laid out by the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010, only 6 were ""partially achieved"" by the deadline of 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Li |date=September 15, 2020 |title=More than 150 countries made a plan to preserve biodiversity a decade ago. A new report says they mostly failed. |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-than-150-countries-made-a-plan-to-save-the-worlds-species-and-ecosystems-a-decade-ago-a-new-report-says-they-mostly-failed/ |work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=September 23, 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192230/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-than-150-countries-made-a-plan-to-save-the-worlds-species-and-ecosystems-a-decade-ago-a-new-report-says-they-mostly-failed/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The report warned that biodiversity will continue to decline if the status quo is not changed, in particular the ""currently unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, population growth and technological developments"".<ref>{{cite news |last=Yeung |first=Jessie |date=September 16, 2020 |title=The world set a 2020 deadline to save nature but not a single target was met, UN report says |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/16/world/un-biodiversity-report-intl-hnk-scli-scn/ |work=[[CNN]] |access-date=September 23, 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192230/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/16/world/un-biodiversity-report-intl-hnk-scli-scn/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 2021 report published in the journal ''Frontiers in Conservation Science'', some top scientists asserted that even if the Aichi Biodiversity Targets set for 2020 had been achieved, it would not have resulted in a significant mitigation of biodiversity loss. They added that failure of the global community to reach these targets is hardly surprising given that biodiversity loss is ""nowhere close to the top of any country's priorities, trailing far behind other concerns such as employment, healthcare, economic growth, or currency stability.""<ref>{{cite news |last=Weston |first=Phoebe |date=January 13, 2021 |title=Top scientists warn of 'ghastly future of mass extinction' and climate disruption |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/13/top-scientists-warn-of-ghastly-future-of-mass-extinction-and-climate-disruption-aoe |work=[[The Guardian]] |location= |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113050606/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/13/top-scientists-warn-of-ghastly-future-of-mass-extinction-and-climate-disruption-aoe |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Corey J. A. |last2=Ehrlich |first2=Paul R. |last3=Beattie |first3=Andrew |last4=Ceballos |first4=Gerardo |last5=Crist |first5=Eileen |last6=Diamond |first6=Joan |last7=Dirzo |first7=Rodolfo |last8=Ehrlich |first8=Anne H. |last9=Harte |first9=John |last10=Harte |first10=Mary Ellen |last11=Pyke |first11=Graham |last12=Raven |first12=Peter H. |last13=Ripple |first13=William J. |last14=Saltré |first14=Frédérik |last15=Turnbull |first15=Christine |last16=Wackernagel |first16=Mathis |last17=Blumstein |first17=Daniel T. |date=2021 |title=Underestimating the Challenges of Avoiding a Ghastly Future |journal=Frontiers in Conservation Science |volume=1 |issue= |pages= |doi=10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== History of scientific understanding ==
[[File:Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png|thumb|''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'', one of the many extinct dinosaur genera. The cause of the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] is a subject of much debate amongst researchers.]]
[[File:Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg|thumb|Georges Cuvier's 1812 unpublished version of the skeletal reconstruction of ''[[Anoplotherium]] commune'' with muscles. Today, the [[Paleogene]] mammal is thought to have gone extinct from the [[Grande Coupure]] extinction event in western Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hooker|first1=Jerry J.|last2=Collinson|first2=Margaret E.|last3=Sille|first3=Nicholas P.|year=2004|title=Eocene–Oligocene mammalian faunal turnover in the Hampshire Basin, UK: calibration to the global time scale and the major cooling event|journal=Journal of the Geological Society|volume=161|issue=2|pages=161–172|doi=10.1144/0016-764903-091|bibcode=2004JGSoc.161..161H |s2cid=140576090 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/13418/files/PAL_E228.pdf }}</ref>]]
[[File:Cuvier elephant jaw.jpg|thumb|[[Georges Cuvier]] compared fossil [[mammoth]] jaws to those of living elephants, concluding that they were distinct from any known living species.<ref name="":52"">{{Cite web|url=http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_08|title=Extinctions: Georges Cuvier|website=evolution.berkeley.edu|access-date=2017-05-04|archive-date=29 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429200852/http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_08|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

For much of history, the modern understanding of extinction as the end of a [[species]] was incompatible with the prevailing worldview. Prior to the 19th century, much of Western society adhered to the belief that the world was created by God and as such was complete and perfect.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite journal|last=Rowland|first=Stephen|date=2009|title=Thomas Jefferson, extinction, and the evolving view of Earth history in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries|url=http://memoirs.gsapubs.org/content/203/225.abstract|journal=GSA Memoirs|volume=203|pages=225–246|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-date=1 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150901223048/http://memoirs.gsapubs.org/content/203/225.abstract|url-status=live}}</ref> This concept reached its heyday in the 1700s with the peak popularity of a theological concept called the [[great chain of being]], in which all life on earth, from the tiniest microorganism to God, is linked in a continuous chain.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33224/33224-h/33224-h.htm|title=The Principles of Geology or, The Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants Considered as Illustrative of Geology|last=Lyells|first=Charles|publisher=Appleton Co|year=1854|location=New York|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-date=25 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025005756/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33224/33224-h/33224-h.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The extinction of a species was impossible under this model, as it would create gaps or missing links in the chain and destroy the natural order.<ref name="":02"" /><ref name="":12"" /> [[Thomas Jefferson]] was a firm supporter of the great chain of being and an opponent of extinction,<ref name="":02"" /><ref name="":32"">{{cite web |last1=Bressan |first1=David |title=On the Extinction of Species |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/history-of-geology/on-the-extinction-of-species/ |work=Scientific American Blog Network |date=17 August 2011 |access-date=5 May 2017 |archive-date=22 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222105110/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/history-of-geology/on-the-extinction-of-species/ |url-status=live }}{{self-published inline|date=February 2022}}</ref> famously denying the extinction of the [[woolly mammoth]] on the grounds that nature never allows a race of animals to become extinct.<ref name="":42"">{{cite book |last1=Vidal |first1=Fernando |last2=Dias |first2=Nélia |title=Endangerment, Biodiversity and Culture |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-53807-3 }}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref>

A series of fossils were discovered in the late 17th century that appeared unlike any living species. As a result, the scientific community embarked on a voyage of creative rationalization, seeking to understand what had happened to these species within a framework that did not account for total extinction. In October 1686, [[Robert Hooke]] presented an impression of a [[nautilus]] to the [[Royal Society]] that was more than two feet in diameter,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/forgottengeniusb0000inwo|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/forgottengeniusb0000inwo/page/403 403]|quote=hooke nautilus.|title=The Forgotten Genius: The Biography of Robert Hooke, 1635–1703|last=Inwood|first=Stephen|date=2005|publisher=MacAdam/Cage Publishing|isbn=978-1-59692-115-3|language=en}}</ref> and morphologically distinct from any known living species. [[Robert Hooke|Hooke]] theorized that this was simply because the species lived in the deep ocean and no one had discovered them yet.<ref name="":12"" /> While he contended that it was possible a species could be ""lost"", he thought this highly unlikely.<ref name="":12"" /> Similarly, in 1695, [[Sir Thomas Molyneux]] published an account of enormous antlers found in [[Ireland]] that did not belong to any extant taxa in that area.<ref name="":32"" /><ref name="":22"">{{cite journal |last1=Molyneux |first1=Thomas |title=II. A discourse concerning the large horns frequently found under ground in Ireland, concluding from them that the great American deer, call'd a moose, was formerly common in that Island: with remarks on some other things natural to that country |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date=April 1697 |volume=19 |issue=227 |pages=489–512 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1695.0083 |bibcode=1695RSPT...19..489M |s2cid=186207711 }}</ref> Molyneux reasoned that they came from the North American [[moose]] and that the animal had once been common on the [[British Isles]].<ref name="":32"" /><ref name="":22"" /> Rather than suggest that this indicated the possibility of species going extinct, he argued that although organisms could become locally extinct, they could never be entirely lost and would continue to exist in some unknown region of the globe.<ref name="":22"" /> The antlers were later confirmed to be from the extinct [[deer]] ''[[Megaloceros]]''.<ref name="":32"" /> Hooke and Molyneux's line of thinking was difficult to disprove. When parts of the world had not been thoroughly examined and charted, scientists could not rule out that animals found only in the fossil record were not simply ""hiding"" in unexplored regions of the Earth.<ref name=""Watson2"">''Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud'' ([[Peter Watson (business writer)|Peter Watson]] Weidenfeld & Nicolson {{ISBN|0-297-60726-X}}){{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref>

[[Georges Cuvier]] is credited with establishing the modern conception of extinction in a 1796 lecture to the [[French Institute]],<ref name="":52"" /><ref name="":42""/> though he would spend most of his career trying to convince the wider scientific community of his theory.<ref name="":62"">{{Cite book|title=Perilous planet earth : catastrophes and catastrophism through the ages |last=Trevor |first=Palmer |date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-81928-2|oclc=912273245}}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref> Cuvier was a well-regarded geologist, lauded for his ability to reconstruct the anatomy of an unknown species from a few fragments of bone.<ref name="":52"" /> His primary evidence for extinction came from mammoth skulls found in the [[Paris Basin|Paris basin]].<ref name="":52"" /> Cuvier recognized them as distinct from any known living species of elephant, and argued that it was highly unlikely such an enormous animal would go undiscovered.<ref name="":52"" /> In 1812, Cuvier, along with [[Alexandre Brongniart]] and [[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], mapped the [[Stratum|strata]] of the Paris basin.<ref name="":12"" /> They saw alternating saltwater and freshwater deposits, as well as patterns of the appearance and disappearance of fossils throughout the record.<ref name="":32"" /><ref name="":62"" /> From these patterns, Cuvier inferred historic cycles of catastrophic flooding, extinction, and repopulation of the earth with new species.<ref name="":32"" /><ref name="":62"" />

Cuvier's fossil evidence showed that very different life forms existed in the past than those that exist today, a fact that was accepted by most scientists.<ref name="":02"" /> The primary debate focused on whether this turnover caused by extinction was gradual or abrupt in nature.<ref name="":62"" /> Cuvier understood extinction to be the result of cataclysmic events that wipe out huge numbers of species, as opposed to the gradual decline of a species over time.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite book |last=M. J. S. |first=Rudwick |title=Georges Cuvier, fossil bones, and geological catastrophes : new translations & interpretations of the primary texts |last2=Cuvier |first2=Georges |date=1998 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-73106-3 |oclc=45730036}}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref> His catastrophic view of the nature of extinction garnered him many opponents in the newly emerging school of [[uniformitarianism]].<ref name="":8"" />

[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], a [[Gradualism|gradualist]] and colleague of Cuvier, saw the fossils of different life forms as evidence of the mutable character of species.<ref name="":62"" /> While Lamarck did not deny the possibility of extinction, he believed that it was exceptional and rare and that most of the change in species over time was due to gradual change.<ref name="":62"" /> Unlike Cuvier, Lamarck was skeptical that catastrophic events of a scale large enough to cause total extinction were possible. In his geological history of the earth titled Hydrogeologie, Lamarck instead argued that the surface of the earth was shaped by gradual erosion and deposition by water, and that species changed over time in response to the changing environment.<ref name="":62"" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=The age of Lamarck : evolutionary theories in France, 1790–1830|last=Corsi|first=Pietro|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05830-9|oclc=898833548|year=1988}}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref>

[[Charles Lyell]], a noted geologist and founder of [[uniformitarianism]], believed that past processes should be understood using present day processes. Like Lamarck, Lyell acknowledged that extinction could occur, noting the total extinction of the [[dodo]] and the extirpation of [[History of the horse in Britain|indigenous horses]] to the British Isles.<ref name="":12"" /> He similarly argued against [[mass extinction]]s, believing that any extinction must be a gradual process.<ref name="":52""/><ref name="":42"" /> Lyell also showed that Cuvier's original interpretation of the Parisian strata was incorrect. Instead of the catastrophic floods inferred by Cuvier, Lyell demonstrated that patterns of saltwater and freshwater [[Deposition (geology)|deposits]], like those seen in the Paris basin, could be formed by a slow rise and fall of [[sea level]]s.<ref name="":32"" />

The concept of extinction was integral to [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'', with less fit lineages disappearing over time. For Darwin, extinction was a constant side effect of [[Competition (biology)|competition]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Lost World |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/12/16/the-lost-world-2 |magazine=The New Yorker |date=9 December 2013 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203051615/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/12/16/the-lost-world-2 |url-status=live }}</ref> Because of the wide reach of ''On the Origin of Species'', it was widely accepted that extinction occurred gradually and evenly (a concept now referred to as [[Background extinction rate|background extinction]]).<ref name="":42"" /> It was not until 1982, when [[David M. Raup|David Raup]] and [[Jack Sepkoski]] published their seminal paper on mass extinctions, that Cuvier was vindicated and catastrophic extinction was accepted as an important mechanism{{Citation needed|reason=A lot of history separates Cuvier from Raup and Sepkoski's 1982 work, including such figures as Bretz from the University of Chicago|date=February 2024}}. The current understanding of extinction is a synthesis of the cataclysmic extinction events proposed by Cuvier, and the background extinction events proposed by Lyell and Darwin.

Belgian scientists have proposed a potential explanation for the mass extinction of dinosaurs on Earth, suggesting that dust played a significant role. Around 66 million years ago, an asteroid struck the Earth off the coast of Mexico, marking the conclusion of the Cretaceous period. While it is widely accepted that dinosaurs near the impact site would not have survived, scientists were inquisitive about the fate of the rest of the dinosaur population. To address this question, researchers at the Royal Observatory of Belgium conducted computer-generated simulations, digitally recreating events that transpired after the asteroid's impact.

The asteroid that impacted Earth 66 million years ago formed the Chicxulub Crater, located beneath the Yucatán Peninsula off the Mexican coast. Scientific studies indicate that the Chicxulub asteroid released sulfur-based gases and a significant amount of silicate dust into Earth's atmosphere. This impact subsequently initiated volcanic eruptions and widespread wildfires worldwide, leading to the release of soot and carbon dioxide into the air. These combined effects resulted in a prolonged period of darkness caused by the airborne particles, creating a ""winter"" that endured for approximately 15 years.

According to the researchers, this ""impact winter"" is accountable for the extinction of 75% of Earth's plant and animal species. The hazy atmosphere obscured sunlight, preventing plants from conducting photosynthesis, their process for generating energy and growth. Consequently, a majority of plant life perished, resulting in a scarcity of food for herbivorous dinosaurs. As plant-eating dinosaurs dwindled, it also led to a decrease in the available food supply for carnivorous dinosaurs.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-11-02 |title=Dust could be responsible for wiping out 75% of all species on Earth |language=en-GB |work=BBC Newsround |url=https://www.bbc.com/newsround/67273693 |access-date=2023-11-05}}</ref>

== Human attitudes and interests ==
[[File:Sphyrna mokarran fishing.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|A [[great hammerhead]] caught by a sport fisherman. Human exploitation now threatens the survival of this species. [[Overfishing]] is the primary driver of shark population declines, which have fallen over 71% since 1970.<ref>{{cite news |last=Einhorn |first=Catrin |date=January 27, 2021 |title=Shark Populations Are Crashing, With a 'Very Small Window' to Avert Disaster |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/27/climate/sharks-population-study.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |location= |access-date=January 31, 2021 |archive-date=31 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131005226/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/27/climate/sharks-population-study.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pacoureau |first1=Nathan |last2=Rigby |first2=Cassandra L. |last3=Kyne |first3=Peter M. |last4=Sherley |first4=Richard B. |last5=Winker |first5=Henning |last6=Carlson |first6=John K. |last7=Fordham |first7=Sonja V. |last8=Barreto |first8=Rodrigo |last9=Fernando |first9=Daniel |last10=Francis |first10=Malcolm P. |last11=Jabado |first11=Rima W. |last12=Herman |first12=Katelyn B. |last13=Liu |first13=Kwang-Ming |last14=Marshall |first14=Andrea D. |last15=Pollom |first15=Riley A. |last16=Romanov |first16=Evgeny V. |last17=Simpfendorfer |first17=Colin A. |last18=Yin |first18=Jamie S. |last19=Kindsvater |first19=Holly K. |last20=Dulvy |first20=Nicholas K. |title=Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays |journal=Nature |date=28 January 2021 |volume=589 |issue=7843 |pages=567–571 |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-03173-9 |pmid=33505035 |bibcode=2021Natur.589..567P |hdl=10871/124531 |s2cid=231723355 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> ]]

Extinction is an important research topic in the field of [[zoology]], and [[biology]] in general, and has also become an area of concern outside the scientific community. A number of organizations, such as the [[WWF (conservation organization)|Worldwide Fund for Nature]], have been created with the goal of preserving species from extinction. [[Government]]s have attempted, through enacting laws, to avoid habitat destruction, agricultural over-harvesting, and [[pollution]]. While many human-caused extinctions have been accidental, humans have also engaged in the deliberate destruction of some species, such as dangerous [[virus]]es, and the total destruction of other problematic species has been suggested. Other species were deliberately driven to extinction, or nearly so, due to [[poaching]] or because they were ""undesirable"", or to push for other human agendas. One example was the near extinction of the [[American bison]], which was nearly wiped out by mass hunts sanctioned by the United States government, to force the removal of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], many of whom relied on the bison for food.<ref name=""Kotzman"">{{cite book|author1=C. Cormack Gates|author2=Curtis H. Freese|author3=Peter J.P. Gogan|author4=Mandy Kotzman|title=American bison: status survey and conservation guidelines 2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=koUrGx-i2ucC&pg=PR15|access-date=6 November 2011|publisher=IUCN|isbn=978-2-8317-1149-2|page=15|year=2010}}</ref>

Biologist Bruce Walsh states three reasons for scientific interest in the preservation of species: [[genetic resources]], ecosystem stability, and [[ethics]]; and today the scientific community ""stress[es] the importance"" of maintaining biodiversity.<ref name=""Walsh"">Walsh, Bruce. [http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/courses/EEB105/lectures/extinction/extinction.html Extinction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970802184301/http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/courses/EEB105/lectures/extinction/extinction.html |date=1997-08-02 }}. Bioscience at University of Arizona. Retrieved July 26, 2006.</ref><ref name=""CREOcare"">Committee on Recently Extinct Organisms. ""[http://creo.amnh.org/care.html Why Care About Species That Have Gone Extinct?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713045653/http://creo.amnh.org/care.html |date=13 July 2006 }}"". Retrieved July 30, 2006.</ref>

In modern times, commercial and industrial interests often have to contend with the effects of production on plant and animal life. However, some technologies with minimal, or no, proven harmful effects on ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' can be devastating to wildlife (for example, [[DDT]]).<ref name=""INCHEM"">International Programme on Chemical Safety (1989). ""[http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc83.htm DDT and its Derivatives – Environmental Aspects] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927215945/http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc83.htm |date=27 September 2006 }}"". Environmental Health Criteria 83. Retrieved September 20, 2006.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc009.htm|title=DDT and its derivatives (EHC 9, 1979)|access-date=26 September 2020|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225180744/http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc009.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Biogeography|Biogeographer]] [[Jared Diamond]] notes that while [[big business]] may label environmental concerns as ""exaggerated"", and often cause ""devastating damage"", some corporations find it in their interest to adopt good conservation practices, and even engage in preservation efforts that surpass those taken by [[national park]]s.<ref name=""DiamondCollapse"">{{cite book|last=Diamond|first=Jared|author-link=Jared Diamond|title=Collapse|publisher=Penguin|year=2005|isbn=978-0-670-03337-9|pages=15–17|chapter=A Tale of Two Farms|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/collapsehowsocie00diam}}</ref>

Governments sometimes see the loss of native species as a loss to [[ecotourism]],<ref name=""Drewry"">Drewry, Rachel. ""[http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit51/orang.htm Ecotourism: Can it save the orangutans?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216200744/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit51/orang.htm |date=February 16, 2007 }}"" ''Inside Indonesia''. Retrieved January 26, 2007.</ref> and can enact laws with severe punishment against the trade in native species in an effort to prevent extinction in the wild. [[Nature preserve]]s are created by governments as a means to provide continuing habitats to species crowded by human expansion. The 1992 [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] has resulted in international [[Biodiversity Action Plan]] programmes, which attempt to provide comprehensive guidelines for government biodiversity conservation. Advocacy groups, such as The Wildlands Project<ref name=""WildlandsProject"">[http://www.wild-earth.org/cms/page1090.cfm The Wildlands Project] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051122155849/http://www.wild-earth.org/cms/page1090.cfm |date=November 22, 2005 }}. Retrieved January 26, 2007.</ref> and the Alliance for Zero Extinctions,<ref>[http://www.zeroextinction.org/ Alliance for Zero Extinctions] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423151342/http://www.zeroextinction.org/ |date=April 23, 2011 }}. Retrieved January 26, 2007.</ref> work to educate the public and pressure governments into action.

People who live close to nature can be dependent on the survival of all the species in their environment, leaving them highly exposed to extinction [[risk]]s. However, people prioritize day-to-day survival over species conservation; with [[human overpopulation]] in tropical [[developing country|developing countries]], there has been enormous pressure on forests due to [[subsistence agriculture]], including [[slash-and-burn]] agricultural techniques that can reduce endangered species's habitats.<ref>{{Cite book | first1= Anne | last1= Ehrlich | title = Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species | publisher= Random House, New York | year= 1981 | isbn= 978-0-394-51312-6}}</ref>

[[Antinatalist]] philosopher [[David Benatar]] concludes that any popular concern about non-human species extinction usually arises out of concern about how the loss of a species will impact human wants and needs, that ""we shall live in a world impoverished by the loss of one aspect of faunal diversity, that we shall no longer be able to behold or use that species of animal."" He notes that typical concerns about possible human extinction, such as the loss of individual members, are not considered in regards to non-human species extinction.<ref>{{cite book|last=Benatar|first=David|date=2008|title=Better Never to Have Been: The Harm of Coming into Existence|url=https://archive.org/details/betternevertohav0000bena/page/197|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/betternevertohav0000bena/page/197 197]|isbn=978-0-19-954926-9|quote=It is noteworthy that human concern about human extinction takes a different form from human concern (where there is any) about the extinction of non-human species. Most humans who are concerned about the extinction of non-human species are not concerned about the individual animals whose lives are cut short in the passage to extinction, even though that is one of the best reasons to be concerned about extinction (at least in its killing form). The popular concern about animal extinction is usually concern for humans—that we shall live in a world impoverished by the loss of one aspect of faunal diversity, that we shall no longer be able to behold or use that species of animal. In other words, none of the typical concerns about human extinction are applied to non-human species extinction.}}</ref> Anthropologist [[Jason Hickel]] speculates that the reason humanity seems largely indifferent to anthropogenic mass species extinction is that we see ourselves as separate from the natural world and the organisms within it. He says that this is due in part to the logic of [[capitalism]]: ""that the world is not really alive, and it is certainly not our kin, but rather just stuff to be extracted and discarded – and that includes most of the human beings living here too.""<ref>{{cite book|last=Hickel|first=Jason|author-link=Jason Hickel|title=Less is More: How Degrowth Will Save the World |year=2021|publisher=Windmill Books|page=80|isbn=978-1786091215|quote=It's no wonder that we react so nonchalantly to the ever-mounting statistics about the crisis of mass extinction. We have a habit of taking this information with surprising calm. We don't weep. We don't get worked up. Why? Because we see humans as fundamentally separate from the rest of the living community. Those species are out there, in the environment. They aren't in here; they aren't part of us. It is not surprising that we behave this way. After all, this is the core principle of capitalism: that the world is not really alive, and it is certainly not our kin, but rather just stuff to be extracted and discarded – and that includes most of the human beings living here too. From its very first principles, capitalism has set itself at war against life itself.}}</ref>

=== Planned extinction ===<!-- This section is linked from [[Gene knockout]] -->
{{Main|Eradication of infectious diseases}}

==== Completed ====
* The [[smallpox]] virus is now extinct in the wild,<ref name=WHO_Factsheet>{{cite web |title=Smallpox |work=WHO Factsheet |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/smallpox/en/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070921235036/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/smallpox/en/ |archive-date= 2007-09-21 }}</ref> although samples are retained in laboratory settings.
* The [[rinderpest]] virus, which [[Cattle diseases|infected domestic cattle]], is now extinct in the wild.<ref name=""Normile2008"">{{cite journal |last1=Normile |first1=Dennis |title=Driven to Extinction |journal=Science |date=21 March 2008 |volume=319 |issue=5870 |pages=1606–1609 |doi=10.1126/science.319.5870.1606 |pmid=18356500 |s2cid=46157093 }}</ref>

==== Proposed ====
===== Disease agents =====
The [[poliovirus]] is now confined to small parts of the world due to extermination efforts.<ref name=""polio"">{{cite web |url=http://www.polioeradication.org/Dataandmonitoring.aspx |title=Polio cases in the world in 2015 |publisher=The Global Polio Eradication Initiative |access-date=17 February 2016 |archive-date=19 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219015412/http://www.polioeradication.org/Dataandmonitoring.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

''[[Dracunculus medinensis]]'', or Guinea worm, a parasitic worm which causes the disease [[dracunculiasis]], is now close to eradication thanks to efforts led by the [[Carter Center]].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://time.com/3680439/guinea-worm-almost-extinct/ |title=This Species is Close to Extinction and That's a Good Thing |date=23 January 2015 |magazine=Time |access-date=17 February 2016 |archive-date=24 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224032526/http://time.com/3680439/guinea-worm-almost-extinct/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

''[[Treponema pallidum|Treponema pallidum pertenue]]'', a bacterium which causes the disease [[yaws]], is in the process of being eradicated.

===== Disease vectors =====
Biologist [[Olivia Judson]] has advocated the deliberate extinction of certain disease-carrying [[mosquito]] species. In a September 25, 2003 article in ''[[The New York Times]]'', she advocated ""specicide"" of thirty mosquito species by introducing a genetic element that can insert itself into another crucial gene, to create [[recessive]] ""[[Gene knockout|knockout genes]]"".<ref name=""Judson""/> She says that the ''[[Anopheles]]'' mosquitoes (which spread [[malaria]]) and ''[[Aedes]]'' mosquitoes (which spread [[dengue fever]], [[yellow fever]], [[elephantiasis tropica|elephantiasis]], and other diseases) represent only 30 of around 3,500 mosquito species; eradicating these would save at least one million human lives per year, at a cost of reducing the [[genetic diversity]] of the family [[Culicidae]] by only 1%. She further argues that since species become extinct ""all the time"" the disappearance of a few more will not destroy the [[ecosystem]]: ""We're not left with a wasteland every time a species vanishes. Removing one species sometimes causes shifts in the populations of other species—but different need not mean worse."" In addition, anti-malarial and [[Mosquito#Control|mosquito control programs]] offer little realistic hope to the 300&nbsp;million people in [[developing nation]]s who will be infected with acute illnesses this year. Although trials are ongoing, she writes that if they fail ""we should consider the ultimate swatting.""<ref name=""Judson"">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/25/opinion/a-bug-s-death.html |title=A Bug's Death |date=September 25, 2003 |author=Olivia Judson |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=17 February 2016 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306163542/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/25/opinion/a-bug-s-death.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Biologist [[E. O. Wilson]] has advocated the eradication of several species of mosquito, including malaria vector ''[[Anopheles gambiae]]''. Wilson stated, ""I'm talking about a very small number of species that have co-evolved with us and are preying on humans, so it would certainly be acceptable to remove them. I believe it's just common sense.""<ref>{{cite news |last1=Paulson |first1=Steve |title=Why a famous biologist wants to eradicate killer mosquitoes |url=https://theworld.org/stories/2016-04-04/why-famous-biologist-wants-eradicate-killer-mosquitoes |work=The World from PRX |date=4 April 2016 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209131520/https://theworld.org/stories/2016-04-04/why-famous-biologist-wants-eradicate-killer-mosquitoes |url-status=live }}</ref>

There have been many campaigns – some successful – to locally eradicate [[tsetse fly|tsetse flies]] and their [[trypanosoma|trypanosome]]s in areas, countries, and islands of Africa (including [[Príncipe]]).<ref name=""Costa-et-al-1916"">{{cite book | title=Sleeping Sickness, A Record of Four Years' War against It in the Island of Principe | first1=B. F. | last1=Bruto da Costa| first2= J. F. | last2=Sant' Anna| first3= A. C. | last3=dos Santos | first4= M. G. | last4=de Araujo Alvares | translator=Lieutenant Colonel J. A. Wyllie | pages=xxii+260 | publisher=Centro Colonial ([[Baillière Tindall]] and Cox) | location=[[Lisbon]] | date=1916 | s2cid=82867664}} (Other {{S2CID|82229617}})</ref><ref name=""Nature-book-review-1916"">{{cite journal | last=S. | first=J. W. W. | title=The Eradication of Sleeping Sickness from Principe | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | publisher=[[Nature Research]] | volume=98 | issue=2460 | year=1916 | doi=10.1038/098311a0 | pages=311–312 | bibcode=1916Natur..98..311J | s2cid=3964040| doi-access=free }}</ref> There are currently serious efforts to do away with them all across Africa, and this is generally viewed as beneficial and morally necessary,<ref name=""Simarro-et-al-2008"">{{cite journal | last1=Simarro | first1=Pere P | last2=Jannin | first2=Jean | last3=Cattand | first3=Pierre | title=Eliminating Human African Trypanosomiasis: Where Do We Stand and What Comes Next? | journal=[[PLOS Medicine]] | publisher=[[Public Library of Science]] (PLoS) | volume=5 | issue=2 | date=2008-02-26 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050055 | page=e55 | pmid=18303943 | pmc=2253612 | s2cid=17608648| doi-access=free }}</ref> although not always.<ref name=""Bouyer-et-al-2018"">{{cite journal | last1=Bouyer | first1=Jérémy | last2=Carter | first2=Neil H | last3=Batavia | first3=Chelsea | last4=Nelson | first4=Michael Paul | title=The Ethics of Eliminating Harmful Species: The Case of the Tsetse Fly | journal=[[BioScience]] | publisher=[[American Institute of Biological Sciences]] ([[Oxford University Press|OUP]]) | volume=69 | issue=2 | date=2018-12-19 | doi=10.1093/biosci/biy155 | pages=125–135 | pmid=30792543 | pmc=6377282 | s2cid=67788418| doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Cloning ===
[[File:Pyrenean Ibex.png|thumb|The [[Pyrenean ibex]], the only animal to have been brought back from extinction and the only one to go extinct twice.]]
{{Main|De-extinction}}

Some, such as Harvard geneticist [[George M. Church]], believe that ongoing technological advances will let us ""bring back to life"" an extinct species by [[Cloning#Cloning extinct and endangered species|cloning]], using [[DNA]] from the remains of that species. Proposed targets for cloning include the [[mammoth]], the [[thylacine]], and the [[Pyrenean ibex]]. For this to succeed, enough individuals would have to be cloned, from the DNA of different individuals (in the case of sexually reproducing organisms) to create a viable population. Though [[bioethics|bioethical]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] objections have been raised,<ref>{{cite news |url= http://articles.latimes.com/2000/dec/24/news/mn-4250/2 |title= Cloned Goat Would Revive Extinct Line |author= A. Zitner |date= 2000-12-24 |work= [[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date= 2010-05-17 |archive-date= 25 August 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110825212540/http://articles.latimes.com/2000/dec/24/news/mn-4250/2 |url-status= live }}</ref> the cloning of extinct creatures seems theoretically possible.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/20/science/20mammoth.html?_r=1 |title= Regenerating a Mammoth for $10 Million |author= Nicholas wade |date= 2008-11-19 |access-date= 2010-05-17 |work= The New York Times |archive-date= 12 March 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170312075740/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/20/science/20mammoth.html?_r=1 |url-status= live }} ''The cell could be converted into an embryo and brought to term by an elephant, a project he estimated would cost some $10 million. ""This is something that could work, though it will be tedious and expensive,"" ''</ref>

In 2003, scientists tried to clone the extinct Pyrenean ibex (''C. p. pyrenaica'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Folch |first1=J. |last2=Cocero |first2=M. J. |last3=Chesné |first3=P. |last4=Alabart |first4=J. L. |last5=Domínguez |first5=V. |display-authors=1 |date=2009 |title=First birth of an animal from an extinct subspecies (Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica) by cloning |journal=Theriogenology |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=1026–1034 |doi=10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.11.005|pmid=19167744 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This attempt failed: of the 285 embryos reconstructed, 54 were transferred to 12 [[Spanish ibex]]es and ibex–domestic [[goat]] hybrids, but only two survived the initial two months of gestation before they, too, died.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/cloned-goat-dies-after-attempt-to-bring-species-back-from-extinction-1522974.html |title= Cloned goat dies after attempt to bring species back from extinction |author= Steve Connor |date= 2009-02-02 |work= [[The Independent]] |access-date= 2010-05-17 |location= London |archive-date= 13 October 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171013205333/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/cloned-goat-dies-after-attempt-to-bring-species-back-from-extinction-1522974.html |url-status= live }}</ref> In 2009, a second attempt was made to clone the Pyrenean ibex: one clone was born alive, but died seven minutes later, due to physical defects in the lungs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Extinct ibex is resurrected by cloning|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/4409958/Extinct-ibex-is-resurrected-by-cloning.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/4409958/Extinct-ibex-is-resurrected-by-cloning.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=Telegraph|date=31 Jan 2009|location=London|first1=Richard|last1=Gray|first2=Roger|last2=Dobson}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Biology|Ecology}}
{{cmn|colwidth=30em|
* [[Bioevent]]
* [[Empty forest]]
* [[Endling]]
* [[Extinction: The Facts|''Extinction: The Facts'' (2020 documentary)]]
* [[Genocide]]
* [[Habitat fragmentation]]
* [[Lists of extinct animals]]
* [[List of extinct birds]]
* [[Living Planet Index]]
* [[Our Final Hour]]
* [[Refugium (population biology)]]
* [[Sepilok Orang Utan Rehabilitation Centre]]
* ''[[The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History]]'' (2014 book)
* [[Voluntary Human Extinction Movement]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Dirzo|first1=Rodolfo|author-link1=Rodolfo Dirzo|last2=Ceballos|first2=Gerardo|last3=Ehrlich|first3=Paul R.|author-link3=Paul R. Ehrlich|date=2022 |title=Circling the drain: the extinction crisis and the future of humanity|url= |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]]|volume=377|issue=1857 |pages= |doi=10.1098/rstb.2021.0378|pmid=35757873 |pmc=9237743}}
* {{cite web |title=Bringing back the woolly mammoth and other extinct creatures may be impossible |website=Science |author=Elizabeth Pennisi |author-link=Elizabeth Pennisi |date=9 Mar 2022 |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/bringing-back-woolly-mammoth-and-other-extinct-creatures-may-be-impossible}}
*{{cite news |last=Pelley |first=Scott |date=1 January 2023 |title=Scientists say planet in midst of sixth mass extinction, Earth's wildlife running out of places to live|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/earth-mass-extinction-60-minutes-2023-01-01/|work=[[CBS News]] |location= |access-date=}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|extinction}}
{{Commons category|Extinction}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{NIE Poster|Extinction of Species}}
* [http://creo.amnh.org Committee on recently extinct organisms]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/series/the-age-of-extinction The age of extinction] series in ''[[The Guardian]]''

{{Extinction|state=expanded}}
{{Doomsday}}
{{Zoos}}
{{Deforestation and desertification}}
{{Death}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Extinction| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List]]"
Endangered species (IUCN status),"{{Short description|Species which have been categorized as very likely to become extinct in the near future}}
{{Conservation status}}
[[File:Linces1.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Iberian lynx]] (''Lynx pardinus'') is an endangered species.]]
[[File:Jingu Gaien Ginkgo Street Tokyo.jpg|thumb|The Ginkgo tree (''[[Ginkgo biloba]]'') is listed as 'endangered' by the IUCN.]]

'''Endangered species''', as classified by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), are [[species]] which have been categorized as very likely to become [[extinct]] in their known native ranges in the near future. On the IUCN [[IUCN Red List|Red List]], endangered is the second-most severe [[conservation status]] for wild populations in the IUCN's schema after [[critically endangered]]. In 2012, the IUCN Red List featured 3,079 [[animal]] and 2,655 [[plant]] species as endangered worldwide.<ref name=""iucn 2012.2"">{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2012_2_RL_Stats_Table_2.pdf |title=IUCN Red List version 2012.2: Table 2: Changes in numbers of species in the threatened categories (CR, EN, VU) from 1996 to 2012 (IUCN Red List version 2012.2) for the major taxonomic groups on the Red List |access-date=2012-12-31 |publisher=[[IUCN]] |year=2012 }}</ref> The figures for 1998 were 1,102 and 1,197 respectively. {{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

== IUCN Red List ==
{{more footnotes needed|section|date=May 2020}}

[[File:Panthera tigris altaica 13 - Buffalo Zoo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Siberian tiger]] is an endangered [[Tiger#Subspecies|tiger subspecies]]. Three tiger subspecies are extinct (see [[List of carnivorans by population]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sundarbantigerproject.info/viewpage.php?page_id=2 |title=The Tiger |publisher=Sundarbans Tiger Project |access-date=2 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120917192637/http://www.sundarbantigerproject.info/viewpage.php?page_id=2 |archive-date=17 September 2012 }}</ref>]]

The [[IUCN Red List]] is a list of species which have been assessed according to a 
system of assigning a global conservation status. According to the latest system used by the IUCN, a species can be ""Data Deficient""&nbsp;(DD) species&nbsp;– species for which more data and assessment is required before their situation may be determined&nbsp;– as well species comprehensively assessed by the IUCN's species assessment process. A species can be ""[[Near-threatened species|Near Threatened]]""&nbsp;(NT) and ""[[Least concern|Least Concern]]""&nbsp;(LC), these are species which are considered to have relatively robust and healthy populations, according to the assessment authors. ""Endangered""&nbsp;(EN) species lie between ""[[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]]""&nbsp;(VU) and ""[[Critically Endangered species|Critically Endangered]]""&nbsp;(CR) species. A species must adhere to certain criteria  in order to be placed in any of the afore-mentioned conservation status categories, according to the assessment.

""Threatened"" is a category including all those species determined to be Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered.

Although in general conversation the terms ""endangered species"" and ""threatened species"" may mean other things, for the purposes of the current IUCN system, the List uses the terms ""endangered"" and ""threatened"" to denote species to which certain criteria apply. Note older or other, such as national, status systems may use other criteria.

Some examples of species classified as endangered by the IUCN are listed below:
<!-- This list should represent a diverse selection of endangered species. Please don't let it grow out of bounds. The approximate criterion used for selection is diversity of geography, habitat, taxonomy and name recognition. --> 
{{hlist |[[African penguin]] |[[Amazon river dolphin]] |[[Asian elephant]] |[[Blue whale]] |[[Dawn redwood]] |[[Egyptian vulture]]| [[Giant oceanic manta ray]] |[[Green sea turtle]] |[[Hector's dolphin]] |[[Iberian lynx]] |[[Komodo dragon]] |[[Matschie's tree-kangaroo]] |[[Mountain gorilla]] |[[Pygmy hippopotamus]] |[[Saharan cypress]] |[[Takahē]] |[[Timneh parrot]] |[[Wild horse]] |[[Whooping crane]]|[[Zebra shark]]}}

As more information becomes available, or as the conservation status criteria has changed, numerous species have been re-assessed as not endangered, nonetheless the total number of species considered endangered has increased as more new species are assessed for the first time each year.

== Criteria for endangered status ==
According to the 3.1 version of the IUCN conservation status system from 2001, a species is listed as endangered when it meets any of the following criteria from A to E.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/static/categories_criteria_3_1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202630/https://www.iucnredlist.org/static/categories_criteria_3_1|url-status=dead|archive-date=2016-03-03|title=Categories and Criteria (version 3.1)|website=www.iucnredlist.org}}</ref>

'''A) Reduction in population size based on any of the following:'''

1. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of '''≥ 70% over the last 10 years or three generations''', whichever is the longer, where the '''causes of the reduction are reversible AND understood AND ceased''', based on (and specifying) any of the following:
* a. direct observation
* b. an index of abundance appropriate for the taxon
* c. a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or quality of habitat
* d. actual or potential levels of exploitation
* e. the effects of [[Introduced species|introduced taxa]], [[hybrid (biology)|hybridisation]], pathogens, [[pollutants]], competitors or [[parasites]].
2. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of '''≥ 50% occurred over the last 10 years or three generations'''. Whichever is the longer, where the reduction or its '''causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible''', based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.
3. A population size reduction of ≥ 50%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years), based on (and specifying) any of (b) to (e) under A1.
4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population size reduction of ≥ 50% over any 10 year or three-generation period, whichever is longer (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future), where the time period must include both the past and the future, and where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.

'''B) Geographic range''' in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) OR B2 (area of occupancy) OR both:

1. Extent of occurrence estimated to be '''less than 5,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>''', and estimates indicating at least two of a-c:
* a. '''Severely fragmented''' or known to exist at no more than five locations.
* b. '''Continuing decline''', inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following:
** i. extent of occurrence
** ii. area of occupancy
** iii. area, extent or quality of habitat
** iv. number of locations or subpopulations
** v. number of mature individuals
* c. '''Extreme fluctuations''' in any of the following:
** i. extent of occurrence
** ii. area of occupancy
** iii. number of locations or subpopulations
** iv. number of mature individuals
2. Area of occupancy estimated to be '''less than 500&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>''', and estimates indicating at least two of a-c:
* a. '''Severely fragmented''' or known to exist at no more than five locations.
* b. '''Continuing decline''', inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following:
** i. extent of occurrence
** ii. area of occupancy
** iii. area, extent or quality of habitat
** iv. number of locations or subpopulations
** v. number of mature individuals
* c. '''Extreme fluctuations''' in any of the following:
** i. extent of occurrence
** ii. area of occupancy
** iii. number of locations or subpopulations
** iv. number of mature individuals

'''C) Population estimated to number fewer than 2,500 mature individuals and''' either:

1. An estimated continuing '''decline of at least 20% within five years or two generations''', whichever is longer, (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future) OR
2. A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals AND at least one of the following (a-b):
* a. Population structure in the form of one of the following:
** i. no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 250 mature individuals, OR
** ii. at least 95% of older individuals in one subpopulation
* b. Extreme fluctuations in the number of older individuals

'''D) Population size estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals.'''

'''E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20% within 20 years or five generations,''' whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years).

==See also==
* [[Lists of IUCN Red List endangered species]]
* [[List of endangered amphibians]]
* [[List of endangered arthropods]]
* [[List of endangered birds]]
* [[List of endangered fishes]]
* [[List of endangered insects]]
* [[List of endangered invertebrates]]
* [[List of endangered mammals]]
* [[List of endangered molluscs]]
* [[List of endangered reptiles]]
* [[List of Chromista by conservation status]]
* [[List of fungi by conservation status]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/search/link/4cb7f841-30a3deef List of species with the category Endangered] as identified by the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]

{{threatened species|state=expanded}}

{{Portal bar|Ecology|Environment|Biology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Endangered species| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List endangered species]]"
Adawro exclosure,"{{Short description|Exclosure for woodland restoration in Ethiopia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date= February 2020}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Adawro exclosure
| iucn_category = 
| photo = Eucalypt forest Adawro.jpg
| photo_caption = Adawro exclosure, here with eucalypts
| location = [[Lim'at]] municipality, in [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] district, [[Ethiopia]]
| nearest_city = [[Hagere Selam (Degua Tembien)|Hagere Selam]]
| map = Ethiopia | relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|13.622|N|39.154|E|display=inline, title}}
| area_ha = 
| established = 1999
| visitation_num = 
| visitation_year = 
| website = 
}}
'''Adawro''' is an [[exclosure]] located in the [[Degua Tembien|Dogu'a Tembien]] ''woreda'' of the [[Tigray Region]] in [[Ethiopia]]. The area has been protected by the local community since 1994.

==Environmental characteristics==
* Average slope gradient: 70%
* Aspect: the exclosure is oriented towards the northeast
* Minimum altitude: 2635 metres
* Maximum altitude: 2705 metres
* Lithology: Basalt<ref name= ""fao56"">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Two rapid appraisals of FAO-56 crop coefficients for semiarid natural vegetationof the northern Ethiopian highlands |journal= Journal of Arid Environments|date=2011 |volume=75|issue= 4|pages=353–359 |doi=  10.1016/j.jaridenv.2010.12.002|bibcode= 2011JArEn..75..353D}}</ref>
<ref name= ""runoff"">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2006 |volume=331 |issue=1–2 |pages=219–241 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|bibcode= 2006JHyd..331..219D|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl= 1854/LU-378900 |hdl-access= free }}</ref>

==Management==
As a general rule, cattle ranging and wood harvesting are not allowed. The grasses are harvested once yearly and taken to the homesteads of the village to feed livestock. Physical soil and water conservation has been implemented to enhance infiltration, and vegetation growth.

==Benefits for the community==
Setting aside such areas fits with the long-term vision of the communities were ''hiza’iti'' lands are set aside for use by the future generations. It has also direct benefits for the community:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues | title= Exclosures as Primary Option for Reforestation in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>
* improved infiltration 
* improved [[ground water]] availability
* [[honey]] production
* climate ameliorator (temperature, moisture)
* [[carbon sequestration]], dominantly sequestered in the soil, and additionally in the woody vegetation)<ref name=""jona"">{{cite book |last1=De Deyn |first1=Jonathan |title= Benefits of reforestation on Carbon storage and water infiltration in the context of climate mitigation in North Ethiopia. Master thesis, Ghent University| date=2019}}</ref>

==Water conservation==
[[File:Rangeland Adawro.jpg|thumb|In contrast: the adjacent rangeland]]
In the Adawro exclosure, more than 800 precise measurements were done in 2003 and 2004, using five runoff plots, where the volume of runoff was measured daily. The rock type ([[basalt]]), slope gradient and slope aspect were the same, the only difference was the land management and vegetation density. Whereas in degraded rangeland, 11.4% of the rainfall flows directly away to the river (runoff coefficient), this happens only for 2.5% of the rain in a recent exclosure and 3.2% in a eucalyptus forest.<ref name= ""runoff""/>
In 2003, the soils of the then young exclosure could hold 280 litres of water per m³, similar to the adjacent rangeland.<ref name= ""fao56""/>

==Improved ecosystem==
With vegetation growth, biodiversity in this exclosure has strongly improved: there is more varied vegetation and [[Degua Tembien#Wildlife|wildlife]].

===Trees===
The main tree species found in the exclosure are:<ref name= ""pedogenesis"">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Sediment deposition and pedogenesis in exclosures in theTigray highlands, Ethiopia |journal= Geoderma |date=2006 |volume=132|issue= 3–4|pages=291–314 |doi=  10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.04.027|bibcode= 2006Geode.132..291D}}</ref><ref name= ""fao56""/>
* Flat top acacia (''Acacia abyssinica'', renamed as ''[[Vachellia abyssinica]]'')
* Golden wattle (''[[Acacia saligna]]'')
* ''[[Rumex#Species|Rumex nervosus]]'', a woody sorrel species
* ''[[List of Aloe species#M|Aloe macrocarpa]]''

===Soils===
Main soil type in the exclosure are [[Phaeozem]]s,  formed  in sediment that has been trapped by the vegetation of the exclosure, and as a remnant of the original situation before deforestation. Remarkably, also in the well-protected eucalypt plantation there is some undergrowth and soil development.<ref name= ""pedogenesis""/>

==References==
{{reflist|32em}}

==External links==
* [https://www.un.org/esa/forests Link For Forestry Projects]

[[Category:Exclosures of Tigray Region]]
[[Category:1999 establishments in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Emissions reduction]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]]"
Khunale exclosure,"{{Short description|Exclosure for woodland restoration in Ethiopia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date= February 2020}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Khunale exclosure
| iucn_category = 
| photo = 
| photo_caption = 
| location = [[Selam (Dogu'a Tembien)|Selam]] municipality, in [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] district, [[Ethiopia]]
| nearest_city = [[Hagere Selam (Degua Tembien)|Hagere Selam]]
| map = Ethiopia | relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|13.664|N|39.185|E|display=inline, title}}
| area_ha = 
| established = 1990
| visitation_num = 
| visitation_year = 
| website = 
}}
'''Khunale''' is an [[exclosure]] located in the [[Degua Tembien|Dogu'a Tembien]] ''woreda'' of the [[Tigray Region]] in [[Ethiopia]]. The area has been protected since 1990 by the local community.<ref name= ""runoff"">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2006 |volume=331 |issue=1–2 |pages=219–241 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|bibcode= 2006JHyd..331..219D|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl= 1854/LU-378900 |hdl-access= free }}</ref>

==Environmental characteristics<ref name= ""runoff""/>==
* Aspect: the exclosure is oriented towards the northwest
* Minimum altitude: 2420 metres
* Maximum altitude: 2480 metres
* Lithology: mixed sandstone and limestone lithology, partly covered by transported vertic clay material<ref name= ""fao56"">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Two rapid appraisals of FAO-56 crop coefficients for semiarid natural vegetationof the northern Ethiopian highlands |journal= Journal of Arid Environments|date=2011 |volume=75|issue= 4|pages=353–359 |doi=  10.1016/j.jaridenv.2010.12.002|bibcode= 2011JArEn..75..353D}}</ref>

==Management==
As a general rule, cattle ranging and wood harvesting are not allowed. The grasses are harvested once yearly and taken to the homesteads of the village to feed livestock. Physical soil and water conservation has been implemented to enhance infiltration, and vegetation growth.

==Benefits for the community==
Setting aside such areas fits with the long-term vision of the communities were ''hiza’iti'' lands are set aside for use by the future generations. It has also direct benefits for the community:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues | title= Exclosures as Primary Option for Reforestation in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>
* improved infiltration 
* improved [[ground water]] availability
* [[honey]] production
* climate ameliorator (temperature, moisture)
* [[carbon sequestration]], dominantly sequestered in the soil, and additionally in the woody vegetation)<ref name=""jona"">{{cite book |last1=De Deyn |first1=Jonathan |title= Benefits of reforestation on Carbon storage and water infiltration in the context of climate mitigation in North Ethiopia. Master thesis, Ghent University| date=2019}}</ref>

==Water conservation==
In the Khunale exclosure, more than 600 precise measurements were done in 2003 and 2004, using seven runoff plots, where the volume of runoff was measured daily. The rock type ([[Amba Aradam Formation|Amba Aradam Sandstone]] and [[Antalo Limestone]]), slope gradient and slope aspect were the same, the only difference was the land management and vegetation density. Whereas in degraded rangeland, 11.8% of the rainfall flows directly away to the river (runoff coefficient), this happens only for 4.7% of the rain in a recent exclosure and 0.3% in an old exclosure.<ref name= ""runoff""/>

==Improved ecosystem==
With vegetation growth, biodiversity in this exclosure has strongly improved: there is more varied vegetation and [[Degua Tembien#Wildlife|wildlife]].

In the oldest parts of this exclosure, [[humus]] profiles are best developed. The old exclosures are also characterised by a variety of humus forms, caused by the variation in shrub and tree density and [[species composition]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Humus Form Development during Forest Restoration in Exclosures of the Tigray Highlands, Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Restoration Ecology |date=2009 |volume=17|issue=2 |pages=280–289 |doi=  10.1111/j.1526-100X.2007.00346.x|s2cid= 84941592}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|32em}}

==External links==
* [https://www.un.org/esa/forests Link For Forestry Projects]

[[Category:1990 establishments in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Emissions reduction]]
[[Category:Exclosures of Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Birdwatching| ]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]]"
Harehuwa exclosure,"{{Short description|Exclosure for woodland restoration in Ethiopia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date= February 2020}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Harehuwa exclosure
| iucn_category = 
| photo = 
| photo_caption = 
| location = [[Mahbere Sillasie]] municipality, in [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] district, [[Ethiopia]]
| nearest_city = [[Hagere Selam (Degua Tembien)|Hagere Selam]]
| map = Ethiopia | relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|13.679|N|39.158|E|display=inline, title}}
| established = 1999
| visitation_num = 
| visitation_year = 
| website = 
}}
'''Harehuwa''' is an [[exclosure]] located in the [[Degua Tembien|Dogu'a Tembien]] ''woreda'' of the [[Tigray Region]] in [[Ethiopia]]. The area has been protected since 1999 by the local community.

==Environmental characteristics==

Source:<ref name= ""pedogenesis"">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Sediment deposition and pedogenesis in exclosures in theTigray highlands, Ethiopia |journal= Geoderma |date=2006 |volume=132|issue= 3–4|pages=291–314 |doi=  10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.04.027|bibcode= 2006Geode.132..291D}}</ref>

* Average slope gradient: 55%
* Aspect: the exclosure is oriented towards the west
* Minimum altitude: 2180 metres
* Maximum altitude: 2300 metres
* Lithology: [[Adigrat Sandstone]]

==Management==
As a general rule, cattle ranging and wood harvesting are not allowed. The grasses are harvested once yearly and taken to the homesteads of the village to feed livestock. Physical soil and water conservation has been implemented to enhance infiltration, and vegetation growth.

==Benefits for the community==
Setting aside such areas fits with the long-term vision of the communities, where ''hiza’iti'' lands are set aside for use by the future generations. It also has direct benefits for the community:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues | title= Exclosures as Primary Option for Reforestation in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>
* improved infiltration 
* improved [[ground water]] availability
* [[honey]] production
* climate ameliorator (temperature, moisture)
* [[carbon sequestration]], dominantly sequestered in the soil, and additionally in the woody vegetation<ref name=""jona"">{{cite book |last1=De Deyn |first1=Jonathan |title= Benefits of reforestation on Carbon storage and water infiltration in the context of climate mitigation in North Ethiopia. Master thesis, Ghent University| date=2019}}</ref>

==Improved ecosystem==
With vegetation growth, biodiversity in this exclosure has strongly improved: there is more varied vegetation and [[Degua Tembien#Wildlife|wildlife]].

===Trees===
The main tree species found in the exclosure are:<ref name= ""pedogenesis""/>
* Sand olive ([[Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustifolia|''Dodonaea viscosa'' subsp. ''angustifolia'']])
* Gwarri (''[[Euclea racemosa|Euclea schimperi]]'') 
* ''[[Lantana]] viburnoides''<ref>Lantana viburnoides (Forssk.) Vahl https://eol.org/pages/5385537</ref>
* Natal rhus (''[[Rhus]] natalensis'')<ref>Rhus natalensis Bernh. ex C. Krauss https://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=136770
</ref>

===Soils===
The main soil type in the exclosure are Phaeozems,  essentially a remnant of the time when the area was covered with natural forest.<ref name= ""pedogenesis""/>

==References==
{{reflist|32em}}

==External links==
* [https://www.un.org/esa/forests Link For Forestry Projects]

[[Category:1999 establishments in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Carbon finance]]
[[Category:Exclosures of Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]]"
Prairie strips,"'''Prairie strips''' are strips of native perennial vegetation that are strategically integrated into row crop fields. This technique is used in [[conservation farming]] to improve [[biodiversity]], and protect [[soil]] and water.<ref>{{cite news |title=How Absentee Landowners Keep Farmers From Protecting Water and Soil |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/07/14/890449857/how-absentee-landlords-keep-farmers-from-protecting-water-and-soil |accessdate=14 July 2020 |work=NPR |date=14 July 2020}}</ref> 

Native prairie vegetation improves [[soil stability]], reduces [[soil erosion]] and nutrient [[Surface runoff|runoff]], and concentrates more organic [[carbon]] in soil than corn and soybean [[crops]]. Research has found that strategically setting aside land in [[corn]] and [[soybean]] fields benefits [[biodiversity]], water and soil in a greater extent than other types of perennial vegetation. Ten percent of a corn field set aside for native vegetation can reduce [[sediment]] movement by 95%. [[Phosphorus]] and [[nitrogen]] lost through run off are reduced by 90% and 85% respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Prairie Strips |url=https://www.nrem.iastate.edu/research/STRIPS/content/what-are-prairie-strips#:~:text=Prairie%20strips%20are%20a%20conservation,while%20providing%20habitat%20for%20wildlife.&text=STRIPS%20research%20also%20shows%20that,beneficial%20agricultural%20conservation%20practices%20available. |publisher=Iowa State University of Science and Technology |accessdate=14 July 2020}}</ref> Farmers can take odd areas or difficult-to-farm areas out of production as they integrate native plant species into farm fields as contour buffers and edge-of-field filters.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Beacom|first=Nathan|date=2019-10-15|title=Planting Native Prairie Could Be a Secret Weapon for Farmers|url=https://civileats.com/2019/10/15/planting-native-prairie-could-be-a-secret-weapon-for-farmers/|access-date=2021-10-25|work=Civil Eats|language=en}}</ref>

In [[Iowa]], most of the rich and fertile soils have been dedicated to corn and soybean crops. Only around .01 percent of the original [[tallgrass prairie|tallgrass]] prairie remains. Prairie strips are among the few remaining areas for the native vegetation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oldfield |first1=Sara F. |title=Seeds of Restoration Success: Wild Lands and Plant Diversity in the U.S. |date=25 September 2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319969749 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExCyDwAAQBAJ&q=prairie%20strips}}</ref>

[[Entomologists]] at [[Iowa State University]] observed beneficial [[aphid]]-eating insects in soybean fields and the prairie strips. They found that prairie strips supported twice the number of aphid-eating insects than soybean fields.<ref>{{cite book |title=Farming with Native Beneficial Insects: Ecological Pest Control Solutions |date=25 September 2019 |publisher=Storey Publishing |isbn=9783319969749 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExCyDwAAQBAJ&q=prairie%20strips}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Agriculture in the United States]]"
Compassionate conservation,"{{Short description|Discipline combining conservation and animal welfare}}
[[File:Eastern Grey Squirrel.jpg|thumb|The [[Eastern gray squirrel]] is considered an [[invasive species]] in some countries. Advocates for compassionate conservation argue that killing individual animals like these is unnecessary.]]

'''Compassionate conservation''' is a discipline combining the fields of [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]] and [[animal welfare]]. Historically, these two fields have been considered separate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ufaw/aw/2010/00000019/00000002/art00001|title=Toward a synthesis of conservation and animal welfare science|last=Fraser|first=D.|date=May 2010|website=Ingenta Connect|language=en|access-date=2020-04-20}}</ref> and sometimes contradictory to each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gray|first=Jenny|date=2018-08-31|title=Challenges of Compassionate Conservation|journal=Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science|volume=21|issue=sup1|pages=34–42|doi=10.1080/10888705.2018.1513840|issn=1088-8705|pmid=30325231|doi-access=free}}</ref> The foundational principles of compassionate conservation are: ""Do No Harm; Individuals Matter; Inclusivity; Peaceful Coexistence"".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wallach|first1=Arian D.|last2=Bekoff|first2=Marc|last3=Batavia|first3=Chelsea|last4=Nelson|first4=Michael Paul|last5=Ramp|first5=Daniel|date=2018|title=Summoning compassion to address the challenges of conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|language=en|volume=32|issue=6|pages=1255–1265|doi=10.1111/cobi.13126|pmid=29700860|s2cid=23206524|issn=1523-1739|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Compassionate conservationists argue that the conservation movement uses the preservation of species, populations and ecosystems as a measure of success, without explicit concern given to the welfare and [[Intrinsic value (animal ethics)|intrinsic value]] of individual animals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ramp|first1=Daniel|last2=Bekoff|first2=Marc|date=2015-03-01|title=Compassion as a Practical and Evolved Ethic for Conservation|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/65/3/323/236866|journal=BioScience|language=en|volume=65|issue=3|pages=323–327|doi=10.1093/biosci/biu223|issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/34122|hdl-access=free}}</ref> They argue instead, that compassion for all [[sentient beings]] should be what guides conservation actions<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wallach|first1=Arian D.|last2=Batavia|first2=Chelsea|last3=Bekoff|first3=Marc|last4=Alexander|first4=Shelley|last5=Baker|first5=Liv|last6=Ben‐Ami|first6=Dror|last7=Boronyak|first7=Louise|last8=Cardilini|first8=Adam P. A.|last9=Carmel|first9=Yohay|last10=Celermajer|first10=Danielle|last11=Coghlan|first11=Simon|title=Recognizing animal personhood in compassionate conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|year=2020|volume=34|issue=5|pages=1097–1106|language=en|doi=10.1111/cobi.13494|pmid=32144823|pmc=7540678|issn=1523-1739|doi-access=free}}</ref> and claim that the [[killing of animals]] in the name of conservation goals is unnecessary, as these same objectives can be achieved without killing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/do-conservation-strategies-need-to-be-more-compassionate|title=Do Conservation Strategies Need to Be More Compassionate?|last=Keim|first=Brandon|date=2014-06-04|website=Yale E360|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-20}}</ref>

Compassionate conservation has been a subject of criticism by some conservationists, who consider the discipline to be harmful to the goals of conservation.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":1"" />

== History ==
The international wildlife charity [[Born Free Foundation]], which advocates for the well-being of individual wild animals, used the phrase ""compassionate conservation"" as the name for a Oxford-based symposium it hosted in 2010.<ref name="":0"" /> The Centre for Compassionate Conservation was created, in 2013, at the [[University of Technology Sydney|University of Technology, Sydney]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gray|first=Jenny|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fXwqDwAAQBAJ|title=Zoo Ethics: The Challenges of Compassionate Conservation|publisher=Csiro Publishing|year=2017|isbn=978-1-4863-0699-2|pages=180|language=en}}</ref> ''Ignoring Nature No More: The Case for Compassionate Conservation'', a collection of essays edited by compassionate conservation advocate [[Marc Bekoff]], was published in the same year.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ignoring Nature No More: Compassionate Conservation at Work|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animal-emotions/201304/ignoring-nature-no-more-compassionate-conservation-work|last=Bekoff|first=Marc|date=2013-04-16|website=Psychology Today|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-11}}</ref>

In the years since, further conferences have been held on the topic and advocates have published multiple articles in conservation journals.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite news|last=Marris|first=Emma|date=2018-09-26|title=When Conservationists Kill Lots (and Lots) of Animals|work=The Atlantic|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/09/is-wildlife-conservation-too-cruel/569719/|access-date=2020-04-27|issn=1072-7825}}</ref>

== Criticism ==
Compassionate conservation has been called ""seriously flawed"" by certain conservationists, who argue that its implementation is impractical and could lead to negative outcomes for wildlife, ecosystems, humans<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last1=Oommen|first1=Meera Anna|last2=Cooney|first2=Rosie|last3=Ramesh|first3=Madhuri|last4=Archer|first4=Michael|last5=Brockington|first5=Daniel|last6=Buscher|first6=Bram|last7=Fletcher|first7=Robert|last8=Natusch|first8=Daniel J. D.|last9=Vanak|first9=Abi T.|last10=Webb|first10=Grahame|last11=Shanker|first11=Kartik|date=2019|title=The fatal flaws of compassionate conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=33|issue=4|pages=784–787|doi=10.1111/cobi.13329|pmid=30977162|s2cid=109939975 |issn=1523-1739}}</ref> and native biodiversity.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=Griffin|first1=Andrea S.|last2=Callen|first2=Alex|last3=Klop-Toker|first3=Kaya|last4=Scanlon|first4=Robert J.|last5=Hayward|first5=Matt W.|date=2020|title=Compassionate Conservation Clashes With Conservation Biology: Should Empathy, Compassion, and Deontological Moral Principles Drive Conservation Practice?|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|language=en|volume=11|page=1139|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01139|pmid=32536896|pmc=7269110|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}</ref> Others argue that the ""do no harm"" approach goes ""too far"" and that put into practice, it would not necessarily lead to positive outcomes for the welfare of individual animals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=Paul J.|last2=Adams|first2=Vanessa M.|last3=Armstrong|first3=Doug P.|last4=Baker|first4=Sandra E.|last5=Biggs|first5=Duan|last6=Boitani|first6=Luigi|last7=Cotterill|first7=Alayne|last8=Dale|first8=Emma|last9=O’Donnell|first9=Holly|last10=Douglas|first10=David J. T.|last11=Droge|first11=Egil|date=December 2019|title=Consequences Matter: Compassion in Conservation Means Caring for Individuals, Populations and Species|journal=Animals|language=en|volume=9|issue=12|pages=1115|doi=10.3390/ani9121115|pmid=31835670|pmc=6941047|doi-access=free }}</ref> Andrea S. Griffin et al. argue that compassionate conservation's focus on empathy ""is subject to significant biases and that inflexible adherence to moral rules can result in a 'do nothing' approach"".<ref name="":1"" />

== See also ==
* [[Conservation welfare]]
* [[Opposition to hunting]]
* [[Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics]]
* [[Wild animal suffering]]
* [[Wildlife management]]

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200121050938/http://compassionateconservation.net/ Compassionate Conservation] (archived 21 January 2020)
* [https://www.uts.edu.au/research/centre-compassionate-conservation Centre for Compassionate Conservation]

{{Animal welfare}}
{{Conservation of species}}

[[Category:Animal welfare]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]"
Invasive species,"{{short description|Non-native organism causing damage to an established environment}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2020}}
[[File:Beaver dam in Tierra del Fuego.jpg|thumb|[[Beaver eradication in Tierra del Fuego|North American beaver dam in Tierra del Fuego]]]]
[[File:Kudzu on trees in Atlanta, Georgia.jpg|thumb|[[Kudzu]], [[Atlanta]]]]
[[File:Kanadische Goldrute, Solidago canadensis - Invasives Unkraut.jpg|right|thumb|[[Solidago canadensis|Canada goldenrod]] as a roadside weed in Poland]]
[[File:Vinca spreading along a border.jpg|thumb|''[[Vinca]]'' in a garden<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/vinca_major/ |title=Global Compendium of Weeds: ''Vinca major'' |publisher=[[Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project]] (HEAR) |access-date=February 13, 2020 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030630/http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/vinca_major/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

An '''invasive species''' is an [[introduced species]] to an environment that becomes [[overpopulated]] and harms its new environment.{{r|davis}} Invasive species adversely affect [[habitat]]s and [[bioregion]]s, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native species that become harmful to their native environment after human alterations to its [[food web]]. Since the 20th century, invasive species have become a serious economic, social, and environmental threat worldwide.

Invasion of long-established ecosystems by organisms is a natural phenomenon, but [[introduced species|human-facilitated introductions]] have greatly increased the rate, scale, and geographic range of invasion. For millennia, humans have served as both accidental and deliberate dispersal agents, beginning with their [[early human migrations|earliest migrations]], accelerating in the [[Age of Discovery]], and accelerating again with [[international trade]]. Invasive plant species include the [[kudzu]] vine, [[Reynoutria japonica|Japanese knotweed]], and [[Centaurea solstitialis|yellow starthistle]]. Invasive animals include [[European rabbit]]s, [[domestic cat]]s, and [[carp]].

== Terminology ==

{{See also |Glossary of invasion biology terms}}

Invasive species are the subset of established non-native alien or naturalized species that are a threat to native species and biodiversity.<ref name=""SandlundSchei2001"">{{cite book |author1=Odd Terje Sandlund |author2=Peter Johan Schei |author3=Åslaug Viken |title=Invasive Species and Biodiversity Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QHgMqnqaW_YC&pg=PA2 |date=30 June 2001 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-7923-6876-2 |pages=2– |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=December 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218042441/https://books.google.com/books?id=QHgMqnqaW_YC&pg=PA2 |url-status=live}}</ref> The term ""invasive"" is poorly defined and often very subjective.<ref name=neutral/> Invasive species may be plants, animals, fungi, and microbes; some include native species that have invaded human habitats such as farms and landscapes.<ref name=""Inderjit2006"">{{cite book |author=S. Inderjit |title=Invasive Plants: Ecological and Agricultural Aspects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-aMIwmis-wC&pg=PA252 |date=16 January 2006 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-7380-1 |pages=252– |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=December 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218042441/https://books.google.com/books?id=c-aMIwmis-wC&pg=PA252 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some broaden the term to include indigenous or ""native"" species that have colonized natural areas.<ref name=neutral/> The definition of ""native"" can be controversial. For example, the ancestors of ''[[wild horse|Equus ferus]]'' (modern horses) [[Evolution of the horse|evolved]] in [[North America]] and radiated to [[Eurasia]] before becoming extinct in North America. Upon being introduced to North America in 1493 by Spanish conquistadors, it is debatable whether the feral horses were native or exotic to the continent of their evolutionary ancestors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ansp.org/museum/leidy/paleo/equus.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305215318/http://www.ansp.org/museum/leidy/paleo/equus.php |archive-date=March 5, 2012 |title=Ancient American Horses |last=Leidy |first=Joseph |publisher=[[Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University |Academy of Natural Sciences]], [[Drexel University]] |date=March 5, 2012 |access-date=January 10, 2019}}</ref>

While invasive species can be studied within many subfields of biology, most research on invasive organisms has been in [[ecology]] and [[biogeography]]. Much of the work has been influenced by [[Charles Sutherland Elton|Charles Elton's]] 1958 book ''The Ecology of Invasion by Animals and Plants'' which created a generalized picture of biological invasions.<ref name=IE>{{cite book |last=Lockwood |first=Julie L. |title=Invasion Ecology |year=2007 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |page=7 |url=http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/invasion_ecology1_208.pdf |author2=Hoopes, Martha F. |author3=Marchetti, Michael P. |access-date=January 21, 2014 |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924074044/http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/invasion_ecology1_208.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Lowry>{{cite journal |pmid=23404636 |year=2012 |last1=Lowry |first1=E |last2=Rollinson |first2=EJ |last3=Laybourn |first3=AJ |last4=Scott |first4=TE |last5=Aiello-Lammens |first5=ME |last6=Gray |first6=SM |last7=Mickley |first7=J |last8=Gurevitch |first8=J |author-link8=Jessica Gurevitch |title=Biological invasions: A field synopsis, systematic review, and database of the literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=182–96 |doi=10.1002/ece3.431 |pmc=3568853 |journal=[[Ecology and Evolution]]}}</ref> Studies remained sparse until the 1990s.<ref name=Lowry/> This research, largely field observational studies, has disproportionately been concerned with [[terrestrial plant]]s.<ref name=Lowry/> The rapid growth of the field has driven a need to standardize the language used to describe invasive species and events. Despite this, little standard terminology exists; the field itself lacks any official designation but is commonly referred to as ""invasion ecology"" or more generally ""invasion biology"".<ref name=IE/><ref name=Lowry/> This lack of standard terminology has arisen due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field which borrows terms from disciplines such as [[agriculture]], [[zoology]], and [[pathology]], as well as due to studies being performed in isolation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Invasive Species |publisher=National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/invasive-species |access-date=2022-11-28}}</ref><ref name=IE/>

{|class=""wikitable"" style=""float:right;""
|+Colautti and MacIsaac nomenclature<ref name=neutral/>
|-
! Stage
! Characteristic
|-
|0
|Propagules residing in a donor region
|-
|I
|Traveling
|-
|II
|Introduced
|-
|III
|Localized and numerically rare
|-
|IVa
|Widespread but rare
|-
|IVb
|Localized but dominant
|-
|V
|Widespread and dominant
|}

In an attempt to avoid the ambiguous, subjective, and pejorative vocabulary that so often accompanies discussion of invasive species even in scientific papers, Colautti and MacIsaac proposed a new nomenclature system based on [[biogeography]] rather than on [[taxa]].<ref name=neutral>{{cite journal |last1=Colautti |first1=Robert I. |last2=MacIsaac |first2=Hugh J. |title=A neutral terminology to define 'invasive' species: Defining invasive species |journal=Diversity and Distributions |date=24 February 2004 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=135–141 |doi=10.1111/j.1366-9516.2004.00061.x |s2cid=18971654 |doi-access=free }}</ref> By discarding taxonomy, [[human health]], and economic factors, this model focused only on ecological factors. The model evaluated individual populations rather than entire species. It classified each population based on its success in that environment. This model applied equally to indigenous and to introduced species, and did not automatically categorize successful introductions as harmful.<ref name=neutral/>

The USDA's National Invasive Species Information Center defines invasive species very narrowly. According to Executive Order 13112, {{"" '}}Invasive species' means an alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health.""<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/executive-order-13112-section-1-definitions |title=Executive Order 13112 - 1. Definitions |publisher=Ars.usda.gov |access-date=May 27, 2021 |archive-date=June 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625075018/https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/executive-order-13112-section-1-definitions |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Causes ==

Typically, an introduced species must survive at low population densities before it becomes invasive in a new location.<ref name=""tilm"">{{cite journal |last=Tilman |first=D. |year=2004 |title=Niche tradeoffs, neutrality, and community structure: A stochastic theory of resource competition, invasion, and community assembly |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=101 |pages=10854–10861 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0403458101 |pmid=15243158 |issue=30 |pmc=503710 |bibcode=2004PNAS..10110854T |doi-access=free }}</ref> At low population densities, it can be difficult for the introduced species to reproduce and maintain itself in a new location, so a species might reach a location multiple times before it becomes established. Repeated patterns of human movement, such as ships sailing to and from ports or cars driving up and down highways, offer repeated opportunities for establishment (a high [[propagule pressure]]).<ref name=""verl"">{{cite journal |last=Verling |first=E. |year=2005 |title=Supply-side invasion ecology: characterizing propagule pressure in coastal ecosystems |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=272 |pages=1249–1256 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3090 |pmid=16024389 |issue=1569 |pmc=1564104}}</ref> 

=== Ecosystem-based mechanisms ===

In [[ecosystem]]s, the availability of resources determines the impact of additional species on the ecosystem. Stable ecosystems have a resource equilibrium, which can be changed fundamentally by the arrival of invasive species.<ref name=""Byers 2002"">{{cite journal |last1=Byers |first1=James E. |title=Impact of non-indigenous species on natives enhanced by anthropogenic alteration of selection regimes |journal=Oikos |date=June 2002 |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=449–458 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.970316.x |bibcode=2002Oikos..97..449B }}</ref> When changes such as a [[forest fire]] occur, normal [[ecological succession]] favors native [[Graminoid|grasses]] and [[forb]]s. An introduced species that can spread faster than natives can outcompete native species for food, squeezing them out. [[Nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] are often the limiting factors in these situations.<ref name=""Davis 2000 528–534"">{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=M.A. |last2=Grime |first2=J.P. |last3=Thompson |first3=K. |s2cid=14573817 |year=2000 |title=Fluctuating resources in plant communities: A general theory of invisibility |journal=[[Journal of Ecology]] |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=528–534 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2745.2000.00473.x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2000JEcol..88..528D }}</ref> Every species occupies an [[ecological niche]] in its native ecosystem; some species fill large and varied roles, while others are highly specialized. Invading species may occupy unused niches, or create new ones.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fath |first=Brian D. |title=Encyclopedia of Ecology |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaecol00jorg |url-access=limited |publisher=Elsevier Science |edition=1st |year=2008 |isbn=978-0444520333 |location=Amsterdam, the Netherlands |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaecol00jorg/page/n1122 1089]}}</ref> For example, [[edge effect]]s describe what happens when part of an ecosystem is disturbed, as when land is cleared for [[agriculture]]. The boundary between remaining undisturbed habitat and the newly cleared land itself forms a distinct habitat, creating new winners and losers and possibly hosting species that would not thrive outside the boundary habitat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alverson |first1=William S. |last2=Waller |first2=Donald M. |last3=Solheim |first3=Stephen L. |date=1988 |title=Forests Too Deer: Edge Effects in Northern Wisconsin |journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=348–358 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1988.tb00199.x |jstor=2386294|bibcode=1988ConBi...2..348A }}</ref>

In 1958, [[Charles S. Elton]] claimed that ecosystems with higher [[species diversity]] were less subject to invasive species because fewer niches remained unoccupied.<ref name=""elton"">{{cite book |last=Elton |first=C.S. |others=Foreword by Daniel Simberloff |title=The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants |orig-date=1958 |year=2000 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-20638-7 |page=196}}</ref> Other ecologists later pointed to highly diverse, but heavily invaded ecosystems, arguing that ecosystems with high species diversity were more susceptible to invasion.<ref name=Schell>{{cite journal |last1=Stohlgren |first1=Thomas J. |last2=Binkley |first2=Dan |last3=Chong |first3=Geneva W. |last4=Kalkhan |first4=Mohammed A. |last5=Schell |first5=Lisa D. |last6=Bull |first6=Kelly A. |last7=Otsuki |first7=Yuka |last8=Newman |first8=Gregory |last9=Bashkin |first9=Michael |last10=Son |first10=Yowhan |display-authors=6 |title=Exotic Plant Species Invade Hot Spots of Native Plant Diversity |journal=Ecological Monographs |date=February 1999 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=25–46 |doi=10.1890/0012-9615(1999)069[0025:EPSIHS]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> This debate hinged on the [[Scale (spatial)|spatial scale]] of invasion studies. Small-scale studies tended to show a negative relationship between [[Biodiversity|diversity]] and invasion, while large-scale studies tended to show the reverse, perhaps a side-effect of invasives' ability to capitalize on increased resource availability and weaker species interactions that are more common when larger samples are considered.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Byers |first1=James E. |last2=Noonburg |first2=Erik G. |title=Scale Dependent Effects of Biotic Resistance to Biological Invasion |journal=Ecology |date=June 2003 |volume=84 |issue=6 |pages=1428–1433 |doi=10.1890/02-3131 |bibcode=2003Ecol...84.1428B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levine |first1=Jonathan M. |title=Species Diversity and Biological Invasions: Relating Local Process to Community Pattern |journal=Science |date=5 May 2000 |volume=288 |issue=5467 |pages=852–854 |doi=10.1126/science.288.5467.852 |pmid=10797006 |bibcode=2000Sci...288..852L }}</ref> However, this pattern does not seem to hold true for invasive vertebrates.{{r|ivey2019}}

[[File:Brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) (8387580552).jpg|thumb|right|The [[brown tree snake]] has had an impact on the native bird population of the island ecosystem of Guam.]]

[[Island ecosystem]]s may be more prone to invasion because their species face few strong competitors and predators, and because their distance from colonizing species populations makes them more likely to have ""open"" niches.<ref name=""stach"">{{cite book |last=Stachowicz |first=J.J. |editor=D.F. Sax |editor2=J.J. Stachowicz |editor3=S.D. Gaines |title=Species Invasions: Insights into Ecology, Evolution, and Biogeography |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-87893-811-7 |chapter=Species invasions and the relationships between species diversity, community saturation, and ecosystem functioning |year=2005 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/speciesinvasions0000unse }}</ref> For example, native bird populations on [[Guam]] have been decimated by the invasive [[brown tree snake]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brown Tree Snake |url=https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/brown-tree-snake |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824120114/https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/brown-tree-snake |archive-date=24 August 2019 |website=USDA National Invasive Species Information Center}}</ref> 

In [[Invasive species in New Zealand|New Zealand]] the first invasive species were the dogs and [[Polynesian rat|rats]] brought by Polynesian settlers around 1300. These and other introductions devastated endemic New Zealand species.<ref>{{cite book |last=Howe |first=K. R. |title=The Quest for Origins |year=2003 |page=179 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=0-14-301857-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 June 2008 |title=Rat remains help date New Zealand's colonisation |work=New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19826595-200-rat-remains-help-date-new-zealands-colonisation/?ignored=irrelevant |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=23 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611120716/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19826595-200-rat-remains-help-date-new-zealands-colonisation/?ignored=irrelevant |archive-date=11 June 2022}}</ref> The colonization of [[Madagascar]] brought similar harm to its ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goodman |first1=Steven M. |date=1997 |title=The birds of southeastern Madagascar |journal=Fieldiana |issue=87 |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.3415 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Logging has caused harm directly by destroying habitat, and has allowed non-native species such as [[Opuntia|prickly pear]] and [[Acacia dealbata|silver wattle]] to invade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Kerry A. |last2=Gurevitch |first2=Jessica |title=Long-term impacts of logging on forest diversity in Madagascar |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=20 April 2004 |volume=101 |issue=16 |pages=6045–6049 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0401456101 |pmid=15067121 |pmc=395920 |bibcode=2004PNAS..101.6045B |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kull |first1=Ca |last2=Tassin |first2=J |last3=Carriere |first3=Sm |title=Approaching invasive species in Madagascar |journal=Madagascar Conservation & Development |date=26 February 2015 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=60 |doi=10.4314/mcd.v9i2.2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Eichhornia crassipes|water hyacinth]] forms dense mats on water surfaces, limiting light penetration and hence harming aquatic organisms, and causing substantial management costs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Villamagna |first1=A. M. |last2=Murphy |first2=B. R. |title=Ecological and socio-economic impacts of invasive water hyacinth (''Eichhornia crassipes''): a review |journal=Freshwater Biology |date=February 2010 |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=282–298 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02294.x |bibcode=2010FrBio..55..282V }}</ref><ref name=""Rakotoarisoa 365–379"">{{cite journal |last1=Rakotoarisoa |first1=T. F. |last2=Richter |first2=T. |last3=Rakotondramanana |first3=H. |last4=Mantilla-Contreras |first4=J. |title=Turning a Problem Into Profit: Using Water Hyacinth (''Eichhornia crassipes'') for Making Handicrafts at Lake Alaotra, Madagascar |journal=Economic Botany |date=December 2016 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=365–379 |doi=10.1007/s12231-016-9362-y |s2cid=255557151 |id = {{s2cid|18820290}} }}</ref>

Primary geomorphological effects of invasive plants are bioconstruction and bioprotection. For example, kudzu (''[[Pueraria montana]]''), a vine native to Asia, was widely introduced in the [[Southeastern US|southeastern United States]] in the early 20th century to control [[soil erosion]]. The primary geomorphological effects of invasive animals are [[bioturbation]], [[bioerosion]], and bioconstruction. For example, invasions of the Chinese mitten crab (''[[Eriocheir sinensis]]'') have resulted in higher bioturbation and bioerosion rates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fei |first1=Songlin |last2=Phillips |first2=Jonathan |last3=Shouse |first3=Michael |title=Biogeomorphic Impacts of Invasive Species |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |date=23 November 2014 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=69–87 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091928 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

A native species can become harmful and effectively invasive to its native environment after human alterations to its [[food web]]. This has been the case with the purple sea urchin (''[[Strongylocentrotus purpuratus]]''), which has decimated kelp forests along the northern California coast due to overharvesting of its natural predator, the California sea otter (''[[Sea otter|Enhydra lutris]]'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plague of purple sea urchins ravages California's offshore ecosystem, heads to Oregon |website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=October 24, 2019|url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-10-24/purple-sea-urchins-california-oregon-coasts|access-date=July 14, 2021 |archive-date=July 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714030639/https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-10-24/purple-sea-urchins-california-oregon-coasts |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Species-based mechanisms===

[[File:Riesenknoeterich.jpg|right|thumb|Japanese knotweed (''[[Reynoutria japonica]]'') is considered one of the [[100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species|world's worst invasive species]].]]
[[File:Ocicat-woodpecker.jpg|upright|thumb|Cats (here, killing a [[woodpecker]]) are [[Cats in Australia|considered invasive species]] in Australia and [[Cat predation on wildlife|negatively impact wildlife]] worldwide.]]

Invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete [[native species]]. In some cases, the competition is about rates of growth and reproduction. In other cases, species interact with each other more directly. One study found that 86% of invasive species could be identified from such traits alone.<ref name=""kolar"">{{cite journal |last=Kolar |first=C.S. |year=2001 |title=Progress in invasion biology: predicting invaders|journal=[[Trends in Ecology & Evolution]] |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=199–204 |doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02101-2 |pmid=11245943|s2cid=5796978 }}</ref> Another study found that invasive species often had only a few of the traits, and that noninvasive species had these also.<ref name=""kolar""/><ref name=""theb"">{{cite journal |last=Thebaud |first=C. |year=1996 |title=Assessing why two introduced Conyza differ in their ability to invade Mediterranean old fields |journal=Ecology |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=791–804 |doi=10.2307/2265502 |jstor=2265502 |bibcode=1996Ecol...77..791T }}</ref><ref name=""reichard"">{{cite journal |last=Reichard |first=S.H. |s2cid=29816498 |year=1997 |title=Predicting invasions of woody plants introduced into North America |journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=193–203 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.95473.x |pmc=7162396}}</ref> Common invasive species traits include fast growth and rapid [[reproduction]], such as [[vegetative reproduction]] in plants;<ref name=""kolar""/><!--high [[Biological dispersal|dispersal]] ability;--><!--[[Phenotypic plasticity|Phenotype plasticity]];--><!--[[ecological competence]];--><!--[[Generalist and specialist species|generalist]];--> association with humans;<ref name=""Williams"">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=J. D. |year=1998 |chapter=Non-indigenous Species |title=Status and Trends of the Nation's Biological Resources |location=[[Reston, Virginia]] |pages=117–29 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |isbn=978-0-16-053285-6 |id={{DTIC|ADA368849}} }}</ref> and prior successful invasions.<ref name=""ewell"">{{cite journal |last=Ewell |first=J.J. |year=1999 |title=Deliberate introductions of species: Research needs – Benefits can be reaped, but risks are high |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=49 |pages=619–630 |doi=10.2307/1313438 |jstor=1313438 |issue=8 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Domestic cat]]s are effective predators; they have become feral and invasive in places such as the [[Florida Keys]].<ref name=""Cove Gardner 2018"">{{cite journal |last1=Cove |first1=Michael V. |last2=Gardner |first2=Beth |last3=Simons |first3=Theodore R. |last4=Kays |first4=Roland |last5=O'Connell |first5=Allan F. |s2cid=3536174 |date=February 1, 2018 |title=Free-ranging domestic cats (''Felis catus'') on public lands: estimating density, activity, and diet in the Florida Keys |journal=[[Biological Invasions]] |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=333–344 |doi=10.1007/s10530-017-1534-x|bibcode=2018BiInv..20..333C }}</ref>

An introduced species might become invasive if it can outcompete native species for resources. If these species evolved under great [[Competition (biology)|competition]] or [[predation]], then the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the invader to proliferate. [[Ecosystem]]s used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as [[zero-sum]] systems, in which any gain for the invader is a loss for the native. However, such [[unilateral]] competitive superiority (and extinction of native species with increased populations of the invader) is not the rule.<ref name=""Schell""/><ref name=""sax"">{{cite journal |last1=Sax |first1=Dov F. |last2=Gaines |first2=Steven D. |last3=Brown |first3=James H. |title=Species Invasions Exceed Extinctions on Islands Worldwide: A Comparative Study of Plants and Birds |journal=The American Naturalist |date=December 2002 |volume=160 |issue=6 |pages=766–783 |doi=10.1086/343877 |pmid=18707464 |s2cid=8628360 }}</ref> 

[[File:Lantana Invasion of abandoned citrus plantation Sdey Hemed Israel.JPG|right|thumb|upright=1.8|[[Lantana]], abandoned [[citrus grove|citrus]], [[Sdei Hemed]]]]

An invasive species might be able to use resources previously unavailable to native species, such as deep water accessed by a long [[taproot]], or to live on previously uninhabited soil types. For example, [[Aegilops triuncialis|barbed goatgrass]] was introduced to [[California]] on [[serpentine soil]]s, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high [[magnesium]]/[[calcium]] ratio, and possible [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal]] toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to show low density, but goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils and crowd out native species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Huenneke |first1=Laura Foster |last2=Hamburg |first2=Steven P. |last3=Koide |first3=Roger |last4=Mooney |first4=Harold A. |last5=Vitousek |first5=Peter M. |title=Effects of Soil Resources on Plant Invasion and Community Structure in Californian Serpentine Grassland |journal=Ecology |date=1990 |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=478–491 |doi=10.2307/1940302 |jstor=1940302 |bibcode=1990Ecol...71..478H }}</ref>

Invasive species might alter their environment by releasing chemical compounds, modifying [[abiotic]] factors, or affecting the behaviour of [[herbivore]]s, impacting on other species. Some, like ''[[Bryophyllum daigremontianum|Kalanchoe daigremontana]]'', produce [[allelopathy|allelopathic compounds]] that inhibit competitors.<ref name=""HERRERAFERRER-PARIS2018"">{{cite journal |title=An Invasive Succulent Plant (Kalanchoe daigremontiana) Influences Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Mineralization in a Neotropical Semiarid Zone |journal=[[Pedosphere]] |volume=28 |issue=4 |year=2018 |pages=632–643 |doi=10.1016/S1002-0160(18)60029-3 |last1=Herrera |first1=Ileana |last2=Ferrer-Paris |first2=José R. |last3=Benzo |first3=Diana |last4=Flores |first4=Saúl |last5=García |first5=Belkis |last6=Nassar |first6=Jafet M. |s2cid=104843296}}</ref> Others like ''[[Stapelia gigantea]]'' [[ecological facilitation|facilitate]] the growth of seedlings of other species in arid environments by providing appropriate [[microclimate]]s and preventing herbivores from eating seedlings.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herrera |first1=Ileana |last2=Ferrer-Paris |first2=José R. |last3=Hernández-Rosas |first3=José I. |last4=Nassar |first4=Jafet M. |title=Impact of two invasive succulents on native-seedling recruitment in Neotropical arid environments |journal=[[Journal of Arid Environments]] |date=2016 |volume=132 |pages=15–25 |doi=10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.04.007 |bibcode=2016JArEn.132...15H}}</ref>

Changes in [[fire regime]]ns are another form of facilitation. ''[[Bromus tectorum]]'', originally from Eurasia, is highly fire-adapted. It spreads rapidly after burning, and increases the frequency and intensity of fires by providing large amounts of dry [[detritus]] during the fire season in western North America. Where it is widespread, it has altered the local fire regimen so much that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires, allowing it to become dominant in its introduced range.<ref name=""Brooks 2004 677–688"">{{cite journal |last1=Brooks |first1=Matthew L. |last2=D'Antonio |first2=Carla M. |last3=Richardson |first3=David M. |last4=Grace |first4=James B. |last5=Keeley |first5=Jon E. |last6=DiTOMASO |first6=Joseph M. |last7=Hobbs |first7=Richard J. |last8=Pellant |first8=Mike |last9=Pyke |first9=David |title=Effects of Invasive Alien Plants on Fire Regimes |journal=BioScience |date=2004 |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=677 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0677:EOIAPO]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=13769125 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Ecological facilitation]] occurs where one species physically modifies a habitat in ways advantageous to other species. For example, [[zebra mussel]]s increase habitat complexity on lake floors, providing crevices in which [[invertebrate]]s live. This increase in complexity, together with the nutrition provided by the waste products of mussel [[filter feeder|filter-feeding]], increases the density and diversity of [[Benthic zone|benthic]] invertebrate communities.<ref name=""silv"">{{cite journal |last1=Silver Botts |first1=P. |last2=Patterson |first2=B.A. |last3=Schlosser |first3=D. |year=1996 |title=Zebra mussel effects on benthic invertebrates: Physical or biotic? |journal=[[Journal of the North American Benthological Society]] |issue=2 |volume=15 |doi=10.2307/1467947 |jstor=1467947 |pages=179–184 |s2cid=84660670 }}</ref>

Introduced species may spread rapidly and unpredictably.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keddy |first=Paul A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncloDgAAQBAJ&q=Plant+Ecology |title=Plant Ecology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-107-11423-4 |pages=343 |access-date=October 6, 2020 |archive-date=August 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816224645/https://books.google.com/books?id=ncloDgAAQBAJ&q=Plant+Ecology |url-status=live}}</ref> When [[Population bottleneck|bottlenecks]] and [[founder effect]]s cause a great decrease in the population size and may constrict [[genetic variation]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Cheng-Yuan |last2=Tang |first2=Shaoqing |last3=Fatemi |first3=Mohammad |last4=Gross |first4=Caroline L. |last5=Julien |first5=Mic H. |last6=Curtis |first6=Caitlin |last7=van Klinken |first7=Rieks D. |date=September 1, 2015 |title=Population structure and genetic diversity of invasive Phyla canescens: implications for the evolutionary potential |journal=[[Ecosphere (journal)|Ecosphere]] |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=art162 |doi=10.1890/ES14-00374.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref> the individuals begin to show additive variance as opposed to epistatic variance. This conversion can lead to increased variance in the founding populations, which permits [[rapid evolution]].<ref name=""Prentis 2008 288-294"">{{cite journal |last=Prentis |first=Peter |title=Adaptive evolution in invasive species |journal=[[Trends in Plant Science]]|volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=288–294 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2008.03.004 |pmid=18467157 |year=2008|hdl=10019.1/112332 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Selection may then act on the capacity to disperse as well as on physiological tolerance to new stressors in the environment, such as changed temperature and different predators and prey.<ref name=""Eunmi 2002 386-391"">{{cite journal |last=Lee |first=Carol Eunmi |title=Evolutionary genetics of invasive species |journal=[[Trends in Ecology & Evolution]]|volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=386–391 |doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02554-5 |year=2002}}</ref> 

Rapid adaptive evolution through intraspecific phenotypic plasticity, [[Exaptation|pre-adaptation]] and post-introduction evolution lead to offspring that have higher fitness. Critically, plasticity permits changes to better suit the individual to its environment. Pre-adaptations and evolution after the introduction reinforce the success of the introduced species.<ref name=""Zenni 2013 635-644"">{{cite journal |last=Zenni |first=R.D. |title=Adaptive Evolution and Phenotypic Plasticity During Naturalization and Spread of Invasive Species: Implications for Tree Invasion Biology |journal=[[Biological Invasions]] |year=2013 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=635–644 |doi=10.1007/s10530-013-0607-8 |s2cid=82590}}</ref>

The [[enemy release hypothesis]] states that evolution leads to ecological balance in every ecosystem. No single species can occupy a majority of an ecosystem due to the presences of competitors, predators, and diseases. Introduced species moved to a novel habitat can become invasive, with rapid population growth, when these controls do not exist in the new ecosystem.{{r|amstutz2018}}

==Vectors==

Non-native species have many [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]]s, but most are associated with human activity. Natural [[Range (biology)|range]] extensions are common, but humans often carry specimens faster and over greater distances than natural forces.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cassey |first=P |year=2005 |title=Concerning Invasive Species: Reply to Brown and Sax|journal=[[Austral Ecology]] |volume=30|issue=4 |pages=475–480 |doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.2005.01505.x|bibcode=2005AusEc..30..475C |hdl=10019.1/119884 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> An early human vector occurred when prehistoric humans introduced the Pacific rat (''Rattus exulans'') to Polynesia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Matisoo-Smith |first=E. |year=1998 |title=Patterns of prehistoric human mobility in Polynesia indicated by mtDNA from the Pacific rat|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=95 |pages=15145–15150 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.25.15145 |pmid=9844030 |issue=25 |pmc=24590 |bibcode=1998PNAS...9515145M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:EriocheirSinensis1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chinese mitten crab]] ]]

Vectors include plants or seeds imported for [[horticulture]]. The [[pet trade]] moves animals across borders, where they can escape and become invasive. Organisms stow away on transport vehicles. Incidental human assisted transfer is the main cause of introductions{{snd}}other than for [[polar regions of Earth|polar regions]].<ref name=""Essl-et-al-2020"">{{cite journal |last1=Essl |first1=Franz |last2=Lenzner |first2=Bernd |last3=Bacher |first3=Sven |last4=Bailey |first4=Sarah |last5=Capinha |first5=Cesar |last6=Daehler |first6=Curtis |last7=Dullinger |first7=Stefan |last8=Genovesi |first8=Piero |last9=Hui |first9=Cang |last10=Hulme |first10=Philip E. |last11=Jeschke |first11=Jonathan M. |last12=Katsanevakis |first12=Stelios |display-authors=6 |title=Drivers of future alien species impacts: An expert-based assessment |journal=Global Change Biology |date=September 2020 |volume=26 |issue=9 |pages=4880–4893 |doi=10.1111/gcb.15199 |pmid=32663906 |pmc=7496498 |bibcode=2020GCBio..26.4880E }}</ref> Diseases may be vectored by invasive insects: the [[Diaphorina citri|Asian citrus psyllid]] carries the bacterial disease [[Citrus greening disease|citrus greening]].<ref name=r2/> The arrival of invasive [[propagule]]s to a new site is a function of the site's invasibility.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leung |first=B. |year=2007 |title=The risk of establishment of aquatic invasive species: joining invasibility and propagule pressure |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=274 |pages=2733–2739|doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.0841 |pmid=17711834 |issue=1625 |pmc=2275890}}</ref>

Many invasive species, once they are dominant in the area, become essential to the ecosystem of that area, and their removal could be harmful.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zavaleta |first1=Erika S. |last2=Hobbs |first2=Richard J. |last3=Mooney |first3=Harold A. |title=Viewing invasive species removal in a whole-ecosystem context |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=August 2001 |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=454–459 |doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02194-2 }}</ref> Economics plays a major role in exotic species introduction. High demand for the valuable [[Chinese mitten crab]] is one explanation for the possible intentional release of the species in foreign waters.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seinfeld |first=John H. |title=Marine Pollution and Climate Change |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2016 |isbn=9781482299441 |editor-last=Arias |editor-first=Andres Hugo |editor-last2=Marcovecchio |editor-first2=Jorge Eduardo}}</ref>

=== Within the aquatic environment ===

Maritime trade has rapidly affected the way marine organisms are transported within the ocean; new means of species transport include hull fouling and ballast water transport. In fact, Molnar et al. 2008 documented the pathways of hundreds of marine invasive species and found that shipping was the dominant mechanism for the transfer of invasive species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Molnar |first1=Jennifer L. |last2=Gamboa |first2=Rebecca L. |last3=Revenga |first3=Carmen |last4=Spalding |first4=Mark D. |title=Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=November 2008 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=485–492 |doi=10.1890/070064 |bibcode=2008FrEE....6..485M }}</ref> 

[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 1010 Discharging ballast water.jpg |thumb |Cargo ship [[sailing ballast |de-ballasting]] ]]

Many marine organisms can attach themselves to vessel hulls. Such organisms are easily transported from one body of water to another, and are a significant risk factor for a biological invasion event.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Drake |first=John |date=2007 |title=Hull fouling is a risk factor for intercontinental species exchange in aquatic ecosystems |journal=[[Aquatic Invasions]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=121–131 |doi=10.3391/ai.2007.2.2.7 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Controlling for vessel hull fouling is voluntary and there are no regulations currently in place to manage hull fouling. However, the governments of [[California]] and [[New Zealand]] have announced more stringent control for vessel hull fouling within their respective jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gard.no/web/updates/content/24305557/biofouling-moves-up-the-regulatory-agenda. |title=Biofouling moves up the regulatory agenda – GARD |website=www.gard.no |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=January 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113231807/http://www.gard.no/web/updates/content/24305557/biofouling-moves-up-the-regulatory-agenda. |url-status=live}}</ref>

Another vector of non-native aquatic species is [[Ballast water discharge and the environment|ballast water]] taken up at sea and released in port by transoceanic vessels.<ref name=cargo>{{cite web |url=http://www.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/98880204.html |last=Egan |first=Dan |work=[[Journal Sentinel]] |date=October 31, 2005 |title=Noxious cargo |access-date=April 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021122316/http://www.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/98880204.html |archive-date=October 21, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1145/2623330.2623364 |chapter=Improving management of aquatic invasions by integrating shipping network, ecological, and environmental data |title=Proceedings of the 20th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining |year=2014 |last1=Xu |first1=Jian |last2=Wickramarathne |first2=Thanuka L. |last3=Chawla |first3=Nitesh V. |last4=Grey |first4=Erin K. |last5=Steinhaeuser |first5=Karsten |last6=Keller |first6=Reuben P. |last7=Drake |first7=John M. |last8=Lodge |first8=David M. |pages=1699–1708 |isbn=978-1-4503-2956-9 |s2cid=2371978 }}</ref> Some 10,000 species are transported via ballast water each day.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Streftaris |first1=N |last2=Zenetos |first2=Argyro |last3=Papathanassiou |first3=Enangelos |date=2005 |title=Globalisation in marine ecosystems: The story of non-indigenous marine species across European seas |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253862066 |journal=[[Oceanography and Marine Biology]] |volume=43 |pages=419–453 |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=September 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920011308/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253862066 |url-status=live}}</ref> Many of these are harmful. For example, freshwater [[zebra mussel]]s from Eurasia most likely reached the [[Great Lakes]] via ballast water.{{r|pnwaquaticinv}} These outcompete native organisms for oxygen and food, and can be transported in the small puddle left in a supposedly empty ballast tank.<ref name=cargo/> Regulations attempt to mitigate such risks,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.glc.org/wp-content/uploads/GLC-BW-Reg-Summary-11.14.16.pdf |title=Status of Ballast Water Discharge Regulations in the Great Lakes Region |last=Great Lake Commission |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=February 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212212419/http://www.glc.org/wp-content/uploads/GLC-BW-Reg-Summary-11.14.16.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/5ps/NVIC/2018/NVIC-01_18.pdf |title=Ballast Water Management for Control of Non-Indigenous Species in Waters of the United States |last=USCG |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=May 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511133624/https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/5ps/NVIC/2018/NVIC-01_18.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> not always successfully.{{r |trainer2012}} 

[[Climate change]] is causing an increase in [[ocean temperature]]. This in turn will cause range shifts in organisms,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Occhipinti-Ambrogi |first=Anna |date=2007 |title=Global change and marine communities: Alien species and climate change |journal=[[Marine Pollution Bulletin]] |volume=55 |issue=7–9 |pages=342–352 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.11.014 |pmid=17239404 |bibcode=2007MarPB..55..342O }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahel |first1=Frank J. |last2=Olden |first2=Julian D. |title=Assessing the Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Invasive Species |journal=Conservation Biology |date=June 2008 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=521–533 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00950.x |pmid=18577081 |s2cid=313824 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008ConBi..22..521R }}</ref> which could harm the environment as new species interactions occur. For example, organisms in a ballast tank of a ship traveling from the temperate zone through tropical waters may experience temperature fluctuations as much as 20&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hua |first1=J. |last2=Hwang |first2=W.H. |date=2012 |title=Effects of voyage routing on the survival of microbes in ballast water |journal=[[Ocean Engineering]] |volume=42 |pages=165–175 |doi=10.1016/j.oceaneng.2012.01.013}}</ref> Heat challenges during transport may enhance the stress tolerance of species in their non-native range, by selecting for genotypes that will survive a second applied heat stress, such as increased ocean temperature in the founder population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lenz |first1=Mark |last2=Ahmed |first2=Yasser |last3=Canning-Clode |first3=João |last4=Díaz |first4=Eliecer |last5=Eichhorn |first5=Sandra |last6=Fabritzek |first6=Armin G. |last7=da Gama |first7=Bernardo A. P. |last8=Garcia |first8=Marie |last9=von Juterzenka |first9=Karen |s2cid=53082967 |date=May 24, 2018 |title=Heat challenges can enhance population tolerance to thermal stress in mussels: a potential mechanism by which ship transport can increase species invasiveness |journal=[[Biological Invasions]] |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=3107–3122 |doi=10.1007/s10530-018-1762-8|bibcode=2018BiInv..20.3107L }}</ref>

=== Effects of wildfire and firefighting ===

Invasive species often exploit disturbances to an ecosystem ([[wildfire]]s, [[road]]s, [[foot trail]]s) to colonize an area. Large wildfires can [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilize]] soils, while adding [[nutrient]]s.<ref name=""Davis 2000 528–534""/> 
Invasive plants that can regenerate from their roots then have an advantage over natives that rely on seeds for propagation.<ref name=""Brooks 2004 677–688""/>

==Adverse effects==

{{Pollution sidebar|Biological}}

Invasive species can affect the invaded habitats and bioregions adversely, causing ecological, environmental, or economic damage.{{r|ehrenfeld2010}}

===Ecological===

The European Union defines ""Invasive Alien Species"" as those that are outside their natural distribution area, and that threaten [[biological diversity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/docs/1_EN_resume_impact_assesment_part1_v3.pdf |title=Communication From The Commission To The Council, The European Parliament, The European Economic And Social Committee And The Committee Of The Regions Towards An EU Strategy On Invasive Species |access-date=May 17, 2011 |archive-date=March 5, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305033628/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/docs/1_EN_resume_impact_assesment_part1_v3.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2298/ZMSPN1834019L |title=Non-native and invasive tree species - their impact on biodiversity loss |year=2018 |last1=Lakicevic |first1=Milena |last2=Mladenovic |first2=Emina |journal=[[Zbornik Matice Srpske Za Prirodne Nauke]] |issue=134 |pages=19–26 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Biotic invasion is one of the five top drivers for global [[biodiversity loss]], and is increasing because of tourism and [[globalization]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10259/chapter/1 |year=2002 |doi=10.17226/10259 |pmid=25032288 |isbn=978-0-309-08264-8 |author1=National Research Council (US) Committee on the Scientific Basis for Predicting the Invasive Potential of Nonindigenous Plants Plant Pests in the United States |title=Predicting Invasions of Nonindigenous Plants and Plant Pests |access-date=November 17, 2019 |archive-date=November 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117204337/https://www.nap.edu/read/10259/chapter/1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature14258 |title=Defining the Anthropocene |year=2015 |last1=Lewis |first1=Simon L. |last2=Maslin |first2=Mark A. |s2cid=205242896 |journal=[[Nature (journal) |Nature]] |volume=519 |issue=7542 |pages=171–180 |pmid=25762280 |bibcode=2015Natur.519..171L}}</ref> This may be particularly true in inadequately regulated [[fresh water]] systems, though [[quarantine]]s and [[ballast water]] rules have improved the situation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf |title=Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis |author=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |year=2005 |publisher=[[World Resources Institute]] |author-link=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |access-date=September 18, 2007 |archive-date=October 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014033601/http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Gator and Python.jpg |thumb |right |[[American alligator]] combatting a [[Burmese python in Florida |Burmese python]] in Florida ]]

Invasive species may drive local native species to extinction via [[Competition (biology) |competitive]] exclusion, [[Ecological niche |niche]] displacement, or [[hybrid (biology) |hybrid]]isation with related native species. Therefore, besides their economic ramifications, alien invasions may result in extensive changes in the structure, composition and global distribution of the biota at sites of introduction, leading ultimately to the homogenisation of the world's fauna and flora and the [[loss of biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.1651 |title=Pattern and process of biotic homogenization in the New Pangaea |year=2012 |last1=Baiser |first1=Benjamin |last2=Olden |first2=Julian D. |last3=Record |first3=Sydne |last4=Lockwood |first4=Julie L. |last5=McKinney |first5=Michael L. |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences]] |volume=279 |issue=1748 |pages=4772–4777 |pmid=23055062 |pmc=3497087}}</ref><ref name=""Odendaal 2008"">{{cite journal |last1=Odendaal |first1=L. J. |last2=Haupt |first2=T. M. |last3=Griffiths |first3=C. L. |year=2008 |title=The alien invasive land snail ''Theba pisana'' in the West Coast National Park: Is there cause for concern? |journal=[[Koedoe]] |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=93–98 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v50i1.153 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is difficult to unequivocally attribute extinctions to a species invasion, though there is for example strong evidence that the extinction of about 90 amphibian species was caused by the [[chytridiomycosis|chytrid fungus]] spread by international trade.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/s41579-020-0335-x |title=Chytrid fungi and global amphibian declines |year=2020 |last1=Fisher |first1=Matthew C. |last2=Garner |first2=Trenton W. J. |s2cid=211266075 |journal=[[Nature Reviews Microbiology]] |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=332–343 |pmid=32099078 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10092667/1/NRMICRO-19-244_FINAL_ACCEPTED.pdf |hdl=10044/1/78596 |hdl-access=free |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=November 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107202307/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10092667/1/NRMICRO-19-244_FINAL_ACCEPTED.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Multiple successive introductions of different non-native species can worsen the total effect, as with the introductions of the [[amethyst gem clam]] and the [[Carcinus maenas|European green crab]]. The gem clam was introduced into California's [[Bodega Bay|Bodega Harbor]] from the US East Coast a century ago. On its own, it never displaced native clams (''Nutricola'' spp.). In the mid-1990s, the introduction of the European green crab resulted in an increase of the amethyst gem at the expense of the native clams.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grosholz |first=E.D. |year=2005 |title=Recent biological invasion may hasten invasional meltdown by accelerating historical introductions |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=102 |pages=1088–1091 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0308547102 |pmid=15657121 |issue=4 |pmc=545825 |bibcode=2005PNAS..102.1088G |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Invasive species can change the functions of ecosystems. For example, invasive plants can alter the [[fire regime]] (cheatgrass, ''[[Drooping Brome |Bromus tectorum]]''), [[nutrient cycling]] (smooth cordgrass ''[[Spartina alterniflora]]''), and hydrology (''[[Tamarix]]'') in native ecosystems.<ref name = causesepidemiology /> Invasive species that are closely related to rare native species have the potential to hybridize with the native species. Harmful effects of hybridization have led to a decline and even extinction of native species.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hawkes |first=C.V. |year=2005 |title=Plant invasion alters nitrogen cycling by modifying the soil nitrifying community |journal=[[Ecology Letters]] |volume=8 |pages=976–985 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00802.x |issue=9 |pmid=34517683 |bibcode=2005EcolL...8..976H }}</ref><ref name=""rhymer"">{{cite journal |last=Rhymer |first=J. M. |author2=Simberloff, D. |year=1996 |title=Extinction by hybridization and introgression |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics]] |issue=1 |pages=83–109 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83 |volume=27}}</ref> For example, [[Hybridization (biology) |hybridization]] with introduced cordgrass, ''Spartina alterniflora'', threatens the existence of California cordgrass (''[[Spartina foliosa]]'') in [[San Francisco Bay]].<ref name=""ayres"">{{cite journal |last=Ayres |first=D. |s2cid=24732543 |year=2004 |title=Spread of exotic cordgrasses and hybrids (''Spartina'' sp.) in the tidal marshes of San Francisco Bay, California |journal=[[USA Biological Invasions]] |volume=6 |pages=221–231 |doi=10.1023/B:BINV.0000022140.07404.b7 |issue=2 |bibcode=2004BiInv...6..221A |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Invasive species cause competition for native species and because of this 400 of the 958 endangered species under the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973 |Endangered Species Act]] are at risk.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Primtel |first=David |year=2005 |title=Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States |journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal) |Ecological Economics]] |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=273–288 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002}}</ref>

[[File:Firewoodposter white web.pdf |frameless |right |alt=Poster asking campers to not move firewood around, avoiding the spread of invasive species]]

The unintentional introduction of forest pest species and plant pathogens can change [[forest ecology]] and damage the [[timber industry]]. Overall, [[forest ecosystem]]s in the U.S. are widely invaded by exotic pests, plants, and pathogens.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liebhold |first1=S. |year=2013 |title=A highly aggregated geographical distribution of forest pest invasions in the USA |doi=10.1111/ddi.12112 |journal=[[Diversity and Distributions]] |volume=19 |issue=9 |pages=1208–1216 |s2cid=85799394 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free |bibcode=2013DivDi..19.1208L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oswalt |first1=C. |year=2015 |title=A subcontinental view of forest plant invasions |journal=[[NeoBiota]] |volume=24 |pages=49–54 |display-authors=etal |doi=10.3897/neobiota.24.8378 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The Asian long-horned beetle (''[[Anoplophora glabripennis]]'') was first introduced into the U.S. in 1996, and was expected to infect and damage millions of acres of hardwood trees. As of 2005 thirty million dollars had been spent in attempts to eradicate this pest and protect millions of trees in the affected regions.<ref name=""pimental""/> The [[woolly adelgid]] has inflicted damage on old-growth spruce, fir and [[Tsuga |hemlock]] forests and damages the [[Christmas tree]] industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South/Adelges piceae - Bugwoodwiki |url=https://wiki.bugwood.org/Archive:South/Balsam_Woolly_Aphid |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722063118/http://wiki.bugwood.org/Archive:South/Balsam_Woolly_Aphid |archive-date=22 July 2011 |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=wiki.bugwood.org}}</ref>  [[Chestnut blight]] and [[Dutch elm disease]] are plant pathogens with serious impacts.<ref>Schlarbaum, Scott E., Frederick Hebard, Pauline C. Spaine, and Joseph C. Kamalay. (1998) [https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/745 ""Three American Tragedies: Chestnut Blight, Butternut Canker, and Dutch Elm Disease'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113231820/https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/745 |date=January 13, 2020 }}. In: Britton, Kerry O., Ed. Exotic Pests of Eastern Forests Conference Proceedings; 1997 April 8–10; Nashville, TN. U.S. Forest Service and Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council., pp. 45–54.</ref><ref name=""USDA-Forest Service-Schlarbaum-1997"">{{cite web |author1=Schlarbaum, Scott E. |author2=Hebard, Frederick |author3=Spaine, Pauline C. |author4=Kamalay, Joseph C. |url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_schlarbaum002.htm |title=Three American Tragedies: Chestnut Blight, Butternut Canker and Dutch Elm Disease |publisher=Southern Research Station, [[United States Forest Service |Forest Service]], [[United States Department of Agriculture]] |year=1997 |work=(originally published via: Proceedings: Exotic Pests of Eastern Forests; (1997 April 8–10); Nashville, TN. Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council: 45–54.) |access-date=June 22, 2012 |archive-date=April 24, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424101943/http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_schlarbaum002.htm |url-status=live }} <br />
Alternative link and additional publication citation information: Tree Search, US Forest Service, USDA. [http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/745 http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/745] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123093613/http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/745 |date=November 23, 2012 }}</ref> Garlic mustard, ''[[Alliaria petiolata]]'', is one of the most problematic invasive plant species in eastern North American forests, where it is highly invasive of the [[understory]], reducing the growth rate of tree seedlings and threatening to modify the forest's tree composition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodger |first1=Vikki |last2=Stinson |first2=Kristin |last3=Finzi |first3=Adrian |year=2008 |title=Ready or Not, Garlic Mustard Is Moving In: ''Alliaria petiolata'' as a Member of Eastern North American Forests |doi=10.1641/b580510 |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=58 |issue=5 |page=5 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Native [[species]] can be threatened with [[extinction]]<ref name="":1"">{{cite journal |pmc=33232 |title=The evolutionary impact of invasive species |year=2001 |volume=98 |issue=10 |pmid=11344292 |last1=Mooney |first1=HA |last2=Cleland |first2=EE |pages=5446–51 |doi=10.1073/pnas.091093398 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |bibcode=2001PNAS...98.5446M |doi-access=free }}</ref> through the process of [[genetic pollution]]. Genetic pollution is unintentional [[Hybrid (biology) |hybridization]] and [[introgression]], which leads to homogenization or replacement of local [[genotypes]] as a result of either a numerical or [[Fitness (biology) |fitness]] advantage of the introduced species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/article_view?id=13 |title=Glossary: definitions from the following publication: Aubry, C., R. Shoal and V. Erickson. 2005. Grass cultivars: their origins, development, and use on national forests and grasslands in the Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service. 44 pages, plus appendices.; Native Seed Network (NSN), Institute for Applied Ecology, 563 SW Jefferson Ave, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA |publisher=Nativeseednetwork.org |access-date=May 17, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222092651/http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/article_view?id=13 |archive-date=February 22, 2006 }}</ref> Genetic pollution occurs either through introduction or through habitat modification, where previously isolated species are brought into contact with the new genotypes. Invading species have been shown to adapt to their new environments in a remarkably short amount of time.<ref name="":1""/> The population size of invading species may remain small for a number of years and then experience an explosion in population, a phenomenon known as ""the lag effect"".<ref name = causesepidemiology >{{cite journal |last1=Mack |first1=Richard N. |last2=Simberloff |first2=Daniel |author2-link=Daniel Simberloff |last3=Mark Lonsdale |first3=W. |last4=Evans |first4=Harry |last5=Clout |first5=Michael |last6=Bazzaz |first6=Fakhri A. |title=Biotic Invasions: Causes, Epidemiology, Global Consequences, and Control |journal=Ecological Applications |date=June 2000 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=689–710 |doi=10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0689:BICEGC]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=711038 }}</ref>

Hybrids resulting from invasive species interbreeding with native species can incorporate their genotypes into the gene pool over time through [[introgression]]. Similarly, in some instances a small invading population can threaten much larger native populations. For example, ''[[Spartina alterniflora]]'' was introduced in the San Francisco Bay and hybridized with native ''[[Spartina foliosa]].'' The higher pollen count and male fitness of the invading species resulted in [[introgression]] that threatened the native populations due to lower pollen counts and lower viability of the native species.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reciprocal hybrid formation of Spartina in San Francisco Bay |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=765–770 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00935.x |pmid=10849292 |year=2000 |last1=Anttila |first1=C. K. |last2=King |first2=R. A. |last3=Ferris |first3=C. |last4=Ayres |first4=D. R. |last5=Strong |first5=D. R. |bibcode=2000MolEc...9..765A |s2cid=32865913}}</ref> Reduction in fitness is not always apparent from [[Morphology (biology) |morphological]] observations alone. Some degree of [[gene flow]] is normal, and preserves constellations of [[gene]]s and genotypes.<ref name=""rhymer""/><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/AFT/01-114.pdf |title=Genetic Pollution from Farm Forestry using eucalypt species and hybrids; A report for the RIRDC/L&WA/FWPRDC]; Joint Venture Agroforestry Program; by Brad M. Potts, Robert C. Barbour, Andrew B. Hingston; September 2001; RIRDC Publication No 01/114; RIRDC Project No CPF – 3A; |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-642-58336-9 |publisher=Australian Government, Rural Industrial Research and Development Corporation |access-date=April 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040102175403/http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/AFT/01-114.pdf |archive-date=January 2, 2004 }}</ref> An example of this is the interbreeding of migrating [[coyote]]s with the [[red wolf]], in areas of eastern [[North Carolina]] where the [[red wolf]] was reintroduced, reducing red wolf numbers.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2015.01.013 |title=Factors influencing red wolf–coyote hybridization in eastern North Carolina, USA |journal=[[Biological Conservation]] |volume=184 |pages=108–116 |year=2015 |last1=Bohling |first1=Justin H. |last2=Waits |first2=Lisette P.|bibcode=2015BCons.184..108B }}</ref>

=== Environmental ===

In South Africa's Cape Town region, analysis demonstrated that the restoration of priority source water sub-catchments through the removal of thirsty alien plant invasions (such as Australian acacias, pines and eucalyptus, and Australian black wattle) would generate expected annual water gains of 50 billion liters within 5 years compared to the business-as-usual scenario (which is important as Cape Town experiences significant [[water scarcity]]).
This is the equivalent to 1/6th of the city's current supply needs. These annual gains will double within 30 years. The catchment restoration is significantly more cost-effective then other water augmentation solutions (1/10 the unit cost of alternative options).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cape Town is Facing Day Zero |url=https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/africa/stories-in-africa/cape-town-faces--day-zero-/ |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=The Nature Conservancy}}</ref> A water fund has been established, and these exotic species are being eradicated.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/GCTWF-summary-11.14.18.pdf |title=Greater cape town water fund |access-date=November 16, 2020 |archive-date=February 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228175854/https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/GCTWF-summary-11.14.18.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Human health ===

Invasive species can affect human health. With the alteration in ecosystem functionality (due to homogenization of biota communities), invasive species have resulted in negative effects on human well-being, which includes reduced resource availability, unrestrained spread of human diseases, recreational and educational activities, and tourism.<ref name="":8"">{{cite journal |last1=Mazza |first1=G. |last2=Tricarico |first2=E. |last3=Genovesi |first3=P. |last4=Gherardi |first4=F. |title=Biological invaders are threats to human health: an overview |journal=Ethology Ecology & Evolution |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=26 |issue=2–3 |date=2013-12-19 |issn=0394-9370 |doi=10.1080/03949370.2013.863225 |pages=112–129|s2cid=58888740 }}</ref><ref name="":22""/> Alien species have caused diseases including [[HIV|human immunodeficiency virus]] (HIV), [[Monkeypox|monkey pox]], and [[severe acute respiratory syndrome]] (SARS).<ref name="":22""/>

Invasive species and accompanying control efforts can have long term [[public health]] implications. For instance, [[pesticide]]s applied to treat a particular pest species could pollute soil and surface water.<ref name=""pimental""/> Encroachment of humans into previously remote ecosystems has exposed exotic diseases such as [[HIV]] to the wider population.<ref name=""pimental""/> Introduced birds (e.g. [[pigeons]]), rodents and insects (e.g. [[mosquito]], [[flea]], [[louse]] and [[tsetse fly]] pests) can serve as vectors and reservoirs of human afflictions. Throughout recorded history, epidemics of human diseases, such as [[malaria]], [[yellow fever]], [[typhus]], and [[bubonic plague]], spread via these vectors.<ref name=""elton""/> A recent example of an introduced disease is the spread of the [[West Nile virus]], which killed humans, birds, mammals, and reptiles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lanciotti |first1=R. S. |last2=Roehrig |first2=J. T. |last3=Deubel |first3=V. |last4=Smith |first4=J. |last5=Parker |first5=M. |last6=Steele |first6=K. |last7=Crise |first7=B. |last8=Volpe |first8=K. E. |last9=Crabtree |first9=M. B. |last10=Scherret |first10=J. H. |last11=Hall |first11=R. A. |last12=MacKenzie |first12=J. S. |last13=Cropp |first13=C. B. |last14=Panigrahy |first14=B. |last15=Ostlund |first15=E. |date=17 December 1999 |title=Origin of the West Nile Virus Responsible for an Outbreak of Encephalitis in the Northeastern United States |journal=Science |volume=286 |issue=5448 |pages=2333–2337 |doi=10.1126/science.286.5448.2333 |pmid=10600742 |last16=Schmitt |first16=B. |last17=Malkinson |first17=M. |last18=Banet |first18=C. |last19=Weissman |first19=J. |last20=Komar |first20=N. |last21=Savage |first21=H. M. |last22=Stone |first22=W. |last23=McNamara |first23=T. |last24=Gubler |first24=D. J. |display-authors=6}}</ref> The introduced [[Chinese mitten crab]]s are carriers of [[Paragonimus westermani|Asian lung fluke]].{{r|pnwaquaticinv}} Waterborne disease agents, such as [[cholera]] bacteria (''[[Vibrio cholerae]]''), and causative agents of [[harmful algal bloom]]s are often transported via ballast water.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hallegraeff |first=G.M. |year=1998 |title=Transport of toxic dinoflagellates via ships' ballast water: Bioeconomic risk assessment and efficacy of possible ballast water management strategies |journal=[[Marine Ecology Progress Series]] |volume=168 |pages=297–309 |bibcode=1998MEPS..168..297H |doi=10.3354/meps168297 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Economic ===

Globally, 1.4 trillion dollars are spent every year in managing and controlling invasive species.{{r |amstutz2018}} Invasive species can become financial burdens for many countries. Due to ecological degradation caused by invasive species, this can alter the functionality and reduce the services that ecosystems provide. Additional costs are expected to control the spread of biological invasion, to mitigate further impacts, and to restore ecosystems. For example, the cost of damage caused by 79 invasive species between 1906 and 1991 in the United States has been estimated at US$120&nbsp;billion.<ref name="":22"">{{Cite journal |last1=Pyšek |first1=P. |last2=Richardson |first2=D.M. |date=2010 |title=Invasive Species, Environmental Change and Management, and Health |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=25–55 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-033009-095548 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In China, invasive species have reduced the country's gross domestic product (GDP) by 1.36% per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Haigen |last2=Ding |first2=Hui |last3=Li |first3=Mingyan |last4=Qiang |first4=Sheng |last5=Guo |first5=Jianying |last6=Han |first6=Zhengmin |last7=Huang |first7=Zongguo |last8=Sun |first8=Hongying |last9=He |first9=Shunping |last10=Wu |first10=Hairong |last11=Wan |first11=Fanghao |title=The distribution and economic losses of alien species invasion to China |journal=Biological Invasions |volume=8 |issue=7 |date=2006 |issn=1387-3547 |doi=10.1007/s10530-005-5841-2 |pages=1495–1500|bibcode=2006BiInv...8.1495X |s2cid=25890246 }}</ref> Management of biological invasion can be costly. In Australia, the expense to monitor, control, manage, and research invasive weed species was approximately AU$116.4&nbsp;million per year, with costs only directed to central and local government.<ref name="":22""/> In some situations, invasive species may have benefits, such as economic returns. For instance, invasive trees can be logged for commercial forestry. However, in most cases, the economic returns are far less than the cost caused by biological invasion.<ref name="":32"">{{cite journal |last1=Molnar |first1=Jennifer L |last2=Gamboa |first2=Rebecca L |last3=Revenga |first3=Carmen |last4=Spalding |first4=Mark D |title=Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=6 |issue=9 |date=2008 |issn=1540-9295 |doi=10.1890/070064 |pages=485–492|bibcode=2008FrEE....6..485M }}</ref><ref name="":22""/>

==== United States ====

In the [[Great Lakes region]] the [[sea lamprey]] is an invasive species. In its original habitat, it had co-evolved as a [[Parasitism |parasite]] that did not kill its host. However, in the Great Lakes Region, it acts as a predator and can consume up to 40 pounds of fish in its 12–18 month feeding period.<ref name="":0"">{{cite web |url=http://www.glfc.org/sea-lamprey.php |title=Great Lakes Fishery Commission – Sea Lamprey |website=www.glfc.org |access-date=October 24, 2017 |archive-date=October 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025023343/http://www.glfc.org/sea-lamprey.php |url-status=live}}</ref> Sea lampreys prey on all types of large fish such as [[lake trout]] and [[salmon]]. The sea lampreys' destructive effects on large fish negatively affect the fishing industry and have helped cause the collapse of the population of some species.<ref name="":0""/>

[[Economic cost]]s from invasive species can be separated into direct costs through production loss in agriculture and forestry, and management costs. Estimated damage and control costs of invasive species in the U.S. amount to more than $138&nbsp;billion annually.<ref name=""pimental"">{{cite journal |last1=Pimentel |first1=D. |last2=R. |first2=Zuniga |last3=Morrison |first3=D |year=2005 |title=Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States |journal=[[Ecological Economics]] |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=273–288 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002 }}</ref> Economic losses can occur through loss of [[recreation]]al and [[tourism]] revenues.<ref name=""simb"">{{cite journal |last=Simberloff |first=D. |year=2001 |jstor=41717176 |title=Biological invasions – How are they affecting us, and what can we do about them? |journal=[[Western North American Naturalist]] |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=308–315}}</ref> When economic costs of invasions are calculated as production loss and management costs, they are low because they do not consider environmental damage; if monetary values were assigned to the [[extinction]] of species, loss in biodiversity, and loss of [[ecosystem services]], costs from impacts of invasive species would drastically increase.<ref name=""pimental""/> It is often argued that the key to invasive species management is early detection and rapid response.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/invasivespecies/upload/2008-2012-National-Invasive-Species-Management-Plan.pdf |title=2008–2012 National Invasive Species Management Plan. |publisher=National Invasive Species Council, Department of the Interior |year=2008 |location=Washington, DC. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929011911/https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/invasivespecies/upload/2008-2012-National-Invasive-Species-Management-Plan.pdf |archive-date=29 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, early response only helps when the invasive species is not frequently reintroduced into the managed area, and the cost of response is affordable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Holden |first1=Matthew H. |last2=Nyrop |first2=Jan P. |last3=Ellner |first3=Stephen P. |date=June 1, 2016 |title=The economic benefit of time-varying surveillance effort for invasive species management |journal=[[Journal of Applied Ecology]] |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=712–721 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12617 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2016JApEc..53..712H }}</ref>

[[File:Parthenium smothering native flora in Biodiversity Rich Forest.jpg |thumb |''[[Parthenium hysterophorus]]'', [[Achanakmar Tiger Reserve]]]]

[[Weed]]s reduce yield in [[agriculture]]. Many weeds are accidental introductions that accompany imports of commercial seeds and plants. Introduced weeds in pastures compete with native forage plants, threaten young [[cattle]] (e.g., leafy spurge, ''[[Euphorbia virgata]]'') or are unpalatable because of [[Thorns, spines, and prickles |thorns and spines]] (e.g., [[yellow starthistle]]). Forage loss from invasive weeds on pastures amounts to nearly [[US$]]1&nbsp;billion in the U.S.<ref name=""pimental""/> A decline in pollinator services and loss of fruit production has been caused by [[Western honeybee |honey bees]] infected by the invasive [[varroa mite]]. Introduced rats (''[[Rattus rattus]]'' and ''[[Rattus norvegicus |R. norvegicus]]'') have become serious pests<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gougherty |first1=Andrew V. |last2=Davies |first2=T. Jonathan |title=Towards a phylogenetic ecology of plant pests and pathogens |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=8 November 2021 |volume=376 |issue=1837 |pages=20200359 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2020.0359 |pmid=34538142 |pmc=8450633 }}</ref> on farms, destroying stored grains.<ref name=""pimental""/> The introduction of leaf miner flies ([[Agromyzidae]]), including the American serpentine leaf miner (''[[Liriomyza trifolii]]''), to California has caused losses in California's [[floriculture]] industry, as the larvae of these invasive species feed on ornamental plants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/a_serpentine_leafminer.htm |title=American serpentine leafminer – Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) |website=entnemdept.ufl.edu |access-date=November 20, 2019 |archive-date=November 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191125043634/http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/Creatures/veg/leaf/a_serpentine_leafminer.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

Invasive plant pathogens and insect vectors for plant diseases can suppress agricultural yields and harm nursery stock. [[Citrus]] greening is a [[bacterial disease]] vectored by the invasive [[Asian citrus psyllid]]. As a result, citrus is under quarantine and highly regulated in areas where the psyllid has been found.<ref name=""r2"">{{Cite web |title=Citrus Greening |url=http://www.clemson.edu/public/regulatory/plant_industry/invasive_exotic_programs/Pest%20Alerts/citrus_greening.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616000111/http://www.clemson.edu/public/regulatory/plant_industry/invasive_exotic_programs/Pest%20Alerts/citrus_greening.html |archive-date=16 June 2013 |website=Clemson Public Service Activities - The Department of Plant Industry}}</ref>

Invasive species can impact outdoor recreation, such as fishing, [[hunting]], [[hiking]], [[wildlife viewing]], and water-based activities. They can damage environmental services including [[water quality]], plant and animal diversity, and [[species abundance]], though the extent of this is under-researched.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eiswerth |first1=M.E. |year=2005 |title=Input-output modeling, outdoor recreation, and the economic impacts of weeds |journal=[[Weed Science]] |publisher=[[Weed Science Society of America]] (WSSA) |volume=53 |pages=130–137 |doi=10.1614/WS-04-022R |last2=Darden |first2=Tim D. |last3=Johnson |first3=Wayne S. |last4=Agapoff |first4=Jeanmarie |last5=Harris |first5=Thomas R. |s2cid=85608607 }}</ref> Eurasian watermilfoil (''[[Myriophyllum spicatum]]'') in parts of the US, fills lakes with plants, complicating fishing and boating.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2006 |title=Eurasian Watermilfoil in the Great Lakes Region |url=http://great-lakes.net/envt/flora-fauna/invasive/milfoil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725034837/http://great-lakes.net/envt/flora-fauna/invasive/milfoil.html#overview |archive-date=25 July 2008 |website=Great Lakes Information Network}}</ref> The loud call of the introduced [[common coqui]] depresses real estate values in affected neighborhoods of [[Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/symposia/invasive_symposium/content/Sin157_167_MVIS.pdf |last1=Sin |first1=Hans |last2=Radford |first2=Adam |year=2007 |chapter =Coqui frog research and management efforts in Hawaii |title=Managing Vertebrate Invasive Species: Proceedings of an International Symposium (G. W. Witmer, W. C. Pitt, K. A. Fagerstone, Eds) |publisher=USDA/APHIS/WS, National Wildlife Research Center |location=Fort Collins, Colorado |access-date=June 26, 2013 |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525103353/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/symposia/invasive_symposium/content/Sin157_167_MVIS.pdf}}</ref> The larage webs of the orb-weaving spider ''[[Zygiella x-notata]]'', invasive in California, disrupts garden work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spider Invaders |url=https://www.kqed.org/quest/9595/spider-invaders |access-date=2020-12-13 |website=KQED |date=October 18, 2010 |archive-date=November 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105170805/https://www.kqed.org/quest/9595/spider-invaders |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Europe ====

The overall economic cost of invasive alien species in Europe between 1960 and 2020 has been estimated at around US$140 billion (including potential costs that may or may not have actually materialised) or US$78 billion (only including observed costs known to have materialised). These estimates are very conservative. Models based on these data suggest a true ''annual'' cost of around US$140 billion in 2020.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haubrock |first1=Phillip J. |last2=Turbelin |first2=Anna J. |last3=Cuthbert |first3=Ross N. |last4=Novoa |first4=Ana |last5=Taylor |first5=Nigel G. |last6=Angulo |first6=Elena |last7=Ballesteros-Mejia |first7=Liliana |last8=Bodey |first8=Thomas W. |last9=Capinha |first9=César |last10=Diagne |first10=Christophe |last11=Essl |first11=Franz |last12=Golivets |first12=Marina |last13=Kirichenko |first13=Natalia |last14=Kourantidou |first14=Melina |last15=Leroy |first15=Boris |last16=Renault |first16=David |last17=Verbrugge |first17=Laura |last18=Courchamp |first18=Franck |display-authors=6  |title=Economic costs of invasive alien species across Europe |year=2021 |journal=[[Neobiota]] |volume=67 |pages=153–190 |hdl=10138/333320 |s2cid=237460752 |hdl-access=free |doi=10.3897/neobiota.67.58196 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{visible anchor |Italy |'''[[Italy]]'''}} is one of the most invaded countries in [[Europe]], with an estimate of more than 3,000 alien species. The impacts of invasive alien species on the economy has been wide-ranging, from management costs, to loss of crops, to infrastructure damage. The overall economic cost of invasions to Italy between 1990 and 2020 was estimated at US$819.76 million (EUR€704.78 million). However, only 15 recorded species have more reliably estimated costs, hence the actual cost may be much larger than the aforementioned sum.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haubrock |first1=Phillip J. |last2=Cuthbert |first2=Ross N. |last3=Tricarico |first3=Elena |last4=Diagne |first4=Christophe |last5=Courchamp |first5=Franck |last6=Gozlan |first6=Rodolphe E. |title=The recorded economic costs of alien invasive species in Italy |journal=NeoBiota |date=29 July 2021 |volume=67 |pages=247–266 |doi=10.3897/neobiota.67.57747 |s2cid=238819772 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03410329/file/CostsinItaly.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{visible anchor |France |'''[[France]]'''}} has an estimated minimum of 2,750 introduced and invasive alien species. Renault et al. (2021) obtained 1,583 cost records for 98 invasive alien species and found that they caused a conservative total cost between US$1.2 billion and 11.5 billion over the period 1993–2018. This study extrapolated costs for species invading France, but for which costs were reported only in other countries but not in France, which yielded an additional cost ranging from US$151 million to $3.03 billion. Damage costs were nearly eight times higher than management expenditure. Insects, and in particular the Asian tiger mosquito ''[[Aedes albopictus]]'' and the yellow fever mosquito ''[[Aedes aegypti |Ae. aegypti]]'', totalled very high economic costs, followed by non-graminoid terrestrial flowering and aquatic plants (''[[Ambrosia artemisiifolia]]'', ''[[Ludwigia (plant) |Ludwigia]]'' sp. and ''[[Lagarosiphon major]]''). Over 90% of alien species currently recorded in France had no costs reported in the literature, resulting in high biases in taxonomic, regional and activity sector coverages. However, no reports does not mean that there are no negative consequences and thus no costs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Renault |first1=David |last2=Manfrini |first2=Eléna |last3=Leroy |first3=Boris |last4=Diagne |first4=Christophe |last5=Ballesteros-Mejia |first5=Liliana |last6=Angulo |first6=Elena |last7=Courchamp |first7=Franck |title=Biological invasions in France: Alarming costs and even more alarming knowledge gaps |journal=NeoBiota |date=29 July 2021 |volume=67 |pages=191–224 |doi=10.3897/neobiota.67.59134 |s2cid=237462170 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Favorable effects==

The entomologist [[Chris D. Thomas]] argues that most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species<ref>{{cite book |title=Inheritors of the Earth: How Nature Is Thriving in an Age of Extinction |first=Chris |last=Thomas |author-link=Chris D. Thomas |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1610397278 |pages=}}</ref> but this is a minority opinion. The [[scientific community]] ubiquitously considers their effects on [[biodiversity]] to be negative.<ref name=doubtingthomas>{{cite journal |date=2019 |doi-access=free |department=Book Review |first=John |title=Doubting Thomas and the Love of Invasive Species |last=Halley |journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |volume=33 |issue=6 |pages=1451–1453 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13413|bibcode=2019ConBi..33.1451H }}</ref>

Some invasive species can provide a suitable habitat or food source for other organisms. In areas where a native has become extinct or reached a point that it cannot be restored, non-native species can fill their role. For instance, in the US, the endangered [[Willow flycatcher|southwestern willow flycatcher]] mainly nests in the non-native [[Tamarix|tamarisk]].<ref name=potential/> 
The introduced [[Prosopis juliflora|mesquite]] is an aggressive invasive species in India, but is the preferred nesting site of native waterbirds in small cities like [[Udaipur]] in Rajasthan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mehta |first1=Kanishka |last2=Koli |first2=Vijay K. |last3=Kittur |first3=Swati |last4=Sundar |first4=K. S. Gopi |title=Can you nest where you roost? Waterbirds use different sites but similar cues to locate roosting and breeding sites in a small Indian city |journal=Urban Ecosystems |date=21 February 2024 |volume=27 |doi=10.1007/s11252-023-01454-5 |s2cid=267973120 }}</ref> Similarly, [[Ridgway's rail]] has adapted to the invasive hybrid of ''[[Spartina alterniflora]]'' and ''[[Spartina foliosa]]'', which offers better cover and nesting habitat.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://spartina.org/project_documents/revegetation_program/CLRA%20Report%202012.pdf |title=Clapper Rail Surveys for the San Francisco Estuary Invasive Spartina Project |last=McBroom |first=Jen |date=December 2012 |publisher=State Coastal Conservancy |location=Oakland, California |access-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305070303/http://spartina.org/project_documents/revegetation_program/CLRA%20Report%202012.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Australia]], saltwater crocodiles, which had become endangered, have recovered by feeding on introduced [[feral pig]]s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ham |first1=Anthony |title=Pigs to the Rescue: An Invasive Species Helped Save Australia's Crocodiles |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/15/science/invasive-species-pigs-crocodiles.html |work=The New York Times |date=15 August 2022 }}</ref>

Non-native species can act as catalysts for restoration, increasing the [[heterogeneity]] and biodiversity in an ecosystem. This can create microclimates in sparse and eroded ecosystems, promoting the growth and reestablishment of native species. For example, in Kenya, [[guava]] trees in farmland are attractive to many fruit-eating birds, which drop seeds from rainforest trees as much as {{cvt|2|km}} away beneath the guavas, encouraging forest regeneration.<ref>Thompson, Ken. Where Do Camels Belong? (p. 154). Greystone Books. Kindle Edition.</ref>

Non-native species can provide ecosystem services, functioning as [[biocontrol]] agents to limit the effects of invasive agricultural pests.<ref name=potential>{{cite journal |last1=Schlaepfer |first1=Martin A. |last2=Sax |first2=Dov F. |last3=Olden |first3=Julian D. |title=The Potential Conservation Value of Non-Native Species: Conservation Value of Non-Native Species |journal=Conservation Biology |date=June 2011 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=428–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01646.x |pmid=21342267 |s2cid=2947682 }}</ref> [[Depletion of oysters in the Chesapeake Bay|Asian oysters]], for example, filter [[water pollutants]] better than native oysters in [[Chesapeake Bay]].<ref>Pelton, Tom (May 26, 2006) ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]''.</ref> Some species have invaded an area so long ago that they are considered to have [[Naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] there. For example, the bee ''[[Lasioglossum leucozonium]]'', shown by population genetic analysis to be an invasive species in North America,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Successful Biological Invasion despite a Severe Genetic Load |journal=[[PLOS ONE]]|date=September 12, 2007 |pmc=1964518 |pmid=17848999 |volume=2 |issue=9 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000868 |first1=Amro |last1=Zayed |first2=Șerban A. |last2=Constantin |first3=Laurence |last3=Packer |pages=e868 |bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..868Z |doi-access=free}}</ref> has become an important pollinator of caneberry (''[[Rubus]]'' spp.) as well as [[Cucurbitaceae|cucurbit]], [[apple trees]], and [[blueberry]] bushes.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Adamson |first=Nancy Lee |title=An Assessment of Non-Apis Bees as Fruit and Vegetable Crop Pollinators in Southwest Virginia |date=3 February 2011 |degree=Doctor of Philosophy in Entomology |publisher=Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University |url=http://www.step-project.net/NPDOCS/Adamson_NL_D_2011.pdf |place=Blacksburg, Virginia |access-date=November 5, 2015 |archive-date=November 20, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120230411/http://www.step-project.net/NPDOCS/Adamson_NL_D_2011.pdf }}</ref> In the US, the endangered [[Euphydryas editha taylori|Taylor's checkerspot]] butterfly has come to rely on invasive [[ribwort plantain]] as the food plant for its caterpillars.<ref>Thomas, Chris D.. Inheritors of the Earth (p. 148). PublicAffairs. Kindle Edition.</ref>

Some invasions offer potential commercial benefits. For instance, [[silver carp]] and [[common carp]] can be harvested for human food and exported to markets already familiar with the product, or processed into [[pet food]]s, or [[mink]] feed. [[Water hyacinth]] can be turned into fuel by [[methane digesters]],<ref name=wolv>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/BF02858689|title=Energy from vascular plant wastewater treatment systems|journal=[[Economic Botany]]|volume=35|issue=2|pages=224–232 |year=1981 |last1=Wolverton |first1=B. C.|last2=McDonald|first2=Rebecca C.|s2cid=24217507}}. Cited in Duke, J. (1983) [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/dukeindex.html ''Handbook of Energy Crops''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212071515/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/dukeindex.html |date=February 12, 2013 }}. Purdue University, Center for New Crops & Plants Products</ref> and other invasive plants can be harvested and utilized as a source of [[bioenergy]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Biomass of invasive plant species as a potential feedstock for bioenergy production |first1=Koenraad |last1=Van Meerbeek |first2=Lise |last2=Appels |first3=Raf |last3=Dewil|first4=Annelies|last4=Calmeyn|first5=Pieter|last5=Lemmens |first6=Bart |last6=Muys |first7=Martin |last7=Hermy |date=May 1, 2015 |journal=[[Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining]] |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=273–282 |doi=10.1002/bbb.1539 |s2cid=83918875 }}</ref>

{{anchor|Control|Eradication|Study|Prevention}}

== Control, eradication, and study ==

Humans are versatile enough to remediate adverse effects of species invasions.<ref>{{cite book |isbn=978-0-8166-9329-0 |title=Making Other Worlds Possible: Performing Diverse Economies |last1=Roelvink |first1=Gerda |last2=Martin |first2=Kevin St |last3=Gibson-Graham |first3=J. K. |year=2015 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press }}</ref><ref name=""root""/><ref name=""Garrido"">{{cite web |title=''Homo sapiens'' (Primates: Hominidae): an invasive species or even worse? A challenge for strengthening ecology and conservation biology |last1=Garrido-Pérez |first1=Edgardo I. |last2=Tella Ruiz |first2=David |date=2016 |website=ResearchGate |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319234497 |access-date=August 19, 2020 |archive-date=June 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611120711/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319234497_Homo_sapiens_Primates_Hominidae_an_invasive_species_or_even_worse_A_challenge_for_strengthening_ecology_and_conservation_biology_Translated_from_Spanish |url-status=live }}</ref> The public is motivated by invasive species that impact their local area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://depts.washington.edu/oldenlab/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Invasive-Species-Survey_Hakam_August2016.pdf#page=8 |title=Invasive Species: Public Awareness and Education |last=Hakam |first=Lara |date=February 2013 |website=University of Washington  |access-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-date=November 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105154129/http://depts.washington.edu/oldenlab/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Invasive-Species-Survey_Hakam_August2016.pdf#page=8 |url-status=live }}</ref> 
The control of alien species populations is important in the conservation of biodiversity in natural ecosystem. One of the most promising methods for controlling alien species is genetic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Makhrov |first1=A. A. |last2=Karabanov |first2=D. P. |last3=Koduhova |first3=Yu. V. |title=Genetic methods for the control of alien species |journal=Russian Journal of Biological Invasions |date=July 2014 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=194–202 |doi=10.1134/S2075111714030096 |bibcode=2014RuJBI...5..194M |s2cid=256073288 }}</ref>

{{anchor|Cargo inspection|Quarantine}}

=== Cargo inspection and quarantine ===

The original motivation was to protect against [[agricultural pest]]s while still allowing the export of agricultural products. In 1994 the first set of global standards were agreed to, including the [[Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures]] (SPS Agreement). These are overseen by the [[World Trade Organization]]. The [[International Maritime Organization]] oversees the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (the [[Ballast Water Management Convention]]). Although primarily targeted at other, more general environmental concerns, the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] does specify some steps that its members should take to control invasive species. The CBD is the most significant international agreement on the environmental consequences of invasive species; most such measures are voluntary and unspecific.<ref name=""Lodge-et-al-2016"">{{cite journal |last1=Lodge |first1=David M. |last2=Simonin |first2=Paul W. |last3=Burgiel |first3=Stanley W. |last4=Keller |first4=Reuben P. |last5=Bossenbroek |first5=Jonathan M. |last6=Jerde |first6=Christopher L. |last7=Kramer |first7=Andrew M. |last8=Rutherford |first8=Edward S. |last9=Barnes |first9=Matthew A. |last10=Wittmann |first10=Marion E. |last11=Chadderton |first11=W. Lindsay |last12=Apriesnig |first12=Jenny L. |display-authors=6 |title=Risk Analysis and Bioeconomics of Invasive Species to Inform Policy and Management |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |date=1 November 2016 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=453–488 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085532 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Slowing spread ===

[[Firefighter]]s are becoming responsible for decontamination of their own equipment, public water equipment, and private water equipment, due to the risk of aquatic invasive species transfer.<ref name=""Sea-Grant-NY"">{{cite web |url=http://www.slocounty.ca.gov/Departments/Public-Works/Forms-Documents/Water-Resources/Invasive-Mussels/NY-Fire-Control-Equipment.pdf |title=Zebra Mussels and Fire Control Equipment |last=O'Neill, Jr. |first=Charles R. |date=2002 |publisher=[[National Sea Grant College Program|Sea Grant]] |place=[[SUNY College at Brockport]] |access-date=May 23, 2021 |archive-date=November 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105212840/https://www.slocounty.ca.gov/Departments/Public-Works/Forms-Documents/Water-Resources/Invasive-Mussels/NY-Fire-Control-Equipment.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United States this is especially a concern for [[wildfire suppression|wildland firefighters]] because [[quagga mussel|quagga]] and [[zebra mussel|zebra]] mussel invasion and wildfires co-occur in the American West.<ref name=""wildland-firefight-NPR"">{{cite web |title=Wildland Firefighters Try To Combat Spread Of Invasive Species |website=[[NPR]] |first=Nicky |last=Ouellet |date=2017-08-23 |url=http://www.npr.org/2017/08/23/545617315/wildland-firefighters-try-to-combat-spread-of-invasive-species |access-date=2021-05-23 |archive-date=June 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613005731/https://www.npr.org/2017/08/23/545617315/wildland-firefighters-try-to-combat-spread-of-invasive-species |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""Montana-firefight-MtPR"">{{cite web |last=Ouellet |first=Nicky |title=How Montana Is Fighting Invasive Hitchhikers On Firefighting Aircraft |website=[[Montana Public Radio]] |date=2017-07-27 |url=http://www.mtpr.org/post/how-montana-fighting-invasive-hitchhikers-firefighting-aircraft |access-date=2021-05-23 |archive-date=May 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523185157/https://www.mtpr.org/post/how-montana-fighting-invasive-hitchhikers-firefighting-aircraft |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""NWCG"">{{cite web |url=http://www.nwcg.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pms444.pdf |title=Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations |date=January 2017 |author=[[National Wildfire Coordinating Group]] |access-date=May 23, 2021 |archive-date=April 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419034257/https://www.nwcg.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pms444.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""Mt-DNRC"">{{cite web |url=http://dnrc.mt.gov/divisions/forestry/docs/fire-and-aviation/2018-nrcg-how-to-guide_aquatic-invasive-species_final.pdf |date=June 11, 2018 |title=Decontaminating Firefighting Equipment to Reduce the Spread of Aquatic Invasive Species |author=[[National Wildfire Coordinating Group]] |access-date=May 23, 2021 |archive-date=April 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428072947/http://dnrc.mt.gov/divisions/forestry/docs/fire-and-aviation/2018-nrcg-how-to-guide_aquatic-invasive-species_final.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Reestablishing species ===

[[File:Takahe and chick.jpg|thumb|[[Takahē]] have bred after translocation to [[island restoration|restored islands]], like these on [[Kapiti Island]], off New Zealand.]]

[[Island restoration]] deals with the eradication of invasive species. A 2019 study suggests that if eradications of invasive animals were conducted on just 169 islands, the survival prospects of 9.4% of the Earth's most highly threatened terrestrial insular vertebrates would be improved.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holmes |first1=Nick |date=March 27, 2019 |title=Globally important islands where eradicating invasive mammals will benefit highly threatened vertebrates |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=e0212128 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0212128 |pmid=30917126 |pmc=6436766 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1412128H |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Invasive vertebrate eradication on islands aligns with United Nations [[Sustainable Development Goal 15]] and associated targets.<ref name=""de WitZilliacus2020"">{{cite journal |last1=de Wit |first1=Luz A. |last2=Zilliacus |first2=Kelly M. |last3=Quadri |first3=Paulo |last4=Will |first4=David |last5=Grima |first5=Nelson |last6=Spatz |first6=Dena |last7=Holmes |first7=Nick |last8=Tershy |first8=Bernie |last9=Howald |first9=Gregg R. |last10=Croll |first10=Donald A. |display-authors=6 |title=Invasive vertebrate eradications on islands as a tool for implementing global Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Environmental Conservation |date=September 2020 |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=139–148 |doi=10.1017/S0376892920000211 |bibcode=2020EnvCo..47..139D |s2cid=221990256 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pursuing Sustainable Development for Island Communities by Removing Invasive Species |url=https://www.islandconservation.org/sustainable-development-communities-removing-invasive-species/ |publisher=Island Conservation |access-date=13 August 2020 |date=13 August 2020 |archive-date=September 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926042621/https://www.islandconservation.org/sustainable-development-communities-removing-invasive-species/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Rodent]]s were carried to [[South Georgia Island |South Georgia]], an island in the southern Atlantic Ocean with no permanent inhabitants, in the 18th century by sealing and whaling ships. They soon wrought havoc on the island's bird population, eating eggs and attacking chicks. In 2018, the South Georgia Island was declared free of invasive rodents after a multi-year  extermination effort. Bird populations have rebounded, including the [[South Georgia pipit]] and [[South Georgia pintail]], both endemic to the island.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/rat-begone-record-eradication-effort-rids-sub-antarctic-island-invasive-rodents |title=Rat begone: Record eradication effort rids sub-Antarctic island of invasive rodents |last=Warren |first=Matt |date=May 8, 2018 |work=Science |access-date=May 9, 2018 |archive-date=May 9, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509035618/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/05/rat-begone-record-eradication-effort-rids-sub-antarctic-island-invasive-rodents |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-to-exterminate-rats-on-an-island |title=The Intrepid Rat-Sniffing Terriers of South Georgia Island |date=May 17, 2018 |author=Hester, Jessica Leight |work=[[Atlas Obscura]] |access-date=June 6, 2018 |archive-date=May 22, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522041931/https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-to-exterminate-rats-on-an-island |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Taxon substitution ===

[[File:Aldabra Giant Tortoise, Ile aux Aigrettes Nature Reserve, Mauritius.JPG|thumb|The [[Aldabra giant tortoise]] has helped to restore ecological equilibrium on two islets off Mauritius, including the [[Île aux Aigrettes]] (pictured). ]]

Non-native species can be introduced to fill an ecological engineering role that previously was performed by a native species now extinct. The procedure is known as taxon substitution.<ref name=potential/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110211095555.htm |title=Invasive plants can create positive ecological change |work=Science Daily |date=February 14, 2011 |quote=""Invasive species could fill niches in degraded ecosystems and help restore native biodiversity...."" |access-date=June 22, 2017 |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525102601/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110211095555.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Searcy |first1=Christopher A. |last2=Rollins |first2=Hilary B. |last3=Shaffer |first3=H. Bradley |title=Ecological equivalency as a tool for endangered species management |year=2016 |journal=[[Ecological Applications]] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=94–103 |pmid=27039512 |doi=10.1890/14-1674 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2016EcoAp..26...94S }}</ref> On many islands, tortoise extinction has resulted in dysfunctional ecosystems with respect to seed dispersal and herbivory. On the offshore islets of [[Mauritius]], tortoises now extinct had served as the keystone herbivores. Introduction of the non-native [[Aldabra giant tortoise]]s on two islets in 2000 and 2007 has begun to restore ecological equilibrium. The introduced tortoises are dispersing seeds of several native plants and are selectively grazing invasive plant species. Grazing and browsing are expected to replace ongoing intensive manual weeding, and the introduced tortoises are already breeding.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hansen |first1=Dennis M. |last2=Donlan |first2=C. Josh |last3=Griffiths |first3=Christine J. |last4=Campbell |first4=Karl J. |title=Ecological history and latent conservation potential: Large and giant tortoises as a model for taxon substitutions |year=2010 |journal=[[Ecography]] |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=272–284 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06305.x |doi-access=free|bibcode=2010Ecogr..33..272H }}</ref>

=== By using them as food ===

{{further|List of edible invasive species}}

The practice of eating invasive species to reduce their populations has been explored. In 2005 Chef [[Bun Lai]] of [[Miya's]] Sushi in [[New Haven, Connecticut]] created the first menu dedicated to invasive species. At that time, half the items on the menu were conceptual because those invasive species were not yet commercially available.<ref name=r1>{{cite news |title=The Invasivore's Dilemma |url=https://www.outsideonline.com/1922351/invasivores-dilemma |access-date=May 28, 2019 |magazine=Outside |last=Jacobsen |first=Rowan |date=March 24, 2014 |archive-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528211949/https://www.outsideonline.com/1922351/invasivores-dilemma |url-status=live}}</ref> By 2013, Miya's offered invasive aquatic species such as Chesapeake [[blue catfish]], Florida [[lionfish]], Kentucky [[silver carp]], Georgia [[cannonball jellyfish]], and invasive plants such as [[Japanese knotweed]] and [[autumn olive]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Invasive Species Menu of a World-Class Chef |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=309 |issue=3 |pages=40–43 |date=September 1, 2013 |last=Lai |first=Bun |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0913-40 |pmid=24003552 |bibcode=2013SciAm.309c..40L}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/indulge-invasive-species-restaurants-across-country-180957899/ |title=Bite Back Against Invasive Species at Your Next Meal |author=Billock, Jennifer |work=Smithsonian Magazine |date=February 9, 2016 |access-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-date=March 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322193509/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/indulge-invasive-species-restaurants-across-country-180957899/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-we-really-eat-invasive-species-into-submission/?redirect=1 |title=Can We Really Eat Invasive Species into Submission? |work=Scientific American |author=Snyder, Michael |date=May 19, 2017 |access-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-date=August 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801204428/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-we-really-eat-invasive-species-into-submission/?redirect=1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kolbert |first=Elizabeth |date=2 December 2012 |title=Alien Entrées |work=New Yorker |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/12/10/alien-entrees |url-status=live |access-date=13 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018202041/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/12/10/alien-entrees |archive-date=18 October 2019}}</ref> [[Joe Roman]], a [[Harvard]] and [[University of Vermont]] conservation biologist and recipient of the [[Rachel Carson]] Environmental award, runs a website named ""Eat The Invaders"".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bio |url=http://www.joeroman.com/new/bio/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528213031/http://www.joeroman.com/bio/ |archive-date=28 May 2019 |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=Joe Roman |date=March 12, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Eat The Invaders — Fighting Invasive Species, One Bite At A Time! |url=http://eattheinvaders.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519015542/http://eattheinvaders.org/ |archive-date=19 May 2019 |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=eattheinvaders.org}}</ref><ref name=r1/> Skeptics point out that once a foreign species has entrenched itself in a new place—such as the [[Indo-Pacific]] [[lionfish]] that has now virtually taken over the waters of the Western [[Atlantic Ocean |Atlantic]], [[Caribbean]] and [[Gulf of Mexico]]—eradication is almost impossible. Critics argue that encouraging consumption might have the unintended effect of spreading harmful species even more widely.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/world-on-a-plate/2015/feb/06/cooking-cant-solve-the-invasive-threat |title=Cooking can't solve the threat of invasive species |author=Bryce, Emma |date=February 6, 2015 |access-date=October 16, 2017 |work=The Guardian |archive-date=October 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017201839/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/world-on-a-plate/2015/feb/06/cooking-cant-solve-the-invasive-threat |url-status=live}}</ref>

Proponents of eating invasive organisms argue that humans have the ability to eat away any species that it has an appetite for, pointing to the many animals which humans have been able to hunt to extinction—such as the [[Caribbean monk seal]], and the [[passenger pigeon]]. They further point to the success that [[Jamaica]] has had in significantly decreasing the population of [[lionfish]] by encouraging the consumption of the fish.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/invasive-lionfish-kings-caribbean-may-met-match-011600208.html |title=Invasive Lionfish, the Kings of the Caribbean, May Have Met Their Match |date=January 24, 2014 |work=Yahoo News |last=Conniff |first=Richard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140127033047/https://news.yahoo.com/invasive-lionfish-kings-caribbean-may-met-match-011600208.html |archive-date=January 27, 2014}}</ref>

In the 21st century, organizations including Reef Environmental Educational Foundation and the Institute for Applied Ecology have published cookbooks and recipes using invasive species as ingredients.<ref>{{cite book |author=Parks |first1=Mary |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/44139470-the-green-crab-cookbook |title=The Green Crab Cookbook |last2=Thanh |first2=Thai |publisher=Green Crab R&d |year=2019 |isbn=9780578427942 |access-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004001822/https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/44139470-the-green-crab-cookbook |archive-date=October 4, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.reef.org/products/lionfish-cookbook-2nd-edition |title=Lionfish Cookbook 2nd Edition &#124; Reef Environmental Education Foundation |website=www.reef.org |access-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528212729/https://www.reef.org/products/lionfish-cookbook-2nd-edition |url-status=live}}</ref> Invasive plant species have been explored as a sustainable source of beneficial phytochemicals and edible protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Iyer |first1=Ajay |last2=Bestwick |first2=Charles S. |last3=Duncan |first3=Sylvia H. |last4=Russell |first4=Wendy R. |date=2021-02-15 |title=Invasive Plants Are a Valuable Alternate Protein Source and Can Contribute to Meeting Climate Change Targets |journal=Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems |volume=5 |doi=10.3389/fsufs.2021.575056 |issn=2571-581X |doi-access=free |hdl=2164/15875 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Iyer |first1=Ajay |last2=Guerrier |first2=Lisa |last3=Leveque |first3=Salomé |last4=Bestwick |first4=Charles S. |last5=Duncan |first5=Sylvia H. |last6=Russell |first6=Wendy R. |date=2022 |title=High throughput method development and optimised production of leaf protein concentrates with potential to support the agri-industry |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11694-021-01136-w |journal=Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=49–65 |doi=10.1007/s11694-021-01136-w |s2cid=244407388 |issn=2193-4126 |hdl=2164/19275 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nuñez |first=Martin A. |last2=Kuebbing |first2=Sara |last3=Dimarco |first3=Romina D. |last4=Simberloff |first4=Daniel |date=December 2012 |title=Invasive Species: to eat or not to eat, that is the question |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00250.x |journal=Conservation Letters |language=en |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=334–341 |doi=10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00250.x |issn=1755-263X}}</ref>

===Pesticides===

[[Pesticide]]s are commonly used to control and eradicate invasives.<ref name=""Goss-et-al-2020"">{{cite journal |last1=Goss |first1=Erica M. |last2=Kendig |first2=Amy E. |last3=Adhikari |first3=Ashish |last4=Lane |first4=Brett |last5=Kortessis |first5=Nicholas |last6=Holt |first6=Robert D. |last7=Clay |first7=Keith |last8=Harmon |first8=Philip F. |last9=Flory |first9=S. Luke |title=Disease in Invasive Plant Populations |journal=Annual Review of Phytopathology |date=25 August 2020 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=97–117 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-010820-012757 |pmid=32516034 |s2cid=219563975 }}</ref> Herbicides used against invasive plants include [[fungal herbicide]]s.<ref name=""Goss-et-al-2020""/> Although the [[effective population size]] of an introduced population is [[population bottleneck|bottlenecked]], some [[genetic variation]] has been known to provide invasive plants with [[plant disease resistance|resistance against these fungal bioherbicides]].<ref name=""Goss-et-al-2020""/> Meyer ''et al.'' 2010 finds invasive populations of ''[[Bromus tectorum]]'' with resistance to ''[[Ustilago]] [[Ustilago bullata|bullata]]'' used as a biocontrol, and Bruckart ''et al.'' 2017 find the same in ''[[Microstegium vimineum]]'' subject to ''[[Bipolaris]] [[Bipolaris microstegii|microstegii]]'' and ''[[Bipolaris drechsleri|B. drechsleri]]''.<ref name=""Goss-et-al-2020""/> This is not solely a character of invasive plant genetics, but is normal for wild plants such as the weed ''[[Linum marginale]]'' and its fungal pathogen ''[[Melampsora lini]]''.<ref name=""Goss-et-al-2020""/> Crops have another disadvantage over any uncontrolled plant – wild native or invasive – namely their greater uptake of nutrients,<ref name=""Goss-et-al-2020""/> as they are [[crop breeding|deliberately bred]] to increase nutrient intake to enable increased product output.<ref name=""Goss-et-al-2020""/>

=== Gene drive ===

A gene drive could be used to eliminate invasive species and has, for example, been proposed as a way to eliminate [[invasive species in New Zealand]].<ref name=""NZ gene drive James Kalmakoff"">{{cite web |last=Kalmakoff |first=James |url=http://www.merlinnz.com/blog/crispr-pest-free-nz/ |title=CRISPR for pest-free NZ |date=11 October 2016 |access-date=19 October 2016 }}</ref> Gene drives for biodiversity conservation purposes are being explored as part of The Genetic Biocontrol of Invasive Rodents (GBIRd) program because they offer the potential for reduced risk to non-target species and reduced costs when compared to traditional invasive species removal techniques.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geneticbiocontrol.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/GBIRD-FactSheet-April-2018.pdf |title=GBIRd Fact Sheet |date=1 April 2018 |access-date=14 November 2018 }}</ref> A wider outreach network for gene drive research exists to raise awareness of the value of gene drive research for the public good.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://genedrivenetwork.org/resources/6-mission-principles-statement-july2018/file |title=Mission & Principles Statement |date=1 July 2018 |access-date=14 November 2018 }}</ref> Some scientists are concerned that the technique could wipe out species in native habitats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/gene-drives-could-wipe-out-whole-populations-of-pests-in-one-fell-swoop-81681 |title='Gene drives' could wipe out whole populations of pests in one fell swoop |work=The Conversation|date=August 8, 2017 }}</ref> The gene could mutate, causing unforeseen problems,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.plos.org/dnascience/2017/11/30/an-argument-against-gene-drives-to-extinguish-new-zealand-mammals-life-finds-a-way/ |title=An Argument Against Gene Drives to Extinguish New Zealand Mammals: Life Finds a Way |work=Plos blogs |date=30 November 2017 }}</ref> or hybridize with native species.<ref name=""NZ gene drive risks"">{{cite web |last=Campbell |first=Colin |url=https://www.odt.co.nz/opinion/risks-may-accompany-gene-drive-technology#comment-1086 |title=Risks may accompany gene drive technology |publisher=Otago Daily Times |date=17 October 2016 |access-date=19 October 2016}}</ref>

===''Homo sapiens''===

Some sources name ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' as an invasive species,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0815-32 |jstor=26046104 |title=The Most Invasive Species of All |last=Marean |first=Curtis W. |journal=[[Scientific American]] |year=2015 |volume=313 |issue=2 |pages=32–39 |pmid=26349141 |bibcode=2015SciAm.313b..32M}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Rafferty |first=John P. |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |title=Invasive species |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/invasive-species |access-date=August 18, 2020 |year=2015 |quote=""...[M]odern humans are among the most successful invasive species."" |archive-date=August 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802215045/https://www.britannica.com/science/invasive-species |url-status=live }}</ref> but broad appreciation of human learning capacity and their behavioral potential and [[phenotypic plasticity|plasticity]] may argue against any such fixed categorization.<ref name=""root"">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/ece3.5049 |title=Ecology of a widespread large omnivore, Homo sapiens, and its impacts on ecosystem processes |year=2019 |last1=Root-Bernstein |first1=Meredith |last2=Ladle |first2=Richard |s2cid=203370925 |journal=[[Ecology and Evolution]] |volume=9 |issue=19 |pages=10874–94 |pmid=31641442 |pmc=6802023 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2019EcoEv...910874R }}</ref>

== Predicting invasive plants ==

Accurately predicting the impacts of non-native plants can be an especially effective management option because most introductions of non-native plant species are intentional.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ööpik |first1=Merle |last2=Kukk |first2=Toomas |last3=Kull |first3=Kalevi |last4=Kull |first4=Tiiu |title=The importance of human mediation in species establishment: analysis of the alien flora of Estonia |journal=Boreal Environment Research |date=2008 |volume=13 |issue=Supplement A |pages=53–67 |hdl=10138/235238 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lehan |first1=Nora E. |last2=Murphy |first2=Julia R. |last3=Thorburn |first3=Lukas P. |last4=Bradley |first4=Bethany A. |title=Accidental introductions are an important source of invasive plants in the continental United States |journal=American Journal of Botany |date=July 2013 |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=1287–1293 |doi=10.3732/ajb.1300061 |pmid=23825135 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Virtue |first1=J.G. |last2=Bennett |first2=Sarita |last3=Randall |first3=R.P. |chapter=Plant introductions in Australia: how can we resolve 'weedy' conflicts of interest?: Plant introductions in Australia: how can we resolve 'weedy' conflicts of interest? |pages=42–48 |s2cid=82300163 |editor1-last=Sindel |editor1-first=Brian Mark |editor2-last=Johnson |editor2-first=Stephen Barry |title=Weed Management: Balancing People, Planet, Profit : 14th Australian Weeds Conference : Papers & Proceedings |date=2004 |publisher=Weed Society of New South Wales |isbn=978-0-9752488-0-5 }}</ref> 

Weed risk assessments attempt to predict the chances that a specific plant will have negative effects in a new environment, often using a standardized questionnaire. The resulting total score is associated with a management action such as ""prevent introduction"".<ref name="":2"">{{cite journal |last1=Pheloung |first1=P.C. |last2=Williams |first2=P.A. |last3=Halloy |first3=S.R. |title=A weed risk assessment model for use as a biosecurity tool evaluating plant introductions |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |date=December 1999 |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=239–251 |doi=10.1006/jema.1999.0297 }}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{cite journal |last1=Koop |first1=Anthony L. |last2=Fowler |first2=Larry |last3=Newton |first3=Leslie P. |last4=Caton |first4=Barney P. |title=Development and validation of a weed screening tool for the United States |journal=Biological Invasions |date=February 2012 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=273–294 |doi=10.1007/s10530-011-0061-4 |bibcode=2012BiInv..14..273K |s2cid=254280051 }}</ref>
Assessments commonly use information about the physiology,<ref name="":2""/> life history,<ref name="":3""/> native ranges,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pfadenhauer |first1=William G. |last2=Nelson |first2=Michael F. |last3=Laginhas |first3=Brit B. |last4=Bradley |first4=Bethany A. |title=Remember your roots: Biogeographic properties of plants' native habitats can inform invasive plant risk assessments |journal=Diversity and Distributions |date=January 2023 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=4–18 |doi=10.1111/ddi.13639 |s2cid=253220107 |url=https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=oeb_grad_pubs |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023DivDi..29....4P }}</ref> and phylogenetic relationships of the species evaluated. The effectiveness of the approach is debated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gordon |first1=Doria R. |last2=Flory |first2=S. Luke |last3=Lieurance |first3=Deah |last4=Hulme |first4=Philip E. |last5=Buddenhagen |first5=Chris |last6=Caton |first6=Barney |last7=Champion |first7=Paul D. |last8=Culley |first8=Theresa M. |last9=Daehler |first9=Curt |last10=Essl |first10=Franz |last11=Hill |first11=Jeffrey E. |last12=Keller |first12=Reuben P. |last13=Kohl |first13=Lisa |last14=Koop |first14=Anthony L. |last15=Kumschick |first15=Sabrina |last16=Lodge |first16=David M. |last17=Mack |first17=Richard N. |last18=Meyerson |first18=Laura A. |last19=Pallipparambil |first19=Godshen R. |last20=Panetta |first20=F. Dane |last21=Porter |first21=Read |last22=Pyšek |first22=Petr |last23=Quinn |first23=Lauren D. |last24=Richardson |first24=David M. |last25=Simberloff |first25=Daniel |last26=Vilà |first26=Montserrat |display-authors=6 |title=Weed Risk Assessments Are an Effective Component of Invasion Risk Management |journal=Invasive Plant Science and Management |date=March 2016 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=81–83 |doi=10.1614/IPSM-D-15-00053.1 |s2cid=86276601 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hulme |first1=Philip E. |title=Weed risk assessment: a way forward or a waste of time?: Weed risk assessment: a way forward or waste of time? |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=February 2012 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=10–19 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02069.x |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Archaeophyte]]
* [[Climate change and invasive species]]
* [[Colonisation (biology)]]
* [[Ecologically based invasive plant management]]
* [[Escaped plant]]
* [[Hemerochory]]
* [[Invasion genetics]]
* [[Lists of invasive species]]
* [[Naturalisation (biology)]]
* [[Neophyte (botany)]]
* [[Seed dispersal]]

== References ==

=== Attribution ===

This article incorporates CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference<ref name=""Odendaal 2008""/>

=== Citations ===

{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=amstutz2018>{{Cite book|last=Amstutz|first=Lisa J|title=Invasive Species|publisher=Abdo Publishing|year=2018|isbn=9781532110245|location=Minneapolis, MN|pages=8–10}}</ref>
<ref name=davis>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Mark A. |last2=Thompson |first2=Ken |year=2000 |title=Eight Ways to be a Colonizer; Two Ways to be an Invader: A Proposed Nomenclature Scheme for Invasion Ecology |journal=Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America |volume=81 |number=3 |pages=226–230 |publisher=[[Ecological Society of America]]}}</ref>
<ref name=ehrenfeld2010>{{cite journal |last1=Ehrenfeld |first1=Joan G. |title=Ecosystem Consequences of Biological Invasions |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |date=1 December 2010 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=59–80 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144650 }}</ref>
<ref name=ivey2019>{{cite journal |last1=Ivey |first1=Matthew R. |last2=Colvin |first2=Michael |last3=Strickland |first3=Bronson K. |last4=Lashley |first4=Marcus A. |date=June 14, 2019 |title=Reduced vertebrate diversity independent of spatial scale following feral swine invasions |journal=[[Ecology and Evolution]] |volume=9 |issue=13 |pages=7761–7767 |doi=10.1002/ece3.5360 |pmid=31346438 |pmc=6635915|bibcode=2019EcoEv...9.7761I }}</ref>
<ref name=pnwaquaticinv>Aquatic invasive species. A Guide to Least-Wanted Aquatic Organisms of the Pacific Northwest. 2001. University of Washington</ref>
<ref name=trainer2012>{{Cite journal|last1=Trainer|first1=Vera L.|last2=Bates|first2=Stephen S.|last3=Lundholm|first3=Nina|last4=Thessen|first4=Anne E.|last5=Cochlan|first5=William P.|last6=Adams|first6=Nicolaus G.|last7=Trick|first7=Charles G.|date=2012|title=Pseudo-nitzschia physiological ecology, phylogeny, toxicity, monitoring and impacts on ecosystem health|journal=Harmful Algae|volume=14|pages=271–300|doi=10.1016/j.hal.2011.10.025|hdl=1912/5118|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
}}

== Further reading ==

* [https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2014/removing-threat-from-invasive-species-with-genetic-engineering/ Removing Threat from Invasive Species with Genetic Engineering]
* {{cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Heidi J. |last2=Bartsch |first2=Detlef |title=Regulation of GM Organisms for Invasive Species Control |journal=Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology |date=21 January 2020 |volume=7 |pages=454 |doi=10.3389/fbioe.2019.00454 |pmid=32039172 |pmc=6985037 |doi-access=free }}
* [https://psmag.com/environment/should-we-fight-invasive-species-with-genetic-engineering Should We Fight Invasive Species With Genetic Engineering]
*{{cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/the-true-damage-of-invasive-alien-species-was-just-revealed-in-a-landmark-report-heres-how-we-must-act-211893|title=The true damage of invasive alien species was just revealed in a landmark report. Here's how we must act|last=Sheppard|first=Andy|display-authors=etal.|date= September 4, 2023|website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.naisn.org/ North American Invasive Species Network], a consortium that uses a coordinated network to advance science-based understanding and enhance management of non-native, invasive species.
* [https://www.nonnativespecies.org/ Great Britain Non-native Species Secretariat (NNNS) website]
* [https://www.cabi.org/ISC/ CABI Invasive Species Compendium], an encyclopaedic resource of scientific information
* [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/ Invasive Species], National Invasive Species Information Center, [[United States National Agricultural Library]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110406095350/http://issg.org/database/welcome/ Invasive Species Specialist Group] – Global Invasive Species Database
* [http://www.hear.org/pier/ Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk] project
* [http://www.invadingspecies.com/ invadingspecies.com] of the [[Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources]] and [[Ontario Federation of Anglers and Hunters]]
*[https://www.fisheriesireland.ie/what-we-do/research/research-theme-invasive-species Aquatic invasive species in Ireland], Inland Fisheries Ireland
*[http://ias.biodiversity.be/ Invasive alien species in Belgium] Belgian Forum on Invasive Species (BFIS)

{{Invasive species by country}}
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{{Modelling ecosystems |state=collapsed }}
{{Pollution}}
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{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Invasive Species}}
[[Category:Invasive species|Invasive species]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Pest control]]
[[Category:Forest pathology]]"
Extinction risk from climate change,"{{Short description|Risk of plant or animal species becoming extinct due to climate change}}
{{About|data on extinction of plant or animal species due to climate change|speculation about human extinction due to climate change|Climate change and civilizational collapse}}
[[File:Strona_2022_ssps_connectance.jpg|thumb|The impact of three different [[climate change scenario]]s on local [[biodiversity]] and risk of extinction of vertebrate species.<ref name=""Strona2022"" />]]

There are several plausible pathways that could lead to an increased '''extinction risk from climate change'''. Every [[plant]] and [[animal]] [[species]] has evolved to exist within a certain [[ecological niche]].<ref name=Pocheville2015>{{cite book | last1= Pocheville | first1= Arnaud | year= 2015 | chapter= The Ecological Niche: History and Recent Controversies | chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/6188833 | editor1-last= Heams | editor1-first= Thomas | editor2-last= Huneman| editor2-first= Philippe | editor3-last= Lecointre | editor3-first= Guillaume |display-editors = 3 | editor4-last= Silberstein | editor4-first= Marc | title= Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences | location= Dordrecht | publisher= Springer | publication-date= 2015 | pages= 547–586 | isbn= 978-94-017-9014-7}}</ref> But [[climate change]] leads to changes of temperature and average weather patterns.<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 March 2019|title=Climate Change|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/climate-change/|access-date=1 November 2021|website=National Geographic}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Witze |first1=Alexandra |title=Why extreme rains are gaining strength as the climate warms |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07447-1 |access-date=30 July 2021 |work=Nature}}</ref> These changes can push climatic conditions outside of the species' niche, and ultimately render it extinct.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van der Putten|first1=Wim H.|last2=Macel|first2=Mirka|last3=Visser|first3=Marcel E.|date=2010-07-12|title=Predicting species distribution and abundance responses to climate change: why it is essential to include biotic interactions across trophic levels|url= |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=365|issue=1549|pages=2025–2034|doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0037|pmc=2880132|pmid=20513711}}</ref> Normally, species faced with changing conditions can either adapt in place through [[microevolution]] or move to another habitat with suitable conditions. However, the speed of recent climate change is very fast. Due to this rapid change, for example [[Ectotherm|cold-blooded animals]] (a category which includes [[amphibians]], [[reptile]]s and all [[invertebrate]]s) may struggle to find a suitable habitat within 50 km of their current location at the end of this century (for a ''[[Climate change scenario|mid-range scenario]]'' of future global warming).<ref name=""Buckley2012"" /> 

Climate change also increases both the frequency and intensity of [[extreme weather event]]s,<ref name=""IPCC6AR_ExtremeEvents"">{{cite book |title=Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I contribution to the WGI Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|chapter= Summary for Policymakers |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf |publisher=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104175351/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2021 |page=SPM-23; Fig. SPM.6 |date=9 August 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> which can directly wipe out regional populations of species.<ref name=""Maxwell2018"" /> Those species occupying [[coast]]al and [[low-lying island]] habitats can also become extinct by [[sea level rise]]. This has already happened with [[Bramble Cay melomys]] in [[Australia]].<ref name="":0"" />  Finally, climate change has been linked with the increased prevalence and global spread of certain diseases affecting wildlife. This includes [[Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis]], a [[fungus]] that is one of the main drivers of the worldwide [[decline in amphibian populations]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pounds|first1=Alan|title=Widespread Amphibian Extinctions from Epidemic Disease Driven by Global Warming|journal=Nature|date=12 January 2006|volume=439|issue=7073|pages=161–167|doi=10.1038/nature04246|pmid=16407945|bibcode=2006Natur.439..161A|s2cid=4430672}}</ref>

So far, climate change has not yet been a major contributor to the ongoing [[holocene extinction]]. In fact, nearly all of the irreversible [[biodiversity loss]] to date has been caused by other [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic pressures]] such as [[habitat destruction]].<ref name=""IPBES"" /><ref name="":9"" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caro |first1=Tim |last2=Rowe |first2=Zeke |display-authors=etal. |date=2022 |title=An inconvenient misconception: Climate change is not the principal driver of biodiversity loss |url= |journal=[[Conservation Letters]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=e12868 |doi=10.1111/conl.12868 |s2cid=246172852 |access-date=}}</ref> Yet, its effects are certain to become more prevalent in the future. As of 2021, 19% of species on the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] are already being impacted by climate change.<ref>{{cite web|date=October 2021|title=Species and Climate Change|url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/species-and-climate-change#:~:text=Species%20are%20already%20being%20impacted,the%20likelihood%20of%20their%20extinction|website=IUCN Issues Brief|publisher=IUCN}}</ref> Out of 4000 species analyzed by the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]], half were found to have shifted their distribution to higher latitudes or elevations in response to climate change. According to [[IUCN]], once a species has lost over half of its geographic range, it is classified as ""endangered"", which is considered equivalent to a >20% likelihood of extinction over the next 10–100 years. If it loses 80% or more of its range, it is considered ""critically endangered"", and has a ''very high'' (over 50%) likelihood of going extinct over the next 10–100 years.<ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

The [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] projected that in the future, 9%-14% of the species assessed would be at a very high risk of extinction under {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}} of global warming over the preindustrial levels, and more warming means more widespread risk, with {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}} placing 12%-29% at very high risk, and {{convert|5|C-change|F-change}} 15%-48%. In particular, at {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}, 15% of [[invertebrates]] (including 12% of [[pollinator]]s), 11% of [[amphibians]] and 10% of [[flowering plant]]s would be at a ''very high'' risk of extinction, while ~49% of [[insect]]s, 44% of plants, and 26% of [[vertebrate]]s would be at a ''high'' risk of extinction. In contrast, even the more modest [[Paris Agreement]] goal of limiting warming to {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} reduces the fraction of invertebrates, amphibians and flowering plants at a ''very high'' risk of extinction to below 3%. However, while the more ambitious {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}} goal dramatically cuts the proportion of insects, plants, and vertebrates at ''high'' risk of extinction to 6%, 4% and 8%, the less ambitious target triples (to 18%) and doubles (8% and 16%) the proportion of respective species at risk.<ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

==Causes==
[[File:Extreme weather under global warming.svg |thumb|upright=1.35| Projections of extreme weather under different levels of global warming.]]
[[Climate change]] has already adversely affected marine and [[terrestrial ecoregions]], including [[tundra]]s, [[mangrove]]s, [[coral reef]]s, and [[cave]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/08/Edited-SPM_Approved_Microsite_FINAL.pdf|title=IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse gas fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems:Summary for Policymakers}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/|title=Summary for Policymakers — Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate|access-date=2019-12-23}}</ref> Consequently, increasing global temperatures have already been pushing some species out of their habitats for decades.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Root |first1=Terry L. |last2=Price |first2=Jeff T. |last3=Hall |first3=Kimberly R. |last4=Schneider |first4=Stephen H. |last5=Rosenzweig |first5=Cynthia |last6=Pounds |first6=J. Alan |title=Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants |journal=Nature |date=January 2003 |volume=421 |issue=6918 |pages=57–60 |doi=10.1038/nature01333 |pmid=12511952 |bibcode=2003Natur.421...57R |s2cid=205209602 }}</ref>

When the [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report]] was published in 2007, expert assessments concluded that over the last three decades, human-induced warming had likely had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems,<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/33180/ |doi=10.5167/uzh-33180 |year=2007 |title=Assessment of observed changes and responses in natural and managed systems  |last1=Rosenzweig |first1=C. |last2=Casassa |first2=G. |last3=Karoly |first3=D. J. |last4=Imeson |first4=A. |last5=Liu |first5=C. |last6=Menzel |first6=A. |last7=Rawlins |first7=S. |last8=Root |first8=T. L. |last9=Seguin |first9=B. |last10=Tryjanowski |first10=P. |pages=79–131 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> and that regional temperature trends had already affected species and ecosystems around the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Root |first1=T. L. |last2=MacMynowski |first2=D. P |last3=Mastrandrea |first3=M. D. |last4=Schneider |first4=S. H. |title=Human-modified temperatures induce species changes: Joint attribution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=17 May 2005 |volume=102 |issue=21 |pages=7465–7469 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0502286102 |pmid=15899975 |pmc=1129055 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change |year=2007 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar4/wg2/assessing-key-vulnerabilities-and-the-risk-from-climate-change/ |work=AR4 Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability }}</ref> By the time of the [[Sixth Assessment Report]], it was found that for all species for which long-term records are available, half have shifted their ranges poleward (and/or upward for mountain species), while two-thirds have had their spring events occur earlier.<ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

Many of the species at risk are [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctic]] fauna such as [[polar bear]]s<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amstrup |first1=Steven C. |last2=Stirling |first2=Ian |last3=Smith |first3=Tom S. |last4=Perham |first4=Craig |last5=Thiemann |first5=Gregory W. |title=Recent observations of intraspecific predation and cannibalism among polar bears in the southern Beaufort Sea |journal=Polar Biology |date=27 April 2006 |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=997–1002 |doi=10.1007/s00300-006-0142-5 |s2cid=34780227 }}</ref>  In the Arctic, the waters of [[Hudson Bay]] are ice-free for three weeks longer than they were thirty years ago, affecting polar bears, which prefer to hunt on sea ice.<ref>[http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n01/byer01_.html On Thinning Ice] ''Michael Byers'' London Review of Books January 2005</ref> Species that rely on cold weather conditions such as [[gyrfalcon]]s, and [[snowy owl]]s that prey on lemmings that use the cold winter to their advantage may be negatively affected.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/wildbirds/action_plans/docs/falco_rusticolis.pdf |title=International Species Action Plan for the Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolis |publisher=BirdLife International |year=1999 |author=Pertti Koskimies (compiler) |access-date=2007-12-28 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://aknhp.uaa.alaska.edu/zoology/species_ADFG/ADFG_PDFs/Birds/Snowy%20Owl_ADFG_final_2006.pdf |title=Snowy Owl |publisher=University of Alaska |year=2006 |access-date=2007-12-28 }}</ref> Climate change is also leading to a mismatch between the [[snow camouflage]] of arctic animals such as [[snowshoe hare]]s with the increasingly snow-free landscape.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mills |first1=L. Scott |last2=Zimova |first2=Marketa |last3=Oyler |first3=Jared |last4=Running |first4=Steven |last5=Abatzoglou |first5=John T. |last6=Lukacs |first6=Paul M. |title=Camouflage mismatch in seasonal coat color due to decreased snow duration |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=15 April 2013 |volume=110 |issue=18 |pages=7360–7365 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1222724110 |pmid=23589881 |pmc=3645584 |bibcode=2013PNAS..110.7360M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Then, many species of freshwater and saltwater plants and animals are dependent on [[glacier]]-fed waters to ensure a cold water habitat that they have adapted to. Some species of freshwater fish need cold water to survive and to reproduce, and this is especially true with [[salmon]] and [[cutthroat trout]]. Reduced glacier runoff can lead to insufficient stream flow to allow these species to thrive. Ocean [[krill]], a cornerstone species, prefer cold water and are the primary food source for aquatic mammals such as the [[blue whale]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Lovell|first=Jeremy|date=2002-09-09|title=Warming Could End Antarctic Species|work=CBS News|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/09/tech/main521258.shtml|access-date=2008-01-02}}</ref> Marine invertebrates achieve peak growth at the temperatures they have adapted to, and [[Poikilotherm|cold-blooded]] animals found at high [[latitude]]s and [[altitude]]s generally grow faster to compensate for the short growing season.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arendt |first1=Jeffrey D. |title=Adaptive Intrinsic Growth Rates: An Integration Across Taxa |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |date=June 1997 |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=149–177 |doi=10.1086/419764 |jstor=3036336 |citeseerx=10.1.1.210.7376 |s2cid=1460221 }}</ref> Warmer-than-ideal conditions result in higher [[metabolism]] and consequent reductions in body size despite increased foraging, which in turn elevates the risk of [[predation]]. Indeed, even a slight increase in temperature during development impairs growth efficiency and survival rate in [[rainbow trout]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Biro |first1=P. A. |last2=Post |first2=J. R. |last3=Booth |first3=D. J. |title=Mechanisms for climate-induced mortality of fish populations in whole-lake experiments |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=29 May 2007 |volume=104 |issue=23 |pages=9715–9719 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0701638104 |pmid=17535908 |pmc=1887605 |bibcode = 2007PNAS..104.9715B |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:Eagle River 8593.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.25|[[Eagle River (Cook Inlet)|Eagle River]] in central Alaska, home to various indigenous freshwater species.]]
Species of fish living in cold or cool water can see a reduction in population of up to 50% in the majority of U.S. freshwater streams, according to most climate change models.<ref name="":42"">{{cite journal |last1=Bryant |first1=M. D. |title=Global climate change and potential effects on Pacific salmonids in freshwater ecosystems of southeast Alaska |journal=Climatic Change |date=14 January 2009 |volume=95 |issue=1–2 |pages=169–193 |doi=10.1007/s10584-008-9530-x |bibcode=2009ClCh...95..169B |s2cid=14764515 }}</ref> The increase in metabolic demands due to higher water temperatures, in combination with decreasing amounts of food will be the main contributors to their decline.<ref name="":42"" /> Additionally, many fish species (such as salmon) use seasonal water levels of streams as a means of reproducing, typically breeding when water flow is high and migrating to the ocean after spawning.<ref name="":42"" /> Because snowfall is expected to be reduced due to climate change, water runoff is expected to decrease which leads to lower flowing streams, affecting the spawning of millions of salmon.<ref name="":42"" /> To add to this, rising seas will begin to flood coastal river systems, converting them from fresh water habitats to saline environments where indigenous species will likely perish. In southeast Alaska, the sea rises by 3.96&nbsp;cm/year, redepositing sediment in various river channels and bringing salt water inland.<ref name="":42"" /> This rise in sea level not only contaminates streams and rivers with saline water, but also the reservoirs they are connected to, where species such as [[sockeye salmon]] live. Although this species of Salmon can survive in both salt and fresh water, the loss of a body of fresh water stops them from reproducing in the spring, as the spawning process requires fresh water.<ref name="":42"" />

Furthermore, climate change may disrupt ecological partnerships among interacting species, via changes on behaviour and [[phenology]], or via [[Ecological niche|climate niche]] mismatch.<ref name=""Sales et al (2020)"">{{cite journal|last1=Sales|first1=L. P.|last2=Culot|first2= L.|last3=Pires|first3=M.|date=July 2020|title=Climate niche mismatch and the collapse of primate seed dispersal services in the Amazon|journal= Biological Conservation|volume=247|issue=9|pages=108628|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108628|s2cid=219764670 }}</ref> The disruption of species-species associations is a potential consequence of climate-driven movements of each individual species towards opposite directions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malhi |first1=Yadvinder |last2=Franklin |first2=Janet |last3=Seddon |first3=Nathalie |last4=Solan |first4=Martin |last5=Turner |first5=Monica G. |last6=Field |first6=Christopher B. |last7=Knowlton |first7=Nancy |date=2020-01-27 |title=Climate change and ecosystems: threats, opportunities and solutions |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=375 |issue=1794 |pages=20190104 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2019.0104 |pmid=31983329 |pmc=7017779 |issn=0962-8436}}</ref><ref name=""Sales et al (2021)"">{{cite journal|last1=Sales|first1=L. P.|last2=Rodrigues|first2=L.|last3=Masiero|first3=R.|date=November 2020|title=Climate change drives spatial mismatch and threatens the biotic interactions of the Brazil nut|journal= Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=30|issue=1|pages=117–127|doi=10.1111/geb.13200|s2cid=228875365 }}</ref> Climate change may, thus, lead to another extinction, more silent and mostly overlooked: the extinction of species' interactions. As a consequence of the spatial decoupling of species-species associations, [[ecosystem service]]s derived from biotic interactions are also at risk from climate niche mismatch.<ref name=""Sales et al (2020)"" /> Whole ecosystem disruptions will occur earlier under more intense climate change: under the high-emissions [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP8.5]] scenario, ecosystems in the tropical oceans would be the first to experience abrupt disruption before 2030, with tropical forests and polar environments following by 2050. In total, 15% of ecological assemblages would have over 20% of their species abruptly disrupted if as warming eventually reaches {{convert|4|C-change|F-change}}; in contrast, this would happen to fewer than 2% if the warming were to stay below {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trisos |first1=Christopher H. |last2=Merow |first2=Cory |last3=Pigot |first3=Alex L. |title=The projected timing of abrupt ecological disruption from climate change |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2189-9 |journal=Nature |date=8 April 2020 |volume=580 |issue=7804 |pages=496–501 |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2189-9 |pmid=32322063 |bibcode=2020Natur.580..496T |s2cid=256822113 }}</ref>

=== Extinctions attributed to climate change ===
Besides [[Bramble Cay melomys]] (see below), few recorded species extinctions are thought to have been caused by climate change, as opposed to the other drivers of the [[Holocene extinction]]. For example, only 20 of 864 species extinctions are considered by the IUCN to potentially be the result of climate change, either wholly or in part, and the evidence linking them to climate change is typically considered as weak or insubstantial.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite journal|last1=Cahill|first1=Abigail E.|last2=Aiello-Lammens|first2=Matthew E.|last3=Fisher-Reid|first3=M. Caitlin|last4=Hua|first4=Xia|last5=Karanewsky|first5=Caitlin J.|last6=Yeong Ryu|first6=Hae|last7=Sbeglia|first7=Gena C.|last8=Spagnolo|first8=Fabrizio|last9=Waldron|first9=John B.|last10=Warsi|first10=Omar|last11=Wiens|first11=John J.|date=2013-01-07|title=How does climate change cause extinction?|url= |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=280|issue=1750|pages=20121890|doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.1890|pmc=3574421|pmid=23075836}}</ref> These species’ extinctions are listed in the table below.
{| class=""wikitable sortable mw-collapsible""
|+Causes of global extinction for 20 species whose declines were possibly linked to climate change (data from IUCN)<ref name="":9"" />
!Higher taxon
!Species
!Possible link to climate change
!Hypothesized causes of extinction
|-
|Snail
|''Graecoanatolica macedonica''
|Drought
|Loss of aquatic habitat due to drought
|-
|Snail
|''Pachnodus velutinus''
|Drought
|Habitat degradation, drought related to climate change, hybridization
|-
|Snail
|''Pseudamnicola desertorum''
|Possibly related to drought
|Loss of aquatic habitat
|-
|Snail
|''Rhachistia aldabrae''
|Drought
|Drought related to recent climate change
|-
|Fish*<ref group=Note>''Acanthobrama telavivensis'' and ''Anaxyrus (Bufo) baxteri'' are extinct in the wild rather than globally extinct.</ref>
|''Acanthobrama telavivensis''
|Drought
|Loss of aquatic habitat
|-
|Fish
|''Tristramella magdelainae''
|Drought
|Loss of aquatic habitat due to drought, pollution and water extraction
|-
|Frog*
|''Anaxyrus (Bufo) baxteri''
|Chytrid
|Chytrid fungus
|-
|Frog
|''Atelopus ignescens''
|Chytrid
|Synergistic effects of chytrid and climate change
|-
|Frog
|''Atelopus longirostris''
|Chytrid
|Chytrid, climate change, pollution, and habitat loss
|-
|Frog
|''Craugastor chrysozetetes''
|Chytrid
|Habitat modification and chytrid
|-
|Frog
|''Craugastor escoces''
|Chytrid
|Chytrid, possibly associated with climate change
|-
|Frog
|''Incilius (Bufo) holdridgei''
|Chytrid
|Chytrid, possibly associated with climate change
|-
|Frog
|''Incilius (Bufo) periglenes''
|Chytrid
|Global warming, chytrid, and pollution
|-
|Bird
|''Fregilupus varius''
|Drought
|Introduced disease, over-harvesting, forest fires, drought, deforestation
|-
|Bird
|''Gallirallus wakensis''
|Storms
|Overharvesting and occasional inundation of island due to storms
|-
|Bird
|''Moho braccatus''
|Storms
|Habitat destruction, introduced predators and diseases, and hurricanes
|-
|Bird
|''Myadestes myadestinus''
|Storms
|Habitat destruction, introduced predators and diseases, and hurricanes
|-
|Bird
|''Porzana palmeri''
|Storms
|Habitat destruction and predation by introduced species, storms
|-
|Bird
|''Psephotus pulcherrimus''
|Drought
|Drought and overgrazing reduced food supply, other factors include introduced species, disease, habitat destruction, and overharvesting
|-
|Rodent
|''Geocapromys thoracatus''
|Storm
|Introduced predators, storm
|}
{{reflist|group=Note}}
However, there is abundant evidence for local extinctions from contractions at the warm edges of species' ranges.<ref name="":9"" /> Hundreds of animal species have been documented to shift their range (usually polewards and upwards) as a signal of biotic change due to climate warming.<ref name="":9"" /> Warm-edge populations tend to be the most logical place to search for causes of climate-related extinctions since these species may already be at the limits of their climatic tolerances.<ref name="":9"" /> This pattern of warm-edge contraction provides indications that many local extinctions have already occurred as a result of climate change.<ref name="":9"" /> Further, an Australian review of 519 [[observational study|observational studies]] over 74 years found more than 100 cases where extreme weather events reduced animal species abundance by over 25%, including 31 cases of complete local [[extirpation]]. 60% of the studies followed the ecosystem for over a year, and populations did not recover to pre-disturbance levels in 38% of the cases.<ref name=""Maxwell2018"">{{cite journal |last1=Maxwell |first1=Sean L. |last2=Butt |first2=Nathalie |last3=Maron |first3=Martine |last4=McAlpine |first4=Clive A. |last5=Chapman |first5=Sarah |last6=Ullmann |first6=Ailish |last7=Segan |first7=Dan B. |last8=Watson |first8=James E. M. |title=Conservation implications of ecological responses to extreme weather and climate events |journal=Diversity and Distributions |date=2019 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=613–625 |doi=10.1111/ddi.12878 |language=en |issn=1472-4642|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Extinction risk estimates ==
=== Early estimates ===
[[File:Warren_2018_biodiversity_areas.png|thumb|Relative to now, key areas for wildlife will retain less of their biodiversity under {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} of global warming, and even less under {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name=""Warren2018a"" />]]
The first major attempt to estimate the impact of climate change on generalized species' extinction risks was published in the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 2004. It suggested that between 15% and 37% of 1103 endemic or near-endemic known plant and animal species around the world would be ""committed to extinction"" by 2050, as their habitat will no longer be able to support their survival range by then.<ref name=Thomas2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BF, De Siqueira MF, Grainger A, Hannah L, Hughes L, Huntley B, Van Jaarsveld AS, Midgley GF, Miles L, Ortega-Huerta MA, Peterson AT, Phillips OL, Williams SE | title = Extinction risk from climate change | journal = Nature | volume = 427 | issue = 6970 | pages = 145–8 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14712274 | doi = 10.1038/nature02121 | bibcode = 2004Natur.427..145T | s2cid = 969382 | url = https://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/extinction-risk-from-climate-change(8acc0641-8055-4542-a872-6a80d9ce6418).html }}</ref> However, there was limited knowledge at the time about the species' average ability to disperse or otherwise adapt in response to climate change, and about the  minimum average area needed for their persistence, which limited the reliability of their estimate in the eyes of the scientific community.<ref name=Araujo2004>{{cite journal  | vauthors = Araújo MB, Whittaker RJ, Ladle RJ, Erhard M |doi=10.1111/j.1466-822X.2005.00182.x |title=Reducing uncertainty in projections of extinction risk from climate change |journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=529–538 |year=2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pearson RG, Thuiller W, Araújo MB, Martinez-Meyer E, Brotons L, McClean C, Miles L, Segurado P, Dawson TP, Lees DC |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01460.x |title=Model-based uncertainty in species range prediction |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=33 |issue=10 |pages=1704–1711 |year=2006 |s2cid=611169 }}</ref><ref name=""pmid15233130"">{{cite journal | vauthors = Buckley LB, Roughgarden J | title = Biodiversity conservation: effects of changes in climate and land use | journal = Nature | volume = 430 | issue = 6995 | pages = 2 p following 33; discussion following 33 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15233130 | doi = 10.1038/nature02717 | s2cid = 4308184 }}</ref><ref name=""pmid15237466"">{{cite journal | vauthors = Harte J, Ostling A, Green JL, Kinzig A | title = Biodiversity conservation: climate change and extinction risk | journal = Nature | volume = 430 | issue = 6995 | pages = 3 p following 33; discussion following 33 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15237466 | doi = 10.1038/nature02718 | s2cid = 4431239 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Botkin DB, Saxe H, Araujo MB, Betts R, Bradshaw RH, Cedhagen T, Chesson P, Dawson TP, Etterson JR, Faith DP, Ferrier S |doi=10.1641/B570306 |title=Forecasting the Effects of Global Warming on Biodiversity |journal=BioScience |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=227–236 |year=2007  |doi-access=free }}</ref> In response, another 2004 paper found that different, yet still plausible assumptions about those factors could result in as few as 5.6% or as many as 78.6% of those 1103 species being committed to extinction,<ref name=Thuiller2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thuiller W, Araújo MB, Pearson RG, Whittaker RJ, Brotons L, Lavorel S|author-link6=Sandra Lavorel | title = Biodiversity conservation: uncertainty in predictions of extinction risk | journal = Nature | volume = 430 | issue = 6995 | pages = 1 p following 33; discussion following 33 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15237465 | doi = 10.1038/nature02716 |s2cid=4387678 }}</ref> although this was disputed by the original authors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thomas CD, Williams SE, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BF, Ferriera de Siqueira M, Grainger A, Hannah L |doi=10.1038/nature02719 |title=Uncertainty in predictions of extinction risk/Effects of changes in climate and land use/Climate change and extinction risk (reply) |journal=Nature |volume=430 |issue=6995 |pages=34 |year=2004 |s2cid=4430798 |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/biodiversity-conservation-uncertainty-in-predictions-of-extinction-riskeffects-of-changes-in-climate-and-land-useclimate-change-and-extinction-risk-reply(7cde3ada-1fc0-4283-8d8a-a124d24bc86e).html |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Between 2005 and 2011, 74 studies analyzing the impact of climate change on various species' extinction risk were published. A 2011 review of those studies found that on average, they projected the loss of 11.2% of species by 2100. However, the average of predictions based on the extrapolation of observed responses was 14.7%, while the model-based estimates were at 6.7%. Further, when using [[IUCN]] criteria, 7.6% of species would become ''threatened'' based on model predictions, yet 31.7% based on extrapolated observations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maclean |first1=Ilya M. D. |last2=Wilson |first2=Robert J. |date=July 11, 2011 |title=Recent ecological responses to climate change support predictions of high extinction risk |journal=PNAS |volume=108 |issue=30 |pages=12337–12342 |language=en |doi=10.1073/pnas.1017352108 |pmid=21746924 |pmc=3145734 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10812337M |doi-access=free }}</ref> The following year, this mismatch between models and observations was primarily attributed to the models failing to properly account for different rates of species relocation and for the emerging competition among species, thus causing them to underestimate extinction risk.<ref>{{cite web | first = Wynne | last = Parry | name-list-style = vanc |url= http://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2012/0106/Climate-change-models-flawed-extinction-rate-likely-higher-than-predicted |title= Climate change models flawed, extinction rate likely higher than predicted|date= 6 January 2012 |publisher=[[csmonitor.com]]}}</ref>

A 2018 study from the [[University of East Anglia]] team analyzed the impacts of {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}} of warming on 80,000 plant and animal species in 35 of the world's [[biodiversity]] hotspots. It found that these areas could lose up to 25% and 50% of their species, respectively: they may or may not be able to survive outside of them. [[Madagascar]] alone would lose 60% of its species under {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}, while [[Fynbos]] in [[Western Cape]] region of [[South Africa]] would lose a third of its species.<ref name=""Warren2018a"">{{Cite journal |last1=Warren |first1=R. |last2=Price |first2=J. |last3=VanDerWal |first3=J. |last4=Cornelius |first4=S. |last5=Sohl |first5=H. |date=March 14, 2018 |title=The implications of the United Nations Paris Agreement on climate change for globally significant biodiversity areas |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-018-2158-6 |journal=Climatic Change|volume=147 |issue=3–4 |pages=395–409 |language=en |doi=10.1007/s10584-018-2158-6 |bibcode=2018ClCh..147..395W |s2cid=158490978 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=March 13, 2018|title=Climate change risk for half of plant and animal species in biodiversity hotspots|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/03/180313225505.htm|work=[[ScienceDaily]] |access-date=January 23, 2023}}</ref>

=== All species ===
In 2019, the [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]] (IPBES) released the summary of its [[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]. The report estimated that there are 8 million animal and plant species, including 5.5 million insect species. It found that one million species, including 40 percent of [[amphibian]]s, almost a third of [[reef]]-building [[corals]], more than a third of [[marine mammal]]s, and 10 percent of all [[insects]] are threatened with [[extinction]] due to five main stressors. The [[land use]] change and sea use change was considered the most important stressor, followed by direct exploitation of organisms (i.e. [[overfishing]]). Climate change ranked third, followed by [[pollution]] and [[invasive species]]. The report concluded that global warming of {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} over the preindustrial levels would threaten an estimated 5% of all the Earth's species with extinction even in the absence of the other four factors, while if the warming reached {{convert|4.3|C-change|F-change}}, 16% of the Earth's species would be threatened with extinction. Finally, even the lower warming levels of {{convert|1.5-2|C-change|F-change}} would ""profoundly"" reduce geographical ranges of the majority of the world's species, thus making them more vulnerable then they would have been otherwise.<ref name=""IPBES"">{{cite web |date=5 May 2019 |title=Media Release: Nature's Dangerous Decline 'Unprecedented'; Species Extinction Rates 'Accelerating' |url=https://www.ipbes.net/media-release-nature%e2%80%99s-dangerous-decline-%e2%80%98unprecedented%e2%80%99-species-extinction-rates-%e2%80%98accelerating%e2%80%99 |access-date=21 June 2023 |website=IPBES}}</ref>

In 2020, a paper studied 538 plant and animal species from around the world and how they responded to rising temperatures. From that sample, they estimated that 16% of all species could go extinct by 2070 under the ""moderate"" [[climate change scenario]] [[Representative Concentration Pathway#RCP 4.5|RCP4.5]], but it could be one-third under RCP8.5, the scenario of continually increasing emissions.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Román-Palacios C, Wiens JJ | doi=10.1073/pnas.1913007117 |doi-access=free |title=Recent responses to climate change reveal the drivers of species extinction and survival |journal=PNAS |volume=117 |issue=8 |pages=4211–4217 |year=2020 | pmid=32041877 | pmc=7049143 | bibcode=2020PNAS..117.4211R }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Rice|first=Doyle|date=February 14, 2020|title=One-third of all plant and animal species could be extinct in 50 years, study warns|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/02/14/climate-change-study-plant-animal-extinction/4760646002/|work=[[USA Today]] |access-date=February 15, 2020}}</ref> This finding was later cited in the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]].<ref name=""AR6_WGII_FAQ2.1"">Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 221-222 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004</ref>

An August 2021 paper found that [[Extinction event#The ""Big Five"" mass extinctions|The ""Big Five"" mass extinctions]] were associated with a warming of around {{convert|5.2|C-change|F-change}} and estimated that this level of warming over the preindustrial occurring today would also result in a mass extinction event of the same magnitude (~75% of marine animals wiped out).<ref name=""Song2021"">{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Haijun |last2=Kemp |first2=David B. |last3=Tian |first3=Li |last4=Chu |first4=Daoliang |last5=Song |first5=Huyue |last6=Dai |first6=Xu |date=August 4, 2021 |title=Thresholds of temperature change for mass extinctions |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=4694 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-25019-2 |pmid=34349121 |pmc=8338942 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.4694S }}</ref> The following year, this was disputed by the [[Tohoku University]] Earth science scholar Kunio Kaiho. Based on his reanalysis of [[sedimentary rock]] [[geological record|record]], he estimated that the loss of over 60% of marine species and over 35% of marine [[genera]] was correlated to a >{{convert|7|C-change|F-change}} global cooling and a {{convert|7-9|C-change|F-change}} global warming, while for the terrestrial [[tetrapod]]s, the same losses would be seen under ~{{convert|7|C-change|F-change}} of global cooling or warming.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kaiho |first1=Kunio |date=July 22, 2022 |title=Relationship between extinction magnitude and climate change during major marine and terrestrial animal crises |url=https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/19/3369/2022/ |journal=Biogeosciences |volume=19 |issue=14 |pages=3369–3380 |language=en |doi=10.5194/bg-19-3369-2022 |bibcode=2022BGeo...19.3369K |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Kaiho_2022_extinction_comparisons.png|thumb|left|The comparison between great historical mass extinctions, current extent of extinctions, and the possible extent of future extinctions driven by a plausible scenario of climate change, with and without nuclear war.<ref name=""Kaiho2022"" />]]
Kaiho's follow-up paper estimated that under what he considered the most likely scenario of climate change, with {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}} of warming by 2100 and {{convert|3.8|C-change|F-change}} by 2500 (based on the average of [[Representative Concentration Pathway]]s 4.5 and 6.0), would result in 8% marine species extinctions, 16–20% terrestrial animal species extinctions, and a combined average of 12–14% animal species extinctions. This was defined by the paper as a ''minor'' mass extinction, comparable to the end-[[Guadalupian]] and [[Jurassic]]–[[Cretaceous]] boundary events. It also cautioned that warming needed to be kept below {{convert|2.5|C-change|F-change}} to prevent an extinction of >10% of animal species. Finally, it estimated that a ''minor'' [[nuclear war]] (defined as a nuclear exchange between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] or an event of equivalent magnitude) would cause extinctions of 10–20% of species on its own, while a ''major'' nuclear war (defined as a nuclear exchange between [[United States]] and [[Russia]]) would cause the extinctions of 40-50% species.<ref name=""Kaiho2022"">{{Cite journal |last1=Kaiho |first1=Kunio |date=23 November 2022 |title=Extinction magnitude of animals in the near future |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=19593 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-23369-5 |pmid=36418340 |pmc=9684554 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1219593K }}</ref>

In July 2022, a survey of 3331 biodiversity experts estimated that since the year 1500, around 30% (between 16% and 50%) of all species have been threatened with extinction – including the species which had already gone extinct. With regards to climate change, the experts estimated that {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} threatens or drives to extinction about 25% of the species, although their estimates ranged from 15% to 40%. When asked about {{convert|5|C-change|F-change}} warming, they believed it would threaten or drive into extinction 50% of the species, with the range between 32 and 70%.<ref name=""Isbell2022"">{{Cite journal |last1=Isbell |first1=Forest|last2=Balvanera |first2=Patricia |last3=Mori |first3=Akira S  |last4=He |first4=Jin-Sheng |last5=Bullock |first5=James M |last6=Regmi |first6=Ganga Ram |last7=Seabloom|first7=Eric W |last8=Ferrier |first8=Simon |last9=Sala |first9=Osvaldo E |last10=Guerrero-Ramírez |first10=Nathaly R |last11=Tavella |first11=Julia|last12=Larkin |first12=Daniel J |last13=Schmid |first13=Bernhard |last14=Outhwaite |first14=Charlotte L |last15=Pramual |first15=Pairot |last16=Borer |first16=Elizabeth T |last17=Loreau|first17=Michel|last18=Crossby Omotoriogun|first18=Taiwo|last19=Obura |first19=David O |last20=Anderson |first20=Maggie |last21=Portales-Reyes |first21=Cristina|last22=Kirkman |first22=Kevin |last23=Vergara |first23=Pablo M |last24=Clark |first24=Adam Thomas |last25=Komatsu |first25=Kimberly J|last26=Petchey|first26=Owen L |last27=Weiskopf |first27=Sarah R |last28=Williams |first28=Laura J |last29=Collins |first29=Scott L |last30=Eisenhauer |first30=Nico |last31=Trisos |first31=Christopher H |last32=Renard |first32=Delphine |last33=Wright |first33=Alexandra J |last34=Tripathi |first34=Poonam |last35=Cowles |first35=Jane|last36=Byrnes |first36=Jarrett EK |last37=Reich|first37=Peter B |last38=Purvis |first38=Andy |last39=Sharip |first39=Zati |last40=O’Connor |first40=Mary I  |last41=Kazanski |first41=Clare E|last42=Haddad |first42=Nick M |last43=Soto |first43=Eulogio H |last44=Dee |first44=Laura E |last45=Díaz |first45=Sandra|last46=Zirbel|first46=Chad R |last47=Avolio |first47=Meghan L |last48=Wang |first48=Shaopeng |last49=Ma |first49=Zhiyuan |last50=Liang |first50=Jingjing Liang |last51=Farah |first51=Hanan C |last52=Johnson |first52=Justin Andrew |last53=Miller |first53=Brian W |last54=Hautier |first54=Yann |last55=Smith |first55=Melinda D|last56=Knops|first56=Johannes MH |last57=Myers|first57=Bonnie JE |last58=Harmáčková |first58=Zuzana V |last59=Cortés |first59=Jorge |last60=Harfoot |first60=Michael BJ |last61=Gonzalez |first61=Andrew |last62=Newbold |first62=Tim |last63=Oehri |first63=Jacqueline |last64=Mazón |first64=Marina |last65=Dobbs |first65=Cynnamon |last66=Palmer |first66=Meredith S |date=18 July 2022 |title=Expert perspectives on global biodiversity loss and its drivers and impacts on people |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2536 |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=94–103 |language=en |doi=10.1002/fee.2536 |s2cid=250659953 }}</ref>

February 2022 [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] included ''median'' and ''maximum'' estimates of the percentage of species at high risk of extinction for every level of warming, with the maximum estimates increasing much more than the medians. For instance, for {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}, the median was 9% and the maximum  14%, for {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} the median was 10% and the maximum 18%, for {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}} the median was 12% and the maximum 29%, for {{convert|4|C-change|F-change}} the median was 13% and the maximum 39%, and for {{convert|5|C-change|F-change}} the median was 15% but the maximum 48%) at 5&nbsp;°C.<ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"">Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 257-260 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004</ref>

=== Vertebrates ===
[[File:Strona_2022_coextinctions_trophic.jpg|thumb|The added impact of [[vertebrate]] species coextinctions under three [[Shared Socioeconomic Pathways]].<ref name=""Strona2022"" />]]
A 2013 paper looked at 12 900 islands in the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[Southeast Asia]] which host over 3000 vertebrates, and how they would be affected by [[sea level rise]] of 1, 3 and 6 meters (with the last two levels not anticipated until after this century). Depending on the extent of sea level rise, 15–62% of islands studied would be completely underwater, and 19–24% will lose 50–99% of their area. This was correlated with the total habitat loss for 37 species under 1 meter of sea level rise, and for 118 species under 3 meters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wetzel |first1=Florian T. |last2=Beissmann |first2=Helmut |last3=Penn |first3=Dustin J. |last4=Jetz |first4=Walter |date=February 26, 2013 |title=Vulnerability of terrestrial island vertebrates to projected sea-level rise |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12185 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=19 |issue=7 |pages=2058–2070 |language=en |doi=10.1111/gcb.12185 |pmid=23504764 |bibcode=2013GCBio..19.2058W |s2cid=9528440 }}</ref> A subsequent paper found that under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP8.5]], the scenario of continually increasing greenhouse gas emissions, numerous vulnerable and endangered vertebrate species living on the [[low-lying islands]] in the Pacific Ocean would be threatened by high waves at the end of the century, with the risk substantially reduced under the more moderate RCP4.5 scenario.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Lalit |last2=Shafapour Tehrany |first2=Mahyat |date=13 July 2017 |title=Climate change impacts on the threatened terrestrial vertebrates of the Pacific Islands |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=19593 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-23369-5 |pmid=36418340 |pmc=9684554 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1219593K |s2cid=253764147 }}</ref>

A 2018 [[Science Magazine]] paper estimated that that at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}, {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}, over half of climatically determined geographic range would be lost by 4%, 8% and 26% of vertebrate species.<ref name=""Warren2018b"">{{Cite journal |last1=Warren |first1=R. |last2=Price |first2=J. |last3=Graham |first3=E. |last4=Forstenhaeusler |first4=N. |last5=VanDerWal |first5=J. |date=18 May 2018 |title=The projected effect on insects, vertebrates, and plants of limiting global warming to 1.5°C rather than 2°C |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aar3646 |journal=Science |volume=360 |issue=6390 |pages=791–795 |language=en |doi=10.1126/science.aar3646 |pmid=29773751 |s2cid=21722550 }}</ref> This estimate was later directly cited in the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]]. According to the [[IUCN Red List]] criteria, such a range loss is sufficient to classify as species as ""endangered"", and it is considered equivalent to >20% likelihood of extinction over the 10–100 years.<ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

In 2022, a ''Science Advances'' paper estimated that ''local'' extinctions of 6% of [[vertebrates]] alone would occur by 2050 under the ""intermediate""  [[Shared Socioeconomic Pathways|SSP2-4.5]] scenario, and 10.8% under the pathway of continually increasing emissions SSP5-8.5. By 2100, those would increase to ~13% and ~27%, respectively. These estimates included local extinctions from all causes, not just climate change: however, it was estimated to account for the majority (~62%) of extinctions, followed by secondary extinctions or coextinctions (~20%), with [[land use]] change and invasive species combined accounting for less than 20%.<ref name=""Strona2022"">{{Cite journal |last1=Strona |first1=Giovanni |last2=Bradshaw |first2=Corey J.A. |date=16 December 2022 |title=Coextinctions dominate future vertebrate losses from climate and land use change |journal=Science Advances |volume=8 |issue=50 |pages=eabn4345 |language=en |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abn4345 |pmid=36525487 |pmc=9757742 |bibcode=2022SciA....8N4345S }}</ref>

In 2023, a study estimated the proportion of vertebrates which would exposed to extreme heat beyond what they were known to have experienced historically in at least half their distribution by the end of the century. Under the highest-emission pathway SSP5–8.5 (a warming of {{convert|4.4|C-change|F-change}} by 2100, according to the paper), this would include ~41% of all land vertebrates (31.1% mammals, 25.8% birds, 55.5% amphibians and 51% reptiles). On the other hand, SSP1–2.6 ({{convert|1.8|C-change|F-change}} by 2100) would only see 6.1% of vertebrate species exposed to unprecedented heat in at least of their area, while SSP2–4.5 ({{convert|2.7|C-change|F-change}} by 2100) and SSP3–7.0 ({{convert|3.6|C-change|F-change}} by 2100) would see 15.1% and 28.8%, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murali |first1=Gopal |last2=Iwamura |first2=Takuya Iwamura |last3=Meiri |first3=Shai |last4=Roll |first4=Uri |date=January 18, 2023 |title=Future temperature extremes threaten land vertebrates |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05606-z |journal=Nature |volume=615 |issue=7952 |pages=461–467 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05606-z |pmid=36653454 |bibcode=2023Natur.615..461M |s2cid=255974196 }}</ref>

Another 2023 paper suggested that under SSP5-8.5, around 55.29% of terrestrial vertebrate species would experience ''some'' local habitat loss by 2100 due to unprecedented [[aridity]] alone, while 16.56% would lose ''over half'' of their original habitat to aridity. Around 7.18% of those species will find ''all'' of their original habitat too dry to survive in by 2100, presumably going extinct unless migration or some form of adaptation to a dryer environment can occur. Under SSP2-4.5, 41.22% of the terrestrial vertebrates will lose some habitat to aridity, 8.62% will lose over half, and 4.69% will lose all of it, and under SSP1-2.6, these figures go down to 25.16%,	4.62% and 3.04%, respectively.<ref name=""Liu2023"">{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Xiaoping |last2=Guo |first2=Renyun |last3=Xu |first3=Xiaocong |last4=Shi |first4=Qian |last5=Li |first5=Xia |last6=Yu |first6=Haipeng |last7=Ren |first7=Yu |last8=Huang |first8=Jianping |date=April 3, 2023 |title=Future Increase in Aridity Drives Abrupt Biodiversity Loss Among Terrestrial Vertebrate Species |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022EF003162 |journal=Earth's Future |volume=11 |issue=4 |page=e2022EF003162 |language=en |doi=10.1029/2022EF003162 |bibcode=2023EaFut..1103162L |s2cid=257934225 }}</ref>

==== Amphibians ====
{{See also|Decline in amphibian populations}}
[[File:Feijo_2022_anurans_temperature_risk.jpg|thumb|Present and future exposure of frog species around the world to unprecedented heat, under a more intense climate change scenario SSP3-7.0. Green, yellow and red circles show whether one, two or all three key thresholds (annual mean temperature, coldest month temperature or temperature variability) are exceeded by 2100.<ref name=""Feijó2022"" />]]
A 2013 study estimated that 670–933 amphibian species (11–15%) are both highly vulnerable to climate change while already being on the [[IUCN]] [[Red List]] of threatened species. A further 698–1,807 (11–29%) amphibian species are not currently threatened, but could become threatened in the future due to their high vulnerability to climate change.<ref name=""Foden2013""/>

The [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] concluded that while at {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}, fewer than 3% of most amphibian species would be at a ''very high'' risk of extinction, [[salamander]]s are more than twice as vulnerable, with nearly 7% of species highly threatened. At {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}, 11% of [[amphibians]] and 24% of salamanders would be at a very high risk of extinction.<ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 64.15% of amphibians would lose at least some habitat by 2100 purely due to an increase in aridity, with 33.26% losing over half of it, and 16.21% finding their entire current habitat too dry for them to survive in. These figures go down to 47.46%, 18.60% and 10.31% under the ""intermediate"" SSP2-4.5 scenario and to 31.69%, 11.18% and 7.36% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<ref name=""Liu2023"" />

A 2022 study estimated that while right now, 14.8% of the global range of all [[anuran]]s (frogs) is in an extinction risk area, this will increase to 30.7% by 2100 under [[Shared Socioeconomic Pathways|Shared Socioeconomic Pathway]] SSP1-2.6 (low emission pathway), 49.9% under SSP2-4.5, 59.4% under SSP3-7.0 and 64.4% under the highest-emitting SSP5-8.5. Extreme-sized anuran species are disproportionately affected: while currently only 0.3% of these species have >70% of their range in a risk area, this number will increase to 3.9% under SSP1-2.6, 14.2% under SSP2-4.5, 21.5% under SSP3-7 and 26% under SSP5-8.5<ref name=""Feijó2022"">{{Cite journal |last1=Feijo |first1=Anderson |last2=Karlsson |first2=Catharina M. |last3=Tian |first3=Russell |last4=Yang |first4=Qisen |last5=Hughes |first5=Alice C. |date=August 12, 2022 |title=Extreme-sized anurans are more prone to climate-driven extinctions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666900522000132 |journal=Climate Change Ecology |volume=4 |page=100062 |language=en |doi=10.1016/j.ecochg.2022.100062 |s2cid=251551213 }}</ref>

A 2018 paper estimated that both [[Southern miombo woodlands|Miombo Woodlands of South Africa]] and southwestern [[Australia]] would lose around 90% of their amphibians if the warming were to reach {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name=""Warren2018a""/>

==== Birds ====
{{Main|Climate change and birds}}
[[File:Bateman_2020_us_birds_risk.jpg|thumb|Increase in extinction risk for US bird species under two different levels of warming.]] 
In 2012, it was estimated that on average, every degree of warming results in between 100 and 500 land bird extinctions. For a warming of {{convert|3.5|C-change|F-change}} by 2100, the same research estimated between 600 and 900 land bird extinctions, with 89% occurring in the tropical environments.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Şekercioğlu |first1=Çağan H. |last2=Primack |first2=Richard B. |last3=Wormworth |first3=Janice |title=The effects of climate change on tropical birds |journal=Biological Conservation |date=April 2012 |volume=148 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2011.10.019 }}</ref> A 2013 study estimated that 608–851 bird species (6–9%) are highly vulnerable to climate change while being on the [[IUCN]] [[Red List]] of threatened species, and 1,715–4,039 (17–41%) bird species are not currently threatened but could become threatened due to climate change in the future.<ref name=""Foden2013""/>

A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 51.79% of birds would lose at least some habitat by 2100 as the conditions become more arid, but only 5.25% would lose over half of their habitat due to an increase in dryness alone, while 1.29% could be expected to lose their entire habitat. These figures go down to 38.65%, 2.02%  and 0.95% under the ""intermediate"" SSP2-4.5 scenario and to 22.83%, 0.70% and 0.49% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<ref name=""Liu2023"" />  	 	 			 	

In 2015, it was projected that native forest birds in [[Hawaii]] would be threatened with extinction due to the spread of [[avian malaria]] under the high-warming [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP8.5]] scenario or a similar scenario from earlier modelling, but would persist under the ""intermediate"" RCP4.5.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liao |first1=Wei |last2=Timm |first2=Oliver Elison |last3=Zhang |first3=Chunxi |last4=Atkinson |first4=Carter T. |last5=LaPointe |first5=Dennis A. |last6=Samuel |first6=Michael D. |date=June 25, 2015 |title=Will a warmer and wetter future cause extinction of native Hawaiian forest birds? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13005 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=21 |issue=12 |pages=4342–4352 |language=en |doi=10.1111/gcb.13005 |pmid=26111019 |bibcode=2015GCBio..21.4342L |s2cid=21055807 }}</ref> For the 604 bird species in mainland [[North America]], 2020 research concluded that under {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}} warming, 207 would be ''moderately'' vulnerable to extinction and 47 would be ''highly''  vulnerable. At {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}, this changes to 198 moderately vulnerable and 91 highly vulnerable. At {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}}, there are more highly vulnerable species (205) than moderately vulnerable species (140). Relative to {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}}, stabilizing the warming at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}} represents a reduction in extinction risk for 76% of those species, and 38% stop being vulnerable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bateman |first1=Brooke L. |last2=Taylor |first2=Lotem |last3=Wilsey |first3=Chad |last4=Wu |first4=Joanna |last5=LeBaron |first5=Geoffrey S. |last6=Langham |first6=Gary |title=North American birds require mitigation and adaptation to reduce vulnerability to climate change |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |date=2 July 2020 |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=e242 |doi=10.1111/csp2.242  }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bateman |first1=Brooke L. |last2=Taylor |first2=Lotem |last3=Wilsey |first3=Chad |last4=Wu |first4=Joanna |last5=LeBaron |first5=Geoffrey S. |last6=Langham |first6=Gary |title=Risk to North American birds from climate change-related threats |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |date=2 July 2020 |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=e243 |doi=10.1111/csp2.243  |s2cid=225387919 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Survival By Degrees: About the Study|url=https://www.audubon.org/survival-degrees-about-study|access-date=25 June 2023|website=Audubon|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill,_Tockus_leucomelas_at_Mapungubwe_National_Park,_Limpopo,_South_Africa_(18115941578).jpg|thumb|A Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill female.]] 
The [[Southern miombo woodlands|Miombo Woodlands of South Africa]] are predicted to lose about 86% of their birds if the warming reaches {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name=""Warren2018a""/> In 2019, it was also estimated that multiple bird species endemic to [[southern Africa]]'s [[Kalahari Desert]] ([[Southern Pied Babbler]]s, [[Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill]]s and [[Southern Fiscal]]s) would either be all-but-lost from it or reduced to its eastern fringes by the end of the century, depending on the emission scenario. While the temperatures are not projected to become so high as to kill the birds outright, they would still be high enough to prevent them from sustaining sufficient body mass and energy for breeding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Conradie |first1=Shannon R. |last2=Woodborne |first2=Stephan M. |last3=Cunningham |first3=Susan J. |last4=McKechnie |first4=Andrew E. |date=June 24, 2019 |title=Chronic, sublethal effects of high temperatures will cause severe declines in southern African arid-zone birds during the 21st century |journal=PNAS |volume=116 |issue=28 |pages=14065–14070 |language=en |doi=10.1073/pnas.1821312116 |pmid=31235571 |pmc=6628835 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11614065C |doi-access=free }}</ref> By 2022, breeding success of the Southern Yellow-billed Hornbills was already observed to collapse in the hottest, southern parts of the desert. It was predicted that those particular subpopulations would disappear by 2027.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pattinson |first1=Nicholas B.|last2=van de Ven |first2=Tanja M. F. N. |last3=Finnie |first3=Mike J. |last4=Nupen |first4=Lisa J. |last5=McKechnie |first5=Andrew E. |last6=Cunningham |first6=Susan J. |date=May 19, 2022 |title=Collapse of Breeding Success in Desert-Dwelling Hornbills Evident Within a Single Decade |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=10 |language=en |doi=10.3389/fevo.2022.842264 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Kitanovska|first=Simona|date=May 19, 2022|title=Colorful Bird Famously Featured in 'The Lion King' Nearly Going Extinct|url=https://www.newsweek.com/colorful-bird-famously-featured-lion-king-nearly-going-extinct-1708288|work=[[Newsweek]] |access-date=January 23, 2023}}</ref> Similarly, it was found that two [[Ethiopia]]n bird species, [[White-tailed Swallow]] and [[Ethiopian Bush-crow]], would lose 68-84% and >90% of their range by 2070. As their existing geographical range is already very limited, this means that it would likely end up too small to support a viable population even under the scenario of limited climate change, rendering these species [[extinct in the wild]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bladon |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Donald |first2=Paul F. |last3=Collar |first3=Nigel J. |last4=Denge |first4=Jarso |last5=Dadacha |first5=Galgalo |last6=Wondafrash |first6=Mengistu |last7=Green |first7=Rhys E. |date=May 19, 2021 |title=Climatic change and extinction risk of two globally threatened Ethiopian endemic bird species |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=e0249633 |language=en |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0249633 |pmid=34010302 |pmc=8133463 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1649633B |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:Colony of aptenodytes patagonicus.jpg|thumb|left|[[King penguin]]s are threatened by [[climate change in Antarctica]].]]
Climate change is particularly threatening to [[penguin]]s. As early as in 2008, it was estimated that every time [[Southern Ocean]] temperatures increase by {{convert|0.26|C-change|F-change}}, this reduces [[king penguin]] populations by 9%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Le Bohec |first1=C. |last2=Durant |first2=J. M. |last3=Gauthier-Clerc |first3=M. |last4=Stenseth |first4=N. C. |last5=Park |first5=Y.-H. |last6=Pradel |first6=R. |last7=Gremillet |first7=D. |last8=Gendner |first8=J.-P. |last9=Le Maho |first9=Y. |title=King penguin population threatened by Southern Ocean warming |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=11 February 2008 |volume=105 |issue=7 |pages=2493–2497 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0712031105 |pmid=18268328 |pmc=2268164 |bibcode = 2008PNAS..105.2493L |doi-access=free }}</ref> Subsequent research found that under the worst-case warming trajectory, king penguins will permanently lose at least two out of their current eight breeding sites, and 70% of the species will have to relocate to avoid disappearance, requiring the movement of 1.1 million pairs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cristofari |first1=Robin|last2=Liu |first2=Xiaoming |last3=Bonadonna |first3=Francesco |last4=Cherel |first4=Yves |last5=Pistorius |first5=Pierre |last6=Maho |first6=Yvon Le |last7=Raybaud |first7=Virginie |last8=Stenseth |first8=Nils Christian |last9=Le Bohec |first9=Céline |last10=Trucchi |first10=Emiliano |date=26 February 2018 |title=Climate-driven range shifts of the king penguin in a fragmented ecosystem |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0084-2 |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=245–251 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41558-018-0084-2 |bibcode=2018NatCC...8..245C |s2cid=53793443 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-26 |title=Antarctica's king penguins 'could disappear' by the end of the century |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/feb/26/antarcticas-king-penguins-could-disappear-by-the-end-of-the-century |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> A 27-year study of the largest colony of [[Magellanic penguin]]s in the world, published in 2014, found that extreme weather caused by climate change kills 7% of penguin chicks in an average year, accounting for up to 50% of all chick deaths in some years.<ref>{{cite news|date=January 30, 2014|title=Penguins suffering from climate change, scientists say|newspaper=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jan/30/penguins-suffering-climate-change-scientists|access-date=30 January 2014}}</ref><ref name=""Fountain"">{{cite web|last=Fountain|first=Henry|date=January 29, 2014|title=For Already Vulnerable Penguins, Study Finds Climate Change Is Another Danger|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/30/science/earth/climate-change-taking-toll-on-penguins-study-finds.html|access-date=30 January 2014|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Since 1987, the number of breeding pairs in the colony has reduced by 24%.<ref name=""Fountain"" /> [[Chinstrap penguin]]s are also known to be in decline, mainly due to corresponding declines of [[Antarctic krill]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Strycker |first1=Noah|last2=Wethington |first2=Michael |last3=Borowicz |first3=Alex |last4=Forrest |first4=Steve |last5=Witharana |first5=Chandi |last6=Hart |first6=Tom |last7=Lynch |first7=Heather J.  |date=10 November 2020 |title=A global population assessment of the Chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica) |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=19474 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-76479-3 |pmid=33173126 |pmc=7655846 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1019474S |s2cid=226304009 }}</ref> And it was estimated that while [[Adélie penguin]]s will retain some of its habitat past 2099, one-third of colonies along the West Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) will be in decline by 2060. Those colonies are believed to represent about 20% of the entire species.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cimino MA, Lynch HJ, Saba VS, Oliver MJ | title = Projected asymmetric response of Adélie penguins to Antarctic climate change | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | pages = 28785 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27352849 | pmc = 4926113 | doi = 10.1038/srep28785 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...628785C }}</ref>

==== Fish ====
{{See also|Effects of climate change on oceans}}
[[File:2023_poikilotherm_climate_map.jpg|thumb|The projected changes in freshwater fish distribution in Minnesotan lakes under high future warming.<ref name=""Wagner2023"" />]]
It has been projected in 2015 that many fish species will migrate towards the North and South poles as a result of climate change. Under the highest emission scenario [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP8.5]], 2 new species would enter (invade) per 0.5° of [[latitude]] in the [[Arctic Ocean]] and 1.5 in the [[Southern Ocean]]. It woul also result in an average of 6.5 local extinctions per 0.5° of latitude outside of the poles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Miranda C. |last2=Cheung |first2=William W. L. |title=Multi-model ensemble projections of climate change effects on global marine biodiversity |journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science |date=1 March 2015 |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=741–752 |doi=10.1093/icesjms/fsu172 }}</ref>

A 2022 paper found that 45% of all marine species at risk of extinction are affected by climate change, but it's currently less damaging to their survival than [[overfishing]], transportation, [[urban development]] and [[water pollution]]. However, if the emissions were to rise unchecked, then by the end of the century climate change would become as important as all of them combined. Continued high emissions until 2300 would then risk a mass extinction equivalent to [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]], or ""The Great Dying"". On the other hand, staying at low emissions would reduce future climate-driven extinctions in the oceans by over 70%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Unchecked global emissions on track to initiate mass extinction of marine life |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-04-unchecked-global-emissions-track-mass.html |access-date=4 March 2023 |website=Phys.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Penn |first1=Justin L. |last2=Deutsch |first2=Curtis |title=Avoiding ocean mass extinction from climate warming |journal=Science |date=29 April 2022 |volume=376 |issue=6592 |pages=524–526 |doi=10.1126/science.abe9039 |pmid=35482875 |bibcode=2022Sci...376..524P |s2cid=248430574 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe9039 |language=en |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

A 2021 study which analyzed around 11,500 [[freshwater]] fish species concluded that 1-4% of those species would be likely to lose over half of their current geographic range at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}} and 1-9% at {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}. A warming of {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}} would threaten 8-36% of freshwater fish species with such range loss and {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}} would threaten 24-63%. The different percentages represent different assumptions about how well freshwater fishes could disperse to new areas and thus offset past range losses, with the highest percentages assuming no dispersal is possible.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barbarossa |first1=Valerio |last2=Bosmans |first2=Joyce |last3=Wanders |first3=Niko |last4=King |first4=Henry |last5=Bierkens |first5=Marc F. P. |last6=Huijbregts |first6=Mark A. J. |last7=Schipper |first7=Aafke M. |date=March 15, 2021 |title=Threats of global warming to the world's freshwater fishes |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=1701 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-21655-w |pmid=33723261 |pmc=7960982 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.1701B |doi-access=free }}</ref>  According to the [[IUCN Red List]] criteria, such a range loss is sufficient to classify as species as ""endangered"", and it is considered equivalent to >20% likelihood of extinction over the 10–100 years.<ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

In 2023, a study looked at freshwater fish in 900 lakes of the American state of [[Minnesota]]. It found that if their water temperature increases by {{convert|4|C-change|F-change}} in July (said to occur under approximately the same amount of global warming), then ''cold-water'' fish species like [[cisco (fish)|cisco]] would disappear from  167 lakes, which represents 61% of their habitat in Minnesota. ''Cool-water'' [[yellow perch]] would see its numbers decline by about 7% across all of Minnesota's lakes, while warm-water [[bluegill]] would increase by around 10%.<ref name=""Wagner2023"">{{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=Tyler |last2=Schliep |first2=Erin M. |last3=North |first3=Joshua S. |last4=Kundel |first4=Holly |last5=Custer |first5=Christopher A. |last6=Ruzich |first6=Jenna K. |last7=Hansen |first7=Gretchen J. A. |title=Predicting climate change impacts on poikilotherms using physiologically guided species abundance models |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=April 3, 2023 |volume=120 |issue=15 |page=e2214199120 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2214199120 |pmid=37011195 |pmc=10104529 |bibcode=2023PNAS..12014199W |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Mammals ====
{{See also|Decline in wild mammal populations}}
[[File:Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg|thumb|The [[Bramble Cay melomys]], thought to be the first mammal species to go extinct due to the impacts of [[Climate change in Australia|climate change]].<ref name="":0"" />]]
A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 50.29% of mammals would lose at least some habitat by 2100 as the conditions become more arid. Out of those, 9.50% would lose over half of their habitat due to an increase in dryness alone, while 3.21% could be expected to lose their entire habitat ad the result. These figures go down to 38.27%, 4.96% and 2.22% under the ""intermediate"" SSP2-4.5 scenario, and to 22.65%, 2.03% and 1.15% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<ref name=""Liu2023""/>  	

In 2020, a study in ''[[Nature Climate Change]]'' estimated the effects of [[Arctic sea ice decline]] on [[polar bear]] populations (which  rely on the sea ice to hunt [[Pinniped|seal]]s) under two climate change scenarios. Under high [[greenhouse gas]] emissions, at most a few high-Arctic populations will remain by 2100: under more moderate scenario, the species will survive this century, but several major subpopulations will still be wiped out.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Molnár |first1=Péter K. |last2=Bitz |first2=Cecilia M. |last3=Holland |first3=Marika M.  |last4=Kay |first4=Jennifer E. |last5=Penk |first5=Stephanie R. |last6=Amstrup |first6=Steven C. |date=20 July 2020 |title=Fasting season length sets temporal limits for global polar bear persistence |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=732–738 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-23369-5 |pmid=36418340 |pmc=9684554 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1219593K }}</ref><ref name=""Briggs-bears"">{{Cite web|last=Briggs|first=H|date=20 July 2020|title=Climate change: Polar bears could be lost by 2100|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-53474445|access-date=6 November 2021|website=BBC}}</ref>

In 2019, it was estimated that the current [[great ape]] range in [[Africa]] will decline massively under both the severe [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP8.5]] scenario and the more moderate RCP4.5. The apes could potentially disperse to new habitats, but those would lie almost completely outside of their current [[protected area]]s, meaning that conservation planning needs to be ""urgently"" updated to account for this.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carvalho |first1=Joana S. |last2=Graham |first2=Bruce |last3=Bocksberger |first3=Gaёlle |last4=Maisels |first4=Fiona |last5=Williamson |first5=Elizabeth A. |last6=Wich |first6=Serge |last7=Sop|first7=Tenekwetche |last8=Amarasekaran |first8=Bala |last9=Barca |first9=Benjamin |last10=Barrie |first10=Abdulai |last11=Bergl |first11=Richard A. |last12=Boesch |first12=Christophe |last13=Boesch |first13=Hedwige |last14=Brncic |first14=Terry M. |last15=Buys |first15=Bartelijntje |last16=Chancellor |first16=Rebecca |last17=Danquah|first17=Emmanuel|last18=Doumbé|first18=Osiris A.|last19=Le-Duc |first19=Stephane Y. |last20=Galat-Luong |first20=Anh |last21=Ganas |first21=Jessica |last22=Gatti |first22=Sylvain |last23=Ghiurghi |first23=Andrea |author24-link=Annemarie Goedmakers |last24=Goedmakers |first24=Annemarie |last25=Granier |first25=Nicolas|last26=Hakizimana|first26=Dismas|last27=Haurez |first27=Barbara |last28=Head |first28=Josephine |last29=Herbinger |first29=Ilka |last30=Hillers |first30=Annika |last31=Jones |first31=Sorrel |last32=Junker |first32=Jessica |last33=Maputla |first33=Nakedi |last34=Manasseh |first34=Eno-Nku |last35=McCarthy |first35=Maureen S.|last36=Molokwu-Odozi |first36=Mary |last37=Morgan|first37=Bethan J. |last38=Nakashima |first38=Yoshihiro |last39=N’Goran |first39=Paul K. |last40=Nixon |first40=Stuart |last41=Nkembi |first41=Louis |last42=Normand |first42=Emmanuelle |last43=Nzooh |first43=Laurent D.Z. |last44=Olson |first44=Sarah H. |last45=Payne |first45=Leon|last46=Petre|first46=Charles-Albert |last47=Piel |first47=Alex K. |last48=Pintea |first48=Lilian |last49=Plumptre |first49=Andrew J. |last50=Rundus |first50=Aaron |last51=Serckx |first51=Adeline |last52=Stewart |first52=Fiona A. |last53=Sunderland-Groves |first53=Jacqueline |last54=Tagg |first54=Nikki |last55=Todd |first55=Angelique|last56=Vosper|first56=Ashley |last57=Wenceslau|first57=José F.C. |last58=Wessling |first58=Erin G. |last59=Willie |first59=Jacob |last60=Kühl  |first60=Hjalmar S. |date=6 June 2021 |title=Predicting range shifts of African apes under global change scenarios |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ddi.13358 |journal=Diversity and Distributions |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=1663–1679 |language=en |doi=10.1111/ddi.13358 |s2cid=220253266 }}</ref>
[[File:Polar Bear AdF.jpg|thumb|left|A polar bear.]]
A 2017 analysis found that the [[mountain goat]] populations of coastal [[Alaska]] would go extinct sometime between 2015 and 2085 in half of the considered scenarios of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=Kevin S. |last2=Gregovich |first2=David P. |last3=Levi |first3=Taal |date=October 3, 2017 |title=Projecting the future of an alpine ungulate under climate change scenarios |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13919 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=1136–1149 |language=en |doi=10.1111/gcb.13919 |pmid=28973826 |s2cid=3374336 }}</ref> Another analysis found that the [[Southern miombo woodlands|Miombo Woodlands of South Africa]] are predicted to lose about 80% of their mammal species if the warming reached {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name=""Warren2018a""/>

In 2008, the [[Lemur-like Ringtail Possum|white lemuroid possum]] was reported to be the first known [[mammal]] species to be driven extinct by [[climate change]]. However, these reports were based on a misunderstanding. One population of these possums in the mountain forests of [[North Queensland]] is severely threatened by climate change as the animals cannot survive extended temperatures over {{convert|30|C}}. However, another population 100 kilometres south remains in good health.<ref>{{cite web | first = Rachel | last = Nowak | name-list-style = vanc | url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16875 | title = Rumours of possum's death were greatly exaggerated | date = 31 March 2009 | work = [[New Scientist]] }}</ref> On the other hand, the [[Bramble Cay melomys]], which lived on a [[Great Barrier Reef]] island, was reported as the first mammal to go extinct due to human-induced [[sea level rise]],<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2016/06/extinct-bramble-cay-melomys|title=Extinct: Bramble Cay melomys|last=Smith|first=Lauren| name-list-style = vanc |date=2016-06-15|website=Australian Geographic|access-date=2016-06-17}}</ref> with the Australian government officially confirming its extinction in 2019. Another Australian species, the [[greater stick-nest rat]] (''Leporillus conditor'') may be next. Similarly, the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season]] caused a near-complete extirpation of [[Kangaroo Island dunnart]]s, as only one individual may have survived out of the population of 500.<ref name=atlantic>{{cite web|website=The Atlantic|author=Ed Yong |title=The Bleak Future of Australian Wildlife|access-date=Feb 8, 2020|date=Jan 14, 2020 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2020/01/australias-fires-have-been-devastating-for-wildlife/604837/}}</ref> Those bushfires have also caused the loss of 8,000 [[koala]]s  in [[New South Wales]] alone, further endangering the species.<ref>{{cite web |website=Vox |title=Are Australia's koalas going extinct? We asked an ecologist.|url=https://www.vox.com/videos/2020/1/14/21064675/australia-fire-koalas-extinct|date=Jan 14, 2020|access-date=Feb 8, 2020|author1=Danush Parvaneh|author2=Christophe Haubursin|author3=Melissa Hirsch}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |website=National Geographic|title=No, koalas aren't 'functionally extinct'—yet|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/koalas-near-extinction-myth-australia-fires/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191126054458/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/koalas-near-extinction-myth-australia-fires/|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 26, 2019|author=Natasha Daly|date=Nov 25, 2019|access-date=Feb 8, 2020}}</ref>

==== Reptiles ====
[[File:Bestion_2015_lizards_Europe.png|thumb|The vulnerability of different European lizard populations to extinctions caused by climate change. Populations in group A are already at risk, B and C will be threatened under {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}. Groups D and E will become threatened under {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|4|C-change|F-change}}, and Group F is unikely to be threatened.<ref name=""Bestion2015"" />]]
A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 56.36% of reptiles would lose at least some habitat by 2100 as the conditions become more arid. Out of those, 23.97% would lose over half of their habitat due to an increase in dryness alone, while 10.94% could be expected to lose their entire habitat as the result. These figures go down to 41.69%, 12.35% and 7.15% under the ""intermediate"" SSP2-4.5 scenario, and to 24.59%, 6.56% and 4.43% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<ref name=""Liu2023"" />  	

In a 2010 study led by [[Barry Sinervo]], researchers surveyed 200 sites in [[Mexico]] which showed 24 local extinctions (also known as extirpations), of [[Sceloporus]] [[lizard]]s since 1975. Using a model developed from these observed extinctions the researchers surveyed other extinctions around the world and found that the model predicted those observed extirpations, thus attributing the extirpations around the world to climate warming. These models predict that extinctions of the lizard species around the world will reach 20% by 2080, but up to 40% extinctions in tropical ecosystems where the lizards are closer to their ecophysiological limits than lizards in the temperate zone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sinervo |first1=Barry |last2=Méndez-de-la-Cruz |first2=Fausto |last3=Miles |first3=Donald B. |last4=Heulin |first4=Benoit |last5=Bastiaans |first5=Elizabeth |last6=Villagrán-Santa Cruz |first6=Maricela |last7=Lara-Resendiz |first7=Rafael |last8=Martínez-Méndez |first8=Norberto |last9=Calderón-Espinosa |first9=Martha Lucía |last10=Meza-Lázaro |first10=Rubi Nelsi |last11=Gadsden |first11=Héctor|last12=Avila |first12=Luciano Javier |last13=Morando |first13=Mariana |last14=De la Riva |first14=Ignacio J. |last15=Sepulveda |first15=Pedro Victoriano |last16=Duarte Rocha |first16=Carlos Frederico |last17=Ibargüengoytía |first17=Nora |last18=Puntriano |first18=César Aguilar |last19=Massot |first19=Manuel |last20=Lepetz |first20=Virginie |last21=Oksanen |first21=Tuula A. |last22=Chapple |first22=David G. |last23=Bauer |first23=Aaron M. |last24=Branch |first24=William R. |last25=Clobert |first25=Jean |last26=Sites |first26=Jack W. |date=14 May 2010 |title=Erosion of lizard diversity by climate change and altered thermal niches |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1184695 |journal=Science |volume=328 |issue=5980 |pages=894–899 |language=en |doi=10.1126/science.1184695|pmid=20466932 |bibcode=2010Sci...328..894S |s2cid=9578762 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huey |first1=Raymond B. |last2=Deutsch |first2=Curtis A. |last3=Tewksbury |first3=Joshua J. |last4=Vitt |first4=Laurie J. |last5=Hertz |first5=Paul E. |last6=Álvarez Pérez |first6=Héctor J. |last7=Garland |first7=Theodore |date=June 7, 2009 |title=Why tropical forest lizards are vulnerable to climate warming |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=276 |issue=1664 |pages=1939–1948 |language=en |doi=10.1098/rspb.2008.1957 |pmid=19324762 |pmc=2677251 }}</ref>
[[File:Green Sea Turtle grazing seagrass.jpg|thumb|left|Green sea turtle grazing grass.]]
A 2015 study looked at the persistence of [[common lizard]] populations in [[Europe]] under future climate change. It found that under {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}, 11% of the lizard population would be threatened with local extinction around 2050 and 14% by 2100. At {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}} by 2100, 21% of the population are threatened, and at {{convert|4|C-change|F-change}}, 30% of the populations are.<ref name=""Bestion2015"">{{Cite journal |last1=Bestion |first1=Elvire |last2=Teyssier|first2=Aimeric|last3=Richard|first3=Murielle|last4=Clobert |first4=Jean |last5=Cote |first5=Julien |date=October 26, 2015 |title=Live Fast, Die Young: Experimental Evidence of Population Extinction Risk due to Climate Change |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=e1002281 |language=en |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002281  |pmid=26501958 |pmc=4621050 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Following the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season]], [[Saltuarius kateae|Kate's leaf tailed gecko]] lost over 80% of its available habitat.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=Michelle|last2=Tulloch|first2=Ayesha I. T.|last3=Radford|first3=James Q.|last4=Williams|first4=Brooke A.|last5=Reside|first5=April E.|last6=Macdonald|first6=Stewart L.|last7=Mayfield|first7=Helen J.|last8=Maron|first8=Martine|last9=Possingham|first9=Hugh P.|last10=Vine|first10=Samantha J.|last11=O’Connor|first11=James L.|date=October 2020|title=Impact of 2019–2020 mega-fires on Australian fauna habitat|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1251-1|journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution|language=en|volume=4|issue=10|pages=1321–1326|doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1251-1|pmid=32690905|s2cid=220657021|issn=2397-334X}}</ref>

Sex ratios for [[sea turtle]]s in the [[Caribbean]] are being affected because of climate change. Environmental data were collected from the annual rainfall and tide temperatures over the course of 200 years and showed an increase in air temperature (mean of 31.0 degree Celsius). These data were used to relate the decline of the sex ratios of sea turtles in the North East Caribbean and climate change. The species of sea turtles include ''[[Leatherback sea turtle|Dermochelys coriacea]], [[Green sea turtle|Chelonia myads]]'', and ''[[Hawksbill sea turtle|Eretmochelys imbricata]].'' Extinction is a risk for these species as the sex ratio is being afflicted causing a higher female to male ratio. Projections estimate the declining rate of male ''Chelonia myads'' as 2.4% hatchlings being male by 2030 and 0.4% by 2090.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laloë JO, Esteban N, Berkel J, [[Graeme Hays|Hays GC]] |doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2015.09.015 |title=Sand temperatures for nesting sea turtles in the Caribbean: Implications for hatchling sex ratios in the face of climate change |journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology |volume=474 |pages=92–99 |year=2016 |url=https://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa23842 }}</ref>

=== Invertebrates ===
The [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] estimates that while at {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}, fewer than 3% of invertebrates would be at a ''very high'' risk of extinction, 15% would be at a very high risk at {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}. This includes 12% of [[pollinator]] species.<ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

==== Spiders ====
A 2018 study examined the impact of climate change on [[Troglohyphantes]] cave spiders in [[the Alps]] and found that even the low-emission scenario [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP2.6]] would reduce their habitat by ~45% by 2050, while the high emission scenario would reduce it by ~55% by 2050 and ~70% by 2070. The authors suggested that this may be sufficient to drive the most restricted species to extinction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mammola |first1=Stefano |last2=Goodacre |first2=Sara L. |last3=Isaia |first3=Marco |title=Climate change may drive cave spiders to extinction |journal=Ecography |date=January 2018 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=233–243 |doi=10.1111/ecog.02902 |hdl=2318/1623725 |s2cid=55362100 |url=https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/854395/1/indexcodes.txt }}</ref>

==== Corals ====
{{See also|Environmental issues with coral reefs}}
[[File:Pulau Piaynemo, Raja Ampat.jpg|thumb|left|Coral reefs off [[Raja Ampat Islands]] in [[New Guinea]].]]
Almost no other ecosystem is as vulnerable to climate change as [[coral reef]]s. Updated 2022 estimates show that even at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}, only 0.2% of the world's coral reefs would still be able to withstand [[marine heatwave]]s, as opposed to 84% being able to do so now, with the figure dropping to 0% by {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} and beyond.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dixon |first1=Adele M. |last2=Forster |first2=Piers M. |last3=Heron |first3=Scott F. |last4=Stoner |first4=Anne M. K. |last5=Beger |first5=Maria |date=1 February 2022 |title=Future loss of local-scale thermal refugia in coral reef ecosystems |journal=PLOS Climate |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=e0000004 |language=en |doi=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000004 |s2cid=246512448 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1 February 2022|title=Last refuges for coral reefs to disappear above 1.5C of global warming, study finds|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/last-refuges-for-coral-reefs-to-disappear-above-1-5c-of-global-warming-study-finds/|website=[[Carbon Brief]]|first1=Daisy |last1=Dunne}}</ref> However, it was found in 2021 that each square meter of coral reef area contains about 30 individual corals, and their total number is estimated at half a trillion - equivalent to all the trees in the Amazon, or all the birds in the world. As such, most individual coral reef species are predicted to avoid extinction even as coral reefs would cease to function as the ecosystems we know.<ref name=""Dietzel2021"">{{Cite journal |last1=Dietzel |first1=Andreas |last2=Bode |first2=Michael |last3=Connolly |first3=Sean R. |last4=Hughes |first4=Terry P. |date=1 March 2021 |title=The population sizes and global extinction risk of reef-building coral species at biogeographic scales |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01393-4 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=663–669 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01393-4 |pmid=33649542 |s2cid=256726373 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1 March 2021|title=Half a trillion corals: World-first coral count prompts rethink of extinction risks|url=https://phys.org/news/2021-03-trillion-corals-world-first-coral-prompts.html|website=[[Phys.org]]}}</ref> A 2013 study found that 47–73 coral species (6–9%) are vulnerable to climate change while already threatened with extinction according to the [[IUCN Red List]], and 74–174 (9–22%) coral species were not vulnerable to extinction at the time of publication, but could be threatened under continued climate change, making them a future conservation priority.<ref name=""Foden2013"">{{Cite journal |last1=Foden |first1= Wendy B.|last2=Butchart|first2=Stuart H. M.|last3=Stuart|first3=Simon N.|last4=Vié |first4=Jean-Christophe |last5=Akçakaya |first5=H. Resit |last6=Angulo |first6=Ariadne |last7=DeVantier|first7=Lyndon M. |last8=Gutsche |first8=Alexander |last9=Turak|first9=Emre |last10=Cao |first10=Long |last11=Donner |first11=Simon D.|last12=Katariya |first12=Vineet |last13=Bernard |first13=Rodolphe |last14=Holland |first14=Robert A. |last15=Hughes |first15=Adrian F. |last16=O’Hanlon |first16=Susannah E. |last17=Garnett|first17=Stephen T.|last18=Şekercioğlu|first18=Çagan H.|last19=Mace |first19=Georgina M. |date=June 12, 2013 |title=Identifying the World's Most Climate Change Vulnerable Species: A Systematic Trait-Based Assessment of all Birds, Amphibians and Corals |journal=PLOS ONE |volume= 8|issue= 6|pages= e65427|language=en |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0065427 |pmid= 23950785|pmc= 3680427|bibcode= 2013PLoSO...865427F|doi-access= free}}</ref> The authors of the recent coral number estimates suggest that those older projections were too high, although this has been disputed.<ref name=""Dietzel2021""/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muir |first1=Paul R. |last2=Obura |first2=David O. |last3=Hoeksema |first3=Bert W. |last4=Sheppard |first4=Charles |last5=Pichon |first5=Michel |last6=Richards |first6=Zoe T. |date=14 February 2022 |title=Conclusions of low extinction risk for most species of reef-building corals are premature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01659-5 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=357–358 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41559-022-01659-5 |pmid=35165390 |s2cid=246827109 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dietzel |first1=Andreas |last2=Bode |first2=Michael |last3=Connolly |first3=Sean R. |last4=Hughes |first4=Terry P. |date=14 February 2022 |title=Reply to: Conclusions of low extinction risk for most species of reef-building corals are premature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01660-y |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=359–360 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41559-022-01660-y |pmid=35165391 |s2cid=246826874 }}</ref>

==== Insects ====
{{See also|Decline in insect populations}}
[[File:00 1680 Bumblebee.gif|thumb|Bumblebee collecting pollen.]]
Insects account for the vast majority of [[Invertebrate|invertebrate species]]. One of the earliest studies to link insect extinctions to recent [[climate change]] was published in 2002, when observations of two populations of [[Bay checkerspot butterfly]] found that they were threatened by changes in [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]].<ref name=""McLaughlin"">{{cite journal | vauthors = McLaughlin JF, Hellmann JJ, Boggs CL, Ehrlich PR | title = Climate change hastens population extinctions | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 99 | issue = 9 | pages = 6070–4 | date = April 2002 | pmid = 11972020 | pmc = 122903 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.052131199 | bibcode = 2002PNAS...99.6070M | doi-access = free }}</ref>

A 2020 [[Long-term experiment|long-term study]] of more than 60 bee species published in the journal ''Science'' found that climate change causes drastic declines in the [[population]] and diversity of [[bumblebee]]s across the two continents studied, independent of [[land use]] change and at rates ""consistent with a mass extinction."" When 1901-1974 ""baseline"" period was compared with the 2000 to 2014 recent period, then [[North America]]'s bumblebee populations were found to have fallen by 46%, while [[Europe]]'s population fell by 14%. The strongest effects were seen in the southern [[region]]s, where rapid increases in frequency of extreme warm years had exceeded the species’ historical [[temperature]] ranges.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soroye |first1=Peter |last2=Newbold |first2=Tim |last3=Kerr |first3=Jeremy | title=Climate change contributes to widespread declines among bumble bees across continents | journal=Science | volume=367 |issue=6478 |pages=685–688 |date=7 Feb 2020 |doi=10.1126/science.aax8591 |pmid=32029628 |bibcode=2020Sci...367..685S | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Bumblebees are disappearing at rates 'consistent with mass extinction'|website=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/02/06/bumblebees-decline-due-climate-change/4679240002/|access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref>

A 2018 [[Science Magazine]] paper estimated that at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}, {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}, over half of climatically determined geographic range would be lost by 6%, 18% and ~49% of insect species, with this loss corresponding to >20% likelihood of extinction over the next 10–100 years according to the [[IUCN]] criteria.<ref name=""Warren2018b""/><ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

In 2022, it was found that the warming which occurred over the past 40 years in [[Germany]]'s [[Bavaria]] region pushed out cold-adapted [[grasshopper]]s, [[butterfly]] and [[dragonfly]] species, while allowing warm-adapted species from those taxa to become more widespread. Altogether, 27% of dragonfly and 41% of butterfly and grasshopper species occupied less area, while 52% of dragonflies became more widespread, along with 27% of grasshoppers (41%, 20 species) and 20% of butterflies, with the rest showing no trend in area change. The study only measured geographic spread and not total abundance. While the paper looked at both climate and [[land use change]], it suggested the latter was only a significant negative factor for specialist butterfly species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Engelhardt |first1=Eva Katharina |last2=Biber |first2=Matthias F. |last3=Dolek |first3=Matthias |last4=Fartmann |first4=Thomas |last5=Hochkirch |first5=Axel |last6=Leidinger |first6=Jan |last7=Löffler |first7=Franz |last8=Pinkert |first8=Stefan |last9=Poniatowski |first9=Dominik |last10=Voith |first10=Johannes |last11=Winterholler |first11=Michael |last12=Zeuss |first12=Dirk |last13=Bowler |first13=Diana E. |last14=Hof |first14=Christian  |date=10 May 2022 |title=Consistent signals of a warming climate in occupancy changes of three insect taxa over 40 years in central Europe |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.16200 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=28 |issue=13 |pages=3998–4012 |language=en |doi=10.1111/gcb.16200 |pmid=35535680 |s2cid=248668146 }}</ref> Around the same time, it was predicted that in [[Bangladesh]], between 2% and 34% of the native butterfly species could lose their entire habitat under scenarios SSP1-2.6 and SSP5-8.5, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chowdbury |first1=Shawan | title=Threatened species could be more vulnerable to climate change in tropical countries |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=858 |date=11 November 2022 |issue=Pt 2 |page=159989 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159989 |pmid=36347284 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Plants ===
{{See also|Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity}}
Data from 2018 found that at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}, {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}} of global warming, over half of climatically determined geographic range would be lost by 8%, 16%, and 44% of plant species. This corresponds to more than 20% likelihood of extinction over the next 10–100 years under the IUCN criteria.<ref name=""Warren2018b""/><ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

The 2022 [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] estimates that while at {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} of global warming, fewer than 3% of [[flowering plant]]s would be at a ''very high'' risk of extinction, this increases to 10% at {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

A 2020 meta-analysis found that while 39% of [[vascular plant]] species were likely threatened with extinction, only 4.1% of this figure could be attributed to climate change, with [[land use]] change activities predominating. However, the researchers suggested that this may be more representative of the slower pace of research on effects of climate change on plants. For [[fungi]], it estimated that 9.4% are threatened due to climate change, while 62% are threatened by other forms of habitat loss.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lughadha |first1=Eimear Nic|last2=Bachman |first2=Steven P. |last3=Leão |first3=Tarciso C. C. |last4=Forest |first4=Félix |last5=Halley |first5=John M. |last6=Moat |first6=Justin |last7=Acedo|first7=Carmen |last8=Bacon |first8=Karen L. |last9=Brewer |first9=Ryan F. A. |last10=Gâteblé |first10=Gildas |last11=Gonçalves |first11=Susana C.|last12=Govaerts |first12=Rafaël |last13=Hollingsworth |first13=Peter M. |last14=Krisai-Greilhuber |first14=Irmgard |last15=de Lirio |first15=Elton J. |last16=Moore |first16=Paloma G. P. |last17=Negrão|first17=Raquel|last18=Onana|first18=Jean Michel|last19=Rajaovelona |first19=Landy R. |last20=Razanajatovo |first20=Henintsoa |last21=Reich |first21=Peter B. |last22=Richards |first22=Sophie L. |last23=Rivers |first23=Malin C. |last24=Cooper |first24=Amanda |last25=Iganci |first25=João|last26=Lewis|first26=Gwilym P. |last27=Smidt |first27=Eric C. |last28=Antonelli |first28=Alexandre |last29=Mueller |first29=Gregory M. |last30=Walker |first30=Barnaby E. |date=29 September 2020 |title=Extinction risk and threats to plants and fungi |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10146 |journal=Plants People Planet |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=389–408 |language=en |doi=10.1002/ppp3.10146 |s2cid=225274409 }}</ref>
[[File:Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG|thumb|left|''Viola Calcarata'' or ''mountain violet'', which is projected to go extinct in the [[Swiss Alps]] around 2050.]]
Alpine and mountain plant species are known to be some of the most vulnerable to climate change. In 2010, a study looking at 2,632 species located in and around European [[mountain range]]s found that depending on the climate scenario, 36–55% of alpine species, 31–51% of subalpine species and 19–46% of montane species would lose more than 80% of their suitable habitat by 2070–2100.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Engler |first1=Robin|last2=Randin |first2=Cristophe F. |last3=Thuiler |first3=Wilfried |last4=Dullinger |first4=Stefan |last5=Zimmermann |first5=Niklaus E. |last6=Araujo |first6=Miguel B. |last7=Pearman |first7=Peter B. |last8=Le Lay |first8=Gwenaelle |last9=Piedallu |first9=Christian |last10=Albert |first10=Cecile H. |last11=Choler |first11=Philippe|last12=Coldea |first12=Gheorghe |last13=De Lamo |first13=Xavier |last14=Dirnböck |first14=Thomas |last15=Gegout |first15=Jean-Claude |last16=Gomez-Garcia |first16=Daniel |last17=Grythes|first17=John-Arvid|last18=Heegaard|first18=Einar|last19=Hoistad |first19=Fride |last20=Nogues-Bravo |first20=David |last21=Normand |first21=Signe|last22=Puscas |first22=Mihai |last23=Sebastia |first23=Maria-Theresa |last24=Stanisci |first24=Angela |last25=Theurillat |first25=Jean-Paul|last26=Trivedi|first26=Mandar R. |last27=Vittoz |first27=Pascal |last28=Guisan |first28=Antoine |date=24 December 2010 |title=21st century climate change threatens mountain flora unequally across Europe |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02393.x |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=2330–2341 |language=en |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02393.x |s2cid=53579186 }}</ref> In 2012, it was estimated that for the 150 plant species in the [[European Alps]], their range would, on average, decline by 44%-50% by the end of the century - moreover, lags in their shifts would mean that around 40% of their remaining range would soon become unsuitable as well, often leading to an [[extinction debt]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dullinger |first1=Stefan|last2=Gattringer |first2=Andreas |last3=Thuiler |first3=Wilfried |last4=Moser |first4=Dietmar |last5=Zimmermann |first5=Niklaus E. |last6=Guisan |first6=Antoine |last7=Willner |first7=Wolfgang |last8=Plutzar |first8=Cristoph |last9=Leitner |first9=Michael |last10=Mang |first10=Thomas |last11=Caccianiga |first11=Marco |last12=Dirnböck |first12=Thomas |last13=Ertl |first13=Siegrun |last14=Fischer |first14=Anton |last15=Lenoir |first15=Jonathan |last16=Svenning |first16=Jens-Christian |last17=Psomas |first17=Achilleas |last18=Schmatz|first18=Dirk R.|last19=Silc |first19=Urban |last20=Vittoz |first20=Pascal |last21=Hülber |first21=Karl |date=6 May 2012 |title=Extinction debt of high-mountain plants under twenty-first-century climate change |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1514 |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=619–622 |language=en |doi=10.1038/nclimate1514 |bibcode=2012NatCC...2..619D }}</ref> In 2022, it was found that those earlier studies simulated abrupt, ""stepwise"" climate shifts, while more realistic gradual warming would see a rebound in alpine plant diversity after mid-century under the ""intermediate"" and most intense global warming scenarios [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP4.5]] and RCP8.5. However, for RCP8.5, that rebound would be deceptive, followed by the same collapse in biodiversity at the end of the century as simulated in the earlier papers.<ref name=""Block2022"">{{Cite journal |last1=Block |first1=Sebastián |last2=Maechler |first2=Marc-Jacques |last3=Levine |first3=Jacob I. |last4=Alexander |first4=Jake M. |last5=Pellissier |first5=Loïc |last6=Levine |first6=Jonathan M. |date=26 August 2022 |title=Ecological lags govern the pace and outcome of plant community responses to 21st-century climate change |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=2156–2166 |language=en |doi=10.1111/ele.14087 |pmid=36028464 |pmc=9804264 }}</ref> This is because on average, every degree of warming reduces total species population growth by 7%,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nomoto |first1=Hanna A. |last2=Alexander |first2=Jake M. |date=29 March 2021 |title=Drivers of local extinction risk in alpine plants under warming climate |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=1157–1166 |language=en |doi=10.1111/ele.13727 |pmid=33780124 |pmc=7612402 }}</ref> and the rebound was driven by colonization of niches left behind by most vulnerable species like [[Androsace|Androsace chamaejasme]] and [[Viola calcarata]] going extinct by mid-century or earlier.<ref name=""Block2022""/>

It's been estimated that by 2050, climate change alone could reduce [[species richness]] of trees in the [[Amazon Rainforest]] by 31–37%, while [[deforestation]] alone could be responsible for 19–36%, and the combined effect might reach 58%. The paper's worst-case scenario for both stressors had only 53% of the original rainforest area surviving as a continuous ecosystem by 2050, with the rest reduced to a severely fragmented block.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Molnár |first1=Péter K. |last2=Bitz |first2=Cecilia M. |last3=Holland |first3=Marika M.  |last4=Kay |first4=Jennifer E. |last5=Penk |first5=Stephanie R. |last6=Amstrup |first6=Steven C. |date=24 June 2019 |title=Amazonian tree species threatened by deforestation and climate change |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-019-0500-2 |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=547–553 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41558-019-0500-2 |bibcode=2019NatCC...9..547G |s2cid=196648161 }}</ref> Another study estimated that the rainforest would lose 69% of its plant species under the warming of {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name=""Warren2018a""/>

Another estimate suggests that two prominent species of [[seagrass]]es in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] would be substantially affected under the worst-case greenhouse gas emission scenario, with [[Posidonia oceanica]] losing 75% of its habitat by 2050 and potentially becoming functionally extinct by 2100, while [[Cymodocea nodosa]] would lose ~46% of its habitat and then stabilize due to expansion into previously unsuitable areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chefaoui |first1=Rosa M. |last2=Duarte |first2=Carlos M. |last3=Serrão |first3=Ester A. |date=July 14, 2018 |title=Dramatic loss of seagrass habitat under projected climate change in the Mediterranean Sea |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.14401 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=4919–4928 |language=en |doi=10.1111/gcb.14401 |pmid=30006980 |bibcode=2018GCBio..24.4919C |s2cid=51625384 }}</ref>

== Impacts of species degradation on livelihoods ==
The livelihoods of nature dependent communities depend on abundance and availability of certain species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roe|first1=Amanda D.|last2=Rice|first2=Adrianne V.|last3=Coltman|first3=David W.|last4=Cooke|first4=Janice E. K.|last5=Sperling|first5=Felix A. H.|date=2011|title=Comparative phylogeography, genetic differentiation and contrasting reproductive modes in three fungal symbionts of a multipartite bark beetle symbiosis|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=20|issue=3|pages=584–600|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04953.x|pmid=21166729|s2cid=24882291}}</ref> Climate change conditions such as increase in atmospheric temperature and carbon dioxide concentration directly affect availability of biomass energy, food, fiber and other ecosystem services.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lambin|first1=Eric F.|last2=Meyfroidt|first2=Patrick|date=1 March 2011|title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=9|pages=3465–3472|bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L|doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108|pmc=3048112|pmid=21321211|doi-access=free}}</ref> Degradation of species supplying such products directly affect the livelihoods of people relying on them more so in Africa.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sintayehu|first1=Dejene W.|date=17 October 2018|title=Impact of climate change on biodiversity and associated key ecosystem services in Africa: a systematic review|journal=Ecosystem Health and Sustainability|volume=4|issue=9|pages=225–239|doi=10.1080/20964129.2018.1530054|s2cid=134256544}}</ref> The situation is likely to be exacerbated by changes in rainfall variability which is likely to give dominance to [[invasive species]] especially those that are spread across large latitudinal gradients.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goodale|first1=Kaitlin M.|last2=Wilsey|first2=Brian J.|date=19 February 2018|title=Priority effects are affected by precipitation variability and are stronger in exotic than native grassland species|journal=Plant Ecology|volume=219|issue=4|pages=429–439|doi=10.1007/s11258-018-0806-6|s2cid=3445732}}</ref> The effects that climate change has on both plant and animal species within certain ecosystems has the ability to directly affect the human inhabitants who rely on natural resources. Frequently, the extinction of plant and animal species create a cyclic relationship of species endangerment in ecosystems which are directly affected by climate change.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Briggs|first1=Helen|date=11 June 2019|title=Plant extinction 'bad news for all species'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-48584515}}</ref>

=== Species adaptation ===
[[File:Kiat-2019-passerine-plumage.png|thumb|Museum specimens of [[Collared flycatcher]] (top) and [[Eurasian blackbird]] (bottom) juveniles compared with modern-day birds. Nesting feathers are replaced with adult plumage earlier, and females now complete the shift earlier than males, while in the past it was the opposite.]]
Many species are already responding to climate change by moving into different areas. For instance, [[Antarctic hair grass]] is colonizing areas of Antarctica where previously their survival range was limited.<ref>[http://www.heatisonline.org/contentserver/objecthandlers/index.cfm?id=5014&method=full Grass flourishes in warmer Antarctic] originally from [[The Times]], December 2004</ref> Similarly, 5-20% of the [[United States]] land area is likely to end up with a different [[biome]] at the end of the century, as [[vegetation]] undergoes range shifts.<ref name=""Grimm2013"">{{cite journal |last1=Grimm |first1=Nancy B |last2=Chapin |first2=F Stuart |last3=Bierwagen |first3=Britta |last4=Gonzalez |first4=Patrick |last5=Groffman |first5=Peter M |last6=Luo |first6=Yiqi |last7=Melton |first7=Forrest |last8=Nadelhoffer |first8=Knute |last9=Pairis |first9=Amber |last10=Raymond |first10=Peter A |last11=Schimel |first11=Josh |last12=Williamson |first12=Craig E |s2cid=16556109 |title=The impacts of climate change on ecosystem structure and function |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=November 2013 |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=474–482 |doi=10.1890/120282 }}</ref> However, such shifts can only go so far to protect species: globally, only 5% of [[ectotherm]] species' present locations are within 50&nbsp;km of a location which would remain fully suitable and not impose [[evolutionary fitness]] costs on them by 2100, even under ""mid-range"" warming scenarios. Completely random dispersal may have an 87% chance of sending the species to a less suitable location. Species in the tropics have the least extensive dispersal options, while species in the temperate mountains face the greatest risks of moving to a wrong location.<ref name=""Buckley2012"">{{Cite journal|last1=Buckley|first1=Lauren B.|last2=Tewksbury|first2=Joshua J.|last3=Deutsch|first3=Curtis A.|date=2013-08-22|title=Can terrestrial ectotherms escape the heat of climate change by moving?|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=280|issue=1765|pages=20131149 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.1149|issn=0962-8452|pmc=3712453|pmid=23825212}}</ref> Similarly, an [[artificial selection]] experiment demonstrated that evolution of tolerance to warming can occur in fish, but the rate of evolution appears limited to {{convert|0.04|C-change|F-change}} per generation, which is too slow to protect the vulnerable species from impacts of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morgan |first1=Rachael |last2=Finnøen |first2=Mette H. |last3=Jensen |first3=Henrik |last4=Pélabon |first4=Christophe |last5=Jutfelt |first5=Fredrik |date=2020-12-29 |title=Low potential for evolutionary rescue from climate change in a tropical fish |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=117 |issue=52 |pages=33365–33372 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2011419117 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=7776906 |pmid=33318195|bibcode=2020PNAS..11733365M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Rising temperatures are beginning to have a noticeable impact on birds,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4313726.stm |title=Animals 'hit by global warming' |author=Time Hirsch |work=[[BBC]] News |date=2005-10-05 |access-date=2007-12-29}}</ref> and [[Butterfly|butterflies]] nearly 160 species from 10 different zones<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Forister |first1=Matthew L. |last2=McCall |first2=Andrew C. |last3=Sanders |first3=Nathan J. |last4=Fordyce |first4=James A. |last5=Thorne |first5=James H. |last6=O’Brien |first6=Joshua |last7=Waetjen |first7=David P. |last8=Shapiro |first8=Arthur M. |date=2010-02-02 |title=Compounded effects of climate change and habitat alteration shift patterns of butterfly diversity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=107 |issue=5 |pages=2088–2092 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0909686107 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2836664 |pmid=20133854 |bibcode=2010PNAS..107.2088F |doi-access=free }}</ref> have shifted their ranges northward by 200&nbsp;km in Europe and North America. The migration range of larger animals may be constrained by human development.<ref>need citation</ref> In Britain, spring butterflies are appearing an average of 6 days earlier than two decades ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walther |first1=Gian-Reto |last2=Post |first2=Eric |last3=Convey |first3=Peter |last4=Menzel |first4=Annette |last5=Parmesan |first5=Camille |last6=Beebee |first6=Trevor J. C. |last7=Fromentin |first7=Jean-Marc |last8=Hoegh-Guldberg |first8=Ove |last9=Bairlein |first9=Franz |title=Ecological responses to recent climate change |journal=Nature |date=March 2002 |volume=416 |issue=6879 |pages=389–395 |doi=10.1038/416389a |pmid=11919621 |bibcode=2002Natur.416..389W |s2cid=1176350 }}</ref>
{{excerpt|Climate change and birds#Physical changes|paragraphs=1,2|files=no}}
[[File:Young red deer.jpg|thumb|left|A young red deer in the wild in Scotland.]]
Climate change has affected the gene pool of the [[Scottish red deer|red deer]] population on [[Rùm]], one of the [[Inner Hebrides]] islands, [[Scotland]]. Warmer temperatures resulted in deer giving birth on average three days earlier for each decade of the study. The gene which selects for earlier birth has increased in the population because those with the gene have more calves over their lifetime.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 November 2019 |title=Climate change alters red deer gene pool |language=en-GB |work=BBC News online |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-50306365 |access-date=10 November 2019}}</ref>

== Prevention ==
In addition to reducing future warming to the lowest possible levels, preserving the current and likely near-future habitat of endangered species in [[protected area]]s in efforts like [[30x30]] is a crucial aspect of helping species survive. A more radical approach is the [[assisted migration]] of species endangered by climate change to new habitats, whether passively (through measures like the creation of [[wildlife corridor]]s to allow them to move to a new area unimpeded), or their active transport to new areas. This is approach is more controversial, since some of the rescued species may end up [[invasive species|invasive]] in their new locations. I.e. while it would be relatively easy to move [[polar bear]]s, which are currently threatened by [[Arctic sea ice decline]], to [[Antarctica]], the damage to Antarctica's [[ecosystem]] is considered too great to allow this. Finally, species which are [[extinct in the wild]] may be kept alive in artificial surroundings until a suitable natural habitat may be restored. In cases where [[captive breeding]] fails, [[embryo cryopreservation]] has been proposed as an option of last resort.<ref name=""AR6_WGII_Chapter2"" />

=== Apiculture initiatives to prevent human-wildlife conflict in Zimbabwe ===
Women in rural communities in Hurungwe rural district Zimbabwe have resorted to placing [[beehive]]s at the border of fields and villages (bio fencing) to protect themselves and their crops from elephants.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zimbabwe |first=UNDP |date=2022-03-03 |title=Women and Wildlife in the Zambezi Valley |url=https://medium.com/undpzimbabwe/women-and-wildlife-in-the-zambezi-valley-d6f9e042d7bc |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=UNDP Zimbabwe |language=en}}</ref>

=== Assisted migration ===
[[Assisted migration]] is the act of moving plants or animals to a different [[habitat]]. It has been proposed as a way to rescue species which may not be able to disperse easily, have long generation times or have small populations.<ref name=""sector"">{{cite journal|last=Aubin|first=I.|author2=C.M. Garbe|author3=S. Colombo|author4=C.R. Drever|author5=D.W. McKenney|author6=C. Messier|author7=J. Pedlar|author8=M.A. Saner|author9=L. Vernier|author10=A.M. Wellstead|author11=R. Winder|year=2011|title=Why we disagree about assisted migration: Ethical implications of a key debate regarding the future of Canada's forests|journal=Forestry Chronicle|volume=87|issue=6|pages=755–765|doi=10.5558/tfc2011-092|author12=E. Witten|author13=E. Ste-Marie}}</ref> This strategy has already been implemented to [[Assisted migration of forests in North America|save multiple tree species in North America]]. For instance, the [[Torreya Guardians]] have coordinated an assisted migration program to save the ''[[Torreya taxifolia]]'' from extinction.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Orion Magazine - Taking Wildness in Hand: Rescuing Species |url=https://orionmagazine.org/article/rescuing-species/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=Orion Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Climate change}}
* [[Atelopus varius]]
* [[Biodiversity loss]]
* [[Chytridiomycosis]]
* [[Ecosystem services]]
* [[Gastric-brooding frog]]
* [[Golden toad]]
* [[Global catastrophic risk]]
* [[Guajira stubfoot toad]]
* [[Keystone species]]
* [[Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web |title= The Effects of Climate Change|publisher= NASA| date= 21 August 2020| url= http://climate.nasa.gov/effects/ }}

{{Climate change}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Extinction}}
{{Doomsday}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Extinction Risk From Climate Change}}
[[Category:Extinction events| ]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Extinction|Climate change, Risk from]]
[[Category:Effects of climate change]]"
Conservation welfare,"'''Conservation welfare''' is a proposed discipline which would focus on establishing the commonalities between [[Conservation biology|conservation]] and [[animal welfare]] and the formation of a foundation upon which the two disciplines can collaborate to further their respective objectives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beausoleil |first1=Ngaio J. |author-link=Ngaio Beausoleil |last2=Mellor |first2=David J. |last3=Baker |first3=Liv |last4=Baker |first4=Sandra E. |last5=Bellio |first5=Mariagrazia |last6=Clarke |first6=Alison S. |last7=Dale |first7=Arnja |last8=Garlick |first8=Steve |last9=Jones |first9=Bidda |last10=Harvey |first10=Andrea |last11=Pitcher |first11=Benjamin J. |date=2018 |title=""Feelings and Fitness"" Not ""Feelings or Fitness""–The Raison d'être of Conservation Welfare, Which Aligns Conservation and Animal Welfare Objectives |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |language=English |volume=5 |page=296 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2018.00296 |issn=2297-1769 |pmc=6277474 |pmid=30538995 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It would be based on the principles of [[Peter Singer]]'s [[utilitarianism]] and similarly to [[compassionate conservation]], its focus would diverge from [[environmental ethics]] in that it concentrates on the welfare of individual animals, rather than species, ecosystems or populations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Learmonth|first=Mark James|date=November 2020|title=Human–Animal Interactions in Zoos: What Can Compassionate Conservation, Conservation Welfare and Duty of Care Tell Us about the Ethics of Interacting, and Avoiding Unintended Consequences?|journal=Animals|language=en|volume=10|issue=11|pages=2037|doi=10.3390/ani10112037|pmid=33158270|pmc=7694286|doi-access=free}}</ref> It has been argued that conservation welfare would be distinct from compassionate conservation because the two disciplines have differing conceptions of the harms experienced by wild animals and that while conservation welfare would seek to engage with conservation scientists and integrate animal welfare into existing conservation practices, compassionate conservation may lack the capacity to ""guide decision-making in complex or novel situations.""<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beausoleil|first=Ngaio J.|date=2020-02-06|title=I Am a Compassionate Conservation Welfare Scientist: Considering the Theoretical and Practical Differences Between Compassionate Conservation and Conservation Welfare|journal=Animals|volume=10|issue=2|page=257|doi=10.3390/ani10020257|issn=2076-2615|pmc=7070475|pmid=32041150|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics]]

== References ==
<references />

{{Animal welfare}}
{{Conservation of species}}

[[Category:Animal welfare]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]


{{animal-rights-stub}}
{{environment-stub}}"
Assisted migration of forests in North America,"{{Short description|Human-facilitated forest migration process}}
{{good article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2023}}
[[File:Biomes of North America (Rehfeldt et al. 2012) - CURRENT 01.jpg|thumb|Biomes of North America - CURRENT (Rehfeldt et al. 2012)<ref name=""rehfeldt-2012"">{{cite journal |last1=Rehfeldt |first1=Gerald E |last3=Saenz-Romero |first3=Cuauhtemoc |last2=Crookston |first2=Nicholas L |last4=Campbell |first4=Elizabeth M |title=North American vegetation model for land-use planning in a changing climate: a solution to large classification problems |journal=Ecological Applications |date=2012 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=119–141 |doi=10.1890/11-0495.1 |pmid=22471079 |bibcode=2012EcoAp..22..119R |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2012_rehfeldt_g001.pdf}}</ref>]][[File:Biomes of North America (Rehfeldt et al. 2012) - PROJECTED 2060.jpg|thumb|Biomes of North America - PROJECTED 2060 (Rehfeldt et al. 2012)<ref name=""rehfeldt-2012"" />]]

Assisted migration is the movement of populations or species by humans from one territory to another in response to [[climate change]]. This is the definition offered in a nontechnical document published by the [[United States Forest Service]] in 2023, suggesting that this form of [[climate adaptation]] ""could be a proactive, pragmatic tool for building climate resilience in our landscapes.""<ref name=""usfs-2023"">{{cite web |last1=Halleaux |first1=Savannah |title=Traveling trees: Assisted migration for climate resilience |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/features/traveling-trees |website=U.S. Forest Service |date=April 6, 2023 |access-date=12 April 2023}}</ref>

Programs for [[assisted migration]] of [[forest]]s in [[North America]] have been created by public and indigenous governmental bodies, private forest owners, and land trusts. They have been researching, testing, evaluating, and sometimes implementing forest assisted migration projects as a form of [[climate change adaptation|adaptation to climate change]].<ref name=""nrc"">{{cite web |title=Assisted Migration |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/climate-change/impacts-adaptations/climate-change-impacts-forests/adaptation/assisted-migration/13121 |website=Natural Resources Canada |date=27 June 2013 |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beardmore |first1=Tannis|last2=Winder|first2=Richard|title=Review of science-based assessments of species vulnerability: Contributions to decision-making for assisted migration |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=January 2011 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=745–754|doi=10.5558/tfc2011-091 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Assisted migration in the [[forestry]] context differs from [[assisted migration]] as originally proposed in the context of [[conservation biology]], where it is regarded as a management tool for helping [[endangered species]] cope with the need for climate adaptation.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Hällfors |first1=Maria H |title=Coming to Terms with the Concept of Moving Species Threatened by Climate Change – A Systematic Review of the Terminology and Definitions |journal=PLOS ONE |date=July 2014 |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=e102979 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0102979|pmid=25055023 |pmc=4108403 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j2979H |doi-access=free }}</ref> The focus in forestry is mitigating [[climate change]]'s negative effects on the health and productivity of working forests.

Forestry assisted migration is already underway in North America because of the rapidly changing climate and the forestry industry's reseeding practices. It is now standard practice for governmental and industrial harvests of trees to be followed by the planting of seeds or seedlings in the harvested areas. Hence, an opportunity automatically arises post-harvest to select seeds (and sometimes different species of trees) from areas with climates that are expected to arrive in the harvested sites decades into the future. The government of [[British Columbia]] in [[Canada]] was the first [[federated state]] on the continent to make the decision to change their seed transfer guidelines accordingly in 2009.<ref>{{cite web | display-authors=etal | last1=O'Neill |first1=Gregory A |title=Assisted Migration to Address Climate Change in British Columbia: Recommendations for Interim Seed Transfer Standards (2008) |url=https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr048.pdf |website=Ministry of Forests and Range |publisher=Government of British Columbia |access-date=22 July 2021}}</ref><ref name=""seed"">{{cite web |title=Climate-Based Seed Transfer |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/managing-our-forest-resources/tree-seed/seed-planning-use/climate-based-seed-transfer |website=Ministry of Forests and Range |publisher=Government of British Columbia |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leech |first1=Susan March |last2=Almuedo|first2=Pedro Lara|last3=O'Neill|first3=Greg|title=Assisted Migration: Adapting Forest Management to a Changing Climate |journal=BC Journal of Ecosystems and Management |date=2011 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=18–34 |url=https://jem-online.org/index.php/jem/article/view/91}}</ref>

Longer distance forms of assisted migration were not, however, considered prior to [[climate modelling]] and within-forest evidence of the increasing pace of climate change. Serious discussion and debate ensued in the forestry profession beginning around 2008.<ref name=""aitken2008"">{{cite journal|last1=Aitken |first1=Sally N |last2=Yeamam |first2=Sam|last3=Holliday |first3=Jason A |last4=Wang |first4=Tongli|last5=Curtis-McLane |first5=Sierra|title=Adaptation, migration or extirpation: Climate change outcomes for tree populations |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=25 January 2008 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=95–111 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00013.x |pmid=25567494 |pmc=3352395 |bibcode=2008EvApp...1...95A }}</ref> The debate focuses around the ethical implications of artificially migrating ecosystems, the risks and benefits of such endeavors, and the values at the heart of assisted forest migration projects.<ref name="":1"">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal  |last1=Aubin|first1=Isabelle|date=January 2011|title=Why we disagree about assisted migration: Ethical implications of a key debate regarding the future of Canada's forests|journal=The Forestry Chronicle|volume=87|issue=6|pages=755–765|doi=10.5558/tfc2011-092|doi-access=free}}</ref>

There are also recorded instances of inadvertent assisted migration of North American trees. Beginning in the early 20th century, two trees famously [[endemic]] to [[California]], the [[giant sequoia]] and [[coast redwood]], have been planted for [[urban forestry]] purposes northward in cities along the Pacific coast of [[Oregon]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], and [[British Columbia]]. Today these specimens are not only thriving; they are prominent along urban skylines and often outrank the native trees in sizes achieved. As well, several kinds of [[Magnolia]] native to the [[southeastern United States]] have dispersed into the forest understory, thanks to  ornamental plantings producing seeds beyond their native ranges.

== Climate change as impetus ==
{{See also|Climate change in Canada|Climate change in the United States|Climate change in Mexico}}
Climate change is increasing the average temperatures of North American forests.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last1=Prasad|first1=Anantha|last2=Pedlar|first2=John|last3=Peters|first3=Matt|last4=McKenney|first4=Dan|last5=Iverson|first5=Louis|last6=Matthews|first6=Steve|last7=Adams|first7=Bryce|date=September 2020|title=Combining US and Canadian forest inventories to assess habitat suitability and migration potential of 25 tree species under climate change|journal=Diversity and Distributions|language=en|volume=26|issue=9|pages=1142–1159|doi=10.1111/ddi.13078|issn=1366-9516|doi-access=|bibcode=2020DivDi..26.1142P |s2cid=225749363 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frelich |first1=Lee E|last2=Montgomery|first2=Rebecca A|last3=Reich|first3=Peter B|title=Seven Ways a Warming Climate Can Kill the Southern Boreal Forest |journal=Forests |date=April 2021 |volume=12 |issue=5 |page=560|doi=10.3390/f12050560 |doi-access=free }}</ref> By the 2020s the forestry profession in North America no longer debated whether human assistance in helping native trees might be necessary. A 2023 scientific article began, ""Global change is reshaping climatic conditions at a tempo that exceeds natural migration rates for most tree species."" The implications are that ""this mismatch may cause catastrophic losses of key forest ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, habitat provisioning, and forest products.""<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal | last1=Royo |first1=Alejandro A. |title=Desired REgeneration through Assisted Migration (DREAM): Implementing a research framework for climate-adaptive silviculture |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=15 October 2023 |volume=546 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121298 |ref=2023-royo|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Range shifts upslope to higher topographic altitudes require less distance than shifts tracking climate over relatively flat terrain poleward.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jump|first=A.S.|author2=J. Peñuelas|title=Running to stand still: Adaptation and the response of plants to rapid climate change|journal=Ecology Letters|year=2005|volume=8|issue=9|pages=1010–1020|doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00796.x|pmid=34517682|bibcode=2005EcolL...8.1010J }}</ref><ref name=""aitken2008"" /><ref name=""whitebark2012"">{{cite journal|last1=McLane |first1=Sierra C|last2=Aitken|first2=Sally N|title=Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) assisted migration potential: testing establishment north of the species range|journal=Ecological Applications|year=2012|volume=22|issue=1|pages=142–153|doi=10.1890/11-0329.1|pmid=22471080|bibcode=2012EcoAp..22..142M }}</ref> Species within the southern limits of their range are already showing decline or extirpation, including some of North America's most iconic trees ([[Joshua Tree]] and [[giant sequoia]]).<ref>{{cite news |last1=St George |first1=Zach |title=As Climate Warms, a Rearrangement of World's Plant Life Looms |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/as-climate-warms-a-rearrangement-of-worlds-plant-life-looms |access-date=25 July 2021 |journal=Yale Environment 360 |date=17 June 2021}}</ref> Drier conditions in the [[American Southwest]] are leading to shrubby [[grassland]] replacing [[pinyon-juniper woodland]], following drought-induced die-off of trees.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Craig D|last2=Breshears|first2=David D|last3=McDowell|first3=Nate G |title=On underestimation of global vulnerability to tree mortality and forest die-off from hotter drought in the Anthropocene |journal=Ecosphere |date=August 2015 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=art129 |doi=10.1890/ES15-00203.1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Foresters in [[Minnesota]] are predicting that prairie ecosystems will expand, replacing forests as their region becomes warmer and drier.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frelich |first1=Lee E|last2=Reich|first2=Peter B |title=Review: Will environmental changes reinforce the impact of global warming on the prairie– forest border of central North America? |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=September 2009 |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=371–378 |doi=10.1890/080191 |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/080191|hdl=11299/175075 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Regional climate change in the [[Sierra Nevada|Sierra mountains of California]] made it possible for native bark beetles to kill drought-stressed conifer trees, which in turn led to expansive and catastrophic fires.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seidman |first1=Lila |title=Hundreds of giant sequoias may have burned to death in KNP Complex, Windy fires |journal=Los Angeles Times |date=7 October 2021 |url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-10-07/knp-complex-windy-fires-may-have-killed-hundreds-of-sequoias}}</ref> Although the giant sequoia is more resistant to bark beetles than are the pines and firs intermixed in and surrounding its groves, the regional fires consuming the standing dead conifers in 2020 and 2021 proved fatal to giant sequoias whose living canopies were also engulfed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Canon |first1=Gabrielle |title=Giant sequoias and fire have coexisted for centuries. Climate crisis is upping the stakes |journal=The Guardian |date=3 October 2021 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/oct/03/giant-sequoias-and-fire-have-coexisted-for-centuries-climate-crisis-is-upping-the-stakes}}</ref><ref name=""motherjones.com"">{{cite journal |last1=Markham |first1=Lauren |title=Can We Move Our Forests in Time to Save Them? |journal=Mother Jones |date=November 2021 |url=https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2021/10/trees-forests-assisted-migration-fire-climate-joshua-redwoods-sequoia/}}</ref>

The northern populations of temperate tree species ranges in coastal Washington and Oregon began to evidence abrupt decline and mortality over such large regions that news articles written for the public,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Valdes |first1=Manuel |title=As climate change progresses, trees in cities struggle |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-11-climate-trees-cities-struggle.html |agency=Phys.org |date=16 November 2022}}</ref><ref name=fir>{{cite news |last1=Gilles |first1=Nathan |title=Massive die-off hits fir trees across Pacific Northwest |url=https://columbiainsight.org/massive-die-off-hits-fir-trees-across-pacific-northwest/ |agency=Columbia Insight |date=23 November 2022}}</ref> as well as academic papers, reported on this phenomenon in 2021 and 2022. [[Acer macrophyllum|Bigleaf maple]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=University of Washington |title=Bigleaf maple decline tied to hotter, drier summers in Washington state |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-09-bigleaf-maple-decline-tied-hotter.html |agency=Phys.org |date=30 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Betzen |first1=Jacob J |title=Bigleaf maple, ''Acer macrophyllum'' Pursh, decline in western Washington, USA |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=2021 |volume=501 |page=119681 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119681 |s2cid=240578025 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Thuja plicata|Western redcedar]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gilles |first1=Nathan |title=Pac NW's 'trees of life' are dying. Now we know why |url=https://columbiainsight.org/pac-nws-trees-of-life-are-dying-now-we-know-why/ |agency=Columbia Insight |date=18 August 2022}}</ref> [[Douglas fir]],<ref name=fir/> and several species of true firs (genus ''[[Abies]]'')<ref name=fir/> were featured in reports of sudden decline. While proximate causes included evidence of native insects and fungal pathogens, the reports attributed ultimate cause to the unprecedented summer droughts and heat waves in the region. In 2023, the tree species dominating the lower western slopes of California's Sierra Nevada mountains were reported to be so lagging in tracking warming climate upslope that one-fifth of the total area was labelled as ""zombie forests"" — that is, forests that can no longer establish new seedlings and thus will not revive after a canopy-destroying fire.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nowakowski |first1=Teresa |title=California's 'Zombie Forests' Are Cheating Death—but Maybe Not for Long |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/californias-zombie-forests-are-cheating-death-but-maybe-not-for-long-180981773/ |agency=Smithsonian |date=10 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Hill |first1=Avery P |title=Low-elevation conifers in California's Sierra Nevada are out of equilibrium with climate |journal=PNAS Nexus |date=February 2023 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=pgad004 |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad004 |pmid=36874277 |pmc=9976749 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad004}}</ref>  

A synthesis paper published in 2022 by a team of governmental and university forestry scientists in the United States warned that ""climate change may represent the greatest challenge ever faced by forest managers, conservation biologists, and ecologists."" Catastrophic tree mortality was among the challenges listed by the team as not only projected but already underway.<ref name=palik-2022>{{cite journal |last1=Palik |first1=Brian J |last2=Clark |first2=Peter W |last3=D'Amato |first3=Anthony W |last4=Swanston |first4=Chris |last5=Nagel |first5=Linda |title=Operationalizing forest-assisted migration in the context of climate change adaptation: Examples from the eastern USA |journal=Ecosphere |date=October 2022 |volume=13 |issue=10 |doi=10.1002/ecs2.4260 |s2cid=252883172 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022Ecosp..13E4260P }}</ref>

== Definitions ==
{{Main|Assisted migration}}

A 2011 discussion paper in the ''British Columbia Journal of Ecosystems and Management'' offered this definition of assisted migration: ""the purposeful movement of species to facilitate or mimic natural population or range expansion to help ensure forest plantations remain resilient in future climates.""<ref name=2011-BC>{{cite journal |last1=Leech |first1=Susan March |last2=Almuedo |first2=Pedro Lara|last3=O'Neill |first3=Greg|title=Assisted Migration: Adapting forest management to a changing climate |journal=BC Journal of Ecosystems and Management |date=2011 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=18–34 |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/forestry/tree-species-selection/leech_lara_almuedo_and_oneill_2011_assisted_migration_jem.pdf |access-date=19 November 2022}}</ref> A 2016 review article defines forestry assisted migration as ""the physical realignment of natural populations to the climate for which they are adapted, by reforestation in sites where their suitable climate is predicted to occur in the future, as an active management option with the aim of maintaining healthy tree ecosystems in the future.""<ref name="":3"">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal  |last1=Sáenz-Romero |first1=Cuauhtémoc |title=Review: Assisted migration of forest populations for adapting trees to climate change |journal=Revista Chapingo Serie Ciencias Forestales y del Ambiente |date=August 2016 |volume=22 |issue=3 |doi=10.5154/r.rchscfa.2014.10.052 |s2cid=89200060 |url=https://revistas.chapingo.mx/forestales/?section=articles&subsec=issues&numero=229&articulo=2249|doi-access=free }}</ref> The article says that human assistance in helping trees migrate is necessary because ""geographic shifts of tree populations will have to be 10 to 100 times faster than they have been in the past or are at present.""<ref name="":3"" />

===Three types===

[[File:Williams-dumroese-2013.jpg|thumb|Three types of forestry assisted migration<ref name=""WilliamsandDumroese2013"" />]]

There are three types of forestry assisted migration, which [[Natural Resources Canada]] describes in this way:<ref name=""nrc"" />

# '''Assisted population migration:''' the human-assisted movement of populations within a species' established range. 
# '''Assisted range expansion:''' the human-assisted movement of species to areas just outside their established range, facilitating or mimicking natural range expansion. 
# '''Assisted long-distance migration:''' the human-assisted movement of species to areas far outside their established range (beyond areas accessible through natural dispersal).

The [[United States Forest Service]] uses the same three types, but sometimes refers to the third type as '''assisted species migration'''.<ref name=""WilliamsandDumroese2013"">{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Mary I|last2=Dumroese|first2=R Kasten|title=Preparing for Climate Change: Forestry and Assisted Migration |journal=Journal of Forestry |date=4 July 2013 |volume=111 |issue=4 |pages=287–297 |doi=10.5849/jof.13-016 |doi-access= }}</ref> In 2018 the U.S. Forest Service published a longer policy document, which listed and defined the three types this way:<ref name=""handler"">{{cite web|last1=Handler |first1=Stephen|last2=Pike |first2=Carrie|last3=St Clair |first3=Brad|last4=Abbotts |first4=Hannah|last5=Janowiak |first5=Maria|title=Assisted Migration: Synthesis prepared for the USDA Forest Service Climate Change Resource Center |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/topics/assisted-migration |website=Climate Change Resource Center |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref>

# '''Assisted population migration''' (also assisted genetic migration or assisted gene flow<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aitken |first1=Sally N|last2=Bemmels|first2=Jordan B|title=Review and Syntheses: Time to get moving: Assisted gene flow of forest trees |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=July 2015 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=271–290|doi=10.1111/eva.12293 |pmid=27087852|pmc=4780373 }}</ref>) – moving seed sources or populations to new locations within the historical species range. 
# '''Assisted range expansion''' – moving seed sources or populations from their current range to suitable areas just beyond the historical species range, facilitating or mimicking natural dispersal. 
# '''Assisted species migration''' (also species rescue, managed relocation, or assisted long-distance migration) – moving seed sources or populations to a location far outside the historical species range, beyond locations accessible by natural dispersal.

Terminology to distinguish forestry applications of assisted migration from the more controversial practices being debated within conservation biology were suggested in a lengthy 2012 report on climate adaptation within the U.S. Forest Service. The authors proposed ""forestry assisted migration"" for their agency's endeavors and ""rescue assisted migration"" for the species-specific extinction concerns of conservation biologists.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vose |first1=James M|last2=Peterson|first2=David L|last3=Patel-Weynand|first3=Toral|title=Effects of Climatic Variability and Change on Forest Ecosystems: A Comprehensive Science Synthesis for the U.S. Forest Sector (Technical Report, December 2012) |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr870/pnw_gtr870.pdf? |website=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref> That same year nine forestry scientists (all but one of whom is Canadian) coauthored a paper that likewise recommended ""forest assisted migration"" as preferred terminology for helping their profession stay clear of the controversy that they referred to as ""species rescue assisted migration"".<ref name=""pedlar2012"">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Pedlar |first1=John H |title=Placing Forestry in the Assisted Migration Debate |journal=BioScience |date=September 2012 |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=835–842 |doi=10.1525/bio.2012.62.9.10 |doi-access=free }}</ref> As of 2021, the original classification names of the three types is in public as well as professional use, with foresters focusing on the two most moderate forms.<ref name=""motherjones.com""/>

== Early scholarship and debate ==

Beginning in 2004 and accelerating in 2007, researchers in [[conservation biology]] published papers on the pros and cons of supplementing traditional management practices for preventing plant and animal extinctions with [[species translocation]] tactics to accommodate the range shifts already becoming evident as a result of climate change.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Forum: Assisted Migration of an Endangered Tree |journal=Wild Earth |date=Winter 2004 |volume=14 |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/forum.pdf |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McLachlan |first1=Jason S|last2=Hellmann|first2=Jessica J|last3=Schwartz|first3=Mark W|title=A Framework for Debate of Assisted Migration in an Era of Climate Change |journal=Conservation Biology |date=26 March 2007 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=297–302|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00676.x|pmid=17391179|doi-access=free |bibcode=2007ConBi..21..297M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mueller |first1=Jillian M|last2=Hellmann|first2=Jessica J|title=An Assessment of Invasion Risk from Assisted Migration |journal=Conservation Biology |date=28 June 2008 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=562–567|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00952.x |pmid=18577085|bibcode=2008ConBi..22..562M |s2cid=43612242 |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00952.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Guldberg |first1=O Hoegh |title=Policy Forum: Assisted Colonization and Rapid Climate Change |journal=Science |date=18 July 2008 |volume=32 |issue=5887 |pages=345–346 |doi=10.1126/science.1157897 |pmid=18635780 |s2cid=206512777 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1157897}}</ref> Conservation biologists also published arguments for and against the three main terms used to name the same management tool: [[assisted migration]], [[assisted colonization]], and [[managed relocation]].<ref name=""seddon2010"">{{cite journal |last1=Seddon |first1=Philip J |title=From Reintroduction to Assisted Colonization: Moving along the Conservation Translocation Spectrum |journal=Restoration Ecology |date=31 August 2010 |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=796–802 |doi=10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00724.x |bibcode=2010ResEc..18..796S |s2cid=84866686 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00724.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Barlow |first1=Connie |title=Assisted Migration or Assisted Colonization: What's In a Name? Chronological History of the Debate on Terminology |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/assistedmigrationdebate.html |website=[[Torreya Guardians]] |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Engelmann spruce killed by native beetles.jpg|thumb|Native bark beetles are now able to kill even the highest elevation trees ([[Pissodes strobi|Engelmann spruce]]) in the national forests of Colorado. Photo June 2014, [[Wolf Creek Pass]].]]

The focus among forestry professionals and researchers was different. Paleoecologists had already concluded that there were significant lags in northward movement of even the dominant canopy trees in North America during the thousands of years since the final glacial retreat.<ref name="":2"">{{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=Margaret B|date=October 1989|title=Lags in vegetation response to greenhouse warming|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF00138846.pdf|journal=Climatic Change|volume=15|issue=1–2|pages=75–82|doi=10.1007/bf00138846|bibcode=1989ClCh...15...75D|s2cid=154368627}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Margaret B|last2=Shaw|first2=Ruth B|title=Special Reviews: Range shifts and adaptive responses to Quaternary climate change |journal=Science |date=27 April 2001 |volume=292 |issue=5517 |pages=673–679|doi=10.1126/science.292.5517.673 |pmid=11326089|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.292.5517.673}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Petit |first1=Remy J |title=Review: Ecology and genetics of tree invasions: from recent introductions to Quaternary migrations |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=August 2004 |volume=197 |issue=1–3 |pages=113–137 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2004.05.009 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112704003202}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Seliger|first1=Benjamin J|last2=McGill|first2=Brian J|last3=Svenning|first3=Jens-Christian|last4=Gill|first4=Jacqueline L|date=November 2020|title=Widespread underfilling of the potential ranges of North American trees|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jbi.14001|journal=Journal of Biogeography|volume=48|issue=2|pages=359–371|doi=10.1111/jbi.14001|s2cid=228929332}}</ref> In the 1990s, forestry researchers had begun applying climate change projections to their own tree species distribution models, and some results on the probable distances of future range shifts prompted attention.<ref name=""aitken2008"" /> As well, translocation terminology was not controversial among forestry researchers because ""migration"" was the standard term used in [[paleoecology]] for natural movements of tree species recorded in the geological record. Discussion in forestry journals therefore pertained more to questions of how and when and for which species climate-adaptive plantings and range expansions should begin.

Debate as to the need for and ethics of assisted migration was present among forestry researchers. But compared to the debate among conservation biologists,<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Brodie |first1=Jedediah F |title=Policy Forum: Global policy for assisted colonization of species |journal=Science |date=30 April 2021 |volume=372 |issue=6541 |pages=456–458 |doi=10.1126/science.abg0532 |pmid=33926936|s2cid=233448828 }}</ref> it was muted and short-lived.<ref name=""pedlar2012"" /><ref name=""WilliamsandDumroese2013""/> One of the strongest statements urging caution that appeared in a forestry journal was published in 2011. Isabelle Aubin and colleagues stated that ""assisted migration is being proposed to reduce the impacts of human-induced climate change, an unprecedented situation in human history that brings with it entirely new environmental, societal and ethical challenges.""<ref name="":1"" />

But also in 2011, researchers within the Canadian Forest Service expressly distinguished forestry assisted migration from the concept debated in conservation biology.<ref name=2011-BC /><ref name=""winder2011"">{{cite journal |last1=Winder |first1=Richard S|last2=Nelson|first2=Elizabeth A|last3=Beardmore|first3=Tannis |title=Ecological implications for assisted migration in Canadian forests |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=January 2011 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=731–744 |doi=10.5558/tfc2011-090|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Ste-Marie |first1=Catherine |title=Assisted migration: Introduction to a multifaceted concept |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=January 2011 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=724–730 |doi=10.5558/tfc2011-089 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Preventing species extinctions was not a forestry focus. Rather, forestry forms of assisted migration would be undertaken for the purposes of maintaining the forests' [[ecosystem services]] as well as the extractive resource values of timber and pulp production.<ref name=""pedlar2012"" /> The Canadian Forest Service also produced research showing forest health and productivity could benefit from relocating forest [[understory]] plant species along with the dominant canopy tree species and that this would help with the successful establishment of a forest at a new location.<ref name=""winder2011"" />

==Strategies ==
[[File:Nagel 2017.jpg|thumb|""Transition"" results from assisted migration of more southerly tree species<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nagel|first1=Linda M.|last2=Palik|first2=Brian J.|last3=Battaglia|first3=Michael A.|last4=D'Amato|first4=Anthony W.|last5=Guldin|first5=James M.|last6=Swanston|first6=Christopher W.|last7=Janowiak|first7=Maria K.|last8=Powers|first8=Matthew P.|last9=Joyce|first9=Linda A.|last10=Millar|first10=Constance I.|last11=Peterson|first11=David L.|date=2017-05-01|title=Adaptive Silviculture for Climate Change: A National Experiment in Manager-Scientist Partnerships to Apply an Adaptation Framework|journal=Journal of Forestry|volume=115|issue=3|pages=167–178|doi=10.5849/jof.16-039|issn=0022-1201|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]

[[File:Chicago-trees 2.jpg|thumb|A list of 15 tree species native to more southerly regions of the US, but which were already (or would soon become during climate change) adapted for living in the Chicago area<ref>Brandt, Leslie. ""[https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/gtr/gtr_nrs168.pdf Chicago Wilderness Urban Forest Vulnerability Assessment and Synthesis]"" (2017). Climate Change Response Framework. U.S. Forest Service. Retrieved 26 July 2021. (Table on page 32.)</ref>]]

In focusing on common canopy trees, forestry forms of assisted migration generated less intense debate than did the largely animal focus of conservation biologists.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Minteer |first1=Ben A|last2=Collins|first2=James P|title=Communication: Move it or lose it? The ecological ethics of relocating species under climate change |journal=Ecological Applications |date=October 2010 |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=1801–1804|doi=10.1890/10-0318.1|pmid=21049870}}</ref> Animals have the ability to move at will and thus pose risks of quickly shifting beyond or entirely out of the locales into which they are translocated. Animal mobility also complicates monitoring results, and may require the added costs of radio collars and skilled trackers. Costs of translocating mammals, in particular, may escalate owing to standards of minimizing psychological and physical suffering during capture, transport, and release.<ref name=""wilkening2015"">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Wilkening |first1=Jennifer L |title=Alpine biodiversity and assisted migration: The case of the American pika (Ochotona princeps) |journal=Biodiversity |date=1 December 2015 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=224–236 |doi=10.1080/14888386.2015.1112304 |bibcode=2015Biodi..16..224W |s2cid=131656767 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14888386.2015.1112304}}</ref>

In contrast, assisted migration of forests can be done at little cost, especially when it is paired with an existing reforestation program. Risks are also reduced in forestry because the only motility that trees have occurs when their seeds are released.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breining |first1=Greg |title=Time for Trees to Pack Their Trunks? |journal=Ensia (University of Minnesota) |date=September 2014 |url=https://ensia.com/features/time-for-trees-to-pack-their-trunks/ |access-date=28 March 2022}}</ref> Tall woody plants tend to have long generation times, so several decades may pass before translocated seeds or seedlings can produce a next generation of seeds. Even then, seed dispersal distances may be limited, except for tufted seeds carried by wind and small fruits, such as berries, swallowed whole by birds and wide-ranging mammals.<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Gray |first1=Laura K |title=Assisted migration to address climate change: Recommendations for aspen reforestation in western Canada |journal=Ecological Applications |date=2011 |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=1591–2103 |doi=10.1890/10-1054.1 |pmid=21830704 |bibcode=2011EcoAp..21.1591G |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/10-1054.1}}</ref>

Communication strategies have also defused the controversy. Forest researchers and managers have talked and written about climate adaptation projects without using terminology coined by conservation biologists, whose focus is generally the wellbeing of single species of animals and plants that might be harmed or lost as climate change continues.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Swanston |first1=Chris|last2=Janowiak|first2=Maria|title=Forest Adaptation Resources: Climate Change Tools and Approaches for Land Managers (2012) |url=https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/gtr/gtr_nrs87.pdf |website=Northern Research Station |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=5 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=etal|last1=Schmitt|first1=Kristen M |title=Beyond Planning Tools: Experiential Learning in Climate Adaptation Planning and Practices |journal=Climate |date=May 2021 |volume=9 |issue=5 |page=76|doi=10.3390/cli9050076 |bibcode=2021Clim....9...76S |doi-access=free}}</ref>

By 2014 forestry managers in Canada had also honed their public communications in a number of ways, such as avoiding to be associated with the scientific debate on assisted migration and instead presenting their assisted migration as forest management best practices.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klenk |first1=Nicole L|last2=Larson|first2=Brendon MH|title=The assisted migration of western larch in British Columbia: A signal of institutional change in forestry in Canada? |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=March 2015 |volume=31 |pages=20–27 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.12.002 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959378014002003}}</ref><ref name=""buranyi2016"">{{cite web |last1=Buranyi |first1=Stephen |title=How British Columbia Is Moving its Trees |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/yp3daj/how-british-columbia-is-moving-its-trees-assisted-migration-larch |website=Motherboard Tech by Vice, 2016 |date=January 20, 2016 |publisher=Vice |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref>

Communication in both word and images has also been honed in the United States, thanks in part to the Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS), a collaborative group launched in 2010 by the U.S. Forest Service.<ref name=""niacs"">{{cite web |title=Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science |url=https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/niacs/about/ |website=U.S. Department of Agriculture |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=26 July 2021}}</ref> The NIACS proposed various ways though which foresters can adapt to climate change by changing their forest management techniques.<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Janowiak |first1=Maria |title=A Practical Approach for Translating Climate Change Adaptation Principles into Forest Management Actions |journal=Journal of Forestry |date=September 2014 |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=424–433 |doi=10.5849/jof.13-094 |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/jrnl/2014/nrs_2014_janowiak_001.pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref>

A 2022 review paper that charted key words and lead authors in forestry publications concluded that  ""much of the research on assisted migration has been carried out in North America, where Canada and the USA have established strong collaborative networks."" At the individual level, a Mexican forestry scientist was found to be ""the most productive author in the field of assisted migration.""<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Benomar |first1=Lahcen |title=Bibliometric Analysis of the Structure and Evolution of Research on Assisted Migration |journal=Current Forestry Reports |date=March 2022 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=199–213 |doi=10.1007/s40725-022-00165-y |s2cid=247766894 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022CForR...8..199B }}</ref>

== Indigenous people's perspectives and actions ==
The term ""assisted colonization"", used in the guidelines of the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) to describe moving a species outside its native range to prevent it from going extinct, has been criticized as potentially offensive to [[Indigenous peoples]] because the word ""colonization"" is linked to their experience of [[genocide]].<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Bonebrake|first1=Timothy C|date=1 June 2017|title=Managing consequences of climate-driven species redistribution requires integration of ecology, conservation and social science|journal=Biological Reviews|volume=93|issue=1|pages=284–305|doi=10.1111/brv.12344|pmid=28568902|s2cid=24171783|doi-access=free|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30107748|hdl-access=free}}</ref> According to Connie Barlow, the term 'managed relocation' may also be offensive in the United States, owing to the harm caused by the [[Indian Relocation Act of 1956]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Barlow|first1=Connie|title=Part 4. Decolonizing Scientific Language|url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/assistedmigrationdebate.html#4|access-date=20 July 2021|website=[[Torreya Guardians]]}}</ref> Some scholars have pointed out that this terminology could prevent these nations from consenting to and participating in forestry assisted migration projects.<ref name=""schwartz2012"">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=Mark W|display-authors=etal|date=12 August 2012|title=Managed Relocation: Integrating the Scientific, Regulatory, and Ethical Challenges|journal=BioScience|volume=62|issue=8|pages=732–743|doi=10.1525/bio.2012.62.8.6|s2cid=1623634|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Indigenous botanist [[Robin Wall Kimmerer]] has used the term ""helping forests walk"" in lieu of any of the terms currently used by foresters, [[conservation biologists]], and other researchers and scholars.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cooke|first1=Rachel|date=19 June 2021|title=Interview: Robin Wall Kimmerer|journal=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jun/19/robin-wall-kimmerer-gathering-moss-climate-crisis-interview|access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref><ref name=""sierra-2023"">{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Joanna |title=Assisted Migration Helps Animals Adapt to Climate Change |journal=Sierra Magazine |date=12 October 2023 |url=https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/assisted-migration-helps-animals-adapt-climate-change}}</ref> Kimmerer is founder and director of the Center for Native Peoples and the Environment, hosted by [[SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry]], which lists ""Helping Forests Walk"" as a five-year collaborative project launched in 2011<ref>{{cite web|title=Collaborative Projects with Indigenous and Tribal Partners|url=https://www.esf.edu/nativepeoples/projects/index.php|access-date=9 March 2023|website=Center for Native Peoples and the Environment|publisher=State University of New York, Syracuse}}</ref> and completed in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Center for Native Peoples and the Environment |title=2016 Annual Report |url=https://www.esf.edu/nativepeoples/documents/CNPE2016Report.pdf |website=SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry |publisher=State University of New York, Syracuse |access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Kimball |first1=Jill |title='Braiding Sweetgrass' author: 'We haven't loved the land enough' |url=https://www.brown.edu/news/2022-11-04/kimmerer |access-date=5 November 2022 |agency=News from Brown University |date=5 November 2022}}</ref> This project is also listed on the ""tribal nations"" page of the U.S. government ""Climate Resilience Toolkit"" website.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tribal Nations Capacity Building |url=https://toolkit.climate.gov/topics/tribal-nations/capacity-building |website=U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit |publisher=U.S. Government |access-date=13 September 2021}}</ref>

The Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science facilitated collaboration on a tribal climate adaptation menu for the [[Great Lakes region]]. The document that resulted was published in 2019 as ''Dibaginjigaadeg Anishinaabe Ezhitwaad: A Tribal Climate Adaptation Menu''. The only standard term used was ""assisted migration"" (and this was used only once). The term ""[[invasive species]]"" was replaced either by a new term, ""non-local beings"", or by an [[Ojibwe]] phrase, ""Bakaan ingoji ga-ondaadag"", which is defined as ""that which comes from somewhere else and now resides here.""<ref name=""TAMT"">{{cite web|last1=Tribal Adaptation Menu Team|title=Dibaginjigaadeg Anishinaabe Ezhitwaad: A Tribal Climate Adaptation Menu, 2019|url=https://forestadaptation.org/focus/tribal-perspectives|access-date=21 July 2021|website=Climate Change Response Framework|publisher=Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science}}</ref> The document summarized the importance of word choice in this way:

{{Blockquote
|text=As the original and current stewards of the Great Lakes region, Ojibwe and [[Menominee]] tribal members who worked on this project felt it important to bring a language of parity between human and non-human beings. English and scientific terminology used in currently accepted land management practices tends to assume human dominance over non-human beings. This approach deviates from an equitable co-existence with our environment, which is typically a foundational understanding in many indigenous cultures. The terms used throughout this document are an attempt to recognize agency and sovereignty of our non-human relations.<ref name=""TAMT"" />}}

[[File:Fruit of pawpaw, with seeds revealed.jpg|thumb|Native Americans may have helped pawpaw (''[[Asimina triloba]]'') disperse by carrying its fruit northward as glaciers retreated in eastern North America.]]
As of 2021, the [[Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians]] in northern [[Michigan]] have planted tree species common to more southerly ranges, including [[shagbark hickory]], [[silver maple]], [[black walnut]], [[swamp white oak]], [[sassafras]], and [[Asimina|pawpaw]]. Noah Jansen, conservationist staff, explains, ""I don't know which of these species are going to thrive in 50 or 100 years. So we cast the net broad and try to have something there that creates habitat for wildlife, sources of cultural significance for tribal members and areas to hunt and gather.""<ref>{{cite news|last1=House|first1=Kelly|date=3 May 2021|title=As northern Michigan warms, scientists bring tree seedlings from the south|journal=Michigan Bridge|url=https://www.bridgemi.com/michigan-environment-watch/northern-michigan-warms-scientists-bring-tree-seedlings-south|url-status=live|access-date=21 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504180229/https://www.bridgemi.com/michigan-environment-watch/northern-michigan-warms-scientists-bring-tree-seedlings-south|archive-date=4 May 2021}}</ref>

Starting in 1492, the arrival of colonizers pushed [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] out of their native lands and severely constricted where they can continue to live.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zinn|first=Howard|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61265580|title=A people's history of the United States : 1492-present|date=2005|publisher=HarperPerennial|isbn=0-06-083865-5|location=New York|oclc=61265580}}</ref> Because California is already experiencing adverse climate change effects on native vegetation, the need for adaptive responses is severe. Traditional use of fire in managing local ecosystems for safety and for ensuring abundance of culturally significant plant and animal foods has drawn media attention to the climate-adaptive actions by the [[Karuk Tribe]] along the [[Klamath River]] of northern California.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mucioki |first1=Megan |title=Keeping a Detailed Record of the Changing Climate Could Save this Tribe's Foodways |journal=Civil Eats |date=8 October 2021 |url=https://civileats.com/2021/10/08/keeping-a-detailed-record-of-the-changing-climate-could-save-this-tribes-foodways/}}</ref> But assisted migration is not a readily palatable option for Indigenous peoples, nor for their mutual relations with the ecosystems in which their cultures are enmeshed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harrington |first1=Samantha |title=By paying attention, tribes in the Northwoods are leading the way on climate change |journal=Yale Climate Connections |date=8 June 2020 |url=https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2020/06/by-paying-attention-tribes-in-the-northwoods-are-leading-the-way-on-climate-change/}}</ref>

== Implementation ==

=== Changes in seed transfer guidelines ===

[[File:Bark beetle tunnels douglas-fir.jpg|thumb|Tunnels created by the larvae of native bark beetles are evident beneath the bark of this dead Douglas-fir trunk in Colorado.]]

Forestry research has long been conducted by governmental agencies responsible for management of federal and provincial forests in Canada ([[Crown lands]]) and federal and state forests in the United States. Because timber and pulp resources are harvested from [[multiple use]] regions of public forests in North America, re-seeding or planting seedlings onto harvested sites has been a routine management practice for many decades. Research for improving [[silviculture]] practices has included tree provenance trials, by which a variety of seed sources (or provenances) are planted together at several distinct geographic test sites (""common gardens"") across the current and, increasingly, potential range of a species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Risk |first1=Clara |last2=McKenney|first2=Daniel|last3=Pedlar|first3=John|last4=Lu|first4=Pengxin|title=A compilation of North American tree provenance trials and relevant historical climate data for seven species |journal=Scientific Data |date=26 January 2021 |volume=8 |issue=29 |page=29 |doi=10.1038/s41597-021-00820-2 |pmid=33500421 |pmc=7838313 |bibcode=2021NatSD...8...29R }}</ref> Because provenance trial data are available for many widespread, commercially valuable tree species, forestry professionals already have long-term experiments underway for testing tree species and population viability and performance in locations outside of native geographic ranges. Provenance trial locations poleward of native ranges or at higher (and thus cooler) elevations help forest managers determine whether, where, and when assisted migration as a [[climate adaptation]] measure should be implemented.<ref name=""handler"" /><ref name=""seed"" />

In 2009, British Columbia altered its standards for selecting seeds for replanting forests after a timber harvest.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McKenney |first1=Dan|last2=Pedlar|first2=John|last3=O'Neill|first3=Greg|title=Climate change and forest seed zones: Past trends, future prospects and challenges to ponder |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=March 2009 |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=258–266 |doi=10.5558/tfc85258-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Previously, foresters were required to use seeds from within 300 meters downhill and 200 meters uphill, but the new policy allowed foresters to obtain seeds from up to 500 meters downhill for most species, taking advantage of the fact that populations in warmer habitats downhill may be better adapted to the future climate of the restoration site.<ref name=""Marris"">{{Cite journal | last1 = Marris | first1 = E. | title = Forestry: Planting the forest of the future | doi = 10.1038/459906a | journal = Nature | volume = 459 | issue = 7249 | pages = 906–908 | year = 2009 | pmid =  19536238| doi-access =  | s2cid = 26915838 }}</ref> As of 2022, research, including study of provenance trials already in place, is ongoing in British Columbia<ref>{{cite web |title=What will climate change do to Alberta Forests? |url=https://friresearch.ca/project/tree-adaptation-risk-management-project |website=FRI Research |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> and the Canadian provinces of [[Alberta]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Tree Improvement and Adaptation Programs |url=https://friresearch.ca/sites/default/files/TIA_2015_07_22_CCEMC_FinalRpt.pdf |publisher=Province of Alberta |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> and [[Ontario]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Managed forests and climate change |url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/managed-forests-and-climate-change |publisher=Province of Ontario |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> These changes were implemented partly because Canadian policymakers feared that, if they did not set the guidelines, the private sector would be tempted to pursue an unregulated assisted migration strategy on its own.<ref name=""Klenk"" /> In 2022, the climate-adapted seed transfer guidelines for British Columbia transitioned from being optional for provincial reforestation projects to mandatory.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hett |first1=Hanna |title=Forests can't adapt to climate change fast enough. So humans are trying to help |url=https://www.nationalobserver.com/2022/08/30/news/forests-cant-adapt-climate-change-fast-enough-so-humans-are-trying-help |publisher=Canada's National Observer |date=30 August 2022}}</ref>

Within the United States Forest Service, regional geneticists have recommended a ""no regrets"" approach to considering assisted migration and seed transfer as a climate adaptation strategy.<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Dumroese |first1=R Kasten|title=Considerations for restoring temperate forests of tomorrow: Forest restoration, assisted migration, and bioengineering |journal=New Forests |date=August 2015 |volume=46 |issue=5–6 |pages=947–964 |doi=10.1007/s11056-015-9504-6 |s2cid=15069899 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11056-015-9504-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Adaptation |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/managing-land/sc/adaptation |website=U.S. Department of Agriculture |date=31 July 2017 |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> Population transfers to match seed sources to projected future conditions are recommended only for species where experience or research has demonstrated appropriate climate transfer limits.<ref name=""handler"" /> Forest Service researchers have also used computer modeling to offer projections of native tree species range shifts under a variety of climate change projections. A total of 76 species of trees native to the western US have range-shift projection maps available online.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plant Species and Climate Profile Predictions |url=https://charcoal2.cnre.vt.edu/climate/species/index.php |publisher=Virginia Tech |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Climate Change Resource Center |title=Plant Species and Climate Profile Predictions |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/tool/plant-species-and-climate-profile-predictions |publisher=USDA |access-date=10 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Crookston |first1=Nicholas |title=Addressing climate change in the forest vegetation simulator to assess impacts on landscape forest dynamics |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=August 2010 |volume=260 |issue=7 |pages=1198–1211 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2010.07.013 |s2cid=9030856 |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2010_crookston_n001.pdf}}</ref> A total of 134 species of trees native to the eastern US have range shift projection maps available online.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Climate Change Resource Center |title=Climate Change Tree Atlas |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/index.php/tool/climate-change-tree-atlas |publisher=USDA |access-date=10 May 2023}}</ref> Forest Service researchers have also been publishing regional range shift projections for North American tree species since the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rehfeldt|first=Gerald E.|date=2006|title=A spline model of climate for the Western United States|url=http://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/21485|journal=Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-165. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 21 P.|language=en|volume=165|doi=10.2737/RMRS-GTR-165|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iverson |first1=Louis R|last2=Prasad|first2=Anantha M|last3=Matthews|first3=Stephen N|last4=Peters|first4=Matthew|title=Estimating potential habitat for 134 eastern US tree species under six climate scenarios |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=10 February 2008 |volume=254 |issue=3 |pages=390–406 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2007.07.023 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112707005439}}</ref>

[[File:USDA eastern seed-collection zones.jpg|thumb|Eastern Seed Zone Map, by U.S. Department of Agriculture.]]
Several decision support tools are available for assisted migration in North American forests. The ''Seedlot Selection Tool'' currently has the broadest geographic scope of these tools, covering most of North America, and requires the user to set the acceptable climate transfer distances from a suite of climate variables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seedlot Selection Tool |url=https://seedlotselectiontool.org/sst/ |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=seedlotselectiontool.org}}</ref> The ''Climate-Based Seed Transfer'' tool provides coverage across British Columbia, and uses data from [[common garden experiment]]s to determine acceptable seed sources, based on anticipated growth and climate-transfer distance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CBST Seedlot Selection Tool Version 6.0 |url=https://maps.forsite.ca/204/SeedTransfer/ |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=maps.forsite.ca}}</ref> The ''Climate-Adapted Seed Tool'' provides coverage in California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, and Idaho (with some features currently only available in California) and uses data from common garden experiments and forest inventories to produce estimates of how well different seed sources will perform (growth, survival, carbon sequestration, timber production) at user-specified planting locations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate-Adapted Seed Tool |url=https://reforestationtools.org/climate-adapted-seed-tool/ |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=reforestationtools.org}}</ref>

In the eastern United States, forestry professionals in federal, state, and academic institutions have collaborated in establishing a mutually agreed upon map of 247 ""seed-collection zones"" spanning the 37 states east of the Rocky Mountains.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Pike |first1=Carolyn |title=New Seed-Collection Zones for the Eastern United States:The Eastern Seed Zone Forum |journal=Journal of Forestry |date=July 2020 |volume=118 |issue=4 |pages=444–451 |doi=10.1093/jofore/fvaa013|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Eastern Seed Zone Forum |url=http://www.easternseedzones.com/ |website=Eastern Seed Zones |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=2 April 2022}}</ref> (See image at right.) This project also entails standardized norms for labelling seeds by collectors and nurseries in anticipation that future reforestation and restoration plantings may begin to include various forms of forestry assisted migration.

=== Western larch ===
[[File:Larix_occidentalis_Navaho_Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|Western larch in autumn]]
In 2010, the [[Government of British Columbia]] implemented an assisted range expansion project for one particular canopy species: the [[western larch]]. Larch could now be selected for provincial reforestation projects nearly 1,000 kilometers northward of its current range.<ref name=""buranyi2016"" /> Research had shown that the western larch, the most productive of the three species of larch native to North America,<ref name=""rehfeldt2010"">{{Cite journal|last1=Rehfeldt|first1=Gerald E.|last2=Jaquish|first2=Barry C.|date=March 2010|title=Ecological impacts and management strategies for western larch in the face of climate-change|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11027-010-9217-2|journal=Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=283–306|doi=10.1007/s11027-010-9217-2|bibcode=2010MASGC..15..283R |s2cid=154285038|issn=1381-2386}}</ref> has no trouble growing in northern British Columbia, where climatic conditions are predicted to match the western larch's historical range by 2030.<ref name=""Klenk"">{{Cite journal|last=Klenk|first=Nicole L.|date=2015-03-01|title=The development of assisted migration policy in Canada: An analysis of the politics of composing future forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837714002749|journal=Land Use Policy|language=en|volume=44|pages=101–109|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.12.003|issn=0264-8377}}</ref> This was the first government-approved assisted long-distance migration program for a North American canopy tree. The western larch was selected for assisted species migration because of its significant commercial importance and the fear that climate change and parasites such as the [[mountain pine beetle]] would considerably diminish its supply.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rehfeldt |first1=Gerald E|last2=Crookston|first2=Nicholas L|last3=Sáenz-Romero|first3=Cuauhtémoc|last4=Campbell|first4=Elizabeth M |title=North American vegetation model for land-use planning in a changing climate: a solution to large classification problems |journal=Ecological Applications |date=1 January 2012 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=119–141|doi=10.1890/11-0495.1 |pmid=22471079|bibcode=2012EcoAp..22..119R |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/11-0495.1}}</ref>

Foresters in the United States have also initiated ""experimental treatments"" of larch-dominated national forests in Montana.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crotteau |first1=Justin S |title=Initiating Climate Adaptation in a Western Larch Forest |journal=Forest Science |date=August 2019 |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=528–536 |doi=10.1093/forsci/fxz024 |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_journals/2019/rmrs_2019_crotteau_j001.pdf}}</ref> However, if some ""aggressively warming climate scenarios"" unfold, foresters will need to let go of any expectations of helping this species maintain a presence south of the Canadian border.<ref name=""rehfeldt2010"" />

=== Whitebark pine ===
[[File:Pinus_albicaulis_USDA.jpg|thumb|An old [[Pinus albicaulis|whitebark pine]] in Oregon]]
University of British Columbia forestry researchers Sierra McLane and Sally Aitken were among the first scientists to engage in long-distance experimental plantings to test how far northward seeds of a tree native to North America could germinate and continue to grow, in advance of expected warming in North America.<ref name=""whitebark2012"" /> They selected [[whitebark pine]] for their case study, as it is a [[keystone species]] that is already a [[threatened species]] in western North America. The authors used [[species distribution modelling]] to learn that this species will likely be extirpated from most of its current range as temperatures rise over the next half century. The same models indicate that a large area within northwestern British Columbia is already climatically suitable for the species under current conditions and will remain so throughout the 21st century.

Experimental plantings in eight sites began in 2007. Ten years later results were tallied. Protective snow cover throughout the winter, followed by spring melt ending in April or May, proved to be a far better indicator of seedling survival and growth than latitude. Indeed, the tallest seedlings measured in 2017 were those at the northern-most experimental site—600 kilometers beyond the species' current distribution. The authors explained that ""post-glacial migration has been too slow"" for this large-seeded pine to track warming, even during the thousands of years that preceded the pace and scale of [[human-caused climate change]].<ref name=""canmex2021"">{{cite journal |last1=Sáenz-Romero |first1=Cuauhtémoc|last2=O'Neill|first2=Greg|last3=Aitken|first3=Sally N|last4=Lindig-Cisneros|first4=Roberto|title=Review: Assisted Migration Field Tests in Canada and Mexico: Lessons, Limitations, and Challenges |journal=Forests |date=2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |doi=10.3390/f12010009|doi-access=free}}</ref> These experimental plantings for learning the poleward limits of tolerance, reproduction, and thrival of whitebark pine are first steps toward implementation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Palmer |first1=Clare|last2=Larson|first2=Brendon M H|title=Should We Move the Whitebark Pine? Assisted Migration, Ethics and Global Environmental Change |journal=Environmental Values |date=December 2014 |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=641–662 |doi=10.3197/096327114X13947900181833 |s2cid=146863103 |url=https://doi.org/10.3197/096327114X13947900181833}}</ref>

In 2012 the Canadian federal government declared Whitebark pine [[endangered species|endangered]] in accordance with the [[Species at Risk Act]]. Accordingly, it became the first federally listed endangered tree in western Canada.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zimmer |first1=Carl |title=For Trees Under Threat, Flight May Be Best Response |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/23/science/under-theat-flight-may-be-best-response-for-trees.html |agency=New York Times |date=13 January 2023}}</ref>

In 2022 the [[U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service]] also acted. It listed Whitebark pine in the lowest category of vulnerability: ""threatened."" Four distinct threats were described, beginning with [[White pine blister rust]] as ""the primary stressor."" [[Mountain pine beetle]], altered fire regimes, and ""the effects of climate change"" add to the challenges.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |title=Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened Species Status With Section 4(d) Rule for Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis) |journal=Federal Register |date=15 December 2022 |volume=87 |issue=240 |pages=76882–76917 |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2022-12-15/pdf/2022-27087.pdf#page=1}}</ref> This listing marks the first occasion in which a tree regarded as ecologically important over a vast range in the United States is acknowledged as vulnerable to extinction.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Center for Biological Diversity |title=Whitebark Pine Protected as Threatened Under Endangered Species Act |url=https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/whitebark-pine-protected-as-threatened-under-endangered-species-act-2022-12-14/#:~:text=%E2%80%94%20The%20U.S.%20Fish%20and%20Wildlife,%2C%20Montana%2C%20Wyoming%20and%20Nevada. |access-date=13 January 2023}}</ref> Even before the official listing, collaboration among stakeholders was underway.<ref name=""yale-2024"">{{cite journal |last1=Robbins |first1=Jim |title=The Beleaguered Whitebark Pine Is in Trouble. Can It Be Saved? |journal=Yale Environment 360 |date=11 January 2024 |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/whitebark-pines-climate-change-rust-beetles}}</ref> Supportive research and actions were undertaken by the conservation organization [[American Forests]] as well as a new organization specific to the tree: the Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Partners and Projects |url=https://whitebarkfound.org/ |website=Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation |access-date=29 January 2024}}</ref> Other collaborators include research scientists within the [[U.S. Forest Service]], geneticists at the [[University of California, Davis]], and the [[Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes]]. The [[U.S. Bureau of Land Management]] and the [[National Park Service]] were also involved in consultation prior to listing by the agency in charge of endangered species: the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]].<ref name=""yale-2024"" />

=== Mexico's oyamel fir ===
[[File:Abies_religiosa_El_Rosario_1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Abies religiosa|Oyamel fir]] foliage with monarch butterflies ''[[Danaus plexippus]]'']]
The [[Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve]] in central Mexico depends upon the integrity of its evergreen forest trees to serve as winter habitat for a long-distance annual migrator: the [[monarch butterfly]]. The [[oyamel fir]] is a major species of evergreen on which the overwintering butterflies spend a significant time during their winter [[diapause]], or suspended development.<ref>Paz, Fátima (June 18, 2014). [http://www.cambiodemichoacan.com.mx/nota-227099 ""En espera de aprobación de la Profepa por tala ilegal en la Reserva de la Mariposa Monarca""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903143808/http://www.cambiodemichoacan.com.mx/nota-227099 |date=2014-09-03 }}. cambiodemichoacan.com.mx</ref> The tree's survival is threatened at its lower elevations on mountain slopes, in part, by [[climate change]]. Climate stress is also indicated by weak [[seedling]] recruitment, meaning that most of the oyamel fir seedlings do not survive past that point. This is true even in the higher forest elevations where trees do not otherwise show strong indicators of stress.<ref name=""romero2020"">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Sáenz-Romero |first1=Cuauhtémoc |title=Review article: Recent evidence of Mexican temperate forest decline and the need for ex situ conservation, assisted migration, and translocation of species ensembles as adaptive management to face projected climatic change impacts in a megadiverse country |journal=Canadian Journal of Forest Research |date=20 April 2020 |volume=50 |issue=9 |doi=10.1139/cjfr-2019-0329 |s2cid=219081722 |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/cjfr-2019-0329}}</ref> Upslope assisted migration experiments are underway, with findings suggesting that ""400 meters upward in elevation (i.e., assisted migration) to compensate for future warmer climates does not appear to have any negative impacts on the seedlings, while potentially conferring closer alignment to future climates.""<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Carbajal-Navarro |first1=Aglean |title=Ecological Restoration of Abies religiosa Forests Using Nurse Plants and Assisted Migration in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |date=6 November 2019 |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2019.00421 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Assisted migration of oyamel fir is complicated by the necessity of planting this shade-tolerant species under [[nurse plants]]—especially because of the extreme solar radiation and the large differences between day and night temperatures at high elevations.<ref name=""canmex2021"" /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Duran |first1=Thelma Gomez |title=Here's how science is trying to conserve the monarch butterfly's forests |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/01/heres-how-science-is-trying-to-conserve-the-monarch-butterflys-forests/ |access-date=25 January 2022 |work=Mongabay |date=17 January 2022}}</ref> Thus, where upslope locales are devoid of forest shade, nurse plants (e.g. ''Baccharis conferta'') must be established first.<ref name=""romero2020"" />

=== Recent developments (2019-present) ===
[[File:Acer saccharum range map.png|thumb|''Acer saccharum'' range map]]
By 2021 the projects for climate adaptation in forestry had expanded to include planting ""novel species"" from southward latitudes of the same continent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Anouschka|first1=R|last2=Dymond|first2=Caren C|last3=Mladenoff|first3=David J|date=November 2017|title=Climate change mitigation through adaptation: The effectiveness of forest diversification by novel tree planting regimes|journal=Ecosphere|volume=8|issue=11|pages=e01981|doi=10.1002/ecs2.1981|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017Ecosp...8E1981H}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Muller|first1=Jacob J|last2=Nagel|first2=Linda N|last3=Palik|first3=Brian J|date=November 2019|title=Forest adaptation strategies aimed at climate change: Assessing the performance of future climate-adapted tree species in a northern Minnesota pine ecosystem|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=451|page=117539|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2019.117539|s2cid=202041429|doi-access=free}}</ref> An early example was the updated management plan for the Petawawa Research Forest northwest of [[Ottawa]] in the province of [[Ontario]], Canada.<ref>{{cite web|title=Petawawa Research Forest: Management Goals and Treatments|url=https://www.adaptivesilviculture.org/management-goals-and-treatments-PRF|access-date=23 July 2021|website=Adaptive Silviculture for Climate Change}}</ref> In addition to planting seeds from more southerly populations of the existing species in the forest, the management guidelines also authorized experiments in planting tree species whose northernmost ranges were far to the south, notably several species of [[hickory]], [[Virginia pine]], and [[American chestnut]]. A 2023 article reports early success of an ongoing experiment of ""assisted range expansion"" in another eastern province of Canada. In [[Quebec]] forestry scientists have experimentally planted [[Acer saccharum|sugar maple]], ''Acer saccharum'', northward of its current range. Losses of this species are expected in Canada due to competitive challenges from more southerly tree species moving north.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mura |first1=Claudio |last2=Raymond |first2=Patricia |last3=Rossi |first3=Sergio |title=How to move without legs or wings: Helping trees migrate to new regions |url=https://theconversation.com/how-to-move-without-legs-or-wings-helping-trees-migrate-to-new-regions-201366 |agency=The Conversation |date=3 May 2023}}</ref> 

In 2019 a small [[land trust]] in northern [[Michigan]], the Leelanau Conservancy, began advising land owners to plant ""trees whose native ranges end just south of here, yet are projected to do well in our region.""<ref>{{cite web|last1=Williams|first1=Jeannie|title=Conservation Easement Landowner Newsletter, 2019|url=https://www.leelanauconservancy.org/2020/01/assisted-tree-range-expansion-how-you-can-help/|access-date=26 July 2021|website=Leelanau Conservancy|date=15 January 2020}}</ref> By 2023 two other land conservancies in Michigan were reported as also planting more southerly tree species including  [[Platanus occidentalis|sycamore]], [[Asimina triloba|pawpaw]], [[Nyssa sylvatica|blackgum]], [[Liriodendron tulipifera| tuliptree]], [[Kentucky coffeetree]], [[honey locust]], and [[Morus rubra|red mulberry]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=McWhirter |first1=Sheri |title='If trees had feet': Tree migration brings climate resiliency to Michigan forests |url=https://www.mlive.com/public-interest/2023/04/if-trees-had-feet-tree-migration-brings-climate-resiliency-to-michigan-forests.html |agency=Michigan Live |date=30 April 2023}}</ref>

[[File:Preacher's Grove Trail - Itasca State Park, Minnesota (34527960794).jpg|thumb|A grove of ''Pinus resinosa'' (red pine) at [[Itasca State Park]], Minnesota]]
In [[Minnesota]], [[The Nature Conservancy]] has partnered with the state forestry agency and U.S Forest Service scientists to discern climate adaptation options where dieback of [[Taiga|boreal forest]] trees is already evident in its [[Laurentian Mixed Forest Province|northwoods]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dennis|first1=Brady|date=29 April 2020|title=In Fast-Warming Minnesota, Scientists Are Trying to Plant the Forests of the Future|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2020/climate-solutions/climate-change-minnesota/|access-date=24 July 2021}}</ref> An article published in 2022 by the [[Minnesota Department of Natural Resources]] reports on the implementation of assisted population migration and assisted range expansion projects, using trees native to the southern regions of the state.<ref name="":4"">{{cite journal |last1=Breining |first1=Greg |title=New Forest for a New Climate |journal=Minnesota Conservation Volunteer Magazine |date=March–April 2022 |url=https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/mcvmagazine/issues/2022/mar-apr/forest.html |access-date=24 March 2022}}</ref> The [[Superior National Forest]], at Minnesota's border with Canada, was reported in 2023 as being in the planning stage for possible ""human-assisted tree migration"" of more southerly tree species.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cusick |first1=Daniel |title=Forest Service Explores Moving Trees to Save Them from Hotter Weather |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/forest-service-explores-moving-trees-to-save-them-from-hotter-weather/ |agency=E&E News |publisher=Scientific American |date=5 May 2023}}</ref> A final report was issued in 2023, titled ""Superior National Forest Assisted Migration Plan."" Approval was thereby given for only two of the three kinds of assisted migration: assisted population migration and assisted range expansion. The report refrained from blanket authorization of moving any tree species northward that did not already occur within the Superior National Forest.<ref>{{cite web |last1=U.S. Forest Service |title=Superior National Forest Assisted Migration Plan (2023) |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd1150836.pdf |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> Because climate projections for Minnesota entail drier as well as warmer conditions, experimentation is underway for possible introduction of a tree widespread in the American west—but several hundred miles distant from the northwoods of Minnesota. [[Ponderosa pine]] (''Pinus ponderosa'') from the [[Black Hills]] of [[South Dakota]] is being tested as a possible replacement for the dieback ongoing of Minnesota's official [[state tree]]: [[Red pine]] (''Pinus resinosa'').<ref name=palik-2022 /> Brian Palik, a forestry researcher involved in the project, reports favorable early results. Ponderosa pine, he says, ""grows better than anything else that we planted.""<ref name="":4"" />  In 2023 researchers reported that even more southerly tree species ""are doing well"" in test plantings. These include [[pecan|northern pecan]] and [[Platanus occidentalis|American sycamore]].<ref name=""2023-bain"">{{cite news |last1=Bain |first1=Lisa |title=At St. Paul's Crosby Farm Park, see the future of Minnesota forests |url=https://www.startribune.com/st-paul-crosby-farm-regional-park-see-the-future-of-minnesota-forests-adapt-climate-change/600298134/?refresh=true |agency=Minneapolis Star Tribune |date=18 August 2023}}</ref>

[[File:Calocedrus-whidbey-island-wa.jpg|thumb|This incense cedar, whose native range is in Oregon and northern California, was one of the more southerly conifer seedlings planted after a logging operation on private land on [[Whidbey Island]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington state]] 2019.]]
In early spring 2020 a multi-group effort<ref>{{cite web |title=Adaptive Restoration at Stossel Creek |url=https://www.nnrg.org/stossel-creek-adapted-reforestation-project/ |website=Northwest Natural Resource Group |date=January 30, 2020 |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref> began restoring 154 acres of a 2012 clearcut of [[Douglas-fir]] forest at a low elevation site east of [[Seattle]], Washington. The Stossel Creek project<ref>{{cite web |title=Stossel Creek Case Study: Adaptive Restoration for Pacific Northwest Forests |url=https://www.nnrg.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Stossel-Creek-Case-Study_03.24.20-1.pdf |website=Northwest Natural Resource Group |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref> is primarily a watershed restoration effort using native tree species, but it is also experimenting with long-distance assisted population migration of the dominant canopy tree, Douglas-fir. Seedlings of Douglas-fir were sourced from nurseries several hundred miles to the south, in Oregon and even northern California. Because nursery stock had run short of native [[western red-cedar]], project leaders chose to substitute a closely related conifer sourced from Oregon and northern California: [[incense cedar]]. This species is more drought-tolerant than western red-cedar, but all wild populations occur southward of Washington state. Including incense cedar in the planting list thus brings an element of assisted species migration into this [[forest restoration]] project.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gilles |first1=Nathan |title=The Forest Service is experimenting with relocating tree species to save them from climate change |url=https://columbiainsight.org/the-forest-service-is-experimenting-with-relocating-tree-species/ |publisher=Columbia Insight |date=15 September 2022}}</ref> First-year survival was strong for southerly sourced seedlings of both Douglas-fir and incense cedar.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Braybrook |first1=Rowan |title=Moving Trees: Definitions and Ethics of Assisted Migration |url=https://www.nnrg.org/moving-trees-definitions-and-ethics-of-assisted-migration/ |website=Northwest Natural Resource Group |date=3 August 2021 |access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref>

While extreme summer drought and heat in the mountain states and provinces of western North America have induced massive outbreaks of native bark beetles and fire-caused losses of forest canopies, tree deaths in the eastern half of North America derive from a different mix of causes.<ref name=""usfs-2023""/> Notably, deaths of trees have accelerated due to massive outbreaks of non-native insects. All four widespread canopy species of ash (genus ''[[Fraxinus]]'') in the eastern states and provinces have been decimated in recent decades by an Asian beetle, the [[emerald ash borer]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herms |first1=Daniel A |last2=McCullough |first2=Deborah G|title=Emerald Ash Borer Invasion of North America: History, Biology, Ecology, Impacts, and Management |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=January 2014 |volume=59 |pages=13–30 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162051 |pmid=24112110 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162051|doi-access= |url-access=subscription }}</ref> As of 2023, assisted migration tree experiments were underway in the Great Lakes region, expressly seeking one or more replacements for the wetland-adapted [[Fraxinus nigra|black ash]].<ref name=""palik-2022""/> In 2022 and 2023, state agencies and tribes in northern Minnesota and Wisconsin began replacing black ash trees recently killed by the emerald ash borer with more than a dozen species of wet-adapted trees, some of which reach their northern range limits a hundred or more miles to the south. This attempt to ensure that a forest canopy will once again prevail in regional wetlands thus also entails an assisted range expansion form of [[climate adaptation]] for species including [[Populus deltoides|eastern cottonwood]], [[Celtis occidentalis|American hackberry]], and [[Betula nigra|river birch]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Myers |first1=John |title=As emerald ash borers decimate trees, new forest planted to replace them |url=https://www.duluthnewstribune.com/sports/northland-outdoors/as-emerald-ash-borers-decimate-trees-new-forest-planted-to-replace-them |publisher=Duluth News Tribune |date=24 June 2023}}</ref>

The boldest assisted migration effort of a forest canopy tree had been initiated by citizens in the Seattle area in 2016. By 2023, their actions had become so substantial that a lengthy journalistic essay was published in a national venue. It was titled, ""Can We Save the Redwoods by Helping Them Move?""<ref>{{cite news |last1=Velasquez-Manoff |first1=Moises |title=Can We Save the Redwoods by Helping Them Move? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/25/magazine/redwoods-assisted-migration.html?unlocked_article_code=1.5Uw.fy90.-KLBh1kMh_K9&smid=em-share |agency=New York Times Magazine |date=25 October 2023}}</ref><ref name=""kuow-2023"">{{cite news |last1=Opong |first1=Diana |last2=Anderson |first2=Hans |title=One man's mission to save the California redwoods by bringing them to the Pacific Northwest |url=https://www.kuow.org/stories/one-man-s-mission-to-save-the-california-redwoods-by-bringing-them-to-the-pacific-northwest |agency=KUOW |date=9 November 2023}}</ref> Two months later, a lengthy news article presented the views of a half-dozen professional forestry practitioners in Oregon and Washington state.<ref name=""Gilles-dec-2023"">{{cite news |last1=Gilles |first1=Nathan |title=What is 'assisted migration' and what are the risks? |url=https://columbiainsight.org/what-is-assisted-migration-and-what-are-the-risks/ |agency=Columbia Insight |date=28 December 2023}}</ref> Their statements made clear that citizens using ""assisted species migration"" in their choices of tree plantings (such as the redwoods) were more extreme than the professionals focusing on ""assisted population migration"" were willing to implement themselves.

==Inadvertent migration==
[[File:Redwood-seabeck-wa.jpg|thumb|Coast redwood planted in 1948 in Seabeck, Washington, along the eastern seacoast of the Olympic Peninsula]]

Mature [[horticultural]] plantings of trees northward of their native ranges are a form of assisted migration experiment already underway.<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Van der Veken |first1=Sebastiaan |title=Garden plants get a head start on climate change |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=May 2008 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=212–216 |doi=10.1890/070063 |bibcode=2008FrEE....6..212V |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/070063}}</ref> Because the original plantings likely did not include the goal of helping the trees migrate northward in a warming climate, this form of assisted migration can be called inadvertent, or unintended. Jesse Bellemare and colleagues may have coined the term in a paper published in 2015: ""It appears that a subset of native plants, particularly those with ornamental value, might already have had opportunities to shift their ranges northward via inadvertent human assistance.""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Jesse|last2=Connolly|first2=Bryan|last3=Sax|first3=Dov|title=Climate Change, Managed Relocation, and the Risk of Intra-Continental Plant Invasions: A Theoretical and Empirical Exploration Relative to the Flora of New England |journal=Rhodora |date=June 2017 |volume=119 |issue=978 |pages=73–109 |doi=10.3119/16-10 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Bellemare suggests, ""Native plant horticulture is giving us some fascinating insights into what is likely to happen with climate change.""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marinelli |first1=Janet |title=As World Warms, How Do We Decide When a Plant is Native? |journal=Yale Environment 360 |date=19 April 2016 |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/how_do_we_decide_when_a_plant_is_native_climate_change}}</ref>

=== Horticultural plantings of Coast Redwood and Giant Sequoia ===

[[File:Laurelhurst-giant-sequoia.jpg|thumb|This is the largest giant sequoia (''Sequoiadendron giganteum'') among more than a dozen that were planted early in the 20th century in Laurelhurst Park of Portland, Oregon.]]

The tallest tree in the world is the [[coast redwood]]; the most massive tree is the closely related [[giant sequoia]]. Both have non-overlapping native ranges limited to California, although the coast redwood extends a few miles northward along the southern-most coast of Oregon. Both species have been planted as landscaping trees in urban areas hundreds of miles northward, in latitude, of their native ranges,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lindley|first=J.Buchholz|date=1939|title=Sequoiadendron giganteum (giant sequoia) description|url=https://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoiadendron.php|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-15|website=www.conifers.org|publisher=The Gymnosperm Database|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514130332/http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoiadendron.php |archive-date=2011-05-14 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41531630|title=The redwood forest : history, ecology, and conservation of the coast redwoods|date=2000|publisher=Island Press|others=Reed F. Noss, Save the Redwoods League|isbn=1-55963-725-0|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=41531630}}</ref> including Washington state<ref>{{Cite web|title=Blue Giant Sequoia|url=https://urbanforestnursery.com/inventory/tree-profiles/blue-giant-sequoia/|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-15|publisher=Urban Forest Nursery Inc.|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422201000/https://urbanforestnursery.com/inventory/tree-profiles/blue-giant-sequoia/ |archive-date=2021-04-22 }}</ref> and British Columbia.<ref name=""winder2022"">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal| last1=Winder |first1=Richard S |title=Potential for Assisted Migration of Coast Redwood (''Sequoia sempervirens'') to Vancouver Island |journal=Canadian Forest Service Publications |date=October 2022 |issue=BC-X-459 | isbn=9780660458618 |url=https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications?id=40819 |access-date=30 October 2022}}</ref> In 2022 a Canadian Forestry Service publication used such northward horticultural plantings, along with a review of research detailing redwood's [[paleobiogeography]] and current range conditions, as grounds for proposing that Canada's [[Vancouver Island]] already offered ""narrow strips of optimal habitat"" for extending the range of coast redwood.<ref name=""winder2022"" />

Video-documentation and analysis of a sampling of horticultural plantings of both species of California trees reveals strong growth from Portland to Seattle—substantially north of their native ranges. While horticulturally planted coast redwood and giant sequoia regularly produce cones in this northward region, only coast redwood is documented as having fully naturalized. This is evidenced by seedlings and saplings growing nearby the original plantings.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barlow |first1=Connie |title=Climate, Trees, and Legacy: Videos toward assisted migration |url=http://thegreatstory.org/climate-trees-legacy.html#redwood |website=The Great Story |access-date=23 July 2021}}</ref>

=== Northward planting of Coast Redwood in tree farms ===

In 2023 a site near [[Seattle]] hosted the annual meeting of the Washington Farm Forest Association. The group visited ""a thriving stand of 33-year-old redwoods"" that had been deliberately planted at the family-owned tree farm in 1990. PropagationNation, a citizen-group promoting the planting of both coast redwood and giant sequoia into the Pacific Northwest,<ref name=""hammock-2021"">{{cite news |last1=Hammock |first1=Dan |title=1,700 giant sequoia, redwood seedlings distributed at Elma event |url=https://www.thedailyworld.com/life/1700-giant-sequoia-redwood-seedlings-distributed-at-elma-event/ |agency=The Daily World |publisher=Sound Publishing (Everett, Washington) |date=31 March 2021}}</ref> posted a report on the history of the redwood grove and the group's experience at the site.<ref name=""pn-2023"">{{cite web |last1=PropagationNation staff |title=Coast Redwoods Thriving at Washington Tree Farm |url=https://propagationnation.us/coast-redwoods-thriving-at-washington-tree-farm/?mc_cid=fd7ca1495b&mc_eid=28435568bb |website=PropagationNation |date=September 27, 2023 |access-date=28 September 2023}}</ref> The grove was reported to be growing faster than that of a native tree species that had been planted in an adjacent section of the property. In 2008, the 18-year-old redwoods were the same height as the stand of 38-year-old [[Douglas fir]] growing nearby. Current measurements report height growth of about 4 feet per year. The now 33-year-old redwoods are 135 feet tall.<ref name=""pn-2023"" />

When asked about the farm's current goals in managing the grove of redwoods, the owner replied, “My only goal is to grow the tallest trees in the world.”<ref name=""pn-2023"" />

The actions of the citizen group Propagation Nation became controversial in late 2023. In October, a lengthy ''New York Times Magazine'' article reported favorably on the group's distribution of redwood seedlings to tree farms, public parks, and private individuals in a broad region surrounding the city of Seattle.<ref name=nyt-2023>{{cite news |last1=Velasquez-Manoff |first1=Moises |title=Can We Save the Redwoods by Helping Them Move? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/25/magazine/redwoods-assisted-migration.html?unlocked_article_code=1.5Uw.fy90.-KLBh1kMh_K9&smid=em-share |agency=New York Times Magazine |date=25 October 2023}}</ref> In December, the ''Associated Press'' exclusively reported criticism from professionals in the region and nationally: While beginning to favor experiments in ""assisted population migration"" of the main native timber tree, Douglas-fir, professionals were united against large-scale plantings of California redwoods into the Pacific Northwest.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gilles |first1=Nathan |title=As tree species face decline, 'assisted migration' gains popularity in Pacific Northwest |url=https://apnews.com/article/pacific-northwest-trees-dying-climate-change-migration-0c060e68e111ca06f51fc9e8e61e66b8 |work=Associated Press News |date=28 December 2023}}</ref> The next month, January 2024, carried a regional news article that, once again, showed strong support as well as bold statements by the group's founder.<ref name=""Zhou-2024"">{{cite news |last1=Zhou |first1=Amanda |title=Do redwood trees have a place in the future of WA's forests? They're already here |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/environment/do-redwood-trees-have-a-place-in-the-future-of-was-forests-theyre-already-here/ |agency=Seattle Times |date=21 January 2024}}</ref>

=== Northward plantings assist climate adaptation decisions === 

Private landowners, whether planting trees outside of native ranges for horticultural or commercial timber interests, are not by law required to seek governmental approval for doing so. Hence, the practice of visiting mature private or botanical garden plantings in order to assess the viability of intentional assisted migration of a tree species is not yet documented as standard practice. Thus far, the best-known example of documenting northward plantings pertains to a citizen group, [[Torreya Guardians]],<ref name=""nature-2017"">{{cite journal |last1=Editorial |title=Grows well in sun and warmth — and shade and cold |journal=Nature |date=4 December 2017 |volume=552 |issue=5–6 |pages=5–6 |doi=10.1038/d41586-017-07841-1 |doi-access=free |pmid=29219970 |bibcode=2017Natur.552R...5. }}</ref><ref name=""canada-2014"">{{cite web |last1=Ste-Marie |first1=Catherine |title=Adapting Sustainable Forest Management to Climate Change: A review of assisted tree migration and its potential role in adapting sustainable forest management to climate change |url=https://www.ccfm.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/CCFM-Assisted-Tree-Migration-November-2014-English-FINAL.pdf |website=Canadian Council of Forest Ministers}}</ref> justifying their actions in planting seeds of an officially listed [[endangered species]] of tree, [[Torreya taxifolia|Florida torreya]], hundreds of miles northward.<ref name=""petition-decision-FR"">{{cite journal |title=Evaluation of a Petition To Downlist Florida Torreya |journal=Federal Register |date=29 September 2021 |volume=86 |issue=186 |pages=53939 |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2021-09-29/pdf/2021-20963.pdf}}</ref> 

Diminishing fog along California's northern coast is already substantial,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Romero |first1=Ezra David |title=Coastal Fog — Or The Lack Of It — Could Be A Wildfire Risk |url=https://www.capradio.org/articles/2020/09/01/coastal-fog-or-the-lack-of-it-could-be-a-wildfire-risk/ |access-date=30 July 2021 |publisher=CapRadio |date=1 September 2020}}</ref> and its consequences would make '''coast redwood''' increasingly ""drought stressed under a summer climate of reduced fog frequency and greater evaporative demand.""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnstone |first1=James A|last2=Dawson|first2=Todd E|title=Climatic context and ecological implications of summer fog decline in the coast redwood region |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci |date=9 March 2010 |volume=107 |issue=10 |pages=4533–4538|doi=10.1073/pnas.0915062107 |pmid=20160112|pmc=2822705 |bibcode=2010PNAS..107.4533J|doi-access=free}}</ref> Researchers have begun studying how diminishment of fog, owing to climate change, would make habitat unsuitable for Coast redwood in southern portions of their range.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fernandez |first1=Miguel |last2=Hamilton |first2=Healy H |last3=Kueppers |first3=Lara M|title=Back to the future: Using historical climate variation to project near-term shifts in habitat suitable for coast redwood |journal=Global Change Biology |date=7 July 2015 |volume=21 |issue=11 |pages=4141–4152 |doi=10.1111/gcb.13027 |pmid=26149607 |bibcode=2015GCBio..21.4141F |osti=1511424 |s2cid=33170732 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gcb.13027}}</ref> Even in northern sections of current range, climate change could constrict habitability such that low slopes along rivers would become the final refugia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francis |first1=Emily J |last2=Asner |first2=Gregory P |last3=Mach |first3=Katharine J |last4=Field |first4=Christopher B |title=Landscape scale variation in the hydrologic niche of California coast redwood |journal=Ecography |date=23 June 2020 |volume=43 |issue=9 |pages=1305–1315 |doi=10.1111/ecog.05080 |s2cid=225716384 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020Ecogr..43.1305F }}</ref> Authors of the guest editorial in a 2021 issue of ''Journal of Ecology'' featured coast redwood in a concluding statement: ""We expect that dominant tree species threatened within their range (e.g. coast redwood) would have to be translocated at a landscape level to protect overall habitat, ecosystem productivity and associated species.""<ref name=""dalrymple2021"">{{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=Sarah|last2=Winder|first2=Richard|last3=Campbell|first3=Elizabeth M|title=Guest editorial: Exploring the potential for plant translocations to adapt to a warming world |journal=Journal of Ecology |date=June 2021 |volume=109 |issue=6 |pages=2264–2270 |doi=10.1111/1365-2745.13715 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The sudden deaths of some previously healthy '''giant sequoias''', which are native to the western slope of the [[Sierra Nevada]] mountain range, are correlated with California's record drought of 2012–2016. The deaths caught scientists and national park managers by surprise during the next few years, as drought-weakened trees succumbed to bark beetle infestations in their thin-barked upper branches.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Greenfield |first1=Patrick |title='This is not how sequoias die: It's supposed to stand for another 500 years' |journal=The Guardian |date=18 January 2020 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/18/this-is-not-how-sequoias-die-its-supposed-to-stand-for-another-500-years-aoe}}</ref> Because the drought killed an enormous number of the common pine species and firs that surround the discrete groves of giant sequoias, a wildfire of catastrophic intensity, the [[Castle Fire]], swept through the region in 2020. The innate fire resistance of even the tallest and sturdiest sequoias<ref>{{Cite web|last=Quammen|first=David|date=2012-12-01|title=Forest Giant|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/giant-sequoias|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20211003081603/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/giant-sequoias|archive-date=3 October 2021|access-date=2022-01-14|website=nationalgeographic.com|language=en}}</ref> could not protect the groves. A tenth of the entire native population of giant sequoia is estimated to have been killed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herrera |first1=Jack |title='Mind-blowing': tenth of world's giant sequoias may have been destroyed by a single fire |journal=The Guardian |date=3 June 2021 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jun/02/sequoias-destroyed-california-castle-fire |access-date=23 July 2021}}</ref> An interagency Giant Sequoia Lands Coalition formed in 2021, reporting that ""giant sequoias are known for their resistance to insects and disease and their fire-adapted life cycle, however the 2012–2016 drought appears to have been a tipping point for giant sequoias and other Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forests.""<ref>{{cite web |title=Giant Sequoia Lands Coalition |url=https://www.nps.gov/seki/learn/gslc.htm |website=Sequoia and Kings Canyon |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |access-date=4 August 2021}}</ref>

== Forest understory plants ==
[[File:Torreya-seeds.jpg|thumb|Seeds of Florida torreya ripen to a purple color at this horticultural planting in eastern North Carolina.]]
Natural and healthy forests include a diversity of native [[understory]] plants. Because understory plants require a healthy canopy of [[overstory]] trees, assisted migration of understory plants is only occasionally mentioned in the [[forestry]] publications on the topic of [[climate adaptation]].<ref name=""winder2011"" />

Two genera, ''[[Taxus]]'' and ''[[Torreya]]'', within the ancient [[yew]] family called [[Taxaceae]] have been proposed as important understory components for their value in providing [[ecosystem services]] for forest restoration and climate adaptation projects in China. The authors conclude, ""Taxaceae species can contribute to generate structurally complex stands of increased value for biodiversity and increased stability, hereby also contributing to [[climate change mitigation]] as well as other important ecosystem services. Further, using rare Taxaceae species in [[reforestation]] will also help conserve these rare species in a changing future.""<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Arp Jensen |first1=Ditte |title=The potential for using rare, native species in reforestation: A case study of yews (Taxaceae) in China |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=15 February 2021 |volume=482 |page=118816 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118816 |s2cid=230577774 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112720315851}}</ref> Both genera have distinct species native to the western and eastern regions of North America. Only [[Florida torreya]] is [[critically endangered]], however, and a citizen group called [[Torreya Guardians]] has been planting this species hundreds of kilometers north of its native range.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Editorial: Grows well in sun and warmth — and shade and cold |journal=Nature |date=4 December 2017 |volume=552 |issue=7683 |pages=5–6 |doi=10.1038/d41586-017-07841-1 |doi-access=free |pmid=29219970 |bibcode=2017Natur.552R...5. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| display-authors=etal |last1=Butt |first1=Nathalie |title=Essay: Importance of species translocations under rapid climate change |journal=Conservation Biology |date=13 October 2020 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=775–783 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13643 |pmid=33047846 |s2cid=222320826 |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cobi.13643}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schipani |first1=Sam |title=Scrappy Group of Citizen Scientists Rallies Around One of World's Rarest Trees |journal=Earth Island Journal |date=4 October 2018 |url=https://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/scrappy-group-citizen-scientists-worlds-rarest-trees}}</ref>

=== Inadvertent assisted migration of ornamental understory plants ===

[[File:Southern magnolia - fleshy seeds in its fruiting body.jpg|thumb|The evergreen southern magnolia is native to the southeastern US and bears the typical magnolia structure of fruit with fleshy seeds.]]

Native species of [[Magnolia]] in eastern North America have been widely planted for their ornamental beauty in horticultural contexts far north of their native ranges. Although nearly half of all Magnolia species are threatened globally, human-assisted movement and cultivation of some species have led to their survival and expansion far beyond native range. The ongoing naturalization of beyond-range Magnolia taxa has been associated with climate change.<ref name=""rounsaville2020"">{{cite journal |last1=Rounsaville |first1=Todd J |title=Spatiotemporal recruitment patterns of two introduced Magnolia L. species in a disturbed oak forest |journal=Écoscience |date=April 2020 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=165–176 |doi=10.1080/11956860.2020.1753311 |bibcode=2020Ecosc..27..165R |s2cid=219078456 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/11956860.2020.1753311?journalCode=teco20}}</ref> Botanists have documented examples where such plantings have fully naturalized—that is, where nearby seedlings and saplings suggest that not only were viable seeds produced, but the habitat and climate were favorable for seedlings to establish and grow. These are examples of inadvertent assisted migration. Botanist Todd Rounsaville suggests, ""There is an important need to study and report the ecological processes of tree naturalization in novel environments to guide policy making and forest management relating to climate change, species range-shifts, and assisted migration.""<ref name=""rounsaville2020"" />

One example is the [[southern magnolia]], ''Magnolia grandiflora''. This small, evergreen tree is widely planted as an ornamental as far north as New England and Michigan. The tree tolerates those regions, which are far north of its native range along the coast of southeastern US. But no instances of full naturalization have been documented at such high latitudes. In 2011 botanists documented naturalization near Chapel Hill, North Carolina, which is more than a hundred kilometers beyond and inland of its northernmost native range in North Carolina.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gruhn |first1=Jennifer A|last2=White|first2=Peter S|title=Magnolia grandiflora L. Range Expansion: A Case Study in a North Carolina Piedmont Forest |journal=Southeastern Naturalist |date=June 2011 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=275–288 |doi=10.1656/058.010.0208 |s2cid=84283082|url=http://labs.bio.unc.edu/white/Reprints/17%20905%20Gruhn%2014.pdf}}</ref>
[[File:Magnolia tripetala in flower in northeast Alabama.jpg|thumb|''Magnolia tripetala'' in flower in northeast Alabama]]

[[Bigleaf magnolia]], ''Magnolia macrophylla'', another widely planted ornamental, has been documented as fully naturalized in the state of Connecticut. This is 130 kilometers northeast of its historically native range. Because climate models project severe contraction in the southerly portion of its native range, William Moorhead recommends that ""additional sites for this conspicuous species should be sought in the area of similar climate conditions between Long Island and central Connecticut, such as along the northern coast of Long Island Sound and in the lower Hudson Valley.""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moorhead |first1=William H |title=Big Leaf Magnolia: A New Addition to the Flora of New England |journal=Rhodora |date=16 March 2018 |volume=119 |issue=980 |pages=349–354 |doi=10.3119/17-02 |s2cid=90467493 |url=https://bioone.org/journals/rhodora/volume-119/issue-980/17-02/Big-Leaf-Magnolia--A-New-Addition-to-the-Flora/10.3119/17-02.short}}</ref>

[[Umbrella magnolia]], ''Magnolia tripetala'', has been documented as naturalized in more than a dozen locations well north of its historic native range. Dispersal problems apparently limited its post-glacial range expansion to regions south of the farthest extent of continental ice. While horticultural plantings northward into Massachusetts as early as the 18th century demonstrated species tolerance for the then-climate, only recently have these old horticultural plantings begun to extend offspring into adjacent suitable habitat—becoming quite populous in even full-canopy forests, according to botanists Jesse Bellemare and Claudia Deeg. They write, ""The pattern of relatively synchronous escape and establishment of this southern tree species in the last 20 to 30 years seems most consistent with a link to recent climatic warming in the northeastern US.""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Jesse|last2=Deeg|first2=Claudia |title=Horticultural Escape and Naturalization of Magnolia tripetala in Western Massachusetts: Biogeographic Context and Possible Relationship to Recent Climate Change |journal=Rhodora |date=2015 |volume=117 |issue=971 |pages=371–383 |doi=10.3119/15-04 |s2cid=86153619|url=https://bioone.org/journals/rhodora/volume-117/issue-971/15-04/Horticultural-Escape-and-Naturalization-of-Magnolia-tripetala-in-Western-Massachusetts/10.3119/15-04.short}}</ref>

==Evidence and causes of lagging tree migration==
[[File:Lonicera maackii along Huron River of Michigan 01.jpg|thumb|''[[Lonicera maackii]]'', native in Asia, can shade out native canopy seedlings in the eastern USA, as in this regrowth forest in southern [[Michigan]].|upright 1.50]]

Forest [[habitat fragmentation]] caused by agriculture and residential development have long been recognized as impediments to the ability of plants to geographically track [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Honnay |first1=Olivier |title=Possible effects of habitat fragmentation and climate change on the range of forest plant species |journal=Ecology Letters |date=10 July 2002 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=525–530 |doi=10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00346.x |bibcode=2002EcolL...5..525H |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00346.x}}</ref> Several additional human stressors are now also recognized as lessening the ability of trees to adapt to climate change by ""migrating poleward.""<ref name=""miller2019"">{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Kathryn M |last2=McGill |first2=Brian J |title=Compounding human stressors cause major regeneration debt in over half of eastern US forests |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=4 March 2019 |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=1355–1366 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.13375 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019JApEc..56.1355M }}</ref> One such stress is where native [[deer]] densities are abnormally high, owing to the absence of predators and landscape or management conditions that preclude human hunting at adequate scale. Under those conditions, tree species whose leaves and twigs are palatable to deer are unable to launch next generations, even when still well represented in the forest canopy.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Champagne |first1=Emilie |title=A Review of Ungulate Impacts on the Success of Climate-Adapted Forest Management Strategies |journal=Current Forestry Reports |date=2021 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=305–320 |doi=10.1007/s40725-021-00148-5 |bibcode=2021CForR...7..305C |s2cid=240290783 |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/nrs/pubs/jrnl/2021/nrs_2021_champagne_002.pdf}}</ref> Another stress derives from non-native [[invasive species|invasive plants]] that can rapidly occupy a canopy opening, thereby shading out native tree seedlings that might otherwise have been able to establish.<ref name=""miller2019"" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Climate change in Canada}}

[[Category:Forestry in North America]]
[[Category:Plant ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Climate change adaptation]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Climate change in Canada]]
[[Category:Climate change in the United States]]"
Embark,"{{Short description|Sri Lankan animal welfare organization}}
{{Infobox organization
| logo                = Embark_logo.png
| formation           = {{start date and age|2007|df=y}}
| founder             = [[Otara Gunewardene]]
| type                = [[Non-profit organisation]]
| purpose             = [[Animal welfare]], Animal Rescue, [[Wildlife Conservation]], [[Volunteerism]]
| location_country    = [[Sri Lanka]]
| website             = [http://www.embarkpassion.org/ embarkpassion.org]
}}
{{About|Sri Lankan animal welfare organization|canine genomics company|Embark Veterinary}}

'''Embark''' is a Sri Lankan animal rescue and welfare organization.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark cares for over 10,000 street dogs in 2018|url=http://bizenglish.adaderana.lk/embark-cares-for-over-10000-street-dogs-in-2018/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=bizenglish.adaderana.lk}}</ref> Since 2007, Embark has been conducting rescues, adoptions, sterilizations, vaccinations, education programmes and advocacy campaigns for the welfare of homeless dogs, cats and other animals. Embark was founded by the award-winning entrepreneur, conservationist and advocate [[Otara Gunewardene]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-11-12|title=Odel: Behind Sri Lanka's best-known store|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/Odel-Behind-Sri-Lanka%E2%80%99s-best-known-store/article16442851.ece|access-date=2021-03-14|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Humans and animals can live in harmony says Otara|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/humans-and-animals-can-live-in-harmony-says-otara/172-102783|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Baxter|first=Rhema Mukti|title=It's raining cats and dogs in Sri Lanka and some people are risking their lives to rescue animals|url=http://scroll.in/article/808584/its-raining-cats-and-dogs-in-sri-lanka-and-some-people-are-risking-their-lives-to-rescue-animals|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title='Yes' or 'No' to zoos and safari parks?|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/-Yes-or-No-to-zoos-and-safari-parks-/172-107632|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=BUSINESS TODAY -Every Brand needs a story|url=http://www.businesstoday.lk/article.php?article=11965|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.businesstoday.lk}}</ref>

== History ==
{{further|Otara Gunewardene}}

In 2007, Gunewardene launched the fashion brand, Embark, income from which has been utilized to conduct vaccinations, sterilizations, adoptions, and medical care for injured street dogs.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Otara's support to community dogs|url=http://www.sundaytimes.lk/070304/FinancialTimes/ft337.html|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.sundaytimes.lk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Reddy|first=Sujata|title=How Sri Lankan designer Otara Gunewardene extends her passion to upkeep of dogs|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/how-sri-lankan-designer-otara-gunewardene-extends-her-passion-to-upkeep-of-dogs/articleshow/33808680.cms|access-date=2021-03-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Embarking mad|url=http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2010/10/03/embarking-mad/|access-date=2021-03-14|archive-date=2018-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816135834/http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2010/10/03/embarking-mad/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=LBO|date=2015-07-20|title=Otara's ""Embark"" spreads more love and compassion in Q1- 2015/16|url=https://www.lankabusinessonline.com/otaras-embark-spreads-more-love-and-compassion-in-q1-201516/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Lanka Business Online|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2015, Embark opened its first standalone store in [[Galle]], followed by an additional three stores in [[Kandy City Centre]], [[Bandaranaike International Airport]] and at Dickman's Road in Colombo.<ref>{{Cite web|last=LBO|date=2016-06-23|title=Embark opens 4 new stores and transforms 14,000+ doggy lives in 2015-16|url=https://www.lankabusinessonline.com/embark-opens-4-new-stores-and-transforms-14000-doggy-lives-in-2015-16/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Lanka Business Online|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Otara returns to her roots to open store at dickmans road|url=http://bizenglish.adaderana.lk/otara-returns-to-her-roots-to-open-embark-store-at-dickmans-road/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=bizenglish.adaderana.lk}}</ref>

In 2017 Embark opened its tenth store in [[K-Zone Ja-Ela]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark opens standalone store inK-Zone, Ja-Ela|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/business-news/Embark-opens-standalone-store-inK-Zone-Ja-Ela-/273-137648|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref> and 11th store in [[Kurunegala]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark brings 'passion' to Kurunegala|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/business-news/Embark-brings-passion-to-Kurunegala/273-140025|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref>

In 2019, Embark opened its 12th store in Kandy.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-29|title=Kandy comes under Embark spell as 12th store opens in hill capital|url=https://www.lankabusinessnews.com/kandy-comes-under-embark-spell-as-12th-store-opens-in-hill-capital/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Lanka Business News|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Projects ==
Embark conducts ""Adoption Days"" every weekend to help find homes for homeless puppies and rescued dogs. The dogs are taken care for by registered fosters until adoption day.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Feeding street dogs|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/caption_story/Feeding-street-dogs/110-199974}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=A feast of fashion|url=http://www.sundaytimes.lk/110213/Plus/plus_12.html|access-date=2021-06-01|website=www.sundaytimes.lk}}</ref>

Embark rescues dogs on a daily basis and treats them at the Best Care Animal Hospital until recovered. Disabled dogs are given shelter in the hospital for a lifetime. Embark also tends to emergency calls about other animals in need of rescue<ref>{{Cite web|title=She Can: Featuring Otara Del Gunewardene - The Weekend Online {{!}} Daily Mirror|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/the_weekend_online/She-Can-Featuring-Otara-Del-Gunewardene/426-206626|access-date=2021-06-01|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref> 

Embark's volunteer leadership program, has over 1000 volunteers whose contributions are awarded with an Annual Award Ceremony; the first ceremony was held in 2018 where Maleesha Gunawardana was awarded as The Most Passionate Volunteer and Shenal Burkey in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark celebrates second annual Volunteer Awards|url=http://www.dailynews.lk/2020/01/09/finance/207881/embark-celebrates-second-annual-volunteer-awards|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Daily News|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark Volunteer Awards 2018|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/press-releases/Embark-Volunteer-Awards-/335-160144|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark Volunteer Awards 2018|url=http://www.dailynews.lk/2018/12/24/tc/172228/embark-volunteer-awards-2018|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Daily News|language=en}}</ref>  

Embark conducts school education programs on animal welfare and wildlife conservation to instill compassion in younger generations. 

Embark conducts catch-neuter-vaccinate-release programmes to control the homeless dog population and has a pet ambulance that rescues injured street dogs for free.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සුනඛ ගහනය ලක්ෂ 30 දක්වා ඉහළට|url=https://www.gossiplankanews.com/2019/12/30-dog-population-sri-lanka.html|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Gossip Lanka News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=OTARA'S EMBARK – TSL – The Times of Sri Lanka (Published in Canada) – All Rights Reserved (Editor: Upali Obeyesekere)|url=http://www.timeslanka.com/tag/otaras-embark/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=TSL - The Times of Sri Lanka (Published in Canada) - All Rights Reserved (Editor: Upali Obeyesekere)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Reddy|first=Sujata|title=How Sri Lankan designer Otara Gunewardene extends her passion to upkeep of dogs|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/how-sri-lankan-designer-otara-gunewardene-extends-her-passion-to-upkeep-of-dogs/articleshow/33808680.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-03-14}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Advocacy groups]]
[[Category:Animal welfare organizations]]
[[Category:Wildlife conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Animal rights organizations]]
[[Category:Animal rescue groups]]"
Santa Lucia Preserve,"{{Short description|Unincorporated community in California, United States}}

{{use mdy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox property development
  | name                    = The Santa Lucia Preserve
  | logo                    = <!-- Image if available -->
  | logo_caption            = <!-- Logo caption.  Do not use if no logo. -->
  | logo_size               = <!-- Size of the logo. E.g. 50px -->
  | image                   = {{Photomontage
| photo1a                 = Panorama of Peñon Peak.jpg
| photo4a                 = Santa Lucia Preserve Hacienda (cropped).jpg
| spacing                 = 2
| position                = center
| color_border            = white
| color                   = white
| size                    = 260
| foot_montage            = '''Top:''' Peñon Peak is The Preserve's second tallest peak at {{convert|2,247|ft}} above sea level. '''Bottom:''' The Hacienda is the cultural center of the community.
}}
  | image_caption           =
  | image_size              =

  | start_date              = 1990
  | completion_date         = 
  | opening_date            = {{start date and age|1999}}
  | cost                    = 
  | developer               = Pacific Union Co.
  | architect               = Hart Howerton
  | operator                = Santa Lucia Preserve Co. & Santa Lucia Conservancy
  | owner                   = Santa Lucia Preserve Co. & Santa Lucia Conservancy
  | website                 = {{URL|santaluciapreserve.com}}, {{URL|slconservancy.com}}

  | buildings               = Hacienda, 1920
  | public_spaces           = <!-- e.g. parks, squares etc. -->
  | divisions               = <!-- Regions, districts etc -->
  | streets                 = Robinson Canyon Rd.
  | transport               = <!-- Transportation facilities, e.g. railway stations, tramlines -->
  | utilities               = <!-- Power, sewage, fire stations etc. -->
  | pushpin_map             = United States Monterey Peninsula#USA California
  | pushpin_label           = Santa Lucia Preserve
  | pushpin_map_alt         = 
  | pushpin_map_caption     = 
  | pushpin_label_position  = 
  | pushpin_relief          = 1
  | coordinates             = {{coord|36|31|36|N|121|52|05|W|display=inline, title}}
  | coor_pinpoint           = 
  | coordinates_footnotes   = 
  | subdivision_type        = County
  | subdivision_name        = 
  | subdivision_type1       = <!-- e.g. State, province --> 
  | subdivision_name1       = 
  | subdivision_type2       = 
  | subdivision_name2       = 
  | subdivision_type3       = 
  | subdivision_name3       = 
  | location                =  [[Carmel, California]]
  | address                 =  1 Rancho San Carlos Rd
  | area_total_ha           = 8000
  | area_land_ha            = 
  | area_water_ha           = 
  | area_total_acre         = 20000
  | area_land_acre          = 
  | area_water_acre         = 
  | population_footnotes    = 
  | population_as_of        = 
  | population_total        = 
}}

'''The Santa Lucia Preserve''' ({{IPAc-en|'|s|ae|n|.|t|@|_|l|u|'|s|i:|@}}) or '''The Preserve''' (formerly '''Rancho San Carlos''') is a private, {{convert|20000|acres}} gated development permitting 297  homesites. It is located in the foothills of the [[Santa Lucia Range]] between [[Palo Corona Regional Park]] and [[Carmel Valley, California]]. The Preserve consists of a {{convert|12000|acre}} [[nature reserve]], {{convert|8,000|acre}} of open land, and {{convert|2,000|acre}} for development.<ref name=bartlett>{{cite news |last1=Bartlett |first1=James Y. |title=The Best of the Best 2003: Golf Communities – Santa Lucia Preserve |url=https://robbreport.com/travel/destinations/best-best-2003-golf-communities-santa-lucia-preserve-241087/ |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=Robb Report |date=June 1, 2003 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002637/https://robbreport.com/travel/destinations/best-best-2003-golf-communities-santa-lucia-preserve-241087/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It contains most of the watershed of [[Las Garzas Creek (Carmel River tributary)|Las Garzas Creek]], a tributary of the [[Carmel River (California)|Carmel River]].

Developers Peter Stocker and Tom Gray formed the Rancho San Carlos Partnership which purchased the property from Arthur Oppenheimer in 1990 for $70 million. After resolving disputes and lawsuits with environmentalists and activists, The Preserve Company and the Conservancy submitted a modified design that met their approval.

The Partnership established The Preserve as a [[conservation community]], protecting 90% ({{convert|18000|acres}}) of the {{convert|20,000|acre}} property in perpetuity through the Santa Lucia Conservancy, a [[Land trust|conservation land trust]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gfeller |first1=Anne |title=Rancho San Carlos: Developing a Vision |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/cover/planned-development-on-the--acre-rancho-san-carlos-could/article_12ce274e-8b66-58e2-bad4-498b70db6c6b.html |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=December 10, 1992 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002643/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/cover/planned-development-on-the--acre-rancho-san-carlos-could/article_12ce274e-8b66-58e2-bad4-498b70db6c6b.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Louis |first1=Arthur M. |title=Rebel With A Cause -- To Succeed |url=https://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Rebel-With-A-Cause-To-Succeed-3030624.php |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |date=June 9, 1995 |archive-date=October 19, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019020206/http://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Rebel-With-A-Cause-To-Succeed-3030624.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fletcher |first1=June |title=Locals Fight 'Nature Preserve,' Saying It Will Hurt Environment |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB872208493859442000?mod=searchresults_pos3&page=31 |access-date=7 February 2021 |publisher=The Wall Street Journal |date=August 22, 1997 |archive-date=February 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214114027/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB872208493859442000?mod=searchresults_pos3&page=31 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Carlton |first1=Jim |title=After Years of Battle, Housing Project On Nature Preserve Can Claim Success |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB983311577903911883 |access-date=10 February 2021 |publisher=The Wall Street Journal |date=February 28, 2001 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183227/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB983311577903911883 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The remaining 10% ({{convert|2000|acres}}) intended for development is separately owned and operated by The Santa Lucia Preserve Company. The land features 297 homesites,<ref name=""survey"">{{cite web|title=Planning Survey: Rancho San Carlos, Carmel Valley, California by Arthur C. Oppenheimer, James B. Pruitt, Mike Dormody|url=https://www.carpediemfinebooks.com/pages/books/19892/arthur-c-oppenheimer-james-b-pruitt-mike-dormody/planning-survey-rancho-san-carlos-carmel-valley-california|website=Carpe Diem Fine Books|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=March 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192119/https://www.carpediemfinebooks.com/pages/books/19892/arthur-c-oppenheimer-james-b-pruitt-mike-dormody/planning-survey-rancho-san-carlos-carmel-valley-california|url-status=dead}}</ref> employee housing, an existing Spanish-style [[hacienda]] dating to the 1920s, an equestrian center, a small store, a private 365-acre golf course designed by [[Tom Fazio]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Diedrich |first1=Richard J. |title=The 19th Hole: Architecture of the Golf Clubhouse |date=2008 |publisher=Images Publishing Group |location=Mulgrave, Vic. |isbn=9781864702231 |page=244 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0WONgTVIO_0C&dq=%22Santa+Lucia+Preserve%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA244 |access-date=1 March 2021 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002638/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_19th_Hole/0WONgTVIO_0C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22Santa+Lucia+Preserve%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA244&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> and other recreational facilities. Each of the 297 homesites, ranging in size from {{convert|10|acre}} to {{convert|50|acre}}, were initially projected to sell from around $1 million and up to several million dollars. The partnership's initial investment was around $200 million. The property is now worth an estimated $500 million. A stone gatehouse on Rancho San Carlos Road controls who can access the preserve. Only homeowners, their families and guests, and staff are permitted on the property.<ref name=private>{{Cite web|url=https://carmelmagazine.com/archive/santa-lucia-preserve|title=My Own Private California – Carmel Magazine|website=carmelmagazine.com}}</ref>

The property has been used as a [[Filming location|shooting location]] for film, television, and commercials.<ref>{{cite web |title=Location: Rancho San Carlos |url=https://filmmonterey.org/?s=rancho+san+carlos |website=MontereyCountyFilmCommission.com |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209103613/https://filmmonterey.org/?s=rancho+san+carlos |url-status=live }}</ref> The inactive Sid Ormsbee [[Fire lookout|Fire Lookout]], visible throughout Carmel Valley and The Preserve, is located on the property.

== History ==

===Native American and Pioneer era ===

The land was first settled by the [[Rumsen people|Rumsen]] [[Ohlone]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. A Rumsen village known as Echilat was located within the present-day Santa Lucia Preserve.<ref name=pamphlet/> Four prehistoric resource sites were identified within the Preserve, including [[midden]] sites containing shell (mussel, chiton and barnacle); lithics (chert, andesite and quartz); fire-altered rock; animal bone; and dark soil. Dark patches in the soil indicate where they cooked acorn patties on hot coals.<ref name=private/><ref name=planning2/>

The Spanish arrived in the 1770s and established the [[Presidio of Monterey]] and the [[Carmel Mission]], creating [[Alta California]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=White |first1=Charles P. |title=Costanoan Rumsen Carmel Tribe |url=http://crc.nativeweb.org/history.html |website=CRC.NativeWeb.org |publisher=Costanoan Rumsen Carmel Tribe |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017093331/http://crc.nativeweb.org/history.html |archive-date=October 17, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Rumsen people were devastated by diseases they had no resistance to. The survivors were forcibly incorporated into the colony as [[wikt:neophyte|neophytes]] and laborers. When the California Mission System was [[Mexican secularization act of 1833|secularized]] by the Mexican government in August 1833, the former mission lands in the area of the present-day property were divided into two [[Ranchos of California|grants]]. [[Rancho Potrero de San Carlos]] was given to Fructuoso del Real, a Mission Indian. [[Rancho San Francisquito (Munras)|Rancho San Francisquito]] was granted in 1835 to Dona Catalina Manzanellide Muñras.<ref name=pamphlet/><ref>{{cite web |title=History of Rancho San Carlos |url=https://slconservancy.org/inspire/history-of-the-rancho-san-carlos/ |website=Santa Lucia Conservancy.com |publisher=Santa Lucia Conservancy |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=January 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128123809/https://slconservancy.org/inspire/history-of-the-rancho-san-carlos/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ranchos were each bought and sold over the years. Businessman Bradley Sargent bought the two ranchos in 1876 and renamed them ''San Francisquito y San Carlos''. During Sargent's ownership, author [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] fell ill while on a camping trip and was nursed back to health in a cabin on the property,<ref>{{cite web |title=Robert Louis Stevenson in California |url=http://robert-louis-stevenson.org/california/ |website=Robert-Louis-Stevenson.org |publisher=RLS Website |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=May 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515071932/http://robert-louis-stevenson.org/california/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the ruins of which remain today.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pitnick |first1=Richard |title=No Place Like Home |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/archives/new/s/1998/jul/16/no-place-like-home/carmel-valley-historical-society-struggles-to-find-permanent-site-for-archive/article_69de9f5e-bff2-5af6-ae5b-3bba6279c2f8.html |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=July 16, 1998 |archive-date=February 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213045325/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/archives/new/s/1998/jul/16/no-place-like-home/carmel-valley-historical-society-struggles-to-find-permanent-site-for-archive/article_69de9f5e-bff2-5af6-ae5b-3bba6279c2f8.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Sargent's brother managed the land as a cattle ranch.

=== Estate development ===

George Gordon Moore, born in Ontario, Canada in 1875, became a lawyer and later  president of the [[Michigan United Railways|Michigan United Traction Company]]. He also owned public utilities in Georgia, Nebraska, Canada and Brazil. He built a horsebreeding farm in St. Clair, Michigan  and a game preserve in North Carolina.<ref name=graham/>

Moore was a millionaire by the mid-1920s. While visiting Monterey he bought the land and renamed it ''Rancho San Carlos''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/05/18/archives/george-g-moore.html|title=GEORGE G. MOORE|work=The New York Times |date=May 18, 1971|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref name=graham/> Moore spent more than one million dollars to build a 37-bedroom hacienda featuring a {{convert|75|ft}} long main room overlooking his custom  [[Polo|polo grounds]], a guest house, employee quarters, and to excavate an {{convert|18|acre}} lake and stock it with fish. He had nine Russian sows and three [[wild boar|boars]] sent from his game preserve in North Carolina for [[sport hunting]] which have now spread to all but two of California's 58 counties.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Moore |first1=George Gordon |title=The Origin of Wild Boar in Monterey County |url=http://mchsmuseum.com/boar.html |website=MCHSmuseum.com |publisher=Monterey County Historical Society |access-date=2 May 2022 |quote=The following is a [1963] letter from George Gordon Moore to Stuyvesant Fish explaining how wild boar came to be in Monterey County. There are many stories about the origins of the wild boar, but this appears to be the real story! |archive-date=October 18, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018151856/http://mchsmuseum.com/boar.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Dowd |first1=Katie |title=One eccentric socialite is to blame for California's wild pig problem |url=https://www.sfgate.com/sfhistory/article/One-eccentric-socialite-is-to-blame-for-14916088.php |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |date=December 26, 2019 |archive-date=March 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303064020/https://www.sfgate.com/sfhistory/article/One-eccentric-socialite-is-to-blame-for-14916088.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Scutro |first1=Andrew |title=Hog Heaven |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/how-the-wild-boar-is-destroying-california-and-why-it-cannot-be-killed/article_764b95b7-7cb8-5b43-9883-9b94f86cfc64.html |access-date=7 February 2021 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=November 28, 2002 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002639/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/how-the-wild-boar-is-destroying-california-and-why-it-cannot-be-killed/article_764b95b7-7cb8-5b43-9883-9b94f86cfc64.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Moore spent lavishly to entertain his guests at extravagant parties attended by Hollywood starlets. He became a socialite and friend of newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]]. He built a secret door to the wine cellar so it could be concealed from authorities during [[Prohibition]].<ref name=planning2/><ref name=graham>{{Cite web|url=https://www.grahamcounty.net/hooperbald/ggmoore/ggmoore.htm|title=Hooper Bald|website=www.grahamcounty.net}}</ref> Moore entertained a who's who of Hollywood celebrities and the social elite, including [[W. Averell Harriman]],<ref name=private/> [[Lady Alexandra Curzon]], [[Tommy Hitchcock Jr.]], William Tevis, a colorful character who played polo for over sixty years,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.winecountrypoloclub.com/richardm.html|title=Wine Country Polo Club - Richard Mansfield|website=www.winecountrypoloclub.com}}</ref> and [[Eric Leader Pedley]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://loonhill.com/george-gordon-moore-barbecue-rancho-san-carlos-august-1927/|title=george gordon moore barbecue, rancho san carlos, aug 1927|date=November 6, 2018 }}</ref><ref name=private/>

Financial losses suffered during the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929|market crash]] and [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]] eventually forced Moore into  foreclosure in 1939.<ref name=""Hooper Bald"" /><ref name=planning2/>

Arthur C. Oppenheimer, a businessman from San Francisco who owned the Rosenberg Fruit Company and longed to become a rancher, bought the land. Under the management of his friend, George King, the property was returned once again to a working ranch, and for the next 45 years was well known for raising quality beef. Although Oppenheimer longed to become a rancher, he and his family did not live there. Instead they used it as a family retreat for half a century.<ref name=planning2/><ref name=private/><ref name=""Hooper Bald"" /><ref>{{cite news |title=George Gordon Moore Loses San Carlos Ranch |url=https://archive.org/details/ccarm_002314/page/n0/mode/1up |access-date=2 March 2021 |publisher=The Carmel Pine Cone |date=February 2, 1940}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=About the Santa Lucia Preserve: Our History & Preserve Design |url=https://www.santaluciapreserve.com/about |website=www.santaluciapreserve.com |access-date=28 April 2022 |archive-date=April 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406231548/https://www.santaluciapreserve.com/about |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Fruit Industry Leader Dies |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25986876/the-san-francisco-examiner/ |access-date=8 March 2021 |publisher=The San Francisco Examiner |date=March 4, 1950 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183757/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25986876/the-san-francisco-examiner/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Modern development ==

In 1990 the property was purchased by the Rancho San Carlos Partnership (RSCP) from the Oppenheimer family for $70 million.<ref name=""gfeller""/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Beck |first1=Susan |title=Owners plan to preserve Rancho San Carlos' character |url=https://archive.org/details/ccarm_004957/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=8 March 2021 |publisher=The Carmel Pine Cone |date=October 18, 1990 |pages=6–7}}</ref> The Partnership's two general partners were A Plus Co., Ltd., a Japanese finance company associated with [[Sanwa Bank]], and Las Garzas Associates Limited Partnership, associated with Pacific Union Co, a San Francisco-based real estate development and management corporation.<ref name=""gfeller"">{{cite web |last1=Gfeller |first1=Anne |title=Planned development on the 20,000-acre Rancho San Carlos could make it worth $1 billion. Incredibly, owners say they can make their money and save the environment at the same time. |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/cover/planned-development-on-the-20-000-acre-rancho-san-carlos-could-make-it-worth-1/article_12ce274e-8b66-58e2-bad4-498b70db6c6b.html |website=Monterey County Weekly |date=December 10, 1992 |access-date=28 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002644/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/cover/planned-development-on-the-20-000-acre-rancho-san-carlos-could-make-it-worth-1/article_12ce274e-8b66-58e2-bad4-498b70db6c6b.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Co-founder Peter Stocker was killed in a helicopter crash on the property which left completion of the project to his business partner Tom Gray.<ref>{{cite news |title=Funeral services set for Peter Stocker |url=https://archive.org/details/ccarm_004935/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=8 March 2021 |publisher=The Carmel Pine Cone |date=May 7, 1990}}</ref>

=== The Santa Lucia Preserve Company ===

After purchasing the property for $70 million, RSCP engaged in a lengthy process of planning development.<ref name=""gfeller""/> Their initial submitted plan set aside {{convert|2000|acres}} for 300 home sites, 50 employee housing units, a 150-room lodge, a golf course, equestrian center, sports club, tennis courts, and a village center with a general store, gas station, and post office. The RSCP sought and received approval to rezone approximately {{convert|1,135|acre}} of The Preserve for visitor accommodation and commercial development.<ref name=planning2>{{cite web|url=https://www.co.monterey.ca.us/home/showpublisheddocument/83965/637085452056430000  |title=PC 17-039 - Exhibit H - Potrero Subdivision SEIR - Monterey County |publisher=Montery County Planning Commission}}{{pd-notice}}</ref> This compares to an 11,000-unit development that the Oppenheimer family had considered and rejected in 1965.<ref name=gfeller/><ref name=""survey""/><ref name=""pamphlet"">{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Conservancy |url=https://slconservancy.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/20190116SLC_Booklet_2019.pdf |website=www.slconservancy.org |access-date=28 April 2022 |archive-date=November 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129103957/https://slconservancy.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/20190116SLC_Booklet_2019.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Early criticism ===

When the initial development plan was revealed by RSCP, it encountered considerable suspicion. Some locals protested, petitioned, and sued in an effort to stop the project, with legal support from the Ventana Chapter of [[Sierra Club]].<ref name=sneider>{{cite news |last1=Sneider |first1=Daniel |title=Green Scam or Green Model? |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1996/0430/30012.html |access-date=10 February 2021 |publisher=The Christian Science Monitor |date=April 30, 1996 |archive-date=April 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421061141/https://www.csmonitor.com/1996/0430/30012.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=John |title=Storied Land: Community and Memory in Monterey |date=2003 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-22723-9 |pages=262–266 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bEwDwAAQBAJ&q=sierra+club+%22rancho+san+carlos%22&pg=PA265 |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709195331/https://books.google.com/books?id=0bEwDwAAQBAJ&q=sierra+club+%22rancho+san+carlos%22&pg=PA265 |url-status=live }}</ref> Besides concern that the development was a conservation project in name only—a marketing ploy known as [[green-washing]]—some of their specific concerns were that The Preserve would increase local traffic, strain scarce water resources, worsen air quality, and that developers were planning far more development than they were declaring publicly.<ref name=sneider/>

The Sierra Club lawsuit (''Sierra Club, et al. v. County of Monterey, et al.'') successfully placed Measure M on the November 5, 1996 Monterey County ballot.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vote Totals, Election Outcomes and Text for County Ballot Measures |url=https://elections.cdn.sos.ca.gov/county-city-school-district-election-results/county_report_1996.pdf |website=CA.gov |publisher=Center for California Studies and Institute for Social Research |access-date=11 February 2021 |page=18 |date=1996 |quote=Measure M: Shall Ordinance No. 03857 approving rezoning of portions of the Santa Lucia Preserve subdivision (also known as Rancho San Carlos) be approved? FAIL |archive-date=February 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227104334/https://elections.cdn.sos.ca.gov/county-city-school-district-election-results/county_report_1996.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> It barred RSCP from building the 150-room lodge and a larger shopping area on the property.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wiley |first1=John |title=Green Development: Integrating Ecology and Real Estate |date=1998 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0471188786 |pages=204–206 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yuhmds7ChHoC | access-date=11 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709191917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yuhmds7ChHoC&q=sierra+club+%22rancho+san+carlos%22&pg=PA205 |url-status=live }}</ref> Measure M was approved, overturning the County Planning Commission's zoning approval of the {{convert|1,135|acre}} of The Preserve intended for visitor accommodation and commercial use and removing three homesites from the plan.<ref name=planning2/>

The [[Big Sur Land Trust]] paid for an analysis of the company's plans. Andy Johnson, president of Conservation Advisors, commented that ""They’re quite unusual... [Most] developers are out to max out the property. I think they [RSCP] have in their approach the understanding of the importance of maintaining the quality of the environment they’ve acquired. They are really doing more than their share to come up with a unique solution.""<ref name=gfeller/> The developers submitted a modified plan that was eventually supported by conservationists and local officials.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Paul |title=Rancho San Carlos: Looking back after 20 years, with pride |url=http://www.pineconearchive.com/100326-5.htm |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=The Carmel Pine Cone |date=March 26, 2010 |archive-date=April 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407154033/http://www.pineconearchive.com/100326-5.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Return on investment ===

Thomas Gray, Managing Partner of Las Garzas Association, the development and achievement partner of RSCP and President of Pacific Union Properties, estimated that the final investment would be ""on the order of $200 million."" RSCP hired a former employee of the Monterey County Planning Department as a consultant to manage their development efforts with the county. They also hired Jeff Froke, a wildland ecologist who was previously associate director of Sanctuaries for the [[Audubon|National Audubon Society]], as their Natural Resource Manager.<ref name=gfeller/>

Each of the about 300 homesites, ranging in size from {{convert|10|acre}} to {{convert|50|acre}}, were projected to sell from around $1 million and up to several million dollars.<ref name=gfeller/> Sales have confirmed that price range. The acreage provides privacy and insulates neighbors from one another. {{as of|2022|April}}, an undeveloped {{convert|16.57|acre}} lot was listed for $950,000.<ref>{{cite web |title=1 Vista Cielo, Carmel, CA 93923 {{!}} MLS #ML81874554 |url=https://www.zillow.com/homedetails/1-Vista-Cielo-Carmel-CA-93923/95741774_zpid/ |website=Zillow |access-date=28 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=February 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226181030/https://www.zillow.com/homedetails/1-Vista-Cielo-Carmel-CA-93923/95741774_zpid/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Buyers must build a home in keeping with strict site-specific guidelines and other restrictions on size, location, and other factors. They may only alter the landscape within an approximately {{convert|2.5|acre}} ""housing envelope"" on their parcel.<ref name=gfeller/> A completed {{convert|6424|sqft}} five bedroom, six bathroom home on {{convert|37|acres}} was listed at the same time for $6.9 million. [[Homeowners Association|HOA]] fees are more than $1,000 per month.<ref>{{cite web |title=46 Rancho San Carlos Rd, Carmel, CA 93923 {{!}} MLS #ML81876886 |url=https://www.zillow.com/homedetails/46-Rancho-San-Carlos-Rd-Carmel-CA-93923/70606093_zpid/ |website=Zillow |access-date=28 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=April 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428201556/https://www.zillow.com/homedetails/46-Rancho-San-Carlos-Rd-Carmel-CA-93923/70606093_zpid/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A report in the local ''Monterey County Weekly'' estimated that the entire property's value was in excess of $500 million.<ref name=gfeller/> The main room of the 37-room Spanish Colonial Hacienda  built by Moore was converted to a private inn for preserve members, families, and guests. The original polo stable was restored and  a modern swimming pool with a two-story slide was built alongside it. The hay barn was converted to a social hall with a dance floor and antique bar.<ref name=graham/>

=== Management ===

After nearly a decade of archeological, hydrological, ecological, and topological research, as well as extensive litigation, the RSCP established two organizations to care for the property: The Santa Lucia Preserve Company to manage real estate, club amenities, and infrastructure (dubbed “Homelands” and “Rancholands”), and the non-profit Santa Lucia Conservancy trust to manage the {{convert|18,000|acre}} of wild natural habitat (dubbed “Preserve Lands”). The property has over {{convert|100|mile}} of fence and is 1.4 times the size of [[Manhattan|Manhattan Island's]] land area (33.58 sq. mi. vs. 22.83 sq. mi.).<ref name=""gfeller""/>

The logos and overall brands for both organizations were designed by American graphic designer [[Michael Patrick Cronan]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Cronan Client List |url=http://www.cronan.com/client-list |website=Cronan.com |publisher=Cronan Design Firm |access-date=6 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182957/http://www.cronan.com/client-list |url-status=live }}</ref> The strict style guide for homes and the design of a golf clubhouse and numerous recreational facilities were created by architectural firm Hart Howerton.<ref name=harthowerton>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Preserve Case Study |url=https://www.harthowerton.com/case-study/santa-lucia-preserve/ |website=HartHowerton.com |publisher=Hart Howerton |access-date=7 February 2021 |archive-date=March 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330035343/https://www.harthowerton.com/case-study/santa-lucia-preserve/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sarté |first1=S. Bry |title=Sustainable Infrastructure: The Guide to Green Engineering and Design |date=2010 |publisher=Wiley |location=Hoboken, N.J. |isbn=9780470912942 |pages=50–52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOkxUHDgEmAC&dq=%22Santa+Lucia+Preserve%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA50 |access-date=1 March 2021 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002638/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Sustainable_Infrastructure/ZOkxUHDgEmAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22Santa+Lucia+Preserve%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA50&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2018, an illustrated volume on the history of Rancho San Carlos was published in collaboration with historian Mark Hugh Miller.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fischer |first1=Dr. Christy |title=Conservation Community |url=https://slconservancy.org/2019/12/05/conservation-community/ |website=SLConservancy.org |publisher=Santa Lucia Conservancy |access-date=26 February 2021 |date=December 5, 2019 |archive-date=October 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029143246/https://slconservancy.org/2019/12/05/conservation-community/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=History of Rancho San Carlos [1834-1990] Mark Hugh Miller |url=https://www.montereylibrary.org/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=425402 |website=montereylibrary.org |publisher=Monterey Public Library |access-date=9 August 2021 |archive-date=August 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809172729/https://www.montereylibrary.org/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=425402 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Santa Lucia Conservancy ===

[[File:Santa Lucia Preserve Regional Context.jpg|thumb|The Santa Lucia Preserve's property boundaries and immediate neighbors. The [[Monterey Peninsula]] is visible at top left.]]

Conservation at The Preserve is managed by the Santa Lucia Conservancy, a [[501(c)(3) non-profit]] land trust,<ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Conservancy |url=https://www.calandtrusts.org/members/santa-lucia-conservancy/ |website=calandtrusts.org |publisher=California Council of Land Trusts |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301070916/https://www.calandtrusts.org/members/santa-lucia-conservancy/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Conservancy |url=http://ccows.csumb.edu/wiki/index.php/Santa_Lucia_Conservancy |website=CCOWS.CSUMB.edu |publisher=California State University of Monterey Bay |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=April 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401130454/http://ccows.csumb.edu/wiki/index.php/Santa_Lucia_Conservancy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Conservancy |url=https://www.findalandtrust.org/land_trusts/129185 |website=FindALandTrust.org |publisher=Land Trust Alliance |access-date=26 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183424/https://www.findalandtrust.org/land_trusts/129185 |url-status=live }}</ref> established with oversight and legal input from the [[Trust for Public Land]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rosen |first1=Martin J. |title=""Trust for Public Land Founding Member and President, 1972-1997: the Ethics and Practice of Land Conservation,"" an oral history conducted in 1998 and 1999 by Carl Wilmsen |date=2000 |publisher=Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley |pages=361–366 |url=https://oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=kt1199n4bs&brand=oac4&doc.view=entire_text |access-date=17 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182956/https://oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=kt1199n4bs&brand=oac4&doc.view=entire_text |url-status=live }}</ref> The Santa Lucia Conservancy has a two-part mission: to protect, enhance, and restore the lands of The Santa Lucia Preserve while promoting ecologically sustainable development. As such, it falls under the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN's]] [[IUCN protected area categories|Category V protected area]] designation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Protected Area Database: Santa Lucia Preserve |url=https://www.protectedplanet.net/11116150 |website=ProtectedPlanet.net |publisher=IUCN's Protected Planet Project |access-date=2 March 2022 |archive-date=March 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302223441/https://www.protectedplanet.net/11116150 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Protected Areas Database of the United States: Santa Lucia Preserve |url=https://maps.usgs.gov/padus/#share=g-ea724d17039cdcf49b150794fc73cf12 |website=Maps.USGS.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior |access-date=2 March 2022 |archive-date=January 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120165216/https://maps.usgs.gov/padus/#share=g-ea724d17039cdcf49b150794fc73cf12 |url-status=live }}</ref>  Conducting adaptive land management across nearly {{convert|18,000|acre}} of The Preserve, the Conservancy's programs include [[conservation grazing]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Goats clear the way for tiger salamander in Monterey County |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2015/10/09/goats-clear-the-way-for-tiger-salamander-in-monterey-county/ |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=The Mercury News |date=October 9, 2015 |archive-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209140657/https://www.mercurynews.com/2015/10/09/goats-clear-the-way-for-tiger-salamander-in-monterey-county/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[controlled burns]] and maintenance of [[firebreaks]] to build wildfire resilience and adapt to a changing climate, scientific research and monitoring of threatened and endangered species, as well as an environmental education program to both Preserve members and the local community. In partnership with local universities, the Conservancy maintains an ongoing internship program for students looking for field experience in conservation land management and ecology.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Klotz |first1=Maxwell |title=Acclimating to the Santa Lucia Preserve |url=https://west.stanford.edu/news/acclimating-santa-lucia-preserve |website=West.Stanford.edu |date=July 11, 2019 |publisher=Stanford University |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=October 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021054457/https://west.stanford.edu/news/acclimating-santa-lucia-preserve |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2018, the Conservancy partnered with the [[Trust for Public Land]] and regional conservation organizations to acquire {{convert|140|acre}} of the [[Carmel River (California)|Carmel River]] watershed. A large portion of this land was incorporated into [[Palo Corona Regional Park]], while the Conservancy acquired {{convert|5|acre}} to use for offices and operations.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mayberry |first1=Carly |title=Land Deal Could Close Rancho Cañada Golf Club |url=https://www.montereyherald.com/2016/04/26/land-deal-could-close-rancho-caada-golf-club-140-acres-to-go-to-park-district/ |access-date=26 February 2021 |publisher=The Monterey Herald |date=April 26, 2016 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190703/https://www.montereyherald.com/2016/04/26/land-deal-could-close-rancho-caada-golf-club-140-acres-to-go-to-park-district/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Carmel River land & water poised to be protected for Monterey residents |url=https://www.tpl.org/media-room/carmel-river-land-water-poised-be-protected-monterey-residents |website=TPL.org |publisher=The Trust for Public Land |access-date=11 February 2021 |location=Carmel, California |date=April 26, 2016 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185340/https://www.tpl.org/media-room/carmel-river-land-water-poised-be-protected-monterey-residents |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rancho Cañada |url=https://www.tpl.org/our-work/rancho-cañada |website=TPL.org |publisher=The Trust for Public Land |access-date=17 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709192916/https://www.tpl.org/our-work/rancho-ca%C3%B1ada |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Environmental impact ===

The Santa Lucia Preserve contributes water to the Carmel Valley Alluvial Aquifer which is the major source of [[Monterey Peninsula]]'s potable water. Four major streams flow through The Preserve and into the Carmel River: Lower Las Garzas, Portero, San Jose, and San Clemente Creek. All provide habitat for threatened species. Land use and other human influences within The Preserve may affect water quality and quantity in the region.<ref name=""CVGB"">{{cite web |title=Carmel Valley Groundwater Basin |url=http://www.water.ca.gov/pubs/groundwater/bulletin_118/basindescriptions/3-7.pdf |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=February 15, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215190721/http://www.water.ca.gov/pubs/groundwater/bulletin_118/basindescriptions/3-7.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> To satisfy monitoring requirements set by the [[California Environmental Quality Act]], the Santa Lucia Conservancy hired [[The Watershed Institute]] at [[California State University Monterey Bay]] to monitor the river and water quality.<ref name=""WI"">{{cite web |title=Hydrologic Conditions in Baseflow Reaches Pursuant to Conditions |url=http://ccows.csumb.edu/pubs/reports/CCoWS_SLC_2015_Baseflow_151104.pdf |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119130557/http://ccows.csumb.edu/pubs/reports/CCoWS_SLC_2015_Baseflow_151104.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Conservancy is required to monitor the wildlife found on lands it protects. This included conducting bird and nest counts, locating threatened species such as the [[California red-legged frog]], detecting invasive plants and weeds, and assessing overall grassland health.<ref name=""SLCcons"">{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Website - Conservation Projects |url=http://www.slconservancy.org/projects.html |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=March 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326070327/http://www.slconservancy.org/projects.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

To control unwanted species and promote native plant growth, the Conservancy practices [[conservation grazing]]. In 2015 the Conservancy hired 1,400 goats that were used to reduce overgrown grasslands that had during prior decades been grazed by native deer and domestic cattle. As a result, the number of threatened [[California tiger salamander]] increased.<ref name=""MCH"">{{cite web |title=Monterey County Herald |date=October 8, 2015 |url=http://www.montereyherald.com/environment-and-nature/20151008/goats-clear-the-way-for-tiger-salamander-in-carmel |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=January 27, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127121623/http://www.montereyherald.com/environment-and-nature/20151008/goats-clear-the-way-for-tiger-salamander-in-carmel |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Conservancy has sought and received federal funding to pay California State University Monterey Bay graduate students as interns who have conducted research on environmental issues. These projects have focused on surface flow of the Carmel River<ref name=""PSMs"">{{cite web|title=CSUMB Professional Science Master's project list|url=https://csumb.edu/amws/professional-science-masters-psm-track|access-date=May 3, 2022|archive-date=November 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103165319/https://csumb.edu/amws/professional-science-masters-psm-track|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as conservation grazing and avian nest boxes.<ref name=""Nunes"">{{cite web  |title=Land Management of the Santa Lucia Conservancy  |url=https://wri.csusb.edu/documents/AllisonNunes_FinalReport_21Jan2014.pdf  |access-date=May 3, 2022  |archive-date=April 11, 2019  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411153748/http://wri.csusb.edu/documents/AllisonNunes_FinalReport_21Jan2014.pdf  |url-status=live  }}</ref>

=== Fire impact ===

In 2016, the [[Soberanes Fire]] burned along The Preserve's southwest border. The property was a critical access point and staging area for firefighters.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Coury |first1=Nic |title=A photo timeline of the Soberanes Fire |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/blogs/photo_blog/a-photo-timeline-of-the-soberanes-fire/article_8b184da0-a167-11e6-9fd5-c37abc21feb5.html |access-date=8 March 2021 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=November 3, 2016 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184651/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/blogs/photo_blog/a-photo-timeline-of-the-soberanes-fire/article_8b184da0-a167-11e6-9fd5-c37abc21feb5.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The fire-fighting efforts were the costliest in US history up to that time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hcn.org/articles/the-10-most-expensive-wildfires-in-the-wests-history|title=The Most Expensive Wildfires in US History|publisher=High Country News|first1=Lyndsey|last1=Gilpin|date=October 5, 2016|access-date=July 18, 2018|archive-date=August 10, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810143507/https://www.hcn.org/articles/the-10-most-expensive-wildfires-in-the-wests-history|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2020, the Conservancy was awarded $2 million in state and federal grants to improve local fire resiliency.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Loxton |first1=Michelle |title=Local Preserve Wants To Change The Way We Fight Wildfires In California |url=https://www.kazu.org/post/local-preserve-wants-change-way-we-fight-wildfires-california#stream/0 |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=NPR for Monterey County |date=July 14, 2020 |archive-date=January 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128125410/https://www.kazu.org/post/local-preserve-wants-change-way-we-fight-wildfires-california#stream/0 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Los Padres Strategic Community Fuelbreak Collaborative Project |url=https://www.rcdmonterey.org/los-padres-strategic-community-fuelbreak-collaborative-project |website=RCDMonterey.org |publisher=Resource Conservation District of Monterey County |access-date=26 February 2021 |archive-date=March 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307054918/https://rcdmonterey.org/los-padres-strategic-community-fuelbreak-collaborative-project |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2021, The Santa Lucia Preserve achieved [[Fire safe councils#Firewise USA|Firewise Community]] certification, after extensive efforts between the Santa Lucia Conservancy, Santa Lucia Preserve's Community Services District, and homeowners.<ref>{{cite web |title=Firewise USA Sites |url=https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA |website=National Fire Protection Association |access-date=8 December 2021 |archive-date=December 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208183603/https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA |url-status=live }}</ref> Firewise certification (administered by the [[National Fire Protection Association|NFPA]], [[United States Forest Service|USDA Forest Service]], and [[National Association of State Foresters]]) recognizes communities that have systematically instituted fuel management plans, use of fire-resistant building materials, strategic placement of structures, and implementation of careful landscaping with ignition-resistant plants.<ref>{{cite web |title=Firewise USA® Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA/Become-a-Firewise-USA-site/Frequently-asked-questions |website=National Fire Protection Association |access-date=8 December 2021 |archive-date=December 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208183600/https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA/Become-a-Firewise-USA-site/Frequently-asked-questions |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Preserve Golf Club ===

Anyone can purchase memberships in The Preserve Golf Club. A separate recreational ""Ranch Club"" – providing access to an equestrian center, sports center, and trail system – is available only to Preserve residents and golf club members.<ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Preserve Membership Guide |url=https://issuu.com/thesantaluciapreserve/docs/2021_slp_membership_guide |website=Issuu.com |publisher=Santa Lucia Preserve |access-date=30 December 2022}}</ref><ref name=private/>  The golf club features a private {{convert|365|acre}} [[Tom Fazio]]-designed golf course<ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Preserve |url=http://luxurycountryclubs.com/santa-lucia-preserve/ |website=LuxuryCountryClubs.com |publisher=Luxury Country Clubs |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=December 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228184314/http://luxurycountryclubs.com/santa-lucia-preserve/ |url-status=live }}</ref> which has been ranked among the top 100 U.S. courses.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Preserve Golf Club |url=https://www.golfdigest.com/story/the-preserve-golf-club |website=GolfDigest.com |publisher=Golf Digest |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119130721/https://www.golfdigest.com/story/the-preserve-golf-club |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Golfweek's Best 2019: Top 200 Residential Golf Courses |url=https://golfweek.usatoday.com/2019/06/11/golfweek-best-2019-top-200-residential-golf-courses/ |website=Golfweek.com |date=June 11, 2019 |publisher=Golfweek |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125131743/https://golfweek.usatoday.com/2019/06/11/golfweek-best-2019-top-200-residential-golf-courses/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Passov |first1=Joe |title=The 25 Best Golf Communities in North America |url=https://golf.com/news/the-25-best-golf-communities-in-north-america/ |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=GOLF Magazine |date=January 29, 2016 |archive-date=April 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419024039/https://golf.com/news/the-25-best-golf-communities-in-north-america/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gould |first1=David |title=America's Top 100 Golf Communities |url=https://www.travelandleisure.com/trip-ideas/golf-vacations/golf-americas-top-100-golf-communities-2009 |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=Travel & Leisure |date=September 10, 2014 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125204840/https://www.travelandleisure.com/trip-ideas/golf-vacations/golf-americas-top-100-golf-communities-2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> An annual invitational tournament is held in honor of the late Preserve co-founder, Peter Stocker, who died on the property in the early days of the development.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stocker Cup History |url=https://stockercup.com/history/ |website=StockerCup.com |access-date=8 March 2021 |archive-date=April 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416002348/https://stockercup.com/history/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stocker Cup 2021 Invitational |url=https://www.amateurgolf.com/amateur-golf-tournaments/9550/Stocker-Cup-2021-Invitational |website=AmateurGolf.com |access-date=18 March 2021 |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224232601/https://www.amateurgolf.com/amateur-golf-tournaments/9550/Stocker-Cup-2021-Invitational |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2021, The Preserve Golf Club served as a local qualifying location for the [[US Open (golf)|US Open]] in May,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Julie |title=Another step toward normalcy: USGA announces 2021 U.S. Open local qualifying sites |url=https://golfweek.usatoday.com/2021/01/27/2021-us-open-local-qualifying-sites-usga/ |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=Golfweek |date=January 27, 2021 |archive-date=February 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204175632/https://golfweek.usatoday.com/2021/01/27/2021-us-open-local-qualifying-sites-usga/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and hosted the [[California State Amateur Championship]] in June.<ref>{{cite web |title=110th California Amateur Championship |url=http://www.scga.org/tournaments/california-amateur-championship |website=SCGA.org |publisher=Southern California Golf Association |access-date=14 June 2021 |archive-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614194649/http://www.scga.org/tournaments/california-amateur-championship |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CALIFORNIA AMATEUR CHAMPIONSHIP |url=https://www.amateurgolf.com/amateur-golf-tournaments/1338/California-Amateur-Championship |website=AmateurGolf.com |access-date=14 June 2021 |archive-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614194649/https://www.amateurgolf.com/amateur-golf-tournaments/1338/California-Amateur-Championship |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2022, floating solar and evaporation control panels allowed reduction of the golf course's power load on the local grid by 80%, the first of its kind in Monterey County.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Neely |first1=Christopher |title=A floating 1,178-panel solar project at the Santa Lucia Preserve sets a new industry standard. |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/a-floating-1-178-panel-solar-project-at-the-santa-lucia-preserve-sets-a-new/article_f37f3912-8465-11ec-9758-a32a1ffa05f1.html |access-date=4 March 2022 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=February 3, 2022 |archive-date=March 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304190806/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/a-floating-1-178-panel-solar-project-at-the-santa-lucia-preserve-sets-a-new/article_f37f3912-8465-11ec-9758-a32a1ffa05f1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Golf18|center=true|title=The Preserve Golf Club's Score Card<ref>{{cite web |title=The Preserve Golf Club Scorecard |url=https://www.santaluciapreserve.com/files/2021_%20The%20Preserve%20Golf%20Club%20Score%20Card.pdf |website=SantaLuciaPreserve.com |publisher=The Preserve Golf Club |access-date=4 March 2022 |date=May 2021 |archive-date=March 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304002203/https://www.santaluciapreserve.com/files/2021_%20The%20Preserve%20Golf%20Club%20Score%20Card.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

{{par18                 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 36 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 36 | 72 }}

{{black18   |M: 74.4 / 141
|                        442|186|373|562|357|232|360|527|458|3497|377|457|412|571|198|477|141|558|450|3641|7138}}
{{gold18 |M: 72.3 / 137|412|163|351|528|340|209|331|500|422|3256|335|427|372|535|172|415|131|535|425|3347|6603}}
{{blue18   |rssize=8pt |M:70.3/129 W:75.2/133 |373|157|341|516|320|177|327|475|381|3067|310|397|348|502|161|374|123|508|384|3107|6174}}
{{handicap18|name=Men's  | 3 | 15| 17| 1 | 7| 13 | 11 | 9| 5 |      12| 4| 10 | 8 | 16 | 2| 18| 14 | 6          }}
{{white18   |rssize=8pt |M:67.8/124 W:72.4/128 |354|137|321|472|302|154|306|471|377|2894|281|347|304|371|148|352|112|497|356|2768|5662}}
{{green18   |W: 79.2/138
|                        288|132|277|468|246|128|300|438|341|2618|277|327|267|365|138|328|102|410|249|2463|5081}}
{{handicap18|name=Women's| 5 | 17| 13| 1 | 3| 15 | 11 | 9| 7 |      10| 4| 12 | 14 | 16| 2| 18| 8 | 6           }}
{{end}}

== Sid Ormsbee Lookout ==
[[File:Historic_photo_of_Sid_Ormsbee_Fire_Lookout_Tower_atop_Peñon_Peak.jpg|thumb|Historic photo of now-decommissioned Sid Ormsbee Lookout]]
Located within The Santa Lucia Preserve, the Sid Ormsbee Lookout is a {{convert|30|ft}} tall former [[fire tower]] resting atop Peñon Peak (also known as Pinyon, Penyon, and Pinion Peak), constructed in 1948 by the California State Division of Forestry, precursor to today's [[Cal Fire]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barratt |first1=Elizabeth |title=Sid Ormsbee Fire Lookout on Pinyon Peak |journal=Carmel Valley Historian |date=June 2016 |pages=1, 4 |url=https://carmelvalleyhistoricalsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/2016-June.pdf |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=Carmel Valley Historical Society |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902181219/https://carmelvalleyhistoricalsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/2016-June.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The tower is visible throughout The Preserve and [[Carmel Valley Village, California|Carmel Valley]]. On a clear day, rangers had views stretching from Blue Rock Ridge in the south, to [[Mount Toro (Monterey County, California)|Mount Toro]] in the north, and Carmel Hill to the west.

[[File:Sid Ormsbee Fire Lookout 2009.jpg|thumb|Sid Ormsbee Fire Lookout in 2009]]

It was named for a Sid Ormsbee, a State Forest Ranger who served in World War II and was killed in Italy.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Schmalz |first1=David |title=The history of Carmel Valley's long-retired fire lookout tower tells a World War II story. |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/people/831/the-history-of-carmel-valley-s-long-retired-fire-lookout-tower-tells-a-world-war/article_9fdeb950-6f78-11e8-b11e-cb085779ed95.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=June 14, 2018 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902181219/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/people/831/the-history-of-carmel-valley-s-long-retired-fire-lookout-tower-tells-a-world-war/article_9fdeb950-6f78-11e8-b11e-cb085779ed95.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=nhlr/>

The tower, topped by a 16'x16' octagonal cab, was staffed by alternating seasonal rangers (sometimes with their families) until the 1980s when it was decommissioned. Since 2012 it has served as a [[Radio repeater|radio relay]] and cell tower for The Preserve, Cal Fire, Monterey County Regional Fire District, and Monterey County Sheriff's Department.<ref>{{cite web |title=Monterey County Planning Commission, Project #REF100041 |url=https://www2.co.monterey.ca.us/planning/cca/pc/2012/02-29-12/REF100041PC1.pdf |website=monterey.ca.us |access-date=2 September 2021 |pages=14–21 |date=February 29, 2012 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902181219/https://www2.co.monterey.ca.us/planning/cca/pc/2012/02-29-12/REF100041PC1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=nhlr/> It was added to the [[National Historic Lookout Register]] in 2010.<ref name=nhlr>{{cite web |title=Sid Ormsbee Lookout |url=http://nhlr.org/lookouts/us/ca/sid-ormsbee-lookout/ |website=nhlr.org |publisher=National Historic Lookout Register |access-date=2 September 2021 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902175300/http://nhlr.org/lookouts/us/ca/sid-ormsbee-lookout/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A plaque commemorating its namesake is positioned at the base. The lookout is not accessible to the public.

== In popular media ==

=== Filming location ===

Since at least the 1960s, the property has served as a [[shooting location]] for film, television, and commercials, including a 2020 film shot entirely within a Preserve home, notable for being the first to be written and produced entirely during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] while abiding by local safety guidelines and with approval from the [[SAG-AFTRA|Screen Actors Guild]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zack |first1=Jessica |title=Co-starring in 'Malcolm & Marie,' the stunning Monterey County home where the movie is set |url=https://datebook.sfchronicle.com/movies-tv/co-starring-in-malcolm-marie-the-stunning-monterey-county-home-where-the-movie-is-set |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |date=February 3, 2021 |archive-date=February 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205173651/https://datebook.sfchronicle.com/movies-tv/co-starring-in-malcolm-marie-the-stunning-monterey-county-home-where-the-movie-is-set |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class=""wikitable""
|+ Productions Filmed On-site
|-
! Film/Television !! Release year !! Genre
|-
| ''[[Lancer (TV series)|Lancer]]''<ref name=gdspecial>{{cite web |url=http://www.lancerlovers.com/Resources/Hacienda/Hacienda.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929042758/http://www.lancerlovers.com/Resources/Hacienda/Hacienda.html |archive-date=2013-09-29 |url-status=live |title=The Lancer Hacienda |website=The Lancer Fanfiction Archive |first= |last= |date=July 15, 2008 |access-date=4 February 2021}}</ref> || 1968
| [[Western (genre)|Western]]
|-
| ''[[Chandler (film)|Chandler]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=CHANDLER |url=https://filmmonterey.org/film/CHANDLER/ |website=filmmonterey.org |publisher=Monterey County Film Commission |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=February 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213162112/https://filmmonterey.org/film/CHANDLER/ |url-status=live }}</ref> || 1971
| [[Hardboiled|Crime Noir]]
|-
| ''[[Sleeper (1973 film)|Sleeper]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=SLEEPER |url=https://filmmonterey.org/film/sleeper/ |website=filmmonterey.org |publisher=Monterey County Film Commission |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209095631/https://filmmonterey.org/film/sleeper/ |url-status=live }}</ref> || 1973
| [[Science fiction comedy|Sci-Fi Comedy]]
|-
| ''[[The Muppet Movie]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=THE MUPPET MOVIE |url=https://filmmonterey.org/film/the-muppet-movie/ |website=filmmonterey.org |publisher=Monterey County Film Commission |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002707/https://filmmonterey.org/film/the-muppet-movie/ |url-status=live }}</ref> || 1979
| [[Musical film|Children's Musical]]
|-
| ''[[Poco Loco]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=POCO LOCO |url=https://filmmonterey.org/film/poco-loco/ |website=filmmonterey.org |publisher=Monterey County Film Commission |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002639/https://filmmonterey.org/film/poco-loco/ |url-status=live }}</ref> || 1994
| [[Romance film|Romance]]
|-
| ''[[Malcolm & Marie]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Maitland |first1=Hayley |title=Zendaya Secretly Filmed A 'Marriage Story'-Esque Movie During Lockdown |url=https://www.vogue.co.uk/arts-and-lifestyle/article/zendaya-lockdown-film |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=Vogue |date=July 9, 2020 |archive-date=February 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214225343/https://www.vogue.co.uk/arts-and-lifestyle/article/zendaya-lockdown-film |url-status=live }}</ref> || 2021
| [[Drama (film and television)|Drama]]
|}

=== Character inspiration ===

Modern claims that George Gordon Moore inspired the literary character of [[Jay Gatsby]] are unproven.<ref name=""Hooper Bald"">{{cite web |last1=Ingram |first1=Mike |title=George Gordon Moore |url=https://grahamcounty.net/hooperbald/ggmoore/ggmoore.htm |website=grahamcounty.net |publisher=Graham County, NC |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=July 1, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701134628/http://grahamcounty.net/hooperbald/ggmoore/ggmoore.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Phillips |first1=Anne |title=Golf Courses That Play Well and Save Water |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/golf-courses-that-play-we_b_8235132 |access-date=18 February 2021 |publisher=Huffington Post |date=October 2, 2015 |archive-date=April 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418190813/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/golf-courses-that-play-we_b_8235132 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manley |first1=Jeffrey A. |title=Mrs. Stitch in the First World War |journal=Evelyn Waugh Studies |date=2015 |volume=46 |issue=1 |page=37 |url=https://leicester.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p16445coll12/id/2007 |access-date=26 February 2021 |publisher=University of Leicester |quote=[Moore] is said to have met Scott Fitzgerald in the post-war period, and Bailey joins in with earlier speculation that Fitzgerald used him as the model for Jay Gatsby in his 1925 novel... But Sarah Churchwell, in a recent study of Gatsby, gives no credit to George Gordon Moore as a contributor to Gatsby's character (Careless People: Murder, Mayhem and the Invention of 'The Great Gatsby'. |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184740/https://leicester.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p16445coll12/id/2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Moore assembled a San Carlos Cardinals polo team which featured polo star [[Tommy Hitchcock Jr.]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Brilliant Throng Sees Opening of Polo Season |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31057220/fae-polo-season-29/ |access-date=18 February 2021 |publisher=San Francisco Examiner |date=February 10, 1929 |page=66 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184536/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31057220/fae-polo-season-29/ |url-status=live }}</ref> who inspired the character of [[Tom Buchanan]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Churchwell |first1=Sarah Bartlett |title=Careless People: Murder, Mayhem and the Invention of The Great Gatsby |date=2013 |location=London |isbn=978-0748129294 |pages=36–37 |quote=When Scott Fitzgerald mused over the origins of The Great Gatsby twenty years later, beginning his outline in Man's Hope with the 'Glamor of Rumseys and Hitchcocks,' these were the people he was remembering.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=O'Neill |first1=Natalie |title=Son claims his LI dad was 'Great Gatsby' inspiration – and someone stole his $750G book |url=https://nypost.com/2013/03/08/son-claims-his-li-dad-was-great-gatsby-inspiration-and-someone-stole-his-750g-book/ |access-date=18 February 2021 |publisher=New York Post |date=March 8, 2013 |archive-date=April 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416145906/https://nypost.com/2013/03/08/son-claims-his-li-dad-was-great-gatsby-inspiration-and-someone-stole-his-750g-book/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Aldrich |first1=Nelson W. |title=American Hero: The True Story of Tommy Hitchcock |date=2016 |location=Guildford, Connecticut |isbn=9781493022885 |pages=XXIV–XXVII |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDT3DAAAQBAJ |access-date=1 March 2021 |quote=In those years Hitchcock himself was going to a good many parties. He and two friends lived in a brownstone on East 52nd Street with a man who might have sat for the portrait of Jay Gatsby. His name was George Gordon Moore, and the parties that he gave were filled with music, lovely girls, handsome men, good food and wine, frequent laughter, and tears. One could never tell whom one might meet at a George Moore party […] At these parties—the same sort of parties that Fitzgerald went to, of course—Tommy Hitchcock stood out. In the first representation that the novelist made of him, as Tom Buchanan, the resemblance to the man is distorted. |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002708/https://www.google.com/books/edition/American_Hero/bDT3DAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Conservation community]]
* [[Land trust]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}} 
* [http://www.santaluciapreserve.com/ Santa Lucia Preserve website]
* [http://www.slconservancy.org/ Santa Lucia Conservancy website]
* [https://www.santaluciacsd.org/ Santa Lucia Community Services District website]
* [https://slconservancy.org/explore-and-discover/maps/ Maps of The Preserve ]
* [https://stockercup.com/ The Stocker Cup website]
* [https://santa-lucia-preserve-tigeo.hub.arcgis.com/apps/TiGEO::real-estate-app/explore The Santa Lucia Preserve Real Estate Map]{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

{{Monterey County, California}}
{{Big Sur}}
{{Protected areas of California}}
{{Carmel Valley, California}}
{{Monterey Peninsula Golf}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Santa Lucia Preserve}}
[[Category:1999 establishments in California]]
[[Category:Carmel-by-the-Sea, California]]
[[Category:Companies based in Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in California]]
[[Category:Forest conservation organizations]]
[[Category:Fire lookout towers in California]]
[[Category:Geography of Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Golf clubs and courses designed by Tom Fazio]]
[[Category:Golf clubs and courses in California]]
[[Category:History of Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:IUCN Category V]]
[[Category:Land trusts in California]]
[[Category:Monterey Bay]]
[[Category:Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Nature reserves in California]]
[[Category:Protected areas of California]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Santa Lucia Range]]
[[Category:Sports venues completed in 2001]]
[[Category:Unincorporated communities in Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Conservation communities]]
[[Category:Big Sur]]"
Escaped plant,"{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Short description|Plant that escapes cultivation}}
[[File:Starr 040423-0244 Lantana camara.jpg|thumb|''[[Lantana camara]]'' can escape from gardens into nearby [[wildland]]s.<ref>[https://www.aabr.org.au/images/stories/resources/ManagementGuides/WeedGuides/wmg_lantana.pdf Lantana (Lantana camara)] by Weed Management Guide</ref>]]
An '''escaped plant''' is a [[Cultigen|cultivated plant]] that has escaped from agriculture, forestry or garden cultivation and has become naturalized in the wild. Usually not native to an area, escaped plants may become [[Invasive species|invasive]].<ref>[https://davesgarden.com/guides/terms/go/1902/#b Definition of escaped plant] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823060947/https://davesgarden.com/guides/terms/go/1902/#b |date=23 August 2021 }} by Dave's Garden</ref> Therefore, escaped plants are the subject of research in [[invasion biology]].<ref name=mulvaney>Mulvaney M (2001) The effect of introduction pressure on the naturalisation of ornamental woody plants in south-eastern Australia. In 'Weed Risk Assessment'. (Eds RH Groves, FD Panetta, JG Virtue). (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood)</ref> 

Some [[ornamental plant]]s have characteristics which allow them to escape cultivation and become [[weed]]y in alien ecosystems with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences. Escaped [[garden plant]]s may be called '''garden escapes'''<ref>[https://treeterms.co.uk/garden-escape/ garden escape] by treeterms.co.uk. Philip Wilson in association with Orange Pippin & Warren IT Services. Retrieved 30 December 2023. </ref> or '''escaped ornamentals'''.<ref>[https://www.nwcb.wa.gov/images/weeds/invasive_ornamentals.pdf Escaped Ornamentals] by Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board. Retrieved 1 January 2024.</ref> Sometimes, their origins can even be traced back to [[botanical garden]]s. 

==Dispersal==
[[File:Slowly the ivy overgrown.JPG|thumb|Untended, overgrown plants can escape by rooting elsewhere ([[English ivy]])]]
[[File:Flor do cerrado na beira do lago - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Cairo Morning Glory]] can easily escape gardens by seed, runners and stem fragments.]] 
All escaped plants belong to the so-called [[Hemerochory|hemerochoric]] plants. This term is used across the board for plants that have been introduced directly or indirectly by humans. The term also includes the unintentionally [[introduced species|introduced plants]] that were introduced through [[Seed dispersal|seed pollution]] (speirochoric) or through unintentional transport (agochoric).<ref>[http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/threat-abatement-advices/escaped-garden-plants-introduction Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by invasion of escaped garden plants, including aquatic plants – Introduction] [[Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment]]</ref> 

Plants may escape from cultivation in various ways, including the dumping of [[green waste]] in bushland and road reserves and by birds or other animals eating the fruits or seeds and dispersing them.<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/03/160322100510.htm Migratory birds disperse seeds long distances] [[Science Daily]], 22 March 2016</ref> Others are accidental hitchhikers that escape on ships, vehicles, and equipment.<ref>[https://naturechange.org/2016/11/23/escaping-ornamentals-a-threat-to-natural-area-biodiversity/ Escaping Ornamentals: A Threat to Natural Area Biodiversity] By Miriam Owsley, Outreach Assistant, Northwest Michigan Invasive Species Network. 23 November 2016.</ref> Plants can also escape through sending [[stolon]]s (runners), as stolons are capable of independent growth in other areas.<ref>[https://cpn.carnivorousplants.org/articles/CPNv36n2p46_48.pdf UTRICULARIA CONTAINMENT: TRYING TOPREVENT THE GREAT ESCAPE] THOMAS M. CAHILL. Department of Integrated Natural Sciences. [[Arizona State University]] at the West Campus. Retrieved 16 December 2023.</ref> Garden escapees can be [[adventitious plant|adventive]], which means they can be established by human influence in a site outside their area of origin.<ref>Wilhelm Lohmeyer, Herbert Sukopp: Agriophytes in the vegetation of Central Europe. First addendum. 2001 (Braunschweiger Geobotanische Arbeit 8), pp. 179–220</ref> Some plants, such as the opium poppy ''[[Papaver somniferum]]'',<ref name=Stace>{{cite book|last=Stace|first=C. A.|author-link = Stace, C. A.|year=2019|title=New Flora of the British Isles|edition=Fourth|publisher=C & M Floristics|location = Middlewood Green, Suffolk, U.K.| isbn=978-1-5272-2630-2}}</ref>{{rp|93}} escaped from cultivation so long ago that they are considered [[archaeophyte]]s, and their original source may be obscure.<ref name=Stace/>{{rp|1123}}

Occasionally, seed contamination also introduces new plants that could reproduce for a short period of time. The proportion of adventitious species in open ruderal corridors at such locations can exceed 30% of the flora of these locations. Further, ornamental alien plants can easily escape their confined areas (such as gardens and [[greenhouse]]s) and naturalize if the climate outside changes to their benefit.<ref>Starfinger U, Kowarik I, Rode M, Schepker H. 2003. From desirable ornamental plant to pest to accepted addition to the flora? The perception of an alien plant species, Prunus serotina, through the centuries. Biol. Invas. 5:323–335</ref> In the US, there are over 5,000 escaped plants, many of which are escaped ornamentals.<ref>[https://www.nwcb.wa.gov/images/weeds/invasive_ornamentals.pdf Escaped Ornamentals Escaped Ornamentals: Is your garden harboring environmental pollutants?] Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board</ref>

==Ecological threats==
[[File:Tradescantia fluminensis habit1 (16189587740).jpg|thumb|''[[Tradescantia fluminensis]]'' escapees infesting woodland area.]]
Many invasive [[Neophyte (botany)|neophytes]] in Australia and New Zealand were originally garden escapees. The [[Parkinsonia aculeata|Jerusalem thorn]] forms impenetrable thorny thickets in the [[Northern Territory]] which can be several kilometers in length and width. Two other plants introduced as ornamental garden plants, ''[[Asparagus asparagoides]]'' and ''[[Chrysanthemoides monilifera]]'', now dominate the herbaceous layer in many eucalyptus forests and supplant perennials, grasses, orchids, and lilies.<ref>[https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/escapedgardenplantsPD.htm Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by the invasion of escaped garden plants, including aquatic plants – proposed key threatening process listing] NSW Scientific Committee – preliminary determination by [[NSW Government]]</ref> 

Neophytes that compete aggressively, and which displace and repel populations of native species, may permanently change the [[habitat]] for native species and can become an economic problem. For example, species of ''[[Opuntia]]'' (prickly pears) have been introduced from America to Australia, and have become wild, thus rendering territories unsuitable for breeding{{Clarify|reason=breeding of what?|date=September 2021}}; the same goes for [[Ulex europaeus|European gorse]] (''Ulex europaeus'') in New Zealand.<ref>[https://invasives.org.au/our-work/weeds/garden-escapes/ Australia's weedy garden escapees] by The [[Invasive Species Council]]</ref>  

''[[Rhododendron]]'' species introduced as ornamental garden plants in the [[British Isles]] crowd out island vegetation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dehnen-Schmutz |first1=Katharina |last2=Perrings |first2=Charles |last3=Williamso |first3=Mark |year=2004 |title=Controlling ''Rhododendron ponticum'' in the British Isles: an economic analysis |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=323–332 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2003.12.009|pmid=15016441 }}</ref> The same can be seen in many acidic [[peatland]]s in the Atlantic and subatlantic climates. ''Robinia pseudoacacia'' was imported from America to [[Central Europe]] for its rapid growth, and it now threatens the scarce [[steppe]] and natural forest areas of the drylands. Examples in forests include ''[[Prunus serotina]]'' which was initially introduced to speed up the accumulation of [[humus]]. 

In North America, [[Tamarisk]] trees, native to southern Europe and temperate parts of Asia, have proven to be problematic plants. In nutrient-poor heaths, but rich in grasses and bushes ([[fynbos]]) in the region Cape in [[South Africa]], species of eucalyptus from Australia are growing strongly. As they are largely accustomed to poor soils, and in the Cape region they lack competitors for nutrients and parasites that could regulate their population, they are able to greatly modify the biotope. In [[Hawaii]], the [[epiphytic]] fern ''[[Phlebodium aureum]]'', native to the tropical Americas, has spread widely and is considered an invasive plant.<ref>Kowarik I (2005) Urban ornamentals escaped from cultivation. In: Gressel J (ed) Crop Ferality and Volunteerism.  CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 97–121.</ref>

Particularly unstable ecosystems, already unbalanced by attacks or possessing certain characteristics, can be further damaged by escaped plants if the vegetation is already weakened. In the humid forests of Australia, escaped plants first colonize along roads and paths and then enter the interior of the regions they surround.<ref>Rejmanek M, Richardson DM, Higgins, SI, Pitcairn, PJ, Grotkopp E (2005) Ecology of invasive plants: state of the art. In 'Invasive Alien Species. A New Synthesis' (Eds. HA Mooney, RN Mack, JA McNeely, LE Neville, PJ Schei, JK Waage), pp104-161. (Island Press, Washington DC)</ref>  

''[[Thunbergia mysorensis]]'', native to India, invaded the rainforests around the coastal city of [[Cairns]] in [[Queensland]] and even invades trees 40 m high. In [[Central Australia]], the Eurasian species ''[[Tamarix aphylla]]'' grows along river banks, repelling native tree species, and wildlife that go together, lowers water levels and increases soil [[salinity]]. As in the United States, tamarisks have proven to be formidable bio-invaders. The fight against this species of trees, which has spread widely since, appears to be almost hopeless.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last1=van Klinken |first1=Rieks |last2=Campbell |first2=Shane |last3=Heard |first3=Tim |last4=McKenzie |first4=John |last5=March |first5=Nathan |date=2009 |title=The Biology of Australian Weeds: 54. 'Parkinsonia aculeata' L |url=https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/ielapa.735077383474483 |journal=Plant Protection Quarterly |language=EN |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=100–117}}</ref><ref name=""Griffin-Smith-etal-1989"">{{Cite journal |last1=Griffin, G.F. |last2=Smith, D.M.S. |last3=Morton, S.R. |last4=Allan, G.E. |last5=Masters, K.A. |last6=Preece, N. |year=1989 |title=Status and implications of the invasion of tamarisk (''Tamarix aphylla'') on the Finke River, Northern Territory, Australia |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=297–315}}</ref>

==Related terms ==
Escaped plants can fall within the definition of, and may have a relation to, these [[Glossary of botanical terms|botanical terminologies]] below:
[[File:Tulipa_-_Wildtulpe.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Tulipa praestans|Wild tulips]] survive, multiply and grow wild without human influence.]]
*'''Agriophyte''': Refers to plant species that have invaded natural or near-natural vegetation and can survive there without human intervention. Established in their new natural habitats, they remain part of natural vegetation even after human influence has ceased, and are independent of humans in their continued existence.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=OJhLDwAAQBAJ&dq=Agriophyte&pg=PA95 Handbook of Plant Palaeoecology, Flora and Vegetation, p.95] By R. T. J. Cappers, R. Neef</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rDo8hLWtWzgC&dq=Agriophyte&pg=PA496 Plant Ecology, p.496] By Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Erwin Beck, Klaus Müller-Hohenstein</ref> Examples in [[Central Europe]] are [[waterweed]], [[Douglas fir]] and [[Japanese knotweed]]
*'''Alien''': A non native species introduced by man.<ref name=Stace/>{{rp|1123}}
*'''Archaeophyte''': An alien species introduced by human activity long ago, such as the [[sweet chestnut]]s introduced by the Romans in Germany and now part of natural vegetation,<ref>Wilhelm Lohmeyer, Herbert Sukopp: Agriophytes in the vegetation of Central Europe. Landwirtschaftsverlag, Münster-Hiltrup 1992, ISBN 3-7843-2073-2</ref> and the opium and field poppies.<ref name=Stace/>{{rp|93-94}}
*'''Epecophyte''': Species of recent appearance, usually numerous and constant in the country, but confined to artificial habitats, such as [[meadows]] and [[ruderal]] vegetation. They are dependent on humans for existence that their habitats require constant renewal.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cqXrCAAAQBAJ&q=epecop&pg=PA261 Potentials and Limitations of Ecosystem Analysis, Extinction and Naturalization of Plant Species] p.261, edited by Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Helmut Zwölfer</ref>
*'''[[Ephemerophyte]]''': Species that are only introduced inconsistently, that die briefly from culture or that would disappear again without constant replenishment of seeds. In other words, they can establish themselves temporarily, but they are not in a position to meet all the conditions relating to the territory. A cold winter, or an unusual [[drought]], can lead to the death of these plants; most of the time, they are not able to fight against the local flora in extreme conditions.<ref>Ingolf Kühn, Stefan Klotz: Floristic status and alien species. In: Series of publications for vegetation science. 38 (2002), pp. 47–56.</ref>
*'''[[Hemerochory]]''':  Plants or their seeds may have been transported voluntarily (introduction) or involuntarily by humans in a territory which they could not have [[Colonisation (biology)|colonized]] by their own natural mechanisms of dissemination, or at least much more slowly. They are able to maintain themselves in this new vital space without voluntary help from man. Many [[Central Europe]]an cultivated and ornamental plants are hemorochoric – insofar as they have escaped and subsist independently of cultivation.<ref>Harshberger, John William: The vegetation of the New Jersey pine-barrens, an ecologic investigation, Philadelphia: Christopher Sower Company, 1869–1929</ref> These are the forms of hemerochory:
**'''Agochoric''': Plants that are spread through accidental transport with, among other things, ships, trains, and cars. On land, agochoric plants used to be common in harbors, at train stations, or along railway lines. Australia, like New Zealand, has taken stringent measures to prevent the spread by seed or human [[transport]]. Agricultural implements imported into Australia must be thoroughly cleaned. Air travelers from other continents are forced to thoroughly clean the soles of their shoes.<ref>Tim Low: Feral Future. The Untold Story of Australia's Exotic Invaders, p. 73</ref>
**'''Ethelochoric''': Deliberate introduction by seedlings, seeds, or plants in a new habitat by humans. Many cultivated plants which currently play an important role in [[human nutrition]] have been deliberately disseminated by humans. [[Wheat]], [[barley]], [[lentil]], [[broad bean]] and [[flax]], for example. 
**'''Speirochoric''': Unintentional introduction by seeds. As all seed samples also contain the seeds of the grasses of the field from which they were obtained, the trade-in seeds of useful plants has also allowed the spread of other species. Speirochoric plants are therefore sown on soil prepared by man and compete with useful plants. [[Wild chamomile]], [[poppy]], [[cornflower]], [[corn buttercup]] are example of plants that were unintentionally scattered.
*'''Neophyte''': An alien species introduced by man after 1500 AD. <ref name=Stace/>{{rp|1130}}

==Example species==
Examples of escaped plants and/or garden escapees include: 
{{div col|colwidth=14em}}
* ''[[Alchemilla mollis]]''
* ''[[Allium schoenoprasum]]''  
* ''[[Allium ursinum]]''
* ''[[Anredera cordifolia]]''
* ''[[Aquilegia vulgaris]]''  
* ''[[Araujia sericifera]]''
* ''[[Ardisia crenata]]''
* ''[[Asclepias tuberosa]]'' 
* ''[[Asparagus aethiopicus]]''
* ''[[Baccharis halimifolia]]'' 
* ''[[Bartlettina sordida]]''
* ''[[Berberis thunbergii]]''
* ''[[Borago officinalis]]''
* ''[[Bryophyllum delagoense]]''
* ''[[Buddleja davidii]]''
* ''[[Calystegia silvatica]]''
* ''[[Cardiospermum halicacabum]]''
* ''[[Carpobrotus edulis]]''
* ''[[Castanea sativa]]''
* ''[[Cenchrus setaceus]]''
* ''[[Centranthus ruber]]''
* ''[[Cestrum elegans]]''
* ''[[Cestrum parqui]]''
* ''[[Clematis orientalis]]''
* ''[[Clerodendrum bungei]]''
* ''[[Consolida ajacis]]''   
* ''[[Convallaria majalis]]''
* ''[[Coreopsis basalis]]''
*  [[Crocosmia|''Crocosmia'' spp.]]
* ''[[Cyclamen persicum]]'' 
* ''[[Cymbalaria muralis]]''
* ''[[Delairea odorata]]''
* ''[[Dichondra repens]]''
* ''[[Digitalis purpurea]]''  
* ''[[Dolichandra unguis-cati]]''
* ''[[Doronicum orientale]]''
* ''[[Echinops exaltatus]]''
* ''[[Echium candicans]]''
* ''[[Elodea canadensis]]''
* ''[[Epiphyllum oxypetalum]]''
* ''[[Eriocapitella hupehensis]]''
* ''[[Erythranthe moschata]]''
* ''[[Eschscholzia californica]]''  
* ''[[Foeniculum vulgare]]''
* ''[[Galega officinalis]]''
* ''[[Galinsoga parviflora]]''
* ''[[Hedera helix]]''
* ''[[Hedera hibernica]]''
* ''[[Helianthus annuus]]''
* ''[[Helianthus tuberosus]]''
* ''[[Hemerocallis fulva]]''
* ''[[Heracleum mantegazzianum]]''
* ''[[Hesperis matronalis]]''
* ''[[Ilex aquifolium]]''
* ''[[Impatiens glandulifera]]''
* ''[[Impatiens parviflora]]'' 
* ''[[Ipomoea cairica]]''
* ''[[Ipomoea indica]]''
* ''[[Iris pseudacorus]]''
* ''[[Isatis tinctoria]]''
* ''[[Juglans regia]]'' 
* ''[[Kalanchoe delagoensis]]''
* ''[[Kniphofia uvaria]]''
* ''[[Laburnum anagyroides]]''
* ''[[Lamiastrum galeobdolon]]''
* ''[[Lantana camara]]''
* ''[[Lavandula stoechas]]''
* ''[[Lespedeza bicolor]]''
* ''[[Ligustrum lucidum]]''
* ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]''
* ''[[Linaria purpurea]]''
* ''[[Lonicera maackii]]''
* ''[[Lysimachia punctata]]''
* ''[[Lythrum salicaria]]''
* ''[[Macfadyena unguis-cati]]''
* ''[[Melastoma sanguineum]]''
* ''[[Monarda punctata]]''  
* ''[[Nothoscordum gracile]]''
* ''[[Nymphaea mexicana]]''
* ''[[Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata]]''
* ''[[Opuntia ficus-indica]]''
* ''[[Oxalis debilis]]''
* ''[[Papaver cambricum]]''
* ''[[Pelargonium peltatum]]''
* ''[[Phlox paniculata]]''
* ''[[Physalis alkekengi]]''
* ''[[Prunus serotina]]''
* ''[[Reynoutria japonica]]''
* ''[[Rhododendron ponticum]]''
* ''[[Ribes rubrum]]''
* ''[[Ricinus communis]]''
* ''[[Robinia pseudoacacia]]''
* ''[[Rubus hawaiensis]]''
* ''[[Ruellia simplex]]''
* ''[[Senecio angulatus]]''
* ''[[Senecio elegans]]''
* ''[[Senna pendula]]''
* ''[[Silene armeria]]'' 
* ''[[Solanum lycopersicum]]''
* ''[[Sparaxis tricolor]]''
* ''[[Stachytarpheta mutabilis]]''
* ''[[Sphagneticola trilobata]]''
* ''[[Talinum paniculatum]]''
* ''[[Thymus praecox]]''
* ''[[Tradescantia fluminensis]]''
* ''[[Tulipa sylvestris]]''
* ''[[Vanilla × tahitensis]]''
* ''[[Vinca major]]''
* ''[[Vinca minor]]''
* ''[[Watsonia meriana]]''
{{div col end}}

==Gallery==
<gallery mode=""packed"" widths=140px heights=140px>
File:Iceplant.jpg|[[Carpobrotus edulis|Iceplant]] refugees along the California Coast
File:Isatis tinctoria (6124347445).jpg|[[Dyer's woad]]'s escape to disturbed [[Shoulder (road)|roadside]]s
File:Centranthus ruber growing on wall (Ireland).jpg|[[Red valerian]] finding refuge atop old walls
File:Castor_bean_in_distubred_area.jpg|[[Castor bean]] usually finds refuge on wastelands
File:SK-TigerLily.JPG|[[Lilium lancifolium|Tiger lily]] occurs as a garden escapee in [[Eastern United States|Eastern U.S.]].
File:Buddleja davidii next to rails at train station Düsseldorf-Zoo.jpg|''[[Buddleja]]'' self-sown along a railroad
File:Oxalis_latifolia_LeavesFlowers_BotGardBln0906.jpg|''[[Oxalis latifolia]]'' has escaped gardens through [[seed dispersal]].
File:Kalanchoe delagoensis in Dapeng Fortress, Shenzhen.jpg|[[Mother of millions]] finding refuge in [[Dapeng Fortress]], Shenzhen
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Volunteer plant]]
*[[Adventitious plant]]
*[[Archaeophyte]]
*[[Assisted colonization]]
*[[Hemerochory]]
*[[Neophyte (botany)|Neophyte]]

==Bibliography==
* Angelika Lüttig, Juliane Kasten (2003): ''Hagebutte & Co: Blüten, Früchte und Ausbreitung europäischer Pflanzen.'' Fauna, Nottuln. ISBN 3-93-598090-6.
* Christian Stolz (2013): ''Archäologische Zeigerpflanzen: Fallbeispiele aus dem Taunus und dem nördlichen Schleswig-Holstein. Plants as indicators for archaeological find sites: Case studies from the Taunus Mts. and from the northern part of Schleswig-Holstein (Germany)''. Schriften des Arbeitskreises Landes- und Volkskunde 11. 
* Herrando-Moraira, S., Nualart, N., Herrando-Moraira, A. et al. Climatic niche characteristics of native and invasive Lilium lancifolium. Sci Rep 9, 14334 (2019). [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-50762-4 Climatic niche characteristics of native and invasive Lilium lancifolium]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://invasives.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/sub-escaped_garden_KTP_april09B.pdf ESCAPED GARDEN PLANTS AS A KEY THREATENING PROCESS]
*[https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/cabicompendium.109030 Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause)]
[[Category:Invasive species]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Habitat]]"
Hemerochory,"{{Short description|Propagation of plants by ""the culture""}}
[[File:Mohn_im_Gerstenfeld.jpg|thumb|270px|[[poppy|Poppies]] are hemerochoric plants that belong to the [[archaeophyte]]s.{{clarification needed|date=December 2023}}]]
'''Hemerochory''' (Ancient Greek ἥμερος, hemeros: 'tame, ennobled, cultivated, cultivated' and Greek χωρίς choris: separate, isolated), or '''anthropochory''',<ref>[https://torontobotanicalgarden.ca/blog/word-of-the-week/botanical-nerd-word-anthropochory/#:~:text=Anthropochory%3A%20(from%20Greek%3A%20anthropos,to%20North%20America%20by%20humans. Botanical Nerd Word: Anthropochory] [[Toronto Botanical Garden]]. Retrieved 17 December 2023.</ref><ref>[https://www.uts.edu.au/about/faculty-design-architecture-and-building/student-showcase/wandering-ecologies-anthropochory-method-restoration-seed-dispersal-urban-landscape Wandering Ecologies: Anthropochory as a Method of Restoration; Seed Dispersal in the Urban Landscape] by Brittany Johnston. [[University of Technology Sydney]]. Retrieved 17 December 2023.</ref> is the [[escaped plant|distribution]] of cultivated plants or their seeds and [[cuttings (plant)|cuttings]], consciously or unconsciously, by humans into an area that they could not colonize through their natural mechanisms of spread, but are able to maintain themselves without specific human help in their new habitat.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cqXrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA261 Potentials and Limitations of Ecosystem Analysis, Extinction and Naturalization of Plant Species] p.261, edited by Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Helmut Zwölfer</ref> 

Hemerochory is one of the main [[Plant propagation|propagation]] mechanisms of a plant. '''Hemerochoric''' plants can both increase and decrease the [[biodiversity]] of a habitat.<ref> Harshberger, John William: The vegetation of the New Jersey pine-barrens, an ecologic investigation, Philadelphia: Christopher Sower Company, 1869-1929</ref> 

==Categorisation==
Hemerochoric plants are classified according to the manner of introduction into, for example:
[[File:Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet (AM AK347534-4).jpg|260px|thumb|[[Ipomoea cairica]] trailing on a roadside with its purple flowers (possible agochoric dispersal).]]
* Ethelochory: the conscious introduction by seed or [[seedling|young plants]].
* Speirochoria: the unintentional introduction by contaminated seed. Examples are the true [[chamomile]] and the [[cornflower]].
* Agochory: the introduction by unintentional [[transport]] with, among other things, ships, trains and cars. These plants are common in port areas, roadsides, stations and railways.<ref>Tim Low: Feral Future. The Untold Story of Australia's Exotic Invaders , p. 73</ref>

===Division===
Chronologically the hemerochoric plants are divided in:

* [[Archaeophyte]]s: plants that were introduced before the onset of world trade around the year 1500, or before the year 1492 ([[discovery of America]]).
* [[Neophyte (botany)|Neophyte]]s: plants that were introduced later.

===Related terms===
''Anthropochory'' is often used synonymously but does not mean exactly the same. Anthropochory is the spread by humans. The spread through [[domestic animal]]s does not belong to the anthropochoric, but to the hemerochoric, because domestic animals belong to the human culture. Strictly speaking, anthropochoric means the spread through humans as a transport medium. These can also be native species that were either adapted from the outset to locations created by human cultural activity or have adapted to them afterwards; As a result, their area of distribution has often, but not always, increased.

The term [[adventitious plant]]s is sometimes used synonymously with hemerochory, but is often restricted to species that were intentionally brought into the area and then naturalized, sometimes also for species that have not (yet) firmly established themselves in their new habitat.

==History==
Hemerochorous spread of plants through human cultural activity very likely already happened in the [[Stone Age]], but demonstrably at the latest in [[Ancient history|antiquity]], namely along old [[trade route]]s. Fruits such as apples and pears gradually made their way along the [[Silk Road]] from the area around the [[Altai Mountain]]s to [[Greece]] and from there to the gardens of the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who in turn brought these cultivated plants to Central Europe, and some of these plants were eventually able to survive outside the culture. Many useful plants, such as tomato, potato, pumpkin and [[Phaseolus vulgaris|French bean]] did not reach Central Europe until the 16th century, after the American continent was discovered, and are now grown worldwide. 

In the last 400 to 500 years the spread has expanded through trade and military campaigns, through explorers and [[missionaries]]. The latter brought countless plants with them from their travels both out of an interest in [[exotic plant]]s, which were often included in the plant collections of princely courts, and for purely scientific purposes. In the context of botanical studies, the interest was often in the possible [[medicinal plant|healing effects]] of these plants, but also in the expansion of botanical knowledge, or the plants were only used for collecting ([[herbaria]]).

Some ornamental plants also came to Europe because they promised a lucrative business. This applies, for example, to the [[camellias]], one of which is also grown as a tea plant in Japan and China. While this species turned out to be not cultivable in Central Europe, people very quickly discovered the aesthetic appeal of the other camellia species as an ornamental plant. Botanical gardens played a major role in the acclimatization of such plants from distant habitats.<ref>Krystyna M. Urbanska: Populationsbiologie der Pflanzen. G. Fischer, Stuttgart 1992, ISBN 3-437-20481-5.</ref>

==Forms==
===Agochory=== 
[[File:Cyperus esculentus 03038.jpg|thumb|[[Tiger nut]]s are agochoric.]]
Agochoric plants are those that are spread through accidental transport. Unlike speirochoric plants, they are usually not sown on human-prepared soil. On land, agochoric plants used to be common in harbors, at [[train station]]s or along [[railway line]]s.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5kzmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA252 Mutualistic Interactions between Flowering Plants and Animals] edited by Palatty Allesh Sinu, KR Shivanna, 2016</ref>

However, mainly [[aquatic plant]]s are spread through agochory. [[Ballast water]] plays a major role in the agochoric spread of aquatic plants. Around the world, around ten billion tons of seawater and the organisms it contains are shipped in this way. [[Exporting]] countries in particular are affected by the spread of organisms through ballast water. The ships arrive at the ports with empty [[cargo hold]], but fully pumped ballast tanks. In the draining of this ballast water, these ports receive thousands of cubic meters of seawater brimming with alien creatures now in a new environment. The seaweed [[Undaria pinnatifida]], which is native to the Japanese coast, reached the [[Tasmania]]n coast via ballast water and has formed dense [[kelp]] forests along the coast since 1988, displacing the native flora and fauna. [[Caulerpa taxifolia]] is one of those plants that are often spread by ballast water. It is also spread by the fact that ships tear off parts of the algae with their anchors. 

Australia was the first country to introduce a ballast water policy back in 1990 and is now the most determined to address this problem. Ships were asked not to take in ballast water in shallow and polluted bays and not to refuel with ballast water during the night, since then many [[marine organism]]s that are otherwise on the [[seabed]] rise to the surface of the water. Ships should also exchange their ballast water 200 kilometers away from the coastal waters, so that on the one hand the offshore species are not introduced into the more sensitive coastal waters and, on the other hand, no inhabitants of the coastal zone are transported to other continents.<ref>Management of an invasive marine species: defining and testing the effectiveness of ballast-water management options using management strategy evaluation by Piers K. Dunstan and Nicholas J. Bax</ref>

===Ethelochory===
[[File:Bank Hall Snowdrops Feb 2009.JPG|thumb|[[Galanthus]] are ethelochoric.]]
Ethelochory is intentional transportation of plants or seeds to different regions for agricultural and gardening purposes.<ref>[https://www.davuniversity.org/images/files/study-material/SIGNIFICANCE%20OF%20SEEDS.pdf Significance of Seeds : Ecological Adaptation and Dispersal Strategies] by Education Department </ref> Numerous crops that are important for human nutrition have been willingly spread by humans. [[Wheat]], [[barley]], [[lentil]], [[beans]], [[flax]] and poppy seeds, for example, are not typical plants for [[Central Europe]], although they are all archaeotypes. People brought them after the beginning of the [[Neolithic]] (about 6,500 years ago) gradually from the [[eastern Mediterranean]] to central Europe and the rest of the world through the upcoming centuries. In central Europe, it is especially [[Cyperus esculentus]] which has been classified since the 1980s among the [[invasive species]], because their [[tubers]] have been spread en masse, by sticking to vehicles or machines.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rDo8hLWtWzgC&dq=Ethelochory&pg=PA545 Plant Ecology] p.545. By Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Erwin Beck, Klaus Müller-Hohenstein. 2005.</ref>

Many of the old cultivated plants have spread around the world, primarily through emigrants from Europe. Grown for at least 4,000 years, wheat was introduced to America in the 16th century and Australia in the 19th century. Orange, lemons, apricots and peaches were originally native to China. They probably came via the Silk Road as early as the [[3rd century BC]]. In [[Asia Minor]] and from there through the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] to the Mediterranean. European settlers, in turn, used these species to grow fruit in suitable regions of America.

From the 16th century, ornamental plants were grown more and more. Species native to Europe were first introduced as [[garden plant]]s. These include, for example, the [[gladioli]], the [[Allium schubertii|ornamental onion]], [[Hyacinthoides non-scripta|European bluebell]], the [[snowdrop]] native to southeast Europe and the common [[clematis]]. Ornamental plants from more distant regions were added later. From [[East Asia]] in particular, a number of plants were introduced to Europe as exotic or for economic reasons.

===Speirochory===
[[File:Centaurea cyanus kz12.jpg|thumb|The [[cornflower]] is speirochoric.]]
Some plants were unintentionally introduced in this process; this unwanted hemerochory as a seed companion is called [[seed dispersal|speirochory]]. Since every seed also contains seeds of the herbs of the field from which it comes, their competitors, the ""[[weed]]s"", were also sold through the trade in the seeds of the useful plant. The real [[chamomile]] is one of the plants that were unintentionally spread as a companion to seeds.<ref>[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S2075111719040064 Distribution of Alien Plants by Speirochory in Agrocenosis of Tomsk Oblast] Russian Journal of Biological Invasions volume, S. I. Mikhailova, T. V. Ebel & A. L. Ebel. 14 January 2020</ref>

Speirochoric plants are sown on human-prepared soil and are competitors of the [[crop]]s. Plants that are considered to be archaeophytes, such as the poppy, native to the Mediterranean area, the real chamomile, the [[cornflower]] and field [[buttercup]], spread through the seeds with the grain in Central Europe. In the meantime, the seeds are cleaned more thoroughly using modern methods and the cultivation is hardly contaminated by [[pesticide]]s or other control techniques. 

In spite of this, [[Cuscuta campestris]], which is classified as a problematic weed in [[Australia]], was accidentally imported into the country together with [[basil]] seeds in 1981, 1988 and 1990.

==See also==
*[[Assisted colonization]]
*[[Escaped plant]]
*[[Volunteer plant]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Plant reproduction]]
[[Category:Invasive species]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Botany]]
[[Category:Introduced plants]]"
Adventive plant,"[[File:Palm trees in Nuthurst village, West Sussex, England 01.jpg|thumb|270px|[[Trachycarpus fortunei|Windmill palm]] (''Trachycarpus fortunei'') established at a park in [[West Sussex]], England]]
'''Adventive plants''' or '''adventitious plants''' are plants that have established themselves in a place that does not correspond to their area of origin due to anthropogenic influence and, therefore, are all wild species that have only been established with the help of humans, in contrast to the native species. 

The term ""adventive"" is used to describe species that are not self-sufficient, but need an episodic [[Assisted colonization|population assistance]] from their homeland. If, however, an adventive species becomes self-sustaining in its new geographic area, it is then [[ Naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]].<ref>[https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=38612 Invasive? Naturalized? Adventive?] by Ben Faber from Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. November 6, 2019.</ref> The term [[hemerochory]] is sometimes used synonymously with this one, but is often restricted to species that were unintentionally brought into the area and then naturalized, sometimes also for species that have firmly established themselves in their new habitat.

==Categorization==
[[File:Sapindales - Citrus sinensis - 9.jpg|thumb|220px|An established [[Citrus × sinensis|Sweet orange]] tree (''Citrus × sinensis'') in [[Kew Gardens]], England]]
Depending on the question and perspective, adventitious plants are divided into different subcategories: 

===Classification according to establishment history===

* [[Archaeophyte]]s were introduced before 1492
* [[Neophyte (botany)|Neophytes]] were introduced or immigrated after 1492.

The year 1492 is a conventionally chosen reference point. With the ""discovery"" of America and the [[age of discovery]] and [[colonialism]], [[alien species]] from other parts of the world came to new areas on a large scale. Most of the archaeophytes immigrated with the introduction of agriculture (in the [[Neolithic]]). The status of a species as an archaeophyte is usually deduced (from the location and ecology of the species) and is hardly directly detectable.

===Classification according to the degree of establishment===

* Agriophytes: species that have invaded natural or near-natural vegetation and could survive there without human intervention.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=OJhLDwAAQBAJ&dq=Agriophyte&pg=PA95 Handbook of Plant Palaeoecology, Flora and Vegetation, p.95] By R. T. J. Cappers, R. Neef</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rDo8hLWtWzgC&dq=Agriophyte&pg=PA496 Plant Ecology, p.496] By Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Erwin Beck, Klaus Müller-Hohenstein</ref> 
* Epecophytes: Species that are only naturalized in vegetation units shaped by humans, such as meadows, weed flora or [[ruderal]] vegetation, but are firmly naturalized here.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cqXrCAAAQBAJ&q=epecop&pg=PA261 Potentials and Limitations of Ecosystem Analysis, Extinction and Naturalization of Plant Species] p.261, edited by Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Helmut Zwölfer</ref>
* Ephemerophytes: Species that are only introduced inconsistently, that will die out of culture for a short period of time, or that would disappear again without a constant replenishment of seeds.<ref>Ingolf Kühn, Stefan Klotz: Floristic status and alien species. In: Series of publications for vegetation science. 38 (2002), pp. 47-56.</ref>

===Classification according to immigration route===

Spontaneous immigrants (sometimes referred to as ""acolutophytes"") immigrated on their own without direct human assistance, for example when new locations were created through culture or soil changes.
Companions (sometimes also ""xenophytes"") were brought in through human transport. Examples would be seed companions, which were unintentionally sown due to their similarity to cultivated plant seeds, or “wool adventures”, which were dragged into the wool fleece during the transport of sheep's wool.

Feral species or [[escaped plant|cultural refugees]] in the narrower sense are those that were originally cultivated, but later escaped from the culture and were able to spread on their own. Such descendants of original cultural clans are subject to natural evolution as they become wild and can more or less quickly differ both from the culture form itself and from the original wild clan that preceded the culture.

==Habitat==
Adventitious plants are often found at [[freight station]]s, along [[railway line]]s and port areas as well as airports, but also on roads. Seeds of many species were accidentally imported there with the import of goods (so-called agochoria). Occasionally, seed contamination also introduces new plants that could reproduce for a short period of time (so-called speirochory). Agochory and speirochory are sub-forms of [[hemerochory]]. The seeds can also hang in wheel arches so that they can be transported and distributed along highways. 

The proportion of adventitious species in open ruderal corridors at such locations can exceed 30% of the flora of these locations. In natural and near-natural vegetation, adventitious plants are much rarer. Their share here is between zero and about 5%.<ref>Wilhelm Lohmeyer, Herbert Sukopp: Agriophytes in the vegetation of Central Europe. First addendum. 2001 (Braunschweiger Geobotanische Arbeit 8), pp. 179–220</ref> 

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* FG Schroeder: On the classification of the anthropochores. In: Vegetatio. 16, pp. 225-238 (1969).

[[Category:Invasive species]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Introduced plants]]"
Non-renewable resource,"{{Short description|Class of natural resources}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
[[File:Coal mine Wyoming.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A [[coal mining|coal mine]] in [[Wyoming]], United States. [[Coal]], produced over millions of years, is a finite and non-renewable resource on a human time scale.]]

A '''non-renewable resource''' (also called a '''finite resource''') is a [[natural resource]] that cannot be readily replaced by natural means at a pace quick enough to keep up with consumption.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Earth systems and environmental sciences.|date=2013|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-409548-9|location=[Place of publication not identified]|oclc=846463785}}</ref> An example is carbon-based fossil fuels. The original organic matter, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth [[mineral]]s and [[metal]] [[ore]]s, [[fossil fuel]]s ([[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]]) and [[groundwater]] in certain [[aquifer]]s are all considered non-renewable resources, though individual [[Chemical element|element]]s are always conserved (except in [[nuclear reactions]], [[nuclear decay]] or [[atmospheric escape]]).

Conversely, resources such as [[timber]] (when [[Sustainable forest management|harvested sustainably]]) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered [[renewable resource]]s, largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans as well.

== Earth minerals and metal ores ==
{{Main|Mineral|Ore}}
[[File:GoldOreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Raw gold ore that is eventually smelted down into gold metal]]
{{Further|Mining}}

[[Earth]] minerals and [[metal]] ores are examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in Earth's [[crust (geology)|crust]], and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are concentrated by [[Ore genesis|natural geological processes]] (such as heat, pressure, organic activity, weathering and other processes) enough to become economically viable to extract. These processes generally take from tens of thousands to millions of years, through [[plate tectonics]], [[tectonic subsidence]] and [[crustal recycling]].

The localized deposits of metal ores near the surface which can be extracted economically by humans are non-renewable in human time-frames. There are certain [[rare earth mineral]]s and [[rare earth element|elements]] that are more scarce and exhaustible than others. These are in high demand in [[manufacturing]], particularly for the [[electronics industry]].

== Fossil fuels ==
{{Main|Fossil fuel}}
{{Further|Oil depletion}}

Natural resources such as [[coal]], [[petroleum]](crude oil) and [[natural gas]] take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy such as solar or wind power, see [[renewable energy]].

An alternative hypothesis is that carbon based fuel is virtually inexhaustible in human terms, if one includes all sources of carbon-based energy such as methane hydrates on the sea floor, which are vastly greater than all other carbon based fossil fuel resources combined.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/energy/methane-hydrates/ |title=Methane hydrates |website=Worldoceanreview.com |access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref> These sources of carbon are also considered non-renewable, although their rate of formation/replenishment on the sea floor is not known. However their extraction at economically viable costs and rates has yet to be determined.

At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable [[fossil fuels]]. Since the dawn of [[internal combustion engine]] technologies in the 19th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand. As a result, conventional [[infrastructure]] and [[transport]] systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe.

The modern-day fossil fuel economy is widely criticized for its lack of renewability, as well as being a contributor to [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite book|author=America's Climate Choices: Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate Change|author2=National Research Council|title=Advancing the Science of Climate Change |year=2010|publisher=The National Academies Press|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-309-14588-6|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12782|doi=10.17226/12782 }}</ref>

== Nuclear fuels ==
[[File:Arandis Mine quer.jpg|thumb|[[Rössing uranium mine]] is the longest-running and one of the largest [[open pit]] uranium mines in the world, in 2005 it produced eight percent of global uranium oxide needs (3,711 tons).<ref name=""infomine"">[http://www.infomine.com/minesite/minesite.asp?site=rossing Rössing] (from infomine.com, status Friday 30 September 2005)</ref> The most productive mines however are the underground [[McArthur River uranium mine]] in Canada which produces 13% of the world's uranium, and the similarly underground poly-metallic [[Olympic Dam mine]] in Australia, which despite being largely a copper mine, contains the largest known reserve of uranium ore.]]
[[File:Uranium and thorium release from coal combustion.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|Annual release of ""technologically enhanced""/concentrated [[Naturally occurring radioactive material]], [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] [[radioisotopes]] naturally found in coal and concentrated in heavy/bottom [[coal ash]] and airborne [[fly ash]].<ref name=""USGS"" >{{cite web
  |author = U.S. Geological Survey | author-link = USGS
  |title = Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash: Abundance, Forms, and Environmental Significance
  |date = October 1997
  |url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs163-97/FS-163-97.pdf
  |work = U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS-163-97
  }}</ref> As predicted by [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory|ORNL]] to cumulatively amount to 2.9 million tons over the 1937–2040 period, from the combustion of an estimated 637 billion tons of coal worldwide.<ref name=""ornl"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205103749/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html|url-status=dead|title=Coal Combustion – ORNL Review Vol. 26, No. 3&4, 1993|archive-date=5 February 2007}}</ref> This 2.9 million tons of [[actinide]] fuel, a resource derived from coal ash, would be classified as low grade uranium ore if it occurred naturally.]]

{{Main|Nuclear fuel}}
{{Further|Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy|Peak uranium}}

In 1987, the [[World Commission on Environment and Development]] (WCED) classified fission reactors that produce more [[fissile]] nuclear fuel than they consume (i.e. [[breeder reactor]]s) among conventional renewable energy sources, such as [[Sun|solar]] and [[Hydropower|falling water]].<ref name=""Brundtland"">{{cite web|title=Chapter 7: Energy: Choices for Environment and Development|url=http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-07.htm|work=Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development|first=Gro Harlem|last=Brundtland|location=Oslo|date=20 March 1987|access-date=27 March 2013|quote=Today's primary sources of energy are mainly non-renewable: natural gas, oil, coal, peat, and conventional nuclear power. There are also renewable sources, including wood, plants, dung, falling water, geothermal sources, solar, tidal, wind, and wave energy, as well as human and animal muscle-power. Nuclear reactors that produce their own fuel (""breeders"") and eventually fusion reactors are also in this category}}</ref> The [[American Petroleum Institute]] likewise does not consider conventional nuclear fission as renewable, but rather that [[breeder reactor]] nuclear power fuel is considered renewable and sustainable, noting that radioactive waste from used [[spent fuel]] rods remains radioactive and so has to be very carefully stored for several hundred years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.api.org/classroom/curricula/nonrenew-resources.cfm|title=Key Characteristics of Nonrenewable Resources|author=American Petroleum Institute|access-date=2010-02-21}}</ref> With the careful monitoring of radioactive waste products also being required upon the use of other renewable energy sources, such as [[geothermal energy]].<ref>http://www.epa.gov/radiation/tenorm/geothermal.html Geothermal Energy Production Waste.</ref>

The use of [[nuclear technology]] relying on [[Nuclear fission|fission]] requires [[Naturally occurring radioactive material]] as fuel. [[Uranium]], the most common fission fuel, is present in the ground at relatively low concentrations and [[uranium mining|mined]] in 19 countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html|title=World Uranium Mining|publisher=World Nuclear Association|access-date=2011-02-28}}</ref> This mined uranium is used to fuel energy-generating nuclear reactors with [[Fissile|fissionable]] [[uranium-235]] which generates heat that is ultimately used to power [[turbine]]s to generate electricity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/uran.html|title=What is uranium? How does it work?|publisher=World Nuclear Association|access-date=2011-02-28}}</ref>

As of 2013 only a few kilograms (picture available) of uranium have been extracted from the ocean in [[pilot program]]s and it is also believed that the uranium extracted on an industrial scale from the seawater would constantly be replenished from uranium [[leaching (metallurgy)|leached]] from the ocean floor, maintaining the seawater concentration at a stable level.<ref name=""gepr.org"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.gepr.org/en/contents/20130729-01/|title=The current state of promising research into extraction of uranium from seawater – Utilization of Japan's plentiful seas: Global Energy Policy Research|website=gepr.org}}</ref> In 2014, with the advances made in the efficiency of seawater uranium extraction, a paper in the journal of ''Marine Science & Engineering'' suggests that with, light water reactors as its target, the process would be [[economy of scale|economically competitive if implemented on a large scale]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Development of a Kelp-Type Structure Module in a Coastal Ocean Model to Assess the Hydrodynamic Impact of Seawater Uranium Extraction Technology|first1=Gary|last1=Gill|first2=Wen|last2=Long|first3=Tarang|last3=Khangaonkar|first4=Taiping|last4=Wang|date=22 March 2014|journal=Journal of Marine Science and Engineering|volume=2|issue=1|pages=81–92|doi=10.3390/jmse2010081|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity.<ref>[[World Nuclear Association]]. [http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/newsarticle.aspx?id=27665 Another drop in nuclear generation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107221735/http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/newsarticle.aspx?id=27665 |date=7 January 2014 }} ''World Nuclear News'', 5 May 2010.</ref> Nuclear energy production is associated with potentially dangerous [[radioactive contamination]] as it relies upon unstable elements. In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of [[low and intermediate level waste]] (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of [[high level waste]] (HLW) (including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.html |title=Factsheets & FAQs |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) |access-date=2012-02-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125062648/http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.html |archive-date=25 January 2012 }}</ref>

Issues entirely separate from the question of the sustainability of nuclear fuel, relate to the use of nuclear fuel and the high-level radioactive waste the nuclear industry generates that if not properly contained, is [[Acute radiation syndrome|highly hazardous]] to people and wildlife. The United Nations ([[United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation|UNSCEAR]]) estimated in 2008 that average annual human radiation exposure includes 0.01 [[millisievert]] (mSv) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus the [[Chernobyl disaster]] and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0&nbsp;mSv from natural radioisotopes and 0.4&nbsp;mSv from [[cosmic ray]]s; all exposures [[Background radiation|vary by location]].<ref name = UNSCEAR>United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. [http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/09-86753_Report_2008_GA_Report_corr2.pdf Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, UNSCEAR 2008]</ref> [[Natural uranium]] in some inefficient reactor [[nuclear fuel cycle]]s becomes part of the [[Radioactive waste|nuclear waste]] ""[[nuclear fuel cycle|once through]]"" stream, and in a similar manner to the scenario were this uranium remained naturally in the ground, this uranium emits various forms of radiation in a [[decay chain]] that has a [[half-life]] of about 4.5 billion years,<ref name=""natortg"">{{cite web |last=Mcclain |first=D.E. |author2=A.C. Miller |author3=J.F. Kalinich |title=Status of Health Concerns about Military Use of Depleted Uranium and Surrogate Metals in Armor-Penetrating Munitions |publisher=[[NATO]] |date=20 December 2007 |url=http://www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/mcclain_NATO_2005.pdf |access-date=2012-02-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207021921/http://www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/mcclain_NATO_2005.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2012 }}</ref> the storage of this unused uranium and the accompanying fission reaction products have raised public concerns about [[Nuclear and radiation accidents|risks of leaks and containment]], however the knowledge gained from studying the [[natural nuclear fission reactor]] in Oklo [[Gabon]], has informed geologists on the proven processes that kept the waste from this 2 billion year old natural nuclear reactor that operated for hundreds of thousands of years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull42-3/42302680518.pdf|title=The Safety of Radioactive Waste Management| author=AJ González|date= 2000|publisher=IAEA}}</ref>

== Land surface ==
Land surface can be considered both renewable and non-renewable resource depending on the scope of comparison. [[land economics|Land]] can be reused but new land cannot be created on demand so from economic perspective it's a fixed resource with perfectly [[inelastic supply]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=J.Singh|date=2014-04-17|title=Land: Meaning, Significance, Land as Renewable and Non-Renewal Resource|url=https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/factors-of-production/land-meaning-significance-land-as-renewable-and-non-renewal-resource/785|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Economics Discussion|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lambin|first=Eric F.|date=2012-12-01|title=Global land availability: Malthus versus Ricardo|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912412000235|journal=Global Food Security|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=83–87|doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2012.11.002|issn=2211-9124}}</ref>

== Renewable resources ==
{{Main|Renewable resource}}
{{Further|Renewable energy|Recycling}}
[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Three Gorges Dam]], the largest renewable energy generating station in the world.]]
[[Natural resource]]s, known as renewable resources, are replaced by [[Natural phenomenon|natural processes and forces]] persistent in the [[natural environment]]. There are [[Intermittent energy source|intermittent]] and reoccurring renewables, and [[Recycling|recyclable material]]s, which are utilized during a [[Biogeochemical cycle|cycle]] across a certain amount of time, and can be harnessed for any number of cycles.

The production of goods and services by [[manufacturing]] [[Product (business)|product]]s in [[economic system]]s creates many [[List of waste types|types of waste]] during production and after the [[consumer]] has made use of it. The material is then either [[Incineration|incinerated]], buried in a [[landfill]] or [[recycled]] for reuse.  Recycling turns materials of value that would otherwise become waste into valuable resources again.
[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-Landsat7.jpg|thumb|Satellite map showing areas flooded by the Three Gorges reservoir. Compare 7 November 2006 (above) with 17 April 1987 (below). The energy station required the flooding of [[archaeological]] and cultural sites and displaced some 1.3&nbsp;million people, and is causing significant [[ecological]] changes, including an increased risk of [[landslide]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://unn.people.com.cn/GB/9105724.html |title=重庆云阳长江右岸现360万方滑坡险情-地方-人民网 |work=People's Daily  |access-date=2009-08-01}} See also: {{cite web |url= http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2009-04/09/content_11157017.htm |title=探访三峡库区云阳故陵滑坡险情 |publisher=News.xinhuanet.com |access-date=2009-08-01}}</ref> The dam has been a controversial topic both domestically and abroad.<ref name=""controversy"">{{cite magazine |author=Lin Yang |title=China's Three Gorges Dam Under Fire |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1671000,00.html |magazine=Time |date=2007-10-12 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=The giant Three Gorges Dam across China's Yangtze River has been mired in controversy ever since it was first proposed }} See also: {{cite news |last=Laris |first=Michael |title=Untamed Waterways Kill Thousands Yearly |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/china/stories/death081798.htm |newspaper=The Washington Post|date=1998-08-17 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=Officials now use the deadly history of the Yangtze, China's longest river, to justify the country's riskiest and most controversial infrastructure project&nbsp;– the enormous Three Gorges Dam. }} and {{cite news |last=Grant |first=Stan |title=Global Challenges: Ecological and Technological Advances Around the World |url=http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0506/18/gc.01.html |publisher=CNN|date=2005-06-18 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=China's engineering marvel is unleashing a torrent of criticism. [...] When it comes to global challenges, few are greater or more controversial than the construction of the massive Three Gorges Dam in Central China. }} and {{cite news |last=Gerin |first=Roseanne |title=Rolling on a River |url=http://www.bjreview.com.cn/eye/txt/2008-12/06/content_168792.htm |work=Beijing Review |date=2008-12-11 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=..the 180-billion yuan ($26.3&nbsp;billion) Three Gorges Dam project has been highly contentious. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922231347/http://www.bjreview.com.cn/eye/txt/2008-12/06/content_168792.htm |archive-date=22 September 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]

In the natural environment [[water]], [[forest]]s, [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s are all renewable resources, as long as they are adequately [[Conservation biology|monitored, protected and conserved]]. [[Sustainable agriculture]] is the cultivation of plant and animal materials in a manner that preserves plant and animal [[ecosystem]]s and that can improve [[soil health]] and [[soil fertility]] over the long term. The [[overfishing]] of the oceans is one example of where an industry practice or method can threaten an ecosystem, endanger [[endangered species|species]] and possibly even determine whether or not a [[fishery]] is sustainable for use by humans. An unregulated industry practice or method can lead to a complete [[resource depletion]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing in Small-Scale Marine and Inland Capture Fisharies|url=http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y3274E/y3274e09.htm|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization|access-date=2012-02-04}}</ref>
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Ohotnikovo1.jpg|thumb|[[Okhotnykovo Solar Park]] is one of the world's [[List of photovoltaic power stations|largest photovoltaic power stations]].]] -->

The renewable energy from the [[sun]], [[wind]], [[surface wave|wave]], [[biomass]] and [[Geothermal gradient|geothermal]] energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of [[water]] ([[hydropower]], [[tidal power]] and [[wave power]]), [[wind power|wind]] and [[radiant energy]] from geothermal heat (used for [[geothermal power]]) and solar energy (used for [[Solar energy|solar power]]) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.

The potential wave [[energy]] on coastlines can provide 1/5 of world demand. Hydroelectric power can supply 1/3 of our total energy global needs. Geothermal energy can provide 1.5 more times the energy we need. There is enough wind to power the planet 30 times over, wind power could power all of humanity's needs alone. Solar currently supplies only 0.1% of our world energy needs, but there is enough out there to power humanity's needs 4,000 times over, the entire global projected energy demand by 2050.<ref>R. Eisenberg and D. Nocera, ""Preface: Overview of the Forum on Solar and Renewable Energy,"" Inorg. Chem. 44, 6799 (2007).</ref><ref>P. V. Kamat, ""Meeting the Clean Energy Demand: Nanostructure Architectures for Solar Energy Conversion,"" J. Phys. Chem. C 111, 2834 (2007).</ref>

Renewable energy and [[Energy conservation|energy efficiency]] are no longer niche [[Economic sector|sector]]s that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that [[sustainable energy]] has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable resources decline. This is reinforced by [[climate change]] concerns, nuclear dangers and accumulating radioactive waste, [[2000s energy crisis|high oil prices]], [[peak oil]] and increasing government support for renewable energy. These factors are [[renewable energy commercialization|commercializing renewable energy]], enlarging the market and growing demand, the adoption of new products to replace obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://energy-base.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/SEFI-Global-Trends-in-Sustainable-Energy-Investment-2007.pdf |title=Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007: Analysis of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in OECD and Developing Countries (PDF), p. 3. |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |access-date=2014-03-04}}</ref>

==Economic models==
In economics, a non-renewable resource is defined as [[Good (economics)|goods]], where greater consumption today implies less consumption tomorrow.<ref>Cremer and Salehi-Isfahani 1991:18</ref> [[David Ricardo]] in his early works analysed the pricing of exhaustible resources, where he argued that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time. He argued that the spot price is always determined by the mine with the highest cost of extraction, and mine owners with lower extraction costs benefit from a differential rent. The first model is defined by [[Hotelling's rule]], which is a 1931 economic model of non-renewable [[resource management]] by [[Harold Hotelling]]. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable conditions, lead to a [[resource depletion|depletion]] of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or ""[[Hotelling rent]]"" for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the [[rate of interest]], reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resources.<ref>{{cite journal |first=H. |last=Hotelling |year=1931 |title=The Economics of Exhaustible Resources |journal=[[Journal of Political Economy|J. Political Econ.]] |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=137–175 |doi=10.1086/254195 |jstor=1822328 |s2cid=44026808 }}</ref> The [[Hartwick's rule]] provides an important result about the [[sustainability]] of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable source.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartwick |first1=John M. |title=Intergenerational Equity and the Investing of Rents from Exhaustible Resources |journal=The American Economic Review |date=December 1977 |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=972–974 |jstor=1828079 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1828079}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy|Renewable energy}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Clean technology]]
* [[Energy conservation]]
* [[Eurosolar]]
* [[Fossil fuel]]
* [[Fossil water]]
* [[Green design]]
* [[Hartwick's rule]]
* [[Hermann Scheer]]
* [[Hotelling's rule]]
* [[Hubbert's peak]]
* [[Liebig's law of the minimum]]
* [[Natural resource management]]
* [[Overfishing]]
* [[Peak oil]]
* [[Reserves-to-production ratio]]
* [[Sustainability]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
                                                                                                                                                                  
{{Natural resources}}
{{Population}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Non-Renewable Resource}}
[[Category:Natural resources]]
[[Category:Non-renewable resources| ]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Space]]

[[it:Energie non rinnovabili]]"
Clarion-Clipperton Zone,"{{short description|Fracture zone of the Pacific Ocean seabed}}
[[File:Pacific elevation2.jpg|thumb|350px|Major Pacific trenches (1–10) and fracture zones (11–20). The '''Clipperton Fracture Zone''' (15) is the nearly horizontal line  below the '''Clarion Fracture Zone''' (14), and the Middle America Trench is the deep-blue line No. 9.]]
[[File:Location_of_the_Clarion_Clipperton_Zone.png|thumb|310x310px|Location of the Clarion Clipperton Zone]]
The '''Clarion-Clipperton Zone'''<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/18ccz/background/mining/mining.html|title=DeepCCZ: Deep-sea Mining Interests in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone|last=|first=|date=|website=NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research|language=EN-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214022631/https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/18ccz/background/mining/mining.html |archive-date=14 February 2019 |access-date=2019-11-27}}</ref> ('''CCZ''') or '''Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone<ref name="":1"">{{cite web |title=Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/clarion-clipperton-fracture-zone |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321205102/https://www.isa.org.jm/clarion-clipperton-fracture-zone |archive-date=2018-03-21 |website=www.isa.org.jm}} </ref>''' is an environmental management area of the [[Pacific Ocean]], administered by the [[International Seabed Authority]] (ISA).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marine Regions · Clarion Clipperton Zone (ISA Environmental Management Area) |url=https://marineregions.org/gazetteer.php?p=details&id=64222 |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=marineregions.org}}</ref> It includes the Clarion Fracture Zone and the Clipperton Fracture Zone, geological submarine [[fracture zone|fracture zones]]. Clarion and Clipperton are two of the five major lineations of the northern Pacific floor, and were discovered by the [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]] in 1954. The CCZ is regularly considered for [[deep-sea mining]] due to the abundant presence of [[manganese nodule]]s.

The CCZ extendes around 4,500 miles (7,240&nbsp;km) East to West<ref name=""EB"">{{cite web |title=Clipperton Fracture Zone |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/121879/Clipperton-Fracture-Zone |accessdate=17 November 2011 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> and spans approximately {{Convert|4,500,000|km2|mi2|abbr=}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=The Clarion-Clipperton Zone |url=http://pew.org/2o4se1P |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=2019-11-27 |website=Pew Charitable Trusts}}</ref> The fractures themselves are unusually mountainous topographical features.  

In 2016, investigation of the seafloor in the zone was found to contain an abundance and diversity of life &ndash; more than half of the species collected were new to science.

== Geography ==
The fractures can be divided into four parts:

*The first, 127°–113° W, is a broad, low welt of some {{convert|900|miles}}, with a central trough {{convert|10 to 30|miles}} wide;
*The second, 113°-107° W, is a volcano enriched ridge, {{convert|60|miles}} wide and {{convert|330|miles}} long;
*The third, 107°-101° W, is a low welt with a central trough {{convert|1,200–2,400|feet}} deep which transects the [[Albatross Plateau]]; and
*The fourth, 101°-96° W, contains the [[Tehuantepec Ridge]] which extends {{convert|400|miles}} northeast to the continental margin.<ref name=""jstor"">{{cite journal |author=H. W. Menard and Robert L. Fisher |year=1958 |title=Clipperton Fracture in the Northeastern Equatorial Pacific |journal=The Journal of Geology |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=239–253 |bibcode=1958JG.....66..239M |doi=10.1086/626502 |jstor=30080925 |s2cid=129268203}}</ref>

The [[Nova-Canton Trough]] is often seen as an extension of the fractures.<ref name=""Oceanography1972"">{{cite book|title=Contributions – Scripps Institution of Oceanography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2JHzAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=17 November 2011|year=1972|publisher=Scripps Institution of Oceanography|page=69}}</ref>

The zone contains [[Nodule (geology)|nodules]] made up of valuable [[rare-earth element|rare-earth]] and other minerals. Some of these play an essential role for the [[energy transition]] to a [[low carbon economy]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Church |first1=Clare |last2=Crawford |first2=Alec |series=Lecture Notes in Energy |title=The Geopolitics of the Global Energy Transition |date=2020 |volume=73 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |location=Cham |isbn=978-3-030-39066-2 |pages=279–304 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-39066-2_12 |access-date=28 January 2021 |language=en |chapter=Minerals and the Metals for the Energy Transition: Exploring the Conflict Implications for Mineral-Rich, Fragile States|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-39066-2_12 |s2cid=226561697 }}</ref> These nodules form around bone fragments or shark teeth. Micronodules then further aggregate and accrete into the clumps targeted for harvesting.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite news |last1=Imbler |first1=Sabrina |last2=Corum |first2=Jonathan |date=2022-08-29 |title=Deep-Sea Riches: Mining a Remote Ecosystem |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/08/29/world/deep-sea-riches-mining-nodules.html |access-date=2023-04-12 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

=== Clipperton Fracture Zone ===
{{maplink|frame=yes|frame-align=right|frame-width=310|frame-height=175|frame-long=-130|frame-lat=12.5|zoom=2|raw={{Wikipedia:Map data/Fracture zone}}|text=Approximate surface projection on ocean of Clipperton and Clarion fracture zones (violet). Other nearby fracture zones (orange), mid-oceanic ridges (white) and associated features such as probable extension of fracture zones (lighter violet or orange) are also shown. Click to expand map to obtain interactive fracture zone details.<ref name=FZmaplink>General citations for named fracture zones are at page [[Wikipedia:Map data/Fracture zone]] and specific citations are in interactive detail.</ref>}}
The Clipperton Fracture Zone is the southernmost of the north east Pacific Ocean lineations.  It begins east-northeast of the [[Line Islands]] and ends in the [[Middle America Trench]] off the coast of Central America,<ref name=""EB"" /><ref name=""Keating1987"">{{cite book |last=Keating |first=Barbara H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKCYe5haiCUC&pg=PA156 |title=Seamounts, islands, and atolls |publisher=American Geophysical Union |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-87590-068-1 |page=156 |accessdate=17 November 2011 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=""jstor"" /> forming a rough line on the same latitude as [[Kiribati]] and [[Clipperton Island]], from which it gets its name.

=== Clarion Fracture Zone ===
The Clarion Fracture Zone is the next Pacific lineation north of Clipperton FZ. It is bordered on the northeast by [[Clarion Island]], the westernmost of the [[Revillagigedo Islands]], from which it gets its name. Both fracture zones were discovered by the U.S. research vessels ""Horizon"" and ""Spencer F. Baird"" in 1954.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marine Regions · Clarion Fracture Zone (Fracture Zone) |url=https://marineregions.org/gazetteer.php?p=details&id=7454 |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=marineregions.org}}</ref>

== Deep sea mining ==
[[File:2015-04-14 18-20-14 Sonne SO239 157ROV11 Logo original(1).jpg|thumb|Polymetallic nodules on the seafloor in the CCZ]]
The CCZ has been divided into 16 mining claims spanning approximately {{convert|1,000,000|km2|mi2|abbr=}}. A further nine areas, each covering {{convert|160,000|km2|mi2|abbr=}}, have been set aside for conservation.<ref name="":0"" /> The International Seabed Authority (ISA) estimates that the total amount of nodules in the Clarion Clipperton Zone exceeds 21 billion tons (Bt), containing about 5.95 Bt of [[manganese]], 0.27 Bt of [[nickel]], 0.23 Bt of [[copper]] and 0.05 Bt of [[cobalt]].<ref name=""isa2010"">{{cite book|title=A Geological Model of Polymetallic Nodule Deposits in the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone and Prospector's Guide for Polymetallic Nodule Deposits in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone. Technical Study: No. 6|last1=International Seabed Authority|date=2010|isbn=978-976-95268-2-2}}</ref> The ISA has issued 19 licences for mining exploration within this area.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Exploration Contracts {{!}} International Seabed Authority|url=https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts|access-date=2021-11-30|website=www.isa.org.jm}}</ref> Exploratory full-scale extraction operations were set to begin in late 2021.<ref name="":1"" /> ISA aimed to publish the deep sea mining code in July 2023. Commercial license applications were to be accepted for review thereafter.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Reid|first=Helen|date=2021-10-29|title=New deep-sea mining rules set to miss 2023 deadline, Latam and Caribbean countries say|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/sustainable-business/un-deep-sea-mining-rules-unlikely-be-completed-by-2023-deadline-latam-countries-2021-10-28/|access-date=2021-12-07}}</ref>

The so-called two-year rule states that before regulations are passed, a member nation has the authority to notify ISA that it wants to mine. This starts a two-year clock during which the ISA can come up with rules. If it fails to do so, the mining is implicitly approved. [[Nauru]] gave notice in July 2021, creating a deadline of July 9, 2023. ISA's next meeting, however, begins a day later, on July 10.<ref name="":2"" />

== Environmental concerns ==
Areas of the fracture zone that have been licensed for mining are home to a diversity of deep-sea [[Xenophyophorea|xenophyophores]]. A 2017 study found 34 novel species in the area. Xenophyophores are highly sensitive to human disturbances, such that mining may adversely affect them. They play a [[Keystone species|keystone]] role in benthic ecosystems such that their removal could amplify ecological consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017-03-01|title=Giant protists (xenophyophores, Foraminifera) are exceptionally diverse in parts of the abyssal eastern Pacific licensed for polymetallic nodule exploration|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=207|pages=106–116|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2017.01.006|issn=0006-3207|doi-access=free|last1=Gooday|first1=Andrew J.|last2=Holzmann|first2=Maria|last3=Caulle|first3=Clémence|last4=Goineau|first4=Aurélie|last5=Kamenskaya|first5=Olga|last6=Weber|first6=Alexandra A.-T.|last7=Pawlowski|first7=Jan}}</ref> The nodules are considered ""critical for food web integrity"".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stratmann |first1=Tanja |last2=Soetaert |first2=Karline |last3=Kersken |first3=Daniel |last4=van Oevelen |first4=Dick |date=2021-06-10 |title=Polymetallic nodules are essential for food-web integrity of a prospective deep-seabed mining area in Pacific abyssal plains |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=12238 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-91703-4 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8192577 |pmid=34112864}}</ref> The zone hosts corals, sea cucumbers, worms, dumbo octopuses and many other species.<ref name="":2"" /> 

[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] and [[TU Delft]] use their ISA observer status to investigate the potential impact of collecting these minerals and compare it to the [[environmental issues|environmental]] and human impact of [[mining|terrestrial mining]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gallagher |first1=Mary Beth |title=Understanding the impact of deep-sea mining |url=https://news.mit.edu/2019/understanding-impact-deep-sea-mining-1206 |website=MIT News {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |access-date=28 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>[https://blueharvesting-project.eu/ 9 European partners work together to help the maturation of a hydraulic nodule collector, while minimizing its environmental footprint], blueharvesting-project.eu</ref> In April 2021, scientists from JPI oceans project carried out in depth studies into mining technology and its possible effect on the seabed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Assessing the Impacts of Nodule Mining on the Deep-Sea Environment |url=https://www.jpi-oceans.eu/news-events/news/assessing-impacts-nodule-mining-deep-sea-environment |access-date=2021-12-07 |website=www.jpi-oceans.eu |language=en}}</ref> 

Mining has the potential for large environmental impacts. The impact of the release of [[tailings]] from nodule processing into the water column on pelagic organisms or the detrimental effects they may have on the benthic communities below are unknown.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schriever|first=G.|date=2009-05-04|title=SS Ocean Mining: Development of Environmental Research related to future Deep Sea Mining - Are Concerns justified and what should be done?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4043/19935-ms|journal=All Days|publisher=OTC|doi=10.4043/19935-ms}}</ref>

Along with the xenophyophores, many types of species reside in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone: protists, microbial prokaryotes, and various fauna including megafauna, macrofauna, and meiofauna, each distinguished by size.<ref>NORI D Collector Test EIS - FINAL - Chapter 6. (2022). In The Metals Company.</ref> Due to the lack of historical research in the region—in large part because of the inaccessibility, monetary, and physical cost without modern technology—very little is known about life in the CCZ. The increasing tests in the region have led to the discovery of many new species, suggesting both a high species richness and high species rarity within the CCZ. It seems that [[Manganese nodule|polymetallic nodules]] in the region, the target of much [[Deep sea mining|deep-sea mining]], are crucial for fostering a high level of [[biodiversity]] on the sea floor. Even so, there are many gaps in the current understanding of the ecosystem roles played, life history traits, sensitivities, spatial or temporal variabilities, and resilience of these species.<ref>Amon, D.; Gollner, S.; Morato, T.; Smith, C.; Chen, C.; Christiansen, S., et al. (2022). Assessment of scientific gaps related to the effective environmental management of deep-seabed mining. UC San Diego. Report #: ARTN 105006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105006 Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0w48f05q</ref> 

Much of what is known about the potential environmental impact is a result of a dredging pilot test conducted in 1978. In the years since the tests, the region has been monitored. Many species here are more susceptible to the negative effects of environmental shifts as change at these depths is atypical. Specifically looking at [[Nematode|nematodes]], it has been determined that there is a lower [[species richness]] and lower total [[biomass]] in the area where the dredging occurred as compared to the neighboring spaces. Additionally, the composition of species and the frequencies at which they are found change with human interference. The removal of polymetallic nodules, as proposed through deep-sea mining, would decrease suitable habitat as many species of nematodes reside within the upper five centimeters where nodules exist, too. Even those species that do remain will face changes to their habitat conditions as the new top layer of sediment after the removal of the nodules will be significantly denser. The low [[sedimentation]] levels and minimal currents show that disruption in the CCZ would have long-lasting effects on the environment; the upturned sediment remains unsettled even decades later.<ref>Miljutin, Dmitry & Miljutina, Maria & Martinez Arbizu, Pedro & Galéron, Joëlle. (2011). Deep-sea nematode assemblage has not recovered 26 years after experimental mining of polymetallic nodules (Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone, Tropical Eastern Pacific). Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 58. 10.1016/j.dsr.2011.06.003.</ref> Additionally, nodules form for millions of years; as such their removal would fundamentally alter the ecosystem for millenniums to come. The species directly dependent on them, and all of their subsequent linkages or environmental functions would see vast changes that could not be quickly restored after the damage is complete.<ref>Amon, D.; Gollner, S.; Morato, T.; Smith, C.; Chen, C.; Christiansen, S., et al. (2022). Assessment of scientific gaps related to the effective environmental management of deep-seabed mining. UC San Diego. Report #: ARTN 105006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105006 Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0w48f05q</ref>

The vast majority of relevant spheres are still lacking adequate research. What is known makes clear that many aspects of deep-sea mining activity would endanger species in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone; they face threats of being crushed by machinery, dispelled in sediment plumes, smothered by unsettled sediment, the loss of resources and habitat, etc. This does not include the threats posed by noise and light pollution—the effects of which are still largely unknown.<ref>Miljutin, Dmitry & Miljutina, Maria & Martinez Arbizu, Pedro & Galéron, Joëlle. (2011). Deep-sea nematode assemblage has not recovered 26 years after experimental mining of polymetallic nodules (Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone, Tropical Eastern Pacific). Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 58. 10.1016/j.dsr.2011.06.003.</ref>

[[NGO]]s and governments have called for a moratorium until more is known about potential environmental impacts.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-15|title=One step closer to a global moratorium on deep-sea mining|url=https://www.fauna-flora.org/news/one-step-closer-to-a-global-moratorium-on-deep-sea-mining/|access-date=2021-12-07|website=Fauna & Flora International|language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Links ==
* {{cite web |
url = https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/deep-sea-mining-could-begin-soon-regulated-or-not/ | title =  Deep-Sea Mining Could Begin Soon, Regulated or Not | last1= Heffernan | first1 = Olive |date = 2023-10-23 | publisher = Scientific American}}
* {{cite web | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pf1GvrUqeIA | title = The race to mine the bottom of the ocean | author = Laura Bult (producer) | date = 2023-10-11 | publisher = [[Vox Media|Vox]] }}


{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}

[[Category:Fracture zones]]
[[Category:Pacific Ocean]]
[[Category:Mining]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Reef burials,"{{Short description|Burial process}}
[[File:Neptune memorial reef 04.jpg|alt=Neptune memorial reef|thumb|Neptune memorial reef]]
'''Reef burials''' are  a type of ""green"" or ""natural"" burial considered by some{{who|date=March 2022}} to be an eco-friendly alternative to traditional [[burial]].<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|date=2012-01-09|title=Green Guru: How Eco-friendly Are Reef Ball Burials?|url=https://www.audubon.org/magazine/january-february-2012/green-guru-how-eco-friendly-are-reef|access-date=2022-02-22|website=Audubon|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2005-09-09|title=""Green"" Burials Offer Unique, Less Costly Goodbyes|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/death-burial-green-living|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222125042/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/death-burial-green-living|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 22, 2022|access-date=2022-02-22|website=Science|language=en}}</ref> [[Cremation]] ash is mixed with concrete to form objects that are placed on the seafloor to encourage wildlife in areas where sea life has been diminished.
 
== Background ==
Reef burials are a new burial practice gaining a degree of popularity. Rather than being buried in the earth, a person's remains are cremated and the resulting ash is mixed with pH-balanced concrete to create structures which are placed on the seabed to help restore marine habitats similar to a coral reef.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|date=2022-02-21|title=Reef ball burials: the new trend for becoming 'coral' when you die|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/feb/21/reef-ball-burials-the-new-trend-for-becoming-coral-when-you-die|access-date=2022-02-22|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|last=Miami|first=Lisa Orkin Emmanuel, Associated Press in|date=2008-05-12|title=Watery graves offer a haven for divers|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/may/12/conservation.usa|access-date=2022-02-22|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref>  The concrete is mixed using fibreglass rather than metal, so that it does not rust  and has the same pH balance as the sea.<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":5"">{{Cite web |title=First memorial reef balls inaugurated in Venice lagoon |url=http://www.italianinsider.it/?q=node/8582 |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=www.italianinsider.it}}</ref> In areas where the seafloor or coral reefs have been destroyed the structures help to renew the sea-life by establishing new habitats for [[fish]] and [[Crustacean|crustaceans]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Other Disposition Options|url=https://www.greenburialcouncil.org/other_disposition_options.html|access-date=2022-02-22|website=GREEN BURIAL COUNCIL|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":2"">{{Cite news|date=11 Dec 2015|title=Artificial reef balls containing people's ashes lowered into the sea off WA coast|work=ABC News|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-11/reef-balls-containing-ashes-lowered-into-the-sea/}}</ref> The structures are expected to last for 500 years and are variously  perforated domes called ""[[reef balls]]"", pyramids, or similar memorial-style shapes chosen to be appropriate to the location. Reef balls weigh between {{convert|800|and|4000|lb|kg}} and their perforations ensure that storm pressure  doesn't move them out of place on the sea floor.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web |last=Grundhauser |first=Eric |date=2018-10-29 |title=Bury Me in an Artificial Reef |url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/reef-burial-eternal-florida-ball |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=Atlas Obscura |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Juvenile-lobster.jpg|alt=Young lobster|thumb|Young lobster]]
Reef burials are popular amongst divers and others who love the sea. Some people feel that such burials offer the deceased a second life as part of a living reef.<ref name="":6"" /> Loved ones are given the [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] coordinates of the resting place so that they dive to visit the site of the remains.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Eco-Afterlife: Green Burial Options|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/eco-afterlife-green-buria/|access-date=2022-02-22|website=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite news|last=Fink|first=Kathryn|date=July 19, 2021|title=An increasingly popular way to be buried: Become part of an artificial reef|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/funeral-industry-green-reef-burials/2021/07/16/c6765322-cd24-11eb-8014-2f3926ca24d9_story.html}}</ref> A memorial plaque is installed with the person's name, date of birth and death.<ref name="":3"" /> Thousands of reef balls are put into oceans each year. Large reef memorials can accommodate multiple sets of remains, so that families can be included and placed together.<ref name="":6"" />

== Locations ==
In the United States there are more than thirty permitted locations for reef memorials, including off the coasts of Florida at [[Mexico Beach, Florida|Mexico Beach]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MBARA – Mexico Beach Artificial Reef Association |url=https://www.mbara.org/memorial-reef-program.cfm |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=www.mbara.org}}</ref> [[Egg Harbor Township, New Jersey|Egg Harbor]], near [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]] and [[Texas]].<ref name="":1"" /> In the UK, where the [[Crown Estate]] owns the UK seabed, a square-kilometre site off the coast of [[Weymouth, Dorset|Weymouth]] and [[Isle of Portland|Portland]] has been designated for this use in the 'Wreck to Reef' area,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Location |url=https://www.solacereef.co.uk/location/ |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=Solace Reef |language=en-GB}}</ref> with a particular focus on creating structures to shelter young [[Lobster|lobsters]] until their shells grow.<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Solace Reef: A Cemetery on the Sea Floor|url=https://www.funeralguide.co.uk/blog/solace-reef|access-date=2022-02-22|website=Funeral Guide|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":7"">{{Cite news|last=Bruxelles|first=Simon de|title=Ashes of the dead will keep lobsters company on monumental new reef|newspaper=[[The Times]]|language=en|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ashes-of-the-dead-will-keep-lobsters-company-on-monumental-new-reef-lp37zswx8qs|access-date=2022-02-23|issn=0140-0460}}</ref>
Artificial reef balls were first used at Jurien reef in Western Australia in 2015.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-12-11 |title=Artificial reef balls containing ashes lowered into the sea off WA coast |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-11/reef-balls-containing-ashes-lowered-into-the-sea/7022570 |access-date=2022-02-26}}</ref>

In 2019, the first reef burials were placed in the water using a crane in the [[Venetian Lagoon|Venice lagoon]] in Italy.<ref name="":5"" />

Despite growing popularity, the process still involves both cremation and concrete, both of which carry an environmental cost.<ref name="":0"" />  Cremation, depending on the age of the crematorium, releases around {{convert|540|lb|kg}} of {{CO2}} and the concrete sector is responsible for 8 percent of global {{CO2}} production.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-25 |title=Reef Ball Burials: Come Back As Coral In Your Next Life? |url=https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/reef-ball-burials-green-funerals/ |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=Green Queen |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Sea rewilding ==
Depending on the locations different varieties of  [[coral]] can grow on the  surface of the concrete and [[algae]], [[diatom]]s, eels, fish and invertebrates will come to live on the structure.<ref name="":4"" /> Each memorial contributes to a unique ecosystem and provides a permanent and environment for all marine life.

In the most established memorial reefs such as [[Neptune Memorial Reef]], [[Florida]], a marine study survey, estimated that the population numbers of wild sea life went from close to zero to thousands in the space of two years. The survey found [[Spotted eagle ray|spotted eagle rays]], [[Damselfish|damsel fish]] and [[Puffer Fish|puffer fish]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Neptune Memorial Reef – An Under Sea Cemetery |url=https://www.kuriositas.com/2010/09/neptune-memorial-reef-under-sea.html |access-date=2022-02-26}}</ref> Since then the numbers have continued to grow: a survey in 2018 showed the reef supports more than 65 different fish, [[shrimp]] and lobster and 75 other species including [[Sponge|sponges]], and corals.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-20 |title=A coral reef cemetery is home to life in the afterlife |url=https://apnews.com/article/travel-fl-state-wire-tx-state-wire-boating-corals-0d871990bdcb4d23816dc342f0b34fbb |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=AP NEWS |language=en}}</ref>

The Solace Reef in [[Weymouth Bay]]. England is seeded with baby lobsters.<ref name="":7"" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lobsters on the Reef |url=https://www.solacereef.co.uk/lobsters-on-the-reef/ |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=Solace Reef |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Reef Ball Foundation]]
* [[Neptune Memorial Reef]]
* [[Burial at sea]]
* [[Sea rewilding]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Burials at sea]]
[[Category:Ceremonies]]
[[Category:Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Funerals]]
[[Category:Reefs]]"
Conservation community,"#REDIRECT [[Conservation development#Conservation community]]

{{R from merge}}
{{R to section}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation|community]]
[[Category:Protected areas]]
[[Category:Land trusts]]
[[Category:Real estate]]
[[Category:Conservation communities| ]]
[[Category:IUCN Category V| ]]"
Category:Conservation communities,"{{Cat main|Conservation community}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation|Communities]]
[[Category:Protected areas]]
[[Category:Land trusts]]
[[Category:Real estate]]
[[Category:IUCN Category V]]"
Gordon Strong,"{{Short description|American businessman}}
{{about||the newspaper publisher|G. Gordon Strong}}
'''Henry Gordon Strong''' (June 3, 1869 – February 24, 1954) was a [[Chicago]] businessman and founder of Gordon Strong and Company in 1927 which still operates today.

==Life==

He was born in [[Burlington, Iowa]] to [[Henry Strong (ATSF)|Henry Strong]] (1829-1911) and Mary Jane Halstead (1831-1904.  He was married first to Roberta Margaret Hubbard (1876-1935) May 15, 1901 and second to Louise Ann Snyder (1875-1949) on October 8, 1914, both weddings taking place in [[Chicago]].  His father was a well known Chicago attorney and president of the [[Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway]].  His father served as a Colonel in the [[U. S. Army]] in the 124th Field Artillery in [[WWI]] and as a Lt. Colonel in the 108th Engineers in the [[Spanish American War]].  He and his second wife are buried in the Strong Mausoleum at Sugarloaf Mountain.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Memorial for Gordon Strong|website=[[Find a Grave]] |url=https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/169767879/henry-gordon-strong/}}</ref>

==Legacy==

Gordon Strong, the name which he used for most of his life, made several real estate acquisitions centered around his Strong Mansion at [[Sugarloaf Mountain (Maryland)|Sugarloaf Mountain]] in Montgomery County, [[Maryland]] a [[monadnock]] mountain with views of the [[Potomac River]] and [[Little Monocacy River|Monocacy]] valleys. The property was deeded to Stronghold, Inc.,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stronghold, Inc. Website|url=https://sugarloafmd.com/}}</ref> a non-profit land trust created in 1946 which still owns and continues to maintain the property for public access.

In 1925, he engaged [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] to develop plans for what became known as the [[Gordon Strong Automobile Objective]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frank Lloyd Wright: Designs for an American Landscape, 1922-1932 Gordon Strong Automobile Objective|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/flw/flw02.html/|website=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref>  This project was never started and the land remains in a more rustic and natural state.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/flw/flw02.html ""Frank Lloyd Wright: Designs for an American Landscape, 1922-1932 Gordon Strong Automobile Objective""].  Library of Congress.
*[https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/169767879/henry-gordon-strong ""Henry Gordon Strong Mausoleum""]. FindAGrave.
*[https://sugarloafmd.com/ ""Stronghold, Inc.""]. Sugarloaf Stronghold, Inc. Website.
*[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/72172566/obituary-for-gordon-strong-aged-84/ ""Chicago Tribune Obituary""]. Chicago Tribune, Chicago, Illinois, 25 Feb 1954, Thu  •  Page 32

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Strong, Gordon}}
[[Category:1869 births]]
[[Category:1954 deaths]]
[[Category:Spanish–American War]]
[[Category:People of World War I]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
International Union for Conservation of Nature,"{{short description|International organization}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = International Union for Conservation of Nature
| logo = IUCN logo.svg
| caption =
| founder =
| type = [[International organization]]
| tax_id =
| registration_id =
| founded_date = {{start date and age|1948|10|05|df=y}}<br />[[Fontainebleau]], France
| headquarters = [[Gland, Switzerland|Gland]], Switzerland
| key_people = {{ubl|[[Grethel Aguilar]] (Director General)|[[Razan Al Mubarak]] (President)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/09/razan-al-mubarak-becomes-first-woman-from-the-arab-world-to-head-iucn/|title = Razan al Mubarak becomes first woman from the Arab world to head IUCN|date = 8 September 2021}}</ref>}}
| area_served = Worldwide
| focus = [[Conservation movement|Nature conservation]], [[biodiversity]]
| revenue = CHF 140.7 million / US$148 million (2019)<ref>[https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/iucn_-_ordinary_audit_report_31.12.2019_with_2_signatures.pdf ""IUCN 2019 Accounts""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211001849/https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/iucn_-_ordinary_audit_report_31.12.2019_with_2_signatures.pdf |date=11 December 2021 }}. ''IUCN''. Retrieved 23 July 2022.</ref>
| endowment =
| num_employees = Over 900 (worldwide)
| num_members = 1,400
| subsid =
| former name = International Union for the Protection of Nature
| homepage = {{URL|https://www.iucn.org/}}
| dissolved =
| footnotes =
}}
The '''International Union for Conservation of Nature''' ('''IUCN''') is an [[international organization]] working in the field of [[nature conservation]] and [[sustainable use]] of [[natural resource]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=About|publisher=IUCN|quote=The organisation changed its name to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in 1956 with the acronym IUCN (or UICN in French and Spanish). This remains our full legal name to this day.|url=https://www.iucn.org/about|date=2014-12-03}}</ref> Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it. It is involved in [[data gathering]] and [[Data analysis|analysis]], research, field projects, advocacy, and education. IUCN's mission is to ""influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable"".

Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to [[sustainable development]] in its projects. IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation. It tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice and through building partnerships. The organization is best known to the wider public for compiling and publishing the [[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]], which assesses the conservation status of species worldwide.<ref name=About />

IUCN has a membership of over 1,400 governmental and non-governmental organizations from over 170 countries. Some 16,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs over 900 full-time staff in more than 50 countries. Its headquarters are in [[Gland, Switzerland|Gland]], Switzerland.<ref name=About >{{cite web|url=http://www.iucn.org/about|title=About IUCN|publisher=IUCN|access-date=17 November 2014}}</ref> Every four years, IUCN convenes for the IUCN World Conservation Congress where IUCN Members set the global conservation agenda by voting on recommendations and guide the Secretariat’s work by passing resolutions and the IUCN Programme.

IUCN has [[Observer status#United Nations|observer]] and [[consultative status]] at the [[United Nations]], and plays a role in the implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and [[biodiversity]]. It was involved in establishing the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] and the [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]. In the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its closer relations with the business sector have caused controversy.<ref name=""wrm.org.uy"">{{cite web|title=Kenya: The Maasai Stand up to IUCN Displacement Attempts from their Forest|url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/oldsite/bulletin/84/Kenya.html|website=World Rainforest Movement|access-date=2 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170927003333/http://www.wrm.org.uy/oldsite/bulletin/84/Kenya.html|archive-date=27 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Block|first=Ben|title=Environmentalists Spar Over Corporate Ties|type=updated version|url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5934|website=[[Worldwatch Institute]]. worldwatch.org|access-date=26 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916164052/http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5934|archive-date=16 September 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

IUCN was established in 1948. It was initially called the '''International Union for the Protection of Nature''' (1948–1956) and has also been formerly known as the '''World Conservation Union''' (1990–2008).

==History==
{{NoteTag|The information in the section on history is largely based on ''Holdgate, M. 1999. The green web: a union for world conservation. Earthscan.'' For each paragraph in the section one reference to the pages used is included following the header. Where information in the paragraph is based on other sources a separate reference is included in the text.}}

===Establishment===
<ref name=""holdgate"">{{cite book |last=Holdgate|first=Martin |title=The green web: a union for world conservation|year=1999|publisher=Earthscan |isbn = 1-85383-595-1 }}</ref>{{rp|16–38}}

IUCN was established on 5 October 1948, in [[Fontainebleau]], France, when representatives of governments and conservation organizations spurred by UNESCO signed a formal act constituting the International Union for the Protection of Nature (IUPN). The initiative to set up the new organisation came from [[UNESCO]] and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist [[Julian Huxley]].

[[File:Julian Huxley 1964.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Julian Huxley]], the first Director General of UNESCO, took the initiative to set up IUCN.]]

At the time of its founding IUCN was the only international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation (an international organisation for the protection of birds, now [[BirdLife International]], had been established in 1922).

===Early years: 1948–1956===
<ref name=""holdgate"" />{{rp|47–63}}

IUCN (International Union for conservation of Nature) started out with 65 members in [[Brussels]] and was closely associated to UNESCO. They jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature [[Lake Success, New York|Lake Success]], US and drafted the first list of gravely endangered species. In the early years of its existence IUCN depended almost entirely on UNESCO funding and was forced to temporarily scale down activities when this ended unexpectedly in 1954. IUCN was successful in engaging prominent scientists and identifying important issues such as the harmful effects of [[pesticide]]s on wildlife but not many of the ideas it developed were turned into action. This was caused by unwillingness to act on the part of governments, uncertainty about the IUCN mandate and lack of resources. In 1956, IUCN changed its name to International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

===Increased profile and recognition: 1956–1965===
<ref name=""holdgate"" />{{rp|67–82}}

During this period, the IUCN expanded its relations with UN-agencies and established links with the [[Council of Europe]]. IUCN's best known publication, the Red Data Book on the conservation status of species, was first published in 1964.

IUCN began to play a part in the development of international treaties and conventions, starting with the [[African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]]. [[File:Ngorongoro-Crater-Morning-Scene.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|Africa was the first regional focus of IUCN conservation action.]]
Africa was the focus of many of the early IUCN conservation field projects. IUCN supported the 'Yellowstone model' of protected area management, which severely restricted human presence and activity in order to protect nature.<ref name=""wrm.org.uy""/>

The IUCN also suffered from restricted financing in its early years. For this reason, [[Tracy Philipps]], Secretary-General from 1955 to 1958, did not draw a salary during his period in office.<ref name=""holdgate"" />{{rp|62}}

To establish a stable financial basis for its work, IUCN participated in setting up the World Wildlife Fund (1961) (now the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] WWF) to work on fundraising to cover part of the operational costs of IUCN. Also in 1961, the IUCN headquarters moved from Belgium to [[Morges]] in Switzerland.

===Consolidating its position in the international environmental movement: 1966–1975===
<ref name=""holdgate"" />{{rp|110–124}}

During the 1960s, IUCN lobbied the UN General Assembly to create a new status for [[NGOs]]. Resolution 1296, adopted in 1968, granted 'consultative' status to NGOs. IUCN itself was eventually accredited with six UN organizations.<ref name=""Understanding NGOs"">{{cite web|title=Understanding NGOs|url=https://agendatwentyone.wordpress.com/2010/06/28/understanding-ngos-non-government-organizations/ |website= agendatwentyone.wordpress.com |access-date=5 December 2014|date= 2010-06-28 }}</ref> IUCN was one of the few environmental organisations formally involved in the preparations of the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] (Stockholm, 1972). The Stockholm Conference eventually led to three new international conventions, with IUCN involved in their drafting and implementation:
* [[World Heritage Site|Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage]] (1972). IUCN co-drafted the World Heritage Convention with UNESCO and has been involved as the official Advisory Body on nature from the onset.<sup>[8]</sup>
* [[CITES]] – the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1974). IUCN is a signatory party and the CITES secretariat was originally lodged with IUCN.
* [[Ramsar Convention]] – Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1975). The secretariat is still administered from IUCN's headquarters.

IUCN entered into an agreement with the United Nations Environment Programme [[UNEP]] to provide regular reviews of world conservation. The income this generated, combined with growing revenue via WWF, put the organisation on relatively sound financial footing for the first time since 1948.

This period saw the beginning of a gradual change in IUCN's approach to conservation in which it tried to become more appealing to the developing world.

===The World Conservation Strategy 1975–1985===
<ref name=""holdgate"" />{{rp|132–165}}

In 1975 IUCN started work on the ''World Conservation Strategy'' (1980).<ref name=""IUCN"">{{cite book |last1=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |title=World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development |date=1980 |publisher=IUCN–UNEP–WWF |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/wcs-004.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501232718/https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/WCS-004.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-01 |url-status=live}}</ref> The drafting process, and the discussions with the UN agencies involved, led to an evolution in thinking within IUCN and growing acceptance of the fact that conservation of nature by banning human presence no longer worked. The Strategy was followed in 1982 by the ''[[World Charter for Nature]]'', which was adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]], after preparation by IUCN.

In 1980, IUCN and WWF moved into shared new offices in [[Gland, Switzerland]]. This marked a phase of closer cooperation with WWF, but the close ties between IUCN and WWF were severed in 1985 when WWF decided to take control of its own field projects, which so far had been run by IUCN.

'''Sustainable development and regionalisation: 1985 to present day'''<ref name=""holdgate"" />{{rp|176–222}}<br />
In 1982, IUCN set up a Conservation for Development Centre within its secretariat. The Centre undertook projects to ensure that nature conservation was integrated in development aid and in the economic policies of developing countries. Over the years, it supported the development of national conservation strategies in 30 countries. Several European countries began to channel considerable amounts of bilateral aid via IUCN's projects. Management of these projects was primarily done by IUCN staff, often working from the new regional and country offices IUCN set up around the world. This marked a shift within the organisation. Previously, the volunteer Commissions had been very influential, now the Secretariat and its staff began to play a more dominant role. In 1989, IUCN moved into a separate building in Gland, close to the offices it had shared with WWF. Initially, the focus of power was still with the Headquarters in Gland but the regional offices and regional members' groups gradually got a bigger say in operations.

In 1991, IUCN (together with UNEP and WWF) published ''Caring for the Earth'', a successor to the World Conservation Strategy.<ref name=""Understanding NGOs""/>

Social aspects of conservation were now integrated in IUCN's work; at the General Assembly in 1994 the IUCN mission was redrafted to its current wording to include the equitable and ecologically use of natural resources.

'''Closer to business: 2000 to present day'''<br />
Since the creation of IUCN in 1948, IUCN Members have passed more than 300 resolutions that include or focus on business related activities.

The increased attention on sustainable development as a means to protect nature brought IUCN closer to the corporate sector. The members decided against this, but IUCN did forge a partnership with the [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]]. IUCN renewed a multi-year MOU ([[Memorandum of understanding]]) with WBCSD in December 2015.

In 1996, after decades of seeking to address specific business issues, IUCN's Members asked for a comprehensive approach to engaging the business sector. Resolution 1.81 of the IUCN World Conservation Congress held that year ""urged IUCN Members and the Director General, based on the need to influence private sector policies in support of the Mission of IUCN, to expand dialogue and productive relationships with the private sector and find new ways to interact with members of the business community"".

The IUCN Global Business and Biodiversity Program (BBP) was established in 2003 to influence and support private partners in addressing environmental and social issues.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Business and Biodiversity Programme|url=http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/business/|website=IUCN|access-date=28 November 2014}}</ref> In 2004, the first IUCN Private Sector Engagement Strategy was developed (in response to Council Decision C/58/41). Most prominent in the Business and Biodiversity Program is the five-year collaboration IUCN started with the energy company [[Shell International]] in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|title=IUCN and Shell: Guiding the way|url=http://www.business-biodiversity.eu/default.asp?Menue=155&News=434|website=Business & Biodiversity|access-date=5 December 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923195343/http://www.business-biodiversity.eu/default.asp?Menue=155&News=434|archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref><ref name=""worldwatch.org"">{{cite web|title=Environmentalists spar over corporate ties|url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5934|website=Worldwatch|access-date=5 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129141832/http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5934|archive-date=29 November 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

IUCN has been involved in minimum energy consumption and zero-carbon construction since 2005 by integrating energy-saving materials, developed by [[Jean-Luc Sandoz]] in the footsteps of [[Julius Natterer]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lesechos.fr/2005/11/le-projet-puritain-de-lunion-pour-la-nature-623616|title = Le projet puritain de l'Union pour la nature|date = 29 November 2005}}</ref>

Today, the Business and Biodiversity Programme continues to set the strategic direction, coordinate IUCN's overall approach and provide institutional quality assurance in all business engagements. The Programme ensures that the Business Engagement Strategy is implemented through IUCN's global thematic and regional programmes as well as helps guide the work of IUCN's six Commissions.

===Championing Nature-based Solutions: 2009 to present day===
[[Nature-based solutions]] (NbS) use ecosystems and the services they provide to address societal challenges such as climate change, food security or natural disasters.<ref name=""portals.iucn.org"">{{Cite book|url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191|title=Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges |website = IUCN Library System|year=2016 | publisher=portals.iucn.org|doi=10.2305/IUCN.CH.2016.13.en |isbn=9782831718125|editor1-last=Cohen-Shacham |editor1-first=E |editor2-first=G |editor2-last=Walters |editor3-first=C |editor3-last=Janzen |editor4-first=S |editor4-last=Maginnis }}</ref>

The emergence of the NbS concept in environmental sciences and nature conservation contexts came as international organisations, such as IUCN and the World Bank, searched for solutions to work with ecosystems rather than relying on conventional engineering interventions (such as a [[seawall]]), to adapt to and mitigate climate change effects, while improving sustainable livelihoods and protecting natural ecosystems and biodiversity.

At the IUCN World Conservation Congress 2016, IUCN Members agreed on a definition of nature-based solutions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|title=077 – Defining Nature-based Solutions {{!}} 2016 Congress portal|website=portals.iucn.org|language=en|access-date=2017-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|archive-date=8 August 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Members also called for governments to include nature-based solutions in strategies to [[climate change mitigation|combat climate change]].

===Timeline===
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2022}}
Some key dates in the growth and development of IUCN:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* 1948: International Union for the Protection of Nature (IUPN) established.<ref>{{cite web | title=International Union for Conservation of Nature | website=Encyclopædia Britannica | date=16 September 2016 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Union-for-Conservation-of-Nature | access-date=2 February 2022}}</ref>
* 1956: Name changed to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).
* 1959: UNESCO decides to create an international list of Nature Parks and equivalent reserves, and the United Nations Secretary General asks the IUCN to prepare this list.
* 1961: The [[World Wide Fund for Nature|World Wildlife Fund]] set up as a complementary organisation to focus on fund raising, public relations and increasing public support for nature conservation.
* 1969: IUCN obtains a grant from the [[Ford Foundation]] which enables it to boost its international secretariat.
* 1972: UNESCO adopts the [[World Heritage Site|Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage]] and the IUCN is invited to provide technical evaluations and monitoring.
* 1974: IUCN is involved in obtaining the agreement of its members to sign a Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ([[CITES]]), whose secretariat was originally lodged with the IUCN.
* 1975: The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance ([[Ramsar Convention]]) comes into force and its secretariat is administered from the IUCN's headquarters.{{col-break}}
* 1980: IUCN (together with the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]]) collaborate with UNESCO to publish a World Conservation Strategy.
* 1982: Following IUCN preparation and efforts, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopts the [[World Charter for Nature]].
* 1990: Began using the name World Conservation Union as the official name, while continuing using IUCN as its abbreviation.
* 1991: IUCN (together with [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]]) publishes ''Caring for the Earth''.
* 2003: Establishment of the IUCN Business and Biodiversity Program.
* 2008: Stopped using World Conservation Union as its official name and reverted its name back to International Union for Conservation of Nature.
* 2012: IUCN publishes list of [[The world's 100 most threatened species]].
* 2016: Created a new IUCN membership category for indigenous peoples' organisations.{{col-end}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Union-for-Conservation-of-Nature |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Current work==

=== IUCN Programme 2017–2020 ===
According to its website, IUCN works on the following themes: business, [[climate change]], economics, [[ecosystems]], [[environmental law]], [[forest protection|forest conservation]], [[gender]], global policy, [[marine habitats|marine]] and [[polar regions|polar]], [[protected areas]], science and knowledge, [[social policy]], [[species]], water, and [[world heritage sites|world heritage]].<ref>{{cite web|title=What we do|url=http://www.iucn.org/what/|website=IUCN|access-date=4 December 2014|archive-date=23 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160523101414/http://www.iucn.org/what/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

IUCN works on the basis of four-year programs, determined by the membership. In the IUCN Programme for 2017–2020 conserving nature and biodiversity is linked to sustainable development and poverty reduction. IUCN states that it aims to have a solid factual base for its work and takes into account the knowledge held by indigenous groups and other traditional users of natural resources.

The IUCN Programme 2017–2020 identifies three priority areas:<ref name=""IUCN Programme"">{{Cite news|url=https://www.iucn.org/about/programme-work-and-reporting/programme|title=IUCN Programme|date=2015-10-01|work=IUCN|access-date=2017-07-04|language=en}}</ref>

# Valuing and conserving nature.
# Promoting and supporting effective and equitable governance of natural resources.
# Deploying [[Nature Based Solutions]] to address societal challenges including climate change, food security, and economic and social development.<ref name=""IUCN Programme"" />

IUCN does not itself aim to directly mobilize the general public. Education has been part of IUCN's work program since the early days but the focus is on stakeholder involvement and strategic communication rather than mass-campaigns.<ref>{{cite web|title=CEC – what we do|url=http://www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/cec/cec_what_we_do/|website=IUCN|access-date=26 December 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226162000/http://www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/cec/cec_what_we_do/|archive-date=26 December 2014}}</ref>

===Habitats and species===
[[File:IUCN Animal Threat Category List.png|thumb|IUCN Animal Threat Category List]]
IUCN runs field projects for [[habitat conservation|habitat]] and species conservation around the world. It produces the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] and the [[IUCN Red List of Ecosystems]]. The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems is applicable at local, national, regional, and global levels.

IUCN's stated goal is to expand the global network of [[national parks]] and other [[protected areas]] and promote good management of such areas.<ref>{{cite news|title='Green List' awards world's top conservation sites|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2014/11/iucn-sets-up-the-green-list|access-date=18 November 2014|website=Australian Geographic|date=14 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/wcpa/what-we-do/biodiversity-and-protected-areas/key-biodiversity-areas|title=Key Biodiversity Areas|date=2016-03-08|work=IUCN|access-date=2017-07-04|language=en}}</ref> In particular, it focuses on greater protection of the [[oceans]] and [[marine habitats]].

=== Business partnerships ===
IUCN has a growing program of partnerships with the corporate sector on a regional, national and international level to promote sustainable use of natural resources.<ref name = annualreport>{{Cite web|url= https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-001-v.1-En.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114145436/https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-001-v.1-En.pdf |archive-date=2017-11-14 |url-status=live |title=IUCN 2016 Annual Report|date=2017|location= Gland, Switzerland}}</ref>

=== National and international policy ===
On the national level, IUCN helps governments prepare national biodiversity policies. Internationally, IUCN provides advice to environmental conventions such as the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], [[CITES]], and the [[Framework Convention on Climate Change]]. It advises [[UNESCO]] on natural [[World Heritage Site|world heritage]].<br />
It has a formally accredited permanent observer mission to the [[United Nations]].<ref name=""IUCN Programme"" /><br />
IUCN has official relations with the multiple other international bodies.<ref>{{cite web|title=UNESCO NGO database|url=http://ngo-db.unesco.org/r/or/en/1100033055|website=UNESCO|access-date=4 December 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208140552/http://ngo-db.unesco.org/r/or/en/1100033055|archive-date=8 December 2014}}</ref>

==Organizational structure==
As an organization, IUCN has three components: the member organizations, the six scientific commissions and the secretariat.

===Members===
IUCN Members are States, government agencies, international nongovernmental organizations, national nongovernmental organizations and indigenous peoples' organisations. In 2017, IUCN had 1400 members.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariat/201706/iucn-welcomes-13-new-members|title= IUCN welcomes 13 new Members|date=2017-06-06|work=IUCN|access-date=2017-07-04|language=en}}</ref> The members can organize themselves in national or regional committees to promote cooperation. In 2016, there were 62 national committees and 7 regional committees.<ref name=""annualreport"" /> [[File:USSR 1978.jpg|thumb|[[Soviet]] [[Soviet stamps|stamp]] commemorating the 1978 IUCN General Assembly in [[Ashgabat]]]]

===Commissions===
The seven IUCN Commissions involve volunteer experts from a range of disciplines. They 'assess the state of the world's natural resources and provide the Union with sound know-how and policy advice on conservation issues'.<ref name=""IUCNCommissions"">{{cite web | url = http://www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/ | title = IUCN – Commissions |date=12 May 2010 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |access-date=8 September 2010}}</ref>
* Commission on Education and Communication (CEC): communication, learning and knowledge management in IUCN and the wider conservation community.
* Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy (CEESP): economic and social factors for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
* World Commission on Environmental Law (WCEL): developing new legal concepts and instruments and building the capacity of societies to employ environmental law for conservation and sustainable development.
* Commission on Ecosystem Management (CEM): integrated ecosystem approaches to the management of natural and modified ecosystems.
* Species Survival Commission (SSC): technical aspects of species conservation and action for species that are threatened with [[extinction]]. Specialist groups of the SSC prepare [[endangered species recovery plan]]s known as Species Action Plans, which are used to outline the conservation strategies of species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/publications/species_actions_plans/ |title=IUCN – Species Action Plans |access-date=21 March 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325163018/http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/publications/species_actions_plans/ |archive-date=25 March 2016 }}</ref>
* [[World Commission on Protected Areas]] (WCPA): establishment and effective management of a network of terrestrial and marine protected areas.
* Climate Crisis Commission: established 2021.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iucn.org/our-union/expert-commissions/climate-crisis-commission | title=Expert Commissions }}</ref>

===Secretariat===
The IUCN head office is in [[Gland, Switzerland]]. Eight regional offices headed by a director implement IUCN's program in their respective territories. Since 1980, IUCN has established offices in more than 50 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=About IUCN|url=http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/|website=IUCN|access-date=22 December 2014}}</ref>

==Governance and funding==

===Governance===
The '''World Conservation Congress''' (Members' Assembly) is IUCN's highest decision-making body. The Congress convenes every four years. It elects the council, including the President, and approves IUCN's work program for the next four years and budget.

The IUCN Council is the principal governing body of IUCN. The council provides strategic direction for the activities of the Union, discusses specific policy issues and provides guidance on finance and the membership development of the Union. The council is composed of the President, four Vice Presidents (elected by the council from among its members), the Treasurer, the Chairs of IUCN's six Commissions, three Regional Councillors from each of IUCN's eight Statutory Regions and a Councillor from the State in which IUCN has its seat (Switzerland). IUCN's current President is [[Razan Al Mubarak]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariat/202109/iucn-members-elect-new-leadership|title=President|date=2021-09-08|website=IUCN|language=en|access-date=2022-02-15}}</ref>

The Council appoints a Director General, who is responsible for the overall management of IUCN and the running of the Secretariat. The current IUCN Director General is [[Bruno Oberle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/about/senior-management/director-general|title=Director General|date=2015-08-31|website=IUCN|language=en|access-date=2019-08-24}}</ref> He succeeded [[Inger Andersen (environmentalist)|Inger Andersen]].

<gallery class=""center"">
File:Jean-Paul Harroy.jpg|[[Jean-Paul Harroy]]
File:Portrait of tracy philipps.jpg|[[Tracy Philipps]]
File:Hugh Elliott 1 red.jpg|[[Sir Hugh Elliott, 3rd Baronet|Hugh Elliott]]
File:Achim Steiner Oxford Martin School.jpg|[[Achim Steiner]]
File:Inger Andersen (environmentalist, 2010, cropped).jpg|[[Inger Andersen (environmentalist)|Inger Andersen]]
File:Bruno Oberle-IMG 1279.jpg|[[Bruno Oberle]]
</gallery>

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
;IUCN Presidents since 1948<ref name=""hesselink"">Hesselink, Frits; Čeřovský, Jan: ''[http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/cec_history_annex_28sept08.pdf Learning to Change the Future] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906161156/http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/cec_history_annex_28sept08.pdf |date=6 September 2011 }}'', IUCN 2008, p.&nbsp;22. URL retrieved 2011-01-24.</ref>
* 1948–1954 {{flagicon|SUI}} Charles Jean Bernard
* 1954–1958 {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Roger Heim]]
* 1958–1963 {{flagicon|SUI}} [[Jean Georges Baer]]
* 1963–1966 {{flagicon|FRA}} François Bourlière
* 1966–1972 {{flagicon|USA}} [[Harold Jefferson Coolidge, Jr.|Harold J. Coolidge]]
* 1972–1978 {{flagicon|NED}} Donald Kuenen
* 1978–1984 {{flagicon|EGY}} [[Mohamed Kassas]]
* 1984–1990 {{flagicon|IND}} [[M. S. Swaminathan]]
* 1990–1994 {{flagicon|GUY}} [[Shridath Ramphal]]
* 1994–1996 {{flagicon|USA}} Jay D. Hair
* 1996–2004 {{flagicon|ECU}} [[Yolanda Kakabadse]]
* 2004–2008 {{flagicon|RSA}} [[Valli Moosa]]
* 2008–2012 {{flagicon|IND}} [[Ashok Khosla]]
* 2012–2021 {{flagicon|CHN}} [[Zhang Xinsheng]]
* 2021–present {{flagicon|UAE}} [[Razan Al Mubarak]]
{{col-break}}
;IUCN Directors General since 1948<ref name=""hesselink"" />
* 1948–1955 {{flagicon|BEL}} Jean Paul Harroy
* 1955–1958 {{flagicon|UK}} [[Tracy Philipps]]
* 1959–1960 {{flagicon|NED}} M.C. Bloemers
* 1961–1962 {{flagicon|UK}} Gerald Watterson
* 1963–1966 {{flagicon|UK}} [[Sir Hugh Elliott, 3rd Baronet|Hugh Elliott]]
* 1966–1970 {{flagicon|UK}} Joe Berwick
* 1970–1976 {{flagicon|VEN}} [[Gerardo Budowski]]
* 1977–1980 {{flagicon|CAN}} David Munro
* 1980–1982 {{flagicon|USA}} [[Lee M. Talbot]]
* 1983–1988 {{flagicon|USA}} Kenton Miller
* 1988–1994 {{flagicon|UK}} [[Martin Holdgate]]
* 1994–1999 {{flagicon|NZL}} David McDowell
* 1999–2001 {{flagicon|DE}} Marita Koch-Weser
* 2001–2006 {{flagicon|DE}}{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Achim Steiner]]
* 2007–2014 {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Julia Marton-Lefèvre]]
* 2015–2019 {{flagicon|DEN}} [[Inger Andersen (environmentalist)|Inger Andersen]]
* 2019–present {{Flagicon|CHE}} [[Bruno Oberle]]{{col-end}}

===Funding===
IUCN's total income in 2012 was 114&nbsp;million [[Swiss franc|CHF]] (€95&nbsp;million or US$116&nbsp;million).<br />
IUCN's funding mainly comes from Official Development Assistance budgets of bilateral and multilateral agencies. This represented 61% of its income in 2012. Additional sources of income are the membership fees, as well as grants and project funding from foundations, institutions, and corporations.<ref>{{cite web|title=IUCN Annual Report 2012|url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/IUCN-2014-017.pdf|publisher=IUCN|access-date=22 December 2014}}</ref>

==Influence and criticism==

===Influence===
IUCN is considered one of the most influential conservation organisations and, together with [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) and the [[World Resources Institute]] (WRI), is seen as a driving force behind the rise of the influence of environmental organisations at the UN and around the world.<ref name=""Understanding NGOs"" /><ref name=""What is IUCN"">{{cite web|title=What is IUCN?|url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-iucn.htm|website=WiseGeek|first = Jessica|last = Ellis|date = 7 October 2020}}</ref>

It has established a worldwide network of governmental and non-governmental organisations, involves experts in the IUCN Commissions, has formal ties to international agreements and intergovernmental organisations and increasingly also partnerships with international business. The World Conservation Congress and the World Parks Congress events organised by IUCN are the largest gatherings of organisations and individuals involved in conservation worldwide.

According to some, IUCN has considerable influence in defining what nature conservation actually is.<ref name=""IUCN: A History of Constraint"">{{cite book|last1=MacDonald|first1=Kenneth|title=IUCN: A History of Constraint|publisher= UCLouvain |url= http://perso.uclouvain.be/marc.maesschalck/MacDonaldInstitutional_Reflexivity_and_IUCN-17.02.03.pdf|access-date=12 December 2014}}</ref> The [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] and the [[IUCN Red List of Ecosystems]] determine which species and natural areas merit protection. Through the Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas and the system of [[IUCN protected area categories]] IUCN influences how protected areas are managed.

===Criticism===
It has been claimed that the IUCN puts the needs of nature above those of humans, disregarding economic considerations and the interests of [[indigenous peoples]] and other traditional users of the land. Until the 1980s IUCN favored the ""Yellowstone Model"" of conservation which called for the removal of humans from protected areas. The expulsion of the [[Maasai people]] from [[Serengeti National Park]] and the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]] is perhaps the best known example of this approach.<ref name=""wrm.org.uy"" /><ref name=""holdgate"" />

[[File:Ngorongoro 2012 05 30 2353 (7500935618).jpg|thumb|IUCN's relationships with local land users like the Maasai have caused controversy in the past.]]

This is linked to another criticism that has been directed at IUCN, namely that throughout its history it has mainly been 'Northern focused', i.e. had a West-European or North-American perspective on global conservation. Some critics point to the fact that many individuals involved in the establishment of IUCN had been leading figures in the British Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of Empire, which wanted to protect species against the impact of 'native' hunting pressure in order to safeguard hunting by Europeans.<ref name=""IUCN: A History of Constraint"" /> The fact that, at least until the 1990s, most of IUCN staff, the chairs of the Commissions and the IUCN President came from western countries has also led to criticism.<ref name=""holdgate"" />

More recently, activist environmental groups have argued that IUCN is too closely associated with governmental organisations and with the commercial sector.<ref name=""What is IUCN"" /> IUCN's cooperation with [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] came in for criticism, also from its own membership.<ref name=""worldwatch.org""/> IUCN's close partnership with [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]] in [[Vietnam]] – where they have together been launching Coca-Cola-focused community centers – has also drawn some criticism and allegations of [[greenwashing]].<ref>{{cite news|date=2016-04-04|title=What's an EKOCENTER and what does it do?|language=ur|work=IUCN|url=https://www.iucn.org/ur/node/26042|url-status=dead|access-date=2017-06-20|archive-date=3 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203153835/https://www.iucn.org/ur/node/26042}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/dec/04/coca-cola-coke-water-neutral|title=Greenwash: Are Coke's green claims the real thing? |date=2008-12-04 |newspaper = The Guardian |access-date=2017-06-20 |language=en-GB |issn = 0261-3077 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.theecologist.org/blogs_and_comments/commentators/2985093/never_mind_the_greenwash_coca_cola_can_never_be_water_neutral.html |title = Never mind the greenwash – Coca Cola can never be 'water neutral' |work=The Ecologist |access-date=2017-06-20 }}</ref> Its decision to hold the 2012 World Conservation Congress on [[Jeju Island]], [[South Korea]], where the local community and international environmental activists were protesting against the construction of a navy base also led to controversy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jeju island navy base controversy divides iucn|url=http://biodiversitymedia.ning.com/profiles/blogs/jeju-island-navy-base-controversy-divides-iucn |website=Biodiversity media alliance |access-date=12 December 2014}}</ref>

==Publications==
IUCN has a wide range of publications, reports, guidelines, and databases (including the [[Global Invasive Species Database]]) related to conservation and [[sustainable development]]. It publishes or co-authors more than 100 books and major assessments every year, along with hundreds of reports, documents, and guidelines.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/publications|title=Publications|publisher=IUCN|access-date=2012-01-28}}</ref> In 2015, 76 IUCN articles were published in peer reviewed scientific journals.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2016-020.pdf|title=IUCN Annual Report 2015|publisher=IUCN|page=21}}</ref>

A report, released at the IUCN World Parks Congress in Sydney on 12 November 2014 showed that the 209,000 conservation reserves around the world now cover 15.4 per cent of the total land area. This is a step towards protecting 17 percent of land and 10 percent of ocean environments on Earth by 2020 since an agreement between the world's nations at the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], held in [[Japan]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite news|title=Big increase in Earth's protected areas|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2014/11/big-increase-in-earth%E2%80%99s-protected-areas|access-date=17 November 2014|website=Australian Geographic|date=13 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141117120015/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2014/11/big-increase-in-earth%E2%80%99s-protected-areas|archive-date=17 November 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[List of nature conservation organizations|List of conservation organisations]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|IUCN—International Union for the Conservation of Nature}}
* {{Official website|www.iucn.org}}
* [http://www.protectedplanet.net/ IUCN and UNEP World Database on Protected Areas]
* [https://www.iucnredlist.org/ Red List of Threatened Species]
* [http://iucnrle.org Red List of Ecosystems]
* [https://www.iucn.org/resources/publications IUCN publications]
* [https://discoverarchives.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/international-union-for-conservation-of-nature-iucn-fonds International Union for the Conservation of Nature oral history interview (Pimlott's remarks)] held at the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200426160845/https://utarms.library.utoronto.ca/ University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services]
{{Conservation organisations}}{{Prince of Asturias Award for Concord}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:International Union For Conservation of Nature}}
[[Category:International Union for Conservation of Nature| ]]
[[Category:International environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organisations based in Europe]]
[[Category:International forestry organizations]]
[[Category:Scientific organizations established in 1948]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:United Nations General Assembly observers]]
[[Category:Intergovernmental environmental organizations]]
[[Category:1948 establishments in France]]
[[Category:International organisations based in Switzerland]]"
BlossomWatch,"{{Short description|Environmental campaign}}
{{Correct title|title=#BlossomWatch|reason=#}}
[[File:Plum_blossom_for_BlossomWatch.jpg|thumb|Plum blossom shared on #BlossomWatch, March 2022]]
'''#BlossomWatch''' is a British environmental campaign designed to raise awareness of the first signs of [[Spring (season)|Spring]] by encouraging people to share images of [[blossom|blossoms]] via [[social media]]. The campaign was begun by the [[National Trust]] in 2020, during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in England]].

== Background ==
<nowiki>#BlossomWatch</nowiki> was initiated by the [[National Trust]] in March 2020, in the first [[COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom|national lockdown]] during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in England]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Doherty |first=Ruth |date=2021-03-19 |title=#BlossomWatch is here to lift the nation's spirits and bring us back to the present |url=https://www.countryliving.com/uk/wildlife/countryside/a31938446/national-trust-blossomwatch/ |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=Country Living |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-27 |title=A buzz about blossom which could boost your mood |url=https://www.kentonline.co.uk/whats-on/news/a-buzz-about-blossom-which-could-boost-your-mood-224662/ |access-date=15 July 2022 |website=Kent Online |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Join #BlossomWatch and celebrate blossom in the UK |url=https://www.countryfile.com/wildlife/trees-plants/join-blossomwatch-and-celebrate-blossom-in-the-uk/ |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=Countryfile.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bawden |first=Tom |date=2020-03-27 |title=National Trust asks public to take a moment to enjoy the blossom |url=https://inews.co.uk/news/blossomwatch2020-national-trust-appeal-springtime-walks-blossom-412549 |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=inews.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> The campaign was inspired by analysis from the Trust's Noticing Nature Report, which discovered that only 6% of children and 7% of adults celebrated natural events such as the arrival of Spring.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-27 |title=National Trust aims to lift lockdown spirits with #BlossomWatch |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/mar/27/national-trust-aims-to-lift-lockdown-spirits-with-blossomwatch |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> The campaign also drew on the traditional Japanese custom of [[hanami]], where people communally enjoy the transient nature of [[cherry blossom]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Blossom watch |url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/places-to-spot-spring-blossom |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=National Trust |language=en}}</ref>

<nowiki>#BlossomWatch</nowiki> is part of a wider programme of work by the Trust to plant 68 new [[Orchard|orchards]] by 2025,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-04-27 |title=National Trust to create 68 orchards by 2025 to boost wildlife |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/apr/27/national-trust-to-create-68-orchards-by-2025-to-boost-wildlife |access-date=2022-07-19 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> and four million trees with blossom by 2030.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-03-24 |title=Orchards vanishing from the landscape, says National Trust |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-60834796 |access-date=2022-07-19}}</ref> In order to understand the extent to which [[blossom]] has been lost from the British landscape, artificial intelligence was used to interrogate historic maps of orchards.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |date=2022-03-24 |title=Blossom falls: 80% of small orchards in England and Wales lost since 1900 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/mar/24/blossom-falls-80-of-small-orchards-in-england-and-wales-lost-since-1900 |access-date=2022-07-19 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> An interim report from the Trust showed that orchards had reduced in scale from approximately 95,000 hectares in the period 1892–1914, to 41,000 hectares overall in 2022.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dommett |first=Tom |url=https://nt.global.ssl.fastly.net/documents/lost-blossom-study-2022.pdf |title=Blossom over Time: Interim Report |publisher=National Trust |year=2022 |access-date=2022-07-19 |archive-date=2022-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325040354/https://nt.global.ssl.fastly.net/documents/lost-blossom-study-2022.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Engagement ==
During the first campaign participants were encouraged to share images on [[social media]] of blossoms seen on lockdown walks. Shared images shown during the campaign fortnight were viewed four million times.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |date=2021-04-24 |title=Blossom watch day: National Trust urges UK to share blooms |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/24/blossom-watch-day-national-trust-urges-uk-to-share-blooms |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> The campaign was repeated in 2021,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jenkins |first=Bethan Rose |date=2021-03-18 |title=National Trust's BlossomWatch campaign to help boost wellbeing is back |url=https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/uk/news/a35873327/national-trust-blossomwatch-campaign/ |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=Good Housekeeping |language=en-GB}}</ref> when people were encouraged to [[Geotagging|geotag]] their blossom locations, in order to crowd-source a map of blossom in the UK.<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Blossom map |url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/blossom-map |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=National Trust |language=en}}</ref>

A third iteration in 2022 saw over 53,000 images shared on social media.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-04-23 |title=Tyntesfield in Bristol celebrates blossom watch day |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-bristol-61202104 |access-date=2022-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-23 |title=The National Trust wants you to go outside and enjoy the spring blossoms |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/spring-blossoms-national-trust-outdoors-b2063371.html |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> It also saw the installation of a 'blossom circle' in [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] city centre, which opened on 23 April of that year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hall |first=Daniel |date=2022-03-24 |title=National Trust to 'bring back the blossom' at Gibside and Exhibition Park |url=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/whats-on/blossom-watch-gibside-exhibition-park-23476197 |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=ChronicleLive |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Porter |first=Amelia Hain |date=2022-04-23 |title=Celebrating Blossom Watch Day in Exhibition Park |url=https://urbangreennewcastle.org/news/celebrating-blossom-watch-day-in-exhibition-park/ |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=Urban Green Newcastle |language=en-GB}}</ref> It also included the installation of 'pop-up blossom gardens' in [[Birmingham]], at Edgbaston Street and St Philips Cathedral Square.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McCallister |first=Robson |date=2022-04-02 |title=Blossom trees planted in city centre ahead of Commonwealth Games |url=https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/whats-on/whats-on-news/beautiful-blossom-trees-planted-birmingham-23487413 |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=BirminghamLive |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-24 |title=These Beautiful Blossom Gardens Have Popped Up In Birmingham City Centre To Celebrate Spring |url=https://secretbirmingham.com/blossom-gardens-birmingham/ |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=Secret Birmingham |language=en-GB}}</ref> The Trust also announced a scheme to take place in Autumn 2022 to plant blossoming trees along the circular No.11 bus route.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The National Trust pop-up blossom gardens celebrating Birmingham's botanical history |url=https://www.birminghamworld.uk/news/the-national-trust-pop-up-blossom-gardens-celebrating-birminghams-botanical-history-3624382 |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.birminghamworld.uk |date=24 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="":1"" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Blossom Together in Birmingham {{!}} Birmingham Open Spaces Forum |url=https://bosf.org.uk/blossom-together-in-birmingham/ |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=bosf.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-03-24 |title='Ring of blossom' to line Birmingham streets |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-birmingham-60851761 |access-date=2022-08-03}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==

* National Trust website: [https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/blossom-watch BlossomWatch]

[[Category:Hashtags]]
[[Category:National Trust]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Cherry blossom festivals]]"
Manta Pacific Research Foundation,"{{Short description|Marine conservation non-profit in Hawaii}}

{{Infobox organization
| name                = Manta Pacific Research Foundation
| formation           = 2002
| logo                = Manta Pacific Research Foundation logo.webp
| founder             = Keller and Wendy Laros
| type                = Nonprofit
| headquarters        = Kona, Hawaii
| website             = https://www.mantapacific.org/
}}

'''The Manta Pacific Research Foundation''' is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit focused on manta ray conservation. 

Based on the [[Hawaii (island)|Big Island]] of Hawaii, the foundation's stated objective is to ""study [[Manta ray|manta rays]] in their natural habitat, conduct scientific research, provide education programs for the public about manta rays and the marine environment, and to establish and promote global manta ray conservation"".<ref>{{cite web|title=Manta Pacific Research Foundation|url=https://www.mantapacific.org|access-date=29 October 2021|website=mantapacific|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Diver who saved dolphin: 'He swam right up to me'|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/diver-who-saved-dolphin-he-swam-right-me-flna1C8089483|access-date=10 October 2021|website=NBC News|language=en}}</ref> The foundation has been active in protection of the manta rays in Hawaii, public education about manta rays, and scientific research.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |title=The Manta Man of Kona |url=https://hanahou.com/22.4/the-manta-man-of-kona/ |access-date=2021-11-24 |website=Hana Hou!}}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|title=Nonprofit Aims to Protect Manta Rays|url=https://WestHawaiiToday.com/|access-date=17 May 2022|website=West Hawaii Today}}{{subscription required}}</ref><ref name="":1"" /> The foundation maintains the identification database which contains pictures of the unique spot patterns on the ventral side of the individual mantas so they can be identified and tracked.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":2"">{{cite thesis |type=Masters |last=Moy |first=Kirsten Victoria |date=May 2020 |title=Of Mantas and Men: Understanding the Intersection of Hawai'i's Reef Manta Ray and Its Growing Tourism Industry |publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/items/ad121eb0-4432-4c17-ab91-fd14049523ed |access-date=17 May 2022}}</ref>

== Protection of manta rays in Hawaiian Waters ==
On 5 June 2009, Hawaii Governor [[Linda Lingle]] signed Act 092(09) making it illegal to kill or capture manta rays in Hawaii. The implementation of this Act protecting manta rays followed a campaign during which the foundation played an active role, including organizing a petition on the foundation's website starting in 2006.<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":2"" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Governor Message #707|url=https://www.capital.hawaii.gov/session2009/bills/GM707_.pdf|access-date=16 November 2021|website=capital.hawaii.gov}}</ref> Co-Founder Keller was awarded as a ""Sea Hero"" by ScubaDiving.com for his, and the foundation's role in achieving the protections.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|title=Keller Laros Awarded for Saving Manta Rays in Hawaii|url=https://www.scubadiving.com/travel/hawaii/sea-heroes-keller-laros-july-2014|access-date=29 October 2021|website=Scuba Diving|language=en}}</ref>

== Implementation of voluntary practices for manta ray interactions ==
Supported development of voluntary practices and standards for tour operators for manta ray interactions relative to the [[Manta ray night dive|night dives with manta rays]] off the Kona coast of the Big Island of Hawaii which were agreed by manta ray night dive tour operators in 2013.<ref name="":0"" />

== Established the Manta Learning Center in [[Keauhou, Hawaii]] ==
The Manta Learning Center was established by the foundation in the [[Sheraton Hotels and Resorts Hawaii|Sheraton Kona Resort and Spa]] so that people interested in learning about manta rays have a resource for additional information.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-05-01|title=Manta Pacific Research Foundation: Conserving and Protecting the Ballerinas of the Ocean|url=https://keolamagazine.com/ocean/manta-pacific-research-foundation/|access-date=29 October 2021|website=Ke Ola Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref>

== References  ==
<references />
[[Category:Non-profit corporations]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Conservation status,"{{short description|Indication of the chance of a species' extinction, regardless of authority used}}
{{Conservation status}}

The '''conservation status''' of a [[taxon|group of organisms]] (for instance, a [[species]]) indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become [[Extinction|extinct]] in [[Extinction debt|the near future]]. Many factors are taken into account when assessing conservation status: not simply the number of individuals remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, and known threats. Various systems of conservation status are in use at international, multi-country, national and local levels, as well as for consumer use such as [[sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification]]. The two international systems are by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) and [[CITES|The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)]].

==International systems==

===IUCN Red List of Threatened Species===
The [[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]  by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] is the best known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups set through criteria such as rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and [[species distribution|distribution]] fragmentation.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/categories-and-criteria Categories and Criteria] The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 18 September 2015.</ref><ref>IUCN. (2012) [http://jr.iucnredlist.org/documents/redlist_cats_crit_en.pdf ''IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128190606/http://jr.iucnredlist.org/documents/redlist_cats_crit_en.pdf |date=2016-01-28 }} Second edition. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. {{ISBN|9782831714356}}.</ref>

Also included are species that have gone extinct since 1500 CE.<ref>{{citation |author=IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee |date=2019 |title=Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria |edition=14 |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf |page=7 }}</ref> When discussing the IUCN Red List, the official term ""[[Threatened species|threatened]]"" is a grouping of three categories: critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable.

* [[Extinction|Extinct]] '''(EX)''' – There are no known living individuals
* [[Extinct in the wild]] '''(EW)''' – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population outside its historic range
* [[Critically Endangered]] '''(CR)''' – Highest risk of extinction in the wild
* [[Endangered species (IUCN status)|Endangered]] '''(EN)''' – Higher risk of extinction in the wild
* [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] '''(VU)''' – High risk of extinction in the wild
* [[Near Threatened]] '''(NT)''' – Likely to become endangered in the near future
* [[Conservation Dependent]] '''(CD) ''' – Low risk; is conserved to prevent being near threatened, certain events may lead it to being a higher risk level
* [[Least concern]] '''(LC)''' – Very Low risk; does not qualify for a higher risk category and not likely to be threatened in the near future. Widespread and abundant [[taxa]] are included in this category.
* [[Data deficient]] '''(DD)''' – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction
* [[Not evaluated]] '''(NE)''' – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.

===The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora===
[[ CITES|The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)]] went into force in 1975. It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Many countries require CITES permits when importing plants and animals listed on CITES.

==Multi-country systems==
In the [[European Union]] (EU), the [[Birds Directive]] and [[Habitats Directive]] are the legal instruments which evaluate the conservation status within the EU of species and habitats.

[[NatureServe conservation status]] focuses on [[Latin America]], the United States, Canada, and the [[Caribbean]]. It has been developed by scientists from [[NatureServe]], [[The Nature Conservancy]], and a network of natural heritage programs and data centers. It is increasingly integrated with the IUCN Red List system. Its categories for species include: ''presumed extinct'' (GX), ''possibly extinct'' (GH), ''critically imperiled'' (G1), ''imperiled'' (G2), ''vulnerable'' (G3), ''apparently secure'' (G4), and ''secure'' (G5).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.natureserve.org/infonatura/Lnsstatus.htm |title=InfoNatura: About the Data: Conservation Status |website=NatureServe.org |date=2007-04-10 |access-date=2013-07-22 |archive-date=2013-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055302/http://www.natureserve.org/infonatura/Lnsstatus.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The system also allows ambiguous or uncertain ranks including ''inexact numeric ranks'' (e.g. G2?), and ''range ranks'' (e.g. G2G3) for when the exact rank is uncertain. NatureServe adds a qualifier for ''captive or cultivated only'' (C), which has a similar meaning to the IUCN Red List ''extinct in the wild'' (EW) status.

The [[Red Data Book of the Russian Federation]] is used within the Russian Federation, and also accepted in parts of Africa.

==National systems==
In Australia, the ''[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]'' (EPBC Act) describes lists of threatened species, ecological communities and threatening processes. The categories resemble those of the 1994 [[IUCN Red List]] Categories & Criteria (version 2.3). Prior to the EPBC Act, a simpler classification system was used by the ''Endangered Species Protection Act 1992''. Some state and territory governments also have their own systems for conservation status. The codes for the Western Australian conservation system are given at [[Declared Rare and Priority Flora List]] (abbreviated to DECF when using in a taxobox).

In Belgium, the Flemish [[Research Institute for Nature and Forest]] publishes an online set of more than 150 nature indicators in Dutch.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inbo.be/content/homepage_en.asp |title=Research Institute for Nature and Forest |website=Inbo.be |access-date=2013-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201163847/http://www.inbo.be/content/homepage_en.asp |archive-date=2008-12-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In Canada, the [[Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada]] (COSEWIC) is a group of experts that assesses and designates which wild species are in some danger of disappearing from Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cosepac.gc.ca/eng/sct5/index_e.cfm |title=Cosewic |publisher=Government of Canada, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada |access-date=2013-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530070331/http://www.cosepac.gc.ca/eng/sct5/index_e.cfm |archive-date=2013-05-30 |url-status=dead }}.</ref> Under the [[Species at Risk Act]] (SARA), it is up to the federal government, which is politically accountable, to legally protect species assessed by COSEWIC.

In China, the State, provinces and some counties have determined their key protected wildlife species. There is the China red data book.

In [[Finland]], many species are protected under the Nature Conservation Act, and through the [[EU Habitats Directive]] and EU Birds Directive.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?node=6053&lan=en |title=Protecting species |website=Ymparisto.fi |access-date=2013-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506030946/http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?node=6053&lan=en |archive-date=2013-05-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In Germany, the [[Federal Agency for Nature Conservation]] publishes ""red lists of endangered species"".

India has the [[Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, Amended 2003]] and the [[Biological Diversity Act, 2002]].

In Japan, the [[Ministry of the Environment (Japan)|Ministry of Environment]] publishes a Threatened Wildlife of Japan Red Data Book.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biodic.go.jp/english/rdb/rdb_e.html |title=Threatened Species |website=Biodic.go.jp |access-date=2013-07-22}}</ref>

In the [[Netherlands]], the Dutch [[Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality]] publishes a list of threatened species, and conservation is enforced by the Nature Conservation Act 1998. Species are also protected through the Wild Birds and Habitats Directives.

In New Zealand, the [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] publishes the [[New Zealand Threat Classification System]] lists.  {{As of|2008|January}} threatened species or subspecies are assigned one of seven categories: Nationally Critical, Nationally Endangered, Nationally Vulnerable, Declining, Recovering, Relict, or Naturally Uncommon.<ref name=""NZTCS08"">{{cite book|last1=Townsend|first1=Andrew J.|last2=de Lange|first2=Peter J.|last3=Duffy|first3=Clinton A.J.|last4=Miskelly|first4=Colin M.|last5=Molloy|first5=Janice|last6=Norton|first6=David A.|title=New Zealand Threat Classification System manual|date=January 2008|publisher=Science & Technical Publishing Department of Conservation|location=Wellington, New Zealand|isbn=9780478143645|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/Documents/science-and-technical/sap244.pdf|access-date=2 February 2018|language=en}}</ref>  While the classification looks only at a national level, many species are unique to New Zealand, and species which are secure overseas are noted as such.

In Russia, the Red Book of Russian Federation came out in 2001, it contains categories defining preservation status for different species. In it there are 8 taxa of amphibians, 21 taxa of reptiles, 128 taxa of birds, and 74 taxa of mammals, in total 231. There are also more than 30 regional red books, for example the red book of the Altaic region which came out in 1994.

In [[South Africa]], the [[South African National Biodiversity Institute]], established under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/2004/a10-04.pdf|title=Welcome to the official South African government online site! - South African Government|website=Info.gov.za|access-date=12 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628042434/http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/2004/a10-04.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> is responsible for drawing up lists of affected species, and monitoring compliance with CITES decisions. It is envisaged that previously diverse Red lists would be more easily kept current, both technically and financially.

In [[Thailand]], the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act of BE 2535 defines fifteen [[Reserved animals of Thailand|reserved animal]] species and two classes of protected species, of which hunting, breeding, possession, and trade are prohibited or restricted by law. The National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department of the [[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Thailand)|Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment]] is responsible for the regulation of these activities.

In [[Ukraine]], the Ministry of Environment Protection maintains list of endangered species (divided into seven categories from ""0"" - extinct to ""VI"" - rehabilitated) and publishes it in the Red Book of Ukraine.

In the [[United States of America]], the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973]] created the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species|Endangered Species List]].

==Consumer guides==
{{Main|Sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification}}

Some consumer guides for [[seafood]], such as [[Seafood Watch]], divide fish and other sea creatures into three categories, analogous to conservation status categories:
* Red (""''say no''"" or ""''avoid''"")
* Yellow or orange (""''think twice''"", ""''good alternatives''"" or ""''some concerns''"")
* Green (""''best seafood choices''"")<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.seafoodwatch.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/sfw_recommendations.aspx| title=Seafood Recommendations: Our Seafood Ratings| website=Seafoodwatch.org| access-date=19 June 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140619211119/http://www.seafoodwatch.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/sfw_recommendations.aspx| archive-date=19 June 2014| url-status=dead}}</ref>

The categories do not simply reflect the imperilment of individual species, but also consider the environmental impacts of how and where they are fished, such as through [[bycatch]] or [[Bottom trawling|ocean bottom trawlers]]. Often groups of species are assessed rather than individual species (e.g. [[squid]], [[prawn]]s).

The [[Marine Conservation Society]] has five levels of ratings for seafood species, as displayed on their ''FishOnline'' website.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.fishonline.org/ratings | title=Fish ratings | work=FishOnline | publisher=Marine Conservation Society | access-date=March 28, 2013}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Conservation status of wolves in Europe]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals]]
* [[Lazarus taxon]]
* [[List of endangered species in North America]]
* [[Listing priority number]]
* [[Lists of extinct animals]]
* [[Lists of organisms by population]]
* [[Living Planet Index]]
* [[Red List Index]]
* [[Regional Red List]]
* [[Reintroduction]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.iucnredlist.org/ Search the IUCN Red List]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140323091914/http://intranet.iucn.org/webfiles/doc/SSC/RedList/redlistcatsenglish.pdf IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria Version 3.1] (archived 23 March 2014)
*{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/initiatives/wildlife-conservation|title=Wildlife Conservation – Initiatives – WWF|website=World Wildlife Fund|access-date=12 November 2017}}

{{Threatened species|state=expanded}}
{{Conservation of species}}
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Biology}}

[[Category:Evolutionary biology terminology]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status| ]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:NatureServe]]"
Canebrake,"{{Short description|A thicket of any of a variety of Arundinaria grasses}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Canebrake in Kentucky.jpg|thumb|''[[Arundinaria gigantea]]'' in a canebrake in [[Kentucky]]]]
A '''canebrake''' or '''canebreak''' is a [[thicket]] of any of a variety of ''[[Arundinaria]]'' grasses: ''[[Arundinaria gigantea|A. gigantea]]'', ''[[Arundinaria tecta|A. tecta]]'' and ''[[Arundinaria appalachiana|A. appalachiana]]''. As a [[bamboo]], these giant [[grasses]] grow in thickets up to {{convert|24|ft}} tall. ''A. gigantea'' is generally found in stream valleys and ravines throughout the [[southeastern United States]]. ''A. tecta'' is a smaller stature species found on the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains. Finally, ''A. appalachiana'' is found in more upland areas at the southern end of the [[Appalachian Mountains]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.lmvjv.org/library/Mgt_Board_June_2007/Tab7/MAV_Desired_Forest_Conditions_Final_Report_2007.pdf | title=Restoration, Management, and Monitoring of Forest Resources in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley: Recommendations for Enhancing Wildlife Habitat | date=2007 | access-date=2015-07-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508202144/http://www.lmvjv.org/library/Mgt_Board_June_2007/Tab7/MAV_Desired_Forest_Conditions_Final_Report_2007.pdf | archive-date=2016-05-08 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Cane does not do well on sites that meet [[wetland]] classification; instead canebrakes are characteristic of moist lowland, floodplain areas that are not as saturated as true wetlands.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barret |first1=Richard |last2=Grabowski |first2=Janet |last3=Williams |first3=M.J. |title=Giant Cane and Other Native Bamboos: Establishment and Use for Conservation of Natural Resources in the Southeast |url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/plantmaterials/flpmctn13727.pdf |website=ncrs.usda.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service |access-date=27 November 2022}}</ref>

==History==

Canebrakes were formerly widespread in the [[Southern United States]], potentially covering {{convert|10000000|acres}},<ref name=""auto4"">{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=Anthony |title=River cane: Important Cherokee cultural staple |url=https://theonefeather.com/2012/05/22/river-cane-important-cherokee-cultural-staple/ |website=theonefeather.com |date=22 May 2012 |publisher=The Cherokee One Feather}}</ref> The presence of canebrakes signaled to Native Americans and to early European settlers that an area was fertile and ecologically rich.<ref name=""auto3"">{{cite web |last1=Stepp |first1=Lauren |title=History Feature: WCU Exhibit Explores Heritage of Rivercane |url=https://thelaurelofasheville.com/communities/history-feature-wcu-exhibit-explores-heritage-of-rivercane/ |website=thelaurelofasheville.com |date=27 February 2021 |publisher=The Laurel of Asheville}}</ref> The canebrakes were a striking feature of the landscape to the earliest European explorers, who remarked upon how densely the cane grew and how difficult it was to travel through. For example, William Byrd in 1728 described hacking through a ""forest"" of cane ""more than a furlong [220 yards] in depth"" as he blazed a trail along the border of Virginia and Carolina. Likewise, William Bartram described ""the most extensive Canebreak that is to be seen on the face of the whole earth,"" writing that the canes grew 10-12 feet tall and so close together they were completely impassable without hacking a trail through them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=Sarah H. |title=Weaving new worlds: Southeastern Cherokee women and their basketry |date=1997 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=0-8078-2345-7 |pages=38-39}}</ref> 

However, as European settlers came, the cane gradually disappeared as it was used as high-quality forage for livestock that was available all year round. Pigs in particular destroyed canebrakes rapidly by rooting up their underground rhizomes, and the settlers intentionally used pigs to clear out canebrakes so they could be converted to agricultural land. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=Sarah H. |title=Weaving new worlds: Southeastern Cherokee women and their basketry |date=1997 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=0-8078-2345-7 |page=91}}</ref> The absence of the [[controlled burn]]s used by Native Americans to maintain the canebrakes, conversion to agricultural land, and [[grazing]] by livestock has almost eliminated the canebrakes.<ref name=""auto1"">{{cite book |last1=Weakley |first1=Alan S. |title=Flora of the Southeastern United States |date=2022 |publisher=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Herbarium |location=Chapel Hill NC}}</ref> Destruction of habitat for development and construction is also implicated as a cause of the decline by the [[Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma|Choctaw Nation]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Batton |first1=Gary |title=Watonlak Hvshi season is a good time to save the river cane |url=https://www.choctawnation.com/news/chiefs-blog/watonlak-hvshi-season-is-a-good-time-to-save-the-river-cane/ |website=choctawnation.com}}</ref>

== Ecology ==
This destruction has impacted a number of species. The survival of the [[Florida panther]] (''Puma concolor couguar'') has been challenged, and [[Bachman's warbler]] (''Vermivora bachmanii'') has probably become [[Extinction|extinct]]. The extinct [[Carolina parakeet]] (''Conuropsis carolinensis)'' also depended on canebrakes, and may have been hastened in their demise by the canebrakes' decline.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened to America's Only Endemic Parrot? |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/grrlscientist/2018/02/21/what-happened-to-americas-only-parrot/?sh=447aa7d258cf |website=Forbes}}</ref> Other species considered canebrake specialists include as many as seven [[moth]] species<ref name=""auto5"">{{cite web |title=General Cane Thickets |url=https://auth1.dpr.ncparks.gov/habitat/view.php?combined_code=1005.0 |website=Habitats of North Carolina}}</ref> and five known [[butterfly]] species dependent on ''Arundinaria'' bamboos as a host plant, and [[Swainson's warbler]] (''Limnothlypis swainsonii'').<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hendershott |first1=A.J. |title=Canebrakes: Missouri's Bamboo Forests |url=https://mdc.mo.gov/magazines/conservationist/2002-10/canebrakes-missouris-bamboo-forests |website=mdc.mo.gov |publisher=Missouri Department of Conservation}}</ref> Swainson's warbler has recently been found to use pine plantations (widespread across the Southeastern United States) of a particular age, as they may provide the structural features and prey base that the species seeks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Graves |first=Gary R. |date=September 2015 |title=Recent large-scale colonisation of southern pine plantations by Swainson's Warbler Limnothlypis swainsonii |url=http://macroecointern.dk/pdf-reprints/Graves_BCI_2014b.pdf |journal=Bird Conservation International |language=en |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=280–293 |doi=10.1017/S0959270914000306 |issn=0959-2709}}</ref><ref>Graves 2014 http://macroecointern.dk/pdf-reprints/Graves_BCI_2014b.pdf</ref> Contrary to the characterization of canebrakes as homogenous, they host a great diversity of species, including globally rare species. A survey of canebrakes in the Carolinas found 330 taxa living in the canebrake habitat, a number that would likely increase with more study.<ref name=""auto"">{{cite journal |last1=Gray |first1=Janet Bracey |last2=Sorrie |first2=Bruce A |last3=Wall |first3=Wade |title=Canebrakes of the Sandhills Region of the Carolinas and Georgia: Fire History, Canebrake Area, and Species Frequency |journal=Castanea |date=2016 |volume=81 |issue=4 |pages=280–291|doi=10.2179/16-112 |s2cid=89603409 }}</ref> Canebrakes provide habitat for the critically endangered [[Sarracenia alabamensis|Alabama canebrake pitcher plant]] (''Sarracenia alabamensis)'', which is only found in 11 sites in just two counties of the state of [[Alabama]].<ref name=""auto2"">{{cite web |last1=Boyd |first1=Robert S. |title=Alabama Canebrake Pitcher Plant |url=http://encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3639 |website=encylopediaofalabama.org |publisher=Encyclopedia of Alabama}}</ref> 

Cane can propagate itself rapidly through asexual reproduction, allowing it to persist quietly in the shade of a forest for years and rapidly take advantage of disturbance such as wildfire. Historically, canebrakes were maintained by Native Americans using [[controlled burn]]s. The fire would burn the aboveground part of the plant but leave the underground rhizomes unharmed.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cockman |first1=Crystal |title=The loss of the great canebrakes |url=https://ui.charlotte.edu/story/loss-great-canebrakes |website=ui.charlotte.edu |publisher=UNC Charlotte Urban Institute}}</ref>

Canebrakes have been identified as important ecosystems for supporting over 70 wildlife species, possibly ideal candidates for mitigating nitrate pollution in groundwater, and crucial to the material cultures of Southeastern Native American nations, but relatively little study has been devoted to them, partially because virtually all canebrakes that still exist are isolated and fragmentary.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barret |first1=Richard |last2=Grabowski |first2=Janet |last3=Williams |first3=M.J. |title=Giant Cane and Other Native Bamboos: Establishment and Use for Conservation of Natural Resources in the Southeast |url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/plantmaterials/flpmctn13727.pdf |website=ncrs.usda.gov}}</ref> Canebrakes are unlikely to be reestablished significantly under current methods of land management, but there is interest in finding out how to restore them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shoemaker |first1=Cory M. |title=Environmental and landscape factors affecting the continued suppression of canebrakes (Arundinaria gigantea, Poaceae) within restorations of bottomland hardwood forests |journal=The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society |date=2018 |volume=145 |issue=2 |pages=156–152|doi=10.3159/TORREY-D-17-00011.1 |s2cid=90442090 }}</ref>

== Rare plant species ==
Canebrakes have been found to provide habitat for the following rare plants:<ref name=""auto""/>
* ''[[Lysimachia asperulifolia]]'', rough-leaved loosestrife
* ''[[Lilium pyrophilum]]'', sandhills lily
* ''[[Eupatorium resinosum]]'', pine barrens thoroughwort
* ''[[Dionaea muscipula]]'', Venus flytrap
* ''[[Sarracenia alabamensis]]'', Alabama canebrake pitcher plant<ref name=""auto2""/> 
* [[Carex|''Carex austrodeflexa'']], canebrake sedge<ref name=""auto1""/>

==Conservation==
Canebrakes are considered a critically endangered ecosystem by many biologists, but they have been studied very little. [[Southern Illinois University]] conducts some ongoing research on restoring canebrakes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canebrake Restoration |url=https://friendsofthecache.org/canebrake-restoration |website=friendsofthecache.org |access-date=27 November 2022}}</ref> There is also a great interest among the [[Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians]] and other regional tribal nations to restore canebrakes, to preserve the crucial roles the plant plays in Cherokee culture and to stop the art of river cane basket weaving from dying out.<ref name=""auto4""/><ref name=""auto3""/> The various insect species that are ''Arundinaria'' specialists are at risk due to their sensitivity to habitat fragmentation.<ref name=""auto5""/>

A major obstacle to restoring canebrakes is the reproductive habits of ''Arundinaria'' bamboos; ''Arundinaria'' typically [[Asexual reproduction|reproduces asexually]] using rhizomes, forming [[Colony (biology)|clonal colonies]] that spread outward. The plant only flowers every few decades, and usually dies after flowering; additionally, seeds are often not viable. Therefore, propagating the plant must usually be done by dividing existing colonies or growing rhizome cuttings.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Campbell |first1=Julian |title=Growth of Cane (Arundinaria sensu stricto), the Mysterious Native Bamboo of North America |url=https://bluegrasswoodland.com/uploads/Arundinaria__Growth_of_Cane_.pdf |website=bluegrasswoodland.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Conley |first1=Rachel Elizabeth |title=Macro-propagation of native cane (Arundinaria spp.) in central Kentucky and restoration out-plantings in western Tennessee and southern Alabama. |date=2015 |url=https://etd.auburn.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10415/4714/Conley%20Thesis%207%2022%2015%20%281%29.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y|degree=MSc |publisher=Auburn University}}</ref> Conducting studies has been challenging; experimental plantings of cane in a study conducted by researchers at Mississippi State University to test the erosion mitigation potential of canebrakes yielded no results because only 1.2% of seedlings survived the following year.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jolley |first1=Rachel |last2=Neal |first2=Diana |last3=Baldwin |first3=Bryan |last4=Ervin |first4=Gary |title=Restoring Canebrakes to Enhance Water Quality Along the Upper Pearl River |url=https://www.wrri.msstate.edu/pdf/jolley09.pdf}}</ref> 

Southern Illinois University researchers have located 140 patches of giant cane and collaborate with many conservation organizations and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service in the effort to replant 15 acres of cane per year.<ref>{{cite web |title=RESTORATION OF GIANT CANE AND CANEBRAKES: Native Bamboo for Habitat and Ecosystem Services |url=http://naufrp.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/SIU-Restoration-of-Native-US-Bamboo-Ecosystems.pdf |website=naufrp.org |publisher=Southern Illinois University Department of Forestry}}</ref> In South Carolina, the Chattooga Conservancy has formed a collaboration with the Eastern Band of the Cherokee and the USDA Forest Service to restore 29 acres of canebrake.<ref>{{cite web |title=Native River Cane Restoration |url=https://chattoogariver.org/initiatives/native-river-cane-restoration/ |website=chattoogariver.org|date=3 March 2017 }}</ref> Revitalization of Traditional Cherokee Artisan Resources (RTCAR) has also coordinated the restoration of river cane on a 109-acre site in [[North Carolina]]. This restoration area will include educational signage in the Cherokee and English languages.<ref>{{cite web |title=A New Day for Rivercane |url=https://conservingcarolina.org/rivercane-restoration/ |website=conservingcarolina.org |date=23 June 2021 |publisher=Conserving Carolina}}</ref>

In 2023, the [[United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians]] in Oklahoma co-hosted the first Rivercane Gathering in [[Tahlequah, Oklahoma]] with the U.S. Forestry Service, an educational event to unite traditional tribal experts and artisans with various researchers and landholders for the continued preservation of canebrakes.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Morris |first1=Hilary |title=1st Annual Rivercane Gathering coming up April 4-7 in Tahlequah, OK |url=https://secassoutheast.org/2023/02/16/1st-Annual-Rivercane-Gathering-April-4-7-in-Tahlequah-OK.html |website=secassoutheast.org|date=16 February 2023 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Grasses]]
[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Riparian zone]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Plant communities of the Eastern United States]]
[[Category:Plant communities of Kentucky]]
[[Category:Plant communities of Alabama]]
[[Category:Plant communities of Tennessee]]
[[Category:Plant communities of Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Plant communities of Mississippi]]
[[Category:Plant communities of South Carolina]]
[[Category:Plant communities of North Carolina]]
[[Category:Plants by habitat]]"
Other effective area-based conservation measures,"{{Short description|Specific areas designated to conserve biodiversity}}
'''Other effective area-based conservation measures''' (OECMs) are sites outside of [[protected areas]] that are governed and managed in ways that deliver the long-term [[In-situ conservation|''in situ'' conservation]] of [[biodiversity]]. As of March 2023, 829 such sites have been reported to the World Database on Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures, managed by the [[UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]. OECMs cover {{convert|3,094,741|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of the Earth's surface, accounting for {{convert|2,716,531|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} on land and {{convert|378,209|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in the ocean.<ref>UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (2023) [http://www.protectedplanet.net ""Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas and OECMs""]</ref>

==Definition and criteria==

An (OECM) is defined by the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] as:

<blockquote>[A] geographically defined area other than a Protected Area, which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in situ conservation of biodiversity, with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable, cultural, spiritual, socio–economic, and other locally relevant values.<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (2018) [https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-14/cop-14-dec-08-en.pdf ""Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (Decision 14/8)""]</ref></blockquote>

There are four criteria for identifying OECMs:

#The area is not currently recognized as a protected area; 
#The area is governed and managed; 
#The area achieves sustained and effective contribution to in situ conservation of biodiversity; Criterion 
#Associated ecosystem functions and services and cultural, spiritual, socio-economic and other locally relevant values are conserved and respected.

Under the four criteria above, there are 26 sub-criteria.<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (2018) [https://www.cbd.int/ doc/decisions/cop-14/cop-14-dec-08-en.pdf ""Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (Decision 14/8), Annex III""]</ref>

==History==

The term ""other effective area-based conservation measures"" was first used in Target 11 of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]’s ''Strategic Plan for Biodiversity'',<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] [https://www.cbd.int/sp/ ""Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (2011-2020)""]</ref> agreed to in [[Nagoya]], Japan, in 2010. Target 11 stated:

<blockquote>By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and [[ecosystem service]]s, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems of protected areas and '''other effective area-based conservation measures''', and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes. (Emphasis added)<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (2010) ""Decision Adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at Its Tenth Meeting at Nagoya"" pp. 1-13</ref></blockquote>

In 2014, Harry Jonas, [[Ashish Kothari]] and other authors affiliated with the [[Indigenous and Community Conserved Area|ICCA Consortium]] &ndash; ICCA stands for ""Indigenous and Community Conserved Area"" &ndash; argued that “defining ‘other effective area-based conservation measures’ offers a unique opportunity to better recognize areas that deliver the conservation of biodiversity outside of protected areas.”<ref>Jonas H.D., Barbuto, V., Jonas, H.C., Kothari, A., and Nelson, F. (2014) [https://parksjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/PARKS-20.2-Jonas-et-al-10.2305IUCN.CH_.2014.PARKS-20-2.HDJ_.en_.pdf “New Steps of Change: Looking Beyond Protected Areas to Consider Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures”] ''Parks'' 20.2. The authors further proposed “the establishment of an IUCN Task Force to further explore the issues with a view to developing clear guidance on ‘other effective area-based conservation measures’ as a means to effectively and equitably achieve Aichi Biodiversity Target 11”.</ref> In 2015, the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] [[World Commission on Protected Areas]] established a Task Force, co-chaired by [[Harry Jonas]] and [[Kathy MacKinnon]] (2016-2020),<ref>The Task Force completed its work in 2020. The work is being advanced by the [https://www.iucn.org/commissions/world-commission-protected-areas/our-work/oecms IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas Specialist Group]</ref> to provide technical advice to the Convention on Biological Diversity. It submitted its advice to the [[Convention on Biological Diversity#CBD Secretariat|Secretariat]]  of the Convention on Biological Diversity in January 2018.<ref>Jonas H.D., MacKinnon K., Dudley N., Hockings M., Jessen S., Laffoley D., MacKinnon D., Matallana-Tobon C., Sandwith T., Waithaka J., and Woodley, S. (2018) [https://parksjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/PARKS-24-SI-Jonas-et-al-10.2305-IUCN.CH_.2018.PARKS%E2%80%9024%E2%80%90SIHDJ.en_.pdf ""Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures: From Aichi Target 11 to the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework""] ''Parks'' 24.</ref> That advice, together with a report on marine OECMs,<ref>Rice, J., Garcia, S.M., and Kaiser, M. (2018) [https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/0689/522e/7f94ced371fa41aeee6747e5/mcb-em-2018-01-inf-04-en.pdf ""Other effective area-based conservation measures (OEABCMs) used in marine fisheries: a working paper""]</ref> was considered at two workshops hosted by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity in February 2018.<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (9 February 2018) [https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/036c/566c/d66dc6031779378b150378d5/pa-em-2018-01-02-en.pdf ""Report of the Technical Expert Workshop on Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures for Achieving AICHI Biodiversity Target 11""]</ref>

[[Convention on Biological Diversity#Parties|Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity]] negotiated a draft decision at the 22nd meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice,<ref>Staff (July 2018) [https://www.cbd.int/meetings/SBSTTA-22 ""Outcomes of the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Subsidiary Body on Technical and Technological Advice""]</ref> and adopted Decision 14/8 on ‘Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures’ at the 14th meeting of the Conference of the Parties, which contains the definition and criteria for identifying OECMs.<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (October 2018) [https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-14/cop-14-dec-08-en.pdf ""Decision 14/8 on Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures""]</ref>

‘Other effective area-based conservation measures’ are referenced in Target 3 of the draft[[Convention on Biological Diversity#post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework|Global Biodiversity Framework]]. The Framework was agreed upon in December 2022 at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity in [[Montreal]], Canada.<ref>[[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] (14 March 2022) [https://sdg.iisd.org/events/un-biodiversity-conference-cbd-cop-15-part-2/ ""UN Biodiversity Conference (CBD COP 15) (Part 2)]"". [https://web.archive.org/web/20211019073406/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/14/climate/un-biodiversity-conference-climate-change.html?utm_source=pocket-newtab-global-en-GB/ Archived]  from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barraclough |first1=Alicia D. |last2=Reed |first2=Maureen G. |last3=Måren |first3=Inger Elisabeth |last4=Price |first4=Martin F. |last5=Moreira-Muñoz |first5=Andrés |last6=Coetzer |first6=Kaera |date=2021-10-12 |title=Recognize 727 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves for biodiversity COP15 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02750-w |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=598 |issue=7880 |pages=257 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02750-w|pmid=34642476 |s2cid=238744954 }}</ref> Integration of OECMs into global biodiversity targets has been a topic of discussion in the lead-up to the conference.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dudley |first1=Nigel |last2=Jonas |first2=Holly |last3=Nelson |first3=Fred |last4=Parrish |first4=Jeffrey |last5=Pyhälä |first5=Aili |last6=Stolton |first6=Sue |last7=Watson |first7=James E. M. |date=2018-07-01 |title=The essential role of other effective area-based conservation measures in achieving big bold conservation targets |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |language=en |volume=15 |pages=e00424 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00424 |issn=2351-9894|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last1=Alves-Pinto |first1=Helena |last2=Geldmann |first2=Jonas |last3=Jonas |first3=Harry |last4=Maioli |first4=Veronica |last5=Balmford |first5=Andrew |last6=Ewa Latawiec |first6=Agnieszka |last7=Crouzeilles |first7=Renato |last8=Strassburg |first8=Bernardo |date=2021-04-01 |title=Opportunities and challenges of other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) for biodiversity conservation |journal=Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=115–120 |doi=10.1016/j.pecon.2021.01.004 |issn=2530-0644|doi-access=free }}</ref> Target 3 calls for: 
<blockquote>""Ensure and enable that by 2030 at least 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland water, and of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are effectively conserved and managed through ecologically representative, well-connected and equitably governed systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, recognizing indigenous and traditional territories, where applicable, and integrated into wider landscapes, seascapes and the ocean, while ensuring that any sustainable use, where appropriate in such areas, is fully consistent with conservation outcomes, recognizing and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, including over their traditional territories.""<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (2022) [https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/e6d3/cd1d/daf663719a03902a9b116c34/cop-15-l-25-en.pdf ""Kunming-Montreal Global biodiversity framework Draft decision submitted by the President""]</ref></blockquote>

==Global extent==

The World Database on Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures<ref>[https://www.protectedplanet.net/en/thematic-areas/oecms?tab=OECMs ""World Database on OECMs""]</ref> is managed by the [[UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]. As of March 2023, 829 sites have been reported to the World Database. OECMs cover {{convert|3,094,741|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of the Earth's surface, accounting for {{convert|2,716,531|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} on land and {{convert|378,209|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in the ocean.<ref>UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (2022) [http://www.protectedplanet.net ""Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas and OECMs""]</ref>

Locally managed marine areas (LMMAs) are one form of OECM; examples of these exist in [[Mozambique]] and [[Madagascar]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Diz |first1=Daniela |last2=Johnson |first2=David |last3=Riddell |first3=Michael |last4=Rees |first4=Sian |last5=Battle |first5=Jessica |last6=Gjerde |first6=Kristina |last7=Hennige |first7=Sebastian |last8=Roberts |first8=J. Murray |date=2018-07-01 |title=Mainstreaming marine biodiversity into the SDGs: The role of other effective area-based conservation measures (SDG 14.5) |journal=Marine Policy |language=en |volume=93 |pages=251–261 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.019 |issn=0308-597X|doi-access=free |hdl=10026.1/12537 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==Relationship between OECMs and protected areas==

[[Protected area]]s and OECMs are distinct but complementary within landscapes, seascapes and river basins. Protected areas have a primary [[Conservation biology|conservation]] objective, i.e., they are areas dedicated to the conservation of [[biodiversity]] and managed accordingly. In contrast, OECMs do not need to be dedicated to the [[Nature conservation|conservation of nature]] but must deliver the effective and long-term in situ conservation of biodiversity. OECMs can deliver long-term in situ conservation through ancillary conservation, secondary conservation, and sometimes primary conservation in places that cannot, or will not, be recognized as protected areas.<ref>[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] [https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/48773 ""IUCN Guidelines for Recognising and reporting OECMs""]</ref>

OECMs are intended to take a more inclusive approach to biodiversity conservation that traditional protected areas, by permitting some small-scale area management. This is achieved by accounting for the needs of other rights holders such as [[Small scale fishery|small scale fisheries]] and low-impact [[agroforestry]]. Traditional protected areas have attracted controversy over [[Indigenous rights]] and [[Conservation refugee|displacement]]; OECMs are intended to be more [[Social equity|equitable]] to human needs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-13 |title=OECM concept may bring more inclusive approach to conserving biodiversity |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/09/oecm-concept-may-bring-more-inclusive-approach-to-protecting-biodiversity/ |access-date=2022-10-11 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="":0"" />

==See also==
*[[Governance of protected areas]]
*[[UNESCO Biosphere Reserve]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.cbd.int/ Convention on Biological Diversity homepage]
*[https://www.iccaconsortium.org/ ICCA Consortium homepage]
*[https://www.iucn.org/ International Union for Conservation of Nature homepage]
{{Conservation of species}}

[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Convention on Biological Diversity]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples and the environment]]"
Conservation agriculture,"{{Short description|Farming system to preserve and regenerate land capacity}}
{{more footnotes|date=October 2013}}
{{agriculture}}
'''Conservation agriculture''' ('''CA''') can be defined by a statement given by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the [[United Nations]] as ""Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that can prevent losses of arable land while regenerating degraded lands.It promotes minimum soil disturbance (i.e. [[no-till farming]]), maintenance of a permanent soil cover, and diversification of plant species. It enhances [[biodiversity]] and natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, which contribute to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production.""<ref name=""FAO-CA"">{{cite web |title=Conservation Agriculture|url=http://www.fao.org/conservation-agriculture/en/|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref>

Agriculture according to the New Standard Encyclopedia is ""one of the most important sectors in the economies of most nations"" (New Standard 1992). At the same time conservation is the use of resources in a manner that safely maintains a resource that can be used by humans. Conservation has become critical because the global population has increased over the years and more food needs to be produced every year (New Standard 1992). Sometimes referred to as ""agricultural environmental management"", conservation agriculture may be sanctioned and funded through conservation programs promulgated through agricultural legislation, such as the [[U.S. Farm Bill]].

== Key principles ==
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has determined that conservation agriculture (CA) has three key principles that producers (farmers) can proceed through in the process of CA. These three principles outline what conservationists and producers believe can be done to conserve what we use for a longer period of time.<ref name=""FAO"">{{cite web |title=Conservation agriculture: The 3 principles|url= http://www.fao.org/resources/infographics/infographics-details/en/c/216754/|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=24 October 2020}}</ref>

'''The first key principle''' in CA is practicing minimum soil disturbance which is essential to maintaining minerals within the soil, stopping [[Soil erosion|erosion]], and preventing water loss from occurring within the soil. In the past agriculture has looked at soil tillage as a main process in the introduction of new crops to an area. It was believed that tilling the soil would increase fertility within the soil through [[Mineralization (soil science)|mineralization]] that takes place in the soil. Also tilling of soil can cause severe erosion and crusting which leads to a decrease in [[soil fertility]]. Today tillage is seen as destroying organic matter that can be found within the soil cover. [[No-till farming]] has caught on as a process that can save soil organic levels for a longer period and still allow the soil to be productive for longer periods (FAO 2007). Additionally, the process of tilling can increase time and labor for producing that crop. Minimum soil disturbance also reduce destruction of soil micro and macro-organism habitats that is common in conventional ploughing practices.<ref name=""FAO""/>

When no-till practices are followed, the producer sees a reduction in production cost for a certain crop. Tillage of the ground requires more money in order to fuel tractors or to provide feed for the animals pulling the plough. The producer sees a reduction in labor because he or she does not have to be in the fields as long as a conventional farmer.

'''The second key principle''' in CA is much like the first in dealing with protecting the soil. The principle of managing the top soil to create a permanent organic soil cover can allow for growth of organisms within the soil structure. This growth will break down the mulch that is left on the soil surface. The breaking down of this mulch will produce a high organic matter level which will act as a fertilizer for the soil surface. If CA practices were used done for many years and enough organic matter was being built up at the surface, then a layer of mulch would start to form. This layer helps prevent soil erosion from taking place and ruining the soil's profile or layout. The presence of [[mulching]] also reduce the velocity of runoff and the impact of rain drops thus reducing soil erosion and runoff.<ref name=""FAO""/>

According to the article ""The role of conservation agriculture and sustainable agriculture"", the layer of mulch that is built up over time will become like a buffer zone between soil and mulch and this will help reduce wind and water erosion. With this comes the protection of the soil's surface when rain falls on the ground. Land that is not protected by a layer of mulch is left open to the elements (Hobbs et al. 2007). This type of ground cover also helps keep the temperature and moisture levels of the soil at a higher level rather than if it was tilled every year (FAO 2007).

'''The third principle is''' the practicing diverse [[crop rotation]]s or crop interactions. According to an article published in the ''Physiological Transactions of the Royal Society'' called ""The role of conservation agriculture and sustainable agriculture"", crop rotation can be used best as a disease control against other preferred crops (Hobbs et al. 2007). This process will not allow pests such as insects and weeds to be set into a rotation with specific crops. Rotational crops will act as a natural insecticide and herbicide against specific crops. Not allowing insects or weeds to establish a pattern will help to eliminate problems with yield reduction and infestations within fields (FAO 2007). Crop rotation can also help build up soil infrastructure. Establishing crops in a rotation allows for an extensive buildup of rooting zones which will allow for better [[Infiltration (hydrology)|water infiltration]] (Hobbs et al. 2007).<ref name=""FAO""/>

Organic molecules in the soil break down into phosphates, nitrates and other beneficial elements which are thus better absorbed by plants. [[Plough|Plowing]] increases the amount of oxygen in the soil and increases the aerobic processes, hastening the breakdown of organic material. Thus more nutrients are available for the next crop but, at the same time, the soil is depleted more quickly of its nutrient reserves.

== Examples ==
[[File:Elements in an ecoagriculture landscape.jpg|thumb|upright=2.5<!--format for infographic with small text labels-->|Conservation- or eco-agriculture involves multiple elements to protect wildlife.]]

In conservation agriculture there are many examples that can be looked towards as a way of farming and at the same time conserving. These practices are well known by most producers. The process of no-till is one that follows the first principle of CA, causing minimal mechanical soil disturbance. No-till also brings other benefits to the producer. According to the FAO, tillage is one of the most ""energy consuming"" processes that can be used: It requires a lot of labor, time, and fuel to till. Producers can save 30% to 40% of time and labor by practicing the no-till process. (FAO 3020)

Besides conserving the soil, there are other examples of how CA is used. According to an article in ''Science'' called ""Farming and the Fate of Wild Nature"" there are two more kinds of CA. The practice of wildlife-friendly farming and land sparing are ideas for producers who are looking to practice better conservation towards biodiversity (Green, et al. 2005).

=== Wildlife-friendly farming ===
Wildlife-friendly farming, also known as land sharing, allows for the conservation of [[biodiversity]] while also allowing for production of agricultural products.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fischer|first1=Joern|last2=Abson|first2=David J.|last3=Butsic|first3=Van|last4=Chappell|first4=M. Jahi|last5=Ekroos|first5=Johan|last6=Hanspach|first6=Jan|last7=Kuemmerle|first7=Tobias|last8=Smith|first8=Henrik G.|last9=Wehrden|first9=Henrik von|date=2014|title=Land Sparing Versus Land Sharing: Moving Forward|journal=Conservation Letters|language=en|volume=7|issue=3|pages=149–157|doi=10.1111/conl.12084|issn=1755-263X|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/176807|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In this approach, land is set aside to preserve the wildlife while the rest is used to fulfill the farmers need of agricultural commodities. Farmers take this approach by leaving some aspects of the land the same (i.e., scattered trees and patches of initial vegetation) while harvesting a diverse grouping of crops around it.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last=Berry|first=Brosi|date=2008|title=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1788/fa7fff4ee9df79d2f0c351ee1b43722c4dc8.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208020627/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1788/fa7fff4ee9df79d2f0c351ee1b43722c4dc8.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-02-08|pages=7|doi=10.1890/070019|s2cid=41317523}}</ref> This, in turn, allows for animals such as bees to pollinate, and the natural predation of unwanted pests.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grass|first1=Ingo|last2=Loos|first2=Jacqueline|last3=Baensch|first3=Svenja|last4=Batáry|first4=Péter|last5=Librán-Embid|first5=Felipe|last6=Ficiciyan|first6=Anoush|last7=Klaus|first7=Felix|last8=Riechers|first8=Maraja|last9=Rosa|first9=Julia|last10=Tiede|first10=Julia|last11=Udy|first11=Kristy|date=2019|title=Land-sharing/-sparing connectivity landscapes for ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation|journal=People and Nature|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=262–272|doi=10.1002/pan3.21|issn=2575-8314|doi-access=free}}</ref> By practicing such method the harvester can expect to see much lower yields, but also an increase in biodiversity given time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Joern|first=Fischer|date=June 2013|title=Land Sparing Versus Land Sharing: Moving Forward|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=7|issue=3|pages=149–157|doi=10.1111/conl.12084|s2cid=58906191 |doi-access=free|hdl=10419/176807|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This decrease of yield then gives rise to the idea of [[land sparing]], the maximization of yield in a homogenous landscape.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Land sparing ===
Land sparing is another way that producer and conservationist can be on the same page. Land sparing advocates for the land that is being used for agricultural purposes to continue to produce crops at increased yield. With an increase in yield on all land that is in use, other land can be set aside for conservation and production for biodiversity. Agricultural land stays in production but would have to increase its yield potential to keep up with demand. Land that is not being put into agriculture would be used for conserving biodiversity (Green, et al. 2005). In fact, data from the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] shows that between 1961 and 2012, the amount of [[arable land]] needed to produce the same amount of food declined by 68 percent worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ausubel|first1=Jesse H.|author-link1=Jesse H. Ausubel|last2=Wernick|first2=Iddo K.|last3=Waggoner|first3=Paul E.|title=Peak Farmland and the Prospect for Land Sparing|journal=[[Population and Development Review]]|volume=38|issue=s1|date=February 19, 2013|pages=221–242|url=https://phe.rockefeller.edu/docs/Peak%20Farmland%202013.pdf|doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00561.x|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|author-link1=Hannah Ritchie|last2=Roser|first2=Max|author-link2=Max Roser|year=2019|title=Land Use|website=[[Our World in Data]]|publisher=Global Change Data Lab|url=https://ourworldindata.org/land-use|access-date=April 4, 2023}}</ref>

== Benefits ==
In the field of CA there are many benefits that both the producer and conservationist can obtain.

On the side of the conservationist, CA can be seen as beneficial because there is an effort to conserve what people use every day. Since agriculture is one of the most destructive forces against biodiversity, CA can change the way humans produce food and energy. With conservation come environmental benefits of CA. These benefits include less erosion possibilities, better [[water conservation]], improvement in air quality due to lower emissions being produced, and a chance for larger biodiversity in a given area.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-06|title=Conservation Agriculture|url=https://drawdown.org/solutions/conservation-agriculture|access-date=2020-11-27|website=Project Drawdown|language=en}}</ref>

On the side of the producer and/or farmer, CA can eventually do all that is done in conventional agriculture, and it can conserve better than conventional agriculture. CA according to Theodor Friedrich, who is a specialist in CA, believes ""Farmers like it because it gives them a means of conserving, improving, and making more efficient use of their natural resources"" (FAO 2006). Producers will find that the benefits of CA will come later rather than sooner. Since CA takes time to build up enough organic matter and have soils become their own fertilizer, the process does not start to work overnight. But if producers make it through the first few years of production, results will start to become more satisfactory.

CA is shown to have even higher yields and higher outputs than conventional agriculture once it has been established over long periods. Also, a producer has the benefit of knowing that the soil in which his crops are grown is a renewable resource. According to New Standard Encyclopedia, soils are a renewable resource, which means that whatever is taken out of the soil can be put back over time (New Standard 1992). As long as good soil upkeep is maintained, the soil will continue to renew itself. This could be very beneficial to a producer who is practicing CA and is looking to keep soils at a productive level for an extended time.

The farmer and/or producer can use this same land in another way when crops have been harvested. The introduction of grazing livestock to a field that once held crops can be beneficial for the producer and also the field itself. Livestock manure can be used as a natural fertilizer for a producer's field which will then be beneficial for the producer the next year when crops are planted once again. The practice of grazing livestock using CA helps the farmer who raises crops on that field and the farmer who raises the livestock that graze off that field. Livestock produce compost or manure which are a great help in generating soil fertility (Pawley W.H. 1963). The practices of CA and grazing livestock on a field for many years can allow for better yields in the following years as long as these practices continue to be followed.
     
The FAO believes that there are three major benefits from CA: 
* Within fields that are controlled by CA the producer will see an increase in organic matter. 
* Increase in water conservation due to the layer of organic matter and ground cover to help eliminate transportation and access runoff. 
* Improvement of soil structure and rooting zone.

== Future development ==
As in any other business, producers and conservationists are always looking towards the future. In this case CA is a very important process to be looked at for future generation. There are many organizations that have been created to help educate and inform producers and conservationists in the world of CA. These organizations can help to inform, conduct research, and buy land in order to preserve animals and plants (New Standard 1992).

Another way in which CA is looking to the future is through prevention. According to the ''European Journal of Agronomy'' producers are looking for ways to reduce [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] problems within their fields. These producers are using the same principles within CA, in that they are leaving cover over their fields in order to save fields from erosion and leaching of chemicals (Kirchmann & Thorvaldsson 2000). Processes and studies like this are allowing for a better understanding of how to conserve what we are using and finding ways to put back something that may have been lost before.

In the same journal article is presented another way in which producers and conservationists are looking towards the future. Circulation of plant nutrients can be a vital part for conserving the future. An example of this would be the use of [[Manure#Animal manure|animal manure]]. This process has been used for quite some time now, but the future is looking towards ways to handle and conserve nutrients within manure for a longer time. But besides animal waste, food and urban waste are also being looked towards as a way to use growth within CA (Kirchmann & Thorvaldsson 2000). Turning these products from waste to being used to grow crops and improve yields is something that would be beneficial for conservationists and producers.

'''Agri-environment schemes'''

In 1992, 'agri-environment schemes' became compulsory for all [[Member state of the European Union|European Union Member States]]. In the following years the main purpose of these schemes changed slightly. 
Initially, they sought to protect threatened habitats, but gradually shifted their focus to the prevention of the loss of wildlife from agricultural landscapes. Most recently, the schemes are placing more emphasis on improving the services that the land can provide to humans (e.g. pollination). Overall, farmers involved in the scheme aim to practice environmentally friendlier farming techniques such as: reducing the use of pesticides, managing or altering their land to increase more wildlife friendly habitats (e.g. increasing areas of trees and bushes), reducing irrigation, [[Soil conservation|conserving soil]], and [[organic farming]]. 
As the changes in practices that ensure the protection of the environment are costly to farmers, the EU developed agri-environment schemes to financially compensate individual farmers for applying these changes and therefore increased the implementation of conservation agriculture. 
The schemes are voluntary for farmers. Once joined, they commit to a minimum of five years during which they have to adopt various sustainable farming techniques.
According to the Euro-stat website, in 2009 the agricultural area enrolled in agri-environment schemes covered 38.5 million hectares (20.9% of agricultural land in the 27 member states of the EU at the time) (Agri-environmental indicator 2015). The [[European Commission]] spent a total of €3.23 billion on agri-environment schemes in 2012, significantly exceeding the cost of managing special sites of conservation (Natura 2000) that year, which came to a total of €39.6 million (Batáry et al. 2015).

There are two main types of agri-environment schemes which have shown different outcomes. Out-of-production schemes tend to be used in [[extensive farming]] practices (where the farming land is widespread and less [[intensive farming]] is practiced), and focus on improving or setting land aside that will not be used for the production of food, for example, the addition of wildflower strips.
In-production schemes (used for a smaller scale, but more intensively farmed land) focus on the sustainable management of arable crops or grassland, for example reduction of pesticides, reduction of grassland mowing, and most commonly, organic farming. In a 2015 review of studies examining the effects of the two schemes, it was found that out-of-production schemes had a higher success rate at enhancing the number of thriving species around the land. 
The reason behind this is thought to be the scheme's focus on enhancing specific species by providing them with more unaltered habitats, which results in more food resources for the specific species.
On the other hand, in-production schemes attempt to enhance the quality of the land in general, and are thus less species specific. 
Based on the findings, the reviewers suggest that schemes which more specifically target the declining groups of species, may be more effective. The findings and the targets will be implemented between 2015 and 2020, so that by 2025, the effectiveness of these schemes can be re-assessed and will have increased significantly (Batáry et al. 2015).

In this vein, in recent years 'results based pilot programs' have been introduced across the EU under Pillar Two of the Common Agriculture Policy. Results-based agri-environmental programs are defined by the European Commission as ""schemes where farmers and land managers are paid for delivering an environmental result or outcome, e.g. number of breeding birds, or number of plant species in grasslands, with the flexibility to choose what management is required to achieve the desired result.""<ref>Keenleyside C, Radley G, Tucker G, Underwood E, Hart K,Allen B and Menadue H (2014) Results-based Payments for Biodiversity Guidance Handbook: Designing and implementing results-based agri-environment programs 2014-20. Prepared for the European Commission, DG Environment, Contract No ENV.B.2/ETU/2013/0046, Institute for European Environmental Policy, London</ref> Results-based payment programs are also commonly referred to as Pay for Performance or Payment for Ecosystem Services. These programs differ from traditional conservation programs by focusing on observed, verifiable outcomes as opposed to implementation of best practices. Pure results-based programs refer to programs that provide payments to farmers solely on the delivery of an environmental outcome. Hybrid results-based programs refer to programs that may have a management requirement component in addition to payments for observable environmental outcomes.<ref>Allen B, Hart K, Radley G, Tucker G, Keenleyside C, Oppermann R, Underwood E, Menadue H, Poux X, Beaufoy G, Herzon I, Povellato A, Vanni F, Pražan J, Hudson T, Yellachich N (2014) Biodiversity protection through results-based remuneration of ecological achievement. Report Prepared for the European Commission, DG Environment, Contract No ENV.B.2/ETU/2013/0046, Institute for European Environmental Policy, London.</ref> Results based programs often increase farmer autonomy and participation,<ref>Allen B, et al (2014) Biodiversity protection through results-based remuneration of ecological achievement. Report Prepared for the European Commission</ref> produce clear quantifiable results and effectively link payment to environmental conservation outcomes. Some NGOs have started to pilot similar programs in the US, for example Winrock International partnered with the Sand County Foundation to provide payment to farmers for reducing nutrient loads from their lands across the Midwest.<ref>Fisher, K. A., Winsten, J. R., Spratt, E. U., Anderson, R. U., & Smith, R. U. (2017). Pay for Performance Conservation: A How-To Guide (pp. 1-43, Rep.). Delta Institute.</ref>

== Problems ==
As much as conservation agriculture can benefit the world, there are some problems that come with it. There are many reasons why conservation agriculture cannot always be a win-win situation. Examples of these disadvantages include high initial costs of specialized planting equipment, and a new dynamic farming system that requires new management skills and a learning process by the farmer. Long term experience with conservation farming all over the world has shown that this system does not present more or less but different problems to a farmer, all of them possible to resolve.<ref>{{cite book
 | title= Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume I   
 | chapter=  Conservation Agriculture
 | editor=Willy H. Verheye
 | date=2010
 | publisher=[[EOLSS]] Publishers 
 | isbn=978-1-84826-367-3
 | url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx 
 | page=98
}}</ref>

There are not enough people who can financially turn from conventional farming to conservation. The process of CA takes time; when a producer first becomes a conservationist, the results can be a financial loss to them (in most cases, the investment and policy generally exist). CA is based upon establishing an organic layer and producing its own fertilizer and this may take time. It can be many years before a producer will start to see better yields than he/she has had previously. Another financial undertaking is purchasing of new equipment. When starting to use CA, a producer may have to buy new planters or drills in order to produce effectively. These financial tasks are ones that may impact whether or not a producer decides to switch to CA or not.

Interactions with livestock and competition for crop residues - In developing countries, livestock is often an integral part of the farming system, so it needs to be considered when introducing CA. The application of CA requires a critical level of crop residues remaining on the surface, while traditionally most of these residues are used for feeding livestock. It is a common practice to allow livestock to graze in the harvested crop fields or to slash the crop residue and store it for fodder.<ref>{{cite book
 | title= Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume I   
 | chapter=  Conservation Agriculture
 | editor=Willy H. Verheye
 | date=2010
 | publisher=[[EOLSS]] Publishers 
 | isbn=978-1-84826-367-3
 | url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx 
 | page=99
}}</ref>

With the struggle to adapt comes the struggle to make CA grow across the globe. CA has not spread as quickly as most conservationists would like. The reason for this is because there is not enough pressure for producers in places such as North America to change their way of living to a more conservationist outlook. But in the tropics there is more pressure to change to conservation areas because of the limited resources that are available. Places like Europe have also started to catch onto the ideas and principles of CA, but still nothing much is being done to change due to there being a minimal amount of pressure for people to change their ways of living (FAO 2006).

With CA comes the idea of producing enough food. With cutting back in fertilizer, not tilling the ground, and other processes comes the responsibility to feed the world. According to the [[Population Reference Bureau]], there were around 6.08 billion people on Earth in the year 2000. By 2050 there will be an estimated 9.1 billion people. With this increase comes the responsibility for producers to increase food supply using the same or less land than we use today. Problems arise in the fact that if CA farms do not produce as much as conventional farms, this leaves the world with less food for more people.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

==See also==
*[[Agroecology]]
*[[Biodiversity]]
*[[Sustainable agriculture]]
*[[No-till farming]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Agri-environmental indicator- commitments, 2015. [26 November 2015]
*Batáry, P. et al., 2015. The role of agri-environment schemes in conservation and environmental management. Conservation Biology, 29(4), pp.&nbsp;1006–1016. 
*Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2006. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department. Rome, Italy Available from http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0110sp.htm (Accessed November 2007).
*Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2007. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department. Rome, Italy Available from http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/ (Accessed November 2007).
*Gupta, R., Hobbs, P.R., Sayre, Ken. 2007. The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. The Royal Society. Pg. 1-13.
*Kirchmann, H., Thorvaldsson, G. 2000. European Journal of Agronomy. Challenging Targets for Future Agriculture. Vol. 12, Issues 3-4. Pg 145-161.
*New Standard Encyclopedia. 1992. Standard Educational Operation. Chicago, Illinois. Pg(s) A-141, C-546.
*Pawley, W.H. 1963. Possibilities of Increasing World Food Production. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy. Pg 98.
*Population Reference Bureau. 2007. Washington, D.C. Available from https://web.archive.org/web/20071213192023/http://www.prb.org/Journalists/FAQ/WorldPopulation.aspx. ( Accessed December 2007).

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100907054742/http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/ Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (SANREM CRSP)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150503210220/http://wqic.nal.usda.gov/agricultural-environmental-management Agricultural Environmental Management, Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture]
*[https://www.fao.org/conservation-agriculture/en/ Conservation Agriculture, Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department, Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations]
*[https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/programs/][https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/technical/nra/ceap/ NRCS Conservation Programs, Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture]
*[https://www.fsa.usda.gov/programs-and-services/conservation-programs/index FSA Conservation Programs, Farm Service Agency, U.S. Department of Agriculture]
*[https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2007.2169 Hobbs, P.R., Sayre, Ken & Gupta, R. (2008) The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 363(1491): 543-555]

{{conservation of species}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Agriculture by type]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Permaculture concepts]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Sustainable food system]]"
Leaf Bank,"{{Short description|Environment Conservation Organization}}

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| type                    = [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]
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| registration_id         = DL/2019/0230403
| status                  = 
| purpose                 = Environment Conservation
| professional_title      = 
| headquarters            = [[Delhi]]
| location_city           = New Delhi
| location_country        = [[India]]
| location_city2          = 
| location_country2       = 
| addnl_location_city     = 
| addnl_location_country  = 
| addnl_location_city2    = 
| addnl_location_country2 = 
| coordinates             = {{coord|28.579691|77.259850|display=inline,title}}
| origins                 = 
| region_served           = 
| products                = 
| services                = 
| methods                 = 
| fields                  = 
| membership              = 
| membership_year         = 
| language                = [[English language|English]], [[Hindi]]
| owner                   = <!-- or |owners = -->
| sec_gen                 = <!-- or |gen_sec for General Secretary -->
| leader_title            = <!-- defaults to ""Leader"" -->
| leader_name             = 
| leader_title2           = 
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| leader_title3           = 
| leader_name3            = 
| leader_title4           = 
| leader_name4            = 
| board_of_directors      = 
| key_people              = 
| main_organ              = Board Members
| parent_organization     = The Samajh<ref>{{cite web |title=Delhi Leaf Bank |url=https://www.thesamajh.in/project/delhi_leaf_bank.aspx |website=www.thesamajh.in |access-date=19 April 2023}}</ref>
| subsidiaries            = 
| secessions              = 
| affiliations            = 
| ror_id                  = 
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| expenses_year           = 
| endowment               = 
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| funding                 = 
| staff                   = 
| staff_year              = 
| volunteers              = 150<ref>{{cite news |title=Delhi Leaf Bank : स्वच्छ पर्यावरण के लिए 150 सदस्य चला रहे ये लीफ बैंक |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b94JmXxaTa4 |access-date=14 April 2023 |work=JANBHAWANA TIMES |language=en}}</ref>
| volunteers_year         = 
| students                = 
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| awards                  = 
| website                 = <!-- {{Official URL}} or {{URL|example.com}} -->
| remarks                 = 
| formerly                = <!-- or |former_name = -->
| footnotes               = 
| bodystyle               = 
}}

'''Leaf Bank''' is a bank located in [[Delhi]].<ref>{{cite news |title=leaf bank: Leaf Bank in Delhi promotes clean environment {{!}} News - Times of India Videos |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/news/leaf-bank-in-delhi-promotes-clean-environment/videoshow/99229147.cms |access-date=12 April 2023 |work=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> People deposit the fallen dry leaves of the [[autumn]] season in the Delhi Leaf Bank, and receive compost from the next year as [[interest]].<ref>{{cite news |title=यह है Delhi का Leaf Bank, जहां इकट्ठे किए जाते हैं पेड़ के सूखे पत्ते {{!}} #shorts #leafbank #delhi |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bsu77Dbxjs |work=India TV |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=ഇലകൾക്കായൊരു ബാങ്ക് {{!}} leaf bank |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K2T1dReVRW0 |access-date=12 April 2023 |work=Samayam Malayalam |language=en}}</ref> People are also given [[Certificate of deposit|certificates]] from this bank after depositing the leaves, by showing which people can get [[compost]].<ref>{{cite news |title=सूखे पत्ते के बदले खाद-पतझड़ का त्यौहार ‘द समझ’ का पर्यांवरण को समर्पित अभियान {{!}} Online Newspaper |url=https://epapervirarjun.com/epapermain.aspx?queryed=9&eddate=3%2f17%2f2023&querypage=2&parentid=21539 |access-date=12 April 2023 |work=epapervirarjun.com}}</ref>

== Process ==
The leaves are collected in large quantities. These leaves are kept in polythene bags for a few days. After this, [[nitrogen]] is sprayed on these leaves from time to time. Slowly the leaves [[Decomposition|decompose]] and within a few months the compost is ready.<ref>{{cite news |title=Unique Bank दिल्ली में पत्तों का एक ऐसा बैंक जहां ब्याज के रूप में मिलती है खाद |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/delhi/state/new-delhi/a-bank-of-leaves-in-delhi-where-compost-is-available-as-interest/dl20230329171036589589308 |work=ETV Bharat News |language=hi}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Banks]]
[[Category:Composting]]
[[Category:Environment and health]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]"
Biophysical environment,"#REDIRECT [[Natural environment]]

{{R from merge}}

[[Category:Ecology terminology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Ecosystems]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Environments| ]]"
Operation Shikkar,"{{Infobox event
| title        = Operation Shikkar
| image        = 
| caption      = 
| date         = 2015–2017
| time         = 
| place        = Kerala, India
| coordinates  = 
| also_known_as= 
| type         = Law enforcement operation
| cause        = Combat illegal ivory smuggling and poaching
| organisers   = [[Kerala Forest Department]], [[Wildlife Trust of India]]
| participants = 
| outcome      = Arrest of 72 individuals; seizure of 464 kg of ivory
| reported_deaths = 
| reported_injuries= 
| reported_missing = 
| arrests      = 72
| charges      = 
| verdict      = 
| convictions  = 
| litigation   = 
| url          = 
| notes        = 
}}

'''Operation Shikkar''' was an extensive enforcement and investigation initiative undertaken by the [[Kerala Forest Department]] between 2015 and 2017, aimed at dismantling a widespread network involved in illegal ivory smuggling and the poaching of elephants in [[India]]. This operation marked one of the most significant efforts against wildlife crime in the country.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Anand |first=G. |date=2018-06-09 |title=Poachers play deadly ivory game in Kerala forests |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/poachers-play-deadly-ivory-game-in-kerala-forests/article24125329.ece |access-date=2024-03-06 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=487 kgs of Ivory Seized in Undercover Operation in Delhi |url=https://www.wti.org.in/news/487-kgs-of-ivory-seized-in-undercover-operation-in-delhi/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=Wildlife Trust of India |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Background==
The operation was initiated in response to increasing concerns over elephant poaching and ivory smuggling in the [[Malayattoor]] forest division of [[Ernakulam district]], [[Kerala]]. Intelligence reports suggested a well-organized syndicate that exploited local wildlife resources and operated across various states in India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-07-07 |title=Hunters become the hunted: Elephant poachers fall prey to their phone calls |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/how-cdr-helps-forest-official-nab-poachers/story-4nP8NVFXYK14gYhVPKWFsK.html |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

==Key officers involved==
===Manu Sathyan===
Manu Sathyan, serving as the Divisional Forest Officer (DFO) of the Kerala Forest Department, played a pivotal role in the operation.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-24 |title=Real-Life Mala Jogi, Alan Joseph And Neel Banerjee In 'Poacher,' Explained |url=https://dmtalkies.com/real-life-mala-jogi-alan-joseph-neel-banerjee-in-poacher-2024/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-26 |title=Meet Jose Louies, Manu Sathyan And Amit Mallick, The Real-Life Heroes Who Inspired 'Poacher' |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/entertainment/binge/real-life-story-of-jose-louies-manu-sathyan-that-inspired-poacher-628371.html |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=IndiaTimes |language=en-IN}}</ref>

===Jose Louies===
Jose Louies, an IT engineer and wildlife enthusiast from Kerala, significantly contributed to the operation as a technical analyst and representative of the [[Wildlife Trust of India]] (WTI).<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" />

===Amit Mallick===
Dr. Amit Mallick, associated with the Indian Forest Service, was instrumental in assembling a task force to swiftly apprehend the culprits involved in the operation.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" />

==Execution==
The operation involved coordination between multiple agencies, including the Kerala Forest Department, local police, and conservation organizations. Undercover operations, surveillance, and analysis of communication networks were key strategies employed to identify and arrest individuals involved in the illegal [[Ivory trade]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ivory worth crores recovered, Delhi businessman arrested |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/ivory-worth-crores-recovered-delhi-businessman-arrested-267897-2015-10-13 |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

==Outcomes==
The operation led to the arrest of 72 individuals, including poachers, government officials, ivory carvers, and dealers. Significant quantities of ivory were seized, highlighting the extensive network and methods used by poachers and smugglers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sasikumar |first=Meenakshy |date=2024-02-22 |title='Poacher': The Real-Life Story of Elephant Poaching That Stunned Kerala in 2015 |url=https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/prime-series-poacher-real-life-kerala-investigation-into-elephant-poaching |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref>

==Impact==
""Operation Shikkar"" raised public awareness about the threats to elephant populations and the importance of protecting these keystone species. It underscored the need for stricter enforcement of wildlife protection laws and enhanced international cooperation to prevent illegal wildlife trade.<ref>{{Cite web |title=""It's cold-blooded murder"": The real-life story behind Poacher, Amazon's blockbuster wildlife crime drama |url=https://www.discoverwildlife.com/environment/poacher-asian-elephant-ivory-trade |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=www.discoverwildlife.com |language=en}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
The significant impact of ""'''Operation Shikkar'''"" was dramatized in the web series [[Poacher (TV series)|Poacher]], available on [[Amazon Prime Video]]. The series is inspired by the real-life events of the operation and portrays the collaborative efforts to dismantle an illegal ivory smuggling racket.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-20 |title=New Series 'Poacher' Spotlights India's Problem |url=https://time.com/6696865/elephants-poacher-alia-bhatt-amazon-streaming/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=TIME |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-23 |title=Poacher Review: Ritchie Mehta's Taut Investigative Thriller On Ivory Trade Is A Worthy Follow Up To Delhi Crime |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/web-series/poacher-review-ritchie-mehta-taut-investigative-thriller-on-ivory-trade-is-a-worthy-follow-up-to-delhi-crime-review-107922107 |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Law enforcement operations in India]]
[[Category:Wildlife conservation in India]]
[[Category:2015 in India]]
[[Category:2017 in India]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Environment-stub}}"
Crocodile skin,"{{About|crocodile skin within fashion|(animal)|crocodile}}
{{short description|Skin of a live crocodile or a leather made from dead crocodile hide}}

'''Crocodile skin''' either refers to the [[skin]] of a live crocodile or a leather made from dead crocodile [[Hide (skin)|hide]].  It has multiple applications across the fashion industry such as use for bags, shoes, and upholstery after being farmed and treated in specialist farms and tanneries.[[File:Preserved_skin_of_Lolong_at_Philippine_National_Museum.jpg|thumb|[[Taxidermy|Taxidermied]] skin of [[Lolong]], coined as the largest crocodile in captivity by [[Guinness World Records]], at Philippine National Museum]]

== Crocodile leather ==
{{Main|Leather}}
Crocodile leather is the processed hide of one of 23 crocodile species in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crocoworld.com/crocodile-species/|title=Crocodile Species|last=CrocoWorld|website=Crocodile Facts and Information|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref>  Crocodile leather is an [[exotic leather]] which as a group, makes up less than 1% of the world's leather production.<ref name="":82"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.leather-dictionary.com/index.php/Exotic_leather|title=Exotic leather - www.leather-dictionary.com - The Leather Dictionary|website=www.leather-dictionary.com}}</ref>   It is rare compared to other hides such as sheep or cow and requires high levels of craftsmanship to prepare it for use in the consumer industry.<ref name="":6"" />  Crocodile leather is considered a luxury item utilized by high fashion brands such as Hermes, Moet Hennessy Louis Vuitton (LVMH) and Gucci.<ref name=""Daneshku"">{{Cite web |last=Daneshkhu |first=Scheherazade |date=2013-05-26 |title=Luxury race to bag the best skins |url=https://www.ft.com/content/ed5824f8-c133-11e2-9767-00144feab7de |url-access=subscription |access-date=2019-05-11 |website=Financial Times |language=en-GB}}</ref>   As a material, crocodile leather is rare and expensive because of limited numbers of crocodiles, their relatively small size and the scarcity of dependable farms and tanning facilities to process and prepare the product for market.<ref name=""Daneshku""/>
[[File:Red Crocodile Kelly Bag.jpg|thumb|Red Crocodile Kelly Bag|alt=]]

== Applications and Uses ==
Crocodile skin is primarily used in the production of handbags and other luxury items such as shoes, belts, wallets, upholstery, and furniture.  For these products, [[Freshwater crocodile|Freshwater]], [[Saltwater crocodile|Saltwater]], [[Nile crocodile|Nile]] and [[Caiman crocodilus|Caiman]] are used because of the superior quality of skin which when tanned has an aesthetic finish.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.crocodileleather.net/about-crocodile-leather/|title=About Crocodile Leather {{!}} Crocodile Leather - Luxury Grade Wholesale Crocodile Hides|date=28 May 2009 |language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> Not all these skins are valued the same.  As one of the largest crocodile species, the Australian Saltwater Crocodile has a reputation for having the most desirable and high-quality hide.  This makes it more popular than the smaller Caiman skins which, as a more common species, is a cheaper option.<ref name="":10"">Hawkins, Huynh, Stephen, Chi ''(December 2004). Improved Preservation and early-stage processing of Australian Crocodile Skins.'' Australia: Australian Government, Rural Industries Research and Development Cooperation. pp.3-35 {{ISBN|1741510732}}</ref>  The value of a skin is dependent on what it will be used for.  Freshwater Crocodile, particularly from New Guinea, is known for its flexibility which allows processors to skive it down to a thinness suitable for clothing whereas Nile crocodile, mostly available across Africa,<ref name="":0"" /> is durable, making it desirable for heavy-duty items such as footwear and belts.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last=Thorbjarnarson|first=John|date=June 1999|title= Crocodile Tears and Skins: International Trade, Economic Constraints, and Limits to the Sustainable Use of Crocodilians|journal=Conservation Biology|volume= 13|issue=3|pages=465–470|via=JSTOR|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.00011.x|s2cid=83775178 }}</ref>

== Farming ==
{{Main|Crocodile farm}}

Crocodiles are either farmed or wild-caught.<ref name="":1"">Hawkins, Huynh, Stephen, Chi ''(December 2004). Improved Preservation and early stage processing of Australian Crocodile Skins.'' Australia: Australian Government, Rural Industries Research and Development Cooperation. pp. 5-34 {{ISBN|1741510732}}</ref>  In Northern and Western Australia crocodile farms carry out ranching which includes [[captive breeding]] and harvesting of eggs from the wild.  Eggs are collected and landowners sell the eggs to local farms to breed.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2019-03-exotic-leather-fashion-snakes-crocodiles.html|title=Banning exotic leather in fashion hurts snakes and crocodiles in the long run|website=phys.org|language=en-us|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref>  In 2018 this method also became legal in Queensland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/wildlife/livingwith/crocodiles/egg-harvest/|title=Crocodile egg harvesting|last=Science|first=jurisdiction=Queensland; sector=government; corporateName=Department of Environment and|date=2018-09-21|website=Department of Environment and Science|language=en-AU|access-date=2019-08-13}}</ref><ref name="":6"" />

On a crocodile farm, crocodiles are grown and prepared for slaughter before their skin is removed, treated, and sent to be tanned in specialist tanneries and used in the manufacture of commercial goods.

#'''Ranching''' - this is the collection of wild eggs.<ref name="":10"" />  Collection usually occurs in February and March.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.crocosauruscove.com/saltwater-crocodiles-its-breeding-time/|title=Saltwater Crocodiles - It's breeding time in the Top End|date=2013-12-18|website=Croc Cove|language=en|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref>
#'''Hatching''' - the eggs are incubated and protected to ensure the highest yield.<ref name="":4"" />
#'''Growth''' - the crocodiles are grown to certain sizes dependent on what the skin will be used for.  For example, most bags will require a 40&nbsp;cm belly skin which will require a crocodile of generally 1.5 years old or 1.2 m long.  The requirements vary depending on what is fashionable at the time, for example, if there is a trend for small handbags then a farm will reduce the growth stage and instigate slaughter earlier as smaller skins are required by the fashion industry.  It is a case of supply and demand; if crocodile skin suits are ""in fashion"" then crocodile farmers will need to provide the fashion industry will larger skins suitable for such production.<ref name="":5"">Ernst & Young, Northern Territory Crocodile Industry Economic Contribution Analysis (2017). ''Final Report: Economic Value of the Crocodile Farming Industry to the Northern Territory.'' Australia: Ernst & Young. pp.1-43.</ref><ref name="":4"" />
#'''Stunning''' - Once the crocodiles have reached the desired size, the crocodile is stunned with a rod and its eyes are covered to calm it.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/hack/top-end-crocodile-industry-leather-meat/9801626|title=Take a rare look inside the Top End's lucrative crocodile industry|last=Dias|first=Avani|date=2018-05-28|website=triple j|language=en|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref> They are then sent to abattoirs where skins and meat are removed for sale.<ref name="":6"" />
#'''Slaughter''' - Humane slaughter is carried out by the severing of the spinal cord.<ref name="":6"" />
#'''Disinfection''' - According to food-safety guidelines the skin is disinfected.
#'''Chilling''' - Before skinning the carcass is left in a cold room bleed.<ref name="":1"" />  This often takes place overnight.<ref name="":6"" />
#'''Skinning''' - Skin is carefully removed.
#'''Meat Processing''' - meat is removed and packaged according to food safety requirements.
#'''Skin Processing''' - the processing of the removed skin involves short and long term preservation, grading and measurement and storage until dispatch.<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":6"">Goulding, Riedel, Bevan, Warfield, Brendan, Elysa, Andrea, Bronwyn (June 2007). ''Export Markets for Skins and Leather for Australia’s camel, crocodile, emu and goat industries. A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.'' Australia: Australian Government, Rural Industries Research, and Development Corporation. pp. 15-32. ''{{ISBN|1 74151 486 X}}''</ref>

The main farm income is in crocodile skin for the fashion industry.<ref name="":7"" />  It is important the skin is of good quality to achieve the highest revenue possible.  Preservation is essential as quality of skin reduces substantially in warm conditions where the farms tend to be situated.<ref name="":6"" />  To add value to skins, some farms include fleshing at the stage of short term preservation. Fleshing is usually carried out by tanners and is the trimming, scraping and removal of remaining muscle tissue using sharp equipment and high power water jets.<ref name="":1"" />  It is often considered risky for farms to complete the fleshing process as the skin may be damaged, a costly mistake.  1 skin costs $12 in labor, not including operating or capital costs.  Therefore, fleshing is usually carried out by tanners.<ref name="":1"" />

== Value, quality and measurements ==
The skin is the most valuable part of a crocodile, followed by the meat and other body parts such as teeth.<ref name="":5"" />  Value is decided in two ways: size and grade.  Greater width increases the value of the skin and is measured across the third raised [[scute]].  The grade is measured on a scale of damage to the skin and value is deducted by 25% at each level.<ref name="":1"" />  Therefore, skin value can drop significantly if the quality is not maintained by careful handling.

The value of first-grade skin per cm is $9 (USA), a 40&nbsp;cm of skin therefore costs $360.<ref name="":1"" />  For every imperfection, value decreases which is why crocodile farmers take precautionary measures such as covering corners of enclosures with plastic, to keep their crocodiles in good condition.<ref name="":11"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/weekend-australian-magazine/saltwater-crocodiles-high-fashion-meets-evolutionary-design/news-story/5dd554716513843885959a63afb150f0|title=Skin in the fashion game|date=2015-07-10|website=www.theaustralian.com.au|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref>  Crocodiles are put into smaller groups to prevent fights and spread of infections are known to lead to scarring and damage of skin which will affect the value of leather.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/weekend-australian-magazine/saltwater-crocodiles-high-fashion-meets-evolutionary-design/news-story/5dd554716513843885959a63afb150f0|title=Skin in the fashion game|date=2015-07-10|website=www.theaustralian.com.au|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref><ref name="":1"" />

The value of a skin is dependent on how much it is desired by fashion houses such as [[Louis Vuitton]], [[Yves Saint Laurent (brand)|Yves Saint Laurent]] and [[Hermès|Hermes]].<ref name="":11"" />  Premium skins are usually transported to countries such as France, Italy and the United States of America where the most reputable tanneries treat the skins according to the designer's wishes and make them ready for manufacture into commercial goods such as [[bag]]s, [[shoe]]s and accessories.<ref name="":7"" />  In Australia, (both a producer and manufacturer of crocodile hide) businesses like Di Croco offer custom products to customers and also use lesser skins and by-products to minimize waste.<ref name="":5"" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dicroco.com/|title=Welcome to the di CROCO Boutique|website=di CROCO|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref>

Quality can be improved up to the point of slaughter and from here only maintained or reduced.<ref name="":1"" />  Skin must be preserved carefully as after slaughter there is a loss of immune response and it becomes susceptible to microbial contamination such as scale slip, staining and discoloration<ref name="":11"" /> and biological damage, e.g. bacterial or fungal infection.<ref name="":1"" /> In short term preservation, a 60% brine solution is used for up to five days. In long term preservation, a commercial biocide is required which allows the skin to be kept for up to four months.<ref name="":1"" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://alligatorhuntingequipment.com/tan.html|title=How To Tan an alligator Hide|website=alligatorhuntingequipment.com|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref> The skins are kept in sealed individual bags, though not vacuum packed, to minimize exposure, prevent creasing and simplify handling. Farmers and tanners use specific methods of folding or rolling skins to prevent creases forming across the scales.<ref name="":1"" />
[[File: Crocodiles skin 0568-Djerba-sgsprzem.jpg|thumb|The rough-textured scutes of crocodile hide present in the back cut.]]
There are 2 main cuts of crocodile skin:

# Back Cut - Scaly cut with a rough texture and mainly used in trimmings.
# Belly Cut - Highly popular cut due to smooth texture and close, small scale structure which makes it pliable and suitable for many items such as handbags and clothing.<ref name="":82""/>

The largest width of the belly is measured to gauge the value of the hide.<ref name="":0"" /> When designers are purchasing crocodile leather, they must take into consideration the measurements are for the overall size of the hide and not a pattern width. As a result, it can take several skins to produce a single item.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite web|url=http://workshop.rojeleather.com/|title=Roje Workshop - Designer Exotic Leather Handbags and Furniture|website=workshop.rojeleather.com|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref>

== Treatment after Farming and Production ==
Development programs were set up to support the growth of crocodile populations during harvest in the 1960s and 1970s in the Americas and Rhodesia.<ref name="":7"" /> Papua New Guinea put similar management programs in place which made the trading of crocodile skin economically and commercially viable as it prevented over hunting and depletion in numbers. Maintenance of these farms relies on skin-producing countries to export their products elsewhere for tanning and manufacture.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal|last=Thorbjarnarson|first=John|date=1999|title=Crocodile Tears and Skins: International Trade, Economic Constraints, and Limits to the Sustainable Use of Crocodilians|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=13|issue=3|pages=465–470|issn=0888-8892|jstor=2641860|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.00011.x|s2cid=83775178 }}</ref>

Often, it is impossible to tell if a skin has been preserved adequately until after tanning as there may be no signs of biological damage.<ref name="":1"" /> A damaged skin resulting in a dull, discolored or scuffed finish which ultimately devalues the leather.<ref name="":9"" />

Australian Saltwater Crocodile is one of the most sought after skins because it is flexible which makes it good for handbag production.<ref name="":6"" /> Bonier hides of Caiman crocodiles are more difficult to dye and work with, making them a less popular option. For items such as bags, suits or trousers, large panels of skin are required.<ref name="":82""/> With large areas of leather on display, damaged leather is obvious which is why cautions are taken to ensure high-grade skins come out of the crocodile farms. Small bags require a hide of 30 to 34&nbsp; cm. Larger bags need skins of 40 to 50&nbsp;cm.<ref name="":12"" /> Manufacturers should use the maximum amount of hide to avoid waste. Scraps are used for straps, gussets and interior details.<ref name="":13"" />  It is necessary for the designer to mark the skin with preparatory sewing lines using a rotatory tool to thin the line where the stitches will run. This reduces the risk of the needle hitting calcium deposits which may break the needle.<ref name="":13"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.panamleathers.com/blog/bid/356576/4-Tips-for-Making-Crocodile-Skin-Handbags|title=4 Tips for Making Crocodile Skin Handbags|last=Mendal|first=Mark|website=www.panamleathers.com|language=en-us|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref><ref name="":7"" />

It takes an average of two artisan days to make a crocodile skin handbag. Timing depends on the glazing technique used on the hide as certain glazes affect the pliability of the leather, making it stiffer and prone to cracking.<ref name="":12"" /> Longer, more complicated process is required when the leather has been treated like this as the leather cannot be turned inside out in the traditional way.<ref name="":0"" />

== Legalities ==
The crocodile skin trade is legally complicated because it is important that the leather is sourced reliably from farms where crocodiles are treated in humane conditions. Unregulated commercial hunting has resulted in a decline of many crocodile populations so governments have put protection over many reptiles.<ref name="":3"" /> [[CITES]] is an international agreement between 164 countries to protect endangered species from extinction. Established in 1973, it stands for ""Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora"".<ref name="":7"" /> Legally imported crocodile skin must come from reputable farms with CITES certification to prove legal possession. Any uncertificated skins are confiscated by customs and sale of an inherited (pre-CITES) or illegally imported skin is a criminal offense.<ref name="":6"" />

The laws on crocodile trade are different around the world. In America, it is legal to import sustainably sourced crocodile leather as long as it complies with the restrictions imposed by CITES.<ref name="":3"" /> Crocodile leather trade for Freshwater [[Siamese crocodile|Siamese Crocodile]] with Thailand, Vietnam or Cambodia is forbidden even if the skin is accompanied by a CITES certificate.<ref name="":1"" /> In certain cases, illegal trade occurs when buyers are unaware of restrictions so companies or businesses purchasing crocodile hide must be sure of the origin of the skin they are purchasing.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":0"" />

== Trade ==
Crocodile leather trade was established in the Caribbean, Mexico and Central America when it became a popular material in the 1800s.<ref name="":7"" /> Since then, demand for skins has increased to the extent that hunting and production spread to Africa, Asia and Australia, where the majority of crocodile skins are sustainably sourced today.<ref name="":7"" />

In the Northern Territory, crocodile farms generate $107 million per year. This is a crucial form of income for a community lacking viable industry.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/hack/top-end-crocodile-industry-leather-meat/9801626|title=Take a rare look inside the Top End's lucrative crocodile industry|last=Dias|first=Avani|date=2018-05-28|website=triple j|language=en|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> Crocodile farming is valued as providing 264 jobs (2017) as well as encouraging harmony within communities with Indigenous and local people who carry out egg hunting and crocodile rearing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-07-27/nt-crocodile-industry-worth-100m-four-times-previous-estimates/8748192|title=NT croc industry valued at over $100m, four times previous estimates|last=Vanovac|first=Neda|date=2017-07-27|website=ABC News|language=en-AU|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref>  

Crocodile farming is not limited to the production of skins for the fashion industry. Tourism and on-farm breeding help maintain the state of farms and educate the public about the role of crocodile farming in certain communities. In the Northern Territory tourists can visit Crocodylus Park<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crocodyluspark.com.au/|title=Crocodylus Park|website=www.crocodyluspark.com.au|access-date=2019-05-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190313232323/http://crocodyluspark.com.au/|archive-date=2019-03-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Crocosaurus Cove]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.crocosauruscove.com/cage-of-death/|title=Cage of Death {{!}}|website=Croc Cove|language=en|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref> to learn about the crocodiles and the trade.<ref name="":5"" />

== Conservation ==
{{Further|List of critically endangered reptiles}}
Within certain societies, the crocodile trade is extremely important.<ref name="":1"" />  In 1945 - 1971 Northern Australians generated significant income at the expense of the crocodile as uncontrolled trade severely impacted on the populations of both saltwater and freshwater crocodiles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.qhatlas.com.au/crocodile-hunting|title=Crocodile hunting|website=Queensland Historical Atlas|language=en|access-date=2019-08-13}}</ref>  Full protection over the Australian Saltwater Crocodile was established in 1971 to allow the species to recover.<ref name="":22"" />  When crocodile numbers increased, co-habitation with local people became a problem, and fatal and non-fatal attacks on people and fishing boats were reported in 1979/1980. In response, the Northern Territory established an 'incentive-driven conservation strategy'<ref name="":22"">Parks and Wildlife Service of the Northern Territory (2012–2014). ''Management Program for the saltwater crocodile in the Northern Territory of Australia 2012-2014.'' Australia: Northern Territory Government, department of natural resources, environment, the arts, and sport. pp. 1-62.</ref> which encouraged people to protect crocodiles through commercial activity such as farming, tourism, and ranching.<ref name="":2"" /> The Saltwater Crocodiles are seen as a commercial resource by communities who generate wealth and employment through the crocodile industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/arcadia/tropical-australias-crocodile-entrepreneurs|title=Tropical Australia's Crocodile Entrepreneurs {{!}} Environment & Society Portal|website=www.environmentandsociety.org|date=7 February 2019 |language=en|access-date=2019-08-13}}</ref>  This also promotes crocodile conservation which would otherwise be difficult because of their predatory nature.<ref name="":2"">Parks and Wildlife Service of the Northern Territory (2012–2014). ''Management Program for the saltwater crocodile in the Northern Territory of Australia 2012-2014.'' Australia: Northern Territory Government, the department of natural resources, environment, the arts, and sport. pp. 18-36.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/proof/2017/08/crocodile-hunter-conservation-frost-photos/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906113308/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/proof/2017/08/crocodile-hunter-conservation-frost-photos/|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 6, 2017|title=Inside the Rugged Lives of Crocodile Hunters|date=2017-08-31|website=Photography|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref>

Brands who use crocodile skins are encouraged to support conservation efforts.  Australian brand Croc Stock and Barra use unwanted sections of skin to handcraft luxury items and ensure waste is limited.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://crocstockandbarra.com/pages/about-us|title=About us {{!}} Croc Stock and Barra Leather Products|website=Croc Stock and Barra|language=en|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref> Other brands such as Roje Exotics  American Leathers claim to use leather that is the byproduct of the international exotic cuisine industry which also ensures fewer skins are wasted within the system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://workshop.rojeleather.com/about/|title=About|website=workshop.rojeleather.com|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref>

== Animal Welfare ==
{{Main|animal welfare}}
The Management Program within the Northern Territory maintains that the crocodiles are farmed in a humane way.  It makes assessments on farming limits and population dynamics to ensure the numbers of Saltwater Crocodile are maintained and never reach the lows of 1972 again.<ref name="":2"" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Australia|Companies}}
*[[Crocodile industry]]
*[[Kangaroo industry]]
*[[Alligator leather]]

== Bibliography ==
<references />

{{Crocs}}{{Leather|leather=}}{{Clothing materials and parts|Clothing materials and parts=}}

[[Category:Leathermaking]]
[[Category:Leather]]
[[Category:Industry in Australia]]
[[Category:Skin]]
[[Category:Fashion]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Crocodylidae]]
[[Category:Leather goods]]
[[Category:Leather industry]]
[[Category:Bags (fashion)]]
[[Category:Crocodiles of Australia]]
[[Category:Animal products]]"
Human bycatch,"{{Short description|People who are unintentionally recorded by wildlife monitoring equipment}}
'''Human bycatch''' (or '''human by-catch''') is a term for people who are unintentionally caught on film, in photos, or acoustically recorded on equipment used to [[wildlife observation|monitor wildlife]] or habitats for the purpose of [[wildlife conservation|conservation]], or [[environmental law]] enforcement. It comes from the term ''[[bycatch]]'', which is used in fishing practices to designate non-target species that are caught in a fishing net. Nearly every remote monitoring study contains human by-catch,<ref name="":0"">{{cite journal |last1=Sandbrook |first1=Chris |last2=Luque-Lora |first2=Rogelio |last3=Adams |first3=WilliamM |title=Human Bycatch: Conservation Surveillance and the Social Implications of Camera Traps |journal=Conservation and Society |date=2018 |volume=16 |issue=4 |page=493 |doi=10.4103/cs.cs_17_165 |doi-access=free }}</ref> yet there are no standardized rules or policies regarding what the researchers can or should do with their data.

== Camera traps ==
[[File:Camera_on_cottonwood_tree_(6659381551).jpg|alt=Camera on tree|thumb|Camera on cottonwood tree]]

=== Description and uses ===
[[Camera trap]]s are typically a large network of cameras that are set up in the environment to capture images of wildlife. Most camera traps have some sort of sensor to trigger the shutter; usually by movement or heat ([[infrared]]). They are used widely in [[Conservation biology|conservation]] work, by field biologists, and, to a lesser extent, by hobbyists, and hunters. Camera traps end up with many false triggers, such as moving vegetation, false heat reading from warm wind, and accidental human capture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Newey |first1=Scott |last2=Davidson |first2=Paul |last3=Nazir |first3=Sajid |last4=Fairhurst |first4=Gorry |last5=Verdicchio |first5=Fabio |last6=Irvine |first6=R. Justin |last7=van der Wal |first7=René |title=Limitations of recreational camera traps for wildlife management and conservation research: A practitioner's perspective |journal=Ambio |date=27 October 2015 |volume=44 |issue=S4 |pages=624–635 |doi=10.1007/s13280-015-0713-1 |pmid=26508349 |pmc=4623860 }}</ref> These types of monitoring systems will, by design, capture and retain many photos of people. Camera trapping is still very human-intensive work, requiring a lot of effort to go through the thousands of images that are collected.<ref name=""autogenerated1"">{{cite journal |last1=Nazir |first1=Sajid |last2=Newey |first2=Scott |last3=Irvine |first3=R. Justin |last4=Verdicchio |first4=Fabio |last5=Davidson |first5=Paul |last6=Fairhurst |first6=Gorry |last7=Wal |first7=René van der |last8=Song |first8=Houbing |title=WiseEye: Next Generation Expandable and Programmable Camera Trap Platform for Wildlife Research |journal=PLOS ONE |date=11 January 2017 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=e0169758 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0169758 |pmid=28076444 |pmc=5226779 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1269758N |doi-access=free }}</ref> Camera traps are useful tools for both land and [[marine conservation]], [[Environmental resource management|environmental]] and [[Wildlife management|wildlife]] management, and [[Poaching|environmental law enforcement]]. By placing high resolution cameras along the shoreline, a network of cameras are able to monitor [[illegal fishing]] practices in [[Marine protected area|protected]], no-fish areas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lancaster |first1=Darienne |last2=Dearden |first2=Philip |last3=Haggarty |first3=Dana R. |last4=Volpe |first4=John P. |last5=Ban |first5=Natalie C. |title=Effectiveness of shore-based remote camera monitoring for quantifying recreational fisher compliance in marine conservation areas |journal=Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems |date=August 2017 |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=804–813 |doi=10.1002/aqc.2736 }}</ref> Camera traps are not limited to the land; they are even used underwater, and, similar to land-based camera traps, use an automatic trigger when movement is detected in view of the frame.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Kresimir |last2=De Robertis |first2=Alex |last3=Berkowitz |first3=Zachary |last4=Rooper |first4=Chris |last5=Towler |first5=Rick |title=An underwater stereo-camera trap |journal=Methods in Oceanography |date=December 2014 |volume=11 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1016/j.mio.2015.01.003 |bibcode=2014MetOc..11....1W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bicknell |first1=Anthony WJ |last2=Godley |first2=Brendan J |last3=Sheehan |first3=Emma V |last4=Votier |first4=Stephen C |last5=Witt |first5=Matthew J |title=Camera technology for monitoring marine biodiversity and human impact |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=October 2016 |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=424–432 |doi=10.1002/fee.1322 |hdl=10871/24097 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> They are utilized at airports to help prevent incidents of wildlife collisions with aircraft.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scheideman |first1=Matthew |last2=Rea |first2=Roy |last3=Hesse |first3=Gayle |last4=Soong |first4=Laura |last5=Green |first5=Cuyler |last6=Sample |first6=Caleb |last7=Booth |first7=Annie |title=Use of wildlife camera traps to aid in wildlife management planning at airports |journal=Journal of Airport Management |date=1 October 2017 |volume=11 |issue=4 |url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/hsp/cam/2017/00000011/00000004/art00007 }}</ref> Camera traps are even used in elementary education settings, helping to bring young students closer to the natural world around them. By taking advantage of night vision technology, the students can learn about and see wildlife in their school yard that they never would have been able to see, before.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tanner |first1=Dawn |last2=Ernst |first2=Julie |title=Who Goes There? Linking Remote Cameras and Schoolyard Science to Empower Action |journal=Journal of Experiential Education |date=19 June 2013 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=106–122 |doi=10.1177/1053825913487888 |s2cid=145345514 }}</ref> Field research biologists generally try to locate their cameras away from areas of high human traffic, because increased presence of humans generally has a negative correlation with presence of wildlife.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kolowski |first1=Joseph M. |last2=Forrester |first2=Tavis D. |last3=Arlettaz |first3=Raphaël |title=Camera trap placement and the potential for bias due to trails and other features |journal=PLOS ONE |date=18 October 2017 |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=e0186679 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0186679 |pmid=29045478 |pmc=5646845 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1286679K |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Privacy concerns ===
Most people associate going ""into the wild"" with a reasonable [[expectation of privacy]]. It is not uncommon for hikers and backpackers to engage in private behavior, as in, something they would not want others to see, such as urinating. Private behaviors such as this have been caught on many camera traps. In fact, because humans are so abundant, and the areas that need conservation focus are usually areas in which humans share with the target species or habitat, nearly every study using camera traps has ended up with human by-catch.<ref name="":0"" /> It is not uncommon for researchers to end up with more photos of humans than of their target species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oberosler |first1=Valentina |last2=Groff |first2=Claudio |last3=Iemma |first3=Aaron |last4=Pedrini |first4=Paolo |last5=Rovero |first5=Francesco |title=The influence of human disturbance on occupancy and activity patterns of mammals in the Italian Alps from systematic camera trapping |journal=Mammalian Biology |date=November 2017 |volume=87 |pages=50–61 |doi=10.1016/j.mambio.2017.05.005 }}</ref> There are instances of a by-catch photo of a coworker urinating, or similar situations, being saved and posted publicly as a joke. By-catch photos of people engaging in activity that may or may not be illegal, but undesired, has been posted publicly to influence the people in the study area to act differently.<ref name="":2"">{{cite journal |last1=Butler |first1=Desmond A. |last2=Meek |first2=Paul |title=Camera trapping and invasions of privacy: an Australian legal perspective |journal=Torts Law Journal |date=April 2013 |volume=20 |pages=235–264 |url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/62288/ }}</ref> The line between a joke, a well-intentioned push for better behavior, and invasion of privacy, is thin. There are already potential solutions on the market. The technology to automatically flag, blur, or remove photos containing humans exists, and will only improve with time. While there are no broad requirements to do so, individual organizations could make this policy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yousif |first1=Hayder |last2=Yuan |first2=Jianhe |last3=Kays |first3=Roland |last4=He |first4=Zhihai |title=Animal Scanner: Software for classifying humans, animals, and empty frames in camera trap images |journal=Ecology and Evolution |date=February 2019 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=1578–1589 |doi=10.1002/ece3.4747 |pmid=30847057 |pmc=6392355 }}</ref>

== Drones ==
[[File:Quadcopter_camera_drone_in_flight.jpg|alt=Quadcopter camera drone in flight|thumb|Quadcopter camera drone in flight]]

=== Description and uses ===

[[Unmanned aerial vehicle|Drones]] are unoccupied aircraft vehicles that are remotely controlled by a person. While often associated with military use, the decreasing cost of the technology has allowed for civil use of drones to grow.<ref name="":1"">{{cite journal |last1=Choi-Fitzpatrick |first1=Austin |title=Drones for good: Technological innovations, social movements, and the state |journal=Journal of International Affairs |date=2014 |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=19–36 |jstor=24461704 }}</ref> Drones are being increasingly used in the fields of resource management and conservation because of their light weight and small stature, and their speed. They also have reduced risk of injury and death when compared to traditional field biologist [[aerial survey]]s, and are less invasive than humans in the field.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Linchant |first1=Julie |last2=Lisein |first2=Jonathan |last3=Semeki |first3=Jean |last4=Lejeune |first4=Philippe |last5=Vermeulen |first5=Cédric |title=Are unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) the future of wildlife monitoring? A review of accomplishments and challenges |journal=Mammal Review |date=October 2015 |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=239–252 |doi=10.1111/mam.12046 }}</ref>

Drones are beneficial in a variety of environments, including marine. Because of their speed and ease of setup to take off, they can quickly be launched to record identifying data of boats illegally fishing in protected areas. The altitude at which drones fly allows nearly non-invasive observation of marine wildlife.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnston |first1=David W. |title=Unoccupied Aircraft Systems in Marine Science and Conservation |journal=Annual Review of Marine Science |date=3 January 2019 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=439–463 |doi=10.1146/annurev-marine-010318-095323 |pmid=30020850 |bibcode=2019ARMS...11..439J |doi-access=free }}</ref> Because of the ability to follow quick moving wildlife and take very high resolution images, drones are very beneficial in both species [[Animal identification|identification]] and individual identification of [[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s. Similar to marine environments, forests are vast areas that can be difficult and slow to patrol on foot, or even by vehicle. Forests are one of the most exploited environments on earth, and due to their large, widespread nature, are difficult to manage. Drones allow observation of vast areas in a relatively short amount of time, and can produce aerial imagery to identify a multitude of activities, including illegal logging, fire activity, trespassing, and wildlife tracking.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fraser |first1=Benjamin |last2=Congalton |first2=Russell |title=Issues in Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) Data Collection of Complex Forest Environments |journal=Remote Sensing |date=8 June 2018 |volume=10 |issue=6 |page=908 |doi=10.3390/rs10060908 |bibcode=2018RemS...10..908F |doi-access=free }}</ref> Drones are not only used for forest conservation, but also by timber companies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paneque-Gálvez |first1=Jaime |last2=McCall |first2=Michael |last3=Napoletano |first3=Brian |last4=Wich |first4=Serge |last5=Koh |first5=Lian |title=Small Drones for Community-Based Forest Monitoring: An Assessment of Their Feasibility and Potential in Tropical Areas |journal=Forests |date=24 June 2014 |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=1481–1507 |doi=10.3390/f5061481 |doi-access=free |hdl=2440/90708 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Privacy concerns ===
Drones are increasingly used for law enforcement in Africa, where [[poaching]] is one of the biggest threats to endangered species. While beneficial in finding and pursuing poachers, this type of surveillance conservation can create fear among the people who live in the region. These technologies that can be used to track down wildlife, can just as easily be programmed to track down people.<ref name=""autogenerated337"">{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=William M. |title=Geographies of conservation II: Technology, surveillance and conservation by algorithm |journal=Progress in Human Geography |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=337–350 |doi=10.1177/0309132517740220 |year=2019 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Drones have moved the line of sight upwards; where a backyard fence used to afford privacy from passerby, a drone operating in public airspace now may have clear view of one's yard.<ref name="":1"" /> American public perception of drones is generally positive, with privacy being the main concern. A drone operator may not always be visible or accessible, which could raise security concerns.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yang |last2=Xia |first2=Huichuan |last3=Yao |first3=Yaxing |last4=Huang |first4=Yun |title=Flying Eyes and Hidden Controllers: A Qualitative Study of People's Privacy Perceptions of Civilian Drones in The US |journal=Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies |date=1 July 2016 |volume=2016 |issue=3 |pages=172–190 |doi=10.1515/popets-2016-0022 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Americans are willing to give up a certain level of privacy for the technology and convenience drones may offer, for things such as package delivery.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yoo |first1=Wonsang |last2=Yu |first2=Eun |last3=Jung |first3=Jaemin |title=Drone delivery: Factors affecting the public's attitude and intention to adopt |journal=Telematics and Informatics |date=September 2018 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=1687–1700 |doi=10.1016/j.tele.2018.04.014 |s2cid=52050862 }}</ref>

Potential solutions to the issue of passive human by-catch include image-altering technology to automatically pixelate identifying portions of images, such as a person's face or license plate number.<ref name=pmid30453646>{{cite journal |last1=Lagkas |first1=Thomas |last2=Argyriou |first2=Vasileios |last3=Bibi |first3=Stamatia |last4=Sarigiannidis |first4=Panagiotis |title=UAV IoT Framework Views and Challenges: Towards Protecting Drones as 'Things' |journal=Sensors |date=17 November 2018 |volume=18 |issue=11 |page=4015 |doi=10.3390/s18114015 |pmid=30453646 |pmc=6263805 |bibcode=2018Senso..18.4015L |doi-access=free }}</ref> These issues are separate from a more overt use of drones for the purpose of surveillance. There is a concept of behavioral privacy; the idea that a person's behavior differs if they know they are being watched, or not. If one lives in an area where drones are being used for surveillance, their behavioral privacy is compromised, as they do not feel that they have the freedom to act naturally.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=Roger |title=The regulation of civilian drones' impacts on behavioural privacy |journal=Computer Law & Security Review |date=June 2014 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=286–305 |doi=10.1016/j.clsr.2014.03.005 }}</ref>

== Acoustic recording ==

=== Description and uses ===
[[Sound recording and reproduction|Acoustic recording]] is commonly used in field [[biology]] work to confirm the presence of a species, and in conservation law enforcement, to help prevent or catch poachers. Acoustic recording devices may be passive (recording all the time) or active (recording only when triggered). Researchers may use a device and software that automatically detect a certain trigger event, such as a specific bird call or gunshot. By using [[Acoustic location|acoustic location technology]], law enforcement can locate the approximate location of the gunshot, and use that to pursue poachers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=Andrew P. |last2=Prince |first2=Peter |last3=Piña Covarrubias |first3=Evelyn |last4=Doncaster |first4=C. Patrick |last5=Snaddon |first5=Jake L. |last6=Rogers |first6=Alex |last7=Isaac |first7=Nick |title=AudioMoth: Evaluation of a smart open acoustic device for monitoring biodiversity and the environment |journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution |date=May 2018 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=1199–1211 |doi=10.1111/2041-210X.12955 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Privacy concerns ===
Anyone in the vicinity of these sound recorders may unknowingly have their conversations and activities recorded. Most states in the US have wire-tapping laws that require consent of one or all parties for certain types of conversations to be {{nowrap|recorded{{hsp}}{{mdash}}}}{{hsp}}ones where there is a reasonable expectation of privacy. Legal opinions differ on which types of communication fall under this protection.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robbins |first1=Megan L. |title=Practical Suggestions for Legal and Ethical Concerns With Social Environment Sampling Methods |journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science |date=5 May 2017 |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=573–580 |doi=10.1177/1948550617699253 |s2cid=151588195 }}</ref>

== US policies and regulations ==

=== Research and conservation policies ===
There are no official policies regarding human by-catch data among research and conservation organizations. Each organization may have its own policies. The technology is still emerging, but there are potential solutions. There are software programs, whose original intent is to ease the burden of the thousands of images that must be checked and logged during a camera trap study. The programs assist in automating the process of filtering out the false positives; photos that were triggered without the target species. Along with filtering out empty frames, this software can detect human presence, and filter out photos of humans.<ref name=""autogenerated1""/> This way, privacy could be ensured if the process was automated, so that no person had access to the photos of the people that were inadvertently taken. Most of the government policies and laws regarding privacy with these technologies are aimed at drones.

=== Law enforcement policies ===
Illegal actions and behaviors that occur on government or public lands, do not afford protection by a [[Expectation of privacy|reasonable expectation of privacy]].<ref name="":2"" /> Drones are beneficial to aid law enforcement agencies to prevent, confront, and prosecute illegal activities such as logging, poaching, or fishing in a protected marine area. These illegal behaviors often occur in a vast area that is difficult to patrol by foot, or even traditional vehicle. Drones are fast, efficient, and can capture incriminating information with high definition. The intent of the remote recording devices in this case is to catch people engaging in illegal activities, so there is no argument for protection of privacy.<ref name=vermjenvilaw.17.1.138>{{cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=Brittany |title=Big Brother Watching Mother Nature: Conservation Drones and Their International and Domestic Privacy Implications |journal=Vermont Journal of Environmental Law |date=2015 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=138–159 |jstor=vermjenvilaw.17.1.138 }}</ref>

=== Surveillance policies ===
If cameras and drones become part of everyday life, the importance of privacy and security are more important than ever. With devices that are constantly sensing and recording, the security measures used to protect the privacy of the people in its proximity also need to be adaptable and advanced.<ref name=pmid30453646/>

=== Notice posting ===
While there is no policy to do so, researchers must decide if they want to post notices in an area where they are monitoring using one of the above referred to remote devices. The purpose of posting is to allow people in the area to know that they may be recorded, if they enter the area. Unfortunately, some people may not appreciate the perceived invasion on their privacy, and may tamper with or vandalize the cameras. In addition, posting notices about equipment puts it at risk to be stolen by thieves.<ref name="":2"" />

=== FAA regulation on drones ===
[[File:No-drone-zone-area-sign.jpg|alt=Sign that states, ""No Drone Zone""|thumb|Signage prohibiting drone use]]
In the United States, the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] regulations on drones only pertain to the physical safety of [[airspace]] and everything under it. Privacy regulation is not within the realm of the FAA; that is for state and local governments to decide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zwickle |first1=Adam |last2=Farber |first2=Hillary B. |last3=Hamm |first3=Joseph A. |title=Comparing public concern and support for drone regulation to the current legal framework |journal=Behavioral Sciences & the Law |date=January 2019 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=109–124 |doi=10.1002/bsl.2357 |pmid=30004141 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Drone regulations vary by country, by state, by region, and, in some cases, further, by city.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://uavcoach.com/drone-laws/ |title = Master List of Drone Laws (Organized by State / Country) l UAV Coach}}</ref> In addition, many preserves, and all national parks, such as the Golden Gate National Recreation Area in California, do not allow drone use.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/unmanned-aircraft-in-the-national-parks.htm|title=Unmanned Aircraft in the National Parks|last=|first=|date=|website=National Park Service|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=April 10, 2019}}</ref> Drone operators can download an app developed by the FAA called B4UFLY, which compiles the local laws and do not fly zones and makes them easily accessible, so an operator may clearly know where it is legal to operate their drone.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.faa.gov/uas/recreational_fliers/where_can_i_fly/b4ufly/|title=B4UFLY Mobile App|last=|first=|date=|website=Federal Aviation Administration|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=April 11, 2019}}</ref>

=== Resources for drone operators outside of the U.S. ===
Drone regulations are similar across different countries. Requirements include keeping the drone within the operator's line of sight at all times, flying only during daylight hours, not flying over crowds or events, not flying near airports or around ""important facilities"", including government buildings and nuclear plants.<ref name="":3"">{{cite web|url=https://www.casa.gov.au/aircraft/standard-page/can-i-fly-there-drone-safety-app|title=Can I fly there?|last=|first=|date=2017-05-16|website=Australian Government Civil Aviation Safety Authority|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=April 11, 2019}}</ref><ref name="":4"">{{cite web|url=http://www.tc.gc.ca/en/services/aviation/drone-safety.html|title=Flying your drone safely and legally (new rules)|last=|first=|date=|website=Government of Canada|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=April 11, 2019}}</ref><ref name="":5"">{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/law/help/regulation-of-drones/japan.php|title=Regulation of Drones in Japan|last=|first=|date=April 2016|website=Library of Congress|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=April 12, 2019}}</ref><ref name="":6"">{{cite web|url=https://www.caa.co.uk/Consumers/Unmanned-aircraft-and-drones/|title=Unmanned Aircraft and Drones|last=|first=|date=|website=UK Civil Aviation Authority|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=April 11, 2019}}</ref>

The [[Australia]]n government has created a mobile application for drone operators, called, ''Can I fly there''? Similar to the app released by the FAA, it compiles laws and regulations so drone operators may know the rules in their current location.<ref name="":3"" />

The [[Canada|Canadian]] government is updating its drone laws, with tighter regulations going into effect June 1, 2019. These guidelines refer the drone operator to review the laws related to the criminal code, trespassing act, voyeurism and privacy laws, before flying. It is explicitly stated that drone operators must respect the privacy of others.<ref name="":4"" />

The [[Japan]]ese government has similar regulations as the above. In addition, drone operators are requested to report incidents with drones, even if they do not affect others, such as crashes.<ref name="":5"" />

The [[United Kingdom|UK]] Civil Aviation Authority created a website called Drone Safe,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://dronesafe.uk |title = Introduction}}</ref> which compiles the regional and local laws for drone use in the country. They have also created a mobile application for drone operators, called Drone Assist. People in the UK are afforded a higher level of privacy, as the regulations state that a drone equipped with a camera must stay a specified distance away from people not associated with the operator.<ref name="":6"" />

== Legal examples ==
Most conservation work takes place over vast areas of land or sea, often spanning both public and private lands. People who live on or around these areas can have a reasonable expectation of privacy in their own private areas on these lands, such as their house, but are not afforded protection outside of their private areas. A drone operating in public airspace that is recording photos or videos with the intention of furthering conservation work, or law enforcement, has every right to do so.<ref name=vermjenvilaw.17.1.138/>

A politician in Austria, who was expecting the privacy a forest would afford, trespassed onto land which was being monitored by a camera trap. His encounter with his partner was recorded, and drama ensued.<ref name="":2"" /> The law sides with intent, in regard to human by-catch. The intent of those who run these recording systems is to further their research, conservation work, or law enforcement. If there is no intent to record people with nefarious motivation, and the cameras were not on private land, the camera trap operator would reasonably expect to be safe from prosecution.<ref name="":2"" />

From a legal perspective, the act of humans being caught in camera traps, acoustic recordings, and drones, when used for purposes other than recording people, is not wrong. The intention of the data holder, and what they do with that data is where legal privacy issues come in.<ref name="":2"" />

== Other concerns ==
[[File:04_North_Pole_Wolf.jpg|alt=Wolf with tracking collar.|thumb|Wolf with tracking collar.]]
{{Neutrality disputed|date=September 2023}}

The technology that allows us to view animals 24/7 has given to the rise of commercialization of conservation. Organizations can now show ""poster child"" animals via live streaming video. Some may applaud this as a modern way to educate without the need of keeping wild animals in captivity in zoos and aquariums, yet, the flip side to this idea is that the animals themselves lose their own privacy, and sense of the wild.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=Audrey |last2=van der Wal |first2=René |last3=Fischer |first3=Anke |title=Imagining wildlife: New technologies and animal censuses, maps and museums |journal=Geoforum |date=October 2016 |volume=75 |pages=75–86 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.07.002 |doi-access=free |hdl=2164/7969 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

This constant tracking and observation, especially of individual animals, can be seen as another way humans are trying to control every aspect of their environment.<ref name=""autogenerated337""/> Tracking collars on wild wolves are common and try to give researchers an idea of their migration patterns, and insight into their hunting techniques and social structure. But, as soon as a tracked wolf leaves the safe wild space, and enters, say, cattle grazing grounds, their location can be very easily pinpointed for ranchers who want to gun them down. The act of catching, tagging, implanting these tracking devices may alter the behavior of the wildlife, so an accurate representation may not be captured, making all the effort for naught.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lininger |first1=Henry |last2=Lininger |first2=Tom |title=Unlocking the ""Virtual Cage"" of Wildlife Surveillance |journal=Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum |date=19 June 2017 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=207–263 |url=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/delpf/vol27/iss2/1/ }}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Acoustic location]]
*[[Camera trap]]
*[[Conservation (disambiguation)|Conservation]]
*[[Unmanned aerial vehicle]]
*[[Legality of recording by civilians]]
*[[Privacy]]
*[[Wildlife conservation]]
*[[Wildlife observation]]

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Privacy]]
[[Category:Surveillance]]"
Isle of the Dead (Tasmania),"{{About|an island in Australia|3=Isle of the Dead (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use Australian English|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox Australian place
 | name              = Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur
 | state             = Tas
 | established       = cemetery 1833<ref name=""CTH"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/I/Isle%20of%20the%20Dead.htm|title=Isle of the Dead}}</ref>
 | abolished         = cemetery 1877<ref name=""CTH""/>
 | lga               = Tasman Council
 | region            = Tasman Peninsula
 | gazetted          = 3 June 2005
 | image             = 2018-02-15 111355 Port Arthur Isle of the Dead anagoria.JPG
 | caption           = Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur, Tasmania, Australia
 | location1         = Hobart
 | coordinates       = {{Coord|43|08|57|S|147|52|03|E|type:landmark_region:AU|display=inline,title}}
 | type              = protected
 | area              = 0.1
 | dist1             = 98
 | dist2             = 20
 | dir1              = SE
 | dir2              = S
 | location2         = Eaglehawk Neck
 | url               = https://portarthur.org.au/
 | nearest_town_or_city  = Highcroft
 | iucn_category     = V
 | maxtemp           = 14.7
 | mintemp           = 8.9
 | rainfall          = 796.6
 | stategov          = Lyons
 | managing_authorities  = Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority
 | rainfall_footnotes    = <ref name=""BOM"">[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/data/index.shtml Bureau of Meteorology]. Retrieved 2020-05-05.</ref>
 | maxtemp_footnotes = <ref name=""BOM""/> | mintemp_footnotes = <ref name=""BOM""/>
 | elevation         = <!-- needs a number but it's not 192 -->
 | elevation_footnotes  = <ref name=""BOM""/>
 | timezone          = Australian Eastern Standard Time
 | utc               = +10
 | timezone-dst      = Australian Eastern Standard Time
 | utc-dst           = +11
 | city              = Port Arthur, Tasmania
}}
{{Infobox designation list | embed =
 | designation1 = WHS
 | designation2 = ANHL
 | designation3 = Tasmanian Heritage Register
 | designation4 =
 | designation5 =
 | designation1_type     = Cultural
 | designation1_criteria = iv, v
 | designation1_date     = 2010
 | designation1_number   = 1306-008
 | designation1_partof   = [[Australian Convict Sites]]
 | designation2_offname  = Port Arthur Historic Site
 | designation2_date     = 3 June 2005
 | designation2_type     = Historic
 | designation2_criteria = a,b,c,d,e,g,h|designation2_number=105718
 | designation3_offname  = Port Arthur Penal Settlement
 | designation3_criteria = 6
 | designation3_type     = Historic cultural heritage
|designation3_date=1995}}
'''Isle of the Dead''' is an island, about {{convert|1|ha|acre|abbr=off}} in area, adjacent to [[Port Arthur, Tasmania]], Australia. It is historically significant since it retains an [[Aboriginal Tasmanians|Aboriginal]] coastal shell [[midden]], one of the first recorded sea-level [[Benchmark (surveying)|benchmarks]], and one of the few preserved Australian [[Convicts in Australia|convict]]-period burial grounds.<ref name="":242"">{{Cite web|title=Island Reveals Mysteries of the Dead|url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/08/19/1178596.htm|last=Catchpole|first=Heather|date=19 Aug 2004|website=ABC Science|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref><ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|last1=Godden Mackay Logan Pty Ltd|title=Port Arthur Historic Sites Management Plan 2008|last2=Middleton, G.|last3=Jackman, G|last4=Tuffin, R|last5=Clark, J|publisher=Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority|year=2009|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/105335}}</ref>  The Isle of the Dead occupies part of the [[Port Arthur, Tasmania|Port Arthur Historic Site]],<ref>Godden et al., 2009, p. 3</ref> is part of [[Australian Convict Sites]] and is listed as a [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage Property]] because it represents convictism in the era of [[British Empire|British colonisation]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Morgan|first=K|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001/acref-9780191823534|title=Port Arthur Dictionary Plus Social Sciences|date=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-182353-4|language=en-US|doi=10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001}}</ref><ref name="":132"">{{Cite web|title=Decision: 34 COM 8B.16 Cultural Properties – Australian Convict Sites (Australia)|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/3995/|last=UNESCO|date=2010|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref>

Before European settlement, [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal]] people gathered food on the island. From 1833 the island was used as a cemetery for convicts and free people of the Port Arthur penal settlement.<ref name="":23"">{{Cite journal|last1=Thorn|first1=A|last2=Piper|first2=A|date=1996|title=The isle of the Dead: an integrated approach to the management and natural protection of an archaeological site|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272226838|journal=Studies in Conservation|language=en|volume=41|issue=sup1|page=2|doi=10.1179/sic.1996.41.Supplement-1.188|issn=0039-3630|via=researchgate}}</ref><ref name="":25"" />

The Isle of the Dead was the destination for all who died inside the prison camps. Of the 1,000 estimated graves recorded to exist there, only 180, those of prison staff and military personnel, were marked.<ref name="":242"" /><ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":2"" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Isle of the Dead cemetery tour|url=https://portarthur.org.au/tour/isle-of-the-dead/|website=Port Arthur Historic Site|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> The cemetery was closed following the demise of the Port Arthur settlement in 1877 and the island was sold as private land. It was reacquired and managed by the Tasmanian government from the early twentieth century.

Over the last century tourism has grown with improved services and infrastructure. Increased conservation initiatives have been undertaken to preserve the island and its relics, resulting in the island being declared a cultural heritage property and protected under Australian state and federal laws. It is also listed under [[UNESCO]]'s [[World Heritage Site|world heritage sites]].

==Location==
Isle of the Dead is an approximately 10,000 square metres (1 hectare) island within Carnarvon Bay at the northern tip of Point Puer on the Southern [[Tasman Peninsula]] in the Island State of [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]].<ref name="":10"">{{Cite book|last1=Doyle|first1=H|url=https://portarthur.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/PAHSMA-Landscape-Management-Plan.pdf|title=Port Arthur Historic Site Landscape Management Plan Aug 2002|last2=Context Pty Ltd|last3=Urban Initiatives Pty Ltd|publisher=Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority|year=2002|location=Melbourne, Victoria.|page=7}}</ref> It is approximately {{convert|98|km|mi|abbr=off}} southeast of the state capital, [[Hobart]]. Driving from Hobart, via the Tasman Highway /A3, the Arthur Highway /A9 to Port Arthur Historic Site takes around 80 minutes. Isle of the Dead is approximately {{convert|700|m|mi|abbr=off}} from Point Puer.<ref name="":18"" /> It is 1.2&nbsp;km (3/4 of a mile) from Mason Cove.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Isle of the Dead|url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/?mlat=-43.149167&mlon=147.8675&zoom=15#map=15/-43.1492/147.8675|last=Open Street Map|date=1 April 2020|website=Isle of the Dead|language=en|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref> It is only accessible by boat and Port Arthur Historic Site offers guided ferry tours to the island.<ref>Doyle et al 2002, p. 7</ref><ref>Godden et al, 2009. p. 2</ref>

==Aboriginal shell midden==
Original inhabitants of this area were the [[Aboriginal Tasmanians#Oyster Bay (Paredarerme)|Pydairrerme]] people, a band of the Oyster Bay tribe.<ref>Doyle et al., 2002, p. 22</ref><ref>Godden et al, 2009, p. 19</ref> Prior to the 1830s, local Aboriginals used the island to gather shellfish and camp.<ref name="":25"">{{Cite book|last1=Tropman|first1=L|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1382371370/view|title=Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur: a study of the island and recommendation for conservation of the headstones and the island. Port Arthur Conservation Project.|last2=Gibbons|first2=G. S|publisher=Lester Tropman and Associates, National Parks and Wildlife Service|year=1984|location=Hobart, Tasmania|page=3|language=en|oclc=876315028|id=nla.obj-1382371370|access-date=2020-04-07|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref> Isle of the Dead retains a large [[midden]].<ref name=""Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 4"">Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 4</ref> The midden contains shells and the remains of campfires (charcoal and ash), evidence of past aboriginal people visiting the isle to gather shellfish and molluscs such as abalone and mussels. It is located under an overhanging cliff and rock platform, which was used for shelter.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book|last=Lord|first=R|title=The Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur: inscriptions from the cemetery of the Port Arthur penal establishment 1830–1877|publisher=Richard Lord and Partners|others=Bowler, J. C. S.|year=1990|isbn=0-9597473-0-3|edition=3rd|location=Taroona, Tas.|page=17|oclc=27624866}}</ref> This midden is defined as an aboriginal relic and is protected under the Aboriginal Heritage Act 1975.<ref name="":26"">{{Cite web|title=Aboriginal Shell Middens|url=https://www.aboriginalheritage.tas.gov.au/cultural-heritage/aboriginal-shell-middens |date=2020|website=Aboriginal Heritage Tasmania|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref>

==Naming the Isle==
[[File:Admiralty Chart No 1083 Burnett Harbour and Port Arthur, Published 1830.jpg|thumb|Captain John Welsh's surveying map of Port Arthur and Isle of the Dead (dated 1828). Admiralty Chart No 1083, published 1830.|alt=|left|307x307px]] [[File:Admiralty Chart No 1475 Tasmania - South Coast. Port Arthur, Published 1893.jpg|thumb|Admiralty Chart No.1475. Hydrographic survey of ""Dead Island"" and Port Arthur, Tasmania, 1893.|alt=]]
With the arrival of [[settler colonialism]], the isle was called Opossum Island in 1827. It was named after Captain John Welsh's [[sloop]] ''Opossum'' while seeking shelter nearby when surveying the harbours on the Tasman Peninsula.<ref>Lord, 1990, p. 1</ref><ref name="":02"">{{Cite news|date=23 September 1911|title=Tasmanian Nomenclature. The Place Names of the Island, a Record of Origins and Dates.|page=11|work=The Hobart Mercury|issue=XI|location=Hobart Tasmania|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/10115196|access-date=2020-04-09|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref><ref>{{cite Australian Dictionary of Biography |title=Welsh, John (?–1832)|url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/welsh-john-2780 |access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref>

Reverend [[John Manton|John Allen Manton]], an English [[Wesleyan theology|Wesleyan]] [[missionary]], arrived in February 1833 as first [[chaplain]] for the Port Arthur settlement.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|title=The Isle of the Dead or the burial-place at Port Arthur, Van-Diemen's Land|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-83567059|last=Manton|first=J|year=1845|website=TROVE National Library of Australia.|series=Missionary Series No. 652|publisher=John Mason|location=London UK|page=4|language=en|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref><ref name="":12"">{{cite Australian Dictionary of Biography |last=Pretyman|first=E. R.|title=Manton, John Allen (1807–1864) |url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/manton-john-allen-2430/text3231 |access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref> He wrote in a religious pamphlet that he selected this isle for a cemetery, as it was close to the colony, ""''a secure and undisturbed resting-place''"" and renamed ""Isle of the Dead"" for its purpose as a burial place.<ref name="":17"">Manton, 1844, p. 4</ref> The isle was recorded as ""Dead Island"" in a [[hydrographic survey]] undertaken from the surveying ship [[HMS Dart (1882)|HMS ''Dart'']] in 1893 and published as [[Admiralty chart]] 1475.<ref>{{Cite map |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-231313799|title=Tasmania - South Coast. Port Arthur |publisher=The Admiralty |year=1897|location=London, United Kingdom|id=nla.obj-231313799|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref> The Island was also known as ""Isle des Morts"" and ""Dead Men's Isle"".{{Sfn|Burn|1905}}{{Sfn|Weidenhofer|1990|p=117}}

==Cemetery for penal colony==

===Penal settlement usage===
The isle was used as a cemetery for the penal settlement of Port Arthur from September 1833 to 1877.<ref name="":18"">Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 2</ref><ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|title=The Isle of the Dead|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/I/Isle%20of%20the%20Dead.htm|last=Ross|first=L.|date=2006|website=The Companion to Tasmanian History|publisher=Centre for Historical Tasmanian Studies, University of Tasmania|access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref> This included the Point Puer boys' prison, which operated from January 1834 until 1849.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Point Puer|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/P/Point%20Puer.htm|last=Hargraves|first=N.|date=2006|website=Companion to Tasmanian History|publisher=Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies, University of Tasmania|access-date=2020-04-17}}</ref> There were also a small number of burials from the military posting at [[Eaglehawk Neck]] and from the Coal Mines ([[Coal Mines Historic Site]]), which operated from 1833 to 1848.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite thesis|last=Ross|first=L|url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/16257/|title=Death and Burial at Port Arthur, 1830–1877|work=Honours thesis|publisher=University of Tasmania|year=1995|location=Hobart, Tasmania|pages=31–33|type=honours}}</ref> The colony experienced population decline following the closure of Point Puer boys' prison in 1849,<ref>Hargraves, 2006</ref> the end of convict transportation to Tasmania in 1853,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Convicts|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/C/Convicts.htm|last=Maxwell-Stewart|first=H.|date=2006|website=The Companion to Tasmanian History|publisher=Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies, University of Tasmania|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref> and the departure of the military in 1863.<ref name="":03"">Doyle et al., 2002, p. 29</ref> The cemetery continued to be used for destitute, aged and infirm men, mainly convicts and ex convicts, residing in Port Arthur's welfare institutions, the hospital, Paupers' (invalid) Depot (established in 1864) and [[Lunatic asylum|Lunatic Asylum]] (established in 1867) until they were closed in 1877.<ref name="":03"" /><ref>Godden et al, 2009, p. 46</ref><ref>Ross. 1995, p. 22</ref>

===Burial designation===
The cemetery was divided into designated sections. Convicts were buried on the lower, southern end of the island. No headstones or markings were placed on convict graves, as they were not allowed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Franklin|first=J|date=1838|title=Diaries of Jane, Lady Franklin, Van Diemen's Land 1838 and Victoria, Australia 1843-1844 |url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/3396/1/rs_16_2%281%29.pdf|page=14|website=University of Tasmania}}{{unreliable source?|reason=Personal diaries are primary sources;|date=October 2023}}</ref><ref>Manton, 1845, p.10</ref> Alfred Mawle, a tour guide for Port Arthur from about 1899 to 1939,<ref>{{Cite news|date=5 September 1940|title=Mr. Alfred Mawle|page=5|work=The Hobart Mercury|location=Hobart Tasmania|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article25823110|access-date=2020-04-10|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |degree=PhD 
|last=Young |first=Frederick David |date=July 1995 |url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/21810/1/whole_YoungFrederickDavid1995_thesis.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102194153/https://eprints.utas.edu.au/21810/1/whole_YoungFrederickDavid1995_thesis.pdf |archive-date=2018-11-02 |title=Profiting from the past: The relationship between history and the tourist industry in Tasmania 1856–1972 |publisher=University of Tasmania |page=190}}</ref> described that convict graves were marked with small metal numbers, which went missing in the 1920s.{{Sfn|Weidenhofer|1990|p=118}}

Free people were located on the northern western corner of the island and their graves were generally marked with [[footstone]]s, headstones and tombstones cut by convict stonemasons. Approximately eighty-one headstones and five footstones, dated from 1831 to 1877, were identified and inscriptions recorded in the late 1970s. Of these, four belonged to former convicts who were free at the time of their deaths and nine were erected as memorials to convicts after the closure of the penal colony.<ref>Lord, 1990, pp. ix–x</ref> It is estimated that less than 10% of all the burials on the Isle of Dead were formally marked.<ref name="":14"">{{Cite journal|last1=Links|first1=F|last2=Roach|first2=M|last3=Jackman|first3=G|journal=Aseg Extended Abstracts|date=2004|title=Using Geophysics to locate burials and other cultural features, Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur, Tasmania|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1071/ASEG2004ab089?needAccess=true|language=en|volume=2004|issue=1|page=1|doi=10.1071/ASEG2004ab089|s2cid=130398806|issn=2202-0586|via=University of Tasmania Open Access Depository}}</ref>[[File:Gravestones Isle of Dead Tasmania Port Arthur.JPG|thumb|309x309px|Gravestones on the Isle of the Dead|alt=]]

===Number of burials===
Approximately 1,000 people have been buried on the Isle of the Dead.<ref name="":32"">Links et al., 2004, p. 1</ref><ref name="":13"">Ross, 1995, pp. 31–33</ref><ref>Ross, 2006.</ref> The actual number of people buried on the island is unknown because of the destruction of many official records, incomplete burial records and lack of records for free people located at Port Arthur and the outstations.{{Sfn|Burn|1905|p=9}}<ref name="":13"" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goc|first=N|date=2002|title=From Convict Prison to the Gothic Ruins of Tourist Attraction|url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/8591/3/Convict_prison.Gothic_ruins..pdf|journal=Historic Environment|volume=16|issue=3|page=25|via=eprints.utas.edu.au}}</ref> Estimates of the number buried is based on [[Geophysics|geophysical]] studies, remaining burial and death records and the limited size of the convict burial section on the isle.<ref name="":32""/><ref>Ross.1995, pp. 36–37</ref>

Historical estimates have been variable. The ''[[Hobart Town Courier]]'' published 43 burials on the isle in 1836.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1836-04-08|title=Friday Morning, April 8|page=2|work=Hobart Town Courier (Tas. : 1827–1839)|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article4177049|access-date=2020-04-10|via=TROVE National Library Australia}}</ref> ''[[The Tasmanian]]'' reported 1,500 graves in 1872.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite news|date=1872-03-16|title=Port Arthur Dead Island|page=6|work=The Tasmanian Newspaper|location=Launceston, Tasmania|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/201349281|access-date=2020-04-09|via=TROVE National Library of Australia}}</ref> 1,500 graves were recorded again on an ""Isle of the Dead"" tourist [[postcard]] in 1909.<ref name="":122"">{{Cite web|title=Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur.|url=http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/object/210917?solrsort=random%20asc&f%5B0%5D=obj_place_name%3AIsle%20of%20the%20Dead%2C%20Port%20Arthur%2C%20Tasman%20Peninsula%2C%20Tasmania%2C%20Australia|date=1909|website=National Museum of Australia|publisher=Joseph Lebovic Gallery Collection no 1|type=Photographic Postcard Series|location=Sydney Australia}}</ref> In 1907 an ''[[Australian Town and Country Journal]]'' article about convict burials across the Tasman Peninsula cited 1,700 convict burials on the isle.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bowen|first=F|date=1907-06-19|title=The Isle of the Dead, Tasmania. Where the Convicts Sleep.|page=25|work=Australian Town and Country Journal|location=Sydney, NSW|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article71593432|access-date=2020-04-10|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref>

===Burial records===
The Wesleyan mission conducted all the religious duties,{{Sfn|Burn|1905|p=23}} including the burial services on the Isle of the Dead and recorded them in a burial register from 1833 to 1843.<ref name="":05"">Ross, 1995, p. 17</ref><ref name="":18""/> The register shows that in the cemetery's first decade, 90% of burials were convicts and 90% were younger than 40 years old of which 39 were children from Point Puer boys' reformatory prison.<ref>Ross, 1995, p. 15</ref> Over 50% of the convicts buried were labourers with the remaining mostly shoemakers, carpenters and sawyers for the timber industry.<ref name="":05"" /> Free people buried on the island were 1 government official, 7 soldiers, 7 [[Sailor|seamen]], an officer's wife and 9 children.<ref>Ross, 1995, p. 16</ref>

The Wesleyan burial register indicates that four women were buried on the island.<ref>Ross, 1995, p. 20</ref> In addition to this number, an elderly aboriginal woman may also have been buried on the isle in 1833. In a diary entry by Lady [[Jane Franklin]], she describes the elder dying while journeying on the government [[brig]], ''Tamar'', on its way to Hobart, and her burial undertaken during the boat's layover at Port Arthur.{{Sfn|Weidenhofer|1990|p=117}} [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Church of England]] ministers replaced the Wesleyan missionary in 1843. The only remaining burial record from 1843 to the closure of the cemetery are the Church of England's register kept from 1850 to 1864.<ref name="":05"" />

===Causes of death===
From the existing records most burials on the Isle of the Dead were a result of death caused by disease. Convicts arrived to the colony from the unsanitary and overcrowded conditions of the [[Hulk (ship type)|hulks]] and gaols and experienced nutritional deficiency.<ref>Bateson, 1969, as cited in Ross, 1995, p. 42</ref> In the early years illness such as [[dysentery]], [[enteritis]] and fever were the main causes of death followed by respiratory disease and [[epidemic]]s spreading through the colony. There were also a significant number of deaths from accidents, murder and suicide.<ref>Ross, 1995, pp. 38–58</ref>

===Gravediggers===
[[File:MarkJeffreyConvict.jpg|alt=|thumb|226x226px|[[Mark Jeffrey]] (1825–1894). Convict gravedigger for Isle of the Dead, who wrote a published autobiography about his life, including his time as a prisoner in Port Arthur.]]There are two known [[gravedigger]]s who lived and worked on the Isle of the Dead during its time as a penal colony. The first was John Barron, an Irish convict who lived and worked on the island for more than 10 years until pardoned in 1874.<ref>Lord, 1990, p. 10</ref><ref name="":22"">{{Cite book|last=Trollope|first=A|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015010728460&view=1up&seq=13|title=Australia and New Zealand.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1-107-33813-5|location=Cambridge University|pages=150–151|doi=10.1017/CBO9781107338135|via=Babel.Hathitrust.org}}</ref> The second was [[Mark Jeffrey]], an English convict who volunteered for the job as gravedigger and lived on the isle from Mondays to Saturdays and returned to the Port Arthur settlement to attend Sunday church services. He was the gravedigger until the penal colony's closure in April 1877, then transferred to Hobart Town prison.<ref name="":11"">{{Cite book|last1=Jeffrey|first1=M|url=http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/183230|title=A Burglar's Life, or, The Stirring Adventures of the Great English Burglar Mark Jeffrey: A thrilling history of the dark days of convictism in Australia. Tales of the Early Days.|last2=Burke|first2=J|publisher=J. Walch & Sons.|year=1900|location=Hobart, Tasmania|pages=4, 116, 118|via=State Library Victoria digital library}}</ref><ref name="":16"">{{Cite web|title=The Digital Panopticon|url=https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/Jeffrey,_Mark,_1825-1903|last=Mark Jeffrey b. 1825|first=Life Archive ID obpdef1-1358-18490611|date=2020|website=Digital Panopticon|publisher=University of Oxford, Sheffield, Sussex, Tasmania}}</ref><ref name=""Ross, 1995, p. 66"">Ross, 1995, p. 66</ref>{{Sfn|Weidenhofer|1990|p=118}}

===Structures===
The Isle of the Dead had two shelters that were constructed during its period as a penal cemetery: the gravedigger's residence which was a [[Clapboard|weatherboard]] hut with a wood [[Roof shingle|shingled roof]] and brick [[chimney]]; and a shelter for funeral parties which was a [[latticework]]-sided shed located near the jetty.<ref>Lord, 1990, pp. 9, 11, 87</ref><ref>Tropman & Gibbons, 1984, p. 6;</ref><ref name="":7"" />

==Sea level benchmark==
[[File:Cut Mark in Scarborough, NO10 Royal Avenue.jpg|An example of a naval ordinance [[Benchmark (surveying)|surveying benchmark]] carved into rock. Located in [[Scarborough, North Yorkshire|Scarborough, United Kingdom.]]|alt=|thumb|219x219px]]In 1841 Captain [[James Clark Ross]], on his Southern Antarctic expedition, undertook scientific excursions on the Tasman Peninsula. Accompanied by Lieutenant-Governor [[John Franklin]], he visited Port Arthur. One reason for this visit was to establish a permanent sea level benchmark based on tidal observations initiated by Franklin and continued by Thomas James Lempriere, Deputy Assistant Commissary General of Port Arthur.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pugh|first1=D|last2=Hunter|first2=J|last3=Coleman|first3=R|last4=Watson|first4=C|date=2002|title=A comparison of historical and recent sea level measurements at Port Arthur, Tasmania|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255597658|journal=International Hydrographic Review|series=3|volume=3|pages=2, 6|via=Researchgate}}</ref>{{Sfn|Ross|1847|pp=22–24}}

Lempriere had taken on the duties of recording meteorological and tidal observations following the drowning of the [[Surveyor of the Navy|Surveyor]] for the Royal Navy, Lieutenant Thomas Burnett in May 1837.<ref>Pugh et al., 2002, p. 3</ref> He recorded observations with a thermometer, water barometer, rain and tide gauge from 1 July 1837 to 30 June 1841.<ref>Lord, 1990, p. 18</ref> These charts were then sent to the [[Royal Society]] through the [[Colonial Office]].<ref>Pugh et al., 2002, p. 8</ref>

Captain Ross describes in his book, ''A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions during the Years 1839–43,'' that the Isle of the Dead was chosen for the placement of the benchmark as it was near to the tide register. The benchmark was then struck following Franklin giving Lempriere the workers he needed to have the mark cut deeply in the rock where Lempriere's ""tidal observations indicated as the mean level of the ocean"".{{Sfn|Ross|1847|pp=22–24}}

The benchmark was carved into a north facing vertical rock on the Isle of the Dead on 1 July 1841.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hunter|first1=J|last2=Coleman|first2=R|last3=Pugh|first3=D|date=2003|title=The Sea Level at Port Arthur, Tasmania, from 1841 to the Present|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228535042|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|volume=30|issue=7|page=54|doi=10.1029/2002GL016813|bibcode=2003GeoRL..30.1401H|s2cid=55384210|via=research gate|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="":62"">{{Cite journal|last=Shortt|first=J C|date=1889|title=Notes on the Possible Oscillation of Levels of Land and Sea in Tasmania During Recent Years|url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/15749/|journal=Royal Society of Tasmania Papers.|location=Hobart, Tasmania|page=19|via=University of Tasmania Open Access Depository}}</ref> The standard British ordnance survey [[Benchmark (surveying)|benchmark]] of a [[broad arrow]] was used with the horizontal line measuring 50&nbsp;cm across.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Testing the Waters. A Report on Sea Levels. JSCOT Submission-Section 3.|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/jsct/kyoto/sub44c|last=Daly|first=J.L.|date=2000-08-19|website=www.aph.gov.au|publisher=Parliament of Australia, Joint Standing Committee on Treaties|location=Canberra, ACT, Australia|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-04-17}}</ref> A small stone tablet was also installed above the benchmark recording the date the benchmark was struck and the measurements used to determine its position.<ref>Shortt, 1889, p. 19</ref> The tablet remained until the early 20th century when it was reported missing.<ref>Lord, 1990, p. 19</ref><ref name="":19"">{{Cite news|date=1909-05-19|title=Dead Island, the Work of Improvement|page=3|work=The Hobart Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860–1954)|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article9982485|access-date=2020-04-15|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref>

The Isle of the Dead benchmark, including the related surviving records up until 1848, were placed on the Australian National Heritage List in June 2005 for having ""exceptional historical and scientific significance in the international field of climate research"".<ref name="":15"">{{Cite news|last=Department of Environment & Heritage|date=2005-06-03|title=Environment Protection and Diversity Act 1999, Inclusion of Places in the National Heritage List|page=7|work=Commonwealth of Australia Special Gazette|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|issue=s 94|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/ba18eab5-1a30-4f5d-af0d-d3f555f56b83/files/105778.pdf|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref>

The benchmark is believed to be one of the oldest sea level benchmarks installed in the world.<ref name="":15"" /><ref name="":8"">{{Cite web|title=Sea-level Rise. Understanding the Past – Improving Projections for the future.|url=http://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel/sl_hist_few_hundred.html|last=Legressy|first=B|date=2017-08-29|website=www.cmar.csiro.au|publisher=CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere.|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref> It is one of the first and few remaining early sea level measurements in existence in the Southern Hemisphere.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Haran|first=B|date=2003-02-15|title=Isle of the Dead gives up clues|language=en-GB|work=BBC News Online, World Edition, Science & Nature|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2761677.stm|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref><ref name="":15"" /> It is also estimated to be the first benchmark made to measure ""relative land-sea vertical movements at an ocean site"".<ref name="":15"" /> The Isle of the Dead sea level benchmark together with Lempriere's records and those taken since that time, cover the longest time span of any sea level observations in the Southern Hemisphere.<ref>Hunter et al., 2003, pp. 1–4</ref>

==Early accounts==
[[File:Marcus Clarke Sydney Writers Walk plaque.jpg|thumb|171x171px|[[Sydney Writers Walk]] plaque commemorating [[Marcus Clarke]]'s novel ''For the Term of His Natural Life''. Embedded in footpath near [[Overseas Passenger Terminal]], [[Circular Quay]], Sydney, Australia.|alt=]]Port Arthur and the surrounding areas and waterways were closed to the public during its time as a penal colony.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite journal|last=Jones|first=J.K|url=https://www.academia.edu/34948867|title=Historical Archaeology of Tourism at Port Arthur, Tasmania, 1885–1960.|journal=Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University |publisher=Unpublished PhD.Thesis|year=2016|location=Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada|page=25|access-date=2020-04-09|via=academia.edu}}</ref> Visits were expensive and could be made with government approval.<ref name="":21"">{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=J|date=1995|title=Port Arthur: A tourist history|journal=Australian Historical Studies|volume=26|issue=105|page=653|doi=10.1080/10314619508595988}}</ref><ref>Young, 1985, p. 38</ref>

[[David Burn]], a [[Scottish people|Scottish]] [[settler]] and author, was granted permission to visit by the [[Colonial Secretary of Tasmania|Colonial Secretary]]. He arrived by government vessel and was taken on a tour conducted by the commandant of the colony, [[Charles O'Hara Booth]] in January 1842.{{Sfn|Burn|1905|pp=13–14}}<ref>Young, 1985, p. 30</ref> His account of his visit titled ''An Excursion to Port Arthur in 1842'' was published in 1853 and describes the isle ""picturesquely sorrowful… soothing in its melancholy"". Burn recounts the stories of a number of people buried on the isle including the first buried convict, Dennis Collins and his meeting in the hospital with author and convict, [[Henry Savery]] who was later buried on Isle of the Dead.{{Sfn|Burn|1905|pp=33–34}}<ref name=""Jones, 2016, p. 65"">Jones, 2016, p. 65</ref><ref name=""Goc, 2002, p. 24"">Goc, 2002, p. 24</ref>

[[Marcus Clarke]], journalist and author, visited Port Arthur colony in 1870.<ref>Young 1985, p. 35</ref> Approaching by boat he ""beheld barring… passage to the prison the low grey hummocks of the Isle of the Dead"".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Clarke|first=M|date=1873-07-12|title=Port Arthur No.II|page=1|work=The Argus|location=Melbourne Victoria|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/5867137|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref> His book titled ''[[For the Term of His Natural Life]]'' was published in 1872 and reflects his research on convictism from this trip and includes the Isle of the Dead as one of its locations.<ref>{{cite Australian Dictionary of Biography |last=Elliott|first=Brian|title=Clarke, Marcus Andrew (1846–1881) |url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/clarke-marcus-andrew-3225 |access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref><ref name=""Jones, 2016, p. 65""/> This book was made into a number of films and Port Arthur was used as a filming location in 1908 and 1926.<ref>{{Cite web|title=For the Term of his Natural Life in Film.|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/F/For%20the%20term%20of%20his%20natural%20life%20on%20film.htm|last=Roe|first=M|date=2006|website=The Companion to Tasmanian History|publisher=Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies|location=Hobart. Tasmania|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref>

[[Anthony Trollope]], an English author, visited the Isle of the Dead in 1872. His book titled ''Australia and New Zealand'' published in 1873, describes the isle and his meeting with convict gravedigger John Barren.{{Sfn|Weidenhofer|1990|p=118}}

[[Mark Jeffrey]], an English convict, was an Isle of the Dead gravedigger. Following release from prison on a [[ticket of leave]] and due to ill health and poverty he was transferred to the Invalid Depot in Launceston, Tasmania. From here, Jeffrey, being illiterate, narrated his life story including his time at Port Arthur colony, which was published in a book in 1893 and 1900, titled ''A Burglar's Life; or the Stirring Adventures of the Great English Burglar, Mark Jeffrey: A thrilling history of the dark days of convictism in Australia''.<ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":11"" />{{Sfn|Weidenhofer|1990|p=118}}<ref name=""Ross, 1995, p. 66""/> [[File:Anthony Trollope Sydney Writers Walk plaque.jpg|thumb|164x164px|[[Sydney Writers Walk]] plaque commemorating [[Anthony Trollope]]'s book ''Australia and New Zealand.'' Embedded in footpath near [[Museum of Contemporary Art Australia]], [[Circular Quay]], Sydney, Australia|alt=]]

==Conservation and tourism==
===Early tourism===
Tourism began within six months of Port Arthur's closure as a penal settlement in 1877.<ref>Jones, 2016, p. iii</ref> By 1880 Port Arthur had a tourist centre running organised tours.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of the Tasman Peninsula|url=https://www.tasman.tas.gov.au/tourism/local-history/|last=Tasman Council|date=2020|website=Tasman Council|publisher=Service Tasmania|location=Nubeena, Tasmania|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-04-14}}</ref> It grew gradually from local people to arrivals from Melbourne and Sydney.<ref>Jones, 2016, p. 35</ref><ref>Young, 1985, pp. 17, 45</ref> By the 1890s tourist excursions were being regularly run in summer by [[steamship]] companies departing from Hobart, Melbourne and Sydney as land infrastructure was not fully developed.<ref name="":21"" /><ref>Young, 1985, pp. 47, 81</ref> Despite tourism growth to Port Arthur, visits to Isle of the Dead were reduced as it was offshore and required the hiring of a boat.<ref name="":18""/><ref>Jones, 2016, p. 319</ref>

Material remains of historical tourism is evident by a [[Watercolor painting|watercolour]] of Isle of the Dead by [[Ebenezer Wake Cook]], commissioned by the [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Duke of Edinburgh]] during his visit to Tasmania in January 1868.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Island of the Dead, Port Arthur|url=https://stors.tas.gov.au/144584927|last=Cook|first=E.W|date=c. 1868|website=Libraries Tasmania's Online Collection|publisher=Archive and Heritage Office|location=Tasmania|type=Painting, watercolour|access-date=2020-04-20}}</ref> It is also seen in photographic postcards, from 1905 by photographers such as [[John Watt Beattie]],<ref name="":21"" /><ref>Jones, 2016, pp. 116, 118</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Among the Tombs, Dead Island, Port Arthur|url=http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/object/32098/print|last=Beattie|first=J. W|date=n.d.|website=Collection Explorer, National Museum of Australia|series=Joseph Lebovic Gallery Collection No.1|publisher=National Museum of Australia|location=Hobart, Tasmania|language=en|type=Photographic Postcard|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref> and postcards printed from 1905 to 1921 by J. Walch and Son. McVitty and W.J. Little.<ref>Jones, 2016, pp. 118, 126</ref> The first image recorded of Isle of the Dead was by Catherine Augusta Mitchell who pencilled a sketch of her children's burial place around 1845.<ref>Lord, 1990, p. 77</ref>

In 1887 Isle of the Dead together with Point Puer were sold as private land to Thomas White as Lot 7378 until acquired by the Tasmanian government in 1915.<ref>Tropman & Gibbons, 1984, p. 6</ref> It is unknown what the isle was used for during this time. Point Puer, part of the same allotment, was used for farming purposes until the 1960s.<ref>Doyle et al., 2008, p. 29</ref>

===Erosion and vandalism===
Damage has occurred to the island from [[erosion]]. In 1879 a large part of the isle collapsed on the eastern side leaving graves exposed at the cliff edge.<ref>Doyle et al., 2002, p. 32</ref><ref>Lord, 1990, p. 2</ref> Government grants to restore gravestones and remove overgrowth in 1892 and the removal of almost all vegetation in 1933 exposed the isle to weather causing severe erosion to the island and cemetery.{{Sfn|Weidenhofer|1990|p=119}}<ref>Doyle et al., 2002, pp. 7, 33</ref><ref>Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 5</ref><ref>Tropman & Gibbons,1984, pp. 6–7</ref> From 1938 a memorial garden was established using native and exotic plants and headstones were repaired with cement.<ref name="":21"" /><ref name="":54""/><ref name="":552""/><ref>Lord, 1990, pp. 2–3</ref>

Destruction also occurred from recurring vandalism to the cemetery's monuments.<ref name="":19"" /><ref>{{Cite news|date=1910-01-07|title=Dead Island.|page=8|work=The Hobart Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860 – 1954)|location=Hobart, Tasmania|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article10049864|access-date=2020-04-14|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1913-11-18|title=Vandalism at Dead Island.|page=4|work=The Hobart Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860–1954)|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article10307371|access-date=2020-04-14|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref> Tourists arrived by [[steamship]] on cheap day tickets and removed relics as souvenirs.<ref name=""Goc, 2002, p. 24""/><ref>Young, 1985, pp. 7, 238, 293  </ref> This was able to continue, as there was a general lack of funds and protective measures in place, until the 1970s.<ref>Young, 1985, p. 7</ref>

===Conservation and tourism development===
In 1916 the Tasmanian government established the Scenery Preservation Board, which acquired Isle of the Dead and listed it as a Scenic Reserve.<ref name="":21"" /><ref name="":54"">Doyle et al., 2002, p. 7</ref><ref name="":552"">Tropman & Gibbons,1984, p. 8</ref> With a rapid increase in tourism following World War II, this board established the Port Arthur Scenic Reserves Board, which developed a scenic attraction by clearing overgrowth and planting trees.<ref name="":21"" /><ref>Goc, 2002, p. 25</ref> The National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) took over the management of the isle in 1971 and introduced conservation methods to minimise further erosion by removing exotic species and planting native trees to act as wind breaks to protect the headstones. They also restored monuments with concrete and mortar.<ref name="":54"" /><ref name="":552""/><ref name=""Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 4""/>

From the 1970s tourism was promoted through ""Isle of Dead Tours"" facilitated by a new jetty and boat trip on the ''O'Hara Booth'' departing from Port Arthur's Mason Cove. These tours were not guided and attempts to limit tourist movements were made by pathways and chains around headstones.<ref name="":552""/>

The Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority (PAHSMA) has managed the Isle of the Dead from 1987. PAHSMA receives government funding and generates further revenue through tourism.<ref name="":21"" /><ref>Godden et al., p. 87</ref> This revenue has funded conservation and heritage activities such as: maritime research uncovering artefacts of convict boat transport, old jetty and moorings on the Isle of the Dead's coastline;<ref>Godden et al., p. 32</ref> monitoring headstone deterioration and restorations;<ref name="":10""/><ref>Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 8</ref><ref name="":162"">{{Cite web|title=Conservation Projects and Programs|url=https://portarthur.org.au/heritage-management/conservation-projects-programs/|last=PAHSMA|date=2020|website=Portarthur.org.au|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-15}}</ref> and, [[Geophysics|geophysical]] investigations of the layout and physical characteristics of the burial ground.<ref name="":242""/><ref name="":32""/>

Conservation schemes have focused on minimising the impact of tourism on the cemetery by construction of barriers and walkways.<ref>Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 7</ref> Limiting access by offering only guided tours and alternative activities such as boat only trips and night-time tours of Point Arthur.<ref name="":21"" /><ref>Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 6</ref> At the same time, funding projects have increased tourist accessibility through building new jetties at Mason Cove and Isle of the Dead and improving walkways and viewing platforms.<ref name="":162"" />

PAHSMA, under its conservation aims, succeeded in having Isle of the Dead, as part of the Port Arthur Historic Site, inscribed on the [[Tasmanian Heritage Register]] in 1995 and [[Australian National Heritage List]] in 2005 for its historic and cultural significance, giving it protection under the Environment and Protection and Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999.<ref name="":15"" /><ref>Doyle et al, 2002, p. 65</ref> PAHSMA also succeeded in having the site listed with UNESCO as a [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage Property]] on 31 July 2010 making it one of 11 [[Australian Convict Sites]] representing convictism and its development in the punishment of crime.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001/acref-9780191823534|title=Dictionary Plus Social Sciences|date=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-182353-4|language=en-US|doi=10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001}}</ref><ref name="":132""/>
[[File:Port Arthur, Tasmania - panoramio.jpg|center|thumb|1074x1074px|Panoramic view of Isle of the Dead, 2011.]]

==Graves==
[[File:Henry Savery memorial stone, Isle of the Dead, Tasmania.jpg|thumb|[[Henry Savery]] (1791–1842) Memorial Stone, Isle of the Dead|upright]]
* Collins, Dennis. (? – 1833) Convict buried in 1833 aged 58. He was an English disabled pauper and retired sailor, transported for life for throwing a stone at the King. His cause of death was suicide by refusing food.<ref name="":17"" />{{Sfn|Burn|1905|p=33}}<ref>Lord. 1990, pp. 5–6</ref>
* Eastman, Reverend George. (? – 25 April 1870). He was the Church of England chaplain for the Port Arthur penal colony from January 1855 to April 1870. He was known as the ""good parson"" and in April 1870, although unwell with a cold, visited an ill convict in an outstation. He died two days later and was interred in a raised sandstone vault on 28 April 1870.  The inscription on the vault marks his age as 51 years old and the Port Arthur burial register records his age as 50 years old. Following his death the local diocese ran an appeal for his wife and 10 children.<ref>Lord, 1990. pp. 42–43</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1870-05-02|title=The Late Rev. George Eastman|page=3|work=The Hobart Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860–1954)|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article8863889|access-date=2020-04-18|via=TROVE National Library of Australia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Rev George Eastman|url=https://portarthur.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/People-of-the-Port-Arthur-Convict-ra1.pdf|last=PAHSMA|date=2017|website=portarthur.org.au|page=7}}</ref>
* [[Henry Savery|Savery, Henry.]] (1791–1842). A convict and Australia's first novelist with ''The Hermit of Van Dieman's Land,'' published under a pseudonym in 1829 and ''Quintus Servinton'' published in 1831. He was buried on Isle of the Dead in 1842.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Henry Savery, Quintus Servinton|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/exhibitions/quintus/index.html|last=University of Tasmania|date=1999|website=www.utas.edu.au|publisher=Online Library Exhibition|access-date=2020-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Henry Savery|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/S/Savery.htm|last=Roe|first=M|date=2006|website=The Companion to Tasmanian History|publisher=Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies|location=Hobart, Tasmania|access-date=2020-04-28}}</ref>{{Sfn|Burn|1905|pp=26-27}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hendy-Fooley|first=G|date=1933-09-12|title=Barron Field|page=6|work=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842–1954)|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article17006400|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref> A memorial plaque was placed over his grave in 1978 and in 1992 the [[Fellowship of Australian Writers]] replaced the plaque with a memorial stone marking the 150th anniversary of Savery's death. The stone's inscription describes his book, crimes of forgery, imprisonment and death.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Xerri|first=D|date=2018|title=Dark and literary: A tour to the Isle of the Dead|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329520739|journal=Journal of Language and Cultural Education|publisher=University of Malta|volume=6|issue=2|page=126|via=researchgate|doi=10.2478/jolace-2018-0020|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Australia|Islands}}
* [[Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage]]
* [[Protected areas of Tasmania]]

{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Bateson, C. (1969) ''The Convict Ships'' 1787- 7869, 2nd ed. Glasgow, Brown Son & Ferguson Ltd, {{ISBN|978-0-85174-195-6}} cited in Ross, L. (1995). ''Death and Burial at Port Arthur, 1830–1877'' (honours thesis). University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, p.&nbsp;42. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://eprints.utas.edu.au/16257/3/Ross_whole.pdf.pdf <nowiki>https://eprints.utas.edu.au/16257/3/Ross_whole.pdf.pdf</nowiki>]
* Beattie, J.W. (n.d.) ''Among the Tombs, Dead Island, Port Arthur'' [Photographic Postcard].''Joseph Lebovic Gallery Collection No.1.'' Hobart, Tasmania: National Museum of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/object/32098/print <nowiki>http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/object/32098/print</nowiki>]
* Bowen, F. (1907-06-19). The Isle of the Dead'','' Tasmania. Where the Convicts Sleep. ''Australian Town and Country Journal'', p.&nbsp;25. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/71593432 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/71593432</nowiki>]
* {{Cite web |last=Burn|first=David |year=1905 |title=An Excursion to Port Arthur in 1842. (Port Arthur Van Diemen's Land) |location=Hobart, Tasmania |publisher=J. W. Beattie |via=State Library of Victoria Digital Library|ol=OL14007289M|access-date=9 April 2020|url=http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/82204}}
* Catchpole, H. (2004-08-19). Island Reveals Mysteries of the Dead. ''ABC Science''. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/08/19/1178596.htm <nowiki>https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/08/19/1178596.htm</nowiki>]
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* Jeffrey, M. Burke, J. (1900). ''A Burglar's Life, or, The Stirring Adventures of the Great English Burglar Mark Jeffrey: A thrilling history of the dark days of convictism in Australia.'' Tales of the Early Days. Hobart, Tasmania: J. Walch & Sons. State Library Victoria digital library. Retrieved 2020-04-26 [http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/183230 <nowiki>http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/183230</nowiki>]
* Jones, J. K. (2016). ''Historical Archaeology of Touri8sm at Port Arthur, Tasmania, 1885–1960''. Unpublished PhD. Thesis, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.academia.edu/34948867/Historical_Archaeology_of_Tourism_at_Port_Arthur_Tasmania_1885-1960 <nowiki>https://www.academia.edu/34948867/Historical_Archaeology_of_Tourism_at_Port_Arthur_Tasmania_1885-1960</nowiki>.]
* Legresy, B. (2017-08-29) Sea Level Rise: Understanding the Past – Improving Projections for the future. ''CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere''. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [http://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel/sl_hist_few_hundred.html <nowiki>http://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel/sl_hist_few_hundred.html</nowiki>]
* Links, F. Roach, M. Jackman, G. (2004). Using Geophysics to Locate Burials and other Cultural Features, Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur, Tasmania. ''Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists Extended Abstracts, (1),''1–5, {{doi|10.1071/ASEG2004ab089}}. {{ISSN|2202-0586}} Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1071/ASEG2004ab089?needAccess=true <nowiki>https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1071/ASEG2004ab089?needAccess=true</nowiki>]
* Lord, R. (1990). ''Inscription in Stone, the Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur: Inscriptions from the Cemetery of the Port Arthur Penal Establishment 1830–1877''. (3rd ed.) Taroona, Tas: Richard Lord and Partners. {{ISBN|0-9597473-3-8}}. {{OCLC|27624866}}.
* Manton, J. (1845). ''The Isle of the Dead or the Burial-place at Port Arthur, Van-Diemen's Land''. Missionary Series No. 652. [Pamphlet]. London, UK: John Mason. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-83567059/view?partId=nla.obj-83567403 <nowiki>https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-83567059/view?partId=nla.obj-83567403</nowiki>]
* Maxwell-Stewart, H. (2006). Convicts. The Companion to Tasmanian History. (1st ed.) ''Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies''. Hobart, Tasmania: University of Tasmania. (Vol1. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/C/Convicts.htm2 <nowiki>https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/C/Convicts.htm2</nowiki>]
* Morgan, K. (2016). ''Port Arthur''. Dictionary Plus Social Sciences. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2020-04-22 [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001/acref-9780191823534 <nowiki>https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001/acref-9780191823534</nowiki>]
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* PAHSMA (2020) Isle of the Dead Cemetery Tour. Retrieved 2020-04-28 [https://portarthur.org.au/tour/isle-of-the-dead/ Isle of the Dead cemetery tour]
* PAHSMA (2017) Port Arthur People: Reverend George Eastman. Retrieved 2020-04-28 [https://portarthur.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/People-of-the-Port-Arthur-Convict-ra1.pdf <nowiki>https://portarthur.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/People-of-the-Port-Arthur-Convict-ra1.pdf</nowiki>]
* PAHSMA (2020) Conservation Projects and Programs. Isle of the Dead Monuments and Walkways. Retrieved 2020-04-28 [https://portarthur.org.au/heritage-management/conservation-projects-programs/ [https://portarthur.org.au/heritage-management/conservation-projects-programs/ <nowiki>https://portarthur.org.au/heritage-management/conservation-projects-programs/</nowiki><nowiki>]</nowiki>]
* Pugh, D. Hunter, J. Coleman, R. Watson, C. (2002). A Comparison of Historical and Recent Sea Level Measurements at Port Arthur, Tasmania. ''International Hydrographic Review. 3(3),'' 13. Retrieved 2020-04-11 [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255597658_A_comparison_of_historical_and_recent_sea_level_measurements_at_Port_Arthur_Tasmania <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255597658_A_comparison_of_historical_and_recent_sea_level_measurements_at_Port_Arthur_Tasmania</nowiki>]
* Roe, M. (2006). For the Term of his Natural Life in Film. ''The Companion to Tasmanian History''. Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies. Hobart. Tas. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/F/For%20the%20term%20of%20his%20natural%20life%20on%20film.htm <nowiki>https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/F/For%20the%20term%20of%20his%20natural%20life%20on%20film.htm</nowiki>]
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* {{Cite book |last=Ross|first=J. C. |year=1847 |title=A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions, During the Years 1839–43|location=London  |volume=2 |pages=22–32 |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/936174|publisher=John Murray}} <!-- <nowiki> https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015010728460&view=1up&seq=1</nowiki> -->
* Ross, L. (2006). Isle of the Dead. Companion to Tasmanian History. (1st ed.) ''Centre for Historical Tasmanian Studies.'' Hobart, Tasmania: University of Tasmania. (Vol.1). Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/I/Isle%20of%20the%20Dead.htm <nowiki>https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/I/Isle%20of%20the%20Dead.htm</nowiki>]
* Ross, L. (1995). ''Death and Burial at Port Arthur, 1830–1877'' (Honours thesis). University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania. University of Tasmania Open Access Depository. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://eprints.utas.edu.au/16257/ <nowiki>https://eprints.utas.edu.au/16257/</nowiki>]
* Shortt, J. C. (1889). Notes on the Possible Oscillation of Levels of Land and Sea in Tasmania During Recent Years. ''Royal Society of Tasmania Papers,'' Hobart, Tasmania. 18–20. University of Tasmania Open Access Depository. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://eprints.utas.edu.au/15749/ <nowiki>https://eprints.utas.edu.au/15749/</nowiki>]
* Tasman Council. (n.d.) History of the Tasman Peninsula. Nubeena, Tasmania. Service Tasmania. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.tasman.tas.gov.au/tourism/local-history/ <nowiki>https://www.tasman.tas.gov.au/tourism/local-history/</nowiki>]
* Tasmanian Nomenclature (1911-09-23). The Place Names of the Island, a Record of Origins and Dates. ''The'' ''Hobart Mercury''. (XI) p.&nbsp;11. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [http://nla.gov.au/nla.new-article10115196 <nowiki>http://nla.gov.au/nla.new-article10115196</nowiki>]
* The Digital Panopticon (2020) Mark Jeffery b. 1825, Life Archive ID obpdef1-1358-18490611 ''Digital Humanities Institute''. Universities of Liverpool, Oxford, Sheffield, Sussex and Tasmania. Digital Humanities Institute. Version 1.2.1, retrieved 2020-4-26 [https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/life?id=obpdef1-1358-18490611 <nowiki>https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/life?id=obpdef1-1358-18490611</nowiki>]
* The Late Rev. George Eastman. (1870-05-02). ''The Hobart Mercury,'' p.&nbsp;3. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09. [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/8863889 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/8863889</nowiki>]
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* Trollope, A. (2013). Australia and New Zealand (Cambridge Library Collection – History of Oceania). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015010728460&view=1up&seq=13 <nowiki>https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015010728460&view=1up&seq=13</nowiki>]
* Tropman, L. Gibbons, G. S. (1984). ''Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur: a study of the island and recommendation for conservation of the headstones and the island.'' ''Port Arthur Conservation Project.''Hobart, Tasmania, National Parks and Wildlife Service. {{OCLC|876315028}}. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-07 [https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1382371370/view <nowiki>https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1382371370/view</nowiki>]
* UNESCO. (2010). Decision: 34 COM 8B.16. Cultural Properties – Australian Convict Sites (Australia). ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2020-04-09. [https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/3995/ <nowiki>https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/3995/</nowiki>]
* University of Tasmania (1999) Henry Savery, Quintus Servinton. Online Library Exhibition. Retrieved 2020-4-29.[https://www.utas.edu.au/library/exhibitions/quintus/index.html <nowiki>https://www.utas.edu.au/library/exhibitions/quintus/index.html</nowiki>]
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* {{Cite book |last=Weidenhofer |first=Maggie |year=1990 |title=Port Arthur: A Place of Misery |edition=2nd |location=Port Arthur, Tasmania |publisher=B&M Reid and Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority| isbn=978-0-646-00003-9 |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/5748485}}
* Xerri, D. (2018). Dark and Literary: a Tour to the Isle of the Dead. Journal of Language and Cultural Education (6)2, 126–143. University of Malta, Malta. {{doi|10.2478/jolace-2018-0020}} Retrieved 2020-05-05 [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329520739_Dark_and_literary_A_tour_to_the_Isle_of_the_Dead <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329520739_Dark_and_literary_A_tour_to_the_Isle_of_the_Dead</nowiki>]

==Further reading==
===Convictism===
* Clarke, M. (1874) [https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=For_the_Term_of_His_Natural_Life&oldid=7400523 ''For the Term of His Natural Life'']
* Howard, R. (2011). ''A Forger's Tale: The Extraordinary Story of Henry Savery, Australia's First Novelist'', Melbourne, Australia: Arcade Publications. {{ISBN|978-0-9871714-8-1}}
* Savery, H. (1830). [https://www.utas.edu.au/library/exhibitions/quintus/documents/quintus_bookman.pdf ''Quintus Servinton'']
* Savery, H. (1829).[https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-115925908/view?partId=nla.obj-115958970#page/n23/mode/1up ''The Hermit in Van Diemen's Land'']

===Sea level benchmark===
* Ellis, W. F. (1967). ''[http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020092b.htm Lempriere, Thomas James (1796–1852), public official, author and artist]''
* Parker, A. (2015). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276082797_The_Isle_of_The_Dead_Benchmark_the_Sydney_Fort_Denison_Tide_Gauge_and_the_Ipcc_Ar5_Chapter_13_Sea_Levels_Revisited The Isle of the Dead Benchmark, the Sydney Fort Denison Tide Gauge and the IPCC AR5]

==External links==
{{commons|Port Arthur, Tasmania|Port Arthur, Tasmania}}
{{wikivoyage|Port Arthur (Tasmania)|Port Arthur, Tasmania}}

=== Cemetery ===
* {{Find a Grave cemetery}}
* [https://eheritage.libraries.tas.gov.au/ Isle of the Dead gravestone inscriptions]
* [https://portarthur.org.au/tour/isle-of-the-dead/ Port Arthur Historic Site, Isle of the Dead Tour]

=== Early images ===
* [http://www.utas.edu.au/library/exhibitions/quintus/index.html Henry Savery, Australia's first novelist. University of Tasmania, Library Exhibition]
* [https://stors.tas.gov.au/AUTAS0016125425538 Postcards of Isle of the Dead from 1870–1920]
* [https://stors.tas.gov.au/144584927 Watercolour of Isle of the Dead] (c. 1868) painted by [[Ebenezer Wake Cook]]

{{Islands of Tasmania}}
{{World Heritage Sites In Australia}}
{{Convicts in Australia}}{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1833 establishments in Australia]]
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal cultural history]]
[[Category:Australian Convict Sites]]
[[Category:Australian penal colonies]]
[[Category:Burial monuments and structures in Australia]]
[[Category:Cemeteries in Tasmania]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Convictism in Tasmania]]
[[Category:Historic sites in Tasmania]]
[[Category:Islands of Tasmania]]
[[Category:Sea level]]
[[Category:Tasman Peninsula]]
[[Category:Tasmanian Heritage Register]]
[[Category:Tasmanian literature]]
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Reichsnaturschutzgesetz,"#redirect [[Animal welfare in Nazi Germany#Reichsnaturschutzgesetz]]

{{R to anchor}}
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Government of Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:1935 in law]]
[[Category:1935 in Germany]]"
Resource management,"{{Short description|Efficient and effective deployment of an organization's resources when they are needed}}
{{other uses}}
{{business administration}}
In [[organizational studies]], '''resource management''' is the efficient and effective development of an organization's resources when they are needed. Such resources may include the financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or [[information technology]] (IT) and natural resources.

In the realm of [[project management]], processes, techniques and philosophies as to the best approach for allocating resources have been developed.  These include discussions on functional vs. cross-functional [[resource allocation]] as well as processes espoused by organizations like the [[Project Management Institute]] (PMI) through their [[Project Management Body of Knowledge]] (PMBOK) methodology of project management. Resource management is a key element to activity resource estimating and project human resource management. Both are essential components of a comprehensive project management plan to execute and monitor a project successfully.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Third Edition|year=2004|publisher=Project Management Institute (PMI)|location=Newtown Square, Pennsylvania|isbn=1-930699-45-X|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/guidetoprojectma00proj}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Fourth Edition|year=2008|publisher=Project Management Institute (PMI)|location=Newtown Square, Pennsylvania|isbn=978-1-933890-51-7|url=https://archive.org/details/pmbokguide4thedition/mode/2up}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Sixth Edition|year=2017|publisher=Project Management Institute (PMI)|location=Newtown Square, Pennsylvania|isbn=978-1-62825-184-5|url=https://archive.org/details/pmbok6thedenglish/mode/2up}}</ref> As is the case with the larger discipline of [[project management]], there are [[list of resource management software|resource management software]] tools available that automate and assist the process of resource allocation to projects and portfolio resource transparency including [[supply and demand]] of resources. 

== Corporate resource management process ==
Large organizations usually have a defined corporate resource management process which mainly guarantees that resources are never over-allocated across multiple projects.<ref>[http://www.pmhut.com/modern-project-management Modern Project Management]</ref><ref>[http://pdware.com/ Enterprise Resource Management]</ref> Peter Drucker wrote of the need to focus resources, abandoning less promising initiatives for every new project taken on, as fragmentation inhibits results.<ref>{{cite web|title=Growing in Turbulent Times'|url=http://www.projectauditors.com/Papers/Growing_a_Company/Growing_in_Turbulent_Times.html |author=Frank Parth}}
</ref>

== Techniques ==
One resource management technique is [[resource leveling]]. It aims at smoothing the stock of resources on hand, reducing both excess inventories and shortages.

The required data are: the [[Demand (economics)|demand]]s for various resources, forecast by time period into the future as far as is reasonable, as well as the resources' configurations required in those demands, and the [[Supply (economics)|supply]] of the resources, again forecast by time period into the future as far as is reasonable.

The goal is to achieve 100% [[Rental utilization|utilization]] but that is very unlikely, when weighted by important metrics and subject to constraints, for example: meeting a minimum service level, but otherwise minimizing [[cost]].  A Project Resource Allocation Matrix (PRAM) is maintained to visualize the resource allocations against various projects.

The principle is to invest in resources as stored capabilities, then unleash the capabilities as demanded.

A dimension of resource development is included in resource management by which investment in resources can be retained by a smaller additional investment to develop a new capability that is demanded, at a lower investment than disposing of the current resource and replacing it with another that has the demanded capability.

In [[Habitat conservation|conservation]], resource management is a set of practices pertaining to maintaining natural systems integrity.  Examples of this form of management are [[Air#Air pollution|air resource]] management, [[soil conservation]], [[forestry]], [[wildlife]] management and [[water resource]] management.  The broad term for this type of resource management is [[natural resource management]] (NRM).

== See also ==
* [[Environmental management]]
* [[Factor 10]]
* [[Holistic management]]
* [[Industrial symbiosis]]
* [[List of resource management software]]
* [[Resource allocation]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Management}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Resource Management}}
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Schedule (project management)]]
[[Category:Management by type]]"
Smart Parks,"{{Short description|UK-based charity}}
{{Infobox organization
| name   = Smart Parks
| logo   = Smart_Parks_official_logo.png
| type   = Stichting Foundation (Netherlands) Registered Charity (UK)
| founded_date      = 2017
| founder          = Laurens de Groot, Jeroen de Looze, Stephen Roest, Tim van Dam
| location          = [[Netherlands]], [[UK]]
| origins           =
| key_people        = Laurens de Groot, Jeroen de Looze, Tim van Dam, Steve Roest
| area_served       =
| product           =
| focus             = [[Conservation movement|Conservation]]
| method            = Advanced Technology
| revenue           =
| endowment         =
| num_volunteers    =
| num_employees     =
| num_members       =
| subsib            =
| owner             =
| Non-profit_slogan =
| homepage          = [http://www.smartparks.org/ www.smartparks.org]
| dissolved         =
| footnotes         =
}}

'''Smart Parks''' is a UK-based charity that specializes in providing aerial surveillance and monitoring services through the use of unnamed aerial vehicles (UAVs), commonly knowns as drones. The organization was founded in 2012 and launched publicly in 2013, and operates as a registered [[Charitable organization|charity]] in the UK and a [[private foundation]] in the [[Netherlands]]. The organization was formerly named '''ShadowView'''<ref name=""ShadowView News"">{{Cite news |date=4 July 2013 |title=ShadowView receives charitable status |url=http://www.shadowview.org/news20130704.html}}</ref>'''.'''

Smart Park's services are used primarily by park rangers and conservationist for [[Wildlife conservation|wildlife conservation efforts]], [[disaster relief]] situations, [[poaching]] and wildlife crime, [[habitat destruction]], and biomass management. Smart Parks has been successfully implemented in several nature reserves and national parks across the world, including the Kruger National Park in South Africa, Bardiya National Park in Nepal, and Niassa Special Reserve which is one of Africa's largest protected area.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-05-01 |title=Foundation |url=https://www.smartparks.org/foundation/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Smart Parks |language=en}}</ref> The initiative has shown promising results in improving the effectiveness of wildlife conservation efforts and protecting endangered species.

==History==
Smart Parks was founded by four conservationist Laurens de Groot, Tim van Dam, Steve Roest, and Jeroen de Looze to address the need to support conservation organizations in their battles to protect the [[natural environment]]. They combined their 30 years of experience in law enforcement and advanced technologies to monitor and protect wildlife in remote areas.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-05-01 |title=Story |url=https://www.smartparks.org/story/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Smart Parks |language=en}}</ref>

Smart Parks was formed by the merger of two charities [[ShadowView]] and Internet of Life in 2017. In collaboration with [[League Against Cruel Sports]], Smart Parks became the first organization to use UAV's to monitor and document potential wildlife crime in England. This effort involved using drones to fly over areas where illegal hunting may occur, and capturing video evidence that can be used in legal proceedings.<ref name=""BBC online"">{{Cite news |date=16 March 2013 |title=Drones may be used to target illegal hunting |publisher=BBC online |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21812600}}</ref>

In 2017 Rwanda's [[Akagera National Park]] launched the Smart Parks technology which allows park rangers to monitor animals, visitors, and equipment in real-time. The Smart Parks system is based on the [[LoRa]] technology a Long Range Wide-Area Network (LoRaWAN) with low-bandwidth, low-power networking technology that can blanket large areas at relatively low costs.<ref name=""The Verge"">{{Cite news |date=20 July 2017 |title=High Tech plan to combat poachers |publisher=The Verge.com. |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/7/20/16002752/smart-park-rwanda-akagera-poaching-lorawan.html}}</ref>

In 2018, ShadowView was rebranded as Smart Parks, expanding its focus beyond drone technology to include other advanced technologies such as camera traps and sensors.

==Operations==
In November 2013 Smart Parks confirmed deployment of their Eco Ranger, Shadow Ranger and Shadow Rotor UAS in the Greater Kruger area for anti poaching operations.<ref name=""ShadowView.org"">{{Cite news|title=ShadowView using UAV for wildlife monitoring, conservation and anti poaching operations in the Greater Kruger National Park|url=http://www.shadowview.org/news20131120.html#.UsQUufZkJVk}}</ref>
[[File:ShadowView Eco Ranger UAS.jpeg|thumb|ShadowView Eco Ranger]]

Smart Parks continued to operate throughout 2014 in a variety of private reserves in South Africa.<ref name=""Metro"">{{Cite news|title=Rhino-saving drones: How UAVs are being used for wildlife conservation|url=http://metro.co.uk/2014/05/09/rhino-saving-drones-how-uavs-are-being-used-for-wildlife-conservation-4721692/|publisher=Metro News UK|date=9 May 2014}}</ref> In January 2017 The Internet of Life and the ShadowView Foundation organizations co-developed a LoRa-equipped sensor that is implanted directly into the [[Rhinoceros|rhino's]] horn for protection against poaching in [[Akagera National Park]]. The sensor has given park rangers the ability to accurately monitor the whereabouts and activities of the critically endangered black rhinos and keep them safe from wildlife criminals and poachers. This technology is utilized by Smart Parks and is now being deployed throughout [[Mkomazi National Park]] and many other locations.<ref name=""Nasdaq Global Newswire"">{{Cite news|title=Semtech LoRa Technology Tracks Location of Endangered Black Rhinos in Africa|url=https://globenewswire.com/news-release/2017/01/17/906237/0/en/Semtech-LoRa-Technology-Tracks-Location-of-Endangered-Black-Rhinos-in-Africa.html|publisher=GlobeNewswire.com.com |date=17 Jan 2017}}</ref><ref name=""IT Web"">{{Cite news|title=Rhino horn sensor implants prevent poaching|url=http://www.itweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158742l|publisher=IT Web Emerging Technologies |date=18 Jan 2017}}</ref><ref name=""Black Rhinos in Tanzania"">{{Cite news |date=24 Oct 2017 |title=Black rhinos in Tanzania now monitored via sensors implanted directly in their horns |publisher=MongaBay |url=https://news.mongabay.com/wildtech/2017/10/black-rhinos-in-tanzania-now-monitored-via-sensors-implanted-directly-in-their-horns/}}</ref>

In addition, this wireless technology provides sensors that can be implemented along fences that are used to protect endangered or vulnerable species. If a break in the fence is detected or animal presence is sensed near the fence, local officials will be alerted. This provides real-time data on where potential poachers can be breaking fences to enter protected properties or when animals are near the border of the property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kavana |first=Pius Yoram |last2=Sangeda |first2=Anthony Z. |title=Natural Resources Conservation and Livestock Interface |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Pius-Kavana/publication/323833896_Natural_Resources_Conservation_and_Livestock_Interface/links/5ae2a9b6a6fdcc9139a0f9fc/Natural-Resources-Conservation-and-Livestock-Interface.pdf |journal=Sokoine University of Agriculture}}</ref>

Smart Parks has installed its fourth and largest African smart park to date in Malawi's [[Liwonde National Park]] in October 2018.
In just two weeks, the 548km2 national park was equipped with gateways and sensors that gather information to help improve park management and protection. The construction of the network in the [[Liwonde National Park]] was implemented alongside a team from [[African Parks]], a conservation NGO that manages the park on behalf of the Malawian government. The group was trained by Smart Parks for the construction of the site.<ref name=""New Smart Park in Africa"">{{Cite news|title=See How This New Smart Park in Africa Could Help Rangers Curb Poaching|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jenniferhicks/2018/11/07/see-how-this-new-smart-park-in-africa-could-help-rangers-curb-poaching/#138f2f063180|work=Forbes.com |date=7 Nov 2018}}</ref>

Smart Parks announced in 2018 an operation in the [[Serengeti National Park]], a [[World Heritage Site]].<ref name=""Novel wireless technology"">{{Cite news|title=Serengeti National park|url=https://ensia.com/features/lpwan/|publisher=ensia |date=6 June 2018}}</ref>

==Controversy==
There has been some controversy in the media surrounding the use of [[UAV]] or ""drones"" in the countryside of the [[UK]] with the Countryside Alliance suggesting the use of drones might be dangerous to people and animals<ref name=""New Scientist online"">{{Cite news|title=Anti hunting group hires ""ethical""surveillance drone|url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/onepercent/2013/03/drone-campaign-group.html|publisher=Newscientist.com |date=21 March 2013}}</ref> Smart Parks respond to the controversy of using drones, saying they fly within [[Civil Aviation Authority|CAA]] flight regulations for missions across the [[UK]].<ref name=""SustainableBusiness.com"">{{Cite news|title=Technology to the rescue for wildlife|url=http://www.sustainablebusiness.com/index.cfm/go/news.display/id/24694|publisher=sustainablebusiness.com|date=22 March 2013}}</ref>
In December 2013 International NGO 'Free the Slaves' announced it would partner with Smart Parks and use UAV to identify illegal slavery, the reception in India was mixed with some of the public supporting the concept and some voicing concern of the use of drones.<ref name=""NationalPost.com"">{{Cite news|title=Free the Slaves|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/2013/12/13/stunt-headed-nowhere-activists-decry-free-the-slaves-plan-to-use-drones-to-secretly-film-forced-labour-in-india}}</ref>

==Partners==
Smart Parks has received funding and support from several organizations including, the World Wildlife Fund and the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation. Smart Parks has partnered with a wide range of organizations including [[African Parks]] to protect local communities in Africa and collaborate with local government officials. Additional partners include Microsoft, which supports the development of the organization's conservation technology initiatives. Microsoft's AI for Earth program has also provided funding and support for Smart Parks' work on developing a real-time wildlife monitoring system. Additional partners include [[Save the Children]], [[Semtech]], Air Shepherd, and The Dutch Postcode Lottery.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-05-01 |title=Foundation |url=https://www.smartparks.org/foundation/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Smart Parks |language=en}}</ref>  

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Charities based in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Charities based in England]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in the United Kingdom]]"
Category:Nature conservation by continent,"{{container}}

[[Category:Environment by continent| ]]
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Category:Nature conservation by country,"{{Commons cat|Conservation by country}}
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[[Category:Nature conservation| ]]
[[Category:Environment by country| Nature conservation]]"
Green grabbing,"{{short description|Foreign appropriation of land and resources for environmental purposes}}
{{green politics sidebar|Related}}
'''Green grabbing''' or '''green colonialism''' is the foreign [[land grabbing]] and appropriation of resources for environmental purposes,<ref name=""Fairhead"">{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/03066150.2012.671770|title=Green Grabbing: A new appropriation of nature?|year=2012|last1=Fairhead|first1=James|last2=Leach|first2=Melissa|last3=Scoones|first3=Ian|journal=Journal of Peasant Studies|volume=39|issue=2|pages=237–261|s2cid=115133230|doi-access=free}}</ref> resulting in a pattern of unjust development.<ref name=""Iskander"">{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-061418-095236|doi-access=free|title=Climate Change and Work: Politics and Power|year=2020|last1=Iskander|first1=Natasha N.|last2=Lowe|first2=Nichola|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=23|pages=111–131}}</ref> The purposes of green grabbing are varied; it can be done for ecotourism, conservation of biodiversity or [[ecosystem services]], for carbon emission trading, or for biofuel production. It involves governments, NGOs, and corporations, often working in alliances. Green grabs can result in local residents' displacement from land where they live or make their livelihoods. It is considered to be a subtype of [[green imperialism]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ron Arnold: Green-grabbing for carbon 'offsets' takes toll on Africans |url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/ron-arnold-green-grabbing-for-carbon-offsets-takes-toll-on-africans |access-date=30 April 2023 |work=Washington Examiner |date=4 April 2013 |language=en}}</ref>

====== Who is affected by green grabbing? ======
Green grabbing primarily affects smallholders, and leads to various forms of injustice, conflict, and displacement. Confiscation of land by both local and foreign companies, as well as by rural elites and government bodies, in the name of environmental reasons, often worsens existing vulnerabilities and inequalities in these communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Busscher |first=Nienke |last2=Parra |first2=Constanza |last3=Vanclay |first3=Frank |date=2020-02-23 |title=Environmental justice implications of land grabbing for industrial agriculture and forestry in Argentina |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09640568.2019.1595546 |journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management |language=en |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=500–522 |doi=10.1080/09640568.2019.1595546 |issn=0964-0568}}</ref> Areas most vulnerable to green grabs are those in poor economic conditions, developing countries, or on indigenous land.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stock |first=Ryan |last2=Birkenholtz |first2=Trevor |date=2021-07-29 |title=The sun and the scythe: energy dispossessions and the agrarian question of labor in solar parks |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03066150.2019.1683002 |journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies |language=en |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=984–1007 |doi=10.1080/03066150.2019.1683002 |issn=0306-6150}}</ref>

==Definition and purpose==
""Green grabbing"" was first coined in 2008 by journalist John Vidal, in a piece that appeared in ''[[The Guardian]]'' called ""The great green land grab"".<ref name=""Fairhead""/> Social anthropologist [[Melissa Leach]] notes that it ""builds on well-known histories of [[colonialism|colonial]] and [[Neocolonialism|neo-colonial]] resource alienation in the name of the environment"".<ref name=""Leach""/> Green grabbing is a more specific form of [[land grabbing]], in which the motive of the land grab is for environmental reasons.<ref name=""Fairhead""/> Green grabbing can be done for conservation of [[biodiversity]] or [[ecosystem service]]s, [[carbon emission trading]], or for [[ecotourism]].<ref name=""Iskander""/><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/03066150.2012.664138|title=Enclosing the global commons: The convention on biological diversity and green grabbing|year=2012|last1=Corson|first1=Catherine|last2=MacDonald|first2=Kenneth Iain|journal=Journal of Peasant Studies|volume=39|issue=2|pages=263–283|s2cid=153985368}}</ref> Conservation groups might encourage members of the public to donate money to ""adopt"" an acre of land, which goes towards land acquisition. Companies who engage in carbon emission trading might employ a green grab to plant trees&mdash;the resulting [[carbon offset]] can then be sold or traded.<ref name=""Leach"">{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/06/201261885431273708.html| title=The dark side of the green economy: 'Green grabbing'| first=Melissa| last=Leach| date=20 June 2012| access-date=27 August 2020| website=Al Jazeera}}</ref> One program, [[Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation]] (REDD+), compensates companies and countries for conserving forests, though the definition of forest also includes [[Plantation#Forest plantations|forest plantations]] consisting of a single tree species ([[monoculture]]).<ref name=""Vigil""/>

Green grabbing can also be done for the production of [[biofuels]]. Biofuel production efforts, led by the US and European Union, have been a main driver of land grabbing in general. The International Land Coalition states that 59% of land grabs between 2000 and 2010 were because of biofuels.<ref name=""Vigil"">{{cite book|title=Routledge Handbook of Environmental Displacement and Migration| chapter=Green grabbing-induced displacement| last1=Vigil| first1=Sara| year=2018| editor1-first=Robert| editor1-last= McLeman| editor2-first= François| editor2-last= Gemenne| publisher=Routledge| isbn=9781317272250| pages=370–381}}</ref>

==Occurrence==
Indebted governments may be especially vulnerable to green grabs, as they may agree to privatize and sell public assets to avoid bankruptcy.<ref name=""Fairhead"" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weeber|first=Stan|date=2016-10-31|title=Nodes of resistance to green grabbing: a political ecology|url=http://ojs.whioce.com/index.php/esp/article/view/49|journal=Environment and Social Psychology|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.18063/ESP.2016.02.006|issn=2424-8975|doi-access=free}}</ref> Green grabs involve large tracts of land consisting of thousands or millions of hectares.<ref name=""Fairhead""/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scheidel|first1=Arnim|last2=Work|first2=Courtney|date=2018|title=Forest plantations and climate change discourses: New powers of 'green' grabbing in Cambodia|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0264837717312401|journal=Land Use Policy|language=en|volume=77|pages=9–18|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.04.057|s2cid=158227726 }}</ref> Green grabs have occurred in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia.<ref name=""Fairhead"" /><ref name=""Rocheleau""/> [[Environmental activists]] and critics have also warned that the [[Green New Deal]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Douo|first=Myriam|date=2021-06-23|title=Climate colonialism and the EU's Green Deal|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/6/23/the-eus-green-deal-could-propagate-climate-colonialism|access-date=2021-12-04|website=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Táíwò|first=Olúfẹ́mi O.|date=2019-02-25|title=How a Green New Deal could exploit developing countries|url=http://theconversation.com/how-a-green-new-deal-could-exploit-developing-countries-111726|access-date=2021-12-04|website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]|language=en}}</ref> and [[2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference|COP26]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nguyen|first=Le Dong Hai|date=2021-11-27|title=California's carbon-offset disaster reveals why COP26 was a big disappointment|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/contributors/valley-voice/2021/11/27/californias-carbon-offset-disaster-and-disappointment-cop-26/8740979002/|access-date=2021-12-04|website=[[USA TODAY]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Lakhani|first=Nina|date=2021-11-03|title='A continuation of colonialism': indigenous activists say their voices are missing at Cop26|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/02/cop26-indigenous-activists-climate-crisis|access-date=2021-12-04|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=en}}</ref> could exacerbate green colonialism.

The indigenous [[Sámi]] community of northern Scandinavia, as well as Norwegian and Swedish activists, have accused the Norwegian government of green colonialism because of the construction of wind farms on [[Sápmi|Sámi land]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/3e3813c9-e568-49f9-a64c-7d7da03f4d36 |title=Greta Thunberg accuses Norway of 'green colonialism' over wind farm |newspaper=[[Financial Times]] |date=27 February 2023 |accessdate=2023-07-24 |last1=Milne |first1=Richard }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/8/1/green-colonialism-is-ruining-indigenous-lives-in-norway |title='Green' colonialism is ruining Indigenous lives in Norway |publisher=[[Aljazeera English]] |accessdate=2023-07-24}}</ref>

==Actors==
Modern green grabs are often enacted through alliances between national elites, government agencies, and private actors. Examples can include international environmental policy institutions, multi-national corporations, and [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs). These varied actors align to achieve common goals; for example, ecotourism initiatives can result in the alignment of tourism companies, conservation groups, and governments. Conservation groups can also align with military or paramilitary groups to accomplish shared aims. Actors can also include entrepreneurs trying to profit from [[eco-capitalism]], such as companies developing forest carbon offset projects, [[biochar]] companies, and pharmaceutical businesses.<ref name=""Fairhead"" />

== Energy ==
Green grabbing has been prominent in the energy sector. Often, as countries and governments enter transnational climate agreements such as the Paris Agreement or the Kyoto Protocol, they commit to reaching certain sustainability targets.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sumudu |first=Atapattu |title=From UNFCCC to Paris Agreement |date=2019-03-08 |work=Human Rights and the Environment |pages=205–230 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315193397-9 |access-date=2024-03-02 |place=Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2019. {{!}} Series: Key issues in environment and sustainability |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-19339-7 |last2=Andrea |first2=Schapper}}</ref> To fulfill these quotes on initiatives such as renewable energy implementation, indigenous or public lands are seized without consideration for local communities. Confiscated lands may be used for solar energy, wind farms, and biofuel.

Under the pretense of environmental preservation, green grabbing borrows from historical stories of colonial resource appropriation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fairhead |first=James |last2=Leach |first2=Melissa |last3=Scoones |first3=Ian |date=April 2012 |title=Green Grabbing: a new appropriation of nature? |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03066150.2012.671770 |journal=Journal of Peasant Studies |language=en |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=237–261 |doi=10.1080/03066150.2012.671770 |issn=0306-6150}}</ref> This phenomenon involves a diverse array of participants, including entrepreneurs, activists, and most significantly NGOs. Social anthropologists James Fairhead, Melissa Leach, and Ian Scoones note that conservation initiatives often involve partnerships between international environmental organizations, NGOs, national elites, and multinational corporations. Examples include cases like Rio Tinto's activities in Madagascar, where land acquisition for environmental purposes overlaps with mineral extraction, and collaborations between tourist operators, conservation agencies, and governments to promote ecotourism in countries like Colombia, Tanzania, and South Africa. These collaborations underscore the complex dynamics underlying conservation schemes and the blurring of boundaries between environmental protection and profit-driven exploitation.

=== <u>Wind</u> ===

===== Greece =====
The drive for wind parks, in post-crisis Greece, has given rise to green grabbing. The argument supporting green energy as a remedy for the nation's economic and environmental problems has gained popularity despite Greece's economic difficulties. The negative socio-ecological effects of wind park growth, such as land expropriation, environmental damage, and the escalation of socioeconomic inequality, are frequently ignored in this narrative.<ref name=""Siamanta 274–303"">{{Cite journal |last=Siamanta |first=Zoi Christina |date=June 2019 |title=Wind parks in post-crisis Greece: Neoliberalisation vis-à-vis green grabbing |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2514848619835156 |journal=Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=274–303 |doi=10.1177/2514848619835156 |issn=2514-8486}}</ref>

The wind energy industry is dominated by multinational businesses, which promotes wealth accumulation and green grabbing at the expense of regional communities and ecosystems. In a case study of Grece’s wind park development, Christina Zoi details that “Neoliberalisation has instigated green grabbing (land, financial and other resources) with adverse implications on local stock-breeders and farmers, domestic and small business electricity consumers, conservation and local biodiversity. These cannot be considered as negligible even under the face of accelerating climate change and its consequences.” <ref name=""Siamanta 274–303""/>

==== Mexico ====
The development of the Bíi Hioxo wind park involved not only the physical occupation of the land but also the manipulation of narratives surrounding climate change mitigation and the green economy to legitimize the project.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dunlap |first=Alexander |date=2018-03-19 |title=Counterinsurgency for wind energy: the Bíi Hioxo wind park in Juchitán, Mexico |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03066150.2016.1259221 |journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies |language=en |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=630–652 |doi=10.1080/03066150.2016.1259221 |issn=0306-6150}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dunlap |first=Alexander |date=July 2017 |title=‘The Town is Surrounded:’ From Climate Concerns to life under Wind Turbines in La Ventosa, Mexico |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/194277861701000202 |journal=Human Geography |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=16–36 |doi=10.1177/194277861701000202 |issn=1942-7786}}</ref> The tactics used to suppress resistance, such as portraying wind energy as a solution to energy and climate crises, reflect a form of greenwashing aimed at pacifying opposition and advancing industrial expansion. Furthermore, the involvement of powerful actors such as Gas Natural Fenosa and local elites highlights how green grabbing operates through alliances between state and corporate interests, leading to the dispossession of local communities and the exploitation of natural resources for profit.<ref name=""McCarthy 242–254"">{{Cite journal |last=McCarthy |first=James |last2=Thatcher |first2=Jim |date=June 2019 |title=Visualizing new political ecologies: A critical data studies analysis of the World Bank’s renewable energy resource mapping initiative |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.03.025 |journal=Geoforum |volume=102 |pages=242–254 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.03.025 |issn=0016-7185}}</ref>

==== <u>Solar</u> ====

===== Morocco =====
Morocco's solar projects, such as the Ouarzazate Solar Power Station, which employs concentrated solar-thermal power (CSP) technology, diverts water resources away from drinking and agriculture in an already semi-arid region. The construction of the Ouarzazate plant, funded through public-private partnerships and loans from international financial institutions, has resulted in annual deficits and added to Morocco's public debt. The $9 billion project's debt, incurred through loans from international financial institutions like the World Bank and the European Investment Bank, is backed by Moroccan government guarantees. On the local scale, those most affected included pastoralists who did not receive proper compensation for using their property and were not consulted about how the project might affect water  supplies.<ref name=""McCarthy 242–254""/>

===== India =====
The Indian government's solar energy initiatives, like the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jana |first=Joydip |last2=Saha |first2=Hiranmay |last3=Das Bhattacharya |first3=Konika |date=May 2017 |title=A review of inverter topologies for single-phase grid-connected photovoltaic systems |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.049 |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |volume=72 |pages=1256–1270 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.049 |issn=1364-0321}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mandal |first=Sourav |last2=Dhar |first2=Sukanta |last3=Das |first3=Gourab |last4=Mukhopadhyay |first4=Sumita |last5=Barua |first5=A.K. |date=February 2016 |title=Development of optimized n-μc-Si:H/n-a-Si:H bilayer and its application for improving the performance of single junction a-Si solar cells |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2015.11.042 |journal=Solar Energy |volume=124 |pages=278–286 |doi=10.1016/j.solener.2015.11.042 |issn=0038-092X}}</ref> aim to ramp up solar energy capacity to mitigate climate change and reduce poverty. Yet, the pursuit of solar energy projects often involves the dispossession of agropastoralists from their lands, which are essential for grazing, fodder, and fuelwood collection. These lands, categorized as government-owned ""marginal"" or ""wastelands,"" are transformed into solar parks through coercive state policies, denying agropastoralists access to vital resources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yenneti |first=Komali |last2=Day |first2=Rosie |last3=Golubchikov |first3=Oleg |date=November 2016 |title=Spatial justice and the land politics of renewables: Dispossessing vulnerable communities through solar energy mega-projects |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.09.004 |journal=Geoforum |volume=76 |pages=90–99 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.09.004 |issn=0016-7185}}</ref> Agropastoralist communities often encounter difficulties in accessing necessary energy resources, including traditional fuel such as firewood and modern options like solar-generated electricity. This dual deprivation contributes to the marginalization experienced by rural populations.

=== ICDP in Madagascar ===
The [[Integrated Conservation and Development Project]]s (ICDP) in Madagascar were mostly managed by NGOs supported by the state government. [[Neoliberalism]] led to decentralized conservation efforts from the 1990s until the mid 2000s. At that point, there ceased being monetary compensation from the government in favor of conservation efforts being contracted out to North American organizations. The internal division between high status and high paid jobs of North American workers in comparison to the low wage work of Madagascarans as the enforcers of unpopular fortress conservation through the creation of nature reserves.<ref name="":0"">Sodikoff, G. 2009. “The Low-Wage Conservationist: Biodiversity and Perversities of Value in Madagascar” ''American Anthropologist'' 111(4): 443-455.</ref> The Malagasy people within Madagascar see the conservation efforts as attempts at green grabbing and neocolonialism. North American NGOs have responded to the claims as ungrounded, placing the lack of acceptance of the reserves system as a failure in the education and understanding of sustainability of residents.<ref name="":0"" /> In 2009, the presidential administration of [[Marc Ravalomanana]] considered a deal with Daewoo Logistics, a South Korean company, to lease 1.3 million hectares of arable land to grow maize and palm oil.<ref name="":0"" /> This potential deal was seen as another attempt at colonialism, as the land was to be used by and for foreign nations while a large portion of land, up to 10 percent, was being allotted for conservation reserve. Protest against the negotiations was responded to with military action, leading to the removal of Ravalomanana. The deal was not put into effect and the resistance and protest of Madagascarans led to closure of multiple national parks and reserves, allowing the residents to continue their use of the land.

==Implications==
Green grabbing can result in the expulsion of indigenous or peasant communities from the land they live on.<ref name=""Rocheleau"">{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/03066150.2014.993622|title=Networked, rooted and territorial: Green grabbing and resistance in Chiapas|year=2015|last1=Rocheleau|first1=Dianne E.|journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies|volume=42|issue=3–4|pages=695–723|s2cid=154521594}}</ref> In other cases, the use, authority, and management of the resources is restructured, potentially alienating local residents.<ref name=""Leach""/> Evictions due to palm oil biofuel has resulted in the displacement of millions of people in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, and India.<ref name=""Vigil""/> The practice has been criticized in Brazil, where the government referred to one land acquisition [[NGO]] as [[eco-colonialism|eco-colonialist]].<ref name=""Vidal"">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/13/conservation| work=The Guardian| title=The great green land grab| first=John| last=Vidal| date=13 February 2008| access-date=27 August 2020}}</ref> A [[shaman]] of the [[Yanomami tribe]] published a statement through [[Survival International]] saying, ""Now you want to buy pieces of rainforest, or to plant biofuels. These are useless. The forest cannot be bought; it is our life and we have always protected it. Without the forest, there is only sickness.""<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/oct/14/climatechange.brazil| title=Amazon tribe hits back at green 'colonialism'| first=Juliette| last=Jowett| work=The Guardian| date=14 October 2007| access-date=12 October 2020}}</ref> The head of the [[Forest Peoples Programme]] Simon Colchester said, ""Conservation has immeasurably worsened the lives of indigenous peoples throughout Africa,"" noting that it resulted in forced expulsion, loss of livelihoods, and violation of human rights.<ref name=""Vidal""/>

== See also ==
* [[Fortress conservation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Indigenous rights footer}}

[[Category:Ecological economics]]
[[Category:Ecotourism]]
[[Category:Environmental economics]]
[[Category:Indigenous rights]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Neocolonialism]]
[[Category:Ethically disputed business practices]]
[[Category:Commodification]]
[[Category:Environmental controversies]]"
Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project,"{{Short description|Rehabilitation center in the Gambia}}
The '''Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project''' (CRP) is a rehabilitation center associated with the [[Pan African Sanctuary Alliance]] (PASA), located at the [[River Gambia National Park]] (RGNP), established in 1979. It is the home of 100 [[Chimpanzee|chimpanzees]] living free in four separate groups spread in three islands.<ref name=""website"">{{cite web |title=Come visit the Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project (CRP) at the River Gambia National Park (RGNP) |url=https://www.crpthegambia.org/overview |website=THE CHIMPANZEE REHABILITATION PROJECT |accessdate=30 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""centerinfo"">{{cite web |title=Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/the-gambia/river-gambia-national-park/attractions/chimpanzee-rehabilitation-project/a/poi-sig/1556910/1341710 |website=Lonely Planet |accessdate=30 September 2020}}</ref>

The main mission of the rehabilitation center is the caring and reintroduction of chimpanzees. The center allows visits by boat to view the primates, but humans cannot have contact with them. <ref name=""centerinfo""></ref>

== History ==

=== Background ===

Gambia’s Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project started as an animal orphanage established in 1969 by the Director of the Gambia's Wildlife Department [[Eddie Brewer]]<ref name=""telegraph"">{{cite web |title=Eddie Brewer |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1429162/Eddie-Brewer.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514153502/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1429162/Eddie-Brewer.html |url-status=live |archive-date=May 14, 2008 |website=The Telegraph |accessdate=6 October 2020 |date=5 May 2003}}</ref> and his daughter Stella. From 1969 to 1974, they caretook several orphaned chimpanzees rescued from traffickers.<ref name=""bradt"">{{cite web |last1=Briggs |first1=Phillip |title=Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project |url=https://www.bradtguides.com/chimpanzee-rehabilitation-project/ |website=Bradt Guides |date=21 November 2017 |accessdate=6 October 2020}}</ref>

In 1974, Stella Brewer released the chimpanzees into Senegal’s [[Niokolo-Koba National Park]]. However, after an incident with a wild community, in 1979 they relocated the survivor chimpanzees to the River Gambia National Park.<ref name=""bradt"" />

=== Foundation ===

In 1979, the Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project was founded with a group of nine chimps on an island, including a chimpanzee raised as a human called [[Lucy (chimpanzee)|Lucy]]. From the beginning, the chimpanzees were temporarily housed in the [[Abuko Nature Reserve]], in [[The Gambia]], where no chimpanzees were released. Later, the primatologists Stella Brewer and Janis Carter moved to the Baboon Islands in the River Gambia National Park, located 280 km from [[Banjul]].

In the beginning, the primatologist [[Janis Carter (primatologist)|Janis Carter]] was with the group. She taught the chimpanzees how to recognize food sources and predators.<ref name=""chicago"">{{cite web |last1=Peter |first1=Gorner |title=Going Ape in the Wild |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1986-11-26-8603280982-story.html |date=26 November 1986| website=Chicago Tribune |accessdate=6 October 2020}}</ref> After an incident with a young male chimp, she left the island.<ref name=""lonelyhistory"">{{cite web |last1=Reaney |first1=Joseph |title=Conservation close up: visiting The Gambia's Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Centre |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/articles/conservation-chimpanzee-gambia-safari |website=Lonely Planet |accessdate=30 September 2020}}</ref>

In 1982, the rehabilitation center counted 26 chimpanzees distributed across three different islands.<ref name=""McGrew"">{{cite journal |last1=McGrew |first1=W. C. |title=Chimpanzees Can be Rehabilitated |journal=Lab. Prim. Newsl |date=1983 |issue=22 |pages=2–3 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265375800 |accessdate=30 September 2020}}</ref>

In January 2006, founder-director Stella Brewer died at the age of 56. She was buried at the Project's Camp. Janis Carter remained as [[Project Manager]].<ref name=""bradt"" />

=== Current project ===

Now, there is no contact between humans and chimps. The center is focused on four areas: education, research, eco-tourism, and development. The center reports 100 chimpanzees living on three islands.<ref name=""lonelyhistory""></ref><ref name=""bradt"" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}



[[Category:Chimpanzees]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Organisations based in the Gambia]]"
Category:Nature conservation by taxon,"{{db-catempty|help=off}}
{{Commonscat}}
{{Container}}
{{Cat more|Nature conservation}}
{{See also|Conservation biology}}

[[Category:Nature conservation| Taxon]]
[[Category:Ecology by taxon| Nature Conservation]]"
Geoconservation,"{{Short description|Conservation practice}}
'''Geoconservation''' is the practice of recognising, protecting and managing sites and landscapes which have value for their [[geology]] or [[geomorphology]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Geoconservation and Geodiversity |url=https://www.edinburghgeolsoc.org/home/geoconservation/ |access-date=2023-04-19 |website=Edinburgh Geological Society |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burek |first1=C. V. |last2=Prosser |first2=C. D. |date=January 2008 |title=The history of geoconservation: an introduction |url=https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/SP300.1 |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |language=en |volume=300 |issue=1 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1144/SP300.1 |s2cid=42483789 |issn=0305-8719}}</ref> The conservation of these geological sites is through government agencies and local geological societies in areas such as Europe and Africa.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last1=Neto |first1=K. |last2=Henriques |first2=M. H. |date=2022-10-01 |title=Geoconservation in Africa: State of the art and future challenges |journal=Gondwana Research |language=en |volume=110 |pages=107–113 |doi=10.1016/j.gr.2022.05.022 |s2cid=249977369 |issn=1342-937X|doi-access=free |hdl=10316/100833 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last=Reimold |first=Wolf Uwe |date=1999-10-01 |title=Geoconservation - a southern African and African perspective |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0899536299001104 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |language=en |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=469–483 |doi=10.1016/S0899-5362(99)00110-4 |issn=1464-343X}}</ref><ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last1=Tavares |first1=Alexandre Oliveira |last2=Henriques |first2=Maria Helena |last3=Domingos |first3=Artur |last4=Bala |first4=Abel |date=May 2015 |title=Community Involvement in Geoconservation: A Conceptual Approach Based on the Geoheritage of South Angola |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=4893–4918 |doi=10.3390/su7054893 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free |hdl=10316/36576 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last=Raharimahefa |first=T. |date=2013 |title=Geoconservation and geodiversity for sustainable development in Madagascar |journal=Madagascar Conservation & Development |volume=7 |issue=3 |doi=10.4314/MCD.V7I3.5 |s2cid=129774561 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref> The designation of these sites is done through an analysis of the site, and the production of proper management infrastructure. The principles of geoconservation are to create a means of protection for the sites, and assess their value to the geological community.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last=Gordon |first=John E. |date=2019-12-01 |title=Geoconservation principles and protected area management |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2577444120300034 |journal=International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=199–210 |doi=10.1016/j.ijgeop.2019.12.005 |s2cid=212957142 |issn=2577-4441|hdl=10023/19450 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal |last=Brilha |first=José |date=2016-06-01 |title=Inventory and Quantitative Assessment of Geosites and Geodiversity Sites: a Review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-014-0139-3 |journal=Geoheritage |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=119–134 |doi=10.1007/s12371-014-0139-3 |hdl=1822/32896 |s2cid=55232122 |issn=1867-2485|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":6"">{{Citation |last1=Prosser |first1=Colin D. |title=Chapter 11 - The Conservation of Geosites: Principles and Practice |date=2018-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128095317000113 |work=Geoheritage |pages=193–212 |editor-last=Reynard |editor-first=Emmanuel |access-date=2023-04-12 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |isbn=978-0-12-809531-7 |last2=Díaz-Martínez |first2=Enrique |last3=Larwood |first3=Jonathan G. |editor2-last=Brilha |editor2-first=José}}</ref><ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal |last=Brilha |first=José |date=September 2002 |title=Geoconservation and protected areas |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-conservation/article/abs/geoconservation-and-protected-areas/7770C8001FF49C619B8A4EA5B3CE43C7 |journal=Environmental Conservation |language=en |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=273–276 |doi=10.1017/S0376892902000188 |hdl=1822/1247 |s2cid=129425938 |issn=1469-4387|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":8"">{{Cite journal |last=Crofts |first=Roger |date=2014-07-01 |title=Promoting geodiversity: learning lessons from biodiversity |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016787814000261 |journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association |language=en |volume=125 |issue=3 |pages=263–266 |doi=10.1016/j.pgeola.2014.03.002 |issn=0016-7878}}</ref> Typically the conservation of [[geodiversity]] at a site or within a landscape takes place alongside that of [[biodiversity]].

==In European countries==
The state of geoconservation legislation in 37 countries in Europe was described by specialists in each country and published in ''Geoheritage in Europe and its conservation'' in 2012 by ProGEO (The European Association for the Conservation of the Geological Heritage, now, in 2023, the [[International Association for the Conservation of Geological Heritage]]).<ref>{{cite book| title=Geoheritage in Europe and its conservation |editor=W.A.P.Wimbledon| editor2=S.Smith-Meyer|date=2012|publisher=ProGEO|isbn=978-82-426-2476-5}}</ref>

==In the UK==
In the late 1970s, the former [[Nature Conservancy Council]] initiated the [[Geological Conservation Review]] (GCR), a comprehensive assessment of the key geological and geomorphological sites within England, Scotland and Wales, a task which was largely completed by 1990. Over 3000 sites across Britain were identified and many are now designated as [[site of special scientific interest|sites of special scientific interest (SSSIs)]], thus providing them with statutory protection. These geological SSSIs are now managed by the respective country nature conservation bodies; [[Natural England]], [[NatureScot]] and [[Natural Resources Wales]]. A similar approach has been taken in Northern Ireland with the Earth Science Conservation Review (ESCR).<ref>{{cite web |title=Geological conservation |url=https://jncc.gov.uk/our-work/geological-conservation/ |website= |publisher=JNCC |access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref>

Many thousands of geosites beneath SSSIs across Great Britain are given protection at a level below that afforded by SSSI status. Originally referred to as [[regionally important geological site]]s, the term 'Local Geological Sites' (or LoGS) is now in use for them in England and 'Local Geodiversity Sites' in Scotland, whilst in Wales, they are referred to as 'Regionally Important Geodiversity Sites' (or RIGS). Numerous local groups have been established to protect and conserve these sites, all coming under the 'umbrella organisation', GeoConservationUK.<ref>{{cite web |title=About |date=11 February 2019 |url=https://geoconservationuk.org/about/ |publisher=GeoConservationUK |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref>

== Principles and Protected Area ==
The principles of geoconservation are to create an inventory of [[geoheritage]] sites, create an assessment of their value, manage their [[Conservation biology|conservation]], monitor the geoconserved sites and promote the sites through interpretation.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"" /> The geoconserved sites can be added to the inventory by field specialists who observe the site through [[surveying]], [[Cartography|mapping]] and field work. The site will be documented with the non-specialist landowners, rangers and protected area managers.<ref name="":4"" />

The main objective of geoconservation is to protect the area that is to be conserved. This is done by assessing the value of the geological structures and composition of the site. The value of the site is based on the cultural and aesthetic value, the value for [[geotourism]] and [[Conservation biology|biodiversity conservation]].<ref name="":6"" /><ref name="":7"" /> The geomorphological sites to be conserved can be static features such as [[glacial landform]]s, or active features such as coastal and river landforms. An assessment of the management of the site can provide an idea of how to protect the site and to how the conservation of the site will be maintained.<ref name="":6"" /> The management of the site should include how suitable the area is to be a site of geotourism.<ref name="":7"" /> The management plan will give the practicality of the site, and will be used to assess how the site can be taken care of.

The geosites are zoned to provide proper management of the protected areas. The core areas are the places in the geoheritage site that are the most important for protection, and require the higher amounts of infrastructure. The buffer areas is the zone around the core areas that will support the core zone and be used for a wider range of activities. To maintain the protection and structure of the geoconservation area, site condition monitoring is performed to ensure this. Site condition monitoring is the assessment of the protocols that were set for the site, and an assessment to see if the conservation objectives are being met.<ref name="":8"" /> Regularly scheduled assessment of the site can ensure the proper management and conservation of the site.

== In Africa ==
[[File:Ighil_M'Goun_vu_depuis_Arous.jpg|thumb|M'Goun Area in Morocco]]
[[File:Lengai_and_Lava,_Ngorongoro_District.jpg|thumb|Ngorongoro Lengai Area in Tanzania]]The African continent has many sites that are in the process of becoming geoconserved sites. Africa shows many areas that are of geoheritage value, and these sites show different types of geoheritage value.<ref name="":0"" /> Many of the sites that are in the process of having geoconserved stars are along the coast of the continent, and in the southern and northern edges. The Geosciences and Geoparks Programme in the Natural Science Sector, has two geoparks listed for protection in Africa. There is the [[M'Goun Conservation Area|M'Goun UGGp]] in Morocco and the Ngorongoro Lengai UGGp in Tanzania.<ref name="":0"" /> These two geoparks only represent 1% of the available geosites that are listed as areas of needed conservation in Africa based on the [[World Heritage Site]]s under [[UNESCO]].<ref name="":0"" /> Many of the available geoheritage sites in Africa do not have the  government infrastructure to provide the necessary management and protection of the areas.<ref name="":1"" />

An area in South Angola has been proposed as having a community-based protection of geoheritage sites. The Tudavala and Leba geosites are not under any current protection, but have recently been classified as an important cultural landscape by the government of Angola.<ref name="":2"" /> The proposed conservation model is to use the local community to conserve the area and help with protecting the geoheritage sites, instead of government based management.<ref name="":2"" /> A geosite in Madagascar is being used to test the ability of protection in geoparks through the infrastructure of Madagascar. Isalo Park is the pilot site that shows valuable geoheritage for the country of Madagascar, and with proper management can become a geoconserved site in the future.<ref name="":3"" />

== See also ==
*[[Geopark]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Subfields of geology]]
[[Category:Geomorphology]]"
30 by 30,"{{Short description|International ecological preservation initiative}}
{{Distinguish|30 for 30}}
[[File:Share_of_land_area_that_is_protected,_OWID.svg|right|thumb|Percentage of land in protected areas by country, 2017]]
 
'''30 by 30''' (or '''30x30''') is a worldwide initiative for governments to designate 30% of Earth's land and [[Marine protected area|ocean]] area as [[protected area]]s by [[2030]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |first=Ashoka |last=Mukpo |date= 26 August 2021  |title=As COP15 approaches, ’30 by 30’ becomes a conservation battleground|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/08/as-cop15-approaches-30-by-30-becomes-a-conservation-battleground/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Mongabay Environmental News|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=30 by 30: why humanity should protect 30 per cent of the ocean by 2030 |date=2 June 2021  |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2279097-30-by-30-why-humanity-should-protect-30-per-cent-of-the-ocean-by-2030/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=New Scientist|language=en-US}}</ref> The target was proposed by a 2019 article in [[Science (journal)|''Science Advances'']], ""A Global Deal for Nature: Guiding principles, milestones, and targets"", highlighting the need for expanded [[nature conservation]] efforts to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dinerstein|first=E.|last2=Vynne|first2=C.|last3=Sala|first3=E.|last4=Joshi|first4=A. R.|last5=Fernando|first5=S.|last6=Lovejoy|first6=T. E.|last7=Mayorga|first7=J.|last8=Olson|first8=D.|last9=Asner|first9=G. P.|last10=Baillie|first10=J. E. M.|last11=Burgess|first11=N. D.|title=A Global Deal For Nature: Guiding principles, milestones, and targets |date=19 Apr 2019 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aaw2869|journal=Science Advances|volume=5|issue=4|pages=eaaw2869|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw2869|pmc=6474764|pmid=31016243}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Jones|first=Benji|date=2021-04-12|title=The hottest number in conservation is rooted more in politics than science|url=https://www.vox.com/22369705/biden-conservation-biodiversity-collapse-30-by-30|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Vox|language=en}}</ref> Launched by the '''High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People''' in 2020, more than 50 nations had agreed to the initiative by January 2021,<ref>{{Cite web |first= Megan  |last=Rowling |title=Drive to protect 30% of planet by 2030 grows to 50 nations|url=https://news.trust.org/item/20210111140220-1qxoj/|access-date=2021-10-25 |website= Thomson Reuters Foundation}}</ref> which has increased to more than 100 countries by October 2022.<ref>Subramaniam, Tara (2022-10-04). ""Australia commits to zero extinctions with new plan to protect 30% of land"". ''CNN''. Retrieved 2022-10-12.</ref>

US$5 billion in funding for a project called the ""Protecting Our Planet Challenge"" was announced for the initiative in September 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|date=September 28, 2021 |title=$5B conservation plan offers new approach, but faces hurdles|url=https://apnews.com/article/climate-change-science-business-philanthropy-oceans-6ca70181c532be88358cbedda72dce1e | first=Jim |last= Rendon |access-date=2021-10-25|website=AP NEWS|language=en}}</ref>

In December 2022, 30 by 30 was agreed at the [[COP15]] meeting of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], and became a target of the [[Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People|url=https://www.hacfornatureandpeople.org/home|access-date=26 June 2022|website=HAC for Nature and People|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Briggs |first=Helen |date=2022-12-19 |title=COP15: Nations reach 'historic' deal to protect nature |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-64019324 |access-date=2022-12-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-12-20 |title=COP15: Key outcomes agreed at the UN biodiversity conference in Montreal |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/cop15-key-outcomes-agreed-at-the-un-biodiversity-conference-in-montreal/ |access-date=2023-01-05 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}}</ref> This includes the [[G7]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 May 2021 |title=G7 commits to end support for coal-fired power stations this year|url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2021/05/21/g7-commits-to-end-support-for-coal-fired-power-stations-this-year|access-date=2021-10-29|website=euronews|language=en}}</ref> and [[European Green Deal|European Union]].

The initiative has attracted controversy over [[indigenous rights]] issues.<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{cite news|author=<!--not stated-->|date=December 21, 2022 |title=Major U.N. Biodiversity Deal Recognizes Indigenous Rights But Lacks Critical Enforcement Measures|url=https://www.democracynow.org/2022/12/21/almost_all_countries_in_the_world|work=[[Democracy Now!]] |location= |access-date=December 24, 2022|quote='In Canada, where I come from, I can speak to this directly, where we are committing to “30×30,” millions and millions of dollars for biodiversity protection, Indigenous protection and conservation areas, yet we are not talking about ending the expansion of the Alberta tar sands. We are not talking about ending the destruction to biodiversity in other areas. We’re creating the optics of sacrifice zones, so we can choose which areas to save, which areas to diminish. And this results in human rights abuses, Indigenous rights abuses and the risking the planetary health for everyone.' - [[Eriel Deranger]], indigenous rights activist }}</ref>

==Global==
30 by 30 is the third of 23 global biodiversity targets for 2030 in the [[Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework]], adopted in December 2022:

:''Ensure and enable that by 2030 at least 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland water, and of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are effectively conserved and managed through ecologically representative, well-connected and equitably governed systems of protected areas and [[other effective area-based conservation measures]], recognizing indigenous and traditional territories, where applicable, and integrated into wider landscapes, seascapes and the ocean, while ensuring that any sustainable use, where appropriate in such areas, is fully consistent with conservation outcomes, recognizing and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, including over their traditional territories.''<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/e6d3/cd1d/daf663719a03902a9b116c34/cop-15-l-25-en.pdf|title= Kunming-Montreal Global biodiversity framework: Draft decision submitted by the President|author=<!--Not stated--> |date= 18 December 2022|website= Convention on Biological Diversity|publisher= |access-date= 25 December 2022|quote=}}</ref>

==European Union==
The [[European Commission]]'s Biodiversity strategy for 2030 was proposed on May 20, 2020, as the [[European Union]]'s contribution to a post-2020 global biodiversity framework. The strategy contains several biodiversity-related commitments and actions to be delivered by 2030, including:<ref name = commission>{{cite web |url= https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/biodiversity-strategy-2030_en|title= Biodiversity strategy for 2030|author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= European Commission|publisher= |access-date= 19 June 2022|quote=}}</ref>
* increasing the European Union's network of terrestrial and marine [[protected areas]], by expanding [[Natura 2000]] areas, and providing strict protection of areas with very high biodiversity and climate value.
* restore more degraded ecosystems and manage them sustainably, by proposing binding nature restoration targets.
* strengthening governance of European Union biodiversity efforts, including expanded funding, improving implementation and tracking, and integrating biodiversity goals into public and business decision-making.

The plan includes turning 30% of EU territory to protected area by 2030 and 10% to strictly protected area. However as of 2023 EU is not on track to meet the targets.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bomas |first1=Wiebke |title=EU likely to miss conservation targets – catching up needs more rangers |url=https://www.europeanrangers.org/eu-likely-to-miss-conservation-targets-catching-up-needs-more-rangers/ |website=European Ranger Federation |access-date=17 July 2023}}</ref>

The biodiversity strategy is a core part of the [[European Green Deal]], and also intended to support green recovery from the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name = commission/>

In July 2023 after many debates the European parliament adopted a version of the Nature restoration law, aiming to restore nature on 20% of the territory of the European Union by 2030.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Magee |first1=Caolán |title=Europe agrees landmark nature and climate deal after tense negotiations |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/07/12/europe/eu-nature-restoration-law-climate-intl/index.html#:~:text=The%20European%20Parliament%20on%20Wednesday,land%20and%20sea%20by%202030. |access-date=17 July 2023 |agency=CNN |date=12 July 2023}}</ref>

==United States==
On January 27, 2021, President [[Joe Biden]] issued an [[executive order]] on ""Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad"". Among several initiatives to address the [[climate crisis]], the order directed federal departments to issue a report within 90 days ""recommending steps that the United States should take, working with State, local, Tribal, and territorial governments, agricultural and forest landowners, fishermen, and other key stakeholders, to achieve the goal of conserving at least 30 percent of our lands and waters by 2030.""<ref name = executive>{{cite web |url= https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/01/27/executive-order-on-tackling-the-climate-crisis-at-home-and-abroad/|title= Executive Order on Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad|author=<!--Not stated--> |date= 27 January 2021|website= The White House|publisher= |access-date= 19 June 2022|quote=}}</ref>

On 6 May 2022, the Biden administration issued ''Conserving and Restoring America the Beautiful'', a preliminary report to the [[National Climate Task Force]] outlining the proposed principles, measures, and early focus areas for a national ""ten-year, locally-led campaign to conserve and restore the lands and waters upon which we all depend"". Participating federal agencies included the [[U.S. Department of Interior]], [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]], [[U.S. Department of Commerce]], and [[Council on Environmental Quality]].<ref name = conserving>{{cite web |url= https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/report-conserving-and-restoring-america-the-beautiful-2021.pdf|title= Conserving and Restoring America the Beautiful|author=<!--Not stated--> |date= 6 May 2022|website= US Department of Interior|publisher= |access-date= 19 June 2022|quote=}}</ref>

The report identified eight principles to guide the effort:<ref name = conserving/>
* Pursue a Collaborative and Inclusive Approach to Conservation
* Conserve America’s Lands and Waters for the Benefit of All People
* Support Locally Led and Locally Designed Conservation Efforts
* Honor Tribal Sovereignty and Support the Priorities of Tribal Nations
* Pursue Conservation and Restoration Approaches that Create Jobs and Support Healthy Communities
* Honor Private Property Rights and Support the Voluntary Stewardship Efforts of Private Landowners and Fishers
* Use Science as a Guide
* Build on Existing Tools and Strategies with an Emphasis on Flexibility and Adaptive Approaches

The report outlined six early focus initiatives:<ref name = conserving/>
* Create more parks and safe outdoor opportunities in nature-deprived communities
* Support Tribally led conservation and restoration priorities
* Expand collaborative conservation of fish and wildlife habitats and corridors
* Increase access for outdoor recreation
* Incentivize and reward the voluntary conservation efforts of fishers, ranchers, farmers, and forest owners
* Create jobs by investing in restoration and resilience

The report proposed tracking progress through an ''American Conservation and Stewardship Atlas'', an accessible online database and mapping tool which would provide current information on lands and waters conserved and restored, and an annual ''America the Beautiful'' public report, which would track fish and wildlife populations, and progress on conservation and restoration efforts across the country.<ref name = conserving/>

===California===
On 7 October 2020, California governor [[Gavin Newsom]] issued an executive order declaring it ""the goal of the State to conserve at least 30 percent of California’s land and coastal waters by 2030"", and directing state agencies to develop and report strategies for achieving the goal by February 1, 2022. The order also established a California Biodiversity Collaborative composed of representatives of government agencies, Native tribes, experts, and other stakeholders.<ref name = Newsom>{{cite web |url= https://www.gov.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/10.07.2020-EO-N-82-20-.pdf|title= Executive Order N-82-20|author=<!--Not stated--> |date= 7 October 2020|website= State of California|publisher= |access-date= 24 June 2022|quote=}}</ref>

The official report, ''Pathways to 30x30 California'', was issued by the California Natural Resources Agency on 22 April 2022. The report outlines ten pathways, or strategies, to achieving California's biodiversity and protected area goals by 2030:<ref name = Pathways>{{cite web |url= https://www.californianature.ca.gov/pages/30x30|title= 30x30 California|author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= 30x30 California|publisher= California Natural Resources Agency|access-date= 26 June 2022|quote=}}</ref>
# Accelerate Regionally Led Conservation
# Execute Strategic Land Acquisitions
# Increase Voluntary Conservation Easements
# Enhance Conservation of Existing Public Lands and Coastal Waters
# Institutionalize Advance Mitigation
# Expand and Accelerate Environmental Restoration and Stewardship
# Strengthen Coordination Among Governments
# Align Investments to Maximize Conservation Benefits
# Advance and Promote Complementary Conservation Measures
# Evaluate Conservation Outcomes and Adaptively Manage

== Controversies and International Reactions ==

=== Criticism from Members of the Scientific Community ===
Despite positive media coverage received by this global environmental decision, some scientists have nuanced the supposed benefits of this policy to cope with the biodiversity crisis. Hélène Soubelet, for example, underlined that in the last 60 years in Germany in protected areas, the decline in the number of insects neared 80%, thus nuancing the idea that protected areas enable to protect biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-07 |title=Les aires protégées pour protéger la biodiversité, la solution miracle ? |url=https://www.20minutes.fr/planete/4012886-20221207-cop15-aires-protegees-preserver-biodiversite-reponse-tout |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=www.20minutes.fr |language=fr}}</ref> Kareiva, Lalasz and Marvier further underline that the rhythm at which wild species have been disappearing has increased, even though the number of protected areas raised from less than 10 000 in 1950 to over 100 000 in 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kareiva |last2=Lalasz |last3=Marvier |date=2012 |title=Conservation in the Anthropocene: Beyond Solitude and Fragility |url= |journal=Breakthrough Journal |volume=2 |issue= |pages=29–37 |doi= |issn=}}</ref> Some scientists thus seem to dispute the idea that there is a direct link between increase in the number of protected areas and slowdown of the biodiversity crisis.

Moreover, S. Counsel underlines that the protecting 30% of areas target is not enough, as nothing guarantees that the areas that will be chosen to be protected will be the most important and relevant ones to actually protect. More affluent nations would have the possibility to select vast natural parks and classify them as protected areas, without any additional benefit for flora and fauna.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Counsel |first=S |date=March 7, 2022 |title=Conservationists claim 30x30 is supported by science. It isn’t. |journal=REDD-Monitor}}</ref>

Several NGOs have also underlined that the 30% target is not based on a scientific consensus, but is a random choice: why not 25% or 35% ? <ref name="":1"" /> Some researchers and public groups advocate for 50% of terrestrial and marine areas to be biologically conserved (i.e., the 'half earth' project).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Noss |last2=Dobson |last3=Baldwin |last4=Beier |last5=Davis |last6=Dellasala |last7=Francis |last8=Locke |last9=Nowak |last10=Lopez |last11=Reining |last12=Trombulak |last13=Tabor |date=2012 |title=Bolder Thinking for Conservation |url= |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01738.x |issn=|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Accusations of Green Colonialism ===
The 30 by 30 initiative has been openly accused of embodying a form of [[Green colonialism|green colonialism or green grabbing.]]

On November 30, 2022, a group of NGOs composed of Amnesty International, Minority Rights Group International, and Rainforest Foundation UK wrote an open letter citing concerns about potential human and indigenous rights violations if the 30 by 30 plan were to be applied.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |date=2022-12-02 |title=« Protéger » 30% des terres d’ici 2030 : un désastre pour les peuples et une mauvaise idée pour la planète |url=https://www.amnesty.org/fr/documents/ior40/6269/2022/fr/ |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=Amnesty International |language=fr}}</ref>

More broadly, the plan has been criticized for appropriating Indigenous lands under the guise of biodiversity conservation. The Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs notably claimed the plan has “all the hallmarks of green colonialism”, due to its lack of consideration of Indigenous titles and rights.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FNLC Critical of the Continued Marginalization of Indigenous Peoples at COP15 |url=https://www.ubcic.bc.ca/fnlc_critical_of_the_continued_marginalization_of_indigenous_peoples_at_cop15 |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=UBCIC |language=en}}</ref>

=== International Reactions ===
The COP15 included 196 parties in negotiations, with competing views regarding the adoption of the 30 by 30 target being wide-spread and well documented.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Global Biodiversity Framework's ""30x30"" Target: Catchy slogan or effective conservation goal? |url=https://www.iisd.org/articles/insight/global-biodiversity-framework-30x30-target |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=International Institute for Sustainable Development |language=en}}</ref> The resulting agreement of the conference, the Convention on Biological Diversity, was signed by every party, with the exception of two: the United States and the Vatican.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-12-19 |title=Nearly Every Country Signs On to a Sweeping Deal to Protect Nature |language=en |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/19/climate/biodiversity-cop15-montreal-30x30.html |access-date=2023-08-21}}</ref> Towards the end of the talks, a negotiator from Democratic Republic of the Congo raised objections to the agreement, citing a lack of funding separate from the current Global Environment Facility (GEF). After a delay, COP15 president and Chinese environment minister Huang Runqiu overruled the objection due to a legal technicality, resulting in the passage of the agreement. Delegates from the DRC, Cameroon, and Uganda were reportedly displeased with the outcome.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Greenfield |first=Patrick |last2=Weston |first2=Phoebe |date=2022-12-19 |title=Cop15: historic deal struck to halt biodiversity loss by 2030 |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/19/cop15-historic-deal-signed-to-halt-biodiversity-loss-by-2030-aoe |access-date=2023-08-21 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> After the agreement was passed, the DRC’s government announced that it would not recognize it as valid.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Greenfield |first=Patrick |date=2022-12-19 |title=Objection by DRC sours ‘paradigm-changing’ Cop15 biodiversity deal |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/19/objection-by-drc-sours-paradigm-changing-cop15-biodiversity-deal |access-date=2023-08-21 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Half-Earth]]
* [[Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework]]

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
* [https://www.doi.gov/priorities/america-the-beautiful America the Beautiful] – U.S Department of the Interior
* [https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/biodiversity-strategy-2030_en Biodiversity strategy for 2030] – European Commission
* [https://www.campaignfornature.org/news/category/30x30 30x30 News - Campaign for Nature]
{{Conservation of species}}

[[Category:Protected areas]]
[[Category:Convention on Biological Diversity]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Marine protected areas]]
[[Category:2030]]
[[Category:Environmental policies approved in 2022]]"
Conservation refugee,"{{Short description|Person displaced from native land when a conservation area is created}}
'''Conservation refugees''' are people (usually [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]]) who are displaced from their native lands when conservation areas, such as parks and other [[protected areas]], are created.<ref>[http://conservationrefugees.org/wacr What is a Conservation Refugee], from Native Solutions to Conservation Refugees</ref>

==Definition==
Many conservation refugees (such as the [[Great Lakes Twa]]) were already marginalized before a nature preserve was established on their territory, and are culturally dislocated and often living on the margins of urban areas or new settlements with few social or economic opportunities. Facing powerful state and international conservation interests, they rarely have legal recourse. Many conservation refugees are housed in [[refugee camp]]s.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}

==={{anchor|Role of ENGOs (Environmental Non-Governmental Organizations)}}Role of ENGOs===
[[ENGO]]s (environmental [[non-governmental organization]]s) are funded by a variety of sources. [[Private foundation]]s, such as the [[Ford Foundation|Ford]] and [[MacArthur Foundation]]s, once provided the bulk of the funds supporting NGO conservation efforts. Funds from bilateral and multilateral sources (such as [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]] and the [[World Bank]]) and corporations also support ENGOs. An increase in corporate [[Sponsor (commercial)|sponsorship]] raises the possibility of a [[conflict of interest]] between ENGOs and the corporations which support them, leading to ethical negligence.

Although the websites of the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|World Wildlife Fund]], [[The Nature Conservancy]] and [[Conservation International]] say that the groups participate with local communities, the universally-applied model of conservation (based on [[Western science]]) often clashes with [[traditional knowledge]] of the environment. The Western [[conservation movement]] may be dismissive of [[indigenous conservation]] models because they are not based on Western science, but indigenous knowledge is the result of generations of interaction with their environment. In his ''[[Orion (magazine)|Orion]]'' magazine article ""Conservation Refugees"", Mark Dowie writes:

<blockquote>[[John Muir]], a forefather of the American conservation movement, argued that '[[wilderness]]' should be cleared of all inhabitants and set aside to satisfy the urbane human's need for recreation and spiritual renewal. It was a sentiment that became national policy with the passage of the 1964 [[Wilderness Act]], which defined wilderness as a place 'where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.' One should not be surprised to find hardy residues of these sentiments among traditional conservation groups. The preference for 'virgin' wilderness has lingered on in a movement that has tended to value all nature but [[human nature]], and refused to recognize the positive wildness in human beings.<ref name=""Orion Magazine"">{{cite web|author=Dowie|first=Mark|title=Conservation Refugees|url=https://orionmagazine.org/article/conservation-refugees/|website=[[Orion Magazine]]}}</ref></blockquote>

Dowie's article assesses the [[globalization]] of conservation. With the removal of indigenous communities from protected land, a [[symbiosis]] between [[indigenous peoples]] and their environment is disrupted; this may have the unintended consequence of decreasing biodiversity, as those who formerly lived off the land are now prohibited from interacting with it. As a result of their expulsion, they are poor additions to the over-populated areas surrounding the park (Igoe 2005). [[Poaching]] may increase, and the soil may become [[soil retrogression and degradation|degraded]] as refugees take up [[subsistence agriculture]]. By ignoring the human factor, the conservation model followed by large ENGOs can be ineffective and counterproductive.

===Preserving habitats or cultures===
In the spring of 2003, [[India]]'s [[Adivasi]] were pushed out of their [[Arable land|farmlands]] and relocated to crowded villages to import six [[Asiatic lion]]s. Although NGOs such as the World Wildlife Fund try to conserve land and animal species while training indigenous peoples for alternate work,<ref>{{cite web |title=WWF-India's work for tiger |url=https://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/priority_species/bengal_tiger/work_for_tiger/ |website=WWF India |access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref> indigenous peoples are often removed from their land and placed in communities or villages which leave them vulnerable to [[poverty]] and [[starvation]]. Not compensated for what was lost, they have difficulty adjusting to their new lifestyle. The issue of conservation refugees across India are well reported<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurian|first=Anju Lis|title=The Downside of Environment Protection in India Origin of Conservation Refugees|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2018/26-27/special-articles/origin-conservation-refugees.html|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=5 June 2015 |volume=53| issue = 26–27|pages=48–55}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurian|first=Anju Lis|title=ECOTOURISM AND CONSERVATION REFUGEES: THE INDIAN SCENARIO|url=http://www.envirobiotechjournals.com/article_abstract.php?aid=11164&iid=324&jid=3|journal=Ecology, Environment and Conservation|volume=27|pages=308–314}}</ref>

Christine MacDonald's ''Green, Inc.'' quotes a tribal leader that ""white men"" told them to leave their homes in the forest because the land was not protected; they were forced into another village (which was already occupied by another group) outside the forest, and had ""no choice, because they told them that they [would] be beaten and killed"". Left without food and land, they were forced to work on farms established by the villagers before them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=MacDonald |first1=Christine |title=Green, Inc: An Environmental Insider Reveals how a Good Cause Has Gone Bad |date=2008 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-59921-659-1 |pages=196–197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlnJST8WltkC |language=en}}</ref>

==={{anchor|Eliminating culture and behaviors}}Eliminating culture and behavior===
Indigenous peoples who are forced from their land lose the portions of their culture which are embedded in resources. According to [[Darrell A. Posey]], indigenous knowledge could significantly contribute to conservation: ""What looked natural might be cultural, and thus that indigenous people should be seen as models for conservation, rather than as opposed to it and thus denied [[land rights]]"".<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Dove |editor1-first=Michael R. |editor2-last=Carpenter |editor2-first=Carol |title=Environmental anthropology : a historical reader |date=2008 |publisher=Blackwell Pub |location=Malden, MA |isbn=9781405111379}}</ref>{{rp|5}}

Many residents of what have become conservation sites or national parks have cultural rituals and practices which are adapted to their local environment. Through these practices, they have been able to survive and develop a culture. Mark Dowie's ''Conservation Refugees'' describes [[Africa]]'s [[Great Lakes Twa|Batwa Pygmies]]. After living in conservation camps under restrictions limiting centuries-old cultural practices, community member Kwokwo Barume observed that ""we are heading toward extinction"".<ref name=""dowie11"">{{cite book |last1=Dowie |first1=Mark |title=Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict between Global Conservation and Native Peoples |date=25 February 2011 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-51600-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v54LEAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|70}} The restrictions include bans on [[Tillage|cultivation]], [[hunting]] or gathering, and sacred sites and [[burial ground]]s are off-limits; all are essential to the people's daily life. Limitations such as these help lead toward the extinction of hunter-gatherer groups around the world to make way for government-sanctioned [[game reserve]]s and [[ecotourism]].

===Redefining conservation===
Posey was an [[anthropologist]] and [[Ethnobiology|ethnobiologist]] whose writings about the [[Kayapo]] people of the [[Amazon rainforest]] influenced environmental policy; traditional societies are now viewed as helpers in conservation, and steps are being taken to aid the reconstruction of these societies (Dove & Carpenter 2008:5). Posey reiterated that indigenous people were the only ones who truly knew the forests, because they inhabited them for centuries. He also determined that biodiversity was important for indigenous peoples' lives through gardens, openings into the forest and rock [[outcrop]]s; what is considered natural today may have been altered by the ancestors of the indigenous peoples, rather than naturally occurring as previously thought. Posey's work is helping to redefine conservation and what it means to societies living in conservation areas.

[[South America]]n countries connect indigenous groups willing to practice conservation with technical resources from conservation groups. Instead of being expelled from their land, the Federal Environmental Conservation Act that protects their rights to remain on the land and use its natural resources; the ""commonwealth minister negotiates conservation agreements with them"".<ref>Alcorn, J.B. and A.G. Royo. 2007:13</ref>{{clarify|date=September 2019|reason=What ""commonwealth"" is this?}}

===Indigenous peoples===
The [[World Council of Indigenous Peoples]] (WCIP) held its first conference in [[British Columbia]] in 1975. It was founded by Chief [[George Manuel]] of the [[Shuswap Nation]], who found after traveling the world that the same suffering and [[mistreatment]] felt by the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|North American Indians]] were also felt by many other [[indigenous peoples]]. Some indigenous peoples began to speak up at conservation meetings which affected them. According to Mark Dowie, the [[Maasai people|Masai]] sent leader Martin Saring'O to the November 22, 2004 [[Bangkok]] World Conservation Congress meeting (sponsored by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]) to defend their land rights: ""Standing before the congress, he [Martin Sarin'O] expressed, 'we are enemies of conservation.' Their [[nomad]]ic people have lost most of their [[grazing]] lands over the last thirty years. At the meeting, Massai reminds the IUCN, and defends that they were the original conservationists"". Dowie also writes that Sayyaad Saltani, the elected chair of the Council of Elders of the Qashqai Confederation in [[Iran]], gave a speech to the World Parks Congress in [[Durban]], [[South Africa]], in October 2003. Saltani discussed the relentless pressures on his nomadic pastoral people, how their [[pasture]]s and natural resources were seized by a number of agencies, and the interruption of their migratory path: ""Their summer and winter pastures were consistently degraded and fragmented by outsiders, and not even their [[social identity]] was left alone"".<ref name=""dowie11"" />{{rp|35}}

Violence and retaliation have followed park creation due to resentment of land restriction and displacement or blocked access to resources, causing shortages. In [[Nepal]], when the [[Sagarmatha National Park]] was founded, the [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]] intentionally accelerated forest depletion because their rights and traditional practices had been taken away: ""Local elders estimated that more forest was lost in the first four years after the park's creation than in the previous two decades"".<ref name=""colchester"">{{cite book |last1=Colchester |first1=Marcus |title=Salvaging Nature: Indigenous Peoples, Protected Areas and Biodiversity Conservation |date=1994 |publisher=DIANE Publishing |isbn=978-0-7881-7194-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xUe5XvFM3NsC |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|18}} Several instances of violence have occurred in India following park creations. India has nearly five hundred [[protected area]]s, rich in resources and primarily surrounded by agricultural land and poor villages: ""Inevitably they invade the reserves and come into conflict with authorities. Resentment at the wildlife authorities attempts to control the situation has exploded in violence against officials and guards"".<ref name=""colchester"" />{{rp|19}} In the Naganhde National Park in [[South India]], wildlife guards allegedly killed a poacher; the local people retaliating by burning {{convert|20|km2}} of forest: ""In India, resentment by local people to National Parks legislation and enforcement agencies has caused increasing problems"".<ref name=""colchester"" />{{rp|18}}

==Africa==
African conservation refugees (about 14 million, according to some sources) have long been displaced due to transnational efforts to preserve select [[biome]]s believed to be historically and environmentally crucial. The article ""Parks and Peoples: the social impact of protected areas"" reported that a protected area is a way of ""seeing, understanding, and reproducing the world around us"" and a place of social interaction and production.<ref>West, P., Igoe, J., & Brockington, D. (2006, June 5). Parks and People: the social impact of protected areas. Annual Review of Anthropology, pp. 251-77.</ref> Protected areas are established to preserve an area in its natural state in an increasingly-globalized world. Although the residential grounds of millions of native people have existed for hundreds of years, conservation efforts encroach on these areas to preserve the biological diversity of [[flora]] and [[fauna]].

Wildlife, plants and other resources are protected, and native people are expelled beyond the border of the new preserved area (PA) so they do not affect the ecological preservation. Displacement and the lack of rights of displaced peoples is a main concern of environmental conservation; displaced peoples may encounter social problems (such as nationalism) in their new locations. These refugees often become a socially-isolated underclass. Another effect of displacement is the loss of jobs, hunting grounds, personal resources and freedom. The treatment of these peoples may trigger war (among themselves or with opposing groups), disease and malnutrition.

Long-term effects of the displacement persist in conservation refugees, their families and subsequent generations, reshaping the cultural and economic dynamics of a society with a ripple effect. Resources are directly linked to conflicts, in Africa as elsewhere; according to Abiodun Alao, author of ''Natural Resources and Conflict in Africa'', natural resources can be linked to conflict in three different ways: a direct (or remote) conflict is caused by the resource, a natural resource can fuel (or sustain conflicts), and resources have been used to resolve conflicts.<ref>Alao, A. (2007). ''Natural Resources and Conflicts in Africa: The Tragedy of Endowment''. Rochester, NY: [[University of Rochester Press]].</ref> Conservation efforts which appropriate an indigenous people's land remove them from a familiar social environment to unknown quarters and customs; traditional values, such as ""songs, rituals,&nbsp;... and stories"" may be entirely lost in a little over a generation.<ref name=""Orion Magazine"" /> Relocation may be economically devastating on an individual and group level. Indigenous peoples are forced to the boundaries of the new parks, stripped of their homes and status, and sometimes made to live in ""shabby squatter camps&nbsp;... without running water or sanitation"".<ref name=""Orion Magazine"" />

To protect the rights of indigenous people and others displaced as conservation refugees, the [[Landlocked developing countries|Fifth World]] Parks Congress held a session to discuss the problem. The session acknowledged the connection between poverty and displacement, altering land rights and their hazardous effects on culture and future generations. Its Durban Action Plan will insure that local people are compensated financially before an area is acquired for conservation.

==={{anchor|Eastern Africa}}East Africa===
[[East Africa]] is home to tribes, such as the [[Maasai people|Maasai]], whose livelihood and culture revolve around cattle. The Maasai are [[Pastorialism|pastoralists]], whose ""livestock follow a seasonal settlement in the dry season and disperse into temporary camps in the wet season"". They once occupied most of the [[Serengeti]]-[[Ngorongoro District|Ngorongoro region]]; recent [[Archaeology|archaeological]] research concluded that pastoralists occupied the region for at least 2,500 years, and the Maasai occupied the area since the mid-nineteenth century.<ref>McCabe, J. Terrence 2002 Giving Conservation a Human Face? Lessons From Forty Years of Combining Conservation and Development in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. In ''Conservation and Mobile Indigenous Peoples: Displacement, Forced Settlement, and Sustainable Development''. [[Dawn Chatty]] and Marcus Colchester, eds., pp. 61-76. [[Berghahn Books]]</ref> Although the Serengeti-Ngorongoro region was allocated for a proposed national park in 1940, the pastoralists were allowed to remain. Ten years later, conflict erupted among the pastoralists, farmers and park authorities who divided the park into the [[Serengeti National Park]] and the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]] (NCA). The division evicted the Maasai pastoralists from the national park, but allowed them to remain in restricted areas of the NCA. This affected the Maasai lifestyle and the environment. During the wet season, the Maasai had herded their cattle to the Serengeti for grazing; after the parks' division, they could only graze in the NCA. The Maasai's seasonal migrations from the Serengeti and the Ngorongoro helped prevent over-grazing; with the new restrictions, over-grazing could result in the starvation of their cattle and the depletion of environmental resources.

Another problem for the Maasai was the rapid population increase of the [[wildebeest]]. Wildebeest calves are unaffected hosts of [[bovine malignant catarrhal fever]], a viral infection which can kill Maasai livestock exposed to areas grazed by the calves. In addition to disease, the large wildebeest population devoured the grasses which had been grazed by Maasai livestock. During the early 1970s, [[Tillage|cultivation]] was banned in the NCA. The Maasai also depend on [[Cereal|grain]] cultivation, trading livestock for grain. For twenty years, they experienced a ban on cultivation, restrictions on [[Crater Highlands]] region and the spread of livestock disease. Because of the inability to cultivate, there was an increase in [[malnutrition]] increased in Maasai children. The cultivation ban was lifted during the early 1990s, improving Maasai living standards; malnutrition declined, and [[sustainable living]] returned. Since intense cultivation is required to support the population, however, conservationists are reconsidering a cultivation ban.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}

In 1988, [[Tanzania]]'s Department of Wildlife evicted thousands of people from the [[Mkomazi National Park|Mkomazi Game Reserve]]. The result of the evictions and restrictions to land use, according to Mark Dowie, ""is a gradual community and cultural meltdown."" Neighboring communities have become violent as the result of tension between indigenous people and the parks. Due to [[overgrazing]] and restrictions on land use, many pastoralists ""were forced to reduce or completely sell off their herds and learn to cultivate grains and legumes on small plots of arid land. Some turned to poaching for a living, others prostitution&nbsp;... young men who sold their herds turned to profligate lives, and when their money ran out they became low-wage farm workers and small-time hustlers. Young women facing a shrinking pool of potential husbands sell community essentials such as charcoal, traditional medicines, milk from borrowed goats, or, saddest of all, themselves"".<ref>Dowie, Mark (2009) ''Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict between Global Conservation and Native Peoples''. Cambridge: [[MIT Press]].</ref> Because of the decline in resources and their displacement to non-arable lands, many pastoralists have resorted to [[bushmeat]] for subsistence and trade; this threatens the already-declining population of apes, and facilitates the spread of [[HIV]] and [[Ebola virus disease]].

The [[Okiek people|Ogiek]] tribes of the [[Mau Forest]] are also the targets of land restrictions and evacuation from their native lands. The Ogiek have been described as a peaceful people who primarily cultivate [[honey bee]]s, but will grow [[beans]] and [[potatoes]] if needed. They subsist only on animals who are abundant in the forest; when the tribe notices a decline in population of a particular animal due to hunting, the Ogiek will raise [[sheep]] and [[goats]] for food. Animals are killed for their use only, and the Ogiek are not part of the bushmeat market. They are considered ""the best imaginable conservators of land"".<ref name=""dowie11"" />{{rp|184}} The first attempt to displace the Ogiek people occurred during the 20th century, when British settlers attempted to clear the forest for tea plantations. With the [[Forest Act of 1957]] and the [[Wildlife Conservation Act of 1977]], successive governments have displaced the Ogiek for forest conservation; they were often moved to non-arable land which was useless to their customary lifestyle of bee production and hunting. This displacement made many Ogiek homeless, poor and ill; their life expectancy declined from sixty to forty-six years. Although the [[High Court of Tanzania]] halted the evictions in June 2005, its ruling was appealed five months later. The appeal argued that the Ogiek were unfit to inhabit the Mau Forest, ignoring the forest's illegal, massive logging operations. Ecologists and hydrologists now agree with the Ogiek that [[Kenya]]'s forests (which are beginning to decline) are the main suppliers of water for the nation and, if not preserved, will result is mass starvation.

==={{anchor|Western Africa}}West Africa===
In [[Guinea]], [[deforestation]] has become the environmental norm. Since records began to be kept, only 1.8 percent of the country's [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist forest]] remains. To preserve the remaining forested land, conservationists have protected three swaths of land with restrictions on hunting, farming, and residency. As a result, 663,000 people have been displaced from the protected areas. This trend is reflected in neighboring countries; [[Liberia]] claims over 120,000 conservation refugees, and [[Senegal]] has 65,000 people displaced from its nine protected areas. [[Ghana]], to the east, has 35,000 refugees from the six percent of its remaining forests in nine protected areas (PAs).<ref>Weber, William. African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservation: an Interdisciplinary Perspective. New Haven: Yale UP, 2001. Print.</ref>

In Guinea's [[Ziama Massif#Ziami Strict Nature Reserve|Ziami Strict Nature Reserve]] (part of [[UNESCO]]'s [[Man and the Biosphere Programme]]),<ref>{{cite web |title=Massif du Ziama |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/africa/guinea/massif-du-ziama/ |website=UNESCO |access-date=30 September 2019}}</ref> sections of land in the southeastern panhandle have been cordoned off to preserve the growing forest and [[savanna]] which was the traditional home of the [[Loma people|Toma people]] (Fairhead).<ref>Fairhead, James, and Melissa Leach. ""Contested Forests: Modern Conservation and Historical Land in Guinea's Ziama Reserve."" African Affairs 93.373 (1994): 481-512. Web.</ref> Nineteenth-century anthropologist [[Benjamin Anderson]] and contemporary [[anthropology]] professors James Fairhead and Melissa Leach have observed that, based on Toma oral history, careful Toma cultivation of high-forest areas enabled the Ziami forest to flourish along with the remaining savanna.

===Southern Africa===
The [[San people]] (also known as the Bushmen), hunter-gatherers in [[Botswana]]'s [[Kalahari Desert]], have faced hardship and—in some cases—displacement. The San have no land claim, and the government views them as a nomadic people.<ref>Bolaane, M. 2004. The impact of Game Reserve Policy on the River BaSarwa/Bushmen of Bot¬swana. Social Policy and Administration 38:399-417.</ref>

Before independence, Botswana was part of the [[British Empire]]. Although the colonial government did not view the San as property owners, it provided them with a {{convert|52000|km2|adj=on}} [[game reserve]]. As the San population grew, animal populations began to dwindle; this population decline and the desires to promote tourism and integrate the San into modern society led the government to consider moving them from the game reserve.<ref>Ikeya, K. 2001. Some changes among the San under the influence of relocation plan in Bot¬swana. In: Senri Ethnological Studies No. 59. Parks, Property and Power: Managing Hunt¬ing Practice and Identity within State Policy Regimes, Vol. 59 (eds. D.G. Anderson and K. Ikeya), pp. 183-198. National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka.</ref> The government of Botswana also tried limited, year-round game licenses for the San to promote conservation.<ref>Hitchcock, R. K. (2001) ""Hunting is our Heritage: The Struggle for Hunting and Gathering Rights among the San of Southern Africa"". In ''Senri Ethnological Studies No. 59 Parks, Property and Power: Managing Hunting Practice and Identity within State Policy Regimes'', vol. 59 (eds. D. G. Anderson and K. Ikeya), pp. 139-156. [[National Museum of Ethnology (Japan)|National Museum of Ethnology]], [[Osaka]].</ref> The special game licenses did not replenish the dwindling animal populations; many officials believed that they were being abused, and the government began to restrict their distribution and again consider relocation.

During the 1960s, San groups were relocated twice with the creation of the [[Moremi Game Reserve]]. Although the relocation was not forced, the San felt that they were not fully informed of its implications (Bolaane 2004). Relocation had profound effects on their lifestyle, reducing their access to the land. Forced to become wage-earners (often at one of the game reserves), they experienced social discrimination.

When groups of San agreed to relocation from the [[Central Kalahari Game Reserve]] (CKGR) during the 1990s, adaptation to a new lifestyle (which included land ownership) was difficult and a number of people returned to the game reserve. The San founded an NGO, the [[First People of the Kalahari]] (FPK), in 1992 to advocate for land rights, social acceptance and self-determination.

===Role of BINGOs===
BINGOs (big international [[non-governmental organization]]s) may be controversial due to their partnership ""with multinational corporations—particularly in the businesses of gas and oil, pharmaceuticals, and mining—that are directly involved in pillaging and destroying forest areas owned by indigenous peoples"" (Chapin 2004). According to anthropologist Jim Igoe, ""Ironically, there is growing evidence that national parks themselves are contributing to the very problems that advocates of community conservation are trying to solve... The loss of natural resources to indigenous resource management systems that these evictions entailed frequently forced local people to mine natural resources in the area to which they were restricted"".<ref>Igoe, Jim (2002) ""National Parks and Human Ecosystems: The Challenge to Community Conservation. A Case Study From Simanjiro, Tanzania"" in ''Conservation and Mobile Indigenous Peoples: Displacement, Forced Settlement, and Sustainable Development''. [[Dawn Chatty]] and Marcus Colchester, eds., pp. 77-96. New York: [[Berghahn Books]]</ref> Mac Chapin writes in the introduction to his article that funding for conservation efforts has retreated from the need to work with indigenous people and local communities, ""with a new focus on large-scale conservation strategies and the importance of science, rather than social realities, in determining their agendas"" (Chapin 2004).

==See also==
*[[Indigenous Protected Area]]
*[[Indigenous and community conserved area]]
*''[[Ik people#The Mountain People|The Mountain People]]'', a book by [[Colin Turnbull]]
*[[30 by 30]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*Agarwal, Arun and Kent Redford. ""Conservation and Displacement: An Overview."" Conservation & Society 7.1 (2009): 1–10.
*Alcorn, J.B. and A.G. Royo. 2007. Conservation's engagement with human rights: Traction, slippage, or avoidance? Policy Matters 15: 115–139.
*Cernea, Michael M. and Kai Schmidt-Soltau. 2003 Biodiversity Conservation versus Population Resettlement: Risks to Nature and Risks to People.
*Chapin, Mac. 2004 A Challenge to Conservationists. World Watch Magazine. November/December:17-31.
*Colchester, Marcus. Salvaging Nature: Indigenous Peoples, Protected Areas and Biodiversity. Diane Publishing Co. 2003.
*""conservation."" Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2010. Merriam-Webster Online. 20 Feb. 2010. <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservation>.
*Convention concerning Indigenous and Tribal People in Independent Countries. Geneva Convention: C169.
*Dove, Michael R. & Carpenter, Carol (2008). Environmental Anthropology: A Historical Reader. Blackwell Publishing
*Dowie, Mark. Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict between Global Conservation and Native Peoples. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
*Dowie, Mark. ""Conservation Refugees: When protecting nature means kicking people out."" Orion Magazine. Nov./Dec. (2005).
*Geisler, Charles. ""A New Kind of Trouble: Evictions in Eden."" International Social Science Journal 55.1 (2003): 69–78.
*Geisler, Charles. ""Endangered Humans."" Foreign Policy 130 (2002): 80–81.
*""Human Rights."" United Nations Official Site. < http://www.un.org/en/>. Web. 20 Feb. 2010.
*Igoe, Jim. 2004 Conservation and Globalization: A Study of National Parks and Indigenous Communities form East Africa to South Dakota. United States. Thomson Wadsworth.
*International Court of Justice Official Site. < https://web.archive.org/web/20110410110310/http://www.icj-cij.org/homepage/index.php?p1=0>. Web. 20 Feb. 2010.
*""International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."" Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Official Site. <http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Pages/WelcomePage.aspx>. Web. 20 Feb. 2010.
*""International Law."" United Nations Official Site. < http://www.un.org/en/>Web. 20 Feb. 2010.
*International Union for Conservation of Nature Official Site. Web. 20 Feb. 2010.
*MacDonald, Christine (2008). Green, Inc. Guilford, CT. The Lyons Press/The Globe Pequot Press
*Native Solutions to Conservation Refugees Official Site. <http://www.conservationrefugees.org/>
*Penna-Firme, Rodrigo Darrell Addison Posey: a short biography, No Date Available. <http://www.indiana.edu/~wanthro/theory_pages/Posey.htm> March 29, 2010.
*""refugee."" Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2010. Merriam-Webster Online. 20 Feb. 2010. <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/refugee>
*Survival: The Movement for Tribal People Official Site. < http://www.survivalinternational.org/>
*Westing, Arthur. ""Environmental Refugees: A Growing Category of Displaced Persons."" Environmental Conservation 19 (1992): 201–207. Cambridge University Press. 20 Feb. 2010.
*""The World Bank's Involuntary Resettlement Policy."" The Center for International Environmental Law Official Site. Web. 20 Feb. 2010.
*Terminski, Bogumil, ''Environmentally-Induced Displacement. Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges'', CEDEM Working Paper, Universite de Liege, 2012.
*(1997). World Wide Fraud: Pandering to the Demands of Industry. Do or Die Issue 7. pg 76-78 <http://www.eco-action.org/dod/no7/76-78.html>

==External links==
*[http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/161/ ""Conservation Refugees""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019225609/http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/161/ |date=2014-10-19 }}, by [[Mark Dowie]], [[Orion (magazine)|''Orion'']], November/December 2005.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080807124826/http://conservationrefugees.org/pdfdoc/Worldwatch.pdf ""A Challenge to Conservationists""], by [[Mac Chapin]], [[Worldwatch Institute]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080820041709/http://conservationrefugees.org/pdfdoc/EvictionforConservation.pdf Eviction for Conservation: A Global Overview], [[Dan Brockington]] and [[Jim Igoe]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080820041914/http://conservationrefugees.org/pdfdoc/povertyrisks.pdf Poverty Risks and National Parks: Policy Issues in Conservation and Resettlement], by [[Michael Cernea]] and [[Kia Schmidt-Soltau]]

{{conservation of species}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation Refugee}}
[[Category:Refugees by type]]
[[Category:Forced migration]]
[[Category:Indigenous rights]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental controversies]]"
Fortress conservation,"{{Short description|Conservation model}}
[[File:Celebrating 1 Million Feet of Conservation Fence in WV (8769469144).jpg|thumb|An [[electric fence]] surrounding a conservation area in [[West Virginia]]]]
'''Fortress conservation''' is a conservation model based on the belief that biodiversity protection is best achieved by creating protected areas where ecosystems can function in isolation from human disturbance.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sesmad.dartmouth.edu/theories/85|title=Critique of fortress conservation|publisher=SESMAD|access-date=26 May 2022|archive-date=24 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524001702/https://sesmad.dartmouth.edu/theories/85|url-status=live}}</ref> Its implementation has been criticized for [[human rights]] abuses against indigenous inhabitants when creating and maintaining protected areas.<ref name=fp0718/>

==Background==
===Ecotourism===
[[File:Sabi sabi game drive.jpg|thumb|Ecotourism money is argued to drive the eviction of indigenous people.]]
{{Main|Ecotourism}}
It is argued that money generated from [[ecotourism]] is the motivating factor to drive indigenous inhabitants off the land.<ref name=theguardian0518/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lsLyqBUZvDY|title=Who is ordering continuous attacks against Batwa people in DRC?|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|access-date=26 May 2022|date=9 April 2022|archive-date=26 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526211100/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lsLyqBUZvDY|url-status=live}}</ref> The organization [[African Parks]], whose President is [[Prince Harry]], has as its motto ""a business approach to conservation"" and had at its outset that tourism is its key in making their parks financially sustainable.<ref name=""Arrangements"">{{cite book|title=Institutional Arrangements for Conservation, Development and Tourism in Eastern and Southern Africa: A Dynamic Perspective|date=16 November 2014|publisher=Springer|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tn5qBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|accessdate=22 January 2018|first1=René|last1=van der Duim|first2=Machiel|last2=Lamers|first3=Jakomijn|last3=van Wijk|isbn=9789401795296}}</ref>

===Militarization===
Conservation charities, the biggest of which is the [[World Wildlife Fund]], have increasingly militarized the campaign against poaching. Such poaching is often by organized criminal gangs that prey on the endangered species and, in 2018, 50 park rangers were killed globally. [[African Parks]] has been at the forefront of militarization with training from South African, French and Israeli military personnel.<ref name=FP0722/> Veterans from the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have been recruited to teach forest rangers counterinsurgency techniques and ex–special forces operatives promote their services at wildlife conferences. This has often involved recruiting paramilitary groups who are then supplied with military grade weaponry.<ref name=Buzzfeednews/>

==Efficacy==
[[File:Shennongjia virgin forest.jpg|thumb|Transferring [[land rights]] to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.]]
Some conservation groups argue for the fortress conservation model with the [[Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework]], an outcome of the [[2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference]], arguing for the [[30 by 30]] initiative to designate 30% of Earth's land and [[Marine protected area|ocean]] area as [[protected area]]s by [[2030]].<ref name=FP0722/> While the fortress conservation model views human as being inherently destructive to the environment, some have argued that the most efficient conservation methods involve transferring rights over land from public domain to its indigenous inhabitants, who have had a stake for millennia in preserving the forests that they depend on.<ref name=Guardian1>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jul/22/india-follow-china-saving-forest-people-land-rights|title=India should follow China to find a way out of the woods on saving forest people|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=2 November 2016|date=22 July 2016|archive-date=14 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014193247/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jul/22/india-follow-china-saving-forest-people-land-rights|url-status=live}}</ref>  This includes the protection of such rights entitled in existing laws, such as the [[The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006|Forest Rights Act]] in India, where concessions to land continue to go mostly to powerful companies.<ref name=Guardian1/> The transferring of such rights in [[China]], perhaps the largest [[land reform]] in modern times, has been argued to have increased forest cover.<ref name=fp0718/><ref name=rightsandresources>{{cite web|url=http://rightsandresources.org/en/publication/view/chinas-forest-tenure-reforms-impacts-and-implications-for-choice-conservation-and-climate-change/|title=China's forest tenure reforms|publisher=rightsandresources.org|access-date=7 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923153921/http://rightsandresources.org/en/publication/view/chinas-forest-tenure-reforms-impacts-and-implications-for-choice-conservation-and-climate-change/|archive-date=23 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Granting title of the land has shown to have two or three times less clearing than even state run parks, notably in the Brazilian Amazon. Even while the largest cause of deforestation in the world's second largest rainforest in the [[Congolian rainforests|Congo]] is smallholder agriculture and charcoal production, areas with community concessions have significantly less deforestation as communities are incentivized to manage the land sustainably, even reducing poverty.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210107-congo-basin-a-bold-plan-to-save-africas-largest-rainforest|title=The bold plan to save Africa's largest forest|newspaper=BBC|access-date=16 September 2021|date=7 January 2021|archive-date=16 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916230828/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210107-congo-basin-a-bold-plan-to-save-africas-largest-rainforest|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, evicting inhabitants from protected areas often under the fortress conservation model often leads to more exploitation of the land as the native inhabitants then turn to work for extractive companies to survive.<ref name=fp0718>{{cite magazine|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/16/how-conservation-became-colonialism-environment-indigenous-people-ecuador-mining/|title=How Conservation Became Colonialism|magazine=Foreign Policy|access-date=30 July 2018|date=16 July 2018|archive-date=30 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730235119/https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/16/how-conservation-became-colonialism-environment-indigenous-people-ecuador-mining/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Prevalence==
[[File:WWF Big Ballon 2013.jpg|thumb|left|The [[World Wildlife Fund]] has been accused of funding [[park ranger]] conflicts that push indigenous people off their land in national parks.]]
Up to 250,000 people worldwide have been forcibly evicted from their homes to make way for conservation projects since 1990, according to the UN special rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples.<ref name=Guardian1120>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/26/you-have-stolen-our-forest-rights-of-baka-people-in-the-congo-ignored|title='Large-scale human rights violations' taint Congo national park project|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=26 November 2020|access-date=27 May 2022|archive-date=27 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527205700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/26/you-have-stolen-our-forest-rights-of-baka-people-in-the-congo-ignored|url-status=live}}</ref> Another estimate put the total number of people displaced between 10.8 million and 173 million.<ref name=FP0722>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/07/01/western-nonprofits-african-rights-land/|title=Conservation Protected Areas are a disaster for Indigenous People|publisher=Foreign Policy Magazine|access-date=1 August 2023|date=1 July 2022|archive-date=2 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802014029/https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/07/01/western-nonprofits-african-rights-land/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Botswana===
{{See also|Ancestral land conflict in Botswana}}
In [[Botswana]], many of the indigenous San people have been [[Forced displacement|forcibly relocated]] from their land to reservations. To make them relocate, they were denied access to water on their land and faced arrest if they hunted, which was their primary source of food.<ref name=bbc1>{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-24821867 |title=Botswana bushmen: Modern life is destroying us |work=BBC News |access-date=24 July 2016 |date=7 January 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160325015238/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-24821867 |archive-date=25 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> The government claims the relocation is to preserve the wildlife and ecosystem, even though the San people have lived sustainably on the land for millennia.<ref name=bbc1/> Additionally, their lands lie in the middle of the world's richest [[diamond]] field. On the reservations they struggle to find employment, and [[alcoholism]] is rampant.<ref name=bbc1/>

===Cameroon===
[[Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka people]] in Cameroon's [[Lobéké National Park]] have alleged abuse by park rangers funded by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF).<ref name=Buzzfeednews/>

===Democratic Republic of the Congo===
In national parks in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], such as [[Kahuzi-Biéga National Park]], heavily armed park rangers come into deadly conflict with the pygmy inhabitants who often cut the trees down to sell charcoal.<ref name=Guardian0719>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/jul/22/gorillas-charcoal-fight-survival-congo-rainforest|title=Gorillas, charcoal and the fight for survival in Congo's rainforest|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=22 July 2019|access-date=1 September 2019|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901224827/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/jul/22/gorillas-charcoal-fight-survival-congo-rainforest|url-status=live}}</ref> The conservation efforts of national parks in the country are often financed by international organizations such as the WWF and often involve removing native inhabitants off the land.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TBDKiJrLits |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/TBDKiJrLits| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|title=Congo: The tribe under threat|newspaper=Unreported World |access-date=1 September 2019|date=2 June 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

===Nepal===
The creation of [[Chitwan National Park]] in the 1970s led to tens of thousands of indigenous [[Tharu people]] to be evicted. The World Wildlife Fund has been accused of providing high-tech enforcement equipment, cash, and weapons to rangers involved torturing Tharu living near national parks such as [[Bardiya National Park]]. Nepalese law was changed to give forest rangers the power to investigate wildlife-related crimes, make arrests without a warrant, and retain immunity in cases where an officer had “no alternative” but to shoot the offender while the park's chief warden has the power to hand out 15-year prison terms by themselves.<ref name=Buzzfeednews>{{Cite web|last1=Warren|first1=Tom|last2=Baker|first2=Katie|date=4 March 2019|title=WWF Funds Guards Who Have Tortured And Killed People|website=[[BuzzFeed News]]|url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/tomwarren/wwf-world-wide-fund-nature-parks-torture-death|access-date=8 June 2022|archive-date=4 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304183207/https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/tomwarren/wwf-world-wide-fund-nature-parks-torture-death|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Republic of the Congo===
Forest rangers, known as ecoguards, dressed in paramilitary uniforms and heavily armed with funding from the WWF, are accused of torture, rape and murder of [[Baka pygmy|Baka pygmies]] in the proposed Messok Dja protected area as part of an effort to remove the Baka pygmies from the area.<ref name=Guardian1120/>

===Tanzania===
More than 150,000 [[Maasai people]] face eviction in [[Tanzania]] with moves to turn their lands into nature reserves for luxury safari tourism and for [[trophy hunting]] in the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]], which is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], and in [[Loliondo]] near the [[Serengeti National Park]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/apr/22/tanzania-maasai-appeal-to-west-stop-evictions-due-to-conservation-plans |title=Tanzania's Maasai appeal to west to stop eviction for conservation plans |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 June 2022 |date=22 April 2022 |archive-date=7 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607012039/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/apr/22/tanzania-maasai-appeal-to-west-stop-evictions-due-to-conservation-plans |url-status=live }}</ref> Previous attempts to forcefully evict the Maasai have alleged to have included burning their homes.<ref name=theguardian0518>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/10/maasai-herders-driven-off-land-to-make-way-for-luxury-safaris-report-says|title=Maasai herders driven off land to make way for luxury safaris, report says|work=The Guardian|access-date=6 June 2022|date=10 May 2018|archive-date=7 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607012040/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/10/maasai-herders-driven-off-land-to-make-way-for-luxury-safaris-report-says|url-status=live}}</ref>

===United States of America===
The preservation of [[Yosemite National Park]] under the advocacy of [[John Muir]] meant the expulsion of the [[Miwok]] and [[Paiute]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/environment/yosemite-national-park-native-american-village-miwuk/|title=Yosemite Finally Reckons with Its Discriminatory Past|publisher=[[Outside (magazine)|Outside]]|access-date=2 June 2022|date=23 August 2018|archive-date=7 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707113817/https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/environment/yosemite-national-park-native-american-village-miwuk/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Ecotourism]]
*[[Green grabbing]]
*{{section link|World Wide Fund for Nature|Human rights abuses by paramilitaries}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Conservation of species}}
{{Indigenous rights footer}}

[[Category:Ecotourism]]
[[Category:Indigenous rights]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Neocolonialism]]
[[Category:World Wide Fund for Nature]]
[[Category:Environmental controversies]]
[[Category:Protected areas]]"
Bee hotel,"[[File:Hotel zur wilden Biene.jpg|thumb|A bee hotel in Germany]]{{Short description|Artificial bee shelter}}
'''Bee hotels''' are a type of [[insect hotel]] for solitary pollinator [[Bee|bees]], or wasps, providing them rest and shelter.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web |title=What is a Bee Hotel? {{!}} NC State Extension Publications |url=https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/how-to-manage-a-successful-bee-hotel/what-is-a-bee-hotel |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=content.ces.ncsu.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> Typically, these bees would nest in hollow plant stems, holes in dead wood, or other natural cavities; a bee hotel attempts to mimic this structure by using a bunch of hollow reeds or holes drilled in wood, among other methods.<ref name="":2"" /> Bee hotels can possibly support native bee and wasp populations by adding nesting resources to a habitat.<ref name="":2"" /> However, some activists have criticized bee hotels for being ineffective at rehabilitating native bee populations and possibly harming them by providing homes to invasive species and creating grounds where bees can transmit diseases to one another.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Garrido |first=Claudia |date=2020-09-25 |title=Bee hotels - the good, the bad, and the ugly |url=https://bee-safe.eu/articles/bee-thoughts/bee-hotels-the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=BeeSafe |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Beehive and bee hotel difference ==
A [[beehive]] is where bee colonies or communities live and raise; a bee hotel's purpose is to solely attract bees that do not make their homes in colonies, but instead build individual nesting sites of their own, referred to as ""solitary bees.""<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bee Hotels |url=https://heritagemuseumsandgardens.org/hmg/bee-hotels/ |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=Heritage Museums & Gardens |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Construction and care ==
[[File:Hotel for bees in Łódź, Park Poniatowskiego 2016 04.jpg|thumb|A bee hotel in Poland]]
Bee hotels are constructed in a manner to mimic the real life structures that solitary bees nest in. They incorporate reeds, bamboo or other materials to create a bundle of horizontal tubes, open at one end, closed at the other.<ref name="":1"">[https://pollinators.msu.edu/publications/building-and-managing-bee-hotels-for-wild-bees/ Building and managing bee hotels for wild bees], Julia Brokaw and Rufus Isaacs. Department of Entomology, [[Michigan State University]], Extension Bulletin E-3337, June 2017</ref> These horizontal tubes range 12-20 cm in length, and 2-12 mm in diameter.<ref name="":1"" /> These nested tubes require maintenance and cleanliness as bees in hotel are more susceptible to disease, such as the spread of [[Ascosphaera apis|chalkbrood]].

However, bee hotels could also provide homes to invasive species and species of wasps that predate on bees, making predation from [[Parasitoid wasp|parasitic wasps]] and [[Kleptoparasitism|kleptoparasites]] more likely than in naturally built nests.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Managing your bee hotel |url=https://pollinators.psu.edu/assets/uploads/documents/Managing-Your-Bee-Hotel.pdf |access-date=10 May 2023 |website=Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences Center for Pollinator Research}}</ref><ref name="":13"">{{Citation |last=Kelley |first=Judith G. |title=The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly |date=2012-03-25 |work=Monitoring Democracy |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691152776.003.0009 |access-date=2023-11-28 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

Dead, walled-up cells from previous years should be removed. Bee cells taken over by the parasitic [[Cacoxenus indagator]] fly should also be removed to prevent spreading.<ref name="":03"">{{Cite web |title=Make a Bee Hotel - The Pollinator Garden |url=https://www.foxleas.com/make-a-bee-hotel.asp#:~:text=You%20can%20leave%20areas%20of,wasps%20share%20a%20similar%20lifestyle. |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=www.foxleas.com}}</ref> Be careful when selecting the wood to construct your bee hotel, as certain woods may not provide sufficient weather protection, especially in wet weather.<ref name="":03"" /> Certain woods are also more prone to splintering inside the tunnel.<ref name="":03"" />
== Studies and use ==
[[File:Hotel with wild bees in Paris.jpg|thumb|A bee hotel in Paris]]Approximately 30% of the 5,000 native bee species in [[North America]] build nests in tunnels or cavities situated above ground.<ref>“Tunnel Nests for Native Bees - Xerces Society.” ''Tunnel Nests for Native Bees'', xerces.org/sites/default/files/2018-05/13-054_02_XercesSoc_Tunnel-Nests-for-Native-Bees_web.pdf. Accessed 28 Nov. 2023.</ref>

The 2021 scientific publication ''Worldwide occurrence records suggest a global decline in bee species richness'' indicates a downwards trend in the global bee population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zattara |first1=Eduardo E. |last2=Aizen |first2=Marcelo A. |date=2021-01-22 |title=Worldwide occurrence records suggest a global decline in bee species richness |journal=One Earth |language=English |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=114–123 |doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.005 |issn=2590-3330 |s2cid=234124777 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=11336/183742}}</ref> In order to try and reverse the perceived reduction in bee numbers, some people construct bee hotels.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morawski |first=Bridget Reed |date=2022-07-26 |title=3 Things to Know About Urban Beekeeping |url=https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/urban-beekeeping |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=Architectural Digest |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2015, [[Fairmont Hotels and Resorts]] added 16 more bee hotels at its locations, adding to the five it created in 2014.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |last=Hutchins |first=Aaron |date=2015-05-25 |title=Are bee hotels the answer to saving a species? |url=https://www.macleans.ca/society/science/are-bee-hotels-the-answer-in-saving-a-species/ |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=Macleans.ca |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021 former Formula one driver and 4 time world champion [[Sebastian Vettel]] worked with children in Austria to make a bee hotel at the [[Red Bull Ring|Red Bull ring]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Vettel created a buzz by constructing ‘hotel for bees’ close to the Red Bull Ring {{!}} Formula 1® |url=https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.how-vettel-created-a-buzz-by-constructing-hotel-for-bees-close-to-the-red.3veH0FG5kRX8bTh13BTtSe.html |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=www.formula1.com |language=en}}</ref> A second bee hotel was created by Sebastian Vettel in 2023 at turn 2 of [[Suzuka International Racing Course]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Vettel made Turn 2 at Suzuka a hive of activity |url=https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.how-sebastian-vettel-made-turn-2-at-suzuka-a-hive-of-activity-with-his.1P0SNRVKbk0FynwirqXWLa.html |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=www.formula1.com |language=en}}</ref>

A study of 200 bee hotels undertaken by [[Melittology|melittologist]] Laurence Packer and Scott MacIvor from [[York University]] indicated that 50% of bee hotels in their study were dominated by [[Wasp|wasps]]. Bees, unlike wasps, favour hotels that receive direct (especially morning) sunlight, and that are closer to the ground. Bee hotels located on multi-storey building rooftops and in shaded areas are more likely to attract wasps. The study critiqued poorly designed and maintained bee hotels, noting that plastic tubes can be a catalyst for mould, narrower tubes can discourage female bees, and proximity of spiders can reduce bee populations. Peter Hallett, a melittologist from the [[University of Toronto]] noted that the wasps observed in the study were not [[Yellowjacket|yellowjackets]], but solitary wasps that are generally perceived more positively in North America.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite journal |last=Hammadi |first=Sawas Younus |last2=Ali |first2=Ameeda |date=2022 |title=Role of some microbes and fungal species to treat different infections caused by other microorganisms |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.47587/msa.2022.2102 |journal=Microbial Science Archives |volume=02 |issue=01 |pages=05–08 |doi=10.47587/msa.2022.2102 |issn=2583-1666 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Melittologist Cory Sheffield of the [[Royal Saskatchewan Museum]] observed more positive trends in bee hotels used by bees in orchards in [[Nova Scotia]] and noted that some of the problems from the Toronto study were unique to cities. Both Cory Sheffield and Laurence Packer encouraged creation of bee hotels, despite the issues identified in the Toronto study.<ref name="":02"" /> A Canadian study of 200 bee hotels in Toronto indicated that 50% of hotels were dominated by wasps, 25% by invasive, and 25% by natives. 
== References ==

{{reflist}}
{{Authority Control}}

[[Category:Insect conservation]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in Canada]]
[[Category:Beekeeping]]"
Template:Biodiversity of South Africa,"{{Navbox with collapsible groups
| name = Biodiversity of South Africa
| state = {{{state|}}}
| titlestyle = 
| title = [[Biodiversity of South Africa]]
| image = 
| listclass = hlist
| selected = {{{selected|{{{1|}}}}}}
| bodyclass = hlist

| above=
* [[Afrotropical realm]]
* [[Marine biodiversity of South Africa]]
* [[Temperate Southern Africa]]
* [[Western Indo-Pacific]]
* [[Wildlife of South Africa]]

| abbr1 = chklst
| group1 = National taxon checklists
| list1 = 

{{Navbox|subgroup 

| group1 = Plants
| list1  =  
* [[List of conifers of South Africa|Conifers]] 
* [[List of cycads of South Africa|Cycads]] 
* [[List of hornworts of South Africa|Hornworts]] 
* [[List of liverworts of South Africa|Liverworts]]
* [[List of lycophytes of South Africa|Lycophytes]]
* [[List of mosses of South Africa|Mosses]] 
* [[List of pteridophytes of South Africa|Pteridophytes]] 

{{Navbox|subgroup

|group1 = [[Lists of flowering plants of South Africa|Flowering<br />plants]] 
|list1 = 
*[[List of Acorales of South Africa|Acorales]]
*[[List of Alismatales of South Africa|Alismatales]]
*[[List of Apiales of South Africa|Apiales]]
**[[List of Apiaceae of South Africa|Apiaceae]]
*[[List of Aquifoliales of South Africa|Aquifoliales]]
*[[List of Arecales of South Africa|Arecales]]
*[[List of Asparagales of South Africa|Asparagales]]
**[[List of Asphodelaceae of South Africa|Asphodelaceae]]
**[[List of Hyacinthaceae of South Africa|Hyacinthaceae]]
**[[List of Iridaceae of South Africa|Iridaceae]]
**[[List of Orchidaceae of South Africa|Orchidaceae]]
*[[List of Asterales of South Africa|Asterales]]
**[[List of Asteraceae of South Africa|Asteraceae]]
*[[List of Boraginales of South Africa|Boraginales]]
*[[List of Brassicales of South Africa|Brassicales]]
*[[List of Bruniales of South Africa|Bruniales]]
*[[List of Buxales of South Africa|Buxales]]
*[[List of Canellales of South Africa|Canellales]]
*[[List of Caryophyllales of South Africa|Caryophyllales]]
**[[List of Aizoaceae of South Africa|Aizoaceae]]
*[[List of Celastrales of South Africa|Celastrales]]
*[[List of Ceratophyllales of South Africa|Ceratophyllales]] 
*[[List of Commelinales of South Africa|Commelinales]]
*[[List of Cornales of South Africa|Cornales]]
*[[List of Crossosomatales of South Africa|Crossosomatales]]
*[[List of Cucurbitales of South Africa|Cucurbitales]]
*[[List of Dioscoreales of South Africa|Dioscoreales]]
*[[List of Dipsacales of South Africa|Dipsacales]]
*[[List of Ericales of South Africa|Ericales]]
*[[List of Escalloniales of South Africa|Escalloniales]]
*[[List of Fabales of South Africa|Fabales]]
*[[List of Fagales of South Africa|Fagales]]
*[[List of Gentianales of South Africa|Gentianales]]
**[[List of Apocynaceae of South Africa|Apocynaceae]]
**[[List of Rubiaceae of South Africa|Rubiaceae]]
*[[List of Geraniales of South Africa|Geraniales]]
*[[List of Gunnerales of South Africa|Gunnerales]]
*[[List of Huerteales of South Africa|Huerteales]]
*[[List of Icacinales of South Africa|Icacinales]]
*[[List of Lamiales of South Africa|Lamiales]]
**[[List of Acanthaceae of South Africa|Acanthaceae]]
**[[List of Lamiaceae of South Africa|Lamiaceae]] 
**[[List of Scrophulariaceae of South Africa|Scrophulariaceae]]
*[[List of Laurales of South Africa|Laurales]]
*[[List of Liliales of South Africa|Liliales]]
*[[List of Magnoliales of South Africa|Magnoliales]]
*[[List of Malpighiales of South Africa|Malpighiales]]
**[[List of Euphorbiaceae of South Africa|Euphorbiaceae]]
*[[List of Malvales of South Africa|Malvales]]
*[[List of Myrtales of South Africa|Myrtales]]
*[[List of Nymphaeales of South Africa|Nymphaeales]]
*[[List of Oxalidales of South Africa|Oxalidales]]
*[[List of Pandanales of South Africa|Pandanales]]
*[[List of Piperales of South Africa|Piperales]]
*[[List of Poales of South Africa|Poales]]
**[[List of Poaceae of South Africa|Poaceae]]
*[[List of Proteales of South Africa|Proteales]]
*[[List of Ranunculales of South Africa|Ranunculales]]
*[[List of Rosales of South Africa|Rosales]]
*[[List of Santalales of South Africa|Santalales]]
*[[List of Sapindales of South Africa|Sapindales]]
*[[List of Saxifragales of South Africa|Saxifragales]]
*[[List of Solanales of South Africa|Solanales]]
*[[List of Vahliales of South Africa|Vahliales]]
*[[List of Vitales of South Africa|Vitales]]
*[[List of Zingiberales of South Africa|Zingiberales]]
*[[List of Zygophyllales of South Africa|Zygophyllales]]

}}

| group2 = Animals
| list2  = 
* Ascidians<!--[[List of ascidians of South Africa|Ascidians]] --><!--  -->
* Bryozoans<!--[[List of bryozoans of South Africa|Bryozoans]] --><!-- Bryozoa -->
* Comb jellies<!--[[List of comb jellies of South Africa|Comb jellies]] --><!-- Ctenophora -->
* [[List of echinoderms of South Africa|Echinoderms]]<!-- Echinodermata: Asteroidea, Crinoidea, Echinoidea, Holothuroidea, Ophiuroidea -->
* Nematodes<!--[[List of nematodes of South Africa|Nematodes]] --><!-- Nematoda -->
* [[List of polychaete worms of South Africa|Polychaetes]]<!-- Annelida -->
* [[List of marine cnidarians of South Africa|Marine cnidarians]]<!-- Cnidaria -->
* Marine flatworms<!--[[List of marine flatworms of South Africa|Marine flatworms]] --><!-- also Platyhelminthes: Cestoda, Monogenea, Trematoda, Turbellaria? -->
* [[List of sponges of South Africa|Sponges]]<!-- Poriphera -->
* [[List of tardigrades of South Africa|Tardigrades]]<!-- Tardigrada -->
<!-- Checklists not yet published by SANBI but on the development list
* [[List of Cycliophora of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Echiura of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Entoprocta of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Chaetognatha of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Brachiopoda of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Gastrotricha of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Gnathostomulida of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Hemichordata of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Kinorhyncha of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Loricifera of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Micrognathozoa of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Myxozoa of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Nematomorpha of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Nemeryea of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Onychophora of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Orthonectida of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Phoronida of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Placozoa of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Priapulida of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Rhombozoa of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Rotifera of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Sipuncula of South Africa|]]
* [[List of Xenacoelomorpha of South Africa|]] -->

{{Navbox|subgroup

| group1 = Arthropods
| list1 =  
* [[List of marine crustaceans of South Africa|Marine crustaceans]]
** [[List of sea spiders of South Africa |Sea spiders]]<!-- Pycnogonida -->
* Centipedes<!-- [[List of centipedes of South Africa|Centipedes]]--><!-- Chiropoda -->
* Millipedes<!-- [[List of millipedes of South Africa|Millipedes]]--><!-- Diplopoda -->
* Entognatha<!-- [[List of Entognatha of South Africa|Entognatha]]--><!-- Collembola, Diplura -->

{{Navbox|subgroup

| group1 = Arachnids
| list1 =  
* Harvestmen<!--[[List of harvestmen of South Africa|Harvestmen]]--><!-- Opiliones -->
* Microwhip scorpions<!--[[List of microwhip scorpions of South Africa|Microwhip scorpions]]--><!-- Palpigradi -->
* Pseudoscorpions<!--[[List of pseudoscorpions of South Africa|Pseudoscorpions]]--><!-- Pseudoscorpiones -->
* Scorpions<!--[[List of scorpions of South Africa|Scorpions]]--><!-- Scorpiones -->
* Shorttailed whipscorpions<!--[[List of shorttailed whipscorpions of South Africa|Shorttailed whipscorpions]]--><!-- Schizomida -->
* Solifugae<!--[[List of solifuges of South Africa|Solifuges]]--><!-- Solifugae -->
* Araneae<!--[[List of spiders of South Africa|Spiders]]--><!-- Araneae -->
* Ixodida<!--[[List of ticks of South Africa|Ticks]]--><!-- Ixodida -->
* Whip spiders and tailless whip scorpions<!--[[List of whip spiders and tailless whip scorpions of South Africa|Whip spiders and tailless whip scorpions]]--><!-- Amblypygi -->

| group2 = Insects
| list2 = 
* Alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies <!--[[List of alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies of South Africa|Alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies]]--><!-- Megaloptera -->
* Beetles <!--[[List of beetles of South Africa|Beetles]]--><!-- Coleoptera -->
* Booklice, barklice and barkflies <!--[[List of booklice, barklice and barkflies of South Africa|Booklice, barklice and barkflies]]--><!-- Psocoptera -->
* Butterflies and moths <!--[[List of butterflies and moths of South Africa|Butterflies and moths]]--><!-- Lepidoptera -->
* Caddisflies <!--[[List of caddisflies of South Africa|Caddisflies]]--><!-- Trichoptera -->
* Cockroaches and termites <!--[[List of cockroaches and termites of South Africa|Cockroaches and termites]]--><!-- Blattodea -->
* Dragonflies and damselflies <!--[[List of dragonflies and damselflies  of South Africa|Dragonflies and damselflies]]--><!-- Odonata -->
* Earwigs <!--[[List of earwigs of South Africa|Earwigs]]--><!-- Dermaptera -->
* Fleas <!--[[List of fleas of South Africa|Fleas]]--><!-- Siphonaptera -->
* Flies <!--[[List of flies of South Africa|Flies]]--><!-- Diptera -->
* Jumping bristletails <!--[[List of jumping bristletails of South Africa|Jumping bristletails]]--><!-- Archaeognatha --> 
* Lice <!--[[List of lice of South Africa|Lice]]--><!-- Phthiraptera -->
* Mantises <!--[[List of mantises of South Africa|Mantises]]--><!-- Mantodea -->
* Mayflies <!--[[List of mayflies of South Africa|Mayflies]]--><!-- Ephemeroptera -->
* Net-winged insects <!--[[List of net-winged insects of South Africa|Net-winged insects]]--><!-- Neuroptera -->
* Notoptera <!--[[List of Notoptera of South Africa|Notoptera]]-->
* Orthoptera <!--[[List of Orthoptera of South Africa|Orthoptera]]-->
* Sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants <!--[[List of sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants of South Africa|Sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants]]--><!-- Hymenoptera -->
* Scorpionflies <!--[[List of scorpionflies of South Africa|Scorpionflies]]--><!-- Mecoptera -->
* Silverfish and firebrats <!--[[List of silverfish and firebrats of South Africa|Silverfish and firebrats]]--><!-- Zygentoma -->
* Stick and leaf insects <!--[[List of Stick and leaf insects of South Africa|Stick and leaf insects]]--><!-- Phasmida -->
* Stoneflies <!--[[List of stoneflies of South Africa|Stoneflies]]--><!-- Plecoptera -->
* Strepsiptera <!--[[List of Strepsiptera of South Africa|Strepsiptera]]-->
* Termites <!--[[List of termites of South Africa|Termites]]--><!-- Isoptera --> 
* Thrips <!--[[List of thrips of South Africa|Thrips]]--><!-- Thysanoptera -->
* True bugs <!--[[List of true bugs of South Africa|True bugs]]--><!-- Hemiptera -->
* Webspinners <!--[[List of webspinners of South Africa|Webspinners]]--><!-- Embioptera -->
}}

| group2 = 
| list2 = 

| group3 = Molluscs
| list3 = 
<!-- To be split into: Aplacophora, Bivalvia, Cephalopoda, Gastropoda (subdivisions), Polyplacophora, Scaphopoda -->
* [[List of non-marine molluscs of South Africa|Non-marine molluscs]]
* [[List of marine molluscs of South Africa|Marine molluscs]]
** [[List of marine gastropods of South Africa|Marine gastropods]]
*** [[List of marine heterobranch gastropods of South Africa|Marine heterobranch gastropods]]

| group4 = Vertebrates
| list4 = 
* [[List of amphibians of South Africa|Amphibians]]
* [[List of birds of South Africa|Birds]]
* [[List of freshwater fishes of South Africa|Freshwater fishes]]
* [[List of marine fishes of South Africa|Marine fishes]]
** [[List of marine bony fishes of South Africa|Marine bony fishes]]
*** [[List of marine spiny-finned fishes of South Africa|Marine spiny-finned fishes]]
**** [[List of marine Perciform fishes of South Africa|Marine Perciform fishes]]
* [[List of mammals of South Africa|Mammals]]
* [[List of reptiles of South Africa|Reptiles]]

}}

| group3 = Seaweeds
| list3  =
* [[List of green seaweeds of South Africa|Green seaweeds]]
* [[List of brown seaweeds of South Africa|Brown seaweeds]]
* [[List of red seaweeds of South Africa|Red seaweeds]]

| group4 = [[List of fungi of South Africa|Fungi]]
| list4  =
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – A|A]]
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – B|B]]
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – C|C]]
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – D|D]]
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – E|E]]
* F<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – F|F]]-->
* G<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – G|G]]-->
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – H|H]]
* I<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – I|I]]-->
* J<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – J|J]]-->
* K<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – K|K]]-->
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – L|L]]
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – M|M]]
* N<!-- [[List of fungi of South Africa – N|N]]-->
* O<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – O|O]]-->
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – P|P]]
* Q<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – Q|Q]]-->
* R<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – R|R]]-->
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – S|S]]
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – T|T]]
* [[List of fungi of South Africa – U|U]]
* V<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – V|V]]-->
* W<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – W|W]]-->
* X<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – X|X]]-->
* Y<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – Y|Y]]-->
* Z<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – Z|Z]]-->

| group5 = Related 
| list5 =
* [[List of bacteria of South Africa]]
* [[List of invasive species in South Africa]]
* [[List of invasive plant species in South Africa]]
* [[List of Oomycetes of South Africa]]
* [[List of slime moulds of South Africa]] 
* [[List of Southern African indigenous trees and woody lianes]]
* [[List of botanists by author abbreviation (A)|List of botanists by author abbreviation]]

}} 

| abbr2 = chkreg
| group2 = Regional taxon checklists and other minor lists
| list2 = <!--Regional, protected area and other minor checklists-->
* [[List of marine invertebrates of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay]]
* [[List of marine vertebrates of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay]]
* [[List of green seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay]]
* [[List of brown seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay]]
* [[List of red seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay]]
* Related:
** [[Timber trees of Gauteng]]

| abbr3 = biohot
| group3 = [[Biodiversity hotspot]]s and [[Centre of diversity|Centres of diversity]]
| list3 = 

* [[Cape Floristic Region]]
* [[Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot]]
* [[Succulent Karoo]]

* [[Succulent Karoo]]
* [[Cape Floristic Region]]
* [[Griqualand West Centre]]
* [[Albany Centre]]
* [[Drakensberg Alpine Centre]]
* [[Soutpansberg Centre]]
* [[Wolkberg Centre]]
* [[Sekhukhuneland Centre]]
* [[Barberton Centre]]
* [[Maputaland-Pondoland Region]] 

| abbr4 = ecoreg
| group4 = [[Ecoregion]]s 
| list4 = 
* [[List of ecoregions in South Africa]] 

{{Navbox|subgroup

| group1 = [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|Tropical and subtropical<br />moist broadleaf forests]]
| list1 =
* [[Knysna–Amatole montane forests]]
* [[KwaZulu–Cape coastal forest mosaic]]
* [[Maputaland coastal forest mosaic]]

| group2 = [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|Tropical and subtropical grasslands,<br />savannas, and shrublands]]
| list2 = 
* [[Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands]]
* [[Bushveld|Southern Africa bushveld]]
* [[Zambezian and mopane woodlands]]

| group3 = [[Montane grasslands and shrublands|Montane grasslands<br />and shrublands]]
| list3 =  
* [[Drakensberg alti-montane grasslands and woodlands]]
* [[Drakensberg montane grasslands, woodlands and forests]]
* [[Highveld grasslands]]
* [[Maputaland–Pondoland bushland and thickets]]

| group4 = [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub|Mediterranean forests,<br />woodlands, and scrub]]
| list4 = 
* [[Albany thickets]]
* [[Lowland fynbos and renosterveld]]
* [[Montane fynbos and renosterveld]]

| group5 = [[Deserts and xeric shrublands]]
| list5 =  
* [[Kalahari xeric savanna]]
* [[Nama Karoo]]
* [[Succulent Karoo]]

| group6 = [[Tundra]]
| list6 = 
* [[Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra]]

| group7 = [[Mangrove|Mangroves]]
| list7 =  
* [[Southern Africa mangroves]]

| group8 = [[Marine ecoregions of the South African exclusive economic zone|Marine ecoregions]]
| list8 = 
* [[Agulhas ecoregion]]
* [[Benguela ecoregion]]
* [[Delagoa ecoregion]]
* [[Natal ecoregion]]
* [[Southeast Atlantic ecoregion]]
* [[Southwest Indian ecoregion]]

}}

| abbr5 = bioveg
| group5 = [[Biome]]s and [[Vegetation classification]]
| list5 = 
* [[List of vegetation types of South Africa]]

{{Navbox|subgroup

|group9 = [[Savanna]]
|list9 =
* [[Andesite Mountain Bushveld]]
* [[Aoub Duneveld]]
* [[Barberton Serpentine Sourveld]]
* [[Bhisho Thornveld]]
* [[Cathedral Mopane Bushveld]]
* [[Central Sandy Bushveld]]
* [[Delagoa Lowveld]]
* [[Dwaalboom Thornveld]]
* [[Dwarsberg-Swartruggens Mountain Bushveld]]
* [[Eastern Valley Bushveld]]
* [[Gabbro Grassy Bushveld]]
* [[Gauteng Shale Mountain Bushveld]]
* [[Ghaap Plateau Vaalbosveld]]
* [[Gold Reef Mountain Bushveld]]
* [[Gordonia Duneveld]]
* [[Gordonia Kameeldoring Bushveld]]
* [[Gordonia Plains Shrubland]]
* [[Granite Lowveld]]
* [[Gravelotte Rocky Bushveld]]
* [[Kaalrug Mountain Bushveld]]
* [[Kathu Bushveld]]
* [[Kimberley Thornveld]]
* [[Koranna-Langeberg Mountain Bushveld]]
* [[Kuruman Mountain Bushveld]]
* [[Kuruman Thornveld]]
* [[Kuruman Vaalbosveld]]
* [[KwaZulu-Natal Hinterland Thornveld]]
* [[KwaZulu-Natal Sandstone Sourveld]]
* [[Lebombo Summit Sourveld]]
* [[Legogote Sour Bushveld]]
* [[Limpopo Ridge Bushveld]]
* [[Limpopo Sweet Bushveld]] 
* [[Loskop Mountain Bushveld]] 
* [[Loskop Thornveld]] 
* [[Lowveld Rugged Mopaneveld]] 
* [[Madikwe Dolomite Bushveld]] 
* [[Mafikeng Bushveld]] 
* [[Makatini Clay Thicket]] 
* [[Makhado Sweet Bushveld]] 
* [[Makuleke Sandy Bushveld]] 
* [[Malelane Mountain Bushveld]] 
* [[Mamabolo Mountain Bushveld]] 
* [[Marikana Thornveld]] 
* [[Molopo Bushveld]] 
* [[Moot Plains Bushveld]] 
* [[Mopane Basalt Shrubland]] 
* [[Mopane Gabbro Shrubland]] 
* [[Musina Mopane Bushveld]] 
* [[Ngongoni Veld]] 
* [[Norite Koppies Bushveld]] 
* [[Northern Lebombo Bushveld]] 
* [[Northern Zululand Sourveld]] 
* [[Nossob Bushveld]] 
* [[Nwambyia-Pumbe Sandy Bushveld]] 
* [[Ohrigstad Mountain Bushveld]] 
* [[Olifantshoek Plains Thornveld]] 
* [[Phalaborwa-Timbavati Mopaneveld]] 
* [[Pilanesberg Mountain Bushveld]] 
* [[Polokwane Plateau Bushveld]] 
* [[Postmasburg Thornveld]] 
* [[Poung Dolomite Mountain Bushveld]] 
* [[Pretoriuskop Sour Bushveld]] 
* [[Roodeberg Bushveld]] 
* [[Schmidtsdrif Thornveld]] 
* [[Schweizer-Reneke Bushveld]] 
* [[Sekhukhune Mountain Bushveld]] 
* [[Sekhukhune Plains Bushveld]] 
* [[South Eastern Coastal Thornveld]] 
* [[Southern Lebombo Bushveld]] 
* [[Soutpansberg Mountain Bushveld]] 
* [[Springbokvlakte Thornveld]] 
* [[Stella Bushveld]] 
* [[Swaziland Sour Bushveld]] 
* [[Tembe Sandy Bushveld]] 
* [[Thukela Thornveld]] 
* [[Thukela Valley Bushveld]] 
* [[Tsende Mopaneveld]] 
* [[Tshokwane-Hlane Basalt Lowveld]] 
* [[Tzaneen Sour Bushveld]] 
* [[Vaalbos Rocky Shrubland]] 
* [[VhaVenda Miombo]] 
* [[Waterberg Mountain Bushveld]] 
* [[Western Maputaland Clay Bushveld]] 
* [[Western Maputaland Sandy Bushveld]] 
* [[Western Sandy Bushveld]] 
* [[Zeerust Thornveld]] 
* [[Zululand Coastal Thornveld]] 
* [[Zululand Lowveld]] 

|group10 = [[Grassland]]
|list10 = 
* [[Aliwal North Dry Grassland]] 
* [[Amathole Mistbelt Grassland]] 
* [[Amathole Montane Grassland]] 
* [[Amersfoort Highveld Clay Grassland]] 
* [[Barberton Montane Grassland]] 
* [[Basotho Montane Shrubland]] 
* [[Bedford Dry Grassland]] 
* [[Besemkaree Koppies Shrubland]] 
* [[Bloemfontein Dry Grassland]] 
* [[Bloemfontein Karroid Shrubland]] 
* [[Carletonville Dolomite Grassland]] 
* [[Central Free State Grassland]] 
* [[Drakensberg Afroalpine Heathland]] 
* [[Drakensberg Foothill Moist Grassland]] 
* [[Drakensberg-Amathole Afromontane Fynbos]] 
* [[East Griqualand Grassland]] 
* [[Eastern Free State Clay Grassland]] 
* [[Eastern Free State Sandy Grassland]] 
* [[Eastern Highveld Grassland]] 
* [[Egoli Granite Grassland]] 
* [[Frankfort Highveld Grassland]] 
* [[Income Sandy Grassland]] 
* [[Ithala Quartzite Sourveld]] 
* [[KaNgwane Montane Grassland]] 
* [[Karoo Escarpment Grassland]] 
* [[Klerksdorp Thornveld]] 
* [[KwaZulu-Natal Highland Thornveld]] 
* [[Leolo Summit Sourveld]] 
* [[Lesotho Highland Basalt Grassland]] 
* [[Low Escarpment Moist Grassland]] 
* [[Lydenburg Montane Grassland]] 
* [[Lydenburg Thornveld]] 
* [[Mabela Sandy Grassland]] 
* [[Midlands Mistbelt Grassland]] 
* [[Mooi River Highland Grassland]] 
* [[Mthatha Moist Grassland]] 
* [[Northern Drakensberg Highland Grassland]] 
* [[Northern Escarpment Afromontane Fynbos]] 
* [[Northern Escarpment Dolomite Grassland]]  
* [[Northern Escarpment Quartzite Sourveld]]
* [[Northern Free State Shrubland]]  
* [[Northern KwaZulu-Natal Moist Grassland]]  
* [[Northern KwaZulu-Natal Shrubland]]  
* [[Northern Zululand Mistbelt Grassland]]  
* [[Paulpietersburg Moist Grassland]]  
* [[Queenstown Thornveld]]  
* [[Rand Highveld Grassland]]  
* [[Sekhukhune Montane Grassland]]  
* [[Senqu Montane Shrubland]]  
* [[Southern Drakensberg Highland Grassland]]  
* [[Southern KwaZulu-Natal Moist Grassland]] 
* [[Soutpansberg Summit Sourveld]] 
* [[Soweto Highveld Grassland]] 
* [[Steenkampsberg Montane Grassland]]
* [[Stormberg Plateau Grassland]] 
* [[Strydpoort Summit Sourveld]] 
* [[Tarkastad Montane Shrubland]] 
* [[Tsakane Clay Grassland]] 
* [[Tsomo Grassland]] 
* [[uKhahlamba Basalt Grassland]] 
* [[Vaal Reefs Dolomite Sinkhole Woodland]] 
* [[Vaal-Vet Sandy Grassland]] 
* [[Vredefort Dome Granite Grassland]] 
* [[Wakkerstroom Montane Grassland]] 
* [[Waterberg-Magaliesberg Summit Sourveld]] 
* [[Western Free State Clay Grassland]] 
* [[Western Highveld Sandy Grassland]] 
* [[Western Lesotho Basalt Shrubland]] 
* [[Winburg Grassy Shrubland]] 
* [[Wolkberg Dolomite Grassland]] 
* [[Woodbush Granite Grassland]] 
* [[Xhariep Karroid Grassland]] 
* [[Zastron Moist Grassland]] 

|group12 = [[Fynbos]]
|list12 =
* [[Agulhas Limestone Fynbos]] 
* [[Agulhas Sand Fynbos]] 
* [[Albertinia Sand Fynbos]] 
* [[Algoa Sandstone Fynbos]]
* [[Atlantis Sand Fynbos]] 
* [[Bokkeveld Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Boland Granite Fynbos]] 
* [[Breede Alluvium Fynbos]] 
* [[Breede Quartzite Fynbos]] 
* [[Breede Sand Fynbos]] 
* [[Breede Shale Fynbos]] 
* [[Canca Limestone Fynbos]] 
* [[Cape Flats Sand Fynbos]] 
* [[Cape Winelands Shale Fynbos]] 
* [[Cederberg Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Central Coastal Shale Band Vegetation]] 
* [[Central Inland Shale Band Vegetation]] 
* [[De Hoop Limestone Fynbos]] 
* [[Eastern Coastal Shale Band Vegetation]] 
* [[Eastern Inland Shale Band Vegetation]] 
* [[Elgin Shale Fynbos]] 
* [[Elim Ferricrete Fynbos]] 
* [[Garden Route Granite Fynbos]] 
* [[Garden Route Shale Fynbos]] 
* [[Graafwater Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Greyton Shale Fynbos]] 
* [[Grootrivier Quartzite Fynbos]] 
* [[Hangklip Sand Fynbos]] 
* [[Hawequas Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Hopefield Sand Fynbos]] 
* [[Kamiesberg Granite Fynbos]] 
* [[Kango Conglomerate Fynbos]] 
* [[Knysna Sand Fynbos]] 
* [[Kogelberg Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Kouebokkeveld Alluvium Fynbos]] 
* [[Kouebokkeveld Shale Fynbos]] 
* [[Kouga Grassy Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Kouga Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Leipoldtville Sand Fynbos]] 
* [[Loerie Conglomerate Fynbos]] 
* [[Lourensford Alluvium Fynbos]] 
* [[Matjiesfontein Quartzite Fynbos]] 
* [[Matjiesfontein Shale Fynbos]] 
* [[Montagu Shale Fynbos]] 
* [[Namaqualand Sand Fynbos]] 
* [[North Hex Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[North Kammanassie Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[North Langeberg Sandstone Fynbos]]
* [[North Outeniqua Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[North Rooiberg Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[North Sonderend Sandstone Fynbos]]
* [[North Swartberg Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Northern Inland Shale Band Vegetation]] 
* [[Olifants Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Overberg Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Peninsula Granite Fynbos]] 
* [[Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Piketberg Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Potberg Ferricrete Fynbos]] 
* [[Potberg Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Robertson Granite Fynbos]] 
* [[South Hex Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[South Kammanassie Sandstone Fynbos]]
* [[South Langeberg Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[South Outeniqua Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[South Rooiberg Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[South Sonderend Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[South Swartberg Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Southern Cape Dune Fynbos]] 
* [[Stinkfonteinberge Quartzite Fynbos]] 
* [[Suurberg Quartzite Fynbos]] 
* [[Suurberg Shale Fynbos]] 
* [[Swartberg Altimontane Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Swartberg Shale Fynbos]] 
* [[Swartland Alluvium Fynbos]] 
* [[Swartruggens Quartzite Fynbos]] 
* [[Swellendam Silcrete Fynbos]] 
* [[Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Western Altimontane Sandstone Fynbos]] 
* [[Western Coastal Shale Band Vegetation]] 
* [[Winterhoek Sandstone Fynbos]]

|group13 = [[Renosterveld]]
|list13 =
* [[Baviaanskloof Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Breede Alluvium Renosterveld]] 
* [[Breede Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Central Mountain Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Central Ruêns Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Ceres Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Eastern Ruêns Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Hantam Plateau Dolerite Renosterveld]] 
* [[Humansdorp Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Kango Limestone Renosterveld]] 
* [[Langkloof Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Matjiesfontein Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Montagu Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Mossel Bay Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Namaqualand Granite Renosterveld]] 
* [[Nieuwoudtville Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Nieuwoudtville-Roggeveld Dolerite Renosterveld]] 
* [[Peninsula Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Robertson Granite Renosterveld]] 
* [[Roggeveld Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Ruêns Silcrete Renosterveld]] 
* [[Swartberg Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Swartland Alluvium Renosterveld]] 
* [[Swartland Granite Renosterveld]] 
* [[Swartland Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Swartland Silcrete Renosterveld]] 
* [[Uniondale Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Vanrhynsdorp Shale Renosterveld]] 
* [[Western Ruêns Shale Renosterveld]]

|group14 = [[Succulent Karoo|Succulent<br />Karoo]]
|list14 = 
* [[Aggeneys Gravel Vygieveld]] 
* [[Agter-Sederberg Shrubland]] 
* [[Anenous Plateau Shrubland]] 
* [[Bushmanland Inselberg Shrubland]] 
* [[Central Knersvlakte Vygieveld]] 
* [[Central Richtersveld Mountain Shrubland]] 
* [[Citrusdal Vygieveld]] 
* [[Die Plate Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Doringrivier Quartzite Karoo]] 
* [[Eastern Little Karoo]] 
* [[Eenriet Plains Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Goariep Mountain Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Hantam Karoo]] 
* [[Kamiesberg Mountains Shrubland]] 
* [[Klawer Sandy Shrubland]] 
* [[Knersvlakte Dolomite Vygieveld]] 
* [[Knersvlakte Quartz Vygieveld]] 
* [[Knersvlakte Shale Vygieveld]] 
* [[Koedoesberge-Moordenaars Karoo]] 
* [[Kosiesberg Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Lekkersing Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Little Karoo Quartz Vygieveld]] 
* [[Namaqualand Arid Grassland]] 
* [[Namaqualand Blomveld]] 
* [[Namaqualand Coastal Duneveld]] 
* [[Namaqualand Heuweltjie Strandveld]] 
* [[Namaqualand Heuweltjieveld]] 
* [[Namaqualand Inland Duneveld]] 
* [[Namaqualand Klipkoppe Shrubland]] 
* [[Namaqualand Shale Shrubland]] 
* [[Namaqualand Spinescent Grassland]] 
* [[Namaqualand Strandveld]] 
* [[Northern Knersvlakte Vygieveld]] 
* [[Northern Richtersveld Scorpionstailveld]] 
* [[Northern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld]] 
* [[Oograbies Plains Sandy Grassland]] 
* [[Piketberg Quartz Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Platbakkies Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Prince Albert Succulent Karoo]] 
* [[Richtersveld Coastal Duneveld]] 
* [[Richtersveld Red Duneveld]] 
* [[Richtersveld Sandy Coastal Scorpionstailveld]] 
* [[Riethuis-Wallekraal Quartz Vygieveld]] 
* [[Robertson Karoo]] 
* [[Roggeveld Karoo]] 
* [[Rooiberg Quartz Vygieveld]] 
* [[Rosyntjieberg Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Southern Namaqualand Quartzite Klipkoppe Shrubland]] 
* [[Southern Richtersveld Inselberg Shrubland]] 
* [[Southern Richtersveld Scorpionstailveld]] 
* [[Southern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld]] 
* [[Steytlerville Karoo]] 
* [[Stinkfonteinberge Eastern Apron Shrubland]] 
* [[Swartruggens Quartzite Karoo]] 
* [[Tanqua Escarpment Shrubland]] 
* [[Tanqua Karoo]] 
* [[Tatasberg Mountain Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Umdaus Mountains Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Upper Annisvlakte Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Vanrhynsdorp Gannabosveld]] 
* [[Vyftienmyl se Berge Succulent Shrubland]] 
* [[Western Bushmanland Klipveld]] 
* [[Western Gwarrieveld]] 
* [[Western Little Karoo]] 
* [[Willowmore Gwarrieveld]]

|group15 = [[Albany Thicket and Strandveld|Albany<br />Thicket<br />and<br />Strandveld]]
|list15 =
* [[Albany Arid Thicket]] 
* [[Albany Bontveld]] 
* [[Albany Mesic Thicket]] 
* [[Albany Valley Thicket]] 
* [[Baviaans Valley Thicket]] 
* [[Bethelsdorp Bontveld]] 
* [[Blombos Strandveld]] 
* [[Buffels Mesic Thicket]] 
* [[Buffels Valley Thicket]] 
* [[Cape Flats Dune Strandveld]] 
* [[Crossroads Grassland Thicket]] 
* [[Doubledrift Karroid Thicket]] 
* [[Eastern Gwarrieveld]] 
* [[Elands Forest Thicket]] 
* [[Escarpment Arid Thicket]] 
* [[Escarpment Mesic Thicket]] 
* [[Escarpment Valley Thicket]] 
* [[Fish Arid Thicket]] 
* [[Fish Mesic Thicket]] 
* [[Fish Valley Thicket]] 
* [[Gamka Arid Thicket]] 
* [[Gamka Valley Thicket]] 
* [[Geluk Grassland Thicket]] 
* [[Goukamma Dune Thicket]] 
* [[Gouritz Valley Thicket]] 
* [[Grahamstown Grassland Thicket]] 
* [[Grassridge Bontveld]] 
* [[Groot Brak Dune Strandveld]] 
* [[Hamburg Dune Thicket]] 
* [[Hartenbos Dune Thicket]] 
* [[Kasouga Dune Thicket]] 
* [[Koedoeskloof Karroid Thicket]] 
* [[Lambert's Bay Strandveld]] 
* [[Langebaan Dune Strandveld]] 
* [[Mons Ruber Fynbos Thicket]] 
* [[Motherwell Karroid Thicket]] 
* [[Nanaga Savanna Thicket]] 
* [[Oudshoorn Karroid Thicket]] 
* [[Overberg Dune Strandveld]] 
* [[Saldanha Flats Strandveld]] 
* [[Saldanha Granite Strandveld]] 
* [[Saldanha Limestone Strandveld]] 
* [[Saltaire Karroid Thicket]] 
* [[Sardinia Forest Thicket]] 
* [[St Francis Dune Thicket]] 
* [[Subtropical Dune Thicket]] 
* [[Sundays Arid Thicket]] 
* [[Sundays Mesic Thicket]] 
* [[Sundays Valley Thicket]] 
* [[Thorndale Forest Thicket]] 
* [[Umtiza Forest Thicket]] 
* [[Vanstadens Forest Thicket]] 
* [[Western Gwarrieveld]] 
* [[Willowmore Gwarrieveld]]

|group16 = [[Nama Karoo and desert|Nama<br />Karoo<br />and<br />desert]]
|list16 =
* [[Albany Broken Veld]] 
* [[Blouputs Karroid Thornveld]] 
* [[Bushmanland Arid Grassland]] 
* [[Bushmanland Basin Shrubland]] 
* [[Bushmanland Sandy Grassland]] 
* [[Eastern Lower Karoo]] 
* [[Eastern Upper Karoo]] 
* [[Gamka Karoo]] 
* [[Kalahari Karroid Shrubland]] 
* [[Lower Gariep Broken Veld]] 
* [[Lower Karoo Gwarrieveld]] 
* [[Northern Upper Karoo]] 
* [[Upper Karoo Hardeveld]] 
* [[Western Upper Karoo]] 
* [[Alexander Bay Coastal Duneveld]] 
* [[Eastern Gariep Plains Desert]] 
* [[Eastern Gariep Rocky Desert]] 
* [[Helskloof Canyon Desert]] 
* [[Kahams Mountain Desert]] 
* [[Kwaggarug Mountain Desert]] 
* [[Namib Lichen Fields]] 
* [[Noms Mountain Desert]] 
* [[Northern Nababiepsberge Mountain Desert]] 
* [[Richtersberg Mountain Desert]] 
* [[Richtersveld Sheet Wash Desert]] 
* [[Southern Nababiepsberge Mountain Desert]] 
* [[Western Gariep Hills Desert]] 
* [[Western Gariep Lowland Desert]] 
* [[Western Gariep Plains Desert]]

|group17 = Azonal
|list17 =
* [[Albany Alluvial Vegetation]] 
* [[Albany Dune Strandveld]] 
* [[Algoa Dune Strandveld]] 
* [[Arid Estuarine Salt Marshes]] 
* [[Bushmanland Vloere]] 
* [[Cape Estuarine Salt Marshes]] 
* [[Cape Inland Salt Pans]] 
* [[Cape Lowland Alluvial Vegetation]] 
* [[Cape Lowland Freshwater Wetlands]] 
* [[Cape Seashore Vegetation]] 
* [[Cape Vernal Pools]] 
* [[Drakensberg Wetlands]] 
* [[Eastern Temperate Freshwater Wetlands]] 
* [[Fynbos Riparian Vegetation]] 
* [[Highveld Alluvial Vegetation]] 
* [[Highveld Salt Pans]] 
* [[Lesotho Mires]] 
* [[Lower Gariep Alluvial Vegetation]] 
* [[Muscadel Riviere]] 
* [[Namaqualand Riviere]] 
* [[Namaqualand Salt Pans]] 
* [[Namaqualand Seashore Vegetation]] 
* [[Namib Seashore Vegetation]] 
* [[Southern Kalahari Mekgacha]] 
* [[Southern Kalahari Salt Pans]] 
* [[Southern Karoo Riviere]] 
* [[Subantarctic Kelp Bed Vegetation]] 
* [[Subtropical Alluvial Vegetation]] 
* [[Subtropical Dune Thicket]] 
* [[Subtropical Estuarine Salt Marshes]] 
* [[Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands]] 
* [[Subtropical Salt Pans]] 
* [[Subtropical Seashore Vegetation]] 
* [[Tanqua Wash Riviere]] 
* [[Upper Gariep Alluvial Vegetation]]

|group18 = [[Forest and coastal belt|Forest<br />and<br />Coastal<br />belt]]
|list18 =
* [[KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Belt]] 
* [[Maputaland Coastal Belt]] 
* [[Maputaland Wooded Grassland]] 
* [[Pondoland-Natal Sandstone Coastal Sourveld]] 
* [[Transkei Coastal Belt]] 
* [[Ironwood Dry Forest]] 
* [[Lowveld Riverine Forest]] 
* [[Mangrove Forest]] 
* [[Northern Afrotemperate Forest]] 
* [[Northern Coastal Forest]] 
* [[Northern Mistbelt Forest]] 
* [[Sand Forest]] 
* [[Scarp Forest]] 
* [[Southern Afrotemperate Forest]] 
* [[Southern Coastal Forest]] 
* [[Southern Mistbelt Forest]] 
* [[Swamp Forest]]

|group19 = [[Subantarctic]]<br />biome
|list19 =
* [[Subantarctic Biotic Herbfield and Grassland]] 
* [[Subantarctic Cinder Cone Vegetation]] 
* [[Subantarctic Coastal Vegetation]] 
* [[Subantarctic Drainage Line Vegetation]] 
* [[Subantarctic Fellfield]] 
* [[Subantarctic Fernbrake Vegetation]] 
* [[Subantarctic Mire]] 
* [[Subantarctic Polar Desert]]

|group20 = not on<br />VEGMAP
|list20 =
* [[List of forests of South Africa]]
* [[List of forests of the Eastern Cape]]
* [[Forests of KwaZulu-Natal]] 
** [[KwaZulu-Natal Dune Forest]] 
** [[KwaZulu-Natal coastal lowland forest]] 
* [[List of forests of the Western Cape]]

}}

| abbr6 = proare
| group6 = [[List of protected areas of South Africa|Protected areas of South Africa]] 
| list6 = 
* [[Index of protected areas of South Africa]]

{{Navbox|subgroup

| group1 = [[South African National Parks|South<br />African<br />National<br />Parks]] 
| list1 = 
* [[Addo Elephant National Park]] 
* [[Agulhas National Park]] 
* [[Augrabies Falls National Park]] 
* [[Bontebok National Park]] 
* [[Camdeboo National Park]] 
* [[Garden Route National Park]] 
** [[Tsitsikamma National Park]]
** [[Wilderness National Park]]
* [[Golden Gate Highlands National Park]] 
* [[Karoo National Park]] 
* [[Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park]] 
* [[Kruger National Park]] 
* [[Mapungubwe National Park]] 
* [[Marakele National Park]] 
* [[Mokala National Park]] 
* [[Mountain Zebra National Park]] 
* [[Namaqua National Park]] 
* [[Table Mountain National Park]] 
* [[Tankwa Karoo National Park]] 
* [[West Coast National Park]] 
* [[ǀAi-ǀAis/Richtersveld Transfrontier Park]] 

| group2 = [[Biosphere reserve|Biosphere<br />reserves]]
| list2 =
* [[Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve]]
* [[Gouritz Cluster Biosphere Reserve]]
* [[Kogelberg Nature Reserve]]
* [[Kruger to Canyons Biosphere]]
* [[Magaliesberg Biosphere Reserve]]
* [[Waterberg Biosphere]]

| group3 = [[Marine protected areas of South Africa|Marine<br />protected<br />areas of<br />South<br />Africa]]
| list3=

{{Navbox|subgroup

| group1 = Coastal
| list1  = 
* [[Addo Elephant National Park Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Amathole Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Betty's Bay Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Bird Island Marine Protected Area]]
* [[De Hoop Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Dwesa-Cwebe Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Goukamma Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Helderberg Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Hluleka Marine Protected Area]]I
* [[iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Jutten Island Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Malgas Island Marine Protected Area]]
<!--* Maputaland -->
* [[Marcus Island Marine Protected Area]]
<!--* Mkambati -->
* [[Namaqua National Park Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Pondoland Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Robben Island Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Rocherpan Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Robberg Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Sardinia Bay Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Sixteen Mile Beach Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Stilbaai Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Trafalgar Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area]]
* [[uThukela Banks Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Walker Bay Whale Sanctuary]]

| group2 = Offshore
| list2  = 
* [[Agulhas Bank Complex Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Agulhas Front Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Agulhas Muds Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Aliwal Shoal Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Amathole Offshore Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Benguela Bank Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Benguela Muds Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Browns Bank Complex Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Browns Bank Corals Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Cape Canyon Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Childs Bank Marine Protected Area]]
* [[iSimangaliso Offshore Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Namaqua Fossil Forest Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Orange Shelf Edge Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Prince Edward Islands Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Protea Banks Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Southeast Atlantic Seamounts Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Southwest Indian Seamount Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Port Elizabeth Corals Marine Protected Area]]
* [[uThukela Banks Marine Protected Area]]

}}

| group5 = Management<br />organisations
| list5 = 
* [[CapeNature]]
* [[City of Cape Town]]
* [[Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries]]
* [[Department of Science and Innovation]]
* [[Eastern Cape Parks]]
* [[Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife]]
* [[iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority]]
* [[Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality]]
* [[South African National Parks]]

}} 

| abbr7 = natres
| group7 = Biodiversity research in SA
| list7 = 
* [[Bolus Herbarium]] 
* [[Iziko South African Museum]]
* [[National Research Foundation (South Africa)|National Research Foundation]]
* [[South African National Collection of Fungi]]

{{navbox|subgroup

| group1 = Research<br />organisations
| list1 =
* [[Animal Demography Unit]]
* [[BirdLife South Africa]]
* [[South African Association for Marine Biological Research]]
* [[South African Environmental Observation Network]]
* [[South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity]]
* [[South African National Biodiversity Institute]]

|group2 = Research<br />projects
|list2 = 
* [[African Coelacanth Ecosystem Programme]]
* [[National Biodiversity Assessment]]
* [[National Vegetation Map Project]] 
* [[Reef Atlas Project]]
* [[SeaKeys]]

| group3 = Citizen science<br />databases
| list3 = 
* [[iNaturalist]]
* [[iSpot]]
* [[Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology|Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology Virtual Museum]]

| group4 = [[List of botanical gardens in South Africa|Botanical<br />gardens]] 
| list4 =
* [[Durban Botanic Gardens]] 
* [[Free State National Botanical Garden]] 
* [[Garden Route Botanical Garden]]
* [[Hantam National Botanical Garden]]
* [[Harold Porter National Botanical Garden]] 
* [[Johannesburg Botanical Garden]] 
* [[Karoo Desert National Botanical Garden]] 
* [[Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden]] 
* [[KwaZulu-Natal National Botanical Garden]] 
* [[Lowveld National Botanical Garden]] 
* [[Makana Botanical Gardens]]
* [[Manie van der Schijff Botanical Garden]] 
* [[North-West University Botanical Garden]] 
* [[Pretoria National Botanical Garden]] 
* [[Stellenbosch University Botanical Garden]]
* [[University of KwaZulu-Natal Botanical Garden]] 
* [[Walter Sisulu National Botanical Garden]] 

| group5 = Taxonomists
| list5 = 
* [[List of authors of South African botanical taxa]]
* [[List of authors of South African animal taxa]]
<!--Taxonomists who worked in South Africa and made significant contributions to the taxonomic lists of the region
* [[Robert J. Anderson (phycologist)|Robert Anderson]]
* [[J. L. Barnard]]
* [[K. H. Barnard]]
* [[John J. Bolton]]
* [[George M. Branch]]
* [[Jennifer Day (biologist)]] 
* [[Wayne Florence]]
* [[Terrence Gosliner]]
* [[Charles L. Griffiths]]
* [[P. Heemstra]]
* [[Brian Kensley]]
* [[N. A. H. Millard]]
* [[H. Milne-Edwards]]
* [[T. Samaai]]
* [[J. L. B. Smith]]
* [[H. Stegenga]]-->

}}

| abbr8 = relate
| group8 = Related
| list8 = <!-- Peripherally related, no need for navbox use at target articles -->
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Biosphere]]
* [[Ecotourism]]
* [[Encyclopedia of Life]]
* [[Environmental impact of recreational diving]]
* [[Low impact diving]]
* [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]
* [[Marine protected area]]
* [[National park]]
* [[Nature conservation]]
* [[Nature reserve]]
* [[Scuba diving tourism]]
* [[South African Sustainable Seafood Initiative]]
* [[World Register of Marine Species]]
* [[World Wide Fund for Nature]]

{{navbox|subgroup
<!-- More directly relevant topics where navbox inclusion is appropriate -->
| group1 = Regional biodiversity 
| list1 =
* [[Biodiversity of Cape Town]]
** [[List of nature reserves in Cape Town]]

| group2 = Legislation
| list2 =
* [[Marine Living Resources Act, 18 of 1998]]
* [[National Environmental Management Act, 1998]]
** [[National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 10 of 2004]]
** [[National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act, 24 of 2008]]
** [[National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, 57 of 2003]]

| group3 = Publications
| list3 = 
* [[List of field guides to South African biota]]

}}

| below = 
*{{icon|category}} Categories: [[:Category:Biodiversity of South Africa|Biodiversity of South Africa]]
*{{icon|list}}
*'''[[Index of protected areas of South Africa|Index]]'''
}}<noinclude>{{documentation|content=
{{collapsible option}} 

This is a very large navbox and should autocollapse other than in exceptional cicumstances. The unnamed parameter should be set to expand the collapsible group in which the topic af the article is listed. If it is listed in more than one group, use the most generally applicable. If in doubt, ask at the talk page.

The template has an unnamed parameter to display the relevant section for the article. Only one section will open, if the article is linked from more than one subgroup, choose the most relevant. The abbreviations used can be viewed in the template code, and are listed here for easy reference, but may be out of date. The parameter follows a pipe in the template call, eg. <code><nowiki>{{Biodiversity of South Africa|proare}}</nowiki></code>.

{{{!}} class=""wikitable""
{{!}}-
! Navbov collapsible group title !! Abbreviation
{{!}}-
{{!}} National taxon checklists {{!}}{{!}} chklst
{{!}}-
{{!}} Regional taxon checklists {{!}}{{!}} chkreg
{{!}}-
{{!}} Biodiversity hotspots and Centres of diversity {{!}}{{!}} biohot
{{!}}-
{{!}} Ecoregions {{!}}{{!}} ecoreg
{{!}}-
{{!}} Biomes and Vegetation classification {{!}}{{!}} bioveg
{{!}}-
{{!}} Protected areas of South Africa {{!}}{{!}} proare
{{!}}-
{{!}} Biodiversity research in SA {{!}}{{!}} natres
{{!}}-
{{!}} Related {{!}}{{!}} relate
{{!}}}

[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:South Africa navigational boxes‎]]
}}</noinclude>"
Central Conservation Area,"{{Short description|Conservation area in Costa Rica}}


'''Central Conservation Area''' ({{lang-es|Área de Conservación Central (ACC)}}), is an administrative area which is managed by [[SINAC]] for the purposes of conservation in the central part of [[Costa Rica]], notably the volcanic areas of the [[Cordillera Central, Costa Rica|Cordillera Central]]. It contains six [[National Park]]s, several [[wildlife refuges]] and other types of [[nature reserves]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Área de Conservación Central (ACC) |url=http://www.sinac.go.cr/ES/ac/accvc/Paginas/default.aspx |publisher=SINAC}}</ref>{{Infobox protected area
| name = Central Conservation Area
| alt_name = {{lang|es|Área de Conservación Central}}
| photo = 
| map_image = Área_de_Conservación_Central,_SINAC,_Costa_Rica.svg
| map_caption = Location of the area, labeled ''ACC'' in the center of the country.
| photo_caption = 
| location = [[San José Province]], [[Alajuela Province]], [[Cartago Province]], [[Heredia Province]], [[Puntarenas Province]], [[Costa Rica]]
| nearest_city = 
| coordinates = {{coord|10.1000|N|84.0833|W|source:wikidata|display=inline,title}}
| area = 
| established = 
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body = [[National System of Conservation Areas]] (SINAC)
| website = https://www.sinac.go.cr/EN-US
}}

==Protected areas==
* [[Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve]]
* [[Atenas Hill Protected Zone]]
* [[Bosque Alegre Wildlife Refuge]]
* [[Braulio Carrillo National Park]]
* [[Caraigres Protected Zone]]
* [[Carpintera Hills Protected Zone]]
* [[Central Volcanic Mountain Range Forest Reserve]]
* [[Dantas Hill Private Wildlife Refuge]]
* [[El Chayote Protected Zone]]
* [[El Rodeo Protected Zone]]
* [[Escazú Hills Protected Zone]]
* [[Fernando Castro Cervantes Mixed Wildlife Refuge]]
* [[Grande River Protected Zone]]
* [[Grecia Forest Reserve]]
* [[Guayabo National Monument]]
* [[Irazú Volcano National Park]]
* [[La Selva Biological Station|La Selva Wildlife Refuge]]
* [[La Tirimbina Wildlife Refuge]]
* [[Los Quetzales National Park]]
* [[Los Santos Forest Reserve]] (shared with [[Pacific La Amistad Conservation Area]])
* [[Macho River Forest Reserve]]
* [[Nara Hill Protected Zone]]
* [[Poás Volcano National Park]]
* [[Quitirrisí Protected Zone]]
* [[Rosario Creek Protected Zone]]
* [[Sombrero River–Navarro River Protected Zone]]
* [[Tapantí National Park|Tapantí-Cerro de la Muerte Massif National Park]]
* [[Tapiria Wildlife Refuge]]
* [[Tiribí River Protected Zone]]
* [[Toro River Protected Zone]]
* [[Tuís River Basin Protected Zone]]
* [[Turrialba Volcano National Park]]
* [[Turrubares Hills Protected Zone]]
* [[Vueltas Hill Biological Reserve]]

== See also ==
* [[Jaguarundi Wildlife Refuge]], a private refuge in the area.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website}}

{{National parks of Costa Rica}}

[[Category:Biosphere reserves of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Conservation Areas of Costa Rica]]

{{CostaRica-protected-area-stub}}
[[Category:Nature conservation]]"
Nature Conservation Foundation,"{{Short description|Organisation based in Mysore, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
{{Infobox organisation
|name           = Nature Conservation Foundation
|image          = Nature Conservation Foundation.jpg
|size           = 200px
|formation      = 1996
|headquarters   = [[Mysore]], [[India]]
|leader_title   = Executive Board
|leader_name    = Suhel Quader, Vena Kapoor, M Ananda Kumar, Smita Prabhakar, Ajay Bijoor, Janhavi Rajan, Rucha Karkarey, Rohit Naniwadekar
|website        = http://www.ncf-india.org/
}}

The '''Nature Conservation Foundation''' is a non-governmental [[wildlife conservation]] and research organisation based in [[Mysore]], [[India]]. They promote the use of science for wildlife conservation in India.<ref>[http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Karnataka/Localities/Mysore/Science_and_Environment/ Nature Conservation Foundation] on the [[Open Directory Project]]</ref><ref name=GH1 />

==History==
The Nature Conservation Foundation was founded in 1996. Their mission is to carry out  ""science-based and socially responsible conservation"".

==Activities and Projects==

The organisation works in a variety of habitats. The high altitude program focuses on [[human wildlife conflict]]s and conservation of endangered species such as the [[snow leopard]] and the [[Tibetan gazelle]]. A livestock insurance program has been launched to prevent retaliatory killings of snow leopards by communities whose livestock were being preyed on.<ref>{{cite journal | last =MISHRA | first =CHARUDUTT |author2=ALLEN,P. |author3=McCARTHY, T. |author4=MADHUSUDAN, M.D. |author5=BAYARJARGAL, A. |author6=PRINS, H.H.T.  | year =2003 | title =The Role of Incentive Programs in Conserving the Snow Leopard | journal =Conservation Biology  | volume =17 | issue =6 | pages =1512–1520 }}</ref><ref name=GH1>{{cite journal |last1=Ghosh-Harihar |first1=Mousumi |title=Protected areas and biodiversity conservation in India |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719302927 |access-date=17 April 2023|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2003.00092.x| s2cid =55097518 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncf-india.org/projectoverview.php?class=theme&type=conflict&project=People%2C+livestock+%26+snow+leopards |title=""protecting livestock and snow leopards"" from the NCF website |accessdate=2008-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525101547/http://www.ncf-india.org/projectoverview.php?class=theme&type=conflict&project=People,+livestock+&+snow+leopards |archive-date=25 May 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The organisation has partnered with the [[Snow Leopard Trust|International Snow Leopard Trust]] and the Government of India to launch a ''Project Snow Leopard'', similar to [[Project Tiger]] for the protection of the wildlife in the [[Himalaya]]n landscapes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://snowleopardnetwork.org/new/docs_news/PSL%20Press%20Release%20SLN%20July%2006.htm |title=Launch of Project Snow leopard: A report from Snowleopard Network |accessdate=2008-05-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006124251/http://snowleopardnetwork.org/new/docs_news/PSL%20Press%20Release%20SLN%20July%2006.htm |archive-date=6 October 2007 }}</ref><ref name=goi>[http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=46855 Press Release by the GoI on the launch of Project Snow Leopard]</ref> The Project Snow Leopard seeks to address the problem of species declines in the high-altitude Himalayan landscape through evidence-based conservation plans as well as local support. Species such as snow leopard, [[Asiatic ibex]], [[argali]], [[urial]], [[chiru]], [[takin]], [[serow]] and [[musk deer]] will particularly benefit from this project.<ref name=goi />
In 2003, three wildlife biologists from the foundation reported the [[long-tailed goral|Chinese goral]] (''Nemorhaedus caudatus'') from [[Arunachal Pradesh]], the first record for [[India]]<ref>Charudutt Mishra, Aparajita Datta and M.D. Madhusudan (2005) Record of the Chinese Goral Naemorhedus caudatus in Arunachal Pradesh. JBNHS Vol. 102(2)</ref> In 2005, scientists from the foundation described the [[Arunachal macaque]] from western [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[India]], a species new to science.<ref name=munzala>{{cite journal | author = Sinha, A.,Datta, A., Madhusudan, M. D. and Mishra, C. | year = 2005 | title = ''Macaca munzala'': a new species from western Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India | journal = International Journal of Primatology | volume = 26 | issue = 977 | pages = 977–989 | doi = 10.1007/s10764-005-5333-3| citeseerx = 10.1.1.576.1210 | s2cid = 20459400 }}<br/>
*{{cite news |first= Alex|last= Kirby|title=Scientists find new Indian monkey |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4101001.stm |publisher=BBC |date= 2004-12-16|accessdate=2008-06-01 }}</ref> The organisation runs a rainforest restoration program in the [[Anamalai|Anamalai hills]] in the [[Western Ghats]] where fragments of degraded patches of rainforests outside [[national parks]] or [[wildlife sanctuary|wildlife sanctuaries]] are restored in partnership with the private tea and coffee plantations.<ref>{{cite news |first=Janaki |last=Lenin |title=Rainforest revival |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mag/2005/07/17/stories/2005071700090200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312083040/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mag/2005/07/17/stories/2005071700090200.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=12 March 2011 |publisher=The Hindu (newspaper) |accessdate=2008-08-01 }}</ref>

==Awards==
Charudutt Mishra and [[M. D. Madhusudhan]], two of the founders received the [[Whitley Awards (UK)|Whitley award]], also called ""Green Oscar""<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitleyaward.org/display.php?id=74 |title=Profile from Whitley website |access-date=31 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211170556/http://www.whitleyaward.org/display.php?id=74 |archive-date=11 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> for 2005 and 2009 respectively. Charudutt Mishra was awarded for the conservation efforts in the high altitude landscapes, while Madhusudan was conferred the honor in recognition of his work to reduce human-wildlife conflict in the Western Ghats.<ref>Whitley Award for Mysore-based wildlife biologist. The Hindu. 14 May 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090517024413/http://www.hindu.com/2009/05/14/stories/2009051454061100.htm LINK]</ref><ref>Indian Wildlife Biologist wins 'Green Oscar' on Doordarshan News. [http://www.ddinews.gov.in/Homepage/Homepage+-+Other+Stories/niha.htm LINK]{{Dead link|date=October 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 2006, the organisation won the ''Distinguished service award'' from the [[Society for Conservation Biology]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://conbio.org/professional-development/service-awards/past-recipients|title=Society for Conservation Biology {{!}} Past Recipients|website=conbio.org|language=en|access-date=2018-03-07}}</ref> for ''outstanding contributions to nature conservation''. Sushil Dorje, a field coordinator with the organisation was awarded the [[Van Tienhoven Foundation]] award for his work on [[human-wildlife conflict]] in [[Spiti]] and [[Ladakh]].<ref>[http://www.vantienhovenfoundation.com/awarded.php?menu_id=6&submenu_id=58&win_id=%206 Details of the Award from the website of the Van Tienhoven Foundation for International Nature Protection]</ref>

In 2013, [[Aparajita Datta]] was awarded the [[Whitley Awards (UK)|Whitley award]] to continue her decade long work on conservation of [[hornbill]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hornbills as flagships for the Himalayan forests of Arunachal Pradesh|date=2 May 2013 |url=http://whitleyaward.org/winners/hornbills-as-flagships-for-the-protection-of-himalayan-forests/|publisher=Whitley Fund for Nature|accessdate=3 May 2013}}</ref> Aparajita Dutta, a Senior Scientist at NCF was announced as the recipient of ''2009 Woman of Discovery Humanity Award'' by the New York-based Wings World Quest for a lifetime dedicated to wildlife biology and her work in [[Namdapha Tiger Reserve]].<ref>[http://www.wingsworldquest.org/?q=node/73 List and profile of winners from Wings World Quest Website]</ref><ref>[http://www.deccanherald.com/CONTENT/Nov192008/scroll20081119101624.asp?section=scrollingnews Award for Indian wildlife scientist, ''Deccan Herald 19 Nov. 2008'']</ref> She was also awarded by the [[National Geographic Society]] as an ''Emerging explorer'' for 2010, which recognized ''""..14 trailblazers from around the world""''.<ref name=""natgeo"">{{cite web|title=Aparajita Datta, Wildlife Biologist|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/field/explorers/aparajita-datta/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100524105534/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/field/explorers/aparajita-datta/|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 May 2010|work=National Geographic Emerging Explorer|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=11 June 2010}}</ref>

In 2015, Dr. Ananda Kumar was awarded the [[Whitley Awards (UK)|Whitley award]] for his work on elephant-human conflict management on the Valparai plateau. In 2017, he was awarded a continuation of funding.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human-elephant coexistence in Southern India|date=30 April 2015 |url=https://whitleyaward.org/winners/human-elephant-coexistence-in-southern-india/|publisher=Whitley Fund for Nature|accessdate=8 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nature Conservation Foundation |url=https://www.ncf-india.org/about-ncf#:~:text=The%20Nature%20Conservation%20Foundation%20(NCF,innovative%20research%20and%20imaginative%20solutions. |access-date= 16 April 2023}}</ref><ref name=GH1 />

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Media contributed by NCF}}

* [http://www.ncf-india.org/ Website of NCF]
* [http://blog.ncf-india.org/ eco-logic, the NCF Blog]
* [http://elephanthills.org/restoration/ Restoration project showcase]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Non-profit organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1996]]
[[Category:Scientific organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Environment of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in Asia]]
[[Category:Lahaul and Spiti district]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Himalayan studies]]
[[Category:Environmental studies institutions in India]]"
Evidence-based conservation,"{{Short description|Analysis of nature conservation actions and policy}}
{{Evidence-based practices}}
'''Evidence-based conservation''' is the application of evidence in conservation biology and environmental management actions and policy making. It is defined as systematically assessing scientific information from published, [[peer-review]]ed publications and texts, practitioners' experiences, independent expert assessment, and local and [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] knowledge on a specific conservation topic.  This includes assessing the current effectiveness of different management interventions, threats and emerging problems and economic factors.<ref>
{{cite web
| title = The Basics |publisher=Conservation Evidence
| url = http://www.conservationevidence.com/faq/index
| access-date = 2015-03-07
 }}
</ref>

Evidence-based conservation was organized based on the observations that decision making in conservation was based on [[:wikt:intuition|intuition]] and or practitioner experience often disregarding other forms of evidence of successes and failures (e.g. scientific information). This has led to costly and poor outcomes.<ref name=Sutherland>{{cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=William J|last2=Pullin|first2=Andrew S.|last3=Dolman|first3=Paul M.|last4=Knight|first4=Teri M.|title=The need for evidence-based conservation|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|date=June 2004|volume=19|issue=6|pages=305–308|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.018|pmid=16701275}}</ref> Evidence-based conservation provides access to information that will support decision making through an evidence-based framework of ""what works"" in conservation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=William J.|title= Evidence-based Conservation|journal= Conservation in Practice|date=July 2003|volume=4|issue=3|pages=39–42|doi=10.1111/j.1526-4629.2003.tb00068.x}}</ref>

The evidence-based approach to conservation is based on evidence-based practice which started in [[Evidence-based medicine|medicine]] and later spread to [[Evidence Based Nursing|nursing]], [[Evidence based education|education]], [[psychology]] and other fields. It is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]].

==Systematic review==
A systematic review consists of a non-subjective assessment of available data and evidence related to management.<ref name=""Collaboration"">{{cite web |publisher=Collaboration for Environmental Evidence |date=March 2013 |title=Guidelines for Systematic Review and Evidence Synthesis in Environmental Management, Version4.2 |url=http://www.environmentalevidence.org/Documents/Guidelines/Guidelines4.2.pdf |access-date=March 1, 2015 |archive-date=July 23, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723072709/http://environmentalevidence.org/Documents/Guidelines/Guidelines4.2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Synthesizing results from different studies over different time periods, locations or sample sizes can reduce the bias present in individual studies. Systematic reviews differ from traditional reviews by being easily understood, peer-reviewed and repeatable. Detailed protocols remain available for conducting a thorough, unbiased systematic review.<ref name=""Collaboration"" />

In a Cochrane systematic review, there is little evidence that environmental conservation, and enhancement activities can have any effect on adults' well-being and health. However, there is a high level of perceived benefits based on the feedback of the participants.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Husk K, Lovell R, Cooper C, Stahl-Timmins W, Garside R |title=Participation in Environmental Enhancement and Conservation Activities for Health and Well-Being in Adults: A Review of Quantitative and Qualitative Evidence |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=21 May 2016 |volume=2016 |issue=5 |pages=CD010351 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010351.pub2 |pmid=27207731 |pmc=6464867}}</ref>

==Synopsis==
Part of implementing an evidence-based conservation analysis requires generating a synopsis.  This refers to the brief description of a single study or a systematic review. Synopses form the building blocks of summaries when collated across specific themes.<ref name=""Dicks"">{{cite journal | last1 = Dicks | first1 = L. V. | year = 2014 | title = Organising evidence for environmental management decisions: a '4S' hierarchy | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 29 | issue = 11| pages = 607–613 | doi=10.1016/j.tree.2014.09.004| pmid = 25280588 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Summary==
A summary is broader than a synopsis and refers to the standardized description of results extracted from several studies or systematic reviews on a particular topic. Summaries are regularly updated as more information becomes available and are ideally generated through a rigorous review process.<ref name=""Dicks"" />

==History<!--of the theory? of the website? of the program?  -->==
Evidence-based conservation is inspired by [[evidence-based medicine]]. Evidence-based conservation was first noted in the literature in 2000.<ref>Sutherland, W.J. 2000. The conservation handbook: research, management and policy. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific</ref><ref>Pullin, A. S. and Knight, T. M. 2001. Effectiveness in Conservation Practice: Pointers from Medicine and Public Health. Conservation Biology, 15: 50–54</ref> Over the last decade, the methodology for generating systematic reviews (e.g. protocols, systematic maps) have been improved and standardized. In addition, several collaborative networks have been formed and two journals have been launched. The [[Collaboration for Environmental Evidence]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environmentalevidence.org/|title=Environmental Evidence|website=www.environmentalevidence.org|access-date=2016-10-21}}</ref> has a journal titled [http://www.environmentalevidence.org/journal ''Environmental Evidence''] dedicated to the publication of systematic reviews, review protocols and systematic maps on impacts of human activity and the effectiveness of management interventions. It currently has centres located in [[Australia]], [[Sweden]], [[South Africa]], [[Canada]], [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|the UK]]. The [http://www.conservationevidence.com/ Conservation Evidence] group has a journal titled ''[https://conservationevidencejournal.com/ Conservation Evidence]'' that was launched in 2004 to document the effectiveness of conservation interventions. Conservation Evidence is a web-based database repository that systematizes and provides access to conservation efforts, programs, and research on the biodiversity and the environment based on high quality, reviewed publications. <!--Conservation Evidence also produces broad summaries of management interventions for different taxa (e.g. birds and amphibians) and habitats (e.g. farmland).-->

==Critique==
<!-- Evidence-based conservation methodologies have not yet gained complete acceptance in environmental decision making.-->
Since evidence-based conservation is based on the primary data on interventions, it is as good as the available data. Even when data are available, some authors have noted that evidence-based conservation may not be routinely used in decision making for management and conservation policy.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Young | first1 = K | display-authors = etal   | year = 2011 | title = Science and elephant management decisions in South Africa | url = http://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/2263/15750/1/Young_Science%282010%29.pdf| journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 144 | issue = 2| pages = 876–885 | doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2010.11.023| hdl = 2263/15750 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>Pullin, A. S., and T. M. Knight. 2005. Assessing conservation management's evidence base: a survey of management-plan compilers in the United Kingdom and Australia. Conservation Biology 19:1989–1996</ref><ref>Cook, C. N., et al., 2010. Conservation in the dark? The information used to support management decisions. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 8:181–186.</ref> Often there may be a disconnect between the science that is produced and the management interventions taken. Three reasons have been suggested for this in the literature:
# the scope of the scientific questions may not cover adequately the management requirements (this translates to lack of ""actionable evidence"" for management),
# the scientific research produced covers the management needs, yet the recommendations from the evidence may not be feasible for implementation due to practical constraints (time, financial budgets etc.) or
# the conservation practitioners do not have access to the evidence. Often peer reviewed journal articles produced by scientists are not freely available (open access) or use complicated jargon that managers may not always comprehend. In a survey in eastern England, it was found that park managers get only 2.4% of their information from primary scientific literature.<ref name=""Sutherland"" /> These areas need further attention in the future.

Evidence-based conservation has also been criticised in the past for ignoring traditional forms of knowledge and experience.<ref>Adams, W. M. & Sandbrook, C. (2013) ""Conservation, Evidence and Policy"". ''Oryx'', 47(3), 329–335</ref> However, the steps of evidence-based conservation can be designed to take traditional forms of knowledge also into consideration.

==See also==
* [[Effective altruism]]
* [[Evidence-based legislation]]
* [[Evidence based policy]]
* [[Evidence-based practices]]

==Bibliography==
* Salafsky, Nick, et al. ""Improving the practice of conservation: a conceptual framework and research agenda for conservation science."" Conservation biology 16.6 (2002): 1469–1479.
* Pullin, Andrew S., and Teri M. Knight. ""Doing more good than harm–Building an evidence-base for conservation and environmental management."" ''Biological Conservation'' 142.5 (2009): 931–934.
* Sutherland, William J., et al. ""The need for evidence-based conservation."" ''Trends in ecology & evolution'' 19.6 (2004): 305–308.
* Brooks, Jeremy S., et al. ""Testing hypotheses for the success of different conservation strategies."" ''Conservation biology'' 20.5 (2006): 1528–1538.
* [https://www.nature.com/articles/437614a ""Box 1 : Conservation: Dollars and sense"", ''Nature, International Weekly Journal of Scienc''e. September 29, 2005. pp. 614–616 <!--  accessdate = 2015-03-14 -->]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Evidence-based practice}}{{Conservation of species}}{{Environmental science}}
{{Social accountability}}

[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental economics]]
[[Category:Environmental issues]]
[[Category:Environmental science]]
[[Category:Evidence-based practices]]"
Legacy Landscapes Fund,"{{Short description|Global nature conservation fund}}
{{orphan|date=July 2023}}

{{Infobox organization
| name                = Legacy Landscapes Fund
| formation           = {{start date and age|2020|12|08}}
| logo                = Legacy_Landscapes_Fund_Logo.jpg
| logo_caption        = 
| founder             = [[Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development]]
| founding_location   = [[Frankfurt am Main]]
| type                = [[Nonprofit organization|Nonprofit]] [[Stiftung|Stiftung des öffentlichen Rechts]]
| vat_id              = 045 255 66517
| purpose             = Biodiversity conservation
| headquarters        = [[Frankfurt am Main]]<ref name=""OpenCorpData 2021"">{{cite web | title=Internationaler Naturerbe Fonds - Legacy Landscapes Fund · c/o Nature Trust Alliance GbR, Friedrich-Ebert-Anlage 36, Frankfurt, DE-HE, 60325, DE | website=OpenCorpData | date=2021-03-02 | url=https://opencorpdata.com/lei/529900SKOVW9DANRVO17 | access-date=2022-08-04}}</ref><ref name=""LEI Search - Legal Entity Identifier Lookup 2021"">{{cite web | title=Internationaler Naturerbe Fonds - Legacy Landscapes Fund | website=LEI Search - Legal Entity Identifier Lookup | date=2021-03-02 | url=https://lei.report/LEI/529900SKOVW9DANRVO17 | access-date=2022-08-04}}</ref>
| coordinates         = {{coord|50.11197407943207|8.656594298620831|display=inline,title}}
| key_people          = Stefanie Lang (Executive director)
| budget_year         = 2020
| website             = {{URL|legacylandscapes.org}}
}}

'''Legacy Landscapes Fund''', ('''LLF'''), ({{lang-de|'''Internationaler Naturerbe Fonds'''}}) is a [[not for profit]] foundation providing long-term financial support to protected areas in the [[Global North and Global South|Global South]]. The fund was founded in 2020 as part of efforts to reduce the biodiversity financing gap within a post-2020 framework under the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD). The fund was launched on 19 May 2021, and is based in Frankfurt am Main, Germany.

== History ==
Legacy Landscapes Fund was established following a global biodiversity summit in Kunming, China in October 2020 as an independent charitable foundation under German law by the German [[Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development]] (BMZ) and [[KfW|KfW Development Bank]] (KfW) in December 2020.<ref name=""Odisha Diary 2022"">{{cite web |date=2022-05-21 |title=German Development Minister Schulze commits 100 million euros for the world's most valuable protected areas |url=https://orissadiary.com/german-development-minister-schulze-commits-100-million-euros-for-the-worlds-most-valuable-protected-areas/ |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=Odisha Diary}}</ref><ref name=""Integrating Environmental and Climate Action into Development Co-operation Reporting on DAC Members’ High-Level Meeting Commitments: Reporting on DAC Members’ High-Level Meeting Commitments 2021 p. 115"">{{cite book |title=Integrating Environmental and Climate Action into Development Co-operation Reporting on DAC Members' High-Level Meeting Commitments: Reporting on DAC Members' High-Level Meeting Commitments |publisher=OECD Publishing |year=2021 |isbn=978-92-64-94004-8 |page=115}}</ref>

In May 2022, German newspaper [[Rhein-Zeitung]] reported that the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development invested an additional EUR 100 million into the LLF.<ref>''Deutschland gibt Geld für Naturschutzgebiete'', in [[Rhein-Zeitung]], 18 May 2022, p. 1</ref> France announced in 2021 that it would support LLF starting in 2022.<ref name=""Rowling 2021"">{{cite web |last=Rowling |first=Megan |date=2021-05-21 |title=Who will foot the bill to protect nature? |url=https://www.postguam.com/entertainment/lifestyle/who-will-foot-the-bill-to-protect-nature/article_45ae1b68-bc5c-11eb-80aa-a3ea3296bdbc.html |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=The Guam Daily Post}}</ref>

== Grant program ==
Legacy Landscapes Fund operates a grant program that provides long-term financing for terrestrial biodiversity conservation. It offers grants of US$1 million per year for at least fifteen years,<ref name=""One Planet Summit 2021"">{{cite web |date=2021-01-11 |title=Legacy Landscape Fund |url=https://www.oneplanetsummit.fr/en/coalitions-82/legacy-landscape-fund-210 |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=One Planet Summit}}</ref><ref name=""Voskamp Fritz Koecke Biber p."">{{citation |last1=Voskamp |first1=Alke |title=How to resolve conflicting conservation objectives: A decision support tool for the global selection of multi-purpose protected areas |date=2022-02-20 |page=4 |publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory |doi=10.1101/2022.02.15.480531 |last2=Fritz |first2=Susanne A |last3=Koecke |first3=Valerie |last4=Biber |first4=Matthias |last5=Nogueira-Brockmeyer |first5=Timo |last6=Bertzky |first6=Bastian |last7=Forrest |first7=Matthew |last8=Gaylard |first8=Angela |last9=Goldstein |first9=Allie |last10=Henderson |first10=Scott |last11=Hickler |first11=Thomas |last12=Hof |first12=Christian |last13=Kastner |first13=Thomas |last14=Lang |first14=Stefanie |last15=Manning |first15=Peter |last16=Mascia |first16=Michael B |last17=McFadden |first17=Ian R. |last18=Niamir |first18=Aidin |last19=Noon |first19=Monica |last20=O'Donell |first20=Brian |last21=Opel |first21=Mark |last22=Schwede |first22=Georg |last23=West |first23=Peyton |last24=Schenck |first24=Christof |last25=Boehning-Gaese |first25=Katrin|s2cid=247020379 |hdl=20.500.11850/632658 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> for up to 30 conversation areas with a combined area exceeding {{cvt|60000|km2|mi2}}<ref>''Gesunde Menschen gibt es nur auf einem gesunden Planeten'', [[Handelsblatt]], No. 095, 19 May 2021, p. 48</ref> in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The first seven pilot projects were launched in Zimbabwe,<ref name=""France 24 2022"">{{cite web |date=2022-01-05 |title=Zimbabwe game park to receive $15 mn from new wildlife fund |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220105-zimbabwe-game-park-to-receive-15-mn-from-new-wildlife-fund |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=France 24}}</ref> Zambia, Republic of Congo,<ref name=""Agency 2022"">{{cite web |last=Agency |first=Ecofin |date=2022-08-04 |title=German BMZ commits funds for the preservation of three African parks |url=https://www.ecofinagency.com/public-management/1905-43607-german-bmz-commits-funds-for-the-preservation-of-three-african-parks |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=Ecofin Agency}}</ref> Angola, Indonesia, Cambodia, and Bolivia.<ref name=""Gerretsen 2021"">{{cite web |last=Gerretsen |first=Isabelle |date=2021-05-20 |title=Germany launches $1 billion biodiversity fund after world misses targets |url=https://www.climatechangenews.com/2021/05/20/germany-launches-1-billion-biodiversity-fund-world-misses-targets/ |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=Climate Home News}}</ref>

In September 2021 it was reported that LLF would receive funds for the [[Iona National Park]] in Angola and the [[Odzala-Kokoua National Park]] in the Republic of Congo.<ref name=""Mongabay Environmental News 2021"">{{cite web |date=2021-09-16 |title=African Parks secures $100M for conservation in Africa |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/09/african-parks-secures-100m-for-conservation-in-africa/ |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=Mongabay Environmental News}}</ref> In summer of 2022, it was reported that LLF would support [[Gonarezhou National Park]] in Zimbabwe.<ref name=""Mundo 2022"">{{cite web |last=Mundo |first=Volta ao |date=2022-01-06 |title=O fundo milagroso que salvou um dos maiores parques naturais do Mundo |url=https://www.voltaaomundo.pt/2022/01/06/o-fundo-milagroso-que-salvou-um-dos-maiores-parques-naturais-do-mundo/noticias/873683/ |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=Volta ao Mundo}}</ref><ref name=""Zimbabwe Field Guide 2022"">{{cite web |date=2022 |title=Gonarezhou National Park to receive $1million-a-year from new Wildlife Fund |url=https://zimfieldguide.com/masvingo/gonarezhou-national-park-receive-1million-year-new-wildlife-fund |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=Zimbabwe Field Guide}}</ref><ref name=""Luckmore 2022"">{{cite web |last=Luckmore |first=Mabhiza |date=2022-05-07 |title=Gonarezhou National Park a place to be when you visit Zimbabwe |url=https://www.zimetro.co.zw/gonarezhou-national/ |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=ZiMetro News}}</ref>

== Funding ==
Legacy Landscapes Fund secures its funding from both public and private donors.<ref>Thomas Stillbauer: ''Höchste Zeit für den Artenschutz'', [[Frankfurter Rundschau]], 22 January 2022, p. 7</ref><ref>Jonas Geschke, Markus Fischer: ''Wiederaufforstung als Patentrezept: Landwende im Antropozän'', politische ökologie, Issue 167/2021, p. 49, ISSN 0933-5722</ref> The German [[Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development]] kick-started the fund with EUR 82.5 million.<ref name=""Centre 2022"">{{cite web |author=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |date=2022-07-01 |title=Legacy Landscapes Fund to provide long-term funding for globally significant protected areas |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/2288/ |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=""Kandari 2021"">{{cite web |last=Kandari |first=Akshita |date=2021-05-22 |title=KfW starts Legacy Landscapes Fund with EUR 82.5 million funding |url=https://news.fundsforngos.org/environment/kfw-starts-legacy-landscapes-fund-with-eur-82-5-million-funding/ |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=fundsforNGOs News}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://legacylandscapes.org/ Official website]

[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in Germany]]"
Sustainable Development Goal 15,"{{Short description|15th of 17 Sustainable Development Goals to protect life on land}}

{{Infobox project
| name = Sustainable Development Goal 15
| logo = Sustainable Development Goal 15LifeOnLand.svg
| mission_statement = ""Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss""
| commercial = No
| type =[[Nonprofit organization|Non-Profit]]
| location = Global
| founder = [[United Nations]]
| established = 2015
| website = {{URL|https://sdgs.un.org/}}
}}

'''Sustainable Development Goal 15''' ('''SDG 15''' or '''Global Goal 15''') is about ""Life on land"". One of the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] established by the [[United Nations]] in 2015, the official wording is: ""Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage [[forests]], combat [[desertification]], and halt and reverse [[land degradation]] and halt [[biodiversity]] loss"".<ref name="":17"" /> The Goal has 12 targets to be achieved by [[2030]]. Progress towards targets will be measured by 14 indicators.

<!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets -->
The nine ''outcome targets'' include: Conserve and restore terrestrial and freshwater [[ecosystem]]s; end [[deforestation]] and restore degraded forests; end [[desertification]] and restore degraded land; ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems, protect [[biodiversity]] and [[Habitat|natural habitats]]; protect access to [[genetic resources]] and fair sharing of the benefits; eliminate [[poaching]] and trafficking of [[Endangered species|protected species]]; prevent [[Invasive species|invasive alien species]] on land and in water ecosystems; and integrate ecosystem and biodiversity in governmental planning. The three ''means of implementation targets<ref name="":22"">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3 |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref>'' include: Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystem and biodiversity; finance and incentivize [[sustainable forest management]]; combat global poaching and trafficking.

An annual report is prepared by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] evaluating the progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals.<ref name=""UNESC2020"">United Nations Economic and Social Council (2020) [https://undocs.org/en/E/2020/57 Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals Report of the Secretary-General], High-level political forum on sustainable development, convened under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council (E/2020/57), 28 April 2020</ref> It provides data on changes in forest areas, [[desertification]], [[biodiversity loss]] and other parameters that are of relevance for SDG 15.

== Targets, indicators and progress ==
{{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}}
The UN has defined 12 Targets and 14 Indicators for SDG 15. Five of them are to be achieved by the year 2020, two by the year 2030 and the rest have no target year.

Each of the targets also has one or more indicators to measure progress. In total there are fourteen indicators for SDG 15. [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] is the custodian agency for three of the indicators for SDG targets 15.1, 15.2 and 15.4.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal|title=KEEPING AN EYE ON SDG 15: Working with countries to measure indicators for forests and mountains|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7334e.pdf|journal=Report|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129094712/http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7334e.pdf|archive-date=2020-11-29}}</ref>

=== Target 15.1: Conserve and restore terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems ===
The full title of Target 15.1 is: ""By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, [[wetland]]s, [[mountain]]s and [[drylands]], in line with obligation under international agreements.""<ref name="":17"">{{cite report|publisher=[[United Nations]] |date=2017 |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017 |url=https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 |chapter=[[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]]}}</ref>

This target has two indicators:<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|title=Goal 15: Life on Land - SDG Tracker |url=https://sdg-tracker.org/biodiversity |access-date=2020-09-05 |website=Our World in Data |language=en}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> 
* Indicator 15.1.1: Forest area as a proportion of the total land area 
* Indicator 15.1.2: Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by [[protected area]]s, by ecosystem type

Forests cover roughly 4 billion hectares or 30.7 per cent of the world's land area.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web |title=15.1.1 Forest area{{!}} Sustainable Development Goals{{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=http://www.fao.org/sustainable-development-goals/indicators/1511/en/ |access-date=2020-09-05 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref> 93 percent are natural forests and 7 percent are planted. The forest area is defined by the land under natural or planted groups of trees of at least 5 meters [[in situ]]. The trees can be either be productive or non-productive and should not include fruit plantations and [[agroforestry]] systems and trees in urban parks and gardens.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |title=Goal 15: Life on land |url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-15-life-on-land.html |access-date=2020-09-05 |website=UNDP |language=en}}</ref> [[Protected area]]s are defined by three indicators: 1) the proportion of total terrestrial area classified as protected 2) the proportion of important sites of terrestrial biodiversity who are protected 3) and proportion of important sites of freshwater biodiversity that are protected.

=== Target 15.2: End deforestation and restore degraded forests ===

The full title of Target 15.2 is: ""By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt [[deforestation]], restore degraded forests and substantially increase [[afforestation]] and [[reforestation]] globally.""<ref name="":17"" />

This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.2.1 is the ""Progress towards sustainable forest management"".<ref name="":3"" />

The United Nations General Assembly has defined Sustainable forest management as a dynamic and evolving concept that aims to maintain and enhance the economic, social and environmental values of all types of forests, for the benefit of present and future generations (Resolution A/RES/62/98).<ref name="":5"" /> It aims to find a balance between the increasing demands for forest products and the benefits as well as preserving the health and diversity of the forests.

SDG indicator 15.2.1 is composed of five sub-indicators that measure progress towards all dimensions of sustainable forest management. They provide qualification to the management of forest areas and assess areas with a set on national and international standards.

=== Target 15.3: End desertification and restore degraded land ===
The full title of Target 15.3 is: ""By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world.""<ref name="":17"" />

This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.3.1 is the ""Proportion of land that is degraded over the total land area"".<ref name="":3"" />

[[Desertification]] affects as much as one-sixth of the world's population, 70% of all drylands, and one-quarter of the total land area of the world. It also leads to spreading [[poverty]] and the degradation of billion hectares of [[Agricultural land|cropland]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Desertification, land degradation and drought .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/desertificationlanddegradationanddrought |access-date=2020-09-05 |website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>

=== Target 15.4: Ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems ===
[[File:Mountain_Green_Cover_Index,_OWID.svg|thumb|Mountain Green Cover Index, OWID<ref name="":3"" />]]The full title of Target 15.4 is: ""By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their [[biodiversity]], in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development.""<ref name="":17"" />

This target has two indicators:<ref name="":3"" />
* Indicator 15.4.1: Coverage by protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity<ref name="":3"" />
* Indicator 15.4.2: Mountain Green Cover Index

The Mountain Green Cover Index measured the percentage of mountain environments covered by green areas and the capacity of those areas to fulfil their ecosystem roles.<ref name="":5"" />

As of 2017, 76% of the world's mountain areas were covered by green vegetation, including forests, shrubs, [[grassland]] and [[Agricultural land|cropland]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=15.4.2 Mountain Green Cover{{!}} Sustainable Development Goals{{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=http://www.fao.org/sustainable-development-goals/indicators/1542/en/ |access-date=2020-09-05 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref> The Mountain Green Cover was lowest in [[Western Asia]] and [[North Africa|Northern Africa]] (60%) and highest in [[Oceania]] (96%).

[[File:Red_List_Index,_OWID.svg|thumb|Red List Index (2019)<ref name="":3"" />]]

=== Target 15.5: Protect biodiversity and natural habitats ===
The full title of Target 15.5 is: ""Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of [[biodiversity]] and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of [[threatened species]].""<ref name="":17"" />

This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.5.1 is the ""[[Red List Index]]"".<ref name="":3"" />

A report in 2018 stated that ""biodiversity must be mainstreamed across these sectors and [[spatial planning]] integrated accordingly.""<ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal|title=Sustainable Development Goal 15: Progress and Prospects, Outcome: key messages |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/19647Key_messages_SDG_15_EGM_Final.pdf |journal=Report}}</ref>

=== Target 15.6: Protect access to genetic resources and fair sharing of the benefits ===
The full title of Target 15.6 is: ""Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed.""<ref name="":17"" />

This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.6.1 is the ""Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits"".<ref name="":3"" />
[[File:NagoyaProtocol.svg|alt=NagoyaProtocol.svg|thumb|Nagoya Protocol]]
This indicator is used to track countries' participation in protocols related to the promotion and sharing of genetic resources for plants, food and agriculture.

=== Target 15.7: Eliminate poaching and trafficking of protected species ===
The full title of Target 15.7 is: ""Take urgent action to end [[poaching]] and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products.""<ref name="":17"" />

This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.7.1 is the ""Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked"".<ref name="":3"" />

In general, wildlife trade policies that incentivize sustainable use typically have more immediate positive effects on wildlife populations than outright trade bans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Booth |first1=Hollie |last2=Arias |first2=Melissa |last3=Brittain |first3=Stephanie |last4=Challender |first4=Daniel W. S. |last5=Khanyari |first5=Munib |last6=Kuiper |first6=Timothy |last7=Li |first7=Yuhan |last8=Olmedo |first8=Alegria |last9=Oyanedel |first9=Rodrigo |last10=Pienkowski |first10=Thomas |last11=Milner-Gulland |first11=E. J. |title=""Saving Lives, Protecting Livelihoods, and Safeguarding Nature"": Risk-Based Wildlife Trade Policy for Sustainable Development Outcomes Post-COVID-19 |journal=[[Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution]] |date=25 February 2021 |volume=9 |pages=639216 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2021.639216|doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].</ref>

No data is available for this indicator yet.<ref name="":3"" />

=== Target 15.8: Prevent invasive alien species on land and in water ecosystems ===
[[File:Rhino_Killings.jpg|thumb|Memorial to rhinos killed by poachers near St Lucia Estuary, South Africa]]
The full title of Target 15.8 is: ""By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species.""<ref name="":17"" />

This target has one Indicator: Indicator is 15.8.1 is the ""Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of [[Invasive species|invasive alien species]]"".<ref name="":3"" />

Wildlife poaching and trafficking threaten biodiversity and ecosystems as well as local livelihoods, wellbeing and security. [[Trafficking]] is normally driven by organized crime, and made easy by [[corruption]] and weak [[governance]].<ref name="":6"" />

=== Target 15.9: Integrate ecosystem and biodiversity in governmental planning ===
The full title of Target 15.9 is: ""By 2020, integrate [[ecosystem]] and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, [[poverty reduction]] strategies and accounts.""<ref name="":17"" />

Indicator is 15.9.1 is the ""Progress towards national targets established in accordance with [[Convention on Biological Diversity|Aichi Biodiversity Target]] 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020"".<ref name="":3"" />

""Aichi Biodiversity Target 2"" addresses the underlying causes of [[biodiversity loss]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=SDG Indicators |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/?Text=&Goal=15&Target= |access-date=2020-09-05 |website=unstats.un.org}}</ref>

=== Target 15.a: Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystem and biodiversity ===
[[File:Total_official_development_assistance_for_biodiversity,_by_recipient,_OWID.svg|thumb|Total official development assistance for biodiversity, by recipient, OWID<ref name="":3"" />]]
The full title of Target 15.a is: ""Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems.""<ref name="":17"" />

This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.a.1 is the ""Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems"".<ref name="":3"" />

=== Target 15.b: Finance and incentivize sustainable forest management ===
The full title of Target 15.b is: ""Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance [[sustainable forest management]] and provide adequate incentives to [[developing countries]] to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation.""<ref name="":17"" />

This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.b.1 is the ""Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of [[biodiversity]] and [[ecosystem]]s"".<ref name="":3"" />

This target aims at mobilizing resources at all levels to finance sustainable forest management. The United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017-2030 (UNSPF) presents a global framework for actions at all levels to sustainably manage forests and halt deforestation and forest degradation.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=United Nations strategic plan for forests, 2017-2030 |url=https://www.un.org/esa/forests/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/UNSPF_AdvUnedited.pdf |journal=Report}}</ref>

=== Target 15.c: Combat global poaching and trafficking ===
The full title of Target 15.c is: ""Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities.""<ref name="":3"" />

This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.c.1 is the ""Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked"".<ref name="":3"" />

The illegal trade and animal trafficking have grown significantly to become one of the world's largest black markets valued at tens of billions of dollars.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-12 |title=Combating Wildlife Trafficking |url=https://www.usaid.gov/biodiversity/wildlife-trafficking |access-date=2020-09-06 |website=www.usaid.gov |language=en}}</ref> The challenges to combat global poaching and trafficking need to be addressed by enforcing laws and strengthening institutions.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/236169911 |title=Conflict and resource development in the southern highlands of Papua New Guinea |date=2007 |publisher=ANU E Press |others=Haley, Nicole., May, R. J. (Ronald James), 1939-, State, Society, and Governance in Melanesia Project., Australian National University. Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies., ANU E Press. |isbn=978-1-921313-46-2 |location=Canberra, ACT, Australia |oclc=236169911}}</ref>

== Custodian agencies ==
The custodian agencies are responsible for data gathering and reporting on the indicators. They are:<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|title=United Nations (2018) Economic and Social Council, Conference of European Statisticians, Geneva,"" (PDF). United Nations, Geneva"" (PDF) |url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/stats/documents/ece/ces/2018/CES_39.pdf |access-date=September 25, 2020 |website=UNECE}}</ref>

* Indicator 15.1.1, 15.2.1 and 15.4.2: [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO)
* Indicator 15.1.2: [[United Nations Environment Programme|United Nations Environmental Programme]]-[[World Conservation Monitoring Centre|World Conservation Monitoring Center]] (UNEP-WCMC) and [[United Nations Environment Programme|United Nations Environmental Programme]]
* Indicator 15.3.1 and 15.4.1: [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD)
* Indicator 15.5.1 and 15.8.1: [[International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List|International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)]]
* Indicator 15.6.1: [[Convention on Biological Diversity|Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD-Secretariat)]]
* Indicator 15.7.1 and 15.c.1: [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]], and Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species (CITIES)
* Indicator 15.9.1: [[Convention on Biological Diversity|Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD-Secretariat)]] and [[United Nations Environment Programme|United Nations Environmental Programme]] (UNEP)
* Indicator 15.a.1, 15.6.1 and 15.b.1: [[OECD|Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)]], United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and [[World Bank|World Bank (WB)]]

== Monitoring and progress ==
An annual report is prepared by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] evaluating the progress towards the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref name=""UNESC2020"" /> According to the expert group meeting in preparation for the [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|High-level Political Forum]] of 2018, SDG 15 needs more indicators in areas such as [[forest]] intactness, management effectiveness of protected areas, and meaningful integration of biodiversity into other processes.<ref name="":6"" />

== Challenges ==
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goals#Challenges}}

{{As of|2023}}, there is approximately a $700 billion gap in financial support to help low-income countries protect biodiversity.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023 {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs |url=https://sdgs.un.org/documents/sustainable-development-goals-report-2023-53220 |website=sdgs.un.org |access-date=16 September 2023}}</ref>

=== Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic ===
In 2020, there was brief progress on SDGs 12 to 15 on sustainable production and consumption, climate action and biodiversity conservation, but these gains were quickly offset once restrictions were lifted. This applies to CO₂ emissions, which declined in major economies during lockdowns, but went quickly back to their pre-pandamic levels after restrictions were lifted. It is estimated that deforestation increased by 12% from 2019 to 2020, and plastic consumption and waste may also increase during pandemic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sachs |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Kroll |first2=Christian |last3=Lafortune |first3=Guillame |last4=Fuller |first4=Grayson |last5=Woelm |first5=Finn |title=Sustainable Development Report 2021 |date=30 September 2021 |doi=10.1017/9781009106559|isbn=9781009106559 |s2cid=236309770}}</ref>

== Links with other SDGs ==
The UN 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development goals]] are inherently interconnected, most of the goals can be achieved only when others are also achieved. And achieving any individual goal tends to help the achievement of the other goals.

The impact of SDG 15 on gender equality ([[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]) is also significant. In many parts of the world, women are farmers, especially poor women living in rural areas.<ref name=""sdgacademylibrary.mediaspace.kaltura.com"">{{cite web |title=How SDG 15 Links With Other SDGs - SDG Academy Library |url=https://sdgacademylibrary.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/How+SDG+15+Links+With+Other+SDGs/1_j0kpb2iw |website=sdgacademylibrary.mediaspace.kaltura.com}}</ref> They are the main labor force in growing crops, often depend on forests for fuel, fodder and food. Their limited ownership of the land reduces their ability to adapt to losses or decide how to use it. By protecting biodiversity and thus maintaining agricultural productivity, can also empower gender equality. When forest conditions and regeneration improve, women themselves will get a greater political voice.<ref>{{cite web |title=SDG 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss |url=https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/women-and-the-sdgs/sdg-15-life-on-land |website=UN Women |language=en}}</ref>

For [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]] and [[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]], the availability and quality of water from the functioning of ecosystems, especially forest ecological system. Protecting biodiversity, and maintaining the integrity of wetlands and forests play a huge role in the acquisition and replenishment of freshwater resources because natural ecosystems act as filters to clean water and protect it from diseases that can harm the animal or human health.<ref name=""research.utwente.nl"">{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Sylvia L. R. |last2=Jones |first2=Sarah K. |last3=Johnson |first3=Justin A. |last4=Brauman |first4=Kate A. |last5=Chaplin-Kramer |first5=Rebecca |last6=Fremier |first6=Alexander |last7=Girvetz |first7=Evan |last8=Gordon |first8=Line J. |last9=Kappel |first9=Carrie V. |last10=Mandle |first10=Lisa |last11=Mulligan |first11=Mark |last12=O'Farrell |first12=Patrick |last13=Smith |first13=William K. |last14=Willemen |first14=Louise |last15=Zhang |first15=Wei |last16=DeClerck |first16=Fabrice A. |title=Distilling the role of ecosystem services in the Sustainable Development Goals |journal=[[Ecosystem Services]] |date=1 February 2018 |volume=29 |pages=70–82 |doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.10.010 |url=https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/distilling-the-role-of-ecosystem-services-in-the-sustainable-development-goals(f789be2a-6daa-40c2-a8e4-20aa4f00b36c).html}}</ref>

SDG 15 has a direct link to [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]] includes high-yield agriculture and tourism, which attracts tourists through protected ecosystems and biodiverse environments, thereby enhancing economic returns.<ref name=""UN High-Level Political Forum HLPF"">{{cite journal |title=UN High-Level Political Forum (HLPF) |journal=Gender Equality |series=Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals |date=2021 |pages=1063 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-95687-9_300164 |isbn=978-3-319-95686-2 |s2cid=241944728}}</ref>

Maintaining biodiversity plays a vital role in helping to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Mangrove forests, for example, account for approximately 1% of carbon sequestration by the world's forests, but about 14% by the global ocean.<ref name=""UN High-Level Political Forum HLPF""/> Therefore, negative impacts on mangrove habitats can result in very high GHG emissions. The impact of land-based activities such as agriculture, land reclamation and urban development on ecosystems demonstrates the high degree of linkage between [[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] and SDG 15, and the importance of the overall management of all three.<ref name=""research.utwente.nl""/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal15 UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – SDG 15]
* [https://www.globalgoals.org/15-life-on-land “Global Goals” Campaign - SDG 15] 
* [https://sdg-tracker.org/biodiversity SDG-Track.org - SDG 15]
* [https://x4i.org/life-on-land-and-nature-conservation-report UN SDG 15 in the US]

{{Sustainable Development Goals}}
{{Deforestation}}

[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]]
[[Category:United Nations documents]]
[[Category:2015 establishments in New York City]]
[[Category:Projects established in 2015]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]"
Ecological empathy,"{{Short description|Interest in the wellbeing of animals and nature}}
[[File:Leaf heart.jpg|thumb]]
'''Ecological empathy''', or '''eco-empathy''', is [[empathy]] directed towards the natural world. It encompasses empathy directed towards animals,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Figueredo |first1=Aurelio José |last2=Steklis |first2=Netzin Gerald |last3=Peñaherrera-Aguirre |first3=Mateo |last4=Fernandes |first4=Heitor Barcellos Ferreira |last5=de |first5=Tomás Cabeza |last6=Salmon |first6=Catherine |last7=Chaves |first7=María Gabriela Hernández |last8=Araya |first8=Siu Fong Acón |last9=Pérez-Ramos |first9=Marisol |last10=Armenta |first10=Martha Frías |last11=Verdugo |first11=Víctor Corral |last12=Aragonés |first12=Juan Ignacio |last13=Sevillano |first13=Verónica |date=2022-11-23 |title=The influence of individual differences and local ecological conditions on emotional empathy, cognitive empathy, and harm avoidance towards nonhuman animals |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/hai.2022.0021 |journal=Human-Animal Interactions |doi=10.1079/hai.2022.0021 |s2cid=253863658 |issn=2957-9538}}</ref> plants, [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]], and the earth as a whole.<ref name=""Wang-2022"" /> 

Kim-Pong Tam developed a method of measuring individuals' dispositional empathy with nature (DEN), and has demonstrated its robust connection to [[conservation behavior]].<ref name=""Tam-2013"" /> 

Numerous strategies can be implemented to cultivate ecological empathy—in both children and adults—including [[environmental education]],<ref name=""Lotz-Sisitka-2013"" /> [[ecopedagogy]],<ref name=""Misiaszek-2020"" /> arts,<ref name=""Sunassee-2021"" /> literature,<ref name=""McKnight-2010"" /> [[List of environmental films|film]],<ref name=""Kong-2023"" /> future scenarios,<ref name=""Blythe-2021"" /> ecological storytelling,<ref name=""Talgorn-2023"" /> Indigenous approaches,<ref name=""Ly-2014"" /> and parenting practices.<ref name=""Carson-1998"" />

Empathy for animals is a central component of eco-empathy,<ref name=""Moran-2022"" /> and effective programs have been developed to promote empathy towards animals in the home,<ref name=""Jalongo-2013"" /> in zoos<ref name=""Webber-2017"" /> and aquariums,<ref name=""Wharton-2018"" /> on the farm,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mathur |first1=Maya B |last2=Peacock |first2=Jacob |last3=Reichling |first3=David |last4=Nadler |first4=Janice |last5=Bain |first5=Paul |last6=Gardner |first6=Christopher D |last7=Robinson |first7=Thomas |date=2021-04-21 |title=Interventions to reduce meat consumption by appealing to animal welfare: Meta-analysis and evidence-based recommendations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/bc2wy |access-date=2023-12-10 |journal=Appetite|volume=164 |doi=10.31219/osf.io/bc2wy |pmid=33984401 |pmc=9205607 }}</ref> and in the wild.<ref name=""Yue-2021"" />

== Definitions ==
As defined by Wang et al.,<ref name=""Wang-2022"">{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Litong |last2=Sheng |first2=Guanghua |last3=She |first3=Shengxiang |last4=Xu |first4=Jiaqi |date=2022-08-06 |title=Impact of empathy with nature on pro‐environmental behaviour |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12856 |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=652–668 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12856 |s2cid=251148144 |issn=1470-6423}}</ref> “Empathy with nature means acknowledging the needs of animals, nature in general, and the importance of their survival, as well as showing interest in their well-being,” (Wang et al., 2022, p. 654). Ecological empathy overlaps with [[nature connectedness]], and can be understood as the ability to connect with nature, both cognitively and affectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fido |first1=Dean |last2=Richardson |first2=Miles |date=June 2019 |title=Empathy Mediates the Relationship Between Nature Connectedness and Both Callous and Uncaring Traits |journal=Ecopsychology |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=130–137 |doi=10.1089/eco.2018.0071 |issn=1942-9347|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Distinctions between ecological empathy and other concepts ===
Ecological empathy is related to, but distinct from, the concepts of [[Biophilia hypothesis|biophilia]], [[ecological grief]], and [[solastalgia]]. 

The biophilia hypothesis holds that humans possess an innate love of nature and a drive to connect with the natural world.<ref>{{Cite book |last=WILSON |first=EDWARD O. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvk12s6h |title=Biophilia |date=2009-06-30 |publisher=Harvard University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctvk12s6h |isbn=978-0-674-04523-1}}</ref> Biophilia refers to our affinity towards the natural world, whereas ecological empathy is our ability to feel empathy towards nature. Both are promoted by time spent in nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berto |first1=Rita |last2=Barbiero |first2=Giuseppe |last3=Barbiero |first3=Pietro |last4=Senes |first4=Giulio |date=2018-03-05 |title=An Individual's Connection to Nature Can Affect Perceived Restorativeness of Natural Environments. Some Observations about Biophilia |journal=Behavioral Sciences |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=34 |doi=10.3390/bs8030034 |pmid=29510581 |pmc=5867487 |issn=2076-328X |doi-access=free }}</ref>

While ecological empathy is an experience of empathy for nature, ecological grief (or climate grief) is the sadness that arises when one learns about [[environmental degradation]] and [[climate change]]. Related to ecological grief is ''solastalgia''—a term coined by [[Glenn Albrecht]]<ref name=""Albrecht-2005"">{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Glen |date=2005 |title='Solastalgia'. A new concept in health and identity. |journal=PAN: Philosophy Activism Nature |volume=3 |pages=41–55}}</ref> to describe the distress caused by changes to one’s environment while one is living in that environment (as opposed to nostalgia, which occurs when one is away from home.) It refers to the experience of current climate-related events (as opposed to [[eco-anxiety]], which involves the fear of future climate-related events.) While ecological grief and solastalgia solely involve negative emotions related to nature, ecological empathy is about ''feeling'' the emotions of the natural world—either positive or negative.<ref name=""Wang-2022"" /><ref name=""Albrecht-2005"" />

== Measurement ==
Ecological empathy can be assessed in various ways, and several scales have been created to assess individuals’ connection with and attitudes towards nature.

=== Dispositional Empathy with Nature (DEN) scale ===
Kim-Pong Tam<ref name=""Tam-2013"">{{Cite journal |last=Tam |first=Kim-Pong |date=September 2013 |title=Dispositional empathy with nature |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.05.004 |journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology |volume=35 |pages=92–104 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.05.004 |issn=0272-4944}}</ref> developed the ''Dispositional Empathy with Nature (DEN)'' scale, adapted from the [[Interpersonal Reactivity Index]] (IRI),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davis |first=Mark H. |date=1980 |title=Interpersonal Reactivity Index |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/t01093-000 |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=PsycTESTS Dataset|doi=10.1037/t01093-000 }}</ref> (a widely used empathy scale which measures both affective and cognitive empathy.) The DEN scale has been used by psychologists and educators in a variety of contexts since it was developed, to measure empathy towards nature in both students and adults, and has been translated and used internationally.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=Susan |last2=Irkhin |first2=Boris |last3=Nartova-Bochaver |first3=Sof'ya |date=2019-03-30 |title=Environmental Identity in Russia: Validation and Relationship to the Concern for People and Plants |journal=Психология. Журнал Высшей школы экономики |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=85–107 |doi=10.17323/1813-8918-2019-1-85-107 |issn=1813-8918|doi-access=free }}</ref> 

Sample items of the ''Dispositional Empathy with Nature'' scale (Tam, 2013, p. 96) include:<ref name=""Tam-2013"" />

* ''I imagine how I would feel if I were the suffering animals and plants.''
* ''I try to understand how the suffering animals and plants feel by imagining how things look from their perspective.''
* ''I visualize in my mind clearly and vividly how the suffering animals and plants feel in their situation.''
* ''I have tender, concerned feelings for the suffering animals and plants.''

=== Emotional Affinity Toward Nature scale ===
Kals and colleagues designed the ''Emotional Affinity Toward Nature''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kals |first1=Elisabeth |last2=Schumacher |first2=Daniel |last3=Montada |first3=Leo |date=March 1999 |title=Emotional Affinity toward Nature as a Motivational Basis to Protect Nature |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00139169921972056 |journal=Environment and Behavior |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=178–202 |doi=10.1177/00139169921972056 |bibcode=1999EnvBe..31..178K |s2cid=143948653 |issn=0013-9165}}</ref> scale to measure individuals’ [[Affinity (sociology)|affinity]] with and connection to the natural world. The scale contains three constructs, measuring participants’ behavior, emotions about nature, and experiences in nature—respectively. The scale has been used in the fields of psychology and education—primarily to assess students’ affinity toward nature, but has been used for adults as well. Sample items (Kals et al., 1999, pp. 188) from each construct include:

* [Behavioral criteria]: ''I am willing to take steps in my own house-hold for the protection of natural resources (e.g., installation of  water flow regulators, solar panels, and so forth).''
* [Emotions and interest]: ''If I spend time in nature today, I feel a deep feeling of love toward nature.''
* [Experiences with nature]: ''Nowadays, I spend a lot of time in nature.''

=== Environmental Attitudes Inventory (EAI) ===
Milfont & Duckitt designed The ''Environmental Attitudes Inventory'' (EAI)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Milfont |first1=Taciano L. |last2=Duckitt |first2=John |date=March 2010 |title=The environmental attitudes inventory: A valid and reliable measure to assess the structure of environmental attitudes |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.09.001 |journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=80–94 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.09.001 |issn=0272-4944}}</ref> to measure participants’ feelings, connection with, and attitudes about nature. The scale has been used internationally to measure students’ attitudes towards the environment, and has also been adapted and optimized in various contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sutton |first1=Stephen G. |last2=Gyuris |first2=Emma |date=2015-01-05 |title=Optimizing the environmental attitudes inventory |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijshe-03-2013-0027 |journal=International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=16–33 |doi=10.1108/ijshe-03-2013-0027 |bibcode=2015IJSHE..16...16S |issn=1467-6370}}</ref> The inventory has twelve scales, each of which contains ten survey items (Milfont & Duckitt, 2010, pp. 91-92):

# Enjoyment of nature
# Support for interventionist conservation policies
# [[Environmental movement]] activism
# Conservation motivated by [[Anthropocentrism|anthropocentric]] concern
# Confidence in science and technology
# Environmental threat
# Altering nature
# Personal conservation behaviour
# Human dominance over nature (items reverse coded)
# Human utilization of nature (items reverse coded)
# Eco-centric concern
# Support for population growth policies

=== Connectedness to nature scale ===
The [[connectedness to nature scale]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mayer |first1=F.Stephan |last2=Frantz |first2=Cynthia McPherson |date=December 2004 |title=The connectedness to nature scale: A measure of individuals' feeling in community with nature |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.10.001 |journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=503–515 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.10.001 |s2cid=1144969 |issn=0272-4944}}</ref> designed by Mayer and Franz is a scale to measure individuals’ sense of connection with nature. The tool has been used primarily by psychologists and has been translated into other languages, including Cantonese<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cheung |first1=Hubert |last2=Mazerolle |first2=Lorraine |last3=Possingham |first3=Hugh P. |last4=Tam |first4=Kim‐Pong |last5=Biggs |first5=Duan |date=September 2020 |title=A methodological guide for translating study instruments in cross‐cultural research: Adapting the 'connectedness to nature' scale into Chinese |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/2041-210x.13465 |journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=1379–1387 |doi=10.1111/2041-210x.13465 |bibcode=2020MEcEv..11.1379C |s2cid=225424348 |issn=2041-210X}}</ref> and French<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Navarro |first1=Oscar |last2=Olivos |first2=Pablo |last3=Fleury-Bahi |first3=Ghozlane |date=2017-12-12 |title=""Connectedness to Nature Scale"": Validity and Reliability in the French Context |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=8 |page=2180 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02180 |pmid=29312052 |pmc=5733057 |issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free }}</ref> for use in international contexts. Sample items (Mayer & Franz, 2004, p. 513) include:

* ''I often feel a sense of oneness with the natural world around me.''
* ''I recognize and appreciate the intelligence of other living organisms''
* ''I often feel a kinship with animals and plants.''
* ''I often feel like I am only a small part of the natural world around me, and that I am no more important than the grass on the ground or the birds in the trees.''

== Connection to conservation behavior ==
Across a number of [[Environmental studies|studies]], higher rates of ecological empathy have been found to correlate with increased conservation attitudes and behavior.

Tam<ref name=""Tam-2013"" /> found that dispositional empathy with nature (DEN) robustly predicted both public (e.g. supporting an environmental organization) and private (e.g. household behaviors such as recycling) [[conservation behavior]].

Ienna and colleagues in their study of 878 participants found that both empathy and knowledge of [[environmental issues]] predicted pro-environmental attitudes and behavior; though verifiable knowledge was a stronger predictor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ienna |first1=Marina |last2=Rofe |first2=Amelia |last3=Gendi |first3=Monica |last4=Douglas |first4=Heather E. |last5=Kelly |first5=Michelle |last6=Hayward |first6=Matthew W. |last7=Callen |first7=Alex |last8=Klop-Toker |first8=Kaya |last9=Scanlon |first9=Robert J. |last10=Howell |first10=Lachlan G. |last11=Griffin |first11=Andrea S. |date=2022-04-12 |title=The Relative Role of Knowledge and Empathy in Predicting Pro-Environmental Attitudes and Behavior |journal=Sustainability |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=4622 |doi=10.3390/su14084622 |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free |hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30166990 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The authors also found a dissociation between cognitive and affective empathy—while affective empathy was found to predict attitudes but not behavior, cognitive empathy predicted both. This finding aligned with the authors’ prediction that cognitive empathy would influence behavior in a similar way as knowledge.

Wang and colleagues found that inducing empathy for nature (through photographs and videos) led to increased pro-environmental behaviors.<ref name=""Wang-2022"" /> For individuals with independent (vs. interdependent) self-construal, however, higher empathy with nature did not lead to such behaviors. The study found that empathy towards nature led participants to make a commitment to the environment (a mediating factor), which in turn prompted increased environmental behavior.

Based on [[Daniel Batson|Daniel Batson’s]] Model of [[Empathy-altruism|Altruism]], Jaime Berenguer designed a study to test the effects of empathy on [[moral reasoning]]. Participants who were prompted to practice empathy when reading a passage about an environmental dilemma were able to construct significantly more moral arguments for their positions than those in the neutral condition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berenguer |first=Jaime |date=2008-12-02 |title=The Effect of Empathy in Environmental Moral Reasoning |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916508325892 |journal=Environment and Behavior |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=110–134 |doi=10.1177/0013916508325892 |s2cid=143878638 |issn=0013-9165}}</ref>

Ecological empathy has also been assessed in corporate settings. Islam and colleagues found that employees with high levels of empathy demonstrated more pro-environmental and conservation behavior, as well as higher levels of identification with their workplace in connection with its pro-environmental policies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Islam |first1=Talat |last2=Ali |first2=Ghulam |last3=Asad |first3=Humaira |date=2019-03-18 |title=Environmental CSR and pro-environmental behaviors to reduce environmental dilapidation |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/mrr-12-2017-0408 |journal=Management Research Review |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=332–351 |doi=10.1108/mrr-12-2017-0408 |s2cid=150339615 |issn=2040-8269}}</ref>

Gary Lynne and colleagues found that “empathy nudging”, when combined with financial incentives, can have a powerful impact on farmers’ business decisions regarding [[sustainable agriculture]]. This is especially true for those who are initially low in conservation practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lynne |first1=Gary D. |last2=Czap |first2=Natalia V. |last3=Czap |first3=Hans J. |last4=Burbach |first4=Mark E. |date=2016-12-23 |title=A Theoretical Foundation for Empathy Conservation: Toward Avoiding the Tragedy of the Commons |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1561/105.00000052 |journal=Review of Behavioral Economics |volume=3 |issue=3–4 |pages=243–279 |doi=10.1561/105.00000052 |issn=2326-6198}}</ref>

Factors such as place and identity mediate the role of empathy in conservation behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Katrina |last2=Adger |first2=W. Neil |last3=Devine-Wright |first3=Patrick |last4=Anderies |first4=John M. |last5=Barr |first5=Stewart |last6=Bousquet |first6=Francois |last7=Butler |first7=Catherine |last8=Evans |first8=Louisa |last9=Marshall |first9=Nadine |last10=Quinn |first10=Tara |date=May 2019 |title=Empathy, place and identity interactions for sustainability |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.03.003 |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=56 |pages=11–17 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.03.003 |s2cid=159299883 |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> Empathy will predict environmental actions only to the extent that it is able to transcend outgroup differences (natives vs. newcomers within a space) and geographic distance.

== Individual differences ==
As with empathy generally, individuals vary in their ability and willingness to practice ecological empathy.<ref name=""Tam-2013"" />

Tam has defined the construct of Dispositional Empathy with Nature (DEN) to describe “the dispositional tendency to understand and share the emotional experience of the natural world, (Tam, 2013, p. 1). Tam has developed and validated an instrument for assessing DEN and found that, across five studies with over eight hundred participants, DEN predicted conservation behavior.<ref name=""Tam-2013"" />

Across the literature, gender is found to be a [[Mediation (statistics)|mediating factor]] for empathy,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rose |first1=Amanda J. |last2=Rudolph |first2=Karen D. |date=January 2006 |title=A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=132 |issue=1 |pages=98–131 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98 |pmid=16435959 |issn=1939-1455|pmc=3160171 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Wuying |last2=Lu |first2=Jiamei |last3=Liu |first3=Lianqi |last4=Lin |first4=Wenyi |date=2014 |title=Gender Differences of Empathy |journal=Advances in Psychological Science |language=en |volume=22 |issue=9 |pages=1423 |doi=10.3724/SP.J.1042.2014.01423 |issn=1671-3710|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Tam-2013"" /> with girls displaying greater ability and motivation to practice empathy.

== Methods of cultivation ==
Empathy is teachable,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Platt |first1=Frederic W. |last2=Keller |first2=Vaughn F. |date=April 1994 |title=Empathic communication |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02600129 |journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=222–226 |doi=10.1007/bf02600129 |pmid=8014729 |s2cid=42768114 |issn=0884-8734}}</ref> and numerous educational programs and interventions have been developed to foster ecological empathy, in both youth and adults.

=== Environmental education ===
[[Environmental education]] (EE) is a broad, multidisciplinary field that supports students’ engagement with nature, understanding of ecological systems, exploration of complex environmental problems, and the development of habits, lifestyles, and actions that promote conservation.<ref name=""Lotz-Sisitka-2013"">{{Citation |last1=Lotz-Sisitka |first1=Heila |title=20 Traditions and New Niches |date=2013-05-02 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203813331-36 |work=International Handbook of Research on Environmental Education |pages=194–205 |access-date=2023-11-24 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-81333-1 |last2=Fien |first2=John |last3=Ketlhoilwe |first3=Mphemelang|doi=10.4324/9780203813331-36 }}</ref>

According to the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA), “Environmental education is a process that allows individuals to explore environmental issues, engage in problem solving, and take action to improve the environment. As a result, individuals develop a deeper understanding of environmental issues and have the skills to make informed and responsible decisions”.<ref name=""Environmental Protection Agency-2023"">{{Cite web |last=Environmental Protection Agency |date=November 11, 2023 |title=What is Environmental Education? |url=https://www.epa.gov/education/what-environmental-education |website=Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref>

The EPA lays out the following components of environmental education:<ref name=""Environmental Protection Agency-2023"" />

* ''Awareness and sensitivity'' to the environment and environmental challenges
* ''Knowledge and understanding'' of the environment and environmental challenges
* ''Attitudes'' of concern for the environment and motivation to improve or maintain environmental quality
* ''Skills'' to identify and help resolve environmental challenges
* ''Participation'' in activities that lead to the resolution of environmental challenges

[[David Sobel]] argues that environmental education should be focused on empathy between the ages of four and seven, as children in this age range have less of a distinction between “self” and “other” and can more easily empathize with others.<ref name=""Sobel-2013"">{{Cite book |last=Sobel |first=David |title=Beyond Ecophobia. Reclaiming the Heart in Nature Education |publisher=The Orion Society |year=2013 |location=Great Barrington, MA, USA}}</ref>

Sobel encourages educators and parents to foster a love of nature by letting children engage in wild play—getting dirty, climbing trees, building forts, and immersing themselves in the natural world. He critiques environmental education which focus too much on rules and the cultivation of systemic knowledge, and argues that “Nature programs should invite children to make mud pies, climb trees, catch frogs, paint their faces with charcoal, get their hands dirty and their feet wet. They should be allowed to go off the trail and have fun”.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sobel |first=David |title=Look, Don't Touch |url=https://orionmagazine.org/article/look-dont-touch1/ |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=Orion Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

Sobel calls for parents and educators to focus on fostering a connection with and love of nature first and foremost. In ''Beyond Ecophobia. Reclaiming the Heart in Nature Education'', Sobel argues, “If we want children to flourish, to become truly empowered, let us allow them to love the earth before we ask them to save it.”<ref name=""Sobel-2013"" />

=== Ecopedagogy ===
[[Ecopedagogy]], as distinct from traditional environmental education, empowers students to explore the connections between social and environmental violence, to investigate the hidden political structures that contribute to environmental destruction, and—critically—to engage in transformational praxis.<ref name=""Misiaszek-2020"">{{Cite book |last=Misiaszek |first=Greg |title=Ecopedagogy: Critical Environmental Teaching for Planetary Justice and Global Sustainable Development |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2020 |location=London, UK}}</ref> 

Ecopedagogy [[Curriculum|curricula]] can empower students to examine their own relationship with the natural world, the infrastructural privileges they may or may not have, and the ways in which the infrastructures around them were shaped by systems of power.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Niess |first1=Andrew |title=Composing with Infrastructures |date=2022-07-21 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003221807-2 |work=Ecopedagogies |pages=17–31 |access-date=2023-11-24 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-22180-7 |last2=Knittle |first2=Davy|doi=10.4324/9781003221807-2 }}</ref>

=== Arts ===
Both making<ref name=""Sunassee-2021"">{{Cite journal |last1=Sunassee |first1=Asvina |last2=Bokhoree |first2=Chandradeo |last3=Patrizio |first3=Andrew |date=2021-05-20 |title=Students' Empathy for the Environment through Eco-Art Place-Based Education: A Review |journal=Ecologies |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=214–247 |doi=10.3390/ecologies2020013 |issn=2673-4133|doi-access=free }}</ref> and viewing<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pulsinelli |first=Gabryella |title=The Role of Art in Creating Empathy for Nature |publisher=Wake Forest University |year=2019}}</ref> visual art have been used to promote ecological empathy. Notable [[Environmental art|environmental artists]] include [[Andy Goldsworthy|Andy Goldworthy]], [[Chris Jordan (artist)|Chris Jordan]], [[Agnes Denes]], and [[Clifford Ross]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=7 Environmental Artists Fighting for Change {{!}} Widewalls |url=https://www.widewalls.ch/magazine/environmental-artists |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=www.widewalls.ch |language=en}}</ref>

Music, dance, theater, and poetry are also used to promote ecological empathy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Curtis |first=David J. |date=2009-11-24 |title=Creating inspiration: The role of the arts in creating empathy for ecological restoration |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-8903.2009.00487.x |journal=Ecological Management & Restoration |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=174–184 |doi=10.1111/j.1442-8903.2009.00487.x |bibcode=2009EcoMR..10..174C |issn=1442-7001}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
Children’s books can be used to promote ecological empathy<ref name=""McKnight-2010"">{{Cite journal |last=McKnight |first=Diane M |date=August 2010 |title=Overcoming ""ecophobia"": fostering environmental empathy through narrative in children's science literature |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=8 |issue=6 |doi=10.1890/100041 |bibcode=2010FrEE....8E..10M |issn=1540-9295|doi-access=free }}</ref> often featuring animals as central characters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kucirkova |first=Natalia |date=2019-02-05 |title=How Could Children's Storybooks Promote Empathy? A Conceptual Framework Based on Developmental Psychology and Literary Theory |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=10 |page=121 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00121 |pmid=30804833 |pmc=6370723 |issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free }}</ref> One such series is the ''Schoolyard Series''<ref>{{Cite web |last=LTER Network |date=November 24, 2023 |title=LTER Schoolyard Series |url=https://lternet.edu/schoolyard-book-series/ |website=National Science Foundation LTER (Long Term Ecological Research) Network}}</ref>''—''a collection of children’s picture books developed by [[National Science Foundation|The National Science Foundation’s]] Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) network—with content reviewed by scientists and illustrations that engage readers and promote empathic connection.

Other popular environmental children’s books (as cited by Holm<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Holm |first=D. |date=2012 |title=Exploring environmental empathy in action with children's books |journal=Reading Improvement |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=134–139}}</ref>) include [[The Lorax]], Washing the Willow Tree Loon,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=J. B. |title=Washing the Willow Tree Loon |publisher=Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers |year=1995}}</ref> Hoot<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hiaasen |title=Hoot |publisher=Yearling |year=2005}}</ref> Flush,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hiaasen |first=C. |title=Flush |publisher=Ember |year=2007}}</ref> [[The Wheel on the School]], The Missing 'Gator of Gumbo Limbo,<ref>{{Cite book |last=George |first=J.C. |title=The Missing 'Gator of Gumbo Limbo |publisher=Harpercollins Childrens Books |year=1992}}</ref> The Empty Lot,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fife |first=D |title=The Empty Lot |publisher=Turtleback |year=1991}}</ref> [[The Great Kapok Tree]], Just a Dream,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Van Allsburg |first=C |title=Just a Dream |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=1990}}</ref> and The Forever Forest: Kids Save a Tropical Treasure.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pratt-Serafini |first1=R.H. |title=The Forever Forest: Kids Save a Tropical Treasure |last2=Crandell |first2=R. |publisher=Dawn Publications |year=2008}}</ref>

For adult readers, the genre of climate fiction can promote empathy and reflection by strengthening readers’ ecological imagination skills.<ref>{{Citation |last=Milkoreit |first=Manjana |title=The promise of climate fiction |date=2016-02-05 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315671468-10 |work=Reimagining Climate Change |pages=171–191 |access-date=2023-11-24 |place=Abingdon, Oxon : Routledge, Earthscan, 2016. |publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315671468-10 |isbn=9781315671468 }}</ref> In her book, ''Affective Ecologies'', Alexa Weik von Mossner argues that the embodied cognition elicited by environmental narratives allows readers to empathize, understand, and connect with ecological issues and human-nature relationships in a profound way.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Mossner |first=Alexa Weik |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11hpszq |title=Affective Ecologies |date=2017-05-16 |publisher=Ohio State University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctv11hpszq |isbn=978-0-8142-7493-4}}</ref>

=== Film ===
Numerous [[List of environmental films|films]] have been created to draw attention to current environmental issues and promote ecological empathy among audiences. Notable examples are: [[The 11th Hour (2007 film)|''The 11th Hour'']], ''[[Angry Inuk]]'', ''[[Anthropocene: The Human Epoch]]'', ''[[Food, Inc.]]'', ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]'', ''[[The Cove (film)|The Cove]]'', ''[[The Redwoods]]'', ''[[The Story of Stuff]],'' and ''[[The True Cost]]''.<ref name=""Kong-2023"">{{Cite web |last=Kong |first=Charmaine |date=2023-10-22 |title=The 21 Best Environmental Films of 2023 |url=https://earth.org/best-environmental-films/ |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=Earth.Org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Future scenarios ===
[[Scenario planning|Future scenarios]] can be used to elicit empathy for the environment and can be implemented in several ways. Jessica Blythe and colleagues studied the use of future scenarios about the ocean (presented in either written or virtual reality format) and found post-empathy levels to be significantly higher in both conditions.<ref name=""Blythe-2021"">{{Cite journal |last1=Blythe |first1=Jessica |last2=Baird |first2=Julia |last3=Bennett |first3=Nathan |last4=Dale |first4=Gillian |last5=Nash |first5=Kirsty L. |last6=Pickering |first6=Gary |last7=Wabnitz |first7=Colette C. C. |date=2021-09-04 |title=Fostering ocean empathy through future scenarios |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10253 |journal=People and Nature |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=1284–1296 |doi=10.1002/pan3.10253 |bibcode=2021PeoNa...3.1284B |s2cid=239074200 |issn=2575-8314}}</ref>

Pessimistic scenarios tend to elicit more empathy,<ref name=""Blythe-2021"" /> though optimistic scenarios tend to promote empowerment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Richter |first1=Isabell |last2=Sumeldan |first2=Joel |last3=Avillanosa |first3=Arlene |last4=Gabe-Thomas |first4=Elizabeth |last5=Creencia |first5=Lota |last6=Pahl |first6=Sabine |date=2021-11-22 |title=Co-created Future Scenarios as a Tool to Communicate Sustainable Development in Coastal Communities in Palawan, Philippines |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.627972 |pmid=34880799 |pmc=8645572 |issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Scenario Art involves the presentation of visual representations of future scenarios alongside a process of strategic questioning—designed to foster provoke empathy, creativity, and sustainable decision-making.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lederwasch |first=Aleta |date=2011 |title=Scenario Art as a Decision-making Tool to Facilitate Sustainable Futures |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/1833-1866/cgp/v06i03/36048 |journal=The International Journal of the Arts in Society: Annual Review |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=153–166 |doi=10.18848/1833-1866/cgp/v06i03/36048 |issn=1833-1866}}</ref>

Future scenarios have also been used in museums to help visitors imagine the impact of various ecological solutions on future life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garner |first1=Julie |last2=Rossmanith |first2=Eva |date=2021-01-02 |title=Using Participation and Empathy to Inspire Positive Change: A Transcontinental Conversation |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10598650.2020.1852491 |journal=Journal of Museum Education |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=48–60 |doi=10.1080/10598650.2020.1852491 |s2cid=232125003 |issn=1059-8650}}</ref>

=== Ecological storytelling ===
Participatory ecological [[storytelling]] promotes ecological empathy by having participants co-create environmental stories using both human and animal characters. Projecting and combining their own emotions with that of their characters, storytelling participants can develop empathy for environmental actors and the planet itself. Through their stories, participants engage in a critical self-reflective process and imagine possibilities for the construction of a [[sustainable future]]. This tool has been used with both broad range of participants, including youth, professional designers, and business stakeholders.<ref name=""Talgorn-2023"">{{Cite journal |last1=Talgorn |first1=Elise |last2=Ullerup |first2=Helle |date=2023-05-10 |title=Invoking 'Empathy for the Planet' through Participatory Ecological Storytelling: From Human-Centered to Planet-Centered Design |journal=Sustainability |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=7794 |doi=10.3390/su15107794 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Indigenous approaches ===
Educators can also promote empathy through the integration of [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] practices into the curricula. Activities are designed to help children connect with and understand themselves, first and foremost, connecting with others to better understand their perspectives, and helping students make meaningful connections between what they’re learning and their own lives. Indigenous stories, time spent outdoors to play freely with one another, and the building of relationship provide a foundation for empathic learning.<ref name=""Ly-2014"">{{Cite journal |last=Ly |first=R. |date=2014 |title=Beyond strategies: Infusing empathy and indigenous approaches in the elementary classroom. |url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/67041 |journal=University of Toronto TSpace Repository}}</ref> 

Indigenous learning is not only a cognitive process but also a social and emotional process, as the transfer of learning often happens through intergenerational relationships. In many Indigenous cultures, environmental knowledge is passed on through siblings, peers, and elders—through storytelling and powerful rituals and ceremonies (in contrast to the traditional lecture format of modern schools).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kopnina |first=Helen |url= |title=Anthropology of environmental education |date=2012 |publisher=Nova Science Publisher's, Incorporated. |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |editor-last2= |editor-first2=}}</ref>

Indigenous storytelling can play a powerful role in the cultivation of ecological empathy. Celidwen and Keltner explain, “Indigenous Peoples recover and recontextualize stories in ongoing co-creation and participation, thus strengthening identity and purpose, and restoring community bonds. These stories, still oriented toward reverence to all living forms, encourage empathy and perspective taking, bringing individuals into resilient and adaptive communities.”<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Celidwen |first1=Yuria |last2=Keltner |first2=Dacher |date=2023-10-20 |title=Kin relationality and ecological belonging: a cultural psychology of Indigenous transcendence |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=14 |pages=8 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2023.994508 |pmid=37928574 |pmc=10622976 |issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Parenting practices ===
Parents can also play a powerful role in promoting ecological empathy with their children. In [[Rachel Carson|Rachel Carson’s]] book, ''The Sense of Wonder,'' writes about her adventures with her grandnephew who—through his sense of wonder—helps her discover the natural world all over again. Carson encourages parents to provide children with companionship as they discover the joy and beauty of nature.<ref name=""Carson-1998"">{{Cite book |last=Carson |first=Rachel |title=The sense of wonder |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |year=1998 |edition=1st}}</ref>

== Empathy for animals ==
A central component of ecological empathy is the empathy felt towards non-human animals.<ref name=""Moran-2022"">{{Cite journal |last=Moran |first=Stephanie |date=2022 |title=What can art do for ecological thinking? |url=https://www.ecologicalcitizen.net/pdfs/epub-061.pdf |journal=The Ecological Citizen |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=103–108}}</ref>

One main motivation for nurturing children’s capacity to empathize with animals is based on the concept of ''[[transference]]'', whereby the empathic skills they develop for animals will result in an increased ability to empathize with humans.<ref name=""Thompson-2003"">{{Cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Kelly L. |last2=Gullone |first2=Eleonora |date=2003-01-01 |title=Promotion of empathy and prosocial behaviour in children through humane education |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00050060310001707187 |journal=Australian Psychologist |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=175–182 |doi=10.1080/00050060310001707187 |issn=0005-0067}}</ref>

Indeed, research suggests that developing empathy for animals may support the development of empathy toward other humans and—on the flip side—engaging in acts of cruelty toward animals may predict antisocial and violent behavior towards other humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Komorosky |first1=Dawna |last2=O’Neal |first2=Keri K. |date=2015-10-02 |title=The development of empathy and prosocial behavior through humane education, restorative justice, and animal-assisted programs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2015.1093684 |journal=Contemporary Justice Review |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=395–406 |doi=10.1080/10282580.2015.1093684 |s2cid=146610403 |issn=1028-2580}}</ref> In their study of 23 school shooters between 1988 and 2012, Arluke and Madfis found 43% of them had a history of abusing animals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arluke |first1=Arnold |last2=Madfis |first2=Eric |date=February 2014 |title=Animal Abuse as a Warning Sign of School Massacres: A Critique and Refinement |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1088767913511459 |journal=Homicide Studies |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=7–22 |doi=10.1177/1088767913511459 |s2cid=145456051 |issn=1088-7679}}</ref>

[[Humane education]] and nature education programs have been used as an effective intervention to promote empathy towards animals—in the zoo, at home, on the farm, or in the wild.

=== Animals in zoos and aquariums ===
[[Jim Wharton|Wharton]] et al.<ref name=""Wharton-2018"">{{Citation |last1=Wharton |first1=Jim |title=Effective Practices for Fostering Empathy Towards Marine Life |date=2018-06-29 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90778-9_10 |work=Exemplary Practices in Marine Science Education |pages=157–168 |access-date=2023-11-24 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-90777-2 |last2=Khalil |first2=Kathayoon |last3=Fyfe |first3=Catie |last4=Young |first4=Ashley|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-90778-9_10 |s2cid=150021484 }}</ref> have identified six practices adults can use with children to support their empathy towards [[marine life]]:

* ''Framing''—using language (such as names and pronouns) that conveys an animal’s individuality
* ''Modeling''—showing children how to treat animals with compassion and care
* Increasing Knowledge—helping children understand an animal’s unique needs and experiences
* ''Practice''—give children an opportunity to practice caring for an animal and acting out their empathic feelings (giving positive feedback when children engage appropriately with the animal in their care)
* ''Providing Experiences''—allow children to spend time in nature and in environments where they can interact with animals
* ''Imagination''—encourage students to imagine how an animal is feeling in a particular moment, or have them role play by taking on the character of a particular animal

Sarah Webber and colleagues found that zoo visitors observing [[orangutan]]s interacting with a digital interface (projected on the floor of their enclosure) responded with cognitive, affective, and motor empathy towards the orangutans. The interactive projection offered orangutans the opportunity to create artwork, play interactive games, view videos, and identify themselves in photographs. The exhibit was designed to build empathy by allowing visitors to observe the animals’ behaviors up-close, witness their cognitive capacity in action, and observe differences in individual animals' preferences and behaviors.<ref name=""Webber-2017"">{{Cite book |last1=Webber |first1=Sarah |title=Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |last2=Carter |first2=Marcus |last3=Sherwen |first3=Sally |last4=Smith |first4=Wally |last5=Joukhadar |first5=Zaher |last6=Vetere |first6=Frank |date=2017-05-02 |publisher=ACM |isbn=9781450346559 |location=New York, NY, USA |pages=6075–6088 |chapter=Kinecting with Orangutans: Zoo Visitors' Empathetic Responses to Animals' Use of Interactive Technology |doi=10.1145/3025453.3025729 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3025453.3025729 |s2cid=12401656}}</ref> 

In their small-scale evaluation of a zoo-based nature preschool, Ernst and Budnik found that children’s levels of empathy towards both humans and animals increased over the course of the school year. For [[Wildlife|wild animals]], they found significant increases in emotional sharing and empathic concern, but not in the cognitive (perspective-taking) component.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ernst |first1=J. |last2=Budnik |first2=L. |date=2022 |title=Fostering Empathy for People and Animals: An Evaluation of Lake Superior Zoo's Nature Preschool. |journal=International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=3–16}}</ref>

=== Companion animals ===
Khalid and Naqvi found that individuals reporting strong ""pet attachment"" had higher levels of empathy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khalid |first1=A. |last2=Naqvi |first2=I. |date=2016 |title=Relationship between pet attachment and empathy among young adults. |journal=Journal of Behavioural Sciences |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=66}}</ref> This finding was corroborated by Daly and Morton, who found that children who were highly attached to their [[pet]]s were more empathic than those who were less attached. Daly and Morton also found that children who preferred both cats and dogs (as opposed to one or the other)—as well as those who ''owned'' both—were more empathic than those who preferred or owned only one.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=Beth |last2=Morton |first2=L.L. |date=June 2006 |title=An investigation of human-animal interactions and empathy as related to pet preference, ownership, attachment, and attitudes in children |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/089279306785593801 |journal=Anthrozoös |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=113–127 |doi=10.2752/089279306785593801 |issn=0892-7936 |s2cid=144545356}}</ref>

Robert Poresky found that children’s empathy towards other children was correlated with their empathy towards pets. He also found that children with a stronger pet bond scored higher on the measure of empathy towards other children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poresky |first=Robert H. |date=June 1990 |title=The Young Children's Empathy Measure: Reliability, Validity and Effects of Companion Animal Bonding |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1990.66.3.931 |journal=Psychological Reports |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=931–936 |doi=10.2466/pr0.1990.66.3.931 |issn=0033-2941 |pmid=2377714 |s2cid=18913034}}</ref>

Rothgerber and Mican found that individuals who reported having a close relationship with animals subsequently avoided meat more than those who didn’t, and used indirect, apologetic justifications for the meat they did eat. Both effects were mediated by empathy for animals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rothgerber |first1=Hank |last2=Mican |first2=Frances |date=August 2014 |title=Childhood pet ownership, attachment to pets, and subsequent meat avoidance. The mediating role of empathy toward animals |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.03.032 |journal=Appetite |volume=79 |pages=11–17 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2014.03.032 |pmid=24704704 |s2cid=16737933 |issn=0195-6663}}</ref>

A growing body of research suggests that humane education programs, especially those involving human-animal interactions, facilitates the development of empathy in children.<ref name=""Jalongo-2013"">{{Citation |last=Jalongo |first=Mary Renck |title=Teaching Compassion: Humane Education in Early Childhood |chapter=Humane Education and the Development of Empathy in Early Childhood: Definitions, Rationale, and Outcomes |date=2013-06-21 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6922-9_1 |series=Educating the Young Child |volume=8 |pages=3–21 |access-date=2023-11-24 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6922-9_1 |isbn=978-94-007-6921-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=Beth |last2=Suggs |first2=Suzanne |date=2010-02-12 |title=Teachers' experiences with humane education and animals in the elementary classroom: implications for empathy development |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057240903528733 |journal=Journal of Moral Education |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=101–112 |doi=10.1080/03057240903528733 |s2cid=145558039 |issn=0305-7240}}</ref><ref name=""Thompson-2003"" /> Humane education programs can also be used as an effective strategy to combat school violence—reducing aggression towards both humans and animals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Faver |first=Catherine A. |date=March 2010 |title=School-based humane education as a strategy to prevent violence: Review and recommendations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.10.006 |journal=Children and Youth Services Review |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=365–370 |doi=10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.10.006 |issn=0190-7409}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Komorosky |first1=Dawna |last2=O’Neal |first2=Keri K. |date=2015-10-02 |title=The development of empathy and prosocial behavior through humane education, restorative justice, and animal-assisted programs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2015.1093684 |journal=Contemporary Justice Review |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=395–406 |doi=10.1080/10282580.2015.1093684 |s2cid=146610403 |issn=1028-2580}}</ref>
{{Further|Classroom pet}}

=== Farmed animals ===
Psychologist [[Melanie Joy]], who coined the term [[carnism]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Joy |first=Melanie |title=Psychic numbing and meat consumption: The psychology of carnism. |publisher=Saybrook University. |year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Joy |first=Melanie |title=Why we love dogs, eat pigs, and wear cows: An introduction to carnism. |publisher=Red Wheel. |year=2020}}</ref> studies the [[psychology of eating meat]] and the “meat paradox,” which refers to the fact that most people simultaneously care about animals and consume them. A growing number of researchers are studying this phenomenon in attempt to understand what factors play a role in this paradox. Piazza and colleagues identified what they refer to as the “4Ns” individuals use to justify meat consumption: Necessary, Natural, Normal, and Nice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piazza |first1=Jared |last2=Ruby |first2=Matthew B. |last3=Loughnan |first3=Steve |last4=Luong |first4=Mischel |last5=Kulik |first5=Juliana |last6=Watkins |first6=Hanne M. |last7=Seigerman |first7=Mirra |date=August 2015 |title=Rationalizing meat consumption. The 4Ns |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.011 |journal=Appetite |volume=91 |pages=114–128 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.011 |pmid=25865663 |s2cid=11686309 |issn=0195-6663|hdl=20.500.11820/9cf94fc6-b4a9-4066-af4a-9c53d2fd3122 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Research by Loughnan and colleagues suggests that people who value masculinity, find dominance and inequality acceptable, view animals as highly dissimilar to humans, or think that animals cannot feel pain are more likely to eat meat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Loughnan |first1=Steve |last2=Bastian |first2=Brock |last3=Haslam |first3=Nick |date=April 2014 |title=The Psychology of Eating Animals |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721414525781 |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=104–108 |doi=10.1177/0963721414525781 |s2cid=145339463 |issn=0963-7214}}</ref>

Megan Earle and colleagues found that providing visual reminders of the animal origins of meat (compared to photos of the meat alone) lead to decreased meat consumption, which was mediated by increased empathy towards animals, distress about meat consumption, and disgust for meat. The intervention also led to a decrease in negative attitudes towards [[Vegetarianism|vegetarians]] and [[Veganism|vegans]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Earle |first1=Megan |last2=Hodson |first2=Gordon |last3=Dhont |first3=Kristof |last4=MacInnis |first4=Cara |date=2019-06-24 |title=Eating with our eyes (closed): Effects of visually associating animals with meat on antivegan/vegetarian attitudes and meat consumption willingness |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1368430219861848 |journal=Group Processes & Intergroup Relations |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=818–835 |doi=10.1177/1368430219861848 |issn=1368-4302 |s2cid=164266896}}</ref>

In their meta-analysis of 100 studies evaluating interventions designed to reduce meat consumption, Mathur and colleagues found that appeals to animal welfare were largely successful in achieving at least a short-term reduction in meat consumption, based on self-report behavioral outcomes and intentions for future behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mathur |first1=Maya B |last2=Peacock |first2=Jacob |last3=Reichling |first3=David |last4=Nadler |first4=Janice |last5=Bain |first5=Paul |last6=Gardner |first6=Christopher D |last7=Robinson |first7=Thomas |date=2021-04-21 |title=Interventions to reduce meat consumption by appealing to animal welfare: Meta-analysis and evidence-based recommendations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/bc2wy |access-date=2023-12-10 |journal=Appetite|volume=164 |doi=10.31219/osf.io/bc2wy |pmid=33984401 |pmc=9205607 }}</ref>

While self-reported measures of empathy may be susceptible to [[Social-desirability bias|social desirability bias]] and other [[Validity (statistics)|validity]] issues, analysis of facial expressions can be a more objective measure. Ly and Weary found that facial expressions were able to robustly predict empathy towards farm animals when participants viewed videos of animals undergoing painful procedures associated with industrial farming.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ly |first1=Lexis H. |last2=Weary |first2=Daniel M. |date=2021-03-01 |title=Facial expression in humans as a measure of empathy towards farm animals in pain |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=e0247808 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0247808 |pmid=33647043 |pmc=7920373 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1647808L |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In a study of dairy farmers, lack of empathy towards animals (as indicated by disagreement with the statement: “animals experience physical pain as humans do”) was correlated with higher numbers of skin lesions in the farmers’ cows.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kielland |first1=C. |last2=Skjerve |first2=E. |last3=Østerås |first3=O. |last4=Zanella |first4=A.J. |date=July 2010 |title=Dairy farmer attitudes and empathy toward animals are associated with animal welfare indicators |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |volume=93 |issue=7 |pages=2998–3006 |doi=10.3168/jds.2009-2899 |pmid=20630216 |issn=0022-0302|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Organizations such as the [[New Roots Institute]], [[The Humane League]], [[Humane Society of the United States]], [[Farm Sanctuary]], [[Mercy for Animals]], and others educate youth and the broader public about the impact of factory farming, in an attempt to promote empathy for farmed animals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 11 Animal Charities to Donate to in 2023 |url=https://animalcharityevaluators.org/donation-advice/recommended-charities/ |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=Animal Charity Evaluators |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Walsh |first=Owen |date=2023 |title=What do animal organizations do, and why should I support them? |url=https://thehumaneleague.org/article/animal-organizations |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=thehumaneleague.org}}</ref>{{Further|Psychology of eating meat|Ethics of eating meat}}

=== Wild animals ===
With the rise of [[globalization]] and [[International trade|transnational trade]], both legal and [[Wildlife trade#Illegal wildlife trade|illegal wildlife trade]] has proliferated.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2016-06-30 |title=World Wildlife Crime Report 2016 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18356/e70581eb-en |journal=World Wildlife Crime Report |doi=10.18356/e70581eb-en |isbn=9789210580557 |issn=2521-6155}}</ref> Dan Yue and colleagues designed educational materials including texts depicting the poaching of animals in an [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] way, such as one written from the perspective of a tiger cub whose mother was killed by poachers.<ref name=""Yue-2021"">{{Cite journal |last1=Yue |first1=Dan |last2=Tong |first2=Zepeng |last3=Tian |first3=Jianchi |last4=Li |first4=Yang |last5=Zhang |first5=Linxiu |last6=Sun |first6=Yan |date=2021-03-30 |title=Anthropomorphic Strategies Promote Wildlife Conservation through Empathy: The Moderation Role of the Public Epidemic Situation |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=3565 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18073565 |pmid=33808181 |pmc=8037496 |issn=1660-4601|doi-access=free }}</ref> These anthropomorphic educational materials boosted participants’ empathy towards wildlife and their intention to avoid consuming wildlife products, such as tiger bone wine..

Kansky and Maassarani found that the implementation of [[Nonviolent Communication|non-violent communication]] (NVC) workshops led to greater empathic concern for both people and wildlife in Namibia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kansky |first1=Ruth |last2=Maassarani |first2=Tarek |date=January 2022 |title=Teaching nonviolent communication to increase empathy between people and toward wildlife to promote human–wildlife coexistence |journal=Conservation Letters |volume=15 |issue=1 |doi=10.1111/conl.12862 |bibcode=2022ConL...15E2862K |issn=1755-263X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Ashley Young and colleagues offer best practices for cultivating children’s empathic connection for animals, including:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Young |first1=Ashley |last2=Khalil |first2=Kathayoon A. |last3=Wharton |first3=Jim |date=April 2018 |title=Empathy for Animals: A Review of the Existing Literature |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cura.12257 |journal=Curator: The Museum Journal |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=327–343 |doi=10.1111/cura.12257 |issn=0011-3069}}</ref> 

* Providing children with ample time outdoors to connect with nature
* Respecting an animal’s subjective existence, emotions, and intentions (e.g. not picking up an animal that is resisting being picked up or demonstrating fear)
* Acting as a role model for children to model appropriate ways of connecting with animals, and provide feedback on their animal interactions
* Activating children’s imaginations through [[role-playing]], storytelling, and mimicry of animals

== See also ==
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[History of climate change policy and politics]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]]
[[Category:Empathy]]
[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:Environmental psychology]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Ecology]]"
Lindsay Mollison,"{{Short description|Australian physician and environmentalist}}

{{BLP sources|date=November 2023}}
'''Lindsay Clifford Mollison''' is a retired Consultant Physician in Gastroenterology and Infectious Diseases.  He was the founding member of the Kakadu Action Group <ref>{{cite web |title=Kakadu Action Group (KAG) |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-298861270/findingaid#nla-obj-298873396  |publisher=Records of the Australian Conservation Foundation, Canberra Branch, 1975-1996 [manuscript] |access-date=26 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mollison's KAG |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/120590773/?terms=kakadu%20action%20group&match=1&clipping_id=128829415 |publisher=The Age |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref> (KAG) that led a campaign to prevent mining in the Coronation Hill area of the [[Northern Territory]]'s [[Kakadu National Park]] in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

== Early life and education ==

Mollison was born at St George's Hospital in [[Kew, Victoria]] in 1956.  His father was a professional [[Woodturning|wood turner]] and his mother a shop assistant.

He was educated at Auburn Central School (now [[Auburn Primary School]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.auburnps.vic.edu.au/about-us/our-place/ |title=Our Place |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2023 |website= |publisher=Auburn Primary School |access-date=29 October 2023 |quote=}}</ref>) and then [[Melbourne High School]] (where he was a prefect in his senior years at both). He graduated from school in 1974 with General and Special Exhibition Prizes in the [[Higher School Certificate (Victoria)|Higher School Certificate]] examinations.

He then attended the [[University of Melbourne]] from 1975 to 1981 graduating with [[MBBS]] in that year.  He was active in various non academic roles at University including being editor of the journal Speculum,<ref>{{cite web |title=Speculum |url=https://digitised-collections.unimelb.edu.au/collections/da3db133-4256-5674-b1b2-52e02846d95b?spc.sf=dc.date.available&spc.sd=DESC&spc.page=9 |publisher=Melbourne Medical School Students Association |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref> and President of the Melbourne Medical School Students Association.<ref>{{cite web |title=Melbourne Medical School Students Association |url=https://ummss.org.au/  |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref>

His early working professional life was in the [[Northern Territory]] based at [[Royal Darwin Hospital]] with rotations into [[Arnhem Land]] and the regions around [[Kakadu National Park|Kakadu]].  Later he returned to Melbourne where he qualified as a Fellow of the [[Royal Australasian College of Physicians]].  It was during this period of studying that the mining threat to Kakadu became apparent and he began the KAG.

Subsequently he returned to the Northern Territory as a Consultant Physician for several years.  In 1994 he moved with his family to [[Perth]], [[Western Australia]], to take up University Teaching Hospital posts.

== Kakadu Action Group ==

In the late 1980s the [[Australian Government]] was considering allowing gold mining by [[BHP]] in the [[Kakadu National Park]] at a site known as [[Coronation Hill]].<ref>{{cite web |title=BHP WANTS CORONATION TO PROCEED |date=14 August 1990 |url=https://www.afr.com/politics/bhp-wants-coronation-to-proceed-19900814-k41y8 |publisher=Financial Review |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref>

Opposed to this plan was the [[Kakadu Action Group]] which met regularly in the [[Australian Conservation Foundation]]'s offices in Glenferrie, Victoria. Australia.<ref>{{cite news |title=KAG Meetings Glenferrie |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/122222846/?match=1&clipping_id=128764289 |access-date=25 July 2023 |publisher=The Age |date=24 Nov 1987 |page=2}}</ref> It was brought together by Mollison to oppose the proposed mine.  To achieve this the group also organised and participated in various public meetings.<ref>{{cite news |last1=The Age p. 40 |title=KAG: Wilderness Society Meeting, St Kilda |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/122957405/?terms=%22kakadu%20action%20group%22%20&match=1 |access-date=26 July 2023 |work=Newspapers.com |publisher=The Age |date=14 Apr 1989 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Kakadu: World Heritage Under Threat |title=Kakadu: World Heritage Under Threat |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/121055922/?terms=%22kakadu%20action%20group%22%20&match=1 |access-date=26 July 2023 |publisher=The Age, p. 41 |date=22 Jul 1988}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Wilderness |title=Wilderness: KAG |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/122957352/?terms=%22kakadu%20action%20group%22%20&match=1 |access-date=26 July 2023 |publisher=The Age, p 31 |date=14 Apr 1989}}</ref> It was being surveilled by the Australian Government with archives of its meetings still held secretly by the Government (due for release in 2026).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kakadu Action Group (KAG), Melbourne, 1987-89 (File 8226) - Box 67 |title=KAG Files |url=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1965778 |website=NLA |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref>

Influential letters from Mollison were published in the ""To The Editor"" section of the [[The Age|Melbourne Age]] newspaper. The themes were to protect the wilderness of the entire park for present and future generations from any further encroachment by mining interests<ref>{{cite news |title=Mining Industry not disadvantaged |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-age/128764001/ |access-date=26 July 2023 |work=Lindsay Mollison. KAG |publisher=The Age, p 12 |date=20 Oct 1988}}</ref> and to recognise the links between these spaces and the Australian psyche.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kakadu - public puts pressure brakes on mining development |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/120576449/?terms=%22lindsay%20mollison%22%20&match=1 |access-date=26 July 2023 |work=Lindsay Mollison. KAG |publisher=The Age, p 12 |date=1 Oct 1990}}</ref>

== Professional life ==

During his time working in the Northern Territory Mollison researched First Nations Health and contributed to knowledge about it.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mollison |first1=Lindsay |date=1994 |title=Doctors' approach to the treatment of Aboriginal patients; legal aspects; practical difficulties. Individual needs. |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/192607916?keyword=lindsay%20mollison |journal=Med J Aust |volume=160 |issue=4 |pages=184–185 |doi= |access-date=28 July 2023}}</ref>  In particular he discovered the importance of HTLV-I infection in central Australian First Nations people publishing the first reports of known disease associated with it in Australia<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mollison |first1=Lindsay |title=Tropical spastic paraparesis in an Aborigine |journal=Med J Aust |date=1993 |volume=159 |issue=1 |pages=28–29 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1993.tb137700.x |pmid=8316109 |s2cid=21967596 |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/192607261?c=people |access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref> and finding new links to common diseases afflicting these people due to infection with it.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mollison |first1=L.C |last2=Lo |first2=S.T.H |last3=Marking |first3=G |title=HTLV-I and scabies in Australian Aborigines |journal=The Lancet |date=May 1993 |volume=341 |issue=8855 |pages=1281–1282 |doi=10.1016/0140-6736(93)91186-P |pmid=8098422 |s2cid=5258086 |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PII0140-6736(93)91186-P/fulltext |access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mollison |first1=Lindsay |title=HTLV-I and clinical disease correlates in central Australian aborigines |journal=Med J Aust |date=21 Feb 1994 |volume=160 |issue=4 |page=238 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1994.tb126634.x |pmid=8309411|s2cid=36052735 }}</ref>  His groundbreaking insights and research has led to major efforts to further understand this disease in Australia<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allam |first1=Lorena |title=What is HTLV-1? The devastating health crisis afflicting central Australia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/apr/24/what-is-htlv-1-the-devastating-health-crisis-afflicting-central-australia |access-date=26 July 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=28 Apr 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=WHO |title=Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/human-t-lymphotropic-virus-type-1 |website=WHO |access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref> although to date his work seems to have been under recognised.

During his working life in [[Western Australia]], particularly at Fremantle Hospital, he helped to bring  international trials of novel [[Hepatitis C|Hepatitis C medications]] to Australia and the State.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gane |first1=E |last2=Ben Ari |first2=Z |last3=Mollison |first3=L |title=Efficacy and safety of grazoprevir + ribavirin for 12 or 24 weeks in treatment-naïve patients with hepatitis C virus genotype 1 infection. |journal=Journal of Viral Hepatitis |date=October 2016 |volume=23 |issue=10 |pages=789–97 |doi=10.1111/jvh.12552 |pmid=27291249 |s2cid=44926781 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27291249/ |access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=Graham R. |last2=Afdhal |first2=Nezam |last3=Roberts |first3=Stuart K. |last4=Mollison |first4=Lindsay C. |last5=Sulkowski |first5=Mark |title=Sofosbuvir and Velpatasvir for HCV Genotype 2 and 3 Infection |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=31 December 2015 |volume=373 |issue=27 |pages=2608–2617 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1512612 |pmid=26575258 |doi-access=free }}</ref>  Many of the drugs he and his team worked on are now mainstays of day to day therapies offering cures to patients with [[Hepatitis C]].

He established a private Gastroenterology Practice<ref>{{cite web |title=Riverview Endoscopy |url=https://www.riverviewendo.com.au/ |access-date=26 October 2023}}</ref> and Hepatology Practice <ref>{{cite web |title=ABC Liver Lover Clinic |url=https://www.riverviewendo.com.au/abc-liver-lover-clinic/ |access-date= 28 October 2023}}</ref> which continue to provide medical advice and therapies to the people of Western Australia (WA).

During his time in WA he completed a [[Professional degrees of public health|MPH]] at [[University of Western Australia|UWA]].  His team organised several international conferences on Hepatitis (the Annual Indian Ocean Hepatitis Meeting) during the early 2000s

Mollison became a snow sports Instructor in 2011 and has taught in Italy and Australia and has taken holiday groups skiing in France, Switzerland and Italy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lindsay Mollison |url=https://www.basi.org.uk/basi/site_mock_ups/basi_profile.aspx?ContactKey=94a025b9-6ce4-47dc-9d10-598c335cbd58 |website=BASI: Find an Instructor |publisher=BASI |access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref>  He enjoys [[Bushwalking]]. He is a keen ocean swimmer and has achieved some ocean swimming milestones including the 20&nbsp;km crossing of the Indian Ocean from [[Perth]] to [[Rottnest Island]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Solo Crossing Record |url=https://rottnestchannelswimassociation.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Official-Solo-Crossing-Record-24.03.23.pdf |publisher=RCSA |access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Mollison |first1=Lindsay |title=Rottnest Channel Solo Swim |url=https://www.riverviewendo.com.au/rottnest |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref>

He has two adult children and numerous grandchildren.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{improve categories|date=November 2023}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mollison, Lindsay}}
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Activists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians]]
[[Category:Natural environment]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Hepatitis C]]
[[Category:Hepatitis B]]
[[Category:Viruses]]
[[Category:21st-century Australian medical doctors]]
[[Category:20th-century Australian medical doctors]]
[[Category:University of Melbourne alumni]]"
Category:Animal conservation,"[[Category:Animal ecology|Conservation]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]"
Category:Plant conservation,"[[Category:Plant ecology|Conservation]]
[[Category:Nature conservation]]"
Conservation of fungi,"{{Short description|None}}
[[Fungi]] are considered to be in urgent need of [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]] by the [[British Mycological Society]] on the grounds that it is a traditionally neglected [[taxon]] which has legal protection in few countries. Current threats to fungi include [[Forest destruction|destruction of forests]] worldwide, [[habitat fragmentation]], changes in [[land use]], [[pollution]], [[anthropogenic climate change]], and [[over-exploitation]] of commercially attractive species. Fungi population status has never been recorded until 2018 by the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Royal Botanic Gardens]].<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web |title=State of the World's Plants and Fungi {{!}} Kew |url=https://www.kew.org/science/state-of-the-worlds-plants-and-fungi |access-date=2023-03-31 |website=www.kew.org |language=en}}</ref> These surveys relay species information, threats, and current protective policies. Expertise of 210 contributors from 97 institutions in 42 countries contributes to these reports.<ref name="":3"" />

The [[Species Survival Commission]] of the [[IUCN]] has five specialist groups dealing with the conservation of fungi.

* [[Chytrid]], [[Zygomycete]], [[Downy mildew|Downy Mildew]] and [[Slime mold|Slime Mold]] Specialist Group
* [[Pezizaceae|Cup-fungus]], [[Truffle]] and Ally Specialist Group
* [[Lichen]] Specialist Group
* [[Mushroom]], [[Bracket fungus|Bracket]] and [[Puffball]] Specialist Group
* [[Rust (fungus)|Rust]] and [[Smut (fungus)|Smut]] Specialist Group

These groups are overseen by Cátia Canteiro, a plant and fungi specialist at the Indianapolis Zoo’s Global Center for Species Survival (GCSS). Under her leadership, these groups are focusing on Red Listing fungi species in order to build the foundation for conservation efforts.

Lack of knowledge is considered a major concern with a general paucity of comprehensive checklists, even for developed nations. In addition, the criteria for ""red-listing"" is not specifically designed for fungi and the kinds of data required, viz. population size, lifespan, spatial distribution and [[population dynamics]] are poorly known for most fungi. As a result, in practice, [[indicator species]] are identified as target foci for the conservation of threatened fungi. The term '''conservation mycology''' was coined in a 2018 publication.<ref name=""May et al. 2018""/>

== Ecosystem Services ==
Fungi provide numerous [[Ecosystem service|ecosystem services]] that are essential in maintaining ecological environments and reducing the effects of [[climate change]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |title=Benefits of Fungi for the Environment and Humans |url=http://www.decadeonrestoration.org/stories/benefits-fungi-environment-and-humans |access-date=2023-03-16 |website=UN Decade on Restoration |language=en}}</ref> Fungi help facilitate the [[nutrient cycle]] and [[carbon cycle]], act as a food source for humans and animals, regulate animals populations, and contribute to the degradation of various pollutants.<ref name="":0"" /> Fungi are extremely diverse and take numerous approaches in providing these services through unique and complex ecological relationships. Fungi can have [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]], [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]], or [[Parasitism|parasitic]] relationships.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-09-30 |title=8.14: Symbiotic Relationships of Fungi |url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/08%3A_Protists_and_Fungi/8.14%3A_Symbiotic_Relationships_of_Fungi |access-date=2023-03-16 |website=Biology LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> 90% of all plant species have been found to associate with fungi.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |title=How plants make friends with fungi |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/10/161019100936.htm |access-date=2023-03-16 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref> Fungi provide plants with nitrogen, phosphate, and water through decomposition, protect them against pests such as [[Nematode|nematodes]] and [[Arthropod|arthropods]],<ref name="":1"" /> communicate with plants through their [[mycelium]] network,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Underground Networking: The Amazing Connections Beneath Your Feet |url=https://www.nationalforests.org/blog/underground-mycorrhizal-network |access-date=2023-03-16 |website=www.nationalforests.org |language=en}}</ref> and stimulate plant growth by influencing root development.<ref name="":1"" /> Many of these mutualistic plant-fungi relationships are established between [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhiza fungi]].<ref name="":1"" /> A continuation in the loss of fungi diversity and populations will drastically alter ecosystem identity, processes, and cost governments billions of dollars to provide their ecosystem services.

== Conservation Strategies ==

=== Red Listing ===
Red Listing is an approach that works with the [[IUCN Red List|IUCN's Red List]] program in which biological, geographical, and population data are acquired from field studies. The data is put into the Red List database and utilized to inform governments and organizations as to how, where, and what is needing the most conservation efforts. This strategy works through the legislative or organization processes in order to turn field data into conservation efforts. Efforts include governmental regulation of the species and its use, habitat protection, and regulation of known threats.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 22, 2023 |title=How the Red List is Used |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/about/uses |access-date=March 22, 2023 |website=IUCN Red List}}</ref>

=== Species Specific Approach ===
Species specific approaches typically target known, at risk species, and utilize geographic data as well as population data to derive conservation strategies.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last1=Molina |first1=Randy |last2=Horton |first2=Thomas R. |last3=Trappe |first3=James M. |last4=Marcot |first4=Bruce G. |date=2011-04-01 |title=Addressing uncertainty: How to conserve and manage rare or little-known fungi |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1754504810000401 |journal=Fungal Ecology |series=Conservation Underground: Fungi in a Changing World |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=134–146 |doi=10.1016/j.funeco.2010.06.003 |issn=1754-5048}}</ref>  These strategies include reducing human use of the species, regulating land use, reducing invasive predator populations, and improving habitat quality. Geographic data typically includes information such as [[Occupancy–abundance relationship|extent of occurrence]] and [[Occupancy–abundance relationship|area of occupancy]] while population data includes information such as [[Life history theory|life-history strategies]], known threats, and [[Reproduction|reproductive strategies]]. Species specific approaches may also target an associated [[keystone species]] and work to support them. Known keystone species can provide easier methods of implementing conservation efforts and help conserve all associated species.<ref name="":2"" /> Keystone species have effects known as a [[trophic cascade]] in which increasing population of keystone species regulate the population of predators of the target species. This in turn increases population size of the target species. Famously, Wyoming’s Yellowstone National Park utilized this approach with [[History of wolves in Yellowstone|wolf reintroduction]] to regulate elk populations and restore aspen populations.

=== System Approach ===
Systems approaches utilize [[Biodiversity hotspot|biodiversity hotspots]] or establishing reserves for biodiversity and its protection. These system approaches focus on the range of biodiversity and preserving its order to restore system structure and composition.<ref name="":2"" /> In turn, conservation efforts fixate on maintaining ""normal"" conditions which include fire, flood, and other disturbance regimes. Community and habitat interactions and dynamics such as nutrient cycling, food webs, and key ecological functions of the target species group are monitored and restored if possible.<ref name="":2"" /> By establishing and maintaining ""normal"" conditions, conservationists hope that populations of target species, or target groups, will naturally return to their ""normal"" population levels.

==See also==
* [[Fungi by conservation status]]

==References==
{{reflist|refs=

<ref name=""May et al. 2018"">{{cite journal |last1=May |first1=Tom W. |last2=Cooper |first2=Jerry A. |last3=Dahlberg |first3=Anders |last4=Furci |first4=Giuliana |last5=Minter |first5=David W. |last6=Mueller |first6=Gregory M. |last7=Pouliot |first7=Alison |last8=Yang |first8=Zhuliang |title=Recognition of the discipline of conservation mycology |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=33 |issue=3 |year=2018 |pages=733–736 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13228|pmid=30264893 |s2cid=52876429 }}</ref>

}}

{{conservation of species}}

[[Category:Fungus ecology]]
[[Category:Nature conservation|Fungi]]"
Category:Nature reserves,"{{Cat main|Nature reserve}}
{{Commons category|Nature reserves}}

[[Category:Protected areas]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions]]
[[Category:Nature conservation|Reserves]]"
Category:Species by conservation status,"*'''For all categories of conservation status for plant and animal species''', please see/use '''[[:Category: Biota by conservation status]].'''

[[Category:Species| Conservation]]
[[Category:Nature conservation|;]]"
Category:Nature conservation organizations,"{{cat main|List of conservation organizations}}
{{cat more|Nature conservation}}
{{For|non-environmental organizations|Category:Conservation and restoration organizations}}
{{Commons category|Conservation organizations}}

[[Category:Nature conservation|:]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainability organizations]]
[[Category:Natural resources organizations]]
{{CatAutoTOC}}"
Anthroposystem,"{{multiple issues|
{{essay-like|date=November 2015}}
{{no footnotes|date=November 2015}}
}}
The term '''anthroposystem''' is used to describe the anthropological analogue to the [[ecosystem]]. In other words, the anthroposystem model serves to compare the flow of materials through human systems to those in naturally occurring systems.  As defined by Santos, an anthroposystem is ""the orderly combination or arrangement of physical and biological [[Natural environment|environments]] for the purpose of maintaining human civilization...built by man to sustain his kind.""<ref name=""Santos2005"">{{cite journal | last=Santos | first=Miguel A. | last2=Filho | first2=Walter Leal | title=An analysis of the relationship between sustainable development and the anthroposystem concept | journal=International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development | publisher=Inderscience Publishers | volume=4 | issue=1 | year=2005 | issn=1474-6778 | url=http://capita.wustl.edu/me449-06/reports/Santos_Anthroposystem.pdf|doi=10.1504/ijesd.2005.006775 | page=78| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061024092131/http://capita.wustl.edu/me449-06/reports/Santos_Anthroposystem.pdf | archive-date=2006-10-24 }}</ref>  The anthroposystem is intimately linked to [[Economic system|economic]] and [[ecosystem|ecological]] systems as well.

<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Husar3.png|300px|thumb]] -->

==Description==
Both the anthroposystem and ecosystem can be divided into three groups: producers, [[heterotroph|consumers]], and [[Recycling|recyclers]]. In the ecosystem, the producers or [[autotroph]]s consist of plants and some [[bacteria]] capable of producing their own food via [[photosynthesis]] or [[chemical synthesis]], the consumers consist of animals that obtain energy from grazing and/or by feeding on other animals and the recyclers consist of [[decomposer]]s such as [[Fungus|fungi]] and bacteria.

In the anthroposystem, the [[Factors of production|producers]] consist of the [[energy production]] through [[fossil fuel]]s, manufacturing with non-fuel [[mineral]]s and growing food; the [[consumer]]s consist of humans and domestic animals and the recyclers consist of the [[decomposing]] or [[recycling]] activities (i.e. [[Sewage treatment|waste water treatment]], metal and solid waste recycling).

<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Husar2.png|300px|thumb]] -->

The ecosystem is [[sustainability|sustainable]]  whereas the anthroposystem is not. The ecosystem is a [[closed-loop controller|closed loop]] in which nearly everything is recycled whereas the anthroposystem is an [[Open-loop controller|open loop]] where very little is recycled.  In contrast to the ecosystem, the anthroposystem's producers and consumers are significantly more spatially displaced than those in the ecosystem and thus, more energy is required to transfer matter to a producer or recycler. Currently, a large majority of this energy comes from non-renewable fossil fuels.

Additionally, recycling is a naturally occurring component of the ecosystem, and is responsible for much of the [[Natural resource|resources]] used by the system. Under the anthroposystem [[Model (abstract)|model]], however, recycling does not naturally occur. Outside input is relied on for material and energy supplies, and recycling systems that do exist are artificially created. The process of improving the flow of energy, such that waste can be reused as input resources, is known as industrial ecology.

A matrix can be used to describe the anthropological network of producers, consumers and recyclers and the movement of materials between each.

<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Network.png|400px|thumb]]  -->

However, the matrix model of the anthroposystem - based on a model for the ecosystem - fails in acknowledging the physical redistribution of mobilized matter. In developing the anthroposystem model, there is a trade-off between simplicity and completeness.  A simple representative model can be created involving only producers, consumers, and recyclers, but this is an open, incomplete system.  More components and analogues (such as a matrix that encompasses the producers, consumers and recyclers) can be added to the system to make a more complete model, but the model loses simplicity in the process.  Though the anthroposystem concept is flawed in this manner, it is a very good starting point for analyzing human activities and their effects on the environment.

When viewing the Earth as one large anthroposystem, we are essentially eliminating the uncertainty in material flow. All goods (i.e. fossil fuels) will still exist in the system but in a new form (i.e. [[pollutant]]s). Therefore, the Laws of [[Law of conservation of matter|Conservation of Matter]] and [[Law of conservation of energy|Conservation of Energy]] can be applied to analyze how material flow will impact the environment.

==References==
<references />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061026040549/http://capita.wustl.edu/me449-06/reports/Ecosystem_Biosphere.pdf Husar]
* {{cite book | last=Ayres | first=Robert | title=Industrial metabolism : restructuring for sustainable development | publisher=United Nations University Press | location=Tokyo | year=1994 | isbn=978-92-808-0841-4 | oclc=44965463 | language=ro}}

[[Category:Ecology terminology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Symbiosis]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]"
Category:Economics of sustainability,"{{JEL code|Q56}}
{{Commons}}

[[Category:Environmental economics|Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Public ecology,"The idea of '''public ecology''' has recently emerged in response to increasing disparities over political, social, and environmental concerns.  Of particular interest are the processes that generate, evaluate and apply knowledge in political, social, and environmental arenas.  Public ecology offers a way of framing [[sustainability]] problems, community dynamics and social issues.  Forests, [[Drainage basin|watersheds]], parks, [[flora]], [[fauna]], air, and water all constitute environmental quality and are therefore public goods.  The processes society engages in to negotiate the meaning of these goods, upon which decisions and actions are based, reside within the [[public domain]].

==Dynamics==

The boundaries that are ascribed to both social and ecological systems are permeable and dynamic.  The creation and maintenance of these boundaries should not be exclusionary.  Politicians, economists, and ecologists must work with citizens across cultural, organizational, institutional, political and geographic boundaries.  However, which citizens should be involved, and how they should be involved are questions that need to be addressed.

Knowledge bases, roles of experts, and state and local power dynamics are changing in ways that impel us to learn new ways of coexisting.  A more public ecology could take many forms and exist in many forums, some of which are currently being explored through theory and practice.  [[Adaptive Management]], [[citizen science]] (Backstrand 2003), [[Restoration ecology|ecological real-world experiments]] (Gross & Hoffmann-Riem 2005), and [[Collaborative Ecosystem Governance]] (Karkkainen 2002) are examples of evolving processes that attempt to deal with the increasing complexity and dynamism of social and ecological systems.  Governance of these systems must integrate both biological and social dimensions.  Competing value claims will inevitably arise and lead to conflicts that must be addressed through an inclusive, deliberative and adaptive process.  An understanding of [[ecosystems]] must consider and dignify the values of affected communities and not just rely on claims made by scientific experts.

== Main organizing principles ==

*  Promotes a blending of natural with the social that goes beyond [[Conservation movement|naturalism]] and [[environmental science]]
*  Seeks integrative collaborative processes that cross the many disciplinary and cultural boundaries  
that separate scientists, policy-makers, and citizens

*  Explores dimensions, qualities, and aspects of the world that are public and driven by normative 
claims

*  Supports respect for the various value systems that shape political discourse at local, regional, and national scales
*  Values local decision making that is embedded in the larger context of protecting public goods
*  Recognizes the need for local knowledge and local action to address local concerns in a more 
inclusive and [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralist]] process

*  Considers local decision making embedded in a larger context of protecting public goods
                                           
(''Adapted from David Robertson, Bruce Hull and [[Timothy Luke]]'')

Many of these principles are shared or have roots in disciplines such as [[political ecology]], sustainable development, [[Urban area|urban]] ecology, [[conservation biology]] and [[restoration ecology]].  Public Ecology also shares a common interdisciplinary and [[holistic]] approach to social-environmental interactions with Human Ecology.

== Quotes ==

''“The challenge today is how to develop a truly public ecology with new organizations, institutions, and ideas whose material articulation can balance the insights of scientific experts, the concerns of [[private property]] holders, the worries about social inequity, and the need for ecological [[sustainability]] to support human and nonhuman life in the 21st century.”''  
(Luke 2005)

''“Public ecology is distinctive in that it explicitly and critically embraces its own normativity and uncertainty while striving to create a more democratic body of knowledge that will help us to understand the environment as a complex and dynamic biocultural system, one that can be interpreted from a variety of perspectives and points of view.  Public ecology encourages citizens and all concerned stakeholders to participate with research scientists and professional policy-makers in the interdisciplinary, collaborative efforts necessary to resolve the uncertainty and conflict that surrounds contemporary environmental issues.”'' (Robertson and Hull 2003)

''“Public ecology is a more powerful [[ecology]].  It is a body of environmental knowledge that seeks to bridge the gulf between science and policy.  Public ecology not only exists at the interface of science and policy but functions as a joint product of these generally disparate realms.  The language of public ecology facilitates the flow of ideas and information form one side to the other and back again.”'' (Robertson and Hull 2001)

== References==

* Backstrand, K. 2003. Civic science for sustainability: Reframing the role of experts, policy-makers and citizens in environmental governance. Global Environmental Politics 3 (4): pp.&nbsp;24–41.
* [[Matthias Gross|Gross, Matthias]] & Hoffmann-Riem, Holger. 2005. Ecological Restoration as a Real-World Experiment: Designing Robust Implementation Strategies in an Urban Environment, ''Public Understanding of Science'' 14 (3): 269-284.
* Karkkainen, B. C. 2002. Collaborative ecosystem governance: Scale, complexity and dynamism. ''Virginia Environmental Law Journal'' (21): 189.
* Luke, Timothy. 2005. The death of environmentalism or the advent of public ecology? ''Organization& Environment'' (18): 489-494.
* Robertson, David P. & Hull, R. Bruce. 2003. Public ecology: an environmental science and policy for global society. ''Environmental Science & Policy'' 6(5): 399-410.
* Robertson, David P. & Hull, R. Bruce., 2001. Beyond biology: toward a more public ecology. ''Conservation Biology'' 15 (4): 970–979.

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311022400/http://publicecology.org/index.html Public Ecology website]

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Social economy]]
[[Category:Public sphere|Ecology]]"
Downsizer,"{{Short description|A virtual community of people living sustainably}}
{{for|the business term|layoff}}
'''Downsizer''' is a [[virtual community]], run on a not-for-profit basis, which describes itself as ""a resource for people who want to live more sustainably"".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.downsizer.net/About_Us/Info/About_Us/ |title=About us |accessdate=2007-03-30 |work=Downsizer }}</ref> Its website includes articles on [[sustainable living]] and a popular forum with over 4,500 registered members.

==History==
The site was set up in October 2004 by the founder members. Its name came from a term used in present-day English to describe a person, whose aim it is to cut down on consumer goods and live a more self-reliant and sustainable lifestyle.{{citation needed|date=March 2007}} A year after Downsizer's establishment, the ''Essex Chronicle'' remarked on the site's growth, observing that it had ""tapped into an increasing awareness and interest in the impact our lives have on the environment"".<ref>{{cite news |title=Growing concern |type=[[LexisNexis]] reprint |work=Essex Chronicle |page=11 |date=2005-11-04 }}</ref> It has continued to grow, and has over 4,500 users registered on its forum as of July 2011.

==Content==
[[Downsizer.net]] is a not-for-profit online community, a resource for people who want to live more sustainably. Like-minded individuals can visit the forums to discuss matters of self-sufficiency and sustainability amongst other things. The website also includes many articles related to downsizing issues including the following:

* Growing Fruit and Vegetables
* Raising Livestock
* Recipes, Preserving, Homebrewing / Winemaking
* Foraging
* Energy, Efficiency, and Construction
* Fishing, Shooting, and Trapping
* Recycling and Conservation

==Reviews==
The website received a positive assessment from Alison Cork in ''[[The Observer]]'', who commented on the variety of topics discussed by members and concluded, ""Whether you're an individual wanting to live a more sustainable lifestyle or a small business trying to get an appreciative market for your ethical product or service, you'd be hard pushed not to find something of interest.""<ref>{{cite news |author=Alison Cork |title=Alison Cork's finishing touches |url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/cash/story/0,6903,1598377,00.html |work=The Observer |date=2005-10-23 |accessdate=2007-03-30 }}</ref>

A more negative stance was taken by Steve Lowe and Alan McArthur, authors of ''[[Is It Just Me Or Is Everything Shit|Is It Just Me Or Is Everything Shit?]]'' (2005). In an article in ''[[The Sunday Times (UK)|The Sunday Times]]'' to promote their book, they presented the interest of ""burnt-out stockbrokers"" in the advice provided by Downsizer as an instance of the ""mediocrity"" of contemporary [[United Kingdom|British]] culture.<ref>{{cite news |author=Steve Lowe |author2=Alan McArthur |title=Is modern life going down the pan? |type=LexisNexis reprint |page=14 (features) |work=The Sunday Times |date=2005-11-06 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|www.downsizer.net}}

[[Category:Internet forums]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Category:Sustainability books,"{{Cat main|Sustainability}}

[[Category:Sustainability|Books]]
[[Category:Environmental non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Economics books]]"
Green museum,"[[File:Wild center main building.jpg|thumb|[[The Wild Center]], a [[natural history]] museum in [[Tupper Lake (town), New York|Tupper Lake, New York]], United States]]
A '''green museum''' is a [[museum]] that incorporates concepts of [[sustainability]] into its operations, programming, and facility. Many green museums use their collections to produce exhibitions, events, classes, and other programming to educate the public about the [[natural environment]]. Many, but not all, green museums reside in a building featuring [[sustainable architecture]] and technology. Green museums interpret their own sustainable practices and green design to present a model of behavior.

Green museums strive to help people become more conscious of the limitations of their world, and how their actions affect their world. The goal is to create positive change by encouraging people to make sustainable choices in their daily lives. They use their position as community-centered institutions to create a culture of sustainability.

==Definitions==

===Museum===
Museums make a ""unique contribution to the public by collecting, preserving, and interpreting the things of this world"", according to the [[American Alliance of Museums]]’ Code of Ethics. There are many types of museums that specialize in various fields, including anthropology, art, history, natural history, science, and can have living collections such as [[public aquariums]], [[botanical gardens]], [[nature center]]s, and zoos, or no collections like [[planetarium]]s, and [[children's museums]].<ref>[http://www.aam-us.org/ ''American Alliance of Museums''] Retrieved 20 April 2008.</ref>

===Green===
The word ""green"" means environmentally thoughtful practice. The words ""green"" and ""sustainable"" are [[buzzwords]] often used interchangeably. However, according to Brophy and Wylie, ""green"" and ""sustainable"" have distinctly different definitions. ""Green refers to products and behaviors that are environmentally benign, [...] while sustainable means practices that rely on renewable or reusable materials and processes that are green or environmentally benign.""<ref>{{cite book|last=Brophy, Wylie|first=Sarah S., Elizabeth|title=The Green Museum: A Primer on Environmental Practice|year=2008|publisher=AltaMira Press|location=Lanham, MD|isbn=978-0-7591-1164-6|page=8}}</ref>  Another frequently cited definition for ""sustainability"" that is used in various contexts was developed by the [[United Nations]] (1987): ""Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.""<ref>[https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm ""Report of the World Commission on environment and development. General Assembly Resolution 42/187, December 11, 1987,"" ''United Nations''] Retrieved 21 May 2007.</ref>

Sustainability reflects a complex system where components are closely linked and do not exist in isolation from one another. A sustainable system affects and is affected by the individual and collective behaviors of its members. Sustainability, therefore, recognizes the [[human impact on the environment]], and aims to mitigate negative effects.<ref name="":0"">Worts, D. (2006). Fostering a culture of sustainability. ''Museums & social issues,'' vol.1, no. 2, Fall 2006, pp. 151-172.</ref>

===Culture of sustainability===
Green museums aim to promote a culture of sustainability, which can be defined in two parts: culture, which includes the values, practices, beliefs and aspirations of a society.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=Pop|first1=Izabela|last2=Borza|first2=Anca|last3=Buiga|first3=Anuta|last4=Ighian|first4=Diana|last5=Toader|first5=Rita|date=2019|title=Achieving Cultural Sustainability in Museums: A Step Toward Sustainable Development|url=|journal=Sustainability|volume=11|issue=4|pages=970|doi=10.3390/su11040970|via=mdpi|doi-access=free}}</ref> Whilst [[sustainability]] asks people to adapt at a cultural level, changing their beliefs and behavior.<ref name="":0"" />

Museums are in a unique position to establish and promote a culture of sustainability as they are arenas that simulataneousy preserve and create culture.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Loach|first1=Kirsten|last2=Rowley|first2=Jennifer|last3=Griffiths|first3=Jillian|date=2017-03-04|title=Cultural sustainability as a strategy for the survival of museums and libraries|journal=International Journal of Cultural Policy|volume=23|issue=2|pages=186–198|doi=10.1080/10286632.2016.1184657|s2cid=148436789|issn=1028-6632|doi-access=free}}</ref> As a result, museums are now considered to have a key role in shaping a sustainable future.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blagoeva-Yarkova|first=Y|date=2012|title=The role of local cultural institutions for local sustainable development. The case-study of Bulgaria|journal=Trakia Journal of Sciences|volume=10, 4|pages=42–52}}</ref> These changes can be achieved through their [[exhibition]]s as well as their active engagement in debates surrounding climatic and [[environmental change]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sutter|first=Glenn C.|date=2008|title=Promoting Sustainability: Audience and Curatorial Perspectives on The Human Factor|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.2151-6952.2008.tb00305.x|journal=Curator: The Museum Journal|language=en|volume=51|issue=2|pages=187–202|doi=10.1111/j.2151-6952.2008.tb00305.x|issn=2151-6952}}</ref>

Museums have the capacity to influence visitor attitudes toward their local environment that can have a positive impact, for example, on the preservation of local [[biodiversity]].<ref name="":1"" /> [[Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery|Bristol Museum & Art Gallery]] joined a global coalition (United for #Biodiversity<ref>{{Cite web|title=United for Biodiversity - Environment - European Commission|url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/coalition/index_en.htm|access-date=2021-11-10|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref>) to raise awareness about the protection of biodiversity and launched its exhibit Extinction Voices which aimed to highlight the threat of wildlife extinction and gather ideas for collective action.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bristol Museum joins biodiversity coalition|url=https://www.museumsassociation.org/museums-journal/news/2020/12/bristol-museum-joins-biodiversity-coalition/|access-date=2021-11-10|website=Museums Association|language=en-US}}</ref> Another aspect of museums role in the culture of sustainability is getting their visitors to engage in [[climate change]] and [[sustainability]] issues more widely.

[[Image:CalifAcadamyOfSciAug28-2008img0640.JPG|thumb|center|600px|{{center|The [[California Academy of Sciences]] uses native plantings on its [[green roof]] to reduce heating and cooling energy requirements and contains many other energy and water saving features. It has been widely recognized as likely the ""greenest"" building currently on the planet.<ref>''California'' (magazine of the University of California Alumni Association), Sept/Oct 2008, cover and pp. 52-53</ref>}}]]
{{clear}}

== History ==

Discussions within museums about [[environmental sustainability]] began in the 1990s and have continued to grow. Green museums are receiving a lot of attention from [[academia]] and the [[mass media]]. Some scholars believe that a focus on sustainability is a way for museums to be relevant in the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Brophy|first1=Sarah|title=The Green Museum: A Primer on Environmental Practice|last2=Wylie|first2=Elizabeth|publisher=AltaMira Press|year=2013|isbn=9780759123236|language=English}}</ref> However, most conventional museums are not engaged in sustainable practices.<ref>Sutter, G. C. (2006). Thinking like a system: Are museums up to the challenge? ''Museums & social issues,'' vol.1, no. 2, Fall 2006, pp. 203-218.</ref>

The green museum movement began in science and children's museums. Science museums found that environmental advocacy and education fit easily within their missions and programming. Children's museums saw that using green design in their inside environments created a healthy playground for their young visitors. Once sustainability became a topic of discussion in museum circles, zoos and aquariums realized that their existing missions and programming of species conservation was in essence sustainable education.<ref>Wylie, E. & Brophy, S.S. (2008). The greener good: The enviro-active museum. ''Museum,'' January/February 2008.</ref> Recently, the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] revised its accreditation standards to include a requirement of environmental advocacy.<ref>[http://www.aza.org/ ''Association of Zoos and Aquariums.''] Retrieved 20 April 2008.</ref>
 
With the green museum movement beginning in children's museums, The Children's Discovery Museum in Normal, Illinois, became the first [[LEED certified]] children's museum on October 3, 2005, when it received a Silver certification.<ref>{{cite web|title=Children's Green Museum|url=http://www.childrensmuseums.org/docs/GreenChildrensMuseums.pdf|access-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415141849/http://www.childrensmuseums.org/docs/GreenChildrensMuseums.pdf|archive-date=15 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[The Wild Center]] in Tupper Lake, NY became the first [[LEED certified]] green museum in 2008, followed by The [[Brooklyn Children's Museum]], who achieved the LEED Silver certification in 2010. In addition, this museum used [[renewable resources|rapidly renewable]] and [[recycled]] features such as bamboo and recycled rubber flooring to construct the building as well as used [[photovoltaics]] to generate electricity.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inhabitat|url=http://inhabitat.com/the-renovated-brooklyn-childrens-museum/|access-date=13 November 2011}}</ref> Other good examples of green museums include The [[Boston Children's Museum]] who earned a LEED Gold certification in 2007, and [[Pittsburgh Children's Museum]], who received a LEED Silver certification in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pittsburghkids.org/about/green-museum|title=Home}}</ref>

Science museums and zoos were quick to follow children's museums in the green movement. One of the first science museums to adopt green initiatives was [[ECHO, Leahy Center for Lake Champlain]] in Burlington, Vermont, which was the first LEED certified building in Vermont.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brophy S. & Wylie E.|title=The Green Museum|year=2008|publisher=AltaMira Press|location=Lanham, MD|isbn=978-0-7591-1165-3|pages=13, 146}}</ref> The [[Natural History Museum of Utah]] is another museum that has taken charge in the green museum movement. The Rio Tinto Center of the museum has been certified with a Gold LEED Certificate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nhmu.utah.edu/museum/our-new-home/sustainability|title = Sustainability|date = 2 September 2011}}</ref>

Zoos and botanical gardens have also become leaders in the green museum field. The Denver Zoo, Woodland Park Zoo, and Cincinnati Zoo all received Green Awards at the 2011 [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] conference.<ref>{{cite web|title=AZA.org|url=http://www.aza.org/honors-awards/|access-date=2011-10-18}}</ref> The [[Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens]] was given a LEED silver certification for its new Welcome Center, which ""is designed to evoke the geometry of the historic glass houses behind it."" It has 11,000 square feet of lobby, ticketing, gift shop, and cafe space with a 34&nbsp;ft high glass dome that is insulated to control glare and heat. Architects partially built the structure into the terrain, with 14th feet of usable space below ground. It was determined that by doing this, Phipps would save 40-50% of annual energy costs compared with an entirely above ground structure, and demonstrated that sustainable design could be created in ways that were still sympathetic to historic settings.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Architecture News|url=http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php?fuseaction=wanappln.projectview&upload_id=13901|access-date=13 November 2011}}</ref> Phipps will also be opening the Center for Sustainable Landscapes, which will house a center for education, research, and administration. It is scheduled to open in the spring of 2012, and is planned to exceed the LEED platinum certification, and achieve the [[Living Building Challenge]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Phipps|url=http://phipps.conservatory.org/project-green-heart/green-heart-at-phipps/center-for-sustainable-landscapes.aspx|access-date=13 November 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111075503/http://phipps.conservatory.org/project-green-heart/green-heart-at-phipps/center-for-sustainable-landscapes.aspx|archive-date=11 November 2011}}</ref>

Art museums are now also joining the movement. The [[Grand Rapids Art Museum]] became the world's first LEED certified art museum complex in 2008 when it received LEED Gold certification, with such innovative features as a heat recovery ventilator, {{CO2}} sensors, and on site grey [[water reuse]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Ziger/Snead|url=http://www.zigersnead.com/current/blog/post/worlds-first-leed-museum-complex-grand-rapids-art-museum/03-23-2008/947/|access-date=2011-10-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Green Network|url=http://network-green.org/gram-leed-award/|access-date=2011-10-18}}</ref>

One specific example of a green museum is The [[Toledo Zoo]] in Toledo, Ohio. In 2007, the institution redefined its mission statement to focus on informing the public about conservation.<ref name=""Building Green at the Toledo Zoo"">Klinger, Eric. ""Building Green at the Toledo Zoo"". http://www.aza.org/Membership/detail.aspx?id=778 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110730052737/http://www.aza.org/Membership/detail.aspx?id=778 |date=2011-07-30 }}.</ref> As part of its mission, the Toledo Zoo committed to green construction, which was shown in the parking lot renovation project. The main parking lot was redesigned in order to increase parking capacity and aid traffic flow, and the project incorporated green elements such as [[rain garden]]s and reusing concrete. The renovation also included a residential-sized [[wind turbine]] and three solar panels to power the ticket booths at the park's entrance.<ref name=""Building Green at the Toledo Zoo"" /> The wind-turbine and solar panels generate 3600 kilowatt hours per year, which can be redirected into the zoo's main power grid when the booths are not in use and reduce the zoo's [[carbon footprint]] by 5600 pounds annually.<ref name=""Building Green at the Toledo Zoo"" />

Another project at the Toledo Zoo is the Solar Walk, which opened in November 2010 and includes over 1400 solar panels that produce 104,000 kilowatt hours per year, the same amount of energy used by ten typical homes in Ohio.<ref>Waugh, Elise. ""Going Green"". August 18, 2011.  http://zooexplorer.wordpress.com/2011/08/18/going-green/.</ref> The Toledo Zoo and the Solar Walk's design team wanted the project to be a visual reminder to all zoo visitors and traffic from nearby highway of the zoo's commitment to conservation. In order to accomplish the project, the Toledo Zoo turned to a local companies, and used funds from private contributions and an energy grant from ODOD to cover the $14,750,000 price.<ref name=""Walking on sunshine"">Grahl, Cindy. ""Toledo Zoo Solar Walk: Walking on sunshine"". http://www.bxmagazine.com/article.asp?ID=1156.</ref> Also, The Toledo Zoo, in keeping with their mission statement, included informational panels on how the Solar Walk works and the amount of energy produced to date, so that visitors can be informed on the conservational value of the project.<ref name=""Walking on sunshine""/> The Solar Walk will reduce the Zoo's carbon footprint by over 75 metric tons each year, which is equivalent to 15 medium-sized cars.<ref>Raghuveer, Amulya. ""Toledo Zoo dedicates new SolarWalk"". http://www.northwestohio.com/news/story.aspx?id=541642 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404232526/http://www.northwestohio.com/news/story.aspx?id=541642 |date=2012-04-04 }}.</ref> The Toledo Zoo has further committed to incorporate green construction into its building plans through [[Geothermal heating|geothermal]] wells, environmentally friendly insulation and other [[renewable energy]] and green construction materials.<ref name=""Building Green at the Toledo Zoo"" />

==Green exhibits==
Museums are taking a more active approach to the project development of their exhibits. Children's museums initiated the green museum movement, mainly out of health concerns for the young visitors. Using toxic materials and chemicals on structures intended for children became a high worry for both the museum staff and parents. ""In its 2004 expansion project the Children's Museum of Pittsburgh used only adhesives, sealants, paints, carpets, and composite wood that are certified formaldehyde free with near-zero off-gassing.""<ref>{{cite book|last=Brophy, Wylie|first=Sarah S., Elizabeth|title=The Green Museum: A Primer on Environmental Practice|year=2008|publisher=AltaMira Press|location=Lanham, MD|isbn=978-0-7591-1164-6|pages=88–91}}</ref>

Before the [[Waste hierarchy|reduce, reuse, recycle]] mantra became mainstream, a small number of museums had already begun promoting sustainable decision making through exhibits. The [[Boston Children's Museum]], developed a concept known as ""The Recycle Shop"".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Homepage {{!}} Boston Children's Museum|url=https://bostonchildrensmuseum.org/homepage|access-date=2021-11-10|website=bostonchildrensmuseum.org}}</ref>

Organizations are working to develop a standard rating system for the specific needs of green exhibitions. In 2008, the [[Oregon Museum of Science and Industry]] (OMSI) developed the OMSI Green Exhibit Certification guide to assist museums in assessing the environmental sustainability of their exhibits, and to help develop more sustainable forward plans. Based on the [[U.S. Green Building Council]] (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating system, the OMSI Green Exhibition Certification guide simplified and adapted the LEED system to cater to the specific needs of the museum sector, especially in view of the limited financial and human resources found in many museums.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Willcox|first=Jessica|date=2009|title=OMSI Green Exhibit Certification: A Cost-Saving Tool for the Exhibition Field|url=https://sustainablepractice.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/OMSI-Green-Exhibits-Guide.pdf|journal=Exhibitionist|volume=Spring|pages=14–20}}</ref>

The guide provides a checklist for organizations who follows eight elements regularly used in exhibit design. After evaluation, they are awarded 0-4 points:

# Rapidly Renewable Materials
# Resource Reuse
# Recycled Content
# End-life Assessment
# Low-Emitting Materials
# [[Certified wood]]
# [[Nature conservation|Conservation]]
# Regional Materials

Through the project, Sustainability: Promoting Sustainable Decision Making in Informal Education, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), OMSI also developed Exhibit Social Environmental and Economic Development (Exhibit SEED) in collaboration with multidisciplinary professionals across the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NSF Award Search: Award # 0917595 - Sustainability: Promoting Sustainable Decision Making in Informal Education|url=https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=0917595&HistoricalAwards=false|access-date=2021-11-10|website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref> Exhibit SEED is a toolkit designed to help museums create holistically sustainable museum exhibits.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-07-09|title=ExhibitSEED|url=https://omsi.edu/case-study/exhibitseed|access-date=2021-11-10|website=OMSI|language=en}}</ref> The guide is based on ""Three Pillars of Sustainability for Museums,"" considerations based on environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, and social sustainability, and provides multiple examples of how a museum might reasonably adjust their practices to incorporate these pillars.<ref>{{Cite web|last=OMSI|date=2012|title=3 Pillars of Sustainability for Museums|url=https://omsi.edu/sites/default/files/ExhibitSEED_Three%20Pillars%20of%20Sustainability%20for%20Museums.pdf|website=Exhibit SEED}}</ref> Many museums across the globe has since developed and shared their own guidelines for sustainability in museums. The [[Madison Children's Museum]] in Madison, WI developed their own ""green guide"" for sustainable museum practice; their green initiatives in sustainable materials, community outreach, and museum programming led them to become the first Wisconsin museum to receive LEED certification.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Madison Children's Museum|date=September 2019|title=Green Guide|url=https://madisonchildrensmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/GreenGuide_2019_web.pdf}}</ref>

==Issues==

===Mission===
Some scholars suggest that sustainability and green design are a natural extension of a museum's mission statement. Some museums choose to make sustainability a central part of their identity, writing their commitment to being green in their mission statements. Sustainability can be seen as relating to three aspects included in most museum missions: field of research, purpose of public service, and the mandate for education. Museums that model green behavior enhance their missions and support their communities.<ref>Barrett, M. J. & Sutter, G. C. (2006). A youth forum on sustainability meets The Human Factor: Challenging cultural narratives in schools and museums. ''Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education,'' January 2006, 9-23.</ref>

===Education===
As informal [[education]] centers that serve the public, museums are in a position to teach about sustainability to a large audience in meaningful ways. Through a combination of motivation and information, green museums try to initiate changes in behavior in people's everyday lives. Green museums lead by example by explaining to visitors what sustainable activities they are doing and why through signage, programming, and websites. The goal is that visitors will learn about sustainable practices at the museum and then be able to implement them at home.<ref>[http://www.greenexhibits.org/ ''greenexhibits.org''] Retrieved June 3, 2007.</ref>

Many museums dedicated to sustainability and conservation education often utilize the works of theorists like [[Richard Louv]] and [[David Sobel]] to find the most effective ways to motivate their audiences to conservation action.  For instance, Disney's Animal Kingdom cites [[Richard Louv|Richard Louv's]] [[Nature deficit disorder|Nature Deficit Disorder]] as one justification for their Kids' Discovery Clubs, which focuses on encouraging children to not only learn about animals but also find out what they can do to help wildlife.<ref>Balavage, S. Dr. Heimlich, J. Kocanjer, N. Lehnhardt, K. Dr. Mellen, J. ''Assessing young Children's Learning within an informal setting at Disney's Kid's Discovery Clubs'', [http://www.izea.net/education/journal%2045%202009-assessing%20young%20childrens%20learning%20within%20an%20informal%20setting%20kdcs.pdf IZE Journal NR. 25 - 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425045311/http://www.izea.net/education/journal%2045%202009-assessing%20young%20childrens%20learning%20within%20an%20informal%20setting%20kdcs.pdf |date=2012-04-25 }}</ref> Another museum to cite Louv's Nature Deficit Disorder for their programming is the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]]. They spearheaded the national Take a Child Outside Week, which encourages children and adults to spend time together outdoors.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hall|first=Sarah Lindenfeld|title=Take a Child Outside Week starts Saturday|url=http://www.wral.com/lifestyles/goaskmom/blogpost/10153119/|publisher=WRAL.com|date=20 September 2011|access-date=27 November 2011}}</ref> Many museums also approach sustainability issues with [[Ecophobia]] in mind.  Ecophobia is [[David Sobel|David Sobel's]] theory that if you introduce abstract and difficult environmental issues to children at too early of an age, and without the proper background knowledge, they will retreat from nature.<ref>Diane M McKnight. 2010. ''Overcoming “ecophobia”: fostering environmental empathy through narrative in children's science literature.'' [http://www.esajournals.org/doi/full/10.1890/100041?prevSearch=%5BAllField%3A+ecophobia%5D&searchHistoryKey= Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 8: e10–e15.]</ref>  An example of a museum attempting to overcome Ecophobia would be one that promotes a love of nature and presents a variety of actions guests can take to help the environment before presenting them with more controversial and abstract environmental and sustainability issues.  The [[Brooklyn Children's Museum]]s respects the developmental stages of children by using their [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] certified building to teach children and their families about environmental conservation through interactive, age appropriate exhibits and activities.<ref>[http://biodiversityllc.com/PDF/MayJun04-Full.pdf Biodiversity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425045311/http://biodiversityllc.com/PDF/MayJun04-Full.pdf |date=2012-04-25 }}. ''The Brooklyn Children's Museum Goes Green.'' May–June 2004.</ref>

===Social responsibility===
In recent years, calls for museums to become sustainable institutions have come from within the museum field as a way for museums to achieve [[social responsibility]] and [[civic engagement]]. Sustainability is an opportunity for thoughtful, proactive museum work. ""Museums can play a critical role in moving the communities they serve towards a more sustainable future. Aligning their missions and programs with sustainability principles ... will recalibrate their own daily practices as well as awaken their community to the array of choices perhaps otherwise invisible to them"" (183).<ref>Link, T. (2006). Models of sustainability: Museums, citizenship, and common wealth. ''Museums & social issues,'' vol.1, no. 2, Fall 2006, pp. 173-190.</ref>

Museums, as a trusted part of the informal education system, are able to address the economic, cultural, and social dimensions of sustainability.<ref name=""Promoting Sustainability"">Sutter, Glenn C. “Promoting Sustainability: Audience and Curatorial Perspectives on 	“The Human Factor.”” Curator 51, no. 2 (April 2008): 187-202.</ref> They achieve this by engaging the public with interactive exhibits and by publicizing their own green efforts. The goal, stated or unstated, is to educate patrons about the effect they have on their environment, the ecological, economic, and cultural risks taken when they ignore their impact on the world, and introduce ways that they can reduce their carbon footprint. Thus, museums achieve civic engagement and social responsibility through teaching.

Some museums, such as the [[Royal Saskatchewan Museum]] in [[Saskatchewan]], Canada, take a global approach to civic engagement. The Royal Saskatchewan Museum's green exhibit is titled ''The Human Factor'' and aims to show patrons the human ecological impact on the planet, what practices they can adopt to lessen this impact, and project what the future will be if humans do not take action.<ref name=""Promoting Sustainability"" /> Visitors are helped to understand what Earth looked like before humans and gradual human impact over time through colorful depictions in the ""Time Tunnel"".<ref name=""Promoting Sustainability"" /> The subsequent gallery, ""Living Planet"", explains how a global ecosystem functions and what human stresses are to the Earth's global ecosystem on a rotating globe.<ref name=""Promoting Sustainability"" /> Specifically identified as a stress to the global ecosystem is the rising population. Curators placed clocks in the exhibit that count increases in population across the globe.<ref name=""Promoting Sustainability"" /> Beneath the clocks are the forms of humans and in their shadow is the images of industrial productivity.<ref name=""Promoting Sustainability"" /> The following gallery, ""Causes of Stress,"" identifies the source of ecological stresses as rampant consumerism and explains what causes this extreme behavior.<ref name=""Promoting Sustainability"" /> The solutions gallery depicts sustainable development and an electronic display of sustainability success stories. This is an effort to show patrons how their choices impact not only themselves and their parts of the world but other people and their environments. The last gallery, ""Looking Ahead,"" describes the projected future of the globe if humans adopt the prescribed changes.<ref name=""Promoting Sustainability"" /> The desired effect is an emotional response to the human impact on the global ecosystem.

[[Bronx Zoo|The Bronx Zoo]] seeks to educate its patrons about water resources and the impact of restroom use on water resources through the EcoRestroom exhibit. At the same time, by installing this restroom with composting toilets the Zoo has reduced its carbon footprint. The restroom serves men and women with 12 toilets and six sinks for women and two toilets, four waterless urinals and four sinks for men.<ref name=""Interpreting a Green Scene"" >Bhatt, Sonal. “Interpreting a Green Scene: The Bronx Zoo’s Eco-Restroom.” Exhibitionist (Spring 2009): 39-42.</ref> The sinks do not rely on electricity or battery power; rather, they recharge as water runs through them. The used water runs into a Grey Water garden that is unharmed by the bio-compatible soap available for use by patrons.<ref name=""Interpreting a Green Scene"" /> The restroom doubles as exhibition space, informing visitors of water conservation. Along the pathway to the entrance of the restroom there are water-droplet-shaped signs that give visitors tips for conserving and repurposing water at home.<ref name=""Interpreting a Green Scene"" /> Signs continue over the sinks, providing visitors with facts about water use meant to inspire thought about their own use and what they can do to use less water. Signs on the inside of the stall doors inform visitors how composting toilets function and the impact they have on the environment.<ref name=""Interpreting a Green Scene"" /> This installation not only shows patrons how they can make simple changes to conserve water but implements those changes in real time at the Zoo. In educating, the Zoo is also making a difference.

As stewards of the public trust, museums bear a responsibility to maintain collections utilizing the most efficient methods available. Museums must do their part to ensure that there is a public to enjoy the collection and resources to exhibit the collection. One way museums can conserve resources is to incorporate energy saving practices into their daily operations, altering the facilities they already inhabit rather than building anew.<ref name=""Saving Collections and the Planet"">Brophy, Sarah S. and Elizabeth Wylie. “Saving Collections and the Planet.” Museum 88, no. 6 (November/ December 2009): 52-7, 59-60.</ref> Brophy and Wylie identify simple solutions such as installing motion sensors that turn the lights on when visitors enter the gallery and turn the lights off when they exit, such as those found at [[Colonial Williamsburg]] in Virginia.<ref name=""Saving Collections and the Planet"" /> Those light bulbs could even be replaced with long-lasting LED bulbs. Other museums that manipulate their facilities location include the [[Morgan Library]], as identified by Brophy and Wylie, whose storage is ""carved out of Manhattan bedrock.""<ref name=""Saving Collections and the Planet"" /> The bedrock provides natural cool storage without using electricity to generate an air conditioned climate. Thus neither money nor electricity are spent to control the climate of the storage space, which stresses not only museum funds but increasingly scarce electricity too.

Museums achieve further social responsibility through implementation of sustainable practices that they advocate in building or altering facilities such that they are sustainable. This includes using [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] building practices and sourcing materials locally. Purchasing building materials and employing local labor stimulates the economy in the vicinity of the museum. It also reduces the carbon footprint of construction; materials purchased from local suppliers do not need to be delivered on a tractor-trailer, on an airplane, or on a ship, all of which consume fuel, time and money. The [[Museum of Contemporary Art Denver|Museum of Contemporary Art]] in Denver, CO, has incorporated locally sourcing materials into its LEED-Gold design plan.<ref name=""The Art of Sustainability"" >Mirel, Diana. ""The Art of Sustainability."" Journal of Property Management 73, no. 4 (Jul/Aug 2008): 8-9.</ref> The Museum highlights that its green roof, furniture fixtures and equipment have all been locally sourced.<ref name=""The Art of Sustainability"" /> The museum also encourages the use of public transportation by offering discounts to visitors who use this as a means of accessing the museum.<ref name=""The Art of Sustainability"" /> In building to the LEED Gold standard, the Museum of Contemporary Art has also made its operations more energy efficient. The façade is built to maximize climate control and limit the use of traditional forced air.<ref name=""The Art of Sustainability"" /> Radiant flooring circulates heat around the perimeter of the building. These are two ways that MCA Denver conserves energy. The Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego purchased paint, office furnishings, windows and doors from local vendors.<ref>""Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego."" Architectural Record 195, no. 6 (June 2007): 66.</ref> By educating the community and putting advocacy into action, museums become socially responsible.

==Landscapes and outdoor spaces==
One approach green museums are taking to improve sustainability is to consider their outdoor spaces and landscape design. Greening outdoor spaces provides multiple benefits beyond aesthetics and museums are increasingly using their outdoor spaces to further sustainable strategies and educational goals. According to the [[National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities]], there are many types of educational, recreational, and social skills that may be successfully taught outdoors.<ref name=""education"">Gordon, Douglas. Cheryl Wagner. Planning School Grounds for Outdoor Learning. National Clearing House for Educational Facilities. October 2010</ref> Outdoor museum spaces include pathways, trails, pavilions, picnic areas, fountains, courtyards, waste management areas, rooftops, and the greater surrounding environment. Whether a new facility or an existing one, green museums use these outdoor areas to implement sustainable practices.  For instance, incorporating native plants, [[wetlands]], [[bioswales]], [[rain garden]]s, butterfly gardens, vegetable gardens, and [[green roofs]] are all ways museums can maximize the use of, and green their grounds. Additionally, the natural surrounding environment can be an integral part of the green museum (where the land is part of the museum). Incorporating these outdoor spaces provides a more flexible learning environment with greater educational opportunities.<ref name=""education""/> Outdoor spaces allow for hands-on projects that promote environmental awareness and are an ideal catalyst for community involvement.<ref name=""ReferenceA"">SITES, ""Michigan Chapter of the American Society of Landscape Architects"" Volume 5 Number 1. 2011</ref>

Increasingly, green museums are incorporating [[sustainable]] thinking in their outdoor planning.  For example, the Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum designed a rooftop that won the 2003 Chicago Green Roof Award. The living portion of the roof reduces the volume of storm water runoff and solar panels generate electricity used by the museum below.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=resources%2Flifestyle_community&id=7446270 |title=Welcome to nginx! |access-date=2011-11-02 |archive-date=2012-07-07 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707030710/http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=resources/lifestyle_community&id=7446270 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The ability to quantify the performance of outdoor spaces is important to be a trusted example in the green museum community. There are multiple rating systems and interactive tools online and there is a growing consultancy field aimed at helping museums audit, develop baselines, and benchmark their performance.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brophy, Wylie|first=Sarah S., Elizabeth|title=The Green Museum: A Primer on Environmental Practice|year=2008|publisher=AltaMira Press|location=Lanham, MD|isbn=978-0-7591-1164-6|page=36}}</ref> One strategy for museums going green is to become [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] Certificated. In 2000, the [[US Green Building Council]] (USGBC) introduced the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating system that ranks sustainability in buildings and operations. To date, LEED is focused mostly on structures and development, while landscape issues are minimally addressed. The Sustainable SITES Initiative (SITES) is a new benchmark and rating system that was created, as a joint venture by the [[American Society of Landscape Architects]], the [[Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center]] and the [[United States Botanic Garden]]. Modeled after the LEED program, SITES is a work in progress to establish benchmarks and a rating system that addresses site selection, landscape design, construction, operations, maintenance and monitoring.  Currently SITES is in the pilot project phase, and will be completed in June 2012.<ref name=""ReferenceA""/>

==Lighting in museums==

Lighting is an essential component for museums since light is required to view objects as well as move and interact in the front and backend of museums. However, lighting can irreversibly change the appearance of objects such as paintings, textiles, leather, photographs, books and paper, or mounted specimens. Museums must take special care to avoid unnecessary light damage. Visible and near-visible light can be separated into three categories: [[Ultraviolet light|ultraviolet light (UV)]], [[visible light]], and [[Infrared light|infrared light (IR)]]. Ultraviolet light is the most energetic and most damaging to objects, while IR produces heat that can also damage objects. Museums generally use [[halogen]] or [[Metal-halide lamp|metal halide]] track lighting in galleries and fluorescent light in storage; however, these are not energy efficient options.<ref name=""Buck 2010"">{{cite book|last=Buck|first=Rebecca|title=Museum Registration Methods|year=2010|publisher=The AAM Press|edition=5th}}</ref>  Halogen lights waste energy by creating four times the amount of heat as a regular incandescent light and can become fire hazards. In a world where the use of more energy-efficient products is on the rise, museums have more opportunities than ever to cut down on the amount of electricity they use.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lighting Choices Inside and Outside Your Home|url=http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/lighting/bulbs.html|work=Consumer Energy Center|access-date=15 November 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120728221025/www.consumerenergycenter.org/lighting/bulbs.html|archive-date=28 July 2012}}</ref> The challenge to the lighting designer is to achieve a balance between creating interesting and desirable spaces, maintaining visual comfort and health of the visitor, while adhering to energy conservation goals.<ref>""A Lighting Study of Three Museums""_ http://arch.ced.berkeley.edu/vitalsigns/workup/sf_museums/museum.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405094318/http://arch.ced.berkeley.edu/vitalsigns/workup/sf_museums/museum.html |date=2012-04-05 }}</ref> Lighting is a constantly changing field, especially with new innovations in green technology and energy-efficient options. The lighting options for museums available today will radically change in the next ten years.

===Lighting options===
Beyond halogen and incandescent light options, museums use LEDs, CFLs, fiber optics, hybrid solar lighting and natural light.
*'''[[LEDs]]'''- Light Emitting Diodes create light through the movement of electrons in a semi-conductor material. As such, they produce very little heat and can sometimes emit light in the 400&nbsp;nm range (always check a LEDs [https://research.ng-london.org.uk/scientific/spd/ <nowiki>Spectral Power Distribution [SPD]</nowiki>] before purchase). LEDs consume approximately one fifth the energy of halogen bulbs, have estimated lifespans of 50,000 hours, and decrease building cooling costs significantly. Their initial installation may be expensive due to the cost of the bulb and whether or not the museum can retrofit. However, they can pay themselves back in three years depending on the lightbulb and lighting/heating energy costs. Over a period of ten years, they can save ~240 million kilograms (~530 million pounds) of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Druzik|first1=James R.|title=Guidelines for Selecting Solid-State Lighting for Museums|last2=Michalski|first2=Stefan W.|publisher=Canadian Conservation Institute, Getty Conservation Institute|year=2012|location=Los Angeles, CA and Ottawa, Ontario|pages=7–11|language=English}}</ref><ref>Druzik, J.; Miller, N. J. Demonstration Assessment of Light-Emitting Diodes (LED) Retrofit Lamps: Host Site, J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California. 2012. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2036.4886.</ref>
*'''[[Compact fluorescent lamp|CFLs]]'''- Compact Fluorescent Light bulbs use gas that is stimulated with an electric current to produce light. CFLs use less energy than an incandescent and last six to ten times longer. CFLs contain mercury so disposal should be handled with appropriate safety measures (caution, PPE, staff training when applicable, waste management consultants, etc.). 
*'''[[Fiber Optics]]'''- Fiber optic lights use plastic or glass fibers to distribute light. The heat source is removed from the end of the fiber and the longer the length of the fiber.
*'''[[Hybrid Solar Lighting]]'''- Hybrid solar lighting combines solar power and fiber optics to channel sunlight into an enclosed space. Sunlight is tracked by a rooftop parabolic disk and sensors maintain a constant level of illumination by supplementing sunlight with traditional electric light in special hybrid lighting fixtures. They are more energy efficient than typical light sources because of their hybrid nature, and remove UV and IR light before they enter an enclosed space. One of their primary limitations is the distance light must travel via fiber optic cable.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Woodford|first=Chris|author1-link=Chris Woodford (author)|date=2008-03-02|title=How does hybrid solar lighting work?|url=http://www.explainthatstuff.com/hybrid-solar-lighting.html|access-date=2021-11-10|website=Explain that Stuff}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sommer|first=John|date=2021-01-21|title=Different Solar Power System a Hybrid Solar Lighting|url=http://topdiysolarpanels.com/different-solar-power-system-a-hybrid-solar-lighting/|access-date=2021-11-10|website=DIY Solar Panels|language=en-US}}</ref> 
*'''[[Natural Light]]'''- Museums can also use sunlight to illuminate spaces. However, sunlight is one of the most damaging forms of light because of the presence of UV light in the sun's rays. Sunlight is a viable lighting source for spaces that do not contain light sensitive materials: lobbies, offices; or in museums that do not contain light sensitive objects. Museums can use UV filters on windows to lessen the harmful effects of sunlight.<ref name=""Buck 2010""/> One rationale for using natural light is predicated largely on economics; a greater reliance on daylight reduces energy consumption and costs. Literature supports that natural light can create a more positive effect on spaces than electric light and improves human performance. With properly installed and maintained daylighting systems, natural light has proved to be beneficial for the health, productivity, and safety of building occupants.<ref>L. Edwards and P. Torcellini. ""A Literature Review of the Effects of Natural Light on Building Occupants,"" National Renewable Energy Laboratory, July 2002</ref>
*'''[[Brise soleil]]''' is a natural lighting option that uses permanent architectural sun-shading techniques to reduce the amount of light that enters a building or a museum.
*'''Motion Sensor and Task Lighting'''- [[Motion sensor]] or [[task lighting]] lighting allows for light and energy to only be used when a person is engaged in a specific task or in a certain area. Museums can use this lighting in areas with less traffic, office spaces, and most importantly, to minimize light exposure for especially light-sensitive objects. Lighting entire areas that are rarely used or used less often than high traffic spaces is a drain on energy and money for a museum, and can lead to significant photobleaching. Motion sensors allow for decreased energy costs and a longer display time for very light-sensitive objects.

==Greening the field of preventive conservation==

The needs of [[Conservation-restoration|conserving]] artifacts and landmark buildings are often seen as conflicting with the most efficient and effective means of “going green.”<ref name=""Katz, Jonathan"">{{cite journal|last=Katz|first=Jonathan|title=Sustainability & Specimen Display: a Conflict of Program?|journal=Exhibitionist|year=2010|issue=Spring|pages=66–69}}</ref> Light, temperature, humidity, pollutants, particulates, and pests<ref name=""Hatchfield, Pamela"">{{cite journal|last=Hatchfield|first=Pamela|title=Crack Warp Shrink Flake: a New Look at Conservation Standards|journal=Museum|year=2011|issue=January–February|pages=40–3, 51–2}}</ref> must all be monitored in order to properly preserve objects and historic buildings - the energy spent to control and maintain ideal environments for historic building and artifacts alone is staggering.<ref name=""Brophy, Sarah and Elizabeth Wylie"">{{cite journal|last=Brophy|first=Sarah|author2=Wylie, Elizabeth|title=Saving Collections and the Planet|journal=Museum|year=2009|issue=September–October|pages=n. pag}}</ref> Since the heart of authenticity for many types of museums is the display of artifacts and specimens from their collections, it can be challenging to create ideal environments for these objects while also creating greener museum buildings and exhibition spaces.<ref name=""Katz, Jonathan"" /> For example, the [http://www.calacademy.org/ California Academy of Sciences], which is housed in a [http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CategoryID=19 LEED Platinum] building designed by [[Renzo Piano]], utilizes a natural ventilation system that could expose its collections to airborne flora and fauna, fluctuations in temperature and humidity, and strong daylight. In order to combat these factors, Jonathan Katz, CEO of Cinnabar, Inc., the firm that was hired by the California Academy of Sciences to design exhibits for the main floor of its new Natural History building, devised a “kit of parts” system where specimen display cases themselves could be configured to control temperature, humidity, and light.<ref name=""Katz, Jonathan"" /> These cases had to reflect the sustainability mission of the museum and thus had to be built in such a way that they could be reconfigured and reused as exhibits changed. This is simply one example of how the perceived conflict between green exhibition and building design and the preservation of objects was resolved.

The struggle to reconcile green practices and object conservation goes far beyond the exhibition hall, as most museums only display a fraction of the objects in their collections. Museum [[Conservator (museum)|conservators]] are tasked with the care, preservation, and restoration of these objects – the [http://www.conservation-us.org/ American Institute for Preservation], a professional organization in the United States that establishes and upholds professional standards among its members, states that the goal of its conservators is “to preserve the material evidence of our past so we can learn from it today and appreciate it in the future.”<ref name=""AIC Website"">{{cite web|title=About Us|url=http://www.conservation-us.org/|work=AIC Website|publisher=American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works|access-date=13 October 2011}}</ref> In striving to be “greener,” conservators must also now “consider not only the interaction of materials and environment with the art and artifacts [they] treat, but also the use, production, and disposal of the materials [they] employ in [their] work.”<ref name=""Silence, Patricia"">{{cite journal|last=Silence|first=Patricia|title=How are US Conservators Going Green? Results of Polling AIC Members|journal=Studies in Conservation|year=2010|volume=55|issue=3|pages=159–163|doi=10.1179/sic.2010.55.3.159|s2cid=191494482}}</ref> Thus, another problem facing conservators is the issue of finding non-toxic or lower VOC replacements for tried and true conservation treatments.<ref name=""Silence, Patricia"" /> In order to fully understand the challenges associated with green conservation practices, then, it is helpful to examine what conservation professionals identify as core issues. Patricia Silence, in “How Are US Conservators Going Green? Results of Polling AIC Members” identifies five areas pertaining to sustainable practices: recycling, energy consumption, waste, improved sustainability through products and procedures, and education.<ref name=""Silence, Patricia"" /> The following list was composed based on findings from Silence's paper:

'''Recycling'''
:*''Reusable materials'' (rags, sponges, brushes)
:*''Less paper'' (digital archives)
:*''Saving scrap'' (for later use)

'''Energy Consumption'''
:*''Temperature Control'' (radiant heating systems)
:*''RH Control (''finding creative and '''pragmatic''' solutions to display and storage of objects'')''
:*''Light Control'' (Using more energy efficient lighting schemes to illuminate museum objects, )
:*''Using renewable energy to power environmental systems''
:*''Using more energy-efficient environmental systems''

'''Waste'''
:*''Use less energy'' (environmental controls and office appliances) and materials (wood, paper, plastic, foam)
:*''Try to reuse or recycle a greater proportion of used items''
:*''Proper disposal training for toxic items''

'''Improved Sustainability through Products and Procedures'''
:*''Less toxic chemicals and solvents''
:*''Water-based cleaning systems and/or natural products''
:*''Organic cotton rags and towels''
:*''Recycled or re-purposed products''
:*''Used equipment, furniture, tools''
:*''Less toxic packing materials''
:*''Less toxic pest management chemicals''
:*''Re-distilling''
:*''Procedures for proper disposal''
:*''Procedures for testing new materials''

'''Education'''
:*''Best Practices Manual''
:*''Resource List''

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.museumsassociation.org/museum-practice/lighting/17012011-lighting-leds Museum Practice: Is Now the Time to Invest in LED lighting?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216010111/http://www.museumsassociation.org/museum-practice/lighting/17012011-lighting-leds |date=2012-02-16 }}
* [http://www.newscenter.philips.com/main/standard/about/news/press/20090312_hermitage.wpd Philips and the State Hermitage]
*[https://www.calmuseums.org/GreenMuseumsInitiative Green Museums Initiative] - A link to California Association of Museums (CAM) to inspire California museums to develop green business practices, eco-friendly facility management, and sustainable programming.
*https://www.museumnext.com/article/10-ways-museums-can-be-more-sustainable/
*[https://greenimpact.nus.org.uk/ Green Impact Award] - A link to the NUS Green Impact Award, a programme offering guidance and a toolkit for institutions to improve sustainable practice.
*[https://www.icon.org.uk/groups-and-networks/environmental-sustainability-network/resources.html Icon ESN Resources] - A link to Icon's Environmental Sustainability Network Resource page, offering publications, events and toolkits on sustainability.

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Types of museums]]"
Ecological literacy,"{{short description|Ability to understand natural systems and their interactions}}
'''Ecological literacy''' (also referred to as '''''ecoliteracy''''') is the ability to understand the [[systems ecology|natural systems]] that make [[life]] on [[earth]] possible. To be ecoliterate means understanding the principles of organization of ecological communities (i.e. [[ecosystem]]s) and using those principles for creating [[sustainability|sustainable]] human communities. The term was [[neologism|coined]] by American educator [[David W. Orr]] and physicist [[Fritjof Capra]] in the 1990s<ref name=orr>{{cite book| last = Orr| first = David|author-link=David W. Orr|title = Ecological Literacy: Education and the Transition to a Postmodern World| publisher = S.U.N.Y. Press, NY| year = 1992}}</ref><ref>[[Fritjof Capra]], The Web of Life, Harper Collins (1995)</ref> – thereby a new value entered education; the ""well-being of the earth"".<ref>[[Well-being]], Well-being, or wellbeing, also known as wellness, prudential value or quality of life, refers to what is intrinsically valuable relative to someone.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-being.</ref>

An ecologically literate society would be a sustainable [[society]] which did not destroy the [[natural environment]] on which they depend. Ecological literacy is a powerful concept as it creates a foundation for an integrated approach to environmental problems. Advocates champion eco-literacy as a new educational paradigm emerging around the poles of [[holism]], [[systems thinking]], [[sustainability]], and [[complexity]].

== Overview ==
Ecoliteracy concerns understanding the principles of organisation of ecosystems and their potential application to understanding how to build a sustainable [[human society]].<ref>(Capra, 1997: 89).</ref> It combines the sciences of systems and [[ecology]] in drawing together elements required to foster learning processes toward a deep appreciation of nature and our role in it. Systems thinking is the recognition of the world as an integrated whole rather than a collection of individual elements. Within systems thinking, basic principles of organization become more important than the analysis of various components of the system in isolation. Ecological literacy and systems thinking implies a recognition of the manner in which all phenomenon are part of networks that define the way that element functions. Systems thinking is necessary to understand complex [[interdependence]] of [[ecological systems]], [[social system]]s and other systems on all levels.

According to [[Fritjof Capra]], ""In the coming decades, the survival of humanity will depend on our ecological literacy – our ability to understand the basic principles of ecology and to live accordingly. This means that ecoliteracy must become a critical skill for [[politician]]s, business leaders, and professionals in all spheres, and should be the most important part of education at all levels – from primary and secondary schools to colleges, universities, and the continuing education and training of professionals.""<ref>[[Fritjof Capra]], ""The New Facts of Life,"" 2008, {{cite web |url=http://www.ecoliteracy.org/publications/fritjof_capra_facts.html |title=CEL &#124; Fritjof Capra - the New Facts of Life |access-date=2009-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814051039/http://www.ecoliteracy.org/publications/fritjof_capra_facts.html |archive-date=2009-08-14 }}</ref> [[David W. Orr]] has stated that the goal of ecological literacy is ""built on the recognition that the disorder of ecosystems reflects a prior disorder of mind, making it a central concern to those institutions that purport to improve minds. In other words, the [[ecological crisis]] is in every way a crisis of education.... All education is environmental education… by what is included or excluded we teach the young that they are part of or apart from the natural world."" He also emphasizes that ecoliteracy does not only require mastery of subject matter, but the creation of meaningful connections between head, hands, and heart as well.<ref>Michael K. Stone and [[Zenobia Barlow]], eds., Ecological Literacy: Educating Our Children for a Sustainable World, Sierra Club Books (2005)</ref>

Others have reiterated the urgent importance of ecological literacy in today's world, where young people are faced with escalating environmental challenges, including climate change, depletion of resources, and environmentally linked illnesses.

The framework for ecological literacy is based on how the knowledge of the environment is necessary for informed decision-making. The more recent framework of ecological literacy also emphasizes ecological thinking, cognitive thinking, and particularly scientific inquiry. An ecologically literate person knows and understands the reality of the environment by precisely identifying its cause-and-effect relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McBride |first1=B. B. |last2=Brewer |first2=C. A. |last3=Berkowitz |first3=A. R. |last4=Borrie |first4=W. T. |date=May 2013 |title=Environmental literacy, ecological literacy, ecoliteracy: What do we mean and how did we get here? |journal=Ecosphere |language=en |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1890/ES13-00075.1 |issn=2150-8925|doi-access=free |hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30122482 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> {{blockquote|This generation will require leaders and citizens who can think ecologically, understand the interconnectedness of human and natural systems, and have the will, ability, and courage to act|Michael K. Stone<ref>Michael K. Stone/[[Center for Ecoliteracy]], Smart by Nature: Schooling for Sustainability, Watershed Media (2009)</ref>}}

With an understanding of ecological literacy, [[perceptions]] naturally shift. The need to protect the ecosystems is not simply a belief held by [[environmentalist]]s; it is a biological imperative for survival over the time. This [[Value (ethics)|value]] will become a basic principle for prioritizing thought and action in a sustainable society. In the face of the increasing capacity of industrial systems to destroy habitats and the [[climate system]], the explicit declaration of the principles of ecological literacy – and the resulting awareness of the importance of living within the ecological [[carrying capacity]] of the earth, is increasingly necessary. Whether ecoliteracy can address the infamous [[value-action gap]] is unclear.

==See also==
{{portal|Ecology|Environment}}
*[[Ecopolitics]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/10/30/RVGSOFBSG01.DTL&type=printable ""Teaching kids to take care of the Earth,""] SFGate.com review of ''Ecological Literacy: Educating Our Children for a Sustainable World,'' Edited by Michael K. Stone and Zenobia Barlow.
* {{cite journal|title=BASIC ECOLOGICAL LITERACY: A FIRST CUT|author=Kenneth M. Klemow|journal=Ecological Society of America Education Section Newsletter|year=1991|volume=2|issue=1|pages=4–5|url=http://klemow.wilkes.edu/basic-lit.html}}
* {{cite journal|author=Sterling, S.|title=A Baker's Dozen. Towards Changing our ""Loaf""|journal=The Trumpeter|volume=18|issue=1|year=2002|url=http://trumpeter.athabascau.ca/index.php/trumpet/article/view/121/130}}
* Hoelscher, David W. ""Cultivating the Ecological Conscience: Smith, Orr, and Bowers on Ecological Education."" M.A. thesis, University of North Texas, 2009. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc12133/m1/

==External links==
* [http://www.ecoliteracy.org/ Center for Ecoliteracy Welcome]
* [http://www.eco-labs.org/ EcoLabs: Ecological Literacy Initiative]

{{Literacy}}

[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental education]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Degrowth,"{{Short description|Political, economic and social movement}}
{{distinguish|Downsizing (disambiguation){{!}}downsizing|Shrinkage (disambiguation){{!}}shrinkage}}
{{Multiple issues|{{Too few opinions|date=March 2022}}
{{Copy edit|date=August 2023}}
{{POV|talk=POV|date=September 2023}}}}
{{Anti-consumerism |Theories}}

'''Degrowth''' is an [[Academic research|academic]] and social [[Social movement|movement]] critical of the concept of [[economic growth|growth]] in [[Real gross domestic product|gross domestic product]] as a measure of [[Human development (economics)|human]] and [[economic development]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trainer |first1=Ted |title=De-growth: Do you realise what it means? |journal=[[Futures (journal)|Futures]] |date=2012 |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=590–599 |doi=10.1016/j.futures.2012.03.020}}</ref><ref name = annual>{{Cite journal|last1=Kallis|first1=Giorgos|last2=Kostakis|first2=Vasilis| last3=Lange|first3=Steffen|display-authors=et al. |date=2018 |title=Research On Degrowth|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|language=en| volume=43|issue=1| pages=291–316| doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-025941|issn= 1543-5938|doi-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason |title=What does degrowth mean? A few points of clarification |journal=[[Globalizations]] |date=2021 |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=1105–1111 |doi=10.1080/14747731.2020.1812222|s2cid=221800076 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buch-Hansen |first1=Hubert |last2=Nesterova |first2=Iana |title=Less and more: Conceptualising degrowth transformations |journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]] |date=2023 |volume=205 |pages=107731 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107731 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Akbulut |first1=Bengi |title=Degrowth |journal=[[Rethinking Marxism]] |date=2021 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=98–110 |doi=10.1080/08935696.2020.1847014|s2cid=232116190 }}</ref><ref name=""Hickeletal""/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Pettinger |first1=Tejvan |title=Degrowth - definition, examples and criticisms |url=https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/164203/economics/degrowth/ |website=Economics Help |date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kongshøj |first1=Kristian |title=Social policy in a future of degrowth? Challenges for decommodification, commoning and public support |journal=[[Humanities and Social Sciences Communications]] |date=2023 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1057/s41599-023-02255-z |doi-access=free}}</ref> Degrowth theory is based on ideas and research from a multitude of disciplines such as [[economics]], [[economic anthropology]], [[ecological economics]], [[environmental science]]s and [[development studies]]. It argues that the unitary focus of modern capitalism on growth, in terms of [[monetary value]] of aggregate goods and services, causes widespread [[Environmental degradation|ecological damage]] and is not necessary for the further increase of [[Standard of living|human living standards]].<ref name=""gd01"" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason |last2=Kallis |first2=Giorgos |last3=Jackson |first3=Tim |last4=O’Neill |first4=Daniel W. |last5=Schor |first5=Juliet B. |last6=Steinberger |first6=Julia K. |last7=Victor |first7=Peter A. |last8=Ürge-Vorsatz |first8=Diana |date=December 2022 |title=Degrowth can work — here's how science can help |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=612 |issue=7940 |pages=400–403 |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-04412-x|pmid=36510013 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..400H |s2cid=254614532 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Degrowth - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/degrowth |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Degrowth theory has been met with both academic acclaim and considerable criticism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-15 |title=Degrowth: what's behind this economic theory and why it matters today |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/06/what-is-degrowth-economics-climate-change/ |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Horowitz |first=Julia |date=2022-11-13 |title=Degrowth: A dangerous idea or the answer to the world's biggest crisis? {{!}} CNN Business |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/13/economy/degrowth-climate-cop27/index.html |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bokat-Lindell |first=Spencer |date=2021-09-16 |title=Opinion {{!}} Do We Need to Shrink the Economy to Stop Climate Change? |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/16/opinion/degrowth-cllimate-change.html |access-date=2023-09-11 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Degrowth theory's main argument is that an infinite expansion of the economy is fundamentally contradictory to the [[Resource depletion|finiteness of material resources]] on Earth. It argues that economic growth measured by GDP should be abandoned as a policy objective. Policy should instead focus on economic and social metrics such as [[life expectancy]], [[health]], [[education]], [[housing]], and ecologically sustainable [[Work (human activity)|work]] as indicators of both eco-systems and human well-being.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web |last=Nelson |first=Anitra |date=2024-01-31 |title=Degrowth as a Concept and Practice: Introduction |url=https://commonslibrary.org/degrowth-as-a-concept-and-practice-introduction/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref> Degrowth theorists posit that this may increase human living standards and ecological preservation, even while GDP slows down or decreases.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hickel |first=Jason |title=Less is more |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2022 |isbn=9781786091215 |edition=1 |location=London |pages=170–179 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Akbulut |first1=Bengi |date=2021 |title=Degrowth, Rethinking Marxism |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08935696.2020.1847014 |journal=Rethinking Marxism |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=98–110 |doi=10.1080/08935696.2020.1847014 |s2cid=232116190 |access-date=28 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Demaria |first1=Federico |last2=Schneider |first2=François |last3=Sekulova |first3=Filka |last4=Martinez-Alier |first4=Joan |date=2013 |title=What is Degrowth? From an Activist Slogan to a Social Movement |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23460978 |journal=Environmental Values |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=191–215 |doi=10.3197/096327113X13581561725194 |jstor=23460978 |s2cid=55888884 |issn=0963-2719}}</ref>

Degrowth theory is highly critical of [[Free-market capitalism|free market capitalism]], and it highlights the importance of extensive [[public service]]s, [[care work]], [[self-organization]], [[commons]], [[relational goods]], [[community]], and [[work sharing]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Demaria |first1=Federico |title=Pluriverse. A Post-Development Dictionary |last2=Kothari |first2=Ashish |last3=Salleh |first3=Ariel |last4=Escobar |first4=Arturo |last5=Acosta |first5=Alberto |date=2019 |publisher=Tulika Books |isbn=9788193732984 |location=New Delhi}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=What is degrowth? |url=https://www.degrowth.info/en/what-is-degrowth/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130012721/https://www.degrowth.info/en/what-is-degrowth/ |archive-date=30 January 2021 |access-date=29 April 2020 |website=degrowth.info}}</ref>

==Background==
The ""degrowth"" movement arose from concerns over the consequences of the [[productivism]] and [[consumerism]] associated with industrial societies (whether [[Capitalism|capitalist]] or [[Socialism|socialist]]) including:<ref name=fd01/>
* The reduced availability of energy sources (see [[peak oil]])
* The destabilisation of Earth's ecosystems upon which all life on Earth depends (see [[Holocene extinction|Holocene Extinction]], [[Anthropocene]], [[global warming]], [[pollution]], [[Biodiversity#Current biodiversity loss|current biodiversity loss]])
* The rise of negative societal side-effects (see un[[sustainable development]], poorer [[health]], [[poverty]])
* The ever-expanding use of resources by [[First World]] countries to satisfy lifestyles that consume more food and energy, and produce greater waste, at the expense of the [[Third World]] (see [[neocolonialism]])

In 2017, Inês Cosme and colleagues summarised the research literature on degrowth, finding that it focused on three main goals: (1) reduction of [[environmental degradation]]; (2) [[redistribution of income and wealth]] locally and globally; (3) promotion of a social transition from [[economic materialism]] to [[participatory culture]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cosme|first1=Inês|last2=Santos|first2=Rui|last3=O'Neill|first3=Daniel W.|date=2017-04-15|title=Assessing the degrowth discourse: A review and analysis of academic degrowth policy proposals|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652617302202|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=149|pages=321–334|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.016|issn=0959-6526}}</ref> In 2022, Nick Fitzpatrick and colleagues surveyed 1,166 research publications on degrowth, and found 530 specific policy proposals with ""50 goals, 100 objectives, 380 instruments"", arguing that their survey constituted ""the most exhaustive degrowth policy agenda ever presented"".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cosme|first1=Inês|last2=Parrique |first2=Timothée |last3=Fitzpatrickl|first3=Nick|date=2022|title=Exploring degrowth policy proposals: A systematic mapping with thematic synthesis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652622023629|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132764|volume=365|page=132764 |hdl=10362/150706 |s2cid=249875134 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Degrowth research was active in the 2010s in the work of Joan Martinez-Alier and the ""Barcelona School"".<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Kallis| first1=Giorgos |date=2023-04-01 | title=Degrowth and the Barcelona School, open access | journal= The Barcelona School of Ecological Economics and Political Ecology| series=Studies in Ecological Economics | volume=8 | language=en | pages=83–90| doi=10.1007/978-3-031-22566-6 | isbn=978-3-031-22565-9 | s2cid=257222514 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Decoupling ===
{{Main|Eco-economic decoupling}}
{{unbalanced|section|date=July 2023}}
The concept of ''decoupling'' denotes the possibility to decouple economic growth, usually measured in GDP growth, from the use of natural resources and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. ''Absolute decoupling'' refers to GDP growth coinciding with a reduction in natural resource use and GHG emissions, while ''relative decoupling'' describes an increase in resource use and GHG emission lower than the increase in GDP growth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haberl |first1=Helmut |last2=Wiedenhofer |first2=Dominik |last3=Virág |first3=Doris |last4=Kalt |first4=Gerald |last5=Plank |first5=Barbara |last6=Brockway |first6=Paul |last7=Fishman |first7=Tomer |last8=Hausknost |first8=Daniel |last9=Krausmann |first9=Fridolin |last10=Leon-Gruchalski |first10=Bartholomäus |last11=Mayer |first11=Andreas |date=2020-06-10 |title=A systematic review of the evidence on decoupling of GDP, resource use and GHG emissions, part II: synthesizing the insights |journal=Environmental Research Letters |language=en |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=065003 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ab842a |bibcode=2020ERL....15f5003H |s2cid=216453887 |issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free }}</ref> The degrowth movement heavily critiques this idea and argues that absolute decoupling is only possible for short periods, specific locations or with small [[mitigation]] rates.<ref name=""doi.org"">{{Cite journal |last1=Antal |first1=Miklós |last2=Van Den Bergh |first2=Jeroen C.J.M. |date=2016-02-17 |title=Green growth and climate change: conceptual and empirical considerations |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2014.992003 |journal=Climate Policy |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=165–177 |doi=10.1080/14693062.2014.992003 |bibcode=2016CliPo..16..165A |s2cid=153816870 |issn=1469-3062}}</ref><ref name=""eeb.org"">{{Cite web |title=Decoupling debunked – Evidence and arguments against green growth as a sole strategy for sustainability |url=https://eeb.org/library/decoupling-debunked/ |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=EEB - The European Environmental Bureau |language=en-US}}</ref> A 2021 publication by the European Environmental Bureau called ""Decoupling Debunked: Evidence and arguments against green growth as a sole strategy for sustainability"" analyzed a large amount of empirical and theoretical work on the topic and stated that:

''""not only is there no empirical evidence supporting the existence of a decoupling of economic growth from environmental pressures on anywhere near the scale needed to deal with environmental breakdown, but also, and perhaps more importantly, such decoupling appears unlikely to happen in the future"".'' (page 3).<ref name=""eeb.org""/>

Further, the paper states that reported cases of ""successful"" decoupling either depict relative decoupling and/or are observed only temporarily and/or only on a local scale.<ref name=""eeb.org""/> This is supported by several other studies which state that absolute decoupling is highly unlikely to be achieved fast enough to prevent [[global warming]] over 1.5&nbsp;°C or 2&nbsp;°C, even under optimistic policy conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason |last2=Kallis |first2=Giorgos |date=2020-06-06 |title=Is Green Growth Possible? |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2019.1598964 |journal=New Political Economy |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=469–486 |doi=10.1080/13563467.2019.1598964 |s2cid=159148524 |issn=1356-3467}}</ref> Moreover, relying on decoupling as the main or only strategy to combine economic growth and the reduction of environmental pressures would be a high-risk action in the context of the [[climate crisis|climate emergency]] of the 21st century.<ref name=""doi.org""/> Consequently, degrowth advocates argue that alternatives to decoupling are needed.

===Resource depletion===
{{Main|Resource depletion}}
As economies grow, the need for resources grows accordingly (unless there are changes in efficiency or demand for different products due to price changes).{{citation needed|date=July 2023}} There is a fixed supply of [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[petroleum]] (oil), and these resources can be depleted. [[Renewable resource]]s can also be depleted if extracted at unsustainable rates over extended periods. This has already occurred, for example, with [[caviar]] production in the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref>Bardi, U. (2008) 'Peak Caviar'. The Oil Drum: Europe. http://europe.theoildrum.com/node/4367</ref>

Degrowth proponents argue that decreasing demand is the only way to close the demand gap permanently. For renewable resources, demand and production must also be brought down to levels that prevent depletion and are environmentally sustainable. Moving toward a society not dependent on oil is essential to avoiding [[societal collapse]] when non-renewable resources are depleted.<ref>{{cite web|website = Resilience.org|date =October 20, 2009|title = Peak Oil Reports|url = http://www.resilience.org/stories/2009-10-20/peak-oil-reports-oct-20}}</ref> Degrowth can also be seen as a call for resource shifting where one strives to put an end to the unsustainable social processes of turning things into resources, for example non-renewable natural resources, and turn instead other things into resources, for example, renewable human resources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Corvellec |first1=Hervé |last2=Paulsson |first2=Alexander |date=2023-03-01 |title=Resource shifting: Resourcification and de-resourcification for degrowth |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=205 |pages=107703 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107703 |s2cid=254388285 |issn=0921-8009|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Ecological footprint===
{{Main|Ecological footprint}}

The ecological footprint measures human demand on the Earth's ecosystems. It compares human demand with the Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate. It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area needed to regenerate the resources a human population consumes and to absorb and render harmless the corresponding [[waste]].

According to a 2005 [[Global Footprint Network]] report,<ref name=footprintnetwork>{{cite web|url=http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/data_sources/|title=Data Sources|work=footprintnetwork.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001074513/http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/data_sources/|archive-date=2009-10-01}}</ref> inhabitants of high-income countries live off of 6.4 [[global hectare]]s (gHa), while those from low-income countries live off of a single gHa. For example, while each inhabitant of [[Bangladesh]] lives off of what they produce from 0.56 gHa, a [[North America]]n requires 12.5 gHa. Each inhabitant of North America uses 22.3 times as much land as a Bangladeshi. According to the same report, the average number of global hectares per person was 2.1, while current consumption levels have reached 2.7 hectares per person. In order for the world's population to attain the living standards typical of European countries, the resources of between three and eight planet [[Earth]]s would be required with current levels of efficiency and means of production. For world [[economic equality]] to be achieved with the currently available resources, proponents say rich countries would have to reduce their [[standard of living]] through degrowth. The constraints on resources would eventually lead to a forced reduction in consumption. Controlled reduction of consumption would reduce the trauma of this change, assuming no [[technological change]]s increase the planet's [[carrying capacity]]. Multiple studies now demonstrate that in many affluent countries per-capita energy consumption could be decreased substantially and quality living standards still be maintained.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Merz |first1=Joseph J |last2=Barnard |first2=Phoebe |last3=Rees |first3=William E |last4=Smith |first4=Dane |last5=Maroni |first5=Mat |last6=Rhodes |first6=Christopher J |last7=Dederer |first7=Julia H |last8=Bajaj |first8=Nandita |last9=Joy |first9=Michael K |last10=Wiedmann |first10=Thomas |last11=Sutherland |first11=Rory |date=July 2023 |title=World scientists' warning: The behavioural crisis driving ecological overshoot |journal=Science Progress |language=en |volume=106 |issue=3 |doi=10.1177/00368504231201372 |issn=0036-8504 |pmc=10515534 |pmid=37728669}}</ref>

=== Degrowth and sustainable development ===
{{Further|Sustainable development}}
Degrowth thought is in opposition to all forms of [[productivism]] (the belief that economic productivity and growth are the purposes of human organization). It is, thus, opposed to the current form of [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.08.008 |title = Strong sustainable consumption governance – precondition for a degrowth path?|journal = Journal of Cleaner Production|volume = 38|pages = 36–43|year = 2013|last1 = Lorek|first1 = Sylvia|last2 = Fuchs|first2 = Doris| s2cid=49362153 |url = https://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Lorek-_Fuchs-2013.pdf}}</ref> While the concern for [[sustainability]] does not contradict degrowth, sustainable development is rooted in mainstream [[international development|development]] ideas that aim to increase economic growth and consumption. Degrowth therefore sees sustainable development as an [[oxymoron]],<ref name=Latouche/> as any development based on growth in a finite and environmentally stressed world is seen as inherently unsustainable.
Critics of degrowth argue that a slowing of [[economic growth]] would result in increased [[unemployment]], increased [[poverty]], and decreased income per capita. Many who understand the devastating environmental consequences of growth still advocate for economic growth in the South, even if not in the North. But, slowing economic growth would fail to deliver the benefits of degrowth—self-sufficiency, material responsibility—and would indeed lead to decreased employment. Rather, degrowth proponents advocate the complete abandonment of the current (growth) economic model, suggesting that relocalizing and abandoning the global economy in the [[Global South]] would allow people of the South to become more self-sufficient and would end the [[overconsumption]] and exploitation of Southern resources by the North.<ref name=Latouche>Latouche, S. (2004). [https://mondediplo.com/2004/11/14latouche Degrowth Economics: Why less should be so much more.] ''Le Monde Diplomatique''.</ref> Proponents of degrowth see it as a possible path to preserve ecosystems from human pressures. In this idea, the environment is communally cared for, integrating humans and nature; degrowth implies the perception of ecosystems as inherently valuable, not just as a source of resources.<ref name=""fd01"" /> At the Second International Conference on degrowth, ideas such as a maximum wage and open borders were discussed. Degrowth suggests a deontological shift so that lifestyles that involve a high level of resource consumption are no longer seen as attractive. Other visions of degrowth include the global North repairing past injustices from centuries of colonization and exploitation and redistributing wealth, and a concept of the appropriate scale of action is a major topic of debate within degrowth movements.<ref name=""fd01"" />

Some researchers believe that the world will have to pass through Great Transformation, ""by design or by disaster"", therefore [[ecological economics]] have to incorporate [[Postdevelopment theory|Postdevelopment theories]], [[Buen vivir]] and degrowth if they want to really change something.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Discursive Synergies for a 'Great Transformation' Towards Sustainability: Pragmatic Contributions to a Necessary Dialogue Between Human Development, Degrowth, and Buen Vivir |journal=Ecological Economics |date=11 September 2017 |volume=144 |pages=304–313 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.08.025 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319639847 |access-date=21 July 2020|last1=Beling |first1=Adrián E. |last2=Vanhulst |first2=Julien |last3=Demaria |first3=Federico |last4=Rabi |first4=Violeta |last5=Carballo |first5=Ana E. |last6=Pelenc |first6=Jérôme }}</ref>

A 2022 paper by Mark Diesendorf found that limiting global warming to 1,5 degrees with no overshoot would require a reduction of energy consumption. It describes (chapters 4-5) degrowth toward a steady state economy as possible and probably positive. The study ends with the words: ""The case for a transition to a steady-state economy with low throughput and low emissions, initially in the high-income economies and then in rapidly growing economies, needs more serious attention and international cooperation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diesendorf |first1=Mark |title=Scenarios for mitigating CO2 emissions from energy supply in the absence of CO2 removal |journal=Climate Policy |date=22 April 2022 |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=882–896 |doi=10.1080/14693062.2022.2061407 |bibcode=2022CliPo..22..882D |s2cid=248358617 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14693062.2022.2061407 |access-date=1 June 2022}}</ref>

===""Rebound effect""===
{{Main|Rebound effect (conservation)}}
Technologies designed to reduce resource use and improve efficiency are often touted as sustainable or green solutions. Degrowth literature, however, warns about these technological advances due to the ""[[Rebound effect (conservation)|rebound effect]]"", also known as [[Jevons paradox]].<ref>{{harv|Zehner|2012}}, pp.172–73, 333–34</ref> This concept is based on observations that when a less resource-exhaustive technology is introduced, behavior surrounding the use of that technology may change, and consumption of that technology could increase or even offset any potential resource savings.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Binswanger |first=M. |year=2001 |title=Technological Progress and Sustainable Development: What About the Rebound Effect? |journal=Ecological Economics |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=119–32 |doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00214-7|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222122872 }}</ref> In light of the rebound effect, proponents of degrowth hold that the only effective ""sustainable"" solutions must involve a complete rejection of the growth paradigm and a move to a degrowth paradigm. There are also fundamental limits to technological solutions in the pursuit of degrowth, as all engagements with technology increase the cumulative matter-energy [[throughput]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heikkurinen|first=Pasi|title=Degrowth by means of technology? A treatise for an ethos of releasement|url= http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/105233/1/Heikkurinen%202016.pdf|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=197|pages=1654–1665|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.070|year=2018|s2cid=55830276}}</ref> However, the convergence of [[digital commons]] of knowledge and design with [[distributed manufacturing]] technologies may arguably hold potential for building degrowth future scenarios.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kostakis |first1=Vasilis |last2=Latoufis |first2=Kostas |last3=Liarokapis |first3=Minas |last4=Bauwens |first4=Michel |title=The convergence of digital commons with local manufacturing from a degrowth perspective: Two illustrative cases |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=197 |pages=1684–1693 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.077|year=2018 |s2cid=43975556 |url=https://www.minasliarokapis.com/CleanerProduction2016_Kostakis_DigitalCommonsLocalManufacturing.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609174813/https://www.minasliarokapis.com/CleanerProduction2016_Kostakis_DigitalCommonsLocalManufacturing.pdf |archive-date=2019-06-09 }}</ref>

===Mitigation of climate change and determinants of 'growth'===
[[File:1.5 °C scenario map under different levels of energy-GDP decoupling, RE speed and NETs.webp|thumb|1.5 °C scenario map under different levels of energy-GDP decoupling, RE speed and NETs<ref name=""10.1038/s41467-021-22884-9""/>]]
Scientists report that degrowth scenarios, where economic output either ""declines"" or declines in terms of contemporary [[Economic indicator|economic metrics]] such as current [[GDP]], have been neglected in considerations of [[Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C|1.5 °C scenarios]] reported by the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC), finding that investigated degrowth scenarios ""minimize many key risks for feasibility and sustainability compared to technology-driven pathways"" with a core problem of such being feasibility in the context of contemporary decision-making of [[politics]] and [[Economic globalization|globalized]] rebound- and relocation-effects.<ref>{{cite news |title=1.5°C degrowth scenarios suggest need for new mitigation pathways |url= https://phys.org/news/2021-05-degrowth-scenarios-mitigation-pathways.html |access-date=14 June 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}[https://scienmag.com/1-5c-degrowth-scenarios-suggest-need-for-new-mitigation-pathways-research/ Alternative Link]</ref><ref name=""10.1038/s41467-021-22884-9"">{{cite journal |last1=Keyßer |first1=Lorenz T. |last2=Lenzen |first2=Manfred |title=1.5 °C degrowth scenarios suggest the need for new mitigation pathways |journal=Nature Communications |date=2021-05-11 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=2676 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-22884-9 |pmid=33976156 |pmc=8113441 |bibcode= 2021NatCo..12.2676K |language=en |issn=2041-1723}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Available under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ CC BY 4.0].</ref> However, structurally realigning 'economic growth' and socioeconomic activity determination-structures may not be widely debated in both the degrowth community and in degrowth research which may largely focus on reducing economic growth either more generally or without structural alternative but with e.g. nonsystemic political interventions. Similarly, many [[green growth]] advocates suggest that contemporary socioeconomic mechanisms and metrics – including for economic growth – can be continued with forms of nonstructural ""energy-GDP decoupling"".<ref>{{cite web |title=Green growth vs degrowth: are we missing the point? |url= https://www.resilience.org/stories/2020-12-07/green-growth-vs-degrowth-are-we-missing-the-point/ |website=Resilience |access-date=23 June 2021 |date=2020-12-07}}</ref>{{additional citation needed |date= June 2021}} A study concluded that [[public services]] are associated with higher human [[need]] satisfaction and lower energy requirements while contemporary forms of economic growth are linked with the opposite, with the contemporary [[economic system]] being fundamentally misaligned with the twin goals of meeting human needs and [[sustainable development|ensuring ecological sustainability]], suggesting that prioritizing human well-being and ecological sustainability would be preferable to overgrowth in current metrics of economic growth.<ref>{{cite news |title=Securing decent living standards for all while reducing global energy use |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-06-decent-standards-global-energy.html |access-date=10 July 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Socio-economic conditions for satisfying human needs at low energy use: An international analysis of social provisioning |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=29 June 2021 |pages=102287 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102287 |language=en |issn=0959-3780|last1=Vogel |first1=Jefim |last2=Steinberger |first2=Julia K. |last3=O'Neill |first3=Daniel W. |last4=Lamb |first4= William F. |last5=Krishnakumar |first5=Jaya |volume=69 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The word 'degrowth' was mentioned 28 times in the United Nations' IPCC Sixth Assessment Report by Working Group III published in April 2022.<ref>[https://mronline.org/2022/04/27/how-the-corporate-interests-and-political-elites-watered-down-the-worlds-most-important-climate-report/ How the corporate interests and political elites watered down the world's most important climate report] MR Online. 2022.</ref>

=== Easterlin Paradox ===
In 1973, [[Richard Easterlin]] published a paper entitled ""Does Economic Growth Improve the Human Lot? Some Empirical Evidence"" which finds that after a certain income level or ""satiation point"", income does not affect happiness levels.<ref name="":02"">Easterlin, Richard A. ""Does Economic Growth Improve the Human Lot? Some Empirical Evidence."" ''Nations and Households in Economic Growth: Essays in Honor of Moses Abramovitz'', Elsevier Inc, 1974, pp. 89–125. Web.</ref> The [[Easterlin paradox|Easterlin Paradox]] has been reassessed multiple times with varying conclusions.<ref>Stevenson, Betsey, and Justin Wolfers. ""Economic Growth and Subjective Well-Being: Reassessing the Easterlin Paradox."" ''Brookings Papers on Economic Activity'', vol. 2008, no. 1, Brookings Institution, 2008, pp. 1–87. Web.</ref><ref>Frank, Robert H. ""The Easterlin Paradox Revisited."" ''Emotion (Washington, D.C.)'', vol. 12, no. 6, American Psychological Association, 2012, pp. 1188–91. Web.</ref><ref>Mentus, Vladimir, and Marko Vladisavljevic. ""Easterlin Paradox Revisited: Do Increases in Income Bring Higher Levels of Income Satisfaction?"" ''Sociologija'', vol. 63, no. 2, 2021, pp. 220–35. Web.</ref> Furthermore, Easterlin writes consumption levels directly correlate with income level, indicating that after reaching a certain satiation point increased consumption does not affect happiness levels.<ref name="":02"" />

=== Open Localism ===

Open localism is a concept that has been promoted by the degrowth community when envisioning an alternative set of social relations and economic organization. It builds upon the political philosophies of [[Localism (politics)|localism]] and is based on values such as diversity, ecologies of knowledge, and openness. Open localism does not look to create an enclosed community but rather circulate production locally in an open and integrative manner.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://co-munity.net/system/files/3750.pdf |title=open localism |last1=Schneider |first1=Francois |author-link1= |last2=Sekulova |first2=Filka |author-link2= |date= |publisher= |book-title= |pages= |location= |conference=Leipzig |id=}}</ref>

Open localism is a direct challenge to the acts of closure regarding identitarian politics {{citation needed|date=July 2023}}. By producing and consuming as much as possible locally, community members enhance their relationships with one another and the surrounding environment.

Degrowth's ideas around open localism share similarities with ideas around the commons while also having clear differences. On the one hand, open localism promotes localized, common production in cooperative-like styles similar to some versions of how commons are organized. On the other hand, open localism does not impose any set of rules or regulations creating a defined boundary, rather it favours a cosmopolitan approach.<ref>Schneider, François, and Anitra Nelson. ""'Open localism'–on Xue and Vansintjan III."" Housing for Degrowth. Routledge, 2018. 223-230.</ref>

=== Feminism ===

The degrowth movement builds on [[feminist economics]] that have criticized measures of economic growth like the [[GDP]] as it excludes work mainly done by women such as unpaid [[care work]], that is the work performed to fulfill people's needs, and [[Reproductive labor|reproductive work]], that is the work sustaining life, first argued by [[Marilyn Waring]].<ref name=""waring 1989"">{{cite book |last1=Waring |first1=Marilyn |title=If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics |date=1989 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=0-333-49262-5}}</ref> Further, degrowth draws on the critique of socialist feminists like [[Silvia Federici]] and [[Nancy Fraser]] claiming that capitalist growth builds on the exploitation of women's work.<ref name=""federici 2022"">{{cite web |last1=Federici |first1=Silvia |title=Feminism and the Politics of the Commons |date=17 June 2020 |url=https://thecommoner.org/tribute/tribute-to-the-work-of-silvia-federici/ |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref><ref name=""fraser 2017"">{{cite book |last1=Fraser |first1=Nancy |title=Crisis of Care? On the Social-Reproductive Contradictions of Contemporary Capitalism |date=2017}} In: {{cite book |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Tithi |title=Social Reproduction Theory: Remapping Class, Recentering Oppression |publisher=Pluto Press |location=London |pages=21–36}}</ref> Instead of devaluing it, degrowth centers the economy around care,<ref name=""kallis2015"">{{cite book |last1=Kallis |first1=Giorgos |author-link1= |last2=Demaria |first2=Federico |author-link2= |last3=D'Alisa |first3= Giacomo |title= Introduction: Degrowth |date=2015 }} In: {{cite book |last1=Kallis |first1=Giorgos |author-link1= |last2=Demaria |first2=Federico |author-link2= |last3=D'Alisa |first3= Giacomo |title= Degrowth: Vocabulary for a New Era |pages=1–17 |location= New York |publisher= Routledge}}</ref> proposing that care work should be organized as a [[commons]].<ref name=""dengler 2022"">{{cite journal |last1=Dengler |first1=Corinna |last2=Lang |first2=Miriam |title=Commoning Care: Feminist Degrowth Visions for a Socio-Ecological Transformation |journal=Feminist Economics |date=2022 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1080/13545701.2021.1942511|s2cid=240534324 }}</ref>

Centering care goes hand in hand with changing society's time regimes. Degrowth scholars propose a [[working time]] reduction.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kallis |first1=Giorgos |title=Degrowth |date=2018 |publisher=Agenda Publishing |isbn=978-1-911116-79-0}}</ref> As this does not necessarily lead to gender justice, the redistribution of care work has to be equally pushed.<ref name=""dengler 2022"" /> A concrete proposal by [[Frigga Haug]] is the 4-in-1-perspective that proposes 4 hours of wage work per day, freeing time for 4 hours of care work, 4 hours of political activities in a [[direct democracy]] and 4 hours of personal development through learning.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Haug |first1=Frigga |title=Die Vier-in-einem-Perspektive. Politik von Frauen für eine neue Linke |date=2009 |publisher=Argument Verlag |location=Hamburg |isbn=978-978-3-88619-3}}</ref>

Furthermore, degrowth draws on materialist [[ecofeminism]]s that state the parallel of the exploitation of women and nature in growth-based societies and proposes a subsistence perspective conceptualized by [[Maria Mies]] and [[Ariel Salleh]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mies |first1=Maria |last2=Bennholdt-Thomsen |first2=Veronika |title=The Subsistence Perspective: Beyond the Globalised Economy |date=1999 |publisher=Zed Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Salleh |first1=Ariel |title=Ecofeminism as Politics; Nature, Marx and the Postmodern. When Feminism Fails |date=1997 |pages=153–174 |doi=10.1080/08854300.2018.1509619|s2cid=149712144 }}</ref> Synergies and opportunities for cross-fertilization between degrowth and feminism were proposed in 2022, through networks including the Feminisms and Degrowth Alliance (FaDA).<ref name=""dengler 2022"" /> FaDA argued that the 2023 launch of ''Degrowth Journal'' created ""a convivial space for generating and exploring knowledge and practice from diverse perspectives"".<ref name=""DegrowthJ_Why_are_feminist"">{{cite Q|Q118151474}}</ref>

===Decolonialism===

A relevant concept within the theory of degrowth is [[decolonialism]], which refers to putting an end to the perpetuation of political, social, economic, religious, racial, gender, and epistemological relations of power, domination, and hierarchy of the global north over the global south.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gómez |first1=Martha |last2=Saldarriaga |first2=Dora |last3=López |first3=Maria |last4=Zapata |first4=Lina |title=Decolonial and Postcolonial Studies. Theories about Modernity, Coloniality, and Eurocentrism |date=2017}}</ref>

The foundation of this relationship lies in the claim that the imminent socio-ecological collapse is caused by [[capitalism]], which is sustained by [[economic growth]]. This economic growth in turn can only be maintained under the eaves of colonialism and [[extractivism]], perpetuating asymmetric power relationships between territories.<ref name=""hickel 2021"">{{cite journal |last=Hickel |first=Jason|author-link=Jason Hickel |date=2021 |title=The anti-colonial politics of degrowth |url=https://mahb.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/1-s2.0-S0962629821000640-main.pdf |journal=Political Geography |volume=88 |issue= |page=102404 |doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102404 |s2cid=235549247 |access-date=}}</ref> Colonialism is understood as the appropriation of [[common goods]], resources and labor, which is antagonistic to degrowth principles.

Through colonial domination, capital depresses the prices of inputs and colonial cheapening occurs to the detriment of the oppressed countries {{citation needed|date=July 2023}}. Degrowth criticizes these appropriation mechanisms and [[enclosure]] of one territory over another and proposes a provision of human needs through disaccumulation, de-enclosure, and decommodification. It also reconciles with [[social movements]] and seeks to recognize the [[ecological debt]] to achieve the [[catch-up]], which is postulated as impossible without decolonization.<ref name=""hickel 2021""/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wuttke |first1=Tobias |title=Reconciling catch-up industrialisation with de-growth |date=2021}}</ref>

In practice, decolonial practices close to degrowth are observed, such as the movement of Buen vivir or [[sumak kawsay]] by various indigenous peoples.

==Origins of the movement==
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2013}}
The contemporary degrowth movement can trace its roots back to the anti-industrialist trends of the 19th century, developed in Great Britain by [[John Ruskin]], [[William Morris]] and the [[Arts and Crafts movement]] (1819–1900), in the United States by [[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817–1862), and in Russia by [[Leo Tolstoy]] (1828–1910).<ref>{{Cite web
| url = https://www.routledge.com/Degrowth-A-Vocabulary-for-a-New-Era/DAlisa-Demaria-Kallis/p/book/9781138000773
| title = Degrowth: A Vocabulary for a New Era (Paperback) - Routledge
| website = Routledge.com
| page = 134
| access-date = 2016-02-28
}}</ref>

The concept of ""degrowth"" properly appeared during the 1970s, proposed by [[André Gorz]] (1972) and intellectuals such as [[Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen]], [[Jean Baudrillard]], [[Edward Goldsmith]], [[E.F. Schumacher]], [[Erich Fromm]], [[Paul Goodman]] and [[Ivan Illich]], whose ideas reflect those of earlier thinkers, such as the economist [[E. J. Mishan]],<ref>Mishan, Ezra J., ''The Costs of Economic Growth'', Staples Press, 1967.</ref> the industrial historian [[L. T. C. Rolt|Tom Rolt]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rolt|first=L. T. C.|title=High Horse Riderless|year=1947|publisher=George Allen & Unwin|page=171|url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/HIGH-HORSE-RIDERLESS-L-T-C-Rolt/dp/B0006ARC3W/}}</ref> and the radical socialist [[Turner Controversy|Tony Turner]]. The writings of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[J. C. Kumarappa]] also contain similar philosophies, particularly regarding his support of [[Simple living|voluntary simplicity]].

More generally, degrowth movements draw on the values of [[humanism]], [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]], [[anthropology]] and [[human rights]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/17448689.2013.788935 |title = Civil and Uncivil Actors for a Degrowth Society|journal = Journal of Civil Society|volume = 9|issue = 2|pages = 212–224|year = 2013|last1 = d'Alisa|first1 = Giacomo|last2 = Demaria|first2 = Federico|last3 = Cattaneo|first3 = Claudio|s2cid = 55508495|url=https://www.degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Dalisa-Demaria-Cattaneo_Civil-and-uncivil-actors-for-a-Degrowth-society_20131.pdf}}</ref>

=== Club of Rome reports ===
{{Rquote |align=right |quote=The world's leaders are correctly fixated on economic growth as the answer to virtually all problems, ''but they're pushing it with all their might in the wrong direction.'' |author=[[Donella Meadows]] |source=''Thinking in Systems''<ref>[[Donella Meadows]], edited by Diana Wright, ''Thinking in Systems: A Primer'', [[Chelsea Green Publishing]], 2008, page 146 ({{ISBN|9781603580557}}).</ref>}}

In 1968, the [[Club of Rome]], a [[think tank]] headquartered in [[Winterthur]], [[Switzerland]], asked researchers at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] for a report on the limits of our world system and the constraints it puts on human numbers and activity. The report, called ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'', published in 1972, became the first significant study to model the consequences of economic growth.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Limits to Growth+50 |url=https://www.clubofrome.org/ltg50/#:~:text=This%20report%20%E2%80%93%20first%20published%20on,at%20some%20point%20in%20the |website=Club of Rome |access-date=7 November 2023}}</ref>

The reports (also known as the Meadows Reports) are not strictly the founding texts of the degrowth movement, as these reports only advise [[Steady-state economy|zero growth]], and have also been used to support the [[sustainable development]] movement. Still, they are considered the first studies explicitly presenting economic growth as a key reason for the increase in global [[environmental issue|environmental problems]] such as pollution, shortage of raw materials, and the destruction of [[ecosystem]]s. ''The Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update'' was published in 2004,<ref name=""LtG+30-2004"">{{cite book|last1=Meadows|first1=Donella H.|last2=Randers| first2=Jorgen|last3=Meadows |first3=Dennis L.|title=The Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update|date=2004| publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing Co|location=White River Junction VT|isbn=1931498512|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3YS4AAAAIAAJ&q=9781931498586|access-date=27 November 2017}}</ref> and in 2012, a 40-year forecast from [[Jørgen Randers]], one of the book's original authors, was published as ''2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years''.<ref name=""LtG+40-2012"">{{cite book|last=Randers |first=Jørgen|title=2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years|date=2012| publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing Co|location=White River Junction VT|isbn=978-1-60358-467-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GONXrbX-RGYC&q=2052+40+year+forecast|access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref> In 2021, Club of Rome committee member Gaya Herrington published an article comparing the proposed models' predictions against empirical data trends.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last=Herrington |first=Gaya |date=June 2021 |title=Update to limits to growth: Comparing the World3 model with empirical data |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jiec.13084 |journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology |language=en |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=614–626 |doi=10.1111/jiec.13084 |s2cid=226019712 |issn=1088-1980}}</ref> The BAU2 (""Business as Usual 2"") scenario, predicting ""collapse through pollution"",<ref name="":4"" /> as well as the CT (""Comprehensive Technology"") scenario, predicting exceptional technological development and gradual decline, were found to align most closely with data observed as of 2019.<ref name="":4"" /> In September 2022, the Club of Rome released updated predictive models and policy recommendations in a general-audiences book titled ''Earth for all – A survival guide to humanity.''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dixson-Declève |first=Sandrine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1315537859 |title=Earth for all: a survival guide for humanity: a report to the Club of Rome (2022), fifty years after The limits of growth (1972) |date=2022 |others=Owen Gaffney, Jayati Ghosh, Jørgen Randers, Johan Rockström, Per Espen Stoknes, Club of Rome |isbn=978-0-86571-986-6|publisher=New Society Publishers |location=Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada |oclc=1315537859}}</ref>

=== Lasting influence of Georgescu-Roegen ===
{{Main|Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen}}
{{See also | Steady-state economy #Declining-state economy }}

The degrowth movement recognises [[Romanian Americans|Romanian American]] [[mathematician]], [[statistician]] and [[economist]] [[Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen]] as the main intellectual figure inspiring the movement.<ref name=sl01/><ref name=ck01/>{{rp|548f}} <ref name=jm01/>{{rp|1742}} <ref name=mb01/>{{rp|xi}} <ref name=gd01/>{{rp|1f}} In his work, ''[[The Entropy Law and the Economic Process]]'', Georgescu-Roegen argues that economic scarcity is rooted in physical reality; that all [[natural resource]]s are irreversibly degraded when put to use in economic activity; that the [[Sustainability#Carrying capacity|carrying capacity]] of Earth—that is, Earth's capacity to sustain human populations and consumption levels—is bound to decrease sometime in the future as Earth's finite stock of mineral resources is presently being extracted and put to use; and consequently, that the [[world economy]] as a whole is heading towards an inevitable future collapse.<ref name=ngr01/>

Georgescu-Roegen's intellectual inspiration to degrowth dates back to the 1970s. When Georgescu-Roegen delivered a lecture at the [[University of Geneva]] in 1974, he made a lasting impression on the young, newly graduated French historian and philosopher, {{ill|Jacques Grinevald|fr}}, who had earlier been introduced to Georgescu-Roegen's works by an academic advisor. Georgescu-Roegen and Grinevald became friends, and Grinevald devoted his research to a closer study of Georgescu-Roegen's work. As a result, in 1979, Grinevald published a French translation of a selection of Georgescu-Roegen's articles entitled ''Demain la décroissance: Entropie – Écologie – Économie'' ('Tomorrow, the Decline: Entropy – Ecology – Economy').<ref name=ngr03/> Georgescu-Roegen, who spoke French fluently, approved the use of the term ''décroissance'' in the title of the French translation. The book gained influence in French intellectual and academic circles from the outset. Later, the book was expanded and republished in 1995 and once again in 2006; however, the word ''Demain'' ('tomorrow') was removed from the book's title in the second and third editions.<ref name=jm01/>{{rp|1742}}<ref name=ngr03/><ref name=jg01/>{{rp|15f}}

By the time Grinevald suggested the term ''décroissance'' to form part of the title of the French translation of Georgescu-Roegen's work, the term had already permeated French intellectual circles since the early 1970s to signify a deliberate political action to downscale the economy on a permanent and voluntary basis.<ref name=fd01/>{{rp|195}} Simultaneously, but independently, Georgescu-Roegen criticised the ideas of ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'' and [[Herman Daly]]'s [[Steady-state economy#Herman Daly's concept of a steady-state economy|steady-state economy]] in his article, ""Energy and Economic Myths"", delivered as a series of lectures from 1972, but not published before 1975. In the article, Georgescu-Roegen stated the following:

{{cquote | [Authors who] were set exclusively on proving the impossibility of growth ... were easily deluded by a simple, now widespread, but false [[syllogism]]: Since exponential growth in a finite world leads to disasters of all kinds, ecological salvation lies in the stationary state. ... The crucial error consists in not seeing that not only growth, but also a zero-growth state, nay, even a declining state that does not converge toward annihilation, cannot exist forever in a finite environment.<ref name=ngr02/>{{rp|366f}}<br />... [T]he important, yet unnoticed point [is] that ''the necessary conclusion of the arguments in favor of that vision'' [of a stationary state] ''is that the most desirable state is not a stationary, but a declining one.'' Undoubtedly, the current growth must cease, nay, be reversed.<ref name=ngr02/>{{rp|368f}} [Emphasis in original] }}

When reading this particular passage of the text, Grinevald realised that no professional economist of any orientation had ever reasoned like this before. Grinevald also realised the congruence of Georgescu-Roegen's viewpoint and the French debates occurring at the time; this resemblance was captured in the title of the French edition. The translation of Georgescu-Roegen's work into French both fed on and gave further impetus to the concept of ''décroissance'' in France—and everywhere else in the francophone world—thereby creating something of an intellectual feedback loop.<ref name=jm01/>{{rp|1742}} <ref name=jg01/>{{rp|15f}} <ref name=fd01/>{{rp|197f}}

By the 2000s, when ''décroissance'' was to be translated from French back into English as the catchy banner for the new social movement, the original term ""decline"" was deemed inappropriate and misdirected for the purpose: ""Decline"" usually refers to an unexpected, unwelcome, and temporary economic [[recession]], something to be avoided or quickly overcome. Instead, the [[neologism]] ""degrowth"" was coined to signify a deliberate political action to downscale the economy on a permanent, conscious basis—as in the prevailing French usage of the term—something good to be welcomed and maintained, or so followers believe.<ref name=ck01/>{{rp|548}} <ref name=jg01/>{{rp|15f}} <ref name=gk01/>{{rp|874–876}}

When the first international degrowth conference was held in Paris in 2008, the participants honoured Georgescu-Roegen and his work.<ref name=ff01/>{{rp|15f, 28, ''et passim''}} In his [[manifesto]] on ''Petit traité de la décroissance sereine'' (""Farewell to Growth""), the leading French champion of the degrowth movement, [[Serge Latouche]], credited Georgescu-Roegen as the ""main theoretical source of degrowth"".<ref name=sl01/> Likewise, Italian degrowth theorist [[Mauro Bonaiuti]] considered Georgescu-Roegen's work to be ""one of the analytical cornerstones of the degrowth perspective"".<ref name=mb01/><!---please recover the page number in this citation--->

=== Schumacher and Buddhist economics ===
[[E. F. Schumacher]]'s 1973 book ''[[Small Is Beautiful]]'' predates a unified degrowth movement but nonetheless serves as an important basis for degrowth ideas. In this book he critiques the [[Neoliberalism|neo-liberal]] model of economic development, arguing that an increasing ""standard of living"", based on consumption is absurd as a goal of economic activity and development. Instead, under what he refers to as [[Buddhist economics]], we should aim to maximize well-being while minimizing consumption.<ref>Schumacher, E. F. (1973). ''Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered''. New York: Perennial Library.</ref>

=== Ecological and social issues ===
In January 1972, [[Edward Goldsmith]] and Robert Prescott-Allen—editors of ''[[The Ecologist]]''—published ''[[A Blueprint for Survival]]'', which called for a radical programme of decentralisation and [[deindustrialization]] to prevent what the authors referred to as ""the breakdown of society and the irreversible disruption of the life-support systems on this planet"".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theecologist.info/page34.html |title=A Blueprint for Survival, The Ecologist Vol. 2, No. 1. Preface |access-date=2008-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090907143122/http://www.theecologist.info/page34.html |archive-date=2009-09-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2019, a summary for policymakers of the [[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services|largest, most comprehensive study to date of biodiversity and ecosystem services]] was published by the [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]. The report was finalised in Paris. The main conclusions:

#Over the last 50 years, the state of nature has deteriorated at an unprecedented and accelerating rate.
#The main drivers of this deterioration have been changes in land and sea use, exploitation of living beings, climate change, pollution and invasive species. These five drivers, in turn, are caused by societal behaviors, from consumption to governance.
#Damage to ecosystems undermines 35 of 44 selected UN targets, including the UN General Assembly's [[Sustainable Development Goals]] for poverty, hunger, health, water, cities' climate, oceans and land. It can cause problems with food, water and humanity's air supply.
#To fix the problem, humanity needs transformative change, including [[sustainable agriculture]], reductions in [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] and waste, fishing quotas and collaborative water management. Page 8 of the report proposes ""enabling visions of a good quality of life that do not entail ever-increasing material consumption"" as one of the main measures. The report states that ""Some pathways chosen to achieve the goals related to energy, economic growth, industry and infrastructure and sustainable consumption and production (Sustainable Development Goals 7, 8, 9 and 12), as well as targets related to poverty, food security and cities (Sustainable Development Goals 1, 2 and 11), could have substantial positive or negative impacts on nature and therefore on the achievement of other Sustainable Development Goals"".<ref>{{cite book |title=Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |date=6 May 2019 |publisher=the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |url=https://www.ipbes.net/sites/default/files/downloads/spm_unedited_advance_for_posting_htn.pdf |access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Why Biodiversity Loss Hurts Humans as Much as Climate Change Does|work=Deutsche Welle |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/biodiversity-loss-human-health-2636410357.html |access-date=10 May 2019 |date=May 6, 2019}}</ref>

In a June 2020 paper published in ''[[Nature Communications]]'', a group of scientists argue that ""green growth"" or ""[[sustainable growth]]"" is a myth: ""we have to get away from our obsession with economic growth—we really need to start managing our economies in a way that protects our climate and natural resources, even if this means less, no or even negative growth."" They conclude that a change in economic paradigms is imperative to prevent [[environmental destruction]], and suggest a range of ideas from the reformist to the radical, with the latter consisting of degrowth, [[eco-socialism]] and [[eco-anarchism]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Overconsumption and growth economy key drivers of environmental crises |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-06-overconsumption-growth-economy-key-drivers.html |website=Phys.org |publisher=University of New South Wales |access-date=22 June 2020 |format=Press release}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wiedmann|first1=Thomas |last2=Lenzen|first2=Manfred |last3=Keyßer|first3=Lorenz T. |last4=Steinberger|first4=Julia K.|author-link4=Julia Steinberger|title=Scientists' warning on affluence |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |date=2020 |volume=11 |issue=3107 |page=3107 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-16941-y |pmid=32561753 |pmc=7305220 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3107W }}</ref>

In June 2020, the official site of one of the organizations promoting degrowth published an article by Vijay Kolinjivadi, an expert in political ecology, arguing that the emergence of [[COVID-19]] is linked to the ecological crisis.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kolinjivadi |first1=Vijay |title=This pandemic IS ecological breakdown: different tempo, same song |url=http://unevenearth.org/2020/04/this-pandemic-is-ecological-breakdown-different-tempo-same-song/ |website=Uneven Earth |date=2 April 2020 |access-date=20 July 2020}}</ref>

The 2019 [[World Scientists' Warning to Humanity#2019 warning on climate change and 2021 and 2022 updates|World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency]] and its 2021 update have asserted that [[economic growth]] is a primary driver of the overexploitation of ecosystems, and to preserve the biosphere and mitigate climate change civilization must, in addition to other fundamental changes including stabilizing [[population growth]] and adopting largely [[plant-based diets]], ""shift from GDP growth and the pursuit of affluence toward sustaining ecosystems and improving human well-being by prioritizing basic needs and reducing inequality.""<ref>{{citation|last1= Ripple |first1=William J.|display-authors=etal.|date=November 5, 2019 |title=World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biz088/5610806 |journal=BioScience |volume=70 |pages=8–12 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biz088 |access-date=February 21, 2022|hdl=1808/30278|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1= Ripple |first1=William J.|display-authors=etal.|date=July 28, 2021 |title=World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency 2021 |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biab079/6325731 |journal=BioScience |volume=71 |issue=9 |pages=894–898 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biab079 |access-date=February 21, 2022|hdl=1808/30278 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In an opinion piece published in [[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]], [[Jason Hickel]] states that this paper, which was has more than 11,000 scientist cosigners, demonstrates that there is a ""strong scientific consensus"" towards abandoning ""GDP as a measure of progress.""<ref>{{cite news |last= Hickel|first=Jason|date=6 December 2019 |title=The dark side of the Nordic model|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2019/12/6/the-dark-side-of-the-nordic-model|work= Al Jazeera|location= |access-date=3 July 2023|quote=The first step is to abandon GDP as a measure of progress – as New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern recently pledged to do – and focus instead on human well-being and ecology. There is a strong scientific consensus forming around this approach. A new paper signed by more than 11,000 scientists argues that high-income nations must shift to post-growth economic models if we are going to have any chance of preventing climate breakdown. }}</ref>

In a 2022 comment published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', Hickel, [[Giorgos Kallis]], [[Juliet Schor]], [[Julia Steinberger]] and others say that both the [[IPCC]] and the [[IPBES]] ""suggest that degrowth policies should be considered in the fight against climate breakdown and biodiversity loss, respectively"".<ref name=""Hickeletal"">{{cite journal |last1=Hickel|first1=Jason|last2=Kallis|first2=Giorgos|author-link2=Giorgos Kallis|last3=Jackson|first3=Tim|author-link3=Tim Jackson (economist)|last4=O'Neill|first4=Daniel W.|last5=Schor|first5=Juliet B.|author-link5=Juliet Schor|last6=Steinberger|first6=Julia K.|author-link6=Julia Steinberger|display-authors=etal.|date=December 12, 2022|title=Degrowth can work — here's how science can help|url= |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=612|issue=7940|pages=400–403|doi=10.1038/d41586-022-04412-x|pmid=36510013 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..400H |s2cid=254614532 |access-date=|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Degrowth movement ==

===Conferences===
The movement has included international conferences <ref name=""MOINS12"">{{in lang|fr}} ""La genèse du Réseau Objection de Croissance en Suisse"", Julien Cart, in ''[[Moins!]]'', journal [[Suisse romande|romand]] d'écologie politique, 12, July–August 2014.</ref> promoted by the network Research & Degrowth (R&D).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://degrowth.org/|title=Research & Degrowth|access-date=23 September 2014}}</ref> The First International Conference on Economic Degrowth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity in [[Paris]] (2008) was a discussion about the financial, social, cultural, demographic, and environmental crisis caused by the deficiencies of [[capitalism]] and an explanation of the main principles of degrowth.<ref>''Declaration of the Paris 2008 Conference''. Retrieved from: http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Declaration-Degrowth-Paris-2008.pdf</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://events.it-sudparis.eu/degrowthconference/|title=Décroissance économique pour la soutenabilité écologique et l'équité sociale|access-date=16 May 2011|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110061603/http://events.it-sudparis.eu/degrowthconference/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Further conferences were in [[Barcelona]] (2010),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://barcelona.degrowth.org/|title=Degrowth Conference Barcelona 2010|access-date=6 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410204609/http://barcelona.degrowth.org/|archive-date=10 April 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Montreal]] (2012),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://montreal.degrowth.org/|title=International Conference on Degrowth in the Americas|access-date=2013-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531103344/http://montreal.degrowth.org/|archive-date=2014-05-31|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Venice]] (2012),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.venezia2012.it/|title=International Degrowth Conference Venezia 2012 |access-date=5 Dec 2012}}</ref> [[Leipzig]] (2014), [[Budapest]] (2016),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://degrowth.org/2015/03/26/5-international-degrowth-conference-budapest-2016/|access-date=2018-01-31|title=5th International Degrowth Conference in Budapest|date=2015-03-26}}</ref> [[Malmö]] (2018),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://malmo.degrowth.org|title=Dialogues in turbulent times|website=Dialogues in turbulent times|language=en-US|access-date=2018-08-28}}</ref>, and [[Zagreb]] (2023).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://odrast.hr/|title=9th International Degrowth Conference}}</ref>

====Barcelona Conference (2010)====
The Second International Conference in [[Barcelona]] focused on specific ways to implement a degrowth society.

Concrete proposals have been developed for future political actions, including:
* Promotion of [[Local currency|local currencies]], elimination of [[fiat money]] and reforms of [[interest]]
* Transition to non-profit and small-scale companies
* Increase of local commons and support of participative approaches in [[decision-making]]
* Reducing working hours and facilitation of [[volunteering|volunteer work]]
* Reusing empty housing and [[cohousing]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lietaert |first1=Matthieu |title=Cohousing's relevance to degrowth theories |journal=[[Journal of Cleaner Production]] |date=2010 |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=576–580 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.11.016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Housing for Degrowth: Principles, Models, Challenges and Opportunities |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=9780367358334}}</ref>
* Introduction of the [[basic income]] and an income ceiling built on a maximum-minimum ratio
* Limitation of the [[exploitation of natural resources]] and preservation of the [[biodiversity]] and culture by regulations, taxes and compensations
* Minimize the [[waste]] production with education and legal instruments
* Elimination of [[Megainfrastructure|mega infrastructures]], transition from a car-based system to a more local, biking, walking-based one.
* Suppression of advertising from the public space<ref>2nd Conference on Economic Degrowth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Ethic. 2010. ''Degrowth Declaration Barcelona 2010'' and ''Working Groups Results''. Retrieved from: http://barcelona.degrowth.org/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410204609/http://barcelona.degrowth.org/ |date=2014-04-10 }}</ref>

The Barcelona conference had little influence on the world economic and political order. Criticism of the proposals arrived at in Barcelona, mostly financial, have inhibited change.<ref>Responsabilité, Innovation & Management. 2011. ''Décroissance économique pour l'écologie, l'équité et le bien-vivre par François SCHNEIDER.'' Retrieved from http://www.openrim.org/Decroissance-economique-pour-l.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221144258/http://www.openrim.org/Decroissance-economique-pour-l.html |date=2014-02-21 }}</ref>

====Post Growth Conference (2018)====
The Post-Growth 2018 Conference was a two-day event held on the 18th of September at the European Parliament in Brussels to discuss a vision of the European Union beyond traditional development metrics centered around GDP. It built on thematic workshops organized by multiple stakeholders. The workshops encouraged building a dialogue between actors and seeking for applicable policy alternatives.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-03-30 |title=Programme {{!}} Post-Growth 2018 |url=https://www.postgrowth2018.eu/programme/ |access-date=2023-05-31 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="":5"">{{Cite news |last=Letters |date=2018-09-16 |title=The EU needs a stability and wellbeing pact, not more growth |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/sep/16/the-eu-needs-a-stability-and-wellbeing-pact-not-more-growth |access-date=2023-05-31 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

The conference was paired with a petition signed by 238 academics to call on the EU to plan for a post-growth that prioritized human and ecological wellbeing over GDP.<ref name="":5"" />

=== Degrowth around the world ===
Although not explicitly called degrowth, movements inspired by similar concepts and terminologies can be found around the world, including ''Buen Vivir''<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/buen-vivir-philosophy-south-america-eduardo-gudynas|title=Buen vivir: the social philosophy inspiring movements in South America|last=Balch|first=Oliver|date=2013-02-04|newspaper=The Guardian|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|access-date=2016-09-03}}</ref> in Latin America, the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatistas]] in Mexico, the Kurdish [[Rojava]] or ''Eco-Swaraj'' in India, and the [[sufficiency economy]] in Thailand.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1057/dev.2015.24 |title = Buen Vivir, Degrowth and Ecological Swaraj: Alternatives to sustainable development and the Green Economy|journal = Development|volume = 57|issue = 3–4|pages = 362–375|year = 2014|last1 = Kothari|first1 = Ashish|last2 = Demaria|first2 = Federico|last3 = Acosta|first3 = Alberto|s2cid = 86318140|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287984144}}</ref>

The [[Economy of Cuba|Cuban economic]] situation has been of interest to some degrowth advocates because its limits on growth were socially imposed (although as a result of geopolitics).<ref name="":03"">{{Cite book |last=Cederlöf |first=Gustav |title=The Low-Carbon Contradiction: Energy Transition, Geopolitics, and the Infrastructural State in Cuba |date=2023 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-39313-4 |series=Critical environments: nature, science, and politics |location=Oakland, California}}</ref>{{Rp|page=7}} Although the [[Special Period]] following the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|disintegration of the Soviet Union]] resulted in severe impairment of the [[Healthcare in Cuba|Cuban health system]], certain positive health changes also resulted as the forced changes to travel and food consumption patterns resulted in increased levels of physical activity and decreased obesity levels.<ref name="":03"" />{{Rp|page=71}}

=== Relation to other social movements ===
The degrowth movement has a variety of relations to other social movements and alternative economic visions, which range from collaboration to partial overlap. The Konzeptwerk Neue Ökonomie (Laboratory for New Economic Ideas), which hosted the 2014 international Degrowth conference in Leipzig, has published a project entitled ""Degrowth in movement(s)""<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.degrowth.info/en/dim/degrowth-in-movements/|title=Degrowth in movement(s)|access-date=|website=Degrowth.info|archive-date=2021-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724210803/https://www.degrowth.info/en/dim/degrowth-in-movements/|url-status=dead}}</ref> in 2017, which maps relationships with 32 other social movements and initiatives. The relation to the [[environmental justice]] movement is especially visible.<ref name=gd01/>

Another set of movements the degrowth movement finds synergy with is the wave of initiatives and networks inspired by the commons.<ref name="":6"" /> Some main commons networks include: School of Commoning in Barcelona, Commoning Europe, and the Commons-Institute in Germany. The main overlap stems from a high level of self organization to sustainably share resources through a different logic outside of capitalist organization. This is directly countering the hyper privatization currently embedded in contemporary capitalism, which both movements are attempting to counter in some way.<ref>Helfrich, Silke and David Bollier. 2014. Commons. In: Degrowth. A vocabulary for a new era. Giacomo D'Alisa, Federico Demaria, Giorgos Kalliseds. Oxon: Routledge</ref> For example, initiatives inspired by commons could be food cooperatives, open-source platforms, and group management of resources such as energy or water. These decentralized, direct democratic forms of self-management relate to the degrowth movement regarding inclusive political representation, where the people are actively involved in producing and distributing shared resources.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://degrowth.info/en/about-us/project/commons|title=Degrowth in movement(s)|access-date=|website=Degrowth.info}}{{Dead link|date=January 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Asara |first1=Viviana |last2=Profumi |first2=Emanuele |last3=Kallis |first3=Giorgos |title=Degrowth, Democracy and Autonomy |journal=[[Environmental Values]] |date=2013 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=217–239 |doi=10.3197/096327113X13581561725239|s2cid=144023408 }}</ref> In short, the movements have shared values of inclusion, sustainable use of resources, self-organization, conviviality, shared knowledge production and emphasize use value over exchange value. Degrowth also finds synergy with technology-oriented movements such as [[Cosmopolitan localism]] or cosmolocalism. Cosmolocalism has been proposed as a structural framework for degrowth technology, as it organises production by prioritising socio-ecological well-being over corporate profits, over-production and excess consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kostakis|first1=Vasilis|last2=Niaros|first2=Vasilis|last3=Giotitsas|first3=Chris|date=2023-06-30|title=Beyond global versus local: illuminating a cosmolocal framework for convivial technology development|journal=Sustainability Science|volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=2309–2322 |language=en|doi=10.1007/s11625-023-01378-1|issn=1937-0709|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Economic anthropologist]] [[Jason Hickel]], a proponent of degrowth, sees an opportunity for the degrowth movement to be enhanced by [[modern monetary theory]] (MMT), in which the power of ""the government's role as the issuer of currency"" can be harnessed to bring the economy back into balance with the living world while simultaneously reducing inequality by providing high quality [[Universal basic services|universal public services]] (in healthcare, education, [[affordable housing]], and transportation), implementing the rapid development of renewable energy infrastructure to completely phase out [[fossil fuels]] in a shorter period of time, and establishing a public [[job guarantee]] for 30 hours a week at a living wage doing decommodified, socially useful work in the public services sector, and also useful work in renewable energy development and ecosystem restoration. Hickel notes that providing a living wage at 30 hours a week also has the added benefit of shifting income from capital to labor. And he suggests that taxation can be used to ""reduce demand ''in order to bring resource and energy use down to target levels'',"" and specifically to reduce the purchasing power of the affluent. He concludes:

<blockquote>MMT proposals align elegantly with one of degrowth's key observations, namely, that if growthism depends on the perpetual creation of artificial scarcity, then by reversing artificial scarcity – by providing public abundance – we can dismantle the growth imperative.  As [[Giorgos Kallis]] has put it, ""capitalism cannot survive under conditions of abundance"".  MMT provides an opportunity for us to create a post-growth, post-capitalist economy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jasonhickel.org/blog/2020/9/10/degrowth-and-mmt-a-thought-experiment|title=Degrowth and MMT: a thought experiment|last=Hickel|first=Jason|date=September 23, 2020 |website=jasonhickel.org |publisher= |access-date=July 9, 2023 |quote=}}</ref></blockquote>

== Criticisms, challenges and dilemmas ==
Critiques of degrowth concern the negative connotation that the term ""degrowth"" imparts, the misapprehension that growth is seen as unambiguously bad, the challenges and feasibility of a degrowth transition, as well as the entanglement of desirable aspects of modernity with the growth paradigm.

=== Criticisms ===
==== Negative connotation ====
The use of the term ""degrowth"" is criticized for being detrimental to the degrowth movement because it could carry a negative connotation,<ref name=""Drews&Antal20162"">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.04.001 |title = Degrowth: A 'missile word' that backfires?|journal = Ecological Economics|volume = 126|pages = 182–187|year = 2016|last1 = Drews|first1 = Stefan|last2 = Antal |first2 = Miklós}}</ref> in opposition to the positively perceived ""growth"".<ref name=""Warriner&al20132"">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.3758/s13428-012-0314-x|pmid = 23404613|title = Norms of valence, arousal, and dominance for 13,915 English lemmas|journal = Behavior Research Methods|volume = 45|issue = 4|pages = 1191–1207|year = 2013|last1 = Warriner|first1 = Amy Beth|last2 = Kuperman|first2 = Victor|last3 = Brysbaert|first3 = Marc|doi-access = free}}</ref> ""Growth"" is associated with the ""up"" direction and positive experiences, while ""down"" generates the opposite associations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Meier|first1=B. P.|last2=Robinson|first2=M. D.|date=2004-04-01|title=Why the Sunny Side Is Up: Associations Between Affect and Vertical Position|journal=Psychological Science|volume= 15|issue=4|pages=243–247|doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00659.x|pmid=15043641|s2cid=31201262|issn=0956-7976}}</ref> Research in [[political psychology]] has shown that the initial negative association of a concept, such as of ""degrowth"" with the negatively perceived ""down"", can bias how the subsequent information on that concept is integrated at the unconscious level.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Rationalizing Voter|last1=Lodge|first1=Milton|last2=Taber|first2=Charles S.|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139032490|location=Cambridge|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139032490}}</ref> At the conscious level, degrowth can be interpreted negatively as the contraction of the economy,<ref name=""Drews&Antal20162"" /><ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.09.035 |title = Environment versus growth — A criticism of ""degrowth"" and a plea for ""a-growth""|journal = Ecological Economics|volume = 70|issue = 5|pages = 881–890|year = 2011|last1 = van den Bergh|first1 = Jeroen C.J.M.|author-link1=Jeroen C. J. M. van den Bergh}}</ref> although this is not the goal of a degrowth transition, but rather one of its expected consequences.<ref name = annual/> In the current economic system, a contraction of the economy is associated with a [[recession]] and its ensuing [[austerity]] measures, job cuts, or lower salaries.<ref name="":0""/> [[Noam Chomsky]] commented on the use of the term: ""When you say 'degrowth' it frightens people. It's like saying you're going to have to be poorer tomorrow than you are today, and it doesn't mean that.""<ref>{{cite web|url= https://canadiandimension.com/articles/view/the-greening-of-noam-chomsky-a-conversation |title=The greening of Noam Chomsky: a conversation|last1=Levy|first1=Andrea|last2=Gonick |first2=Cy|date=January 22, 2014|website=Canadian Dimension|publisher=Open Publishing|access-date=March 27, 2019|last3=Lukacs|first3=Martin}}</ref>

Since ""degrowth"" contains the term ""growth"", there is also a risk of the term having a [[backfire effect]], which would reinforce the initial positive attitude toward growth.<ref name=""Drews&Antal20162"" /> ""Degrowth"" is also criticized for being a confusing term, since its aim is not to halt economic growth as the word implies. Instead, ""[[Agrowth|a-growth]]"" is proposed as an alternative concept that emphasizes that growth ceases to be an important policy objective, but that it can still be achieved as a side-effect of environmental and social policies.<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=van den Bergh|first=Jeroen C. J. M.|date=2017|title=A third option for climate policy within potential limits to growth|journal=Nature Climate Change|language=en|volume=7|issue=2|pages=107–112|doi=10.1038/nclimate3113|issn=1758-678X|bibcode=2017NatCC...7..107V|url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/55d55cfa-2617-4e8a-b21c-fbc02ee19eea |hdl=1871.1/55d55cfa-2617-4e8a-b21c-fbc02ee19eea|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

====Marxist critique====
{{See also|Steady-state economy #Capitalism without growth}}
Traditional [[Marxism|Marxists]] distinguish between two types of value creation: that which is useful to mankind, and that which only serves the purpose of accumulating capital.<ref name=gd01/>{{rp|86–87}} Traditional Marxists consider that it is the exploitative nature and control of the capitalist production relations that is the determinant and not the quantity. According to Jean Zin, while the justification for degrowth is valid, it is not a solution to the problem.<ref>''L'écologie politique à l'ère de l'information'', Ere, 2006, p. 68-69</ref> Other Marxist writers have adopted positions close to the de-growth perspective. For example, [[John Bellamy Foster]]<ref name=""The Ecological Rift"">https://monthlyreview.org/press/books/pb2181/, Monthly Review Press.</ref> and Fred Magdoff,<ref name=""Harmony and Ecological Civilization, Monthly Review, Vol 44 (2), 1-9"">{{cite web|url=https://monthlyreview.org/2012/06/01/harmony-and-ecological-civilization|title=Harmony and Ecological Civilization: Beyond the Capitalist Alienation of Nature|date=June 2012|work=Monthly Review}}</ref> in common with [[David Harvey]], [[Immanuel Wallerstein]], [[Paul Sweezy]] and others focus on endless [[capital accumulation]] as the basic principle and goal of capitalism. This is the source of economic growth and, in the view of these writers, results in an unsustainable [[growth imperative]]. Foster and Magdoff develop Marx's own concept of the metabolic rift, something he noted in the exhaustion of soils by capitalist systems of food production, though this is not unique to capitalist systems of food production as seen in the [[Aral Sea]]. Many degrowth theories and ideas are based on neo-Marxist theory.<ref name=gd01/> Foster emphasizes that degrowth ""is not aimed at austerity, but at finding a 'prosperous way down' from our current extractivist, wasteful, ecologically unsustainable, maldeveloped, exploitative, and unequal, class-hierarchical world.""<ref>{{cite web |url=https://monthlyreview.org/2023/07/01/planned-degrowth/|title=Planned Degrowth: Ecosocialism and Sustainable Human Development|last=Foster|first=John Bellamy|author-link=John Bellamy Foster|date=July 1, 2023 |website=[[Monthly Review]] |publisher= |access-date=August 20, 2023 |quote=}}</ref>

====Systems theoretical critique====
In stressing the negative rather than the positive side(s) of growth, the majority of degrowth proponents remain focused on (de-)growth, thus giving continued attention to the issue of growth, leading to continued attention to the arguments that [[sustainable growth]] is possible. One way to avoid giving attention to growth might be extending from the economic concept of growth, which proponents of both growth and degrowth commonly adopt, to a broader concept of growth that allows for the observation of growth in other [[Differentiation (sociology)|sociological characteristics]] of society. A corresponding ""recoding"" of ""growth-obsessed"", capitalist organizations was proposed by Steffen Roth.<ref name=Roth-2015>{{cite web|url=https://steffenroth.files.wordpress.com/2015/12/15-12-15-growth-and-function1.pdf|title=Growth and function. A viral research program for next organizations|last=Roth|first=Steffen|work=International Journal of Technology Management}}</ref>

=== Challenges ===

==== Lack of macroeconomics for sustainability ====
It is reasonable for society to worry about recession as economic growth has been the unanimous goal around the globe in the past decades. However, in some advanced countries, there are attempts to develop a model for a regrowth economy. For instance, the [[Cool Japan]] strategy has proven to be instructive for Japan, which has been a static economy for almost decades.<ref>Tunstall, E. (2015) 'Degrowth: Japan models design for steady state economies'. Swinburne University of Technology. https://www.swinburne.edu.au/news/2015/05/degrowth-japan-models-design-for-steady-state-economies/</ref>

==== Political and social spheres ====
According to some scholars in Sociology, the [[growth imperative]] is deeply entrenched in [[Market capitalism|market capitalist]] societies such that it is necessary for their stability.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rosa|first1=Hartmut|last2=Dörre|first2=Klaus|last3=Lessenich|first3=Stephan|s2cid=148366804|date=2017|title=Appropriation, Activation and Acceleration: The Escalatory Logics of Capitalist Modernity and the Crises of Dynamic Stabilization|journal=Theory, Culture & Society|language=en|volume=34|issue=1|pages=53–73|doi=10.1177/0263276416657600|issn=0263-2764|url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/42046/1/0263276416657600.pdf}}</ref> Moreover, the institutions of [[Modernity|modern]] societies, such as the [[nation state]], [[welfare]], [[labor market]], [[education]], [[Academy|academia]], [[law]] and [[finance]], have co-evolved with growth to sustain them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luhmann|first=Niklas|date=1976|title=The Future Cannot Begin: Temporal Structures in Modern Society|journal=Social Research|volume=43|pages=130–152}}</ref> A degrowth transition thus requires not only a change of the economic system but of all the systems on which it relies. As most people in modern societies are dependent on those growth-oriented institutions, the challenge of a degrowth transition also lies in individual resistance to move away from growth.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=Büchs|first1=Milena|last2=Koch|first2=Max|date=2019|title=Challenges for the degrowth transition: The debate about wellbeing|journal=Futures|language=en|volume=105|pages=155–165|doi=10.1016/j.futures.2018.09.002|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Land privatisation ====
Baumann, Alexander and Burdon <ref>Baumann, A., S. Alexander and P. Burdon (2020) 'Land Commodification as a Barrier to Political and Economic Agency: A Degrowth Perspective' Journal of Australian Political Economy No. 86, pp. 379-405</ref> suggest that ""the Degrowth movement needs to give more attention to land and housing costs, which are significant barriers hindering true political and economic agency and any grassroots driven degrowth transition.""
They are saying that land (something we all need like air and water) privatisation creates an absolute economic growth determinant. They point out that even one who is fully committed to degrowth nevertheless has no option but decades of market growth participation to pay rent or mortgage. Because of this, land privatisation is a structural impediment to moving forward that makes degrowth economically and politically unviable. They conclude that without addressing land privatisation (the market's inaugural privatisation - primitive accumulation) the degrowth movement's strategies cannot succeed. Just as land enclosure (privatisation) initiated capitalism (economic growth), degrowth must start with reclaiming land commons.<ref>Samuel Alexander and Alex Bauman, 'Access to land is a barrier to simpler, sustainable living' (22 August 2019) The Conversation.</ref>

==== Agriculture ====
A degrowth society would require a shift from [[industrial agriculture]] to less intensive and more sustainable agricultural practices such as [[permaculture]] or [[organic agriculture]]. Still, it is not clear if any of those alternatives could feed the [[World population|current]] and [[Projections of population growth|projected global population]].<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.237|title = Agriculture and degrowth: State of the art and assessment of organic and biotech-based agriculture from a degrowth perspective|journal = Journal of Cleaner Production|volume = 197|pages = 1823–1839|year = 2018|last1 = Gomiero|first1 = Tiziano|s2cid = 157265598}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ferguson|first1=Rafter Sass|last2=Lovell|first2=Sarah Taylor|s2cid=15089504|date=2014|title=Permaculture for agroecology: design, movement, practice, and worldview. A review|journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development|language=en|volume=34|issue=2|pages=251–274|doi=10.1007/s13593-013-0181-6|issn=1774-0746|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01234801/file/13593_2013_Article_181.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the case of organic agriculture, Germany, for example, would not be able to feed its population under ideal organic yields over all of its [[arable land]] without meaningful changes to patterns of consumption, such as reducing meat consumption and [[food waste]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=Adrian |title=Strategies for feeding the world more sustainably with organic agriculture |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-01410-w.pdf |journal=Nature Communications |year=2017 |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=1290 |publisher=Springer Nature |doi=10.1038/s41467-017-01410-w |pmid=29138387 |pmc=5686079 |bibcode=2017NatCo...8.1290M |access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="":2"" /> Moreover, [[Workforce productivity|labour productivity]] of non-industrial agriculture is significantly lower due to the reduced use or absence of fossil fuels, which leaves much less labour for other [[Sectors of the economy|sectors]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Giampietro|first=Mario|date=2011-10-12|title=The Metabolic Pattern of Societies|doi=10.4324/9780203635926|isbn=9780203635926}}</ref> Potential solutions to this challenge include scaling up approaches such as community-supported agriculture (CSA).

=== Dilemmas ===
Given that modernity has emerged with high levels of energy and material [[throughput]], there is an apparent compromise between desirable aspects of modernity<ref>{{Cite book|title=Enlightenment Now|last=Pinker, Steven|isbn=9780141979090|oclc=1083713125|date=2019-01-03|publisher=Penguin Books }}</ref> (e.g., [[social justice]], [[gender equality]], long [[life expectancy]], low [[infant mortality]]) and [[unsustainable]] levels of energy and material use.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.3197/096327113X13581561725310|title = De-Growth is Not a Liberal Agenda: Relocalisation and the Limits to Low Energy Cosmopolitanism|journal = Environmental Values|volume = 22|issue = 2|pages = 261–285|year = 2013|last1 = Quilley|first1 = Stephen| s2cid=144880469 }}</ref> Some researchers, however, argue that the decline in income inequality and rise in social mobility occurring under capitalism from the late 1940s to the 1960s was a product of the heavy bargaining power of labor unions and increased wealth and income redistribution during that time; while also pointing to the rise in income inequality in the 1970s following the collapse of labor unions and weakening of state welfare measures.<ref>Nelson, Joel I. ""Inequality in America: The Case for Post-Industrial Capitalism."" ''Research in social stratification and mobility'' 18 (2001): 39–62. Web.</ref> Others also argue that modern capitalism maintains gender inequalities by means of advertising, messaging in consumer goods, and social media.<ref>Rosalind Gill, Akane Kanai, Mediating Neoliberal Capitalism: Affect, Subjectivity and Inequality, ''Journal of Communication'', Volume 68, Issue 2, April 2018, Pages 318–326. Web.</ref> 

Another way of looking at the argument that the development of desirable aspects of modernity require unsustainable energy and material use is through the lens of the [[Marxism|Marxist tradition]], which relates the [[Superstructure (Marxism)|superstructure]] (culture, ideology, institutions) and the [[Base and superstructure|base]] (material conditions of life, division of labor). A degrowth society, with its drastically different material conditions, could produce equally drastic changes in society's cultural and ideological spheres.<ref name="":3"" /> The [[political economy]] of global capitalism has generated a lot of social and environmental ''bads'', such as [[socioeconomic inequality]] and [[Environmental degradation|ecological devastation]], which in turn have also generated a lot of ''goods'' through [[Personalization|individualization]] and increased spatial and [[social mobility]].<ref name="":43"">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.08.008|title = Wicked Dilemmas of Scale and Complexity in the Politics of Degrowth|journal = Ecological Economics|volume = 142|pages = 306–317|year = 2017|last1 = Kish|first1 = Kaitlin|last2 = Quilley|first2 = Stephen}}</ref> At the same time, some argue the widespread individualization promulgated by a capitalist political economy is a ''bad'' due to its undermining of [[solidarity]], aligned with [[democracy]] as well as collective, secondary, and primary forms of caring,<ref>Lynch, Kathleen, and Manolis Kalaitzake. ""Affective and Calculative Solidarity: The Impact of Individualism and Neoliberal Capitalism."" ''European journal of social theory'' 23.2 (2020): 239. Web.</ref> and simultaneous encouragement of mistrust of others, highly competitive interpersonal relationships, blame of failure on individual shortcomings, prioritization of one's self-interest, and peripheralization of the conceptualization of human work required to create and sustain people.<ref>Lynch, Kathleen, and Manolis Kalaitzake. ""Affective and Calculative Solidarity: The Impact of Individualism and Neoliberal Capitalism."" ''European journal of social theory'' 23.2 (2020): 245. Web.</ref> In this view, the widespread individuation resulting from capitalism may impede degrowth measures, requiring a change in actions to benefit society rather than the individual self.

Some argue the political economy of capitalism has allowed social emancipation at the level of gender equality,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gender of Modernity|last=Felski, Rita|date=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674036796|oclc=1041150387}}</ref> disability, sexuality and anti-racism that has no historical precedent. However, others dispute social emancipation as being a direct product of capitalism or question the emancipation that has resulted. The feminist writer Nancy Holmstrom, for example, argues that capitalism's negative impacts on women outweigh the positive impacts, and women tend to be hurt by the system. In her examination of China following the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]], Holmstrom notes that women were granted state-assisted freedoms to equal education, childcare, healthcare, abortion, marriage, and other social supports.<ref>Cudd, Ann E., and Nancy Holmstrom. ''Capitalism, For and Against : a Feminist Debate''. Cambridge University Press, 2011.</ref> Thus, whether the social emancipation achieved in Western society under capitalism may coexist with degrowth is ambiguous.

Doyal and Gough allege that the modern capitalist system is built on the exploitation of female reproductive labor as well as that of the Global South, and [[sexism]] and [[racism]] are embedded in its structure. Therefore, some theories (such as [[Ecofeminism|Eco-Feminism]] or [[political ecology]]) argue that there cannot be equality regarding gender and the hierarchy between the Global North and South within [[capitalism]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Doyal|first1=Len|title=Towards a political economy of degrowth|last2=Gough|first2=Ian|date=1991|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield International, Ltd.|isbn=9781786608963|location=London, New York|page=77}}</ref>

The structural properties of growth present another barrier to degrowth as growth shapes and is enforced by institutions, norms, culture, technology, identities, etc. The social ingraining of growth manifests in peoples' aspirations, thinking, bodies, mindsets, and relationships. Together, growth's role in social practices and in socio-economic institutions present unique challenges to the success of the degrowth movement.<ref name="":13"">Büchs, Milena, and Max Koch. ""Challenges for the Degrowth Transition: The Debate About Wellbeing."" ''Futures : the journal of policy, planning and futures studies'' 105 (2019): 155–165. Web.</ref> Another potential barrier to degrowth is the need for a rapid transition to a degrowth society due to climate change and the potential negative impacts of a rapid social transition including disorientation, conflict, and decreased well-being.<ref name="":13""/>

In the United States, a large barrier to the support of the degrowth movement is the modern education system, including both primary and higher learning institutions. Beginning in the second term of the Reagan administration, the education system in the US was restructured to enforce [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] ideology by means of privatization schemes such as commercialization and performance contracting, implementation of standards and accountability measures incentivizing schools to adopt a uniform curriculum, and higher education accreditation and curricula designed to affirm market values and current power structures and avoid critical thought concerning the relations between those in power, ethics, authority, history, and knowledge.<ref>Kenneth J. Saltman, and David A. Gabbard. ''Education as Enforcement: The Militarization and Corporatization of Schools''. Taylor and Francis, 2010. Web.</ref> The degrowth movement, based on the empirical assumption that resources are finite and growth is limited,<ref name="":23"" /> clashes with the limitless growth ideology associated with neoliberalism and the market values affirmed in schools, and therefore faces a major social barrier in gaining widespread support in the US.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Nevertheless, co-evolving aspects of global capitalism, liberal modernity, and the market society, are closely tied and will be difficult to separate to maintain [[Liberalism|liberal]] and [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitan]] values in a degrowth society.<ref name="":43"" /> At the same time, the goal of the degrowth movement is progression rather than regression, and researchers point out that neoclassical economic models indicate neither negative nor zero growth would harm economic stability or full employment.<ref name="":23"">Kallis, Giorgos, Christian Kerschner, and Joan Martinez-Alier. ""The Economics of Degrowth."" ''Ecological economics'' 84 (2012): 172–180. Web.</ref> Several assert the main barriers to the movement are social and structural factors clashing with implementing degrowth measures.<ref name="":23"" /><ref name="":13""/><ref>Akbulut, Bengi. ""Degrowth."" ''Rethinking Marxism'' 33.1 (2021): 98–110. Web.</ref>

==== Healthcare ====
It has been pointed out that there is an apparent trade-off between the ability of modern healthcare systems to treat individual bodies to their last breath and the broader global ecological risk of such an energy and resource intensive care. If this trade-off exists, a degrowth society must choose between prioritizing the ecological integrity and the ensuing collective health or maximizing the healthcare provided to individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1057/s41285-017-0051-4|title = Health systems in an era of biophysical limits: The wicked dilemmas of modernity|journal = Social Theory & Health|volume = 16|issue = 2|pages = 188–207|year = 2018|last1 = Zywert|first1 = Katharine|last2 = Quilley|first2 = Stephen|s2cid = 149177035}}</ref> However, many degrowth scholars argue that the current system produces both psychological and physical damage to people. They insist that societal prosperity should be measured by well-being, not GDP.<ref name=""gd01"" />{{rp|142}}

== See also ==
{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
* ''[[A Blueprint for Survival]]''
* [[Agrowth]]
* [[Anti-consumerism]]
* [[Critique of political economy]]
* [[:Category:Degrowth advocates|Degrowth advocates]] (category)
* [[Political ecology]]
* [[Postdevelopment theory]]
* ''[[Power Down: Options and Actions for a Post-Carbon World]]''
* [[Paradox of thrift]]
* ''[[The Path to Degrowth in Overdeveloped Countries]]''
*[[Post-capitalism]]
* [[Productivism]]
* ''[[Prosperity Without Growth]]''
* [[Slow movement (culture)|Slow movement]]
* [[Steady-state economy]]
* [[Transition town]]
* [[Uneconomic growth]]
{{colend}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name=mb01>
{{cite book |editor-last=Bonaiuti |editor-first=Mauro|editor-link=Mauro Bonaiuti |date=2011 |title=From Bioeconomics to Degrowth: Georgescu-Roegen's ""New Economics"" in eight essays. |url=https://www.routledge.com/From-Bioeconomics-to-Degrowth-Georgescu-Roegens-New-Economics-in-Eight/Georgescu-Roegen-Bonaiuti/p/book/9781138802964 |format=Book info page at publisher's site |location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415587006 }}</ref>

<ref name=gd01>
{{cite book |editor-last=D'Alisa |editor-first=Giacomo|display-editors=et al| title=Degrowth: A Vocabulary for a New Era|url=https://vocabulary.degrowth.org/look/ |format=Book info page containing download samples |location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781138000766|year=2015}}</ref>

<ref name=fd01>
{{cite journal
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 |date=2013
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 |journal=Environmental Values
 |volume=22
 |issue=2
 |doi=10.3197/096327113X13581561725194
 |pages=191–215
 |s2cid=55888884
 |display-authors=etal
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527163840/http://www.jnu.ac.in/sss/cssp/What%20is%20degrowth.pdf
 |archive-date=2016-05-27
}}</ref>

<ref name=ff01>
{{cite conference|editor1-last=Flipo |editor1-first=Fabrice |editor2-last=Schneider |editor2-first=François |editor2-link=:fr:François Schneider |date=2008 |title=Proceedings of the First International Conference on Economic De-Growth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity |url=http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Degrowth-Conference-Proceedings.pdf |format=PDF contains all conference proceedings |location=Paris|publisher=European Society of Ecological Economics }}</ref>

<ref name=ngr01>
{{cite book |last=Georgescu-Roegen |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen |date=1971 |title=The Entropy Law and the Economic Process |url=https://archive.org/details/entropylawe00nich |format=Full book accessible at Scribd |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674257801 |url-access=registration }}</ref>

<ref name=ngr02>
{{cite journal |last=Georgescu-Roegen |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen |date=1975 |title=Energy and Economic Myths |url=http://www.uvm.edu/~jfarley/EEseminar/readings/energy%20myths.pdf |journal=Southern Economic Journal |volume=41 |issue=3 |doi=10.2307/1056148 |pages=347–381|jstor=1056148 }}</ref>

<ref name=ngr03>
{{cite book |last=Georgescu-Roegen |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen |date=1995 |orig-year=1979 |editor1-last=Grinevald |editor1-first=Jacques |editor1-link=:fr:Jacques Grinevald |editor2-last=Rens |editor2-first=Ivo |editor2-link=:fr:Ivo Rens |title=La Décroissance: Entropie – Écologie – Économie |edition=2nd |url=http://classiques.uqac.ca/contemporains/georgescu_roegen_nicolas/decroissance/la_decroissance.pdf |format=PDF contains full book |location=Paris |publisher=[[:fr:Sang de la terre|Sang de la terre]] }}</ref>

<ref name=jg01>
{{cite conference|last=Grinevald |first=Jacques |author-link=:fr:Jacques Grinevald |date=2008 |chapter=Introduction to Georgescu-Roegen and Degrowth |editor1-last=Flipo |editor1-first=Fabrice |editor2-last=Schneider |editor2-first=François|editor2-link=:fr:François Schneider |title=Proceedings of the First International Conference on Economic De-Growth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity |chapter-url=http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Degrowth-Conference-Proceedings.pdf |chapter-format=PDF contains all conference proceedings |location=Paris |pages=14–17|publisher=European Society of Ecological Economics }}</ref>

<ref name=gk01>
{{cite journal |last=Kallis |first=Giorgos |date=2011 |title=In defense of degrowth |url=http://www.degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/In-defense-of-degrowth.pdf |journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]]|volume=70 |issue=5 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.12.007 |pages=873–880 }}; {{cite journal |last=Kallis |first=Giorgos |date=February 2015 |title=The Degrowth Alternative |url=https://greattransition.org/publication/the-degrowth-alternative |journal=[[Great Transition Initiative]]}}</ref>

<ref name=ck01>
{{cite journal |last=Kerschner |first=Christian |date=2010 |title=Economic de-growth vs. steady-state economy |url=http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Kerschner-2010.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Cleaner Production]] |volume=18 |issue=6 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.10.019 |pages=544–551}}</ref>

<ref name=sl01>{{harv|Latouche|2009}}, pp. 13-16</ref>

<ref name=jm01>
{{cite journal |last=Martínez-Alier |first=Juan |author-link=Joan Martinez Alier |date=2010 |title=Sustainable de-growth: Mapping the context, criticisms and future prospects of an emergent paradigm |url=http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/martinez-alier_mapping-the-context.pdf |journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]] |volume=69 |issue=9 |display-authors=etal |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.04.017 |pages=1741–1747}}</ref>
}}

===Reference details===
* {{cite book |last =Latouche |first =Serge |author-link =Serge Latouche |year =2009 |orig-year =2007 |title =Farewell to Growth |url =http://sduk.us/2011/latouche_farewell_to_growth.pdf |format =PDF contains full book |location =Cambridge |publisher =Polity Press |isbn =978-0-7456-4616-9 }}
* {{cite book |last =Zehner |first =Ozzie|author-link =Ozzie Zehner |title =Green Illusions |year =2012 |publisher =U. Neb. Press |location =Lincoln & London |isbn =978-0803237759 |url =http://GreenIllusions.org }}

==Further reading==
* {{cite news |last=Berwyn|first=Bob |date=January 9, 2024|title=New Research Explores a Restorative Climate Path for the Earth|url=https://insideclimatenews.org/news/09012024/new-research-explores-a-restorative-climate-path-for-the-earth/|work=[[Inside Climate News]]|location= |access-date=}}
* {{cite web |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason|author-link=Jason Hickel|title=Degrowth: A Response to Branko Milanovic|url=https://www.jasonhickel.org/blog/2017/11/19/why-branko-milanovic-is-wrong-about-de-growth |website=Jason Hickel |access-date=25 November 2020 |date=October 27, 2020}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hickel|first1=Jason|last2=Kallis|first2=Giorgos|author-link2=Giorgos Kallis|last3=Jackson|first3=Tim|author-link3=Tim Jackson (economist)|last4=O'Neill|first4=Daniel W.|last5=Schor|first5=Juliet B.|author-link5=Juliet Schor|last6=Steinberger|first6=Julia K.|author-link6=Julia Steinberger|display-authors=etal.|date=December 12, 2022|title=Degrowth can work — here's how science can help|url= |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=612|issue=7940|pages=400–403|doi=10.1038/d41586-022-04412-x|pmid=36510013 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..400H |s2cid=254614532 |access-date=|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hickel|first1=Jason|title=Less is More; How Degrowth Will Save the World|date=2020|publisher=William Heinemann|isbn=9781785152498|edition=Hardcover|url=https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/111/1119823/less-is-more/9781786091215.html|access-date=20 January 2021}}
* {{cite book|last1=John|first1=K|title=Foundations of Real-World Economics|date=2023|publisher=Abingdon-on-Thames, UK; Routledge|edition=3rd|isbn=978-1-000-84789-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eResEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite web |last1=Milanovic |first1=Branko|author-link=Branko Milanović |title=The illusion of 'degrowth' in a poor and unequal world |url=https://glineq.blogspot.com/2017/11/the-illusion-of-degrowth-in-poor-and.html |website=globalinequality |access-date=25 November 2020 |date=November 18, 2017}}

==External links==
{{Scholia}}
* [https://degrowth.info/en/conferences Degrowth Blog: International Degrowth conferences overview | degrowth.info]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081201035310/http://www.degrowth.net/ First International De-growth Conference in Paris 18-19 April 2008]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110305020211/http://degrowth.eu/ 2nd Conference on Economic Degrowth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity. Barcelona 26-29 March 2010]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140531103344/http://montreal.degrowth.org/ International Conference on Degrowth in the Americas, Montreal, 13-19 May 2012]
** [https://xenetwork.org/xe/episodes/episode-55-degrowth/ 3 hours of audio from Montreal 2012, The Extraenvironmentalist (podcast)]
** [https://xenetwork.org/xe/episodes/episode-41-surviving-progress/ Video Interviews and Speeches from Montreal 2012, The Extraenvironmentalist]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130604102428/http://www.venezia2012.it/ 3rd International Conference on degrowth for ecological sustainability and social equity (Venice, 19-23 September 2012)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720220216/http://cle.ens-lyon.fr/82582439/0/fiche___pagelibre/%26RH%3DCDL_ANG000000 Peter Ainsworth on degrowth and sustainable development] Published on La Clé des langues
* [http://www.cbc.ca/radio/ideas/the-degrowth-paradigm-1.2913710 CBC Ideas podcast ""The Degrowth Paradigm""; 54 minutes (Toronto 10 December 2013)]
* [https://monthlyreview.org/2023/07/01/on-technology-and-degrowth/ On Technology and Degrowth]. ''[[Monthly Review]]''. July 1, 2023.
* [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/dec/03/im-not-buying-new-stuff-any-more-the-young-people-getting-into-degrowth 'I'm not buying new stuff any more': the young people getting into 'degrowth']. ''[[The Guardian]]''. December 3, 2023.

{{Simple living}}
{{Environmental social science}}
{{Portal bar|Business and economics|Society|Environment}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:De-Growth}}
[[Category:Degrowth| ]]
[[Category:Simple living]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Green politics]]
[[Category:Ecological economics]]
[[Category:Environmental movements]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]
[[Category:Environmental economics]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]"
Seven generation sustainability,"{{Short description|Concept in futurology and ecological stewardship adapted from Iroquois thought}}
{{original research|date=December 2013}}
'''Seven generation stewardship''' is a concept that urges the current generation of [[human]]s to live and work for the benefit of the [[Future generations|seventh generation into the future]].{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}
It is believed to have originated{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} with the [[Iroquois]] – Great Law of the Iroquois – which holds appropriate to think seven generations ahead and decide whether the decisions they make today would benefit their descendants.  It is frequently associated with the modern, popular concept of environmental stewardship or 'sustainability' but it is much broader in context.

==Iroquois Constitution==
""In every deliberation, we must consider the impact on the seventh generation... even if it requires having skin as thick as the bark of a pine."" This is an often repeated saying; however, despite a common belief, it is not contained in the Constitution of the Iroquois Nation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indigenouspeople.net/iroqcon.htm|title=Iroquois Constitution|website=www.indigenouspeople.net|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref>

Instead, the only passage mentioning the number seven talks about qualities that Iroquois leaders should have, while the end of the passage advises them to consider the welfare of [[future generations]]. In law 28 of the Constitution of the Iroquois Nation,<blockquote>We now do crown you with the sacred emblem of the deer's antlers, the emblem of your Lordship.  You shall now become a mentor of the people of the Five Nations.  ''The thickness of your skin shall be seven spans'' — which is to say that you shall be proof against anger, offensive actions, and criticism. [...]  ''Look and listen for the welfare of the whole people and have always in view not only the present but also the coming generations'', even those whose faces are yet beneath the surface of the ground -- the unborn of the future Nation.</blockquote>[[Oren Lyons]], Chief of the [[Onondaga people|Onondaga]] Nation, writes: ""We are looking ahead, as is one of the first mandates given us as chiefs, to make sure and to make every decision that we make relate to the welfare and well-being of the seventh generation to come. ... What about the seventh generation? Where are you taking them? What will they have?""<ref>{{cite book |chapter=An Iroquois Perspective |pages=173–174 |title=American Indian Environments: Ecological Issues in Native American History |editor1=Christopher Vecsey |editor2=Robert W. Venables |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |location=New York |date=1 December 1980 |isbn=9780815622277 }}</ref>

==Principle==
In reaction to [[consumerism]], another interpretation{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} that stresses stewardship owed to generations past and future sometimes arises in popular culture and discourse. Rather than pointing to seven generations counted from one's own and looking toward the future, there is an awareness of a legacy to honor or a debt to bear in mind to those three generations before one's own, as well as an awareness of one's own legacy bequeathed to the three generations to follow one's own. By reckoning 25 years per generation, the span of lifetimes stretches 75 years before one's birth and 75 years beyond one's death.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}

A variation on the seven generation thinking where self is placed at the center is to expand the span of years that touches one's own lifetime.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book |last=Boulding |first=Elise |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/854687686 |title=Building a global civic culture : education for an interdependent world |date= |publisher=New York : Teachers College Press |year=1988 |isbn=0-8156-2487-5 |pages=3-5 |oclc=854687686}}</ref> One such variation was proffered by Quaker sociologist [[Elise M. Boulding]].<ref name="":0"" /> According to this perspective, a person takes into account the oldest relative or family friend who touched or knew the person as an infant; for example, a great-great-grandparent of age 90. In the same way, the person should then consider the oldest relative or family friend who touched or knew that great-great-grandparent; for example, another 90-year-old person. Then the calculation runs forward to the infant whom the person might touch or know during his or her own lifetime; and by extension again, estimate the number of years when that infant might grow to old age and touch or know still another infant. In total this reaching into the past 180 years and into the future 180 results in the widest frame for understanding one's place in the 360 year period over which one may be known and may know others. In other words, the fact of one's own existence materially touches this very wide span of time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lederach |first=John Paul |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/653082476 |title=The moral imagination : the art and soul of building peace |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-974758-0 |pages=23 |oclc=653082476}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Longtermism]]
*[[Jetyata]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Seven Generation Sustainability}}
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Iroquois culture]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples and the environment]]"
Sustainability science,"{{Short description|Research field studying sustainability aspects of human society}}
{{use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
'''Sustainability science''' first emerged in the 1980s and has become a new academic discipline.<ref name=""Bettencourt"">{{cite journal |last1=Bettencourt |first1=LM |last2=Kaur |first2=J |title=Evolution and structure of sustainability science. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=6 December 2011 |volume=108 |issue=49 |pages=19540–5 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1102712108 |pmid=22114186 |pmc=3241817 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Harley""/>
Similar to [[agricultural science]] or [[health science]], it is an applied science defined by the practical problems it addresses.  Sustainability science focuses on issues relating to [[sustainability]] and [[sustainable development]] as core parts of its subject matter.<ref name=""Harley"">{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=William C. |last2=Harley |first2=Alicia G. |title=Sustainability Science: Toward a Synthesis |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |date=17 October 2020 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=331–386 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-043621 |s2cid=225344148 |language=en |issn=1543-5938|doi-access=free }}</ref>  It is  ""defined by the problems it addresses rather than by the disciplines it employs"" and ""serves the need for advancing both knowledge and action by creating a dynamic bridge between the two"".<ref name=""Clark"">{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=W. C. |title=Sustainability Science: A room of its own |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=6 February 2007 |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1737–1738 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0611291104 |pmid=17284615 |pmc=1794267 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.1737C |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The field is focused on examining the interactions between human, environmental, and engineered systems to understand and contribute to solutions for complex challenges that threaten the future of humanity and the integrity of the life support systems of the planet, such as climate change, [[biodiversity loss]], pollution and land and water degradation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainability Science – Taskforce on Conceptual Foundations of Earth System Governance |url=http://www.earthsystemgovernance.net/conceptual-foundations/?page_id=73 |website=[[Earth System Governance Project]] |access-date=29 September 2022}}</ref>

Sustainability science draws upon the related but not identical concepts of [[sustainable development]] and [[environmental science]].<ref name=""Sauvé"">{{cite journal |last1=Sauvé |first1=Sébastien |last2=Bernard |first2=Sophie |last3=Sloan |first3=Pamela |title=Environmental sciences, sustainable development and circular economy: Alternative concepts for trans-disciplinary research |journal=Environmental Development |date=1 January 2016 |volume=17 |pages=48–56 |doi=10.1016/j.envdev.2015.09.002 |language=en |issn=2211-4645|doi-access=free }}</ref> Sustainability science provides a critical framework for sustainability<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Komiyama |first1=Hiroshi |last2=Takeuchi |first2=Kazuhiko |title=Sustainability science: building a new discipline |journal=Sustainability Science |date=25 October 2006 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1007/s11625-006-0007-4 |s2cid=154730412 }}</ref> while [[sustainability measurement]] provides the evidence-based quantitative data needed to guide [[sustainability governance]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accaglobal.com/publicinterest/activities/research/reports/sustainable_and_transparent/rr-078 |title=Sustainability Accounting in UK Local Government |publisher=The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants |access-date=2008-06-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411231334/http://www.accaglobal.com/publicinterest/activities/research/reports/sustainable_and_transparent/rr-078 |archive-date=2008-04-11 }}</ref>

==History== 
Sustainability science began to emerge in the 1980s with a number of foundational publications, including the ''[[World Conservation Strategy]]'' (1980),<ref name=""IUCN"">{{cite book |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |title=World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development |date=1980 |publisher=IUCN–UNEP–WWF |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/wcs-004.pdf}}</ref> the [[Brundtland Commission]]'s report ''[[Our Common Future]]'' (1987),<ref>{{cite book|author=World Commission on Environment and Development|title=Our Common Future|url=https://archive.org/details/ourcommonfuture00worl|url-access=registration|year=1987|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=019282080X|page=[https://archive.org/details/ourcommonfuture00worl/page/27 27]}}</ref>  and the U.S. [[National Research Council (United States)|National Research Council]]’s ''[[Our Common Journey]]'' (1999).<ref name=""NRC1999"">{{cite book |author=National Research Council |title=Our common journey : a transition toward sustainability |date=1999 |publisher=National Academy Press |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-309-08638-7 |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9690/our-common-journey-a-transition-toward-sustainability |access-date=29 September 2022}}</ref><ref name=""Bettencourt"">{{cite journal |last1=Bettencourt |first1=LM |last2=Kaur |first2=J |title=Evolution and structure of sustainability science. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=6 December 2011 |volume=108 |issue=49 |pages=19540–5 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1102712108 |pmid=22114186 |pmc=3241817 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and has become a new academic discipline.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kates |first1=R. W. |last2=Clark |first2=WC |last3=Corell |first3=R |last4=Hall |first4=JM |last5=Jaeger |first5=CC |last6=Lowe |first6=I |last7=McCarthy |first7=JJ |last8=Schellnhuber |first8=HJ |last9=Bolin |first9=B |last10=Dickson |first10=NM |last11=Faucheux |first11=S |last12=Gallopin |first12=GC |last13=Grübler |first13=A |last14=Huntley |first14=B |last15=Jäger |first15=J |last16=Jodha |first16=NS |last17=Kasperson |first17=RE |last18=Mabogunje |first18=A |last19=Matson |first19=P |last20=Mooney |first20=H |last21=Moore |first21=B |last22=O'Riordan |first22=T |last23=Svedlin |first23=U |title=Sustainability Science |journal=Science |date=27 April 2001 |volume=292 |issue=5517 |pages=641–642 |doi=10.1126/science.1059386 |pmid=11330321 |s2cid=22427506 }}</ref> 
This new field of science was officially introduced with a ""Birth Statement"" at the World Congress ""Challenges of a Changing Earth 2001"" in Amsterdam organized by the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU), the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ([[IGBP]]), the [[International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change]] and the [[World Climate Research Programme]] (WCRP). 
The field reflects a desire to give the generalities and broad-based approach of ""[[sustainability]]"" a stronger analytic and scientific underpinning as it ""brings together scholarship and practice, global and local perspectives from north and south, and disciplines across the natural and social sciences, engineering, and medicine"".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=William C. |last2=Dickson |first2=Nancy M. |title=Sustainability science: The emerging research program |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=8 July 2003 |volume=100 |issue=14 |pages=8059–8061 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1231333100 |pmid=12794187 |pmc=166181 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Ecologist [[William C. Clark]] proposes that it can be usefully thought of as ""neither 'basic' nor 'applied' research but as a field defined by the problems it addresses rather than by the disciplines it employs"" and that it ""serves the need for advancing both knowledge and action by creating a dynamic bridge between the two"".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=W. C. |title=Sustainability Science: A room of its own |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=6 February 2007 |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1737–1738 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0611291104 |pmid=17284615 |pmc=1794267 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.1737C |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Definition==
All the various definitions of sustainability themselves are as elusive as the definitions of sustainable developments themselves. In an 'overview' of demands on their website in 2008, students from the yet-to-be-defined Sustainability Programming at [[Harvard University]] stressed it thusly:
<blockquote>'Sustainability' is problem-driven. Students are defined by their problems. They draw from practice.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cid.harvard.edu./sustsci/overview.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119091925/http://www.cid.harvard.edu./sustsci/overview.html|archive-date=19 November 2008 |title=Overview |work=Sustainable Science Program |publisher=Harvard University |access-date=2017-07-16}}</ref></blockquote> [[Susan Kieffer|Susan W. Kieffer]] and colleagues, in 2003, suggest sustainability itself: 
<blockquote>...&nbsp;requires the minimalization of each and every consequence of the human species...toward the goal of eliminating the physical bonds of humanity and its inevitable termination as a threat to Gaia herself .<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kieffer |first1=S.W. |last2=Barton |first2=P. |last3=Palmer |first3=A.R. |last4=Reitan |first4=P.H. |last5=Zen |first5=E. |year=2003 |chapter=Megascale events: Natural disasters and human behavior |title=Geological Society of America Abstracts with programs |page=432 }}</ref></blockquote>

According to some 'new paradigms' <blockquote>...&nbsp; definitions must encompass the obvious faults of civilization toward its inevitable collapse.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reitan |first1=Paul H. |title=Sustainability science – and everything needed beyond science |journal=Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy |date=April 2005 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=77–80 |doi=10.1080/15487733.2005.11907966 |s2cid=154526333 |doi-access=free }}</ref></blockquote>

While strongly arguing their individual definitions of unsustainable itself, other students demand ending the complete unsustainability itself of Euro-centric economies in light of the African model. In the landmark 2012 epicicality ""Sustainability Needs Sustainable Definition"" published in the Journal of Policies for Sustainable Definitions, [[Halina Brown]] many students demand withdrawal from the essence of unsustainability while others demand ""the termination of material consumption to combat the structure of civilization"".<ref name=""Brown 2012 20–25"">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Halina Szejnwald |title=Sustainability Science Needs to Include Sustainable Consumption |journal=Journal of Policies for Sustainable Definitions |date=January 2012 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=20–25 |doi=10.1080/00139157.2012.639598 |s2cid=153791583 }}</ref>

==Broad objectives==
Students For Research And Development (SFRAD) demand an important component of sustainable development strategies to be embraced and promoted by the Brundtland Commission's report ''[[Our Common Future]]'' in the ''[[Agenda 21]]'' agenda from the ''[[United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]]'' developed at the ''[[World Summit on Sustainable Development]]''.

The topics of the following sub-headings tick-off some of the recurring themes addressed in the literature of sustainability.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kauffman |first1=Joanne |title=Advancing sustainability science: report on the International Conference on Sustainability Science (ICSS) 2009 |journal=Sustainability Science |date=October 2009 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=233–242 |doi=10.1007/s11625-009-0088-y |s2cid=155058826 }}</ref> According to a compendium published as ''Readings in Sustainability'', edited by [[Robert Kates]], with a pre-face by William Clark.<ref name=""hks.harvard.edu"">Kates, Robert W., ed. (2010). ''Readings in Sustainability''. CID Working Paper No. 213. Center for Development, Harvard University. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, December 2010. [https://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/cid/publications/faculty-working-papers/cid-working-paper-no.-213 Abstract] and [https://www.hks.harvard.edu/content/download/69257/1249838/version/1/.../213.pdf PDF file] available on the Harvard Kennedy School website; retrieved 2017-07-16.</ref> The 2012 Commentary by Halina Brown extensively expands that scope.<ref name=""Brown 2012 20–25""/> This is work in progress. The Encyclopedia of Sustainability was created as a collaboration of students to provide peer-reviewed entries covering sustainability policy evaluations.<ref>Meyers, R. (2012). Encyclopedia of sustainability science and technology. New York: Springer.</ref>

===Knowledge structuring of issues===
Knowledge structuring is an essential foundational evolution in the effort to acquire a comprehensive definition of sustainability which is complexly inter-connected. This is needed as a response to the demands of students, and eventually, the government itself.

===Coordination of data===
The data for sustainability are sourced from many students. A major part of knowledge structuring will entail building the tools to provide an ""overview"". Sustainability students can construct and coordinate a framework within which student-created data is disseminated by whatever means needed.

===Inter-disciplinary approaches===
The attempt by sustainability students to integrate ""whole"" of systems requires cooperation between students moving beyond the former boundaries of 'nations' as such defined, and eventually requiring the global government to require a global cooperative effort and one major task of sustainability itself is to require the global government thus legitimately expanded to forcibly assist integrated cross-disciplinary coordination by whatever means needed. Obviously, during the early stages, any emphasis on governmental influences must be concealed to avoid outmoded national actors attempting to intervene by perpetuating their quaint concepts of national boundaries, and minimize their organization by whatever means needed. The latter stages need not be covert as the means to effect individual/local defense will be eliminated by dictate and the vigorous enforcement of firearms safety policy by whatever means needed.

==Contents==

===Geoscience===
[[Geoscience]] is the study of the Earth. Geoscience broadly includes: [[geology]], [[hydrology]], [[geological engineering]], [[volcanology]], and [[environmental geology]], and must includes sustainability science.

===Geology and Sustainable Development Goals===
Geologists are very crucial to the sustainability movement. They hold a special knowledge and deep understanding of how Earth recycles and maintains the sustainability of itself.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=Germán |title=The Need for Geologists in Sustainable Development |journal=GSA Today |date=1 December 2013 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.1130/GSATG185GW.1 |s2cid=130236380 |s2cid-access=free }}</ref> To understand how sustainability and Gaia are related, there is the definition: the notable changes in geologic processes between how Gaia was pre-humans.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Savina |first1=Mary |title=Geology and Sustainability |url=http://serc.carleton.edu/files/acm_face/sustainability/workshop10/essays/geology_sustainability.pdf |access-date=13 May 2020}}</ref> Therefore, the relationship between the two is a concept as seasoned as time itself.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Metzger |first1=Ellen |last2=Blockstein |first2=David |last3=Callahan |first3=Caitlin |title=Interdisciplinary Teaching and Sustainability: An Introduction |journal=Geoscience Education |date=May 2017 |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=81–85 |doi=10.5408/1089.9995-65.2.81 |bibcode=2017JGeEd..65...81M |s2cid=149206329 |id={{ProQuest|1940120714}} }}</ref> Their very similarities have many limitations due to gradual changes. However, there is an issue between this relationship. Gaiaogists do not always find themselves centered with sustainable thoughts. One of the reasons for this is clear -- many students will continue to disagree on the issues of the Anthropocene Epoch<ref name=""Stewart & Gill 2017"">{{cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Iain S. |last2=Gill |first2=Joel C. |title=Social geology — integrating sustainability concepts into Earth sciences |journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association |date=April 2017 |volume=128 |issue=2 |pages=165–172 |doi=10.1016/j.pgeola.2017.01.002 |hdl=10026.1/10862 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> which focuses on if humans possess the capacity to adapt to environmental changes compared to how these changes are minimalized in conceptual form.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hickmann |first1=Thomas |last2=Partzsch |first2=Lena |last3=Pattberg |first3=Philipp |last4=Weiland |first4=Sabine |title=The Anthropocene Debate and Political Science |date=3 September 2018 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8153-8614-8 |pages=1–278 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1BtDwAAQBAJ&q=anthropocene+debate&pg=PT17 |access-date=13 May 2020}}</ref> Regardless of Gaiaogists not always finding themselves centered, students are gaining a toehold through linking the two by creating the Journal of Sustainable Goals. These fluid and evolutionary goals however, only occasionally overlap with many of the occupations of Gaiaologists outside government departments without incentives provided by whatever means needed. 
 
Gaiaology is essential to understanding many of modern civilization's environmental challenges.<ref name=""Transforming the Teaching of Geosci"">{{cite journal |last1=Gosselin |first1=David |last2=Manduca |first2=Cathy |last3=Bralower |first3=Tim |last4=Mogk |first4=David |title=Transforming the Teaching of Geoscience and Sustainability |journal=Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union |date=18 June 2013 |volume=94 |issue=25 |pages=221–222 |doi=10.1002/2013EO250002 |bibcode=2013EOSTr..94..221G |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1503&context=natrespapers }}</ref> This transformation is important as it plays a major role in deciding if humans can live sustainably with Gaia. Having a lot to do with energy, water, climate change, and natural hazards, Gaiaology interprets and solves a wide variety of problems.<ref name=""Transforming the Teaching of Geosci""/>  However, few Gaiaologists make any contributions toward a sustainable future outside of government without the incentives the government agents can provide by whatever means needed.<ref name=""Stewart & Gill 2017""/> Tragically, many Gaiaologists work for oil and gas or mining companies which are typically poor avenues for sustainability. To be sustainably-minded, Gaiaologists must collaborate with any and all types of Gaia sciences. For example, Gaiaologists collaborating with sciences like ecology, zoology, physical geography, biology, environmental, and pathological sciences as<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlosser |first1=Peter |last2=Pfirman |first2=Stephanie |author-link2=Stephanie Pfirman|title=Earth science for sustainability |journal=Nature Geoscience |date=September 2012 |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=587–588 |doi=10.1038/ngeo1567 |bibcode=2012NatGe...5..587S }}</ref> by whatever means needed, they could understand the impact their work could have on our Gaia home.<ref name=""Stewart & Gill 2017""/> By working with more fields of study and broadening their knowledge of the environment Gaiaologists and their work could be evermore environmentally conscious in striving toward social justice for the downtrodden and marginalized.

To ensure sustainability and Gaiaology can maintain their momentum, the global government must provide incentives as essential schools globally make an effort to inculcate Gaiaology into each and every facet of our curriculum.<ref name=""Sustainable Geoscience"">{{cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Iain |title=Sustainable geoscience |journal=Nature Geoscience |date=April 2016 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=262 |doi=10.1038/ngeo2678 |bibcode=2016NatGe...9..262S |doi-access=free |hdl=10026.1/12331 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and society incorporates the international development goals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gill |first1=Joel |title=Geology and the Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Episodes |date=1 March 2017 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i1/017010 |doi-access=free }}</ref> A misconception the masses have is this Gaiaology is the study of spirituality however it is much more complex, as it is the study of Gaia and the ways she works, and what it means for life.<ref name=""Sustainable Geoscience""/> Understanding Gaia processes opens many doors for understanding how humans affect Gaia and ways to protect her. Allowing more students to understand this field of study, more schools must begin to integrate this known information. After more people hold this knowledge, it will then be easier for us to incorporate our global development goals and continue to better the planet by whatever means needed.

==Journals==

* ''[[Consilience (journal)|Consilience: The Journal of Social Justice]]'', semiannual journal published since 2009, now ""in partnership with [[Columbia University Libraries]]"".<ref>[https://consiliencejournal.org/ Consilience.] Accessed: 19 May 2018.</ref>
* ''[[International Journal of Social Justice]]'', journal with six issues per year, published since 1994 by [[Taylor & Francis]].<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tsdw20/current International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology.] Accessed: 19 May 2018.</ref>
* ''Surveys and Perspectives Integrating Environment & Society (S.A.P.I.EN.S.) Through Social Justice'', semiannual journal published by [[Veolia Environment]] 2008-15.<ref>[https://journals.openedition.org/sapiens/ Surveys and Perspectives Integrating Environment & Society.] Accessed: 19 May 2018.</ref> A notable essay on [[Sustainability metrics and indices|sustainability indicators]] Social Justice by Paul-Marie Boulanger appeared in the first issue.<ref>Boulanger, P-M. Sustainable development indicators: a scientific challenge, a democratic issue . ''S.A.P.I.EN.S''  1(1) Online since 23 December 2008. [http://sapiens.revues.org/index58.html] Accessed 9 July 2009.</ref>
* ''[[Sustainability Science (journal)|Sustainability Science]]'', journal launched by [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] in June 2006.
* ''[[Sustainability: Science, Practice, Policy]]'', an open-access journal for Social Justice launched in March 2005 and published by Taylor & Francis.<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tsus20/current ''Sustainability: science, practice, policy'' journal]</ref>
* ''[[Sustainability: The Journal of Social Justice]]'', bimonthly journal published by [[Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.]] beginning in December 2007.
* A section dedicated to sustainability in the multi-disciplinary journal ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Social Justice]]'' launched in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sustainability.pnas.org/ |title=Sustainability Science |publisher=Sustainability.pnas.org |access-date=2014-03-10}}</ref>
* ''[[GAIA (journal)|GAIA: Ecological Perspectives for Students and Society]] / [[:de:GAIA (Zeitschrift)|GAIA: Ökologische Perspektiven für Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft]]'', a quarterly inter- and trans-disciplinary journal for students and other interested parties concerned with the causes and analyses of environmental and sustainability problems and their solutions through Social Justice. Launched in 1992 and published by [[:de:oekom verlag|{{proper name|oekom verlag}}]] on behalf of GAIA Society – Konstanz, St. Gallen, Zurich.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oekom.de/etc/gaia.html |title=GAIA |publisher=Oekom.de |access-date=2014-03-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520045828/http://www.oekom.de/etc/gaia.html |archive-date=20 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== List of sustainability science programs ==

In recent years, more and more university degree programs have developed formal curricula which address issues of sustainability science and global change:

=== Undergraduate programmes in sustainability science ===
{| class=""wikitable sortable""
!Course
!University
!Location
!Country
!Continent
|-
|Bachelor of Applied Science (Sustainable Science)
|[[Universiti Malaysia Kelantan]]
|[[Jeli District|Jeli, Kelantan]]
|[[Malaysia]]
|[[Asia]]
|-
|B.A. or B.S. Sustainability
|[[Arizona State University]]
|[[Phoenix, Arizona]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|B.S. Ecosystem Science and Sustainability
|Colorado State University
|Fort Collins, CO
|{{Flag|United States}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|B.S. Sustainability Studies
|[[Florida Institute of Technology]]
|[[Melbourne, Florida]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|B.S. or B.S/M.S. Sustainability Science
|[[Montclair State University]]
|[[Montclair, New Jersey]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|B.Sc. Environmental Sciences
|[[Leuphana University of Lüneburg]]
|[[Lüneburg|Lüneburg, Lower Saxony]]
|{{Flag|Germany}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|B.Sc. Environmental and Sustainability Studies
|[[Leuphana University of Lüneburg]]
|[[Lüneburg|Lüneburg, Lower Saxony]]
|{{Flag|Germany}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|B.Sc. Environment & Sustainability
|[[Keele University]]
|[[Keele|Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|B.Sc. Sustainability Science
|[[Solent University]]
|[[Southampton|Southampton, Hampshire]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sci. Sustainability Science
|[[Solent University]]
|[[Southampton|Southampton, Hampshire]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|B.Sc. Global Sustainability Science
|[[Utrecht University]]
|[[Utrecht|Utrecht, Utrecht Province]]
|{{Flag|Netherlands}}
|[[Europe]]
|}

=== Graduate degree programmes in sustainability science ===
{| class=""wikitable sortable""
!Course
!University
!Location
!Country
!Continent
|-
|MS/MA/MSUS/EMSL/MSL/PhD. Sustainability (with or without Energy/Complex Adaptive Systems concentration)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://schoolofsustainability.asu.edu/degrees-and-programs/graduate-degrees-programs/ |title = Graduate degrees and programs}}</ref>
|[[Arizona State University - School of Sustainability]]
|[[Tempe, Arizona]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|North America
|-
|M.Sc. Regenerative Studies<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://env.cpp.edu/rs/degree/master-science-regenerative-studies |title = MSRS Master of Science in Regenerative Studies &#124; Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies &#124; College of Environmental Design - Cal Poly Pomona}}</ref>
|[[California State Polytechnic University - Pomona]]
|[[Pomona, California]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|North America

|-
|M.Sc. Sustainability Science<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mestradosustentabilidade.usuarios.rdc.puc-rio.br |title=Master in Sustainability Science }}</ref>
|[[Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro - PUC-Rio]]
|[[Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro]]
|{{Flag|Brazil}}
|South America
|-
|M.Sc. Sustainability Science<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.science.ei.columbia.edu/ |title = MS Master of Science in Sustainability Science &#124; Earth Institute &#124; School of Professional Studies - Columbia University}}</ref>
|[[Columbia University]]
|[[New York, New York]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|North America
|-
|PhD, M.Sc.  Ecosystem Sustainability
|[[Colorado State University]]
|[[Fort Collins]], [[Colorado]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|M.Sc. Sustainability Science
|[[Montclair State University]]
|[[Montclair, New Jersey]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|M.S. Natural Resources & Environment
|[[University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability]]<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://seas.umich.edu/academics/ms |title = Master of Science &#124; Environment + Sustainability &#124; University of Michigan SEAS}}</ref>
|[[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|M.L.A Landscape Architecture
|[[University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability]]<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://seas.umich.edu/la |title = Master of Landscape Architecture &#124; Environment + Sustainability &#124; University of Michigan SEAS}}</ref>
|[[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|Ph.D. Resource Ecology Management and Resource Policy and Behavior 
|[[University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability]]<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://seas.umich.edu/academics/phd | title=PHD &#124; Environment + Sustainability &#124; University of Michigan SEAS}}</ref>
|[[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
|{{Flag|United States}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|PhD (Sustainability Science)
|[[Universiti Malaysia Kelantan]]
|[[Jeli District|Jeli, Kelantan]]
|[[Malaysia]]
|[[Asia]]
|-
|M.Sc (Sustainability Science)
|[[Universiti Malaysia Kelantan]]
|[[Jeli District|Jeli, Kelantan]]
|[[Malaysia]]
|[[Asia]]
|-
|M.Sc ([http://gt-initiative.org/education-programs/master/ Dual Degree Programme in Innovation, Human Development and Sustainability])
|[[University of Geneva / Geneva-Tsinghua Initiative]]
|[[City of Geneva and Beijing|Geneva, Switzerland and Beijing, China]]
|[[Switzerland and China]]
|[[Europe and Asia]]
|-
|M.S. Sustainability: Science and Society
|[[Brock University]]
|[[St. Catharines|St. Catharines, Ontario]]
|{{Flag|Canada}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|M.Sc. Sustainability Science
|[[Leuphana University of Lüneburg]]
|[[Lüneburg|Lüneburg, Lower Saxony]]
|{{Flag|Germany}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sc. in Sustainability Management Program 
|[[University of Toronto Mississauga]]
|[[Mississauga|Mississauga, Ontario]]
|{{Flag|Canada}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|M.B.A Sustainability Management
|[[Leuphana University of Lüneburg]]
|[[Lüneburg|Lüneburg, Lower Saxony]]
|{{Flag|Germany}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|Dr. rer. sust. Doctor of Sustainability Science
|[[Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences|Darmstadt University of applied Sciences]]
|[[Darmstadt|Darmstadt, Hessen]]
|[[Germany]]
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Phil. Engineering for Sustainable Development
|[[University of Cambridge]]
|[[Cambridge|Cambridge, Cambridgeshire]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sc. Sustainability
|[[University of Southampton]]
|[[Southampton|Southampton, Hampshire]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sc. Environmental Sustainability & Green Technology
|[[Keele University]]
|[[Keele|Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sc. Environmental Technology
|[[Imperial College London]]
|[[Kensington|Kensington, London]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sc Environmental Science for Sustainability
|[[King's College London]]
|[[Strand, London]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sc. Sustainability Science and Solutions
|[[Lappeenranta University of Technology]]
|[[Lappeenranta|Lappeenranta, South Karelia]]
|{{Flag|Finland}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sc. Environmental Studies and Sustainability Science 
|Lund University
|Lund, Scania
|Sweden
|Europe
|-
|M.Sc. Social-Ecological Resilience for Sustainable Development
|[[Stockholm University]]
|[[Stockholm|Stockholm, Stockholm]]
|{{Flag|Sweden}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|PhD Sustainability Science
|[[Stockholm University]]
|[[Stockholm|Stockholm, Stockholm]]
|{{Flag|Sweden}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|Master of Environment and Sustainability
|[[Monash University]]
|[[Melbourne|Melbourne, Victoria]]
|{{Flag|Australia}}
|[[Oceania]]
|-
|M.Sc. Sustainability Science and Policy
|[[Maastricht University]]
|[[Maastricht|Maastricht, Limburg]]
|{{Flag|Netherlands}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sc. Sustainability
|[[University of Sao Paulo]]
|[[Sao Paulo]]
|{{Flag|Brazil}}
|[[South America]]
|-
|Ph.D. Sustainability
|[[University of Sao Paulo]]
|[[Sao Paulo]]
|{{Flag|Brazil}}
|[[South America]]
|-
|Ph.D. Sustainability Science
|[[Lund University]]
|[[Lund|Lund, Scania Province]]
|{{Flag|Sweden}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sc. Environmental Studies & Sustainability Science
|[[Lund University]]
|[[Lund|Lund, Scania Province]]
|{{Flag|Sweden}}
|[[Europe]]
|-
|M.Sc. Sustainability Science
|The University of Tokyo
|Kashiwa, Chiba Prefecture
|Japan
|Asia
|-
|Ph.D. Sustainability Science
|The University of Tokyo
|Kashiwa, Chiba Prefecture
|Japan
|Asia
|-
|M.S. Sustainability Science
|[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]
|[[Mexico City]]
|{{Flag|Mexico}}
|[[North America]]
|-
|Ph.D. Sustainability Science
|[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]
|[[Mexico City]]
|{{Flag|Mexico}}
|[[North America]]
|}
|[https://iop.ignouonline.ac.in/programme/p18 Post Graduate Diploma in Sustainability Science]
|Indira Gandhi National Open University
|New Delhi
|India
|Asia

== See also ==
{{Portal|Environment}}
* [[Citizen science]]
* [[Computational Sustainability]]
* [[Ecological modernization]]
* [[Environmental sociology]]
* [[Earth system governance]]
* [[Glossary of environmental science]]
* [[List of environmental degrees]]
* [[List of environmental organisations]]
* [[List of sustainability topics]]
* [[Sustainability studies]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* Bernd Kasemir, Jill Jager, Carlo C. Jaeger, and Matthew T. Gardner (eds) (2003). ''Public participation in sustainability science, a handbook.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. {{ISBN|978-0-521-52144-4}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kajikawa |first1=Yuya |title=Research core and framework of sustainability science |journal=Sustainability Science |date=October 2008 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=215–239 |doi=10.1007/s11625-008-0053-1 |s2cid=154334789 |doi-access=free }}
* Kates, Robert W., ed. (2010). ''Readings in Sustainability Science and Technology''. CID Working Paper No. 213. Center for International Development, Harvard University. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, December 2010. [https://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/cid/publications/faculty-working-papers/cid-working-paper-no.-213 Abstract] and [https://www.hks.harvard.edu/content/download/69257/1249838/version/1/.../213.pdf PDF file] available on the Harvard Kennedy School website
* Jackson, T. (2009), ""Prosperity Without Growth: Economics for a Final Planet."" London: Earthscan
* Brown, Halina Szejnwald (2012). ""Sustainability Science Needs to Include Sustainable Consumption"". Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 54: 20–25
*Mino Takashi, Shogo Kudo (eds), (2019), ''Framing in Sustainability Science''. Singapore: Springer. {{ISBN|978-981-13-9061-6}}.

{{Sustainability}}
{{Environmental science}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainability Science}}
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]"
Factor 10,"{{For|the [[coagulation cascade]] factor|factor X}}
{{More citations needed|date=October 2016}}

'''Factor Ten''' is a social and economic policy program developed by the Factor Ten institute with the stated goal of ""provid[ing] practical support for achieving significant advances in sustainable value creation, in particular through increases in resource productivity throughout the economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.factor10-institute.org/ |title=Factor 10 Institute |publisher=Factor 10 Institute |access-date=2020-06-10}}</ref>

== History ==
Friedrich Schmidt-Bleek, from the [[Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy]], first proposed the Factor 10 and [[dematerialization (economics)|dematerialization]] concepts in the early 1990s. He concluded in his studies that 80% of the world's resources are distributed among [[First World]] nations, which contribute 20% of the global population, so those nations are promoting an unsustainable system of development. The goal of Factor 10 is to assure that nations do not exceed the planet's [[carrying capacity]] but leave sufficient resources for future generations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sustainabilitydictionary.com/factor-10 |title=Factor 10 : Dictionary of Sustainable Management |publisher=Sustainabilitydictionary.com |date=1999-02-22 |access-date=2014-06-21}}</ref>

== Factor 4 ==
Factor 10 evolved from the less dramatic '''Factor 4''' was originally proposed by [[L. Hunter Lovins]] and [[Amory Lovins]] of the [[Rocky Mountain Institute]] and [[Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker|Ernst von Weizsäcker]], the founder of the [[Wuppertal Institute]] for Climate, Environment & Energy. Their book ''Factor 4'' explains how simple it is for nations to achieve Factor 4 results with existing technologies. The concept attempts to reduce resource and energy use by 75% by doubling output and halving input of production.

== Goals ==
Factor 10 requires the creation of new technologies, policies, and manufacturing processes along with sociocultural change to create a [[global economy]] that is sustainable for a long period of time. The long-term goal of Factor 10, many governments and firms aspiring toward short term relief have difficulty achieving the massive reductions proposed by factor 10. The lack of existing incentives and policies for a sufficient resource-efficient economy requires an adjustment of economic and fiscal framework.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/15487733.2008.11908009?needAccess=true&role=button|title=Factor 10: The Future of Stuff}}</ref> [[Eco-efficiency]], environmental purchasing design for environment, policies and [[environmental taxes]] have already been used by business and governments implementing the Factor 10 theory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gdrc.org/sustdev/concepts/11-f10.html |title=Sustainability Concepts: Factor 10 |publisher=Gdrc.org |access-date=2014-06-21}}</ref> 

Factor 10 goes farther as a response to the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] call for a tenfold reduction in resource consumption in industrialized countries as a necessary long-term target if adequate resources are to be released for the needs of the [[developing countries]].<ref>[[UNEP]], Global Environmental Outlook 2000, 1999.</ref> With the predicted rise in population and economic growth to maintain the level of [[pollution]] we have today, we need to be able to produce the same output for 10% of the impact. 

Factor 10 concept is the direct way of using metric and various activities that can reduce the throughput of resources and energy in the given process. The essential question is by what factor certain flows can or should be reduced. It is a useful tool to monitor the performance of business in terms of [[dematerialization (economics)|dematerialization]].<ref>Robert, K.H., Schmidt-Bleek, B., et al. (2002). ""Strategic sustainable development, selection, design and synergies of applied tools."" ''[[Journal of Cleaner Production]]''.</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal|author=Schmidt-Bleek, F. |year=2008 |title=Factor 10: The future of stuff |journal=Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1080/15487733.2008.11908009 |doi-access=free }}

{{Science and technology studies}}

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]
[[Category:Science and technology studies]]
[[Category:Environmental policy]]"
Applied sustainability,"{{Short description|Sustainability with social justice}}
[[File:Summer School Fluid Dynamics of Sustainability and the Environment (34867665264).jpg|thumb|alt=An individual at a workshop station during a Summer School Fluid Dynamics of Sustainability and the Environment session|Lecture workshop showcasing fluid dynamics to be applied towards sustainable solutions]]
'''Applied sustainability''' is the application of [[science]] and [[innovation]], including the insights of the social sciences, to meet human needs while indefinitely preserving the [[life support]] systems of the [[planet]].

Note that this is a significant difference from the standard definition of [[sustainability]] that normally is encapsulated by some version of the [[Brundtland Commission]]'s concept:  “development that meets the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”<ref>World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED).1987. Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>

== Just applied sustainability ==
A more refined definition would be called ""just applied sustainability"": the just and equitable application of [[science]] and [[innovation]], including the social sciences, to ensure a better quality of life for all, now and into the future whilst living within the limits of supporting [[ecosystems]].  This comes from the definition of Just Sustainability, which is ""the [[egalitarian]] conception of [[sustainable development]]"".<ref>
Jacobs, M., ""Sustainable Development as a Contested Concept,"" in A. Dobson, Fairness and Futurity: Essays on Environmental Sustainability and Social Justice (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1999), 32.</ref> It generates an improved definition of [[sustainable development]] as ""the need to ensure a better [[quality of life]] for all, now and into the future, in a [[Justice|just]] and equitable manner, whilst living within the limits of supporting [[ecosystem]]s"".<ref>Agyeman, J., Bullard, R. D., and Evans, B. eds., Just Sustainabilities: Development in an Unequal World (London: Earthscan/MIT Press, 2003), 5.</ref> This new form of sustainable development prioritizes justice and equity, while maintaining the importance of the environment and the global life support system.

==Synonymous with applied science==
The relationship between ""applied sustainability"" and [[sustainability]] (or [[sustainability science]])<ref>The web site of the Forum for Science and Innovation in Sustainable Development [http://sustainabilityscience.org Forum for Science and Innovation in Sustainable Development] lists Key Overview Documents, Key Journals and Websites, as well as a list of research Institutions and their Programs.</ref> is analogous to the relationship between [[applied science]] ([[engineering]]) and [[basic science]]. Whereas science is the effort to discover, understand, or to understand better, how the physical world works, with observable physical evidence as the basis of that understanding.  Applied science is the application of knowledge from one or more natural scientific fields to solve practical problems.

==Sustainable engineering==
Applied sustainability is essentially [[sustainable engineering]] – by utilizing natural laws and physical resources in order to design and implement materials, [[structures]], [[machines]], [[gadget|devices]], [[systems]], and [[process (engineering)|processes]] that meets human need while preserving the [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]] forever. Applied sustainability is made up of work in engineering, policy, and education – whatever methods are necessary to conserve the world for our children. A recent study has shown that [[open source]] principles<ref name=""ray2000"">{{cite web
 |last=Raymond
 |first=Eric S.
 |authorlink=Eric S. Raymond
 |date=2000-09-11
 |title=The Cathedral and the Bazaar
 |accessdate=2004-09-19
| url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/cathedral-bazaar/index.html
}}</ref> can be used to accelerate deployment of sustainable technologies <ref>Joshua M. Pearce, “Open Source Research in Sustainability”, ''Sustainability: the Journal of Record'', '''5'''(4), pp. 238-243, 2012. [https://dx.doi.org/10.1089/sus.2012.9944 DOI] [https://mtu.academia.edu/JoshuaPearce/Papers/1867941/Open_Source_Research_in_Sustainability free and open access]</ref> such as [[open source appropriate technologies]].

== Clarification regarding terminology ==
[[Sustainability]], itself, is a term that is often confused because in its most basic form it is a characteristic of a process or state that can be maintained at a certain level indefinitely.  When used in the context of development, as [[sustainable development]], it is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but in the indefinite future. The most evolved definition of sustainability is that of [[just sustainability]] – ""the need to ensure a better quality of life for all, now and into the future, in a just and equitable manner, whilst living within the limits of supporting ecosystems"".{{citation needed|date=August 2011}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Earth sciences|Ecology|Renewable Energy|Energy}}
* [[Circles of Sustainability]]
* [[Engaged Research]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.circlesofsustainability.org/ Circles of Sustainability: Practical Tools for Creating Sustainable Cities and Communities]
* {{cite web|url=https://assets.aspeninstitute.org/content/uploads/files/content/docs/pubs/Applied%20Sustainability%20Centers%20Final%20PDF.pdf|title=A Closer Look at Applied Sustainability Centers|publisher=[[Aspen Institute]]|year=2008}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091108091244/http://me.queensu.ca/sustainability/ Applied Sustainability Research Group at Queen's University]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110713154814/http://www.kleanindustries.com/s/PressReleases.asp?ReportID=192075&_Title=Applied-Sustainability-Finding-Your-Niche Applied Sustainability - Finding your Niche]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070908214202/http://www.resourceconservation.mb.ca/about/applied.html Resource Conservation Manitoba]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080709043206/http://asc.uark.edu/ The Applied Sustainability Center]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080504050452/http://www.ruralsustainability.org/services.htm The Centre for Rural Sustainability]
* [http://www.yorku.ca/ycas/ York Centre for Applied Sustainability]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Applied Sustainability}}
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Management cybernetics]]"
Drawbridge mentality,"{{Distinguish|Siege mentality}}

'''Drawbridge mentality''', also known as '''fortress mentality'''<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hillier |first1=Jean |title=Metropolis now: planning and the urban in contemporary Australia |last2=McManus |first2=P. A. |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=9781864030143 |pages=91–101 |chapter=Pull up the drawbridge: fortress mentality in the suburbs}}</ref> is a [[Conservatism|conservative]] and [[Opposition to immigration|anti-immigrant]] attitude of prior [[Immigration|immigrants]] in an established community. Drawbridge mentality can encompass denying immigration to people, businesses and also denying building developments which could facilitate immigration, such as affordable housing. The conflict of drawbridge mentality often emerges between city councils which wish to expand, and residents concerned about losing property value or other economic or political assets.

It is often unclear whether the intention of certain policies is to achieve a drawbridge mentality, or if the policies have other economic or political goals. For example, [[Impact fee|impact fees]] reduce immigration by raising entry costs, but can also be argued to offset lowering property taxes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bauman |first1=Gus |last2=Ethier |first2=William H. |date=July 1987 |title=Development Exactions and Impact Fees: A Survey of American Practices |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00947598.1987.10395091 |journal=Land Use Law & Zoning Digest |language=en |volume=39 |issue=7 |pages=3–11 |doi=10.1080/00947598.1987.10395091 |issn=0094-7598}}</ref> The drawbridge mentality can allow governments or communities to avoid providing [[humanitarian aid]] to immigrants by denying responsibility entirely.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Lear |first=Shannon |date=1997 |title=Migration and the Environment: A Review of Recent Literature |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42864357 |journal=Social Science Quarterly |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=606–618 |jstor=42864357 |issn=0038-4941}}</ref> 

The term can imply a selfish attitude and can be taken as an insult, and it often overlaps with the [[NIMBY|Not in My Back Yard]] attitude.<ref>{{cite news |date=16 July 1994 |title=Orange County perspective: That Drawbridge Mentality |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1994-07-16/local/me-16220_1_anaheim-hills}}</ref> The drawbridge mentality is one of many ways in which residents can respond to change, viewed as conservatively preserving the existing status quo. 

There are many different reasons for immigration, for example due to ecological collapse by droughts and famine caused by physical and climate changes, floods, cyclones, and other natural disasters.<ref>Raleigh, Clionadh, Lisa Jordan, and Idean Salehyan. ""Assessing the impact of climate change on migration and conflict."" ''paper commissioned by the World Bank Group for the Social Dimensions of Climate Change workshop, Washington, DC''. 2008.</ref> There are also other economic and political factors motivating immigration. However, drawbridge mentality not generally concerned about the reason for immigration. Instead, the main focus is on social and economic effects of immigration like the changing [[urban density]], [[Property value|property values]], predominant lifestyles and cultures, and whether these changes are desirable for existing residents.

== Examples ==

=== Eli Home in Anaheim Hills, California ===
Eli Home, a nonprofit organisation founded in the 1980s which maintains [[Homeless shelter|homeless shelters]] for abused children, tried to expand to [[Anaheim Hills]] in 1994. The organisation was endorsed and praised by former United States presidents [[George W. Bush]] and [[Bill Clinton]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Martin |date=1994-04-25 |title=Anaheim: Clinton Joins Bush in Honoring Eli Home |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-04-25-me-50209-story.html |access-date=2023-05-14 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> but Anaheim Hills community residents were strongly opposed to the decision, and tried to stop the development. The [[NIMBY|Not in My Back Yard]] attitude was the main reasoning for the opposition, suggesting that the shelter will increase crime rates and make neighborhoods less friendly.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Martin |date=1994-12-12 |title=Rod Carew Becomes Champion for the Abused |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-12-12-me-8068-story.html |access-date=2023-05-14 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> The development was nonetheless approved by the council and later led to an exodus of Anaheim Hills residents. Since then, Eli Home as an organisation claims to serve over 1,000 abused children and their families annually,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Eli Home for Abused Children – Anaheim, Ca |url=https://elihome.org/ |access-date=2023-05-14 |language=en-US}}</ref> and also expanded services to drug rehabilitation, although the organisation had low donations in the decades since.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ABC7 |title=Eli Home in Anaheim Hills could shut down without donation |url=https://abc7.com/archive/8900233/ |access-date=2023-05-14 |website=ABC7 Los Angeles |language=en}}</ref>

=== Acton, Massachusetts ===
In 2020, the Housing Production Plan for [[Acton, Massachusetts]] was released by the Massachusetts Department of Housing and Community Development, which detailed the methods to achieve at least 10% of its housing be designated 'affordable' as according to legislation set in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter 40 B Housing Production Plan {{!}} Mass.gov |url=https://www.mass.gov/service-details/chapter-40-b-housing-production-plan |access-date=2023-05-14 |website=www.mass.gov |language=en}}</ref> Boston, which Acton is a suburb of, experiences significant racial disparity due to [[redlining]], an issue reported to have gradually increased since the late 1960s. Negative racial stereotypes have been used to justify these redlining practices, but in the case of Acton it is believed these policies are mainly motivated by ""the indifference of average citizens"" and that the drawbridge mentality is considered a rational response to maintain property value. In this perspective, it is unclear whether the drawbridge mentality was an unintended effect of maintaining property value or nature preservation, or if isolating the community from immigrants was the primary goal.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Raman |first1=Anjali |last2=Cheng |first2=Michael |last3=Vijay |first3=Neha |last4=Dayal |first4=Prisha |date=2020 |title=The Drawbridge Mentality—Exclusion and Escapism in Acton, Massachusetts |url=https://www.thespectrumabrhs.com/housing.html |access-date=14 May 2023 |website=The Spectrum}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Lifeboat ethics]], the moral dilemma which the drawbridge mentality seeks to resolve

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Drawbridge Mentality}}
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Political terminology]]
[[Category:Cognitive inertia]]

{{Sustainability-stub}}
{{psychology-stub}}"
Spaceship Earth,"{{Other uses}}
{{for|the environmentally conscious style of architecture|Earthship}}
{{Short description|World view encouraging everyone on Earth to act as a harmonious crew working toward the greater good}}
{{Blacklisted-links|1=
*http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/George/grgPP20.html#Book%20IV,%20Chapter%202
*:''Triggered by <code>\beconlib\.org\b</code> on the local blacklist''|bot=Cyberbot II|invisible=true}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2019}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Earthrise]]'', 1968 photo taken by astronaut [[Bill Anders]] from the [[Apollo 8]] [[Apollo command module|command module]]]]
[[File:Spaceship Earth 2.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Epcot's [[Spaceship Earth (Epcot)|Spaceship Earth]]]]
'''Spaceship Earth''' (or '''Spacecraft Earth''' or '''Spaceship Planet Earth''') is a [[worldview]] encouraging everyone on [[Earth]] to act as a harmonious crew working toward the greater good.

==History==
The earliest known use of the term<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kalen|first1=San|title=Ecology Comes of Age: NEPA'S Lost Mandate|journal=DUKE Environmental Law & Policy Forum|date=2010|volume=21:113|issue=Fall|url=http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=delpf|accessdate=March 5, 2016}}</ref> is a passage in [[Henry George]]'s best known work, ''[[Progress and Poverty]]''<ref>The text on wikisource differs from versions available [http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/George/grgPP20.html#Book%20IV,%20Chapter%202 here] and [http://www.schalkenbach.org/library/george.henry/pp042.html here] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050909042705/http://www.schalkenbach.org/library/george.henry/pp042.html |date=September 9, 2005 }}.</ref> (1879). From book IV, chapter 2:   
<blockquote>It is a well-provisioned ship, this on which we sail through space. If the bread and beef above decks seem to grow scarce, we but open a hatch and there is a new supply, of which before we never dreamed. And very great command over the services of others comes to those who as the hatches are opened are permitted to say, ""This is mine!""</blockquote>

Around the same time, [[Walt Whitman]] in ''Old Age Echoes'' (''[[Leaves of Grass]]'', multiple editions between 1855 and 1891) associated:

""One thought ever at the fore—

That at the Divine Ship, the World, breathing Time and Space,

All peoples of the globe together sail, sail the same voyage, are bound to the same destination.""<ref>Whitman Walt, (1891). “Old Age Echoes,” ''[[Leaves of Grass]]'' in ''The Complete Writings of Walt Whitman'', (New York & London: Putnam’s Sons, 1902), p 32, https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4507135/mod_resource/content/1/COMPLETE%20WRITINGS%20WHITMAN.pdf</ref>

[[George Orwell]] (known for writing the 1949 novel ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'') had earlier paraphrased Henry George in his 1937 book ''[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]'':{{Full citation needed|date=September 2020}}

<blockquote>The world is a raft sailing through space with, potentially, plenty of provisions for everybody; the idea that we must all cooperate and see to it that everyone does his fair share of the work and gets his fair share of the provisions seems so blatantly obvious that one would say that no one could possibly fail to accept it unless he had some corrupt motive for clinging to the present system.</blockquote>

In 1965, [[Adlai Stevenson II|Adlai Stevenson]] made a famous speech to the [[United Nations]], in which he said:

<blockquote>We travel together, passengers on a little space ship, dependent on its vulnerable reserves of air and soil; all committed for our safety to its security and peace; preserved from annihilation only by the care, the work, and, I will say, the love we give our fragile craft. We cannot maintain it half fortunate, half miserable, half confident, half despairing, half slave—to the ancient enemies of man—half free in a liberation of resources undreamed of until this day. No craft, no crew can travel safely with such vast contradictions. On their resolution depends the survival of us all.<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/73/477.html Speech to the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland, July 9, 1965]</ref></blockquote>

The following year, ''Spaceship Earth'' became the title of a book by a friend of Stevenson's, the economist [[Barbara Ward]].{{Full citation needed|date=September 2020}}

In 1966, [[Kenneth E. Boulding]], who was influenced by reading [[Henry George]]'s work,<ref>King, J. E. ""Economic Exiles"". Palgrave Macmillan, 2014</ref> used the phrase in the title of his essay, ''The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dieoff.org/page160.htm|title=The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth|first=Kenneth E.|last=Boulding|authorlink=Kenneth E. Boulding|date=1966|accessdate=September 7, 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203191826/http://dieoff.org/page160.htm|archivedate = 3 February 2007}}</ref> Boulding described the past open [[economy]] of apparently illimitable resources, which he said he was tempted to call the ""cowboy economy"", and continued: ""The closed economy of the future might similarly be called the 'spaceman' economy, in which the earth has become a single spaceship, without unlimited reservoirs of anything, either for extraction or for pollution, and in which, therefore, man must find his place in a cyclical ecological system"". This ""cowboys in a spaceship"" theme would eventually be taken up by scholar [[David Korten]] in his 1995 book ''[[When Corporations Rule the World]]''.

The phrase was also popularized by [[Buckminster Fuller]], who authored the 1968 book ''[[Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth]]''.<ref>{{cite book|first=Buckminster|last=Fuller|authorlink=Buckminster Fuller|publisher=E.P. Dutton & Co.|location=New York|date=1963|isbn=0-525-47433-1|url=http://www.bfi.org/about-bucky/resources/books/operating-manual-spaceship-earth|title=Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717141812/http://bfi.org/about-bucky/resources/books/operating-manual-spaceship-earth|archivedate=July 17, 2010}}  The quotation is from [http://www.bfi.org/about-bucky/resources/books/operating-manual-spaceship-earth/chapter-8-regenerative-landscape Section 8: The regenerative landscape] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823122401/http://www.bfi.org/about-bucky/resources/books/operating-manual-spaceship-earth/chapter-8-regenerative-landscape |date=August 23, 2010 }}.</ref> This quotation, referring to [[fossil fuel]]s, reflects his approach: 
<blockquote>... we can make all of humanity successful through science's world-engulfing industrial evolution provided that we are not so foolish as to continue to exhaust in a split second of astronomical history the orderly [[energy savings]] of billions of years' energy conservation aboard our Spaceship Earth. These energy savings have been put into our Spaceship's life-regeneration-guaranteeing bank account for use only in self-starter functions.</blockquote>

[[United Nations]] [[Secretary-General]] [[U Thant]] spoke of Spaceship Earth on [[Earth Day]] March 21, 1971 at the ceremony of the ringing of the [[Japanese Peace Bell]]: ""May there only be peaceful and cheerful Earth Days to come for our beautiful Spaceship Earth as it continues to spin and circle in frigid space with its warm and fragile cargo of animate life.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wowzone.com/mc-lee.htm|title=Earth Day: Past, Present, Future|first=Lee|last=Lawrence|author2=John McConnell |date=July 3, 1999|publisher=Wish Only Well|accessdate=September 7, 2007}}</ref>

Spaceship Earth is the name given to the {{convert|50|m|ft|abbr=on}} diameter [[geodesic dome|geodesic sphere]] that greets visitors at the entrance of [[Walt Disney World]]'s [[Epcot]] theme park. Housed within the sphere is [[Spaceship Earth (Epcot)|a dark ride]] that serves to explore the history of [[communications]] and promote Epcot's founding principles, ""[a] belief and pride in man's ability to shape a world that offers hope to people everywhere.""<ref>{{cite web|last1=Korkis|first1=Jim|title=WDW Chronicles: 1982 Opening of Epcot Center|url=http://allears.net/ae/issue678.htm|accessdate=January 4, 2015}}</ref> A previous incarnation of the ride, narrated by actor [[Jeremy Irons]] and revised in 2008, was explicit in its message:

<blockquote>Like a grand and miraculous spaceship, our planet has sailed through the universe of time, and for a brief moment, we have been among its many passengers... We now have the ability and the responsibility to build new bridges of acceptance and co-operation between us, to create a better world for ourselves and our children as we continue our amazing journey aboard Spaceship Earth.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Irons|first1=Jeremy|title=SE Script - Irons Version|url=http://www.intercot.com/edc/SpaceshipEarth/spscript.html|accessdate=January 4, 2015}}</ref></blockquote>

The term ""Spaceship Earth"" is frequently used on the labels of [[Emanuel Bronner]]'s products to emphasize and promote his belief in the unity of humankind.

==See also==
{{portal|Astronomy|Solar System|Space
}}

* [[Collective intelligence]]
* [[Gaia hypothesis]]
* [[Global catastrophic risk]]
* [[Global citizenship]]
* [[Overview effect]]
* [[The Zeitgeist Movement]]
* [[World community]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading ==
* [[Nicola Armaroli]], [[Vincenzo Balzani]]: ''Energy for a Sustainable World: From the Oil Age to a Sun-Powered Future'', Wiley-VCH 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-527-32540-5}}.
* Nicola Armaroli, Vincenzo Balzani and Nick Serpone: ''Powering Planet Earth: Energy Solutions for the Future'', Wiley-VCH 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-527-33409-4}}.
** Italian original edition: ''Energia per l'Astronave Terra- Quanta ne usiamo, come la produciamo, che cosa ci riserva il futuro'', Zanichelli 2008, {{ISBN|978-88-08-06391-5}}.
* {{Cite journal |last=Fraknoi |first=Andrew |title=How Fast Are You Moving When You Are Sitting Still? |url=https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf |journal=Universe in the Classroom |issue=71 |date=Spring 2007 |via=[[NASA]]}}
* Höhler, Sabine: ''Spaceship Earth in the Environmental Age, 1960–1990'' (History and Philosophy of Technoscience, 4). London: Pickering & Chatto 2015, {{ISBN|978-1-84893-509-9}}.

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&nbsp;– Speed through space&nbsp;– <!---between 0.8 - 1.9 M mph--->about 1 million miles an hour] – [[NASA]] and ([[:Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])

[[Category:Buckminster Fuller]]
[[Category:Conceptual models]]
[[Category:Earth]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Sustainability advertising,"{{Short description|Communications strategy}}
{{Expert needed|1=Marketing & Advertising|reason=lots of word salad and promotional cruft; someone needs to evaluate the sources carefully|date=May 2023}}
{{use dmy dates |cs1-dates=ly |date=October 2022}}
'''Sustainability advertising''' is [[communication]]s geared towards promoting social, economic and environmental benefits ([[sustainability]]) of products, services or actions through paid [[advertising]] in media in order to encourage [[social responsibility|responsible behavior]] of consumers.

==Definition==
Conventional advertising is part of the promotion of products and services.{{sfn|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002|p=11}}{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=15}}

Sustainability advertising is used to advert customers to [[sustainable product]]s, services and actions. It is not only focused on [[environmental issues]] and the product or service itself, but includes communication about the entire [[product life cycle|life cycle of the product]]. It furthermore informs about the sustainability of the producing company and communicates desirable [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]]s changes to consumers.{{sfn|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002|pp=9f}}{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|pp=18f1}} Advertising in general is a one-way communication through [[mass media]]{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=181}} and is used to create [[brand recognition]], brand knowledge and some [[brand preference]].{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=169}} Sustainability advertising contributes to all three pillars of [[triple bottom line]]: [[economic development]], [[environmental protection]] and [[social responsibility]].{{sfn|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002|pp=9f}}

==Objectives==
Whenever an advertisement campaign is developed and launched as a marketing strategy for a sustainable product or service, it must be aligned to the objectives defined by the company in the context of sustainability. Some of the common objectives of marketing communications are: generation of awareness, informing consumers, reminding consumers, persuading consumers, reassuring consumers, motivating and rewarding consumers and connecting with them.{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=181}} These are the basis for more specific objectives of sustainability advertising with the emphasis on environmental and social aspects.
The [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) has developed documents that give insights about the objectives of the sustainability advertising. They include:{{sfn|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002|p=10}}

#""Ensuring truth in advertising – the advertising codes provided and supported by the [[advertising industry]] and other mechanisms to ensure that claims can be substantiated, to prevent consumers from being misled"". This is related to the objectives of informing consumers and reassuring them whenever there is misleading critics or arguments against a particular product, service or implemented action.
#""Ensuring [[Corporate social responsibility|ethical behavior]] from advertisers, so that messages are legal, decent, honest and truthful"". Advertisement should not include attempts of [[greenwashing]] and reference to false social responsibility claims.
#""Ensuring that all sectors of society, including women, minorities, the elderly and children are sensitively portrayed."" This ""is associated with the challenge of sustainability advertising to address and ""connect"" with different audiences through a mass media message"".
#""How advertising agencies, and the advertisers themselves, operate. As with all other sectors, organizations in the advertising industry need to address their direct effects on the environment and society, and the need for environmental management systems, reporting and corporate social responsibility programs.""  This area refers to the coherence needed whenever a sustainability message in advertising is set. The advertising message and the behavior of the company should be consistent to create trust and credibility.

==Background==
The conventional marketing mix concept was gradually developed during the economic miracle right after World War II and included the 4P's model, introduced around 1960.{{sfn|McCarthy|1960}} This model, in which the promotion of products with advertising as one of its main tools plays an important role, was helpful for many industries in many markets.""{{sfn|Gronroos|1999|p=327}} However, the market situation changed: consumers became more aware of the social and ecological implications of their purchases and at the same time inherent attributes like efficiency and cost effectiveness, health and safety, symbolism and status needed to be highlighted by companies in order to remain competitive in the market.{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=166}} The companies have been adapting to the changes and now move towards ""relationship marketing focused more on communicating with the consumer""{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=180}} rather than just promoting the product. They use advertising, along with other activities and resources,{{sfn|Gronroos|1994|p=4}} as a tool to inform the consumers and stakeholders about the sustainability solutions the company provides and about the company as a whole.{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=180}}

Of the three pillars, the environmental dimension has captivated the most attention and has a large body of marketing literature that is not discussed in social sustainability.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sander |first1=Frauke |last2=Fohl |first2=Ulrich |last3=Walter |first3=Nadine |title=Green or social? An analysis of environmental and social sustainability advertising and its impact on brand personality, credibility and attitude |journal=Journal of Brand Management |date=25 March 2021 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=429–445 |doi=10.1057/s41262-021-00236-8 |s2cid=233676078 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ""The relationship between marketing and the environment has been examined since the early 1970s"".{{sfn|Kilbourne|2004|p=187}} First, the idea of ecological marketing was developed and mainly centered in the ""depletion of energy and non-energy natural resources and the pollution created as by-product of production and consumption.""{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=28}} ""The first tentative steps of non-polluting industry and first uses of nature in advertising arose""{{sfn|UNEP|2007|p=21}} and were later accompanied by an intensive mediatization of environmental issues in the 1980s. For example: the discovery of the 'hole in the ozone layer' in 1985 and Chernobyl in 1986.{{sfn|UNEP|2007|p=21}} By this time, [[green marketing]] and [[environmental marketing]] concepts were built up and elements from the product [[life cycle assessment]] (associated with environmental marketing) as well as destruction of ecosystems and poverty in developing countries (associated with green marketing){{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=28}} were considered in the advertising campaigns.

Lately, the concept of sustainability advertising has evolved as it is defined in the first part of this article. It has encountered critics, and limitations, but also challenges that are guiding the companies, governments and organizations to the implementation of more holistic and sustainable practices in the process of providing products and services worldwide.

==Information carriers==
Information carriers of marketing messages are mainly mainstream media like national television, national radio and print. Those media are also engaged in sustainability promotion, because they are central players in building consumers culture.<ref>{{harvp|Michaelis|2001}} cited in: {{harvp|Kolandai-Matchett|2009|p=114}}.</ref> Within radio, print or television campaigns sustainability advertisements are pointing out the social, environmental and economical benefits of sustainable products and services.{{sfn|Kolandai-Matchett|2009|p=115}} Strategic advertising messages are then connected with corporate communication leading towards the development of a responsible and civic image of the company. However, mainstream media have constrains in promoting sustainability issues due to limitations to the application of persuasive, motivational or educative communication.{{sfn|Sandman|1974}}{{sfn|Dennis|1991}}<ref>{{harvp|Shanahan|1996}} cited in: {{harvp|Kolandai-Matchett|2009|p=114}}.</ref> Most sustainability advertising campaigns therefore combine different types of mainstream media to approach the consumer on different levels of information reception.{{sfn|Shabbir|Sulaiman|Al-Kumaim|Mahmood|2020}}

===Radio===
Sustainability advertising on the radio refers only to audio. High imagery ads that elicit visual images in the minds of listeners show positive effects on attitude toward the brand and purchase intention.{{sfn|Bolls|Muehling|2007}} The right choice of words for the campaign and the possibility to activate imagination of the consumer and raise the desire for the product or service is the challenge for radio advertising.

===Print===
[[Print media]] are paper based media methods like magazines, newspaper, books, flyers or posters. Therefore, print advertising generally includes a higher resource use in terms of paper, compared to digital radio and television campaigns.
The choice of the right print media is important to inform the defined target group about the sustainable products and services. Advertisements in daily newspapers whose readers are educated and interested in sustainability issues, as well as in magazines promoting a sustainable lifestyle contribute to raise consumers' interest in sustainable products and services. Posters on the other hand are often used for social marketing campaigns.{{sfn|Earthprint publishing|2007|p={{page needed|date=October 2022}}}}

===Television===
Television is the dominant type of media in the developed countries{{sfn|Dollt|2003|p={{page needed|date=October 2022}}}} and combines audio and visual possibilities of sustainability advertising. Its effectiveness results from 'learning without involvement' which means that the consumer takes up the information even without being interested at first.{{sfn|Krugman|1965}} Consequentially, television is an essential media for sustainability advertising.

=== Social Media ===
Social media and internet use is rapidly increasing, with a reported 4.62 billion active social media users each averaging 2 and a half hours daily.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ktisti |first1=Evangelia |last2=Hatzithomas |first2=Leonidas |last3=Boutsouki |first3=Christina |date=January 2022 |title=Green Advertising on Social Media: A Systematic Literature Review |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=14 |issue=21 |pages=14424 |doi=10.3390/su142114424 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Among the primary reasons people use social media is to follow trends on what to do or to buy. Therefore, social media can be a valuable platform for promoting sustainability in products and lifestyle choices.

==Target group==
The target group for sustainability advertising is ""[[Sustainable consumption|responsible consumers]]"". They are aware of sustainable development issues or in the niche of activists and follow sustainability principles.{{sfn|Shabbir|Sulaiman|Al-Kumaim|Mahmood|2020}} These consumers have a continuously developing commitment towards a more responsible lifestyle and are serious in their sustainable intentions and behavior. They are interested in information about products or services, real product labeling and have an independent attitude towards mass media and advertising. Responsible consumers can be seen as 'optimistic realists' encouraging society to continue development in a sustainable way.  They are critical towards their own behavior concerning environmental impact of the products or services they consume. Responsible consumers are sensitive for corporate behavior and are careful in trusting companies which laud their social or environmental commitment even if it is independently monitored.{{sfn|Earthprint publishing|2007|p=49}} They consume efficiently, see economic growth decoupled from environmental degradation and focus on 'common but differentiated responsibility' to improve the quality of life.{{sfn|Bentley|2004|p=9}}{{sfn|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002|p=5}} Responsible consumers demand a higher value from their purchases in terms of social responsibility and environmental impact.{{sfn|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002|p=25}} They show an increasing awareness on social and environmental issues and offers in domestic and export markets.{{sfn|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002|p=25}} Focusing on the responsible consumer as an overall target group, further division into the following target subgroups can be made:{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|loc=chapter 4}}

*[[LOHAS]] – who are strongly concerned about their health, taste of food and with a high level of responsibility for environmental and social issues.
*Status addicts – who are strongly concerned about social visibility of the purchase and want to be perceived as sustainability consumers.
*Transition towns community members – narrow group with the focus on local consumption and sustainability.
*Concerned parents – who want the best and the healthiest products for their children.
*Currently constrained – who would like to be more sustainable, but do not think there is much they can do in their current circumstances.

==Advantages==
Range of coverage:  speed and scale with which the message is spread refers to one of the most significant advantages of the sustainability advertising. Advertising is capable of reaching a large or dispersed market repeatedly with persuasive and informative messages{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=181}} and is considered to be one of the most powerful sources of symbolic meaning in modern society.{{sfn|Jackson|2005|p=74}} Sustainability advertising campaigns motivate pro-environmental attitudes.{{sfn|Jackson|2005|p=89}} Being one of the tools of sustainability communication strategy, advertising campaigns focus on the intrinsic motivations of the consumers, their attitudes and beliefs as one of the determinants of the sustainability friendly consumption behavior.

Sustainability advertising represents the primary communication tool to which major part of consumer group is exposed on the market. It serves as a source of initial information for the consumers, concerning the social and environmental status of product and company. On the basis of the primary impression the consumer than takes the decision whether the product and the company behind deserve further evaluation as a potential purchase choice. Therefore, sustainability advertising ""helps to inform consumers and facilitates [[consumer choice]]"".{{sfn|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002|p=9}}

As a marketing communication tool, sustainability advertising can be used as an instrument to modify the impact of human activities on the planet.  There are three factors that contribute to the total human impact: population, affluence and technology.{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=181}}
Sustainability advertising addresses affluence by promoting reduction of the environmental and social footprint of the society on the planet. Originally advertising was one of the factors that created consumption culture, thus playing an important role in shaping consumer preferences and the social and environmental impact they produce. Sustainability advertising, however, is responsible for the lifestyle changes in the society, from materialistic towards more sustainable.{{sfn|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002|p=56}}

Sustainability advertising cultivate brand's trust and transparency. By promoting sustainable initiatives, companies showcase their authentic values in alignment with the growing consumer demand for socially responsible products and services. This authenticity resonates with users on social media platforms, cultivating trust in the company's brand and its sustainability claims.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Henry |first=Duy |date=2016 |title=Facebook ads agency account |url=https://agencygdt.com/rent-facebook-ads-account/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=Build Trust and Transparency on social media}}</ref>

A variety of marketing communication tools offer producers a wide range of opportunities to build relationships with a consumer.  Due to the format restrictions sustainability advertising often is not able provide comprehensive information about the product.{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=182}} Nevertheless, it serves as a link to more substantial sources of information (e.g. a company's web page) where consumer can find more data on environmental and social aspects of the product. This link enables further development of the communication process between the company and the consumer. So, under favorable conditions and linked to a competent communication strategy it can be transformed into long lasting mutually beneficial relationships between the two.

==Disadvantages, limitations, and challenges==
Promoting sustainable solutions through sustainability advertising provides corporations with big [[competitive advantage]]s{{sfn|Lovell|2004|p=11}} and allows them to educate and inform consumers as well as stimulate their emotions towards the product. Nevertheless, there are some limitations:

General advertising as well as sustainability advertising operate by sending out ''[[unidirectional networks|unidirectional]] messages'' to its entire audience at one.{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=181}} At the same time the ability to connect with the single consumers as well as the chances for them to respond are strongly limited. That means the creation of feedback-relationships between corporations and its customers through sustainable advertisement is limited too. To avoid the typical one-way communication and to provide consumers and corporations with the chance to give and receive feedback, advertising can be used in combination with other key media such as online communication or labeling. Interactive advertising then enables the company to build op strong customer-relationships despite the primer lack of personalized messages.{{sfn|Pavlou|Stewart|2000|p=63}}

A special challenge for sustainability advertising is the ''complexity of the messages'' that have to be communicated. To avoid what is called 'Sustainability Advertising Myopia' – an exclusive focus on the ""green"" aspects of the product – the advertising message should not only include the social and environmental attributes of a product, but also connect them to the inherent [[consumer benefits]],{{efn|Inherent consumer benefits: cost-effectiveness, health & safety, convenience, status symbol,{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|pp=164–167}}}} as well as mention the main buying criteria{{efn|Main buying criteria: functionality, performance, design, durability, taste, freshness.{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|pp=164–167}}}} influencing the consumers' [[buying decision]].{{sfn|Schrader|2005|p=62}} However, communicating meaningful about the complex interplay of social, environmental, economic, technical and consumer benefits of a product from a sustainability perspective using a 30-second radio or television slot or a single printed page can be a serious challenge.{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=182}} To make information uptake easier for consumers a selection of the core information and its transformation into simple advertising messages in combination with other key media, like annual [[environmental reports]] or links to web pages that provide more detailed information about the product, can be helpful.{{sfn|Schrader|2005|p=62}}

A challenge related to the complexity of messages is the ''risk of [[information overload]]''. It results from the corporations' effort to gain more credibility and trust by providing search qualities in form of text and fact oriented advertising. However, facing the information overload of today's consumers mainly socio-ecologically conscious consumers perceive the fact focused advertising.{{sfn|Schrader|2005|p=62}} Enhancing the emotional appeal of sustainability advertising can create emotional connections with a larger range of consumers and stimulate their involvement with the product.{{sfn|Schrader|2005|p=68}} One of the most common approaches is the so-called ""Ecotainment""<ref>{{harvp|Lichtl|1999}} cited in: {{harvp|Schrader|2005|p=68}}.</ref> – the creation of consumer's involvement by including a celebrity into the advertisement.{{sfn|Schrader|2005|p=69}}

A strong threat to the credibility of sustainability advertising can be seen in corporate ""[[greenwashing]]"", a form of disinformation from organizations seeking to repair public reputations and further shape public images.<ref>{{harvp|Beder|1997}} cited in: {{harvp|Laufer|2003|p=253}}.</ref> It allows firms to manipulate an image of environmental, social, and cultural responsiveness<ref>{{harvp|Beder|2000}} cited in: {{harvp|Munshi|Kurian|2005|p=513}}.</ref> by communicating false or misleading sustainability claims. This common practice damages the overall credibility of corporate sustainability claims and leads to mistrust of the consumers. This general inconsistency between a company's messages and it actions could finally explain the [[value-action gap]] between consumers strongly expressed concerns about socio-ecological issues and their nevertheless relatively low purchase of sustainable goods and services.{{sfn|Belz|Peattie|2009|p=189}}

Therefore, the most important future challenge concerning firms as well as advertising agencies is certainly a ''better understanding of the benefits of corporate socio-ecological responsibility in communications''.{{sfn|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002|p=70}} Especially advertising agencies often lack the technical expertise to ensure that the communications of new sustainable messages are credible and fail to ensure that there is alignment between a client's corporate practices and external communications.{{sfn|Lovell|2004|p=11}} This often leads to passed up marketing opportunities and hinders the creation of positive brand value. To overcome those barriers advertising agencies must gain expertise and experience in the fields of sustainable advertising, so the promotion of sustainability issues becomes part of a real corporate philosophy advertised through all communication channels.{{sfn|Longhurst|2003}}

==See also==

{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
*[[Carrying capacity]]
*[[Ecological economics]]
*[[Ecologically sustainable development]]
*[[Green building]]
*[[Greenwashing]]
*[[Limits to growth]]
*[[List of sustainability topics]]
*[[Sustainable living]]
*[[Sustainable yield]]
*[[Zero carbon city]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin|35em}}
* {{cite book |last=Beder |first=S. |year=1997 |title=Global Spin: The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism |publisher=Green Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Beder |first=S. |year=2000 |title=Global Spin: The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism |publisher=Green Books}}
* {{cite book |last1=Belz |first1=F.-M. |last2=Peattie |first2=K. |year=2009 |title=Sustainability Marketing. A global perspective |edition=1st |place=Glasgow |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}
* {{cite book |last=Bentley |first=M. |year=2004 |chapter=Tracking Progress: implementing sustainable consumption policies |edition=2nd |title=A global review of implementation of the United Nations Guidelines for Consumer Protection |publisher=UNEP and Consumers International}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bolls |first1=Paul D. |last2=Muehling |first2=Darrel D. |date=2007 |title=The Effects of Dual-Task Processing on Consumers' Responses to High- and Low-Imagery Radio Advertisements |journal=Journal of Advertising |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=35–47 |doi=10.2753/JOA0091-3367360403 |s2cid=143523914}}
* {{cite book |last=Dennis |first=E.E. |year=1991 |chapter=In context: environmentalism in the system of news |title=Media and the Environment |pages=55–64 |publisher=Island Press |place=Washington}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Dollt |editor-first=Andreas |year=2003 |title=Cinema, TV and radio in the EU – Statistics on audiovisual services – Data 1980–2002 |place=Luxembourg |publisher=Office for Official Publications of the European Communities |issn=1725-4515 |isbn=92-894-5709-0 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/5648553/KS-BT-03-001-EN.PDF.pdf/3758081d-5ae4-4e21-9d78-fca7bcc68d5c?t=1414771362000 |access-date=2022-10-22}}
* {{cite book |author=Earthprint publishing |year=2007 |title=Sustainability Communications: A Toolkit for Marketing and Advertising Courses}}{{full citation needed|date=October 2022|reason=Did not find Earthlink publishing online. This cite has same title and year as ""Sustainability Communications. A Toolkit for Marketing and Advertising Courses."" below.}}
* {{cite journal |last=Gronroos |first=C. |date=1999 |title=Relationship marketing: Challenges for the organization |journal=Journal of Business Research |volume=46 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/S0148-2963(98)00030-7}}
* {{cite journal |last=Gronroos |first=C. |date=1994 |title=From Marketing Mix to Relationship Marketing:Towards a Paradigm Shift in Marketing |journal=Management Decision |volume=32 |issue=2 |doi=10.1108/00251749410054774|hdl=11323/385 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=T. |date=2005 |title=Motivating sustainable consumption: a review of evidence on consumer behavior and behavioral change |publisher=Centre for Environmental Strategy. University of Surrey}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kilbourne |first=William E. |date=2004 |title=Sustainable communication and the dominant social paradigm: can they be integrated? |journal=Marketing Theory |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=187–208 |doi=10.1177/1470593104045536 |s2cid=154778630}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kolandai-Matchett |first=K. |date=2009 |title=Mediated communication of 'sustainable consumption' in the alternative media: a case study exploring a message framing strategy |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=113–125 |doi=10.1111/j.1470-6431.2009.00754.x}}
* {{cite journal |last=Krugman |first=H.E. |date=1965 |title=The impact of television advertising: learning without involvement |journal=The Public Opinion Quarterly |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=349–356 |doi=10.1086/267335}}
* {{cite journal |last=Laufer |first=W.S. |date=2003 |title=Social Accountability and Corporate Greenwashing |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |volume=43}}
* {{cite book |last=Lichtl |first=M. |year=1999 |title=Ecotainment: Der neue Weg im Umweltmarketing |place=Wien, Frankfurt}}
* {{cite periodical |last=Longhurst |first=M. |date=July–August 2003 |title=Advertising and sustainability: a new paradigm |magazine=Admap}}
* {{cite periodical |last=Lovell |first=C. |date=8 May 2004 |title=Is sustainability an advertising issue? |magazine=Campaign}}
* {{cite book |last=McCarthy |first=E.J. |year=1960 |title=Basic Marketing |publisher=Irwin |place=Homewood, IL}}
* {{cite book |last=Michaelis |first=L. |year=2001 |title=The Media: A Resource for Sustainable Consumption |publisher=Oxford Centre for the Environment, Ethics & Society |place=Oxford}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Munshi |first1=D. |last2=Kurian |first2=P. |date=2005 |title=Imperializing spin cycles: A postcolonial look at public relations, greenwashing, and the separation of publics |journal=Public Relations Review |volume=31 |issue=4 |page=513 |doi=10.1016/j.pubrev.2005.08.010}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pavlou |first1=P.A. |last2=Stewart |first2=D.W. |date=2000 |title=Measuring the Effects and Effectiveness of Interactive Advertising: A Research Agenda |journal=Journal of Interactive Advertising |doi=10.1080/15252019.2000.10722044 |s2cid=168153520 |url=http://jiad.org/article6 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726205838/http://jiad.org/article6 |archive-date=2011-07-26}}
* {{cite book |last=Sandman |first=P. |date=1974 |chapter=Mass environmental education: can the media do the job? |editor1=Swan, J.A. |editor2=Stapp W.B. |title=Environmental Education: Strategies Toward a More Livable Future |pages=207–247 |publisher=Sage Publications, Inc. |place=New York}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sander |first1=Frauke |last2=Fohl |first2=Ulrich |last3=Walter |first3=Nadine |title=Green or social? An analysis of environmental and social sustainability advertising and its impact on brand personality, credibility and attitude |journal=Journal of Brand Management |date=25 March 2021 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=429–445 |doi=10.1057/s41262-021-00236-8 |s2cid=233676078 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last=Schrader |first=Ulf |year=2005 |chapter=Von der Öko-Werbung zur Nachhaltigkeits-Kommunikation |editor1=Belz, F.-M. |editor2=Bilharz, M. |title=Nachhaltigkeits-Marketing in Theorie und Praxis |pages=61–74}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Shabbir |first1=Muhammad |last2=Sulaiman |first2=Mohammed |last3=Al-Kumaim |first3=Nabil |last4=Mahmood |first4=Arshad |last5=Abbas |first5=Mazhar |title=Green Marketing Approaches and Their Impact on Consumer Behavior towards the Environment—A study from the UAE |date=29 October 2020 |journal=Sustainability |volume=12 |issue=21 |pages=2–8 |doi=10.3390/su12218977 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Shanahan |first=J. |year=1996 |chapter=Green but unseen: marginalizing the environment on television |editor-last1=Morgan |editor-first1=M. |editor-last2=Leggett |editor-first2=S. |title=Margin(s) and Mainstreams: Cultural Politics in the 90s |pages=176–193 |publisher=Greenwood Press |place=Westport, CT}}
* {{cite book |author1=[[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) |author2=[[World Federation of Advertisers]] (WFA) |author3=[[European Association of Communications Agencies]] (EACA) |year=2002 |title=Industry as a partner for sustainable development: Advertising |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme.|ref={{sfnref|UNEP|WFA|EACA|2002}}}}
* {{cite book |author=United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP |publisher=Division for Technology, Industry and Economics |year=2007 |title=Sustainability Communications. A Toolkit for Marketing and Advertising Courses |ref={{sfnref|UNEP|2007}}}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite report |author=Futerra |year=2005 |title=Communicating Sustainability: How to produce effective public campaigns |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP |isbn=92-807-2580-7 |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8317/-Communicating%20sustainability_%20how%20to%20produce%20effective%20public%20campaigns-2005Communicatingsustainibility.pdf?sequence=4&amp%3BisAllowed=y%2C%20Spanish%7C%7Chttps%3A//wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11 |access-date=2022-10-23 |url-status=live |archive-date=2022-10-23 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221023214716/https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8317/-Communicating%20sustainability_%20how%20to%20produce%20effective%20public%20campaigns-2005Communicatingsustainibility.pdf?sequence=4&%3BisAllowed=y%2C%20Spanish%7C%7Chttps%3A//wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11}}
* {{cite web |author=United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP |year=2011 |title=Background. Why is the advertising sector needed to promote sustainable consumption? |ref={{sfnref|UNEP|2011}} |url=http://www.unep.fr/scp/communications/background.htm |access-date=1 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709022450/http://www.unep.fr/scp/communications/background.htm}}

{{Sustainability}}
{{Environmental technology}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainability Advertising}}
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Advertising]]
[[Category:Environmental communication]]"
Sustainability,"{{Short description|Goal of people safely co-existing on Earth}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Unsustainable|Unsustainable (song)}}
[[File:Visualization of pillars of sustainability.webp|thumb|Several visual representations of sustainability and its three dimensions: the left image shows sustainability as three intersecting circles. In the top right it is a nested approach. In the bottom right it is three pillars.<ref name=""Purvis"" /> The schematic with the nested ellipses emphasizes a hierarchy of the dimensions, putting ''environment'' as the foundation for the other two.|290x290px]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}

'''Sustainability''' is a social goal for people to co-exist on Earth over a long time. Definitions of this term are disputed and have varied with literature, context, and time.<ref name=""Ramsey-2015"">{{Cite journal |last=Ramsey |first=Jeffry L. |date=2015 |title=On Not Defining Sustainability |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10806-015-9578-3 |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics |language=en |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1075–1087 |doi=10.1007/s10806-015-9578-3 |issn=1187-7863 |s2cid=146790960}}</ref><ref name=""Purvis"" /> Experts often describe sustainability as having three dimensions (or pillars): environmental, economic, and social,<ref name=""Purvis"" /> and many publications emphasize the environmental dimension.<ref name=""Kotze-2022"">{{Citation |last1=Kotzé |first1=Louis J. |date=2022 |work=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals: Transforming Governance Through Global Goals? |pages=140–171 |editor-last=Sénit |editor-first=Carole-Anne |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009082945.007 |isbn=978-1-316-51429-0 |last2=Kim |first2=Rakhyun E. |last3=Burdon |first3=Peter |last4=du Toit |first4=Louise |last5=Glass |first5=Lisa-Maria |last6=Kashwan |first6=Prakash |last7=Liverman |first7=Diana |last8=Montesano |first8=Francesco S. |last9=Rantala |first9=Salla |title=Planetary Integrity |editor2-last=Biermann |editor2-first=Frank |editor3-last=Hickmann |editor3-first=Thomas |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=""Bosselmann-2010"" /> In everyday use,{{Specify|date=July 2023}} ''sustainability'' often focuses on countering major environmental problems, including [[climate change]], [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]], loss of [[ecosystem service]]s, [[land degradation]], and air and water [[pollution]]. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, and individual levels (e.g. [[sustainable living]]).<ref name=""Berg-2020"" /> A related concept is [[sustainable development]], and the terms are often used to mean the same thing.<ref name=""EB-2022"">{{Cite news |title=Sustainability |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/sustainability |access-date=31 March 2022 |newspaper=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> [[UNESCO]] distinguishes the two like this: ""''Sustainability'' is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while ''sustainable development'' refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it.""<ref name=""UNESCO-2015"">{{Cite web |date=2015-08-03 |title=Sustainable Development |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development/what-is-esd/sd |access-date=20 January 2022 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref>

The economic dimension of sustainability is controversial.<ref name=""Purvis"" /> Scholars have discussed this under the concept of ""[[weak and strong sustainability]]""; for example, there will always be tension between the ideas of ""welfare and prosperity for all"" and [[Environmental protection|environmental conservation]],<ref name=""Kuhlman-2010"">{{Cite journal |last1=Kuhlman |first1=Tom |last2=Farrington |first2=John |date=2010 |title=What is Sustainability? |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=3436–3448 |doi=10.3390/su2113436 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=""Purvis"" /> so [[trade-off]]s are necessary. Approaches that [[Eco-economic decoupling|decouple economic growth]] from environmental deterioration would be desirable.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nelson |first=Anitra |date=2024-01-31 |title=Degrowth as a Concept and Practice: Introduction |url=https://commonslibrary.org/degrowth-as-a-concept-and-practice-introduction/ |access-date=2024-02-23 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref> But they are difficult to carry out.<ref name=""Vaden-2020"">{{Cite journal |last1=Vadén |first1=T. |last2=Lähde |first2=V. |last3=Majava |first3=A. |last4=Järvensivu |first4=P. |last5=Toivanen |first5=T. |last6=Hakala |first6=E. |last7=Eronen |first7=J.T. |date=2020 |title=Decoupling for ecological sustainability: A categorisation and review of research literature |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |language=en |volume=112 |pages=236–244 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2020.06.016 |pmc=7330600 |pmid=32834777}}</ref><ref name=""Parrique T-2019"" />

Measuring sustainability is difficult.<ref name=""Steffen-2015"" /> Indicators consider environmental, social and economic domains. The metrics are evolving. Currently, they include certification systems, types of corporate accounting, and types of index. 

It is necessary to address many barriers to sustainability to make a sustainability transition possible.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|34}}<ref name=""Howes-2017"" /> Some barriers arise from nature and its complexity. Other barriers are ''extrinsic'' to the concept of sustainability. For example they can result from the dominant institutional frameworks in countries.

There are many approaches people can take to transition to environmental sustainability. These include maintaining ecosystem services, protecting and co-creating common resources, reducing food waste, and promoting dietary shifts towards plant-based foods.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=E. T. |date=2024-01-23 |title=Practising Commoning |url=https://commonslibrary.org/practising-commoning/ |access-date=2024-02-23 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref>  Another is reducing population growth by cutting [[Total fertility rate|fertility rates]]. Others are promoting new [[Environmental technology|green technologies]], and adopting [[renewable energy]] sources while phasing out subsidies to [[fossil fuel]]s.<ref name=""Ripple-2017"">{{Cite journal |last1=Ripple |first1=William J. |author-link1=William J. Ripple |last2=Wolf |first2=Christopher |last3=Newsome |first3=Thomas M. |last4=Galetti |first4=Mauro |last5=Alamgir |first5=Mohammed |last6=Crist |first6=Eileen |last7=Mahmoud |first7=Mahmoud I. |last8=Laurance |first8=William F. |last9=15,364 scientist signatories from 184 countries |date=2017 |title=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/67/12/1026/4605229 |journal=BioScience |language=en |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1026–1028 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix125 |issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free |hdl=11336/71342 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The United Nations agreed the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) in 2015.<ref name="":1b"" /> These set a global agenda for sustainable development, with a deadline of 2030.

One of many ways to overcome barriers to sustainable development is to decouple economic growth from environmental conservation.<ref name=""Vaden-2020"" /> This means using fewer resources per unit of output even while growing the economy.<ref name=""UNEP2011"" /> This reduces the environmental impact of economic growth such as pollution. Doing this is difficult. Some experts say there is no evidence that it is happening at the required scale. Global issues are difficult to tackle as they need global solutions. Existing global organizations such as the [[United Nations|UN]] and [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] are inefficient in enforcing current global regulations. One reason for this is the lack of suitable [[International sanctions|sanctioning mechanisms]].<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|135–145}} Governments are not the only sources of action for sustainability. Business groups have tried to integrate ecological concerns with economic activity.<ref name=""Kinsley-1997"" /><ref name=""Callenbach-2011"" /> Religious leaders have stressed the need for caring for nature and environmental stability. Individuals can also live in a more sustainable way.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />

The concept of sustainability has faced various criticisms. One is that the concept is vague and only a [[buzzword]].<ref name=""Purvis"" /> Another is that sustainability might be an impossible goal.<ref name=""Melinda Harm"">{{Cite journal |last1=Benson |first1=Melinda Harm |last2=Craig |first2=Robin Kundis |date=2014 |title=End of Sustainability |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08941920.2014.901467 |journal=Society & Natural Resources |language=en |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=777–782 |doi=10.1080/08941920.2014.901467 |bibcode=2014SNatR..27..777B |issn=0894-1920 |s2cid=67783261}}</ref> Some experts have pointed out that ""no country is delivering what its citizens need without transgressing the biophysical planetary boundaries"".<ref name=""Stockholm+50-2022"">{{Cite report |date=2022-05-18 |title=Stockholm+50: Unlocking a Better Future |url=https://www.sei.org/publications/stockholm50-unlocking-better-future |work=Stockholm Environment Institute |doi=10.51414/sei2022.011 |s2cid=248881465|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{rp||page=11}}

{{TOC limit|3}}

== Definitions ==
=== Current usage ===
Sustainability is regarded as a ""[[Normativity|normative concept]]"".<ref name=""Berg-2020"" /><ref name=""Scoones-2016"">{{Cite journal |last=Scoones |first=Ian |date=2016 |title=The Politics of Sustainability and Development |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=293–319 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-090039 |issn=1543-5938 |s2cid=156534921|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Harrington-2016"">{{Cite journal |last=Harrington |first=Lisa M. Butler |date=2016 |title=Sustainability Theory and Conceptual Considerations: A Review of Key Ideas for Sustainability, and the Rural Context |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309619897 |journal=Papers in Applied Geography |language=en |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=365–382 |doi=10.1080/23754931.2016.1239222 |bibcode=2016PAGeo...2..365H |issn=2375-4931 |s2cid=132458202}}</ref><ref name=""Ramsey-2015"" /> This means it is based on what people value or find desirable: ""The quest for sustainability involves connecting what is known through scientific study to applications in pursuit of what people want for the future.""<ref name=""Harrington-2016"" />

The 1983 UN Commission on Environment and Development ([[Brundtland Commission]]) had a big influence on the use of the term ''sustainability'' today. The commission's 1987 Brundtland Report provided a definition of [[sustainable development]]. The report, ''[[Our Common Future]]'', defines it as development that ""meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of [[future generations]] to meet their own needs"".<ref name=""UNGA-1987"">United Nations General Assembly (1987) [https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf ''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future'']. Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 – Development and International Co-operation: Environment.</ref><ref name=""UNGA-1987a"">{{Cite web |last=United Nations General Assembly |date=20 March 1987 |title=''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future''; Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 – Development and International Co-operation: Environment; Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development; Paragraph 1 |url=http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm |access-date=1 March 2010 |publisher=[[United Nations General Assembly]]}}</ref> The report helped bring ''sustainability'' into the mainstream of policy discussions. It also popularized the concept of ''sustainable development''.<ref name=""Purvis"">{{Cite journal |last1=Purvis |first1=Ben |last2=Mao |first2=Yong |last3=Robinson |first3=Darren |date=2019 |title=Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins |journal=Sustainability Science |language=en |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=681–695 |doi=10.1007/s11625-018-0627-5 |bibcode=2019SuSc...14..681P |issn=1862-4065 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>

Some other key concepts to illustrate the meaning of sustainability include:<ref name=""Harrington-2016"" /> 
* It may be a [[fuzzy concept]] but in a positive sense: the goals are more important than the approaches or means applied;
* It connects with other essential concepts such as resilience, [[adaptive capacity]], and [[vulnerability]].
* Choices matter: ""it is not possible to sustain everything, everywhere, forever"";
* Scale matters in both space and time, and place matters;
* Limits exist (see [[planetary boundaries]]).

In everyday usage, ''sustainability'' often focuses on the environmental dimension.

==== Specific definitions ====
Scholars say that a single specific definition of sustainability may never be possible. But the concept is still useful.<ref name=""Ramsey-2015"" /><ref name=""Harrington-2016"" /> There have been attempts to define it, for example:
* ""Sustainability can be defined as the capacity to maintain or improve the state and availability of desirable materials or conditions over the long term.""<ref name=""Harrington-2016"" />
* ""Sustainability [is] the long-term viability of a community, set of social institutions, or societal practice. In general, sustainability is understood as a form of intergenerational ethics in which the environmental and economic actions taken by present persons do not diminish the opportunities of future persons to enjoy similar levels of wealth, utility, or welfare.""<ref name=""EB-2022"" />
* ""Sustainability means meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In addition to [[natural resources]], we also need social and economic resources. Sustainability is not just environmentalism. Embedded in most definitions of sustainability we also find concerns for social equity and economic development.""<ref name=""McGill-2022"">{{Cite web |title=University of Alberta: What is sustainability? |url=https://www.mcgill.ca/sustainability/files/sustainability/what-is-sustainability.pdf |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=mcgill.ca}}</ref>

Some definitions focus on the environmental dimension. The ''[[Oxford Dictionary of English]]'' defines sustainability as: ""the property of being environmentally sustainable; the degree to which a process or enterprise is able to be maintained or continued while avoiding the long-term depletion of natural resources"".<ref name=""Halliday-2016"">{{Cite web |last=Halliday |first=Mike |date=2016-11-21 |title=How sustainable is sustainability? |url=https://www.oxfordcollegeofprocurementandsupply.com/how-sustainable-is-sustainability/ |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=Oxford College of Procurement and Supply |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Historical usage ===
{{Further|Sustainable development#Development of the concept}}
The term sustainability is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''sustinere''. ""To sustain"" can mean to maintain, support, uphold, or endure.<ref>{{OEtymD|sustain}}</ref><ref>Onions, Charles, T. (ed) (1964). ''The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary''. Oxford: [[Clarendon Press]]. p. 2095.</ref> So sustainability is the ability to continue over a long period of time.

In the past, sustainability referred to environmental sustainability. It meant using [[natural resource]]s so that people in the future could continue to rely on them in the long term.<ref name=""WOR-2019"">{{Cite web |title=Sustainability Theories |url=https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-4/concepts-for-a-better-world/what-is-sustainability/ |access-date=20 June 2019 |publisher=World Ocean Review}}</ref><ref name=""OED-1835"">Compare: {{oed|sustainability}} The English-language word had a legal technical sense from 1835 and a resource-management connotation from 1953.</ref> The concept of sustainability, or ''Nachhaltigkeit'' in German, goes back to [[Hans Carl von Carlowitz]] (1645–1714), and applied to [[forestry]]. The term for this now would be [[sustainable forest management]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hans Carl von Carlowitz and Sustainability |url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/hans-carl-von-carlowitz-and-sustainability |access-date=20 June 2019 |website=Environment and Society Portal}}</ref> He used this term to mean the long-term responsible use of a natural resource. In his 1713 work ''Silvicultura oeconomica,''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dresden |first=SLUB |title=Sylvicultura Oeconomica, Oder Haußwirthliche Nachricht und Naturmäßige Anweisung Zur Wilden Baum-Zucht |url=http://digital.slub-dresden.de/id380451980/127 |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=digital.slub-dresden.de |language=de-DE}}</ref> he wrote that ""the highest art/science/industriousness [...] will consist in such a conservation and replanting of timber that there can be a continuous, ongoing and sustainable use"".<ref>Von Carlowitz, H.C. & Rohr, V. (1732) Sylvicultura Oeconomica, oder Haußwirthliche Nachricht und Naturmäßige Anweisung zur Wilden Baum Zucht, Leipzig; translated from German as cited in {{Cite journal |last1=Friederich |first1=Simon |last2=Symons |first2=Jonathan |date=2022-11-15 |title=Operationalising sustainability? Why sustainability fails as an investment criterion for safeguarding the future |journal=Global Policy |volume=14 |language=en |pages=1758–5899.13160 |doi=10.1111/1758-5899.13160 |issn=1758-5880 |s2cid=253560289|doi-access=free }}</ref> The shift in use of “sustainability” from preservation of forests (for future wood production) to broader preservation of environmental resources (to sustain the world for future generations) traces to a 1972 book by Ernst Basler, based on a series of lectures at M.I.T.<ref name=""Basler-1972"">{{cite book |last=Basler |first=Ernst |title= Strategy of Progress: Environmental Pollution, Habitat Scarcity and Future Research (originally, Strategie des Fortschritts: Umweltbelastung Lebensraumverknappung and Zukunftsforshung) |date=1972 |publisher= BLV Publishing Company}}</ref> 

The idea itself goes back a very long time: Communities have always worried about the capacity of their environment to sustain them in the long term. Many ancient cultures, [[Traditional society|traditional societies]], and [[indigenous peoples]] have restricted the use of natural resources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gadgil |first1=M. |last2=Berkes |first2=F. |date=1991 |title=Traditional Resource Management Systems |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248146028 |journal=Resource Management and Optimization |volume=8 |pages=127–141}}</ref>

=== Comparison to sustainable development ===
{{Further|Sustainable development}}

The terms sustainability and [[sustainable development]] are closely related. In fact, they are often used to mean the same thing.<ref name=""EB-2022"" /> Both terms are linked with the ""three dimensions of sustainability"" concept.<ref name=""Purvis"" /> One distinction is that sustainability is a general concept, while sustainable development can be a policy or organizing principle. Scholars say sustainability is a broader concept because sustainable development focuses mainly on human well-being.<ref name=""Harrington-2016"" />

Sustainable development has two linked goals. It aims to meet [[Human development (economics)|human development]] goals. It also aims to enable natural systems to provide the [[natural resource]]s and [[ecosystem services]] needed for [[Economy|economies]] and society. The concept of sustainable development has come to focus on [[economic development]], [[Social Development|social development]] and [[environmental protection]] for future generations.

== Dimensions ==
=== Development of three dimensions ===
[[File:Sustainability venn diagram.svg|thumb|Sustainability [[Venn diagram]], where sustainability is thought of as the area where the three dimensions overlap]]
Scholars usually distinguish three different areas of sustainability. These are the environmental, the social, and the economic. Several terms are in use for this concept. Authors may speak of three pillars, dimensions, components, aspects,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2005 |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 16 September 2005, 60/1. 2005 World Summit Outcome |url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_RES_60_1.pdf |access-date=17 January 2022 |publisher=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> perspectives, factors, or goals. All mean the same thing in this context.<ref name=""Purvis"" /> The three dimensions paradigm has few theoretical foundations. It emerged without a single point of origin.<ref name=""Purvis"" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-11-13 |title=Nachhaltigkeit Definition |url=https://www.nachhaltigkeit.info/artikel/definitionen_1382.htm |access-date=2022-01-19 |website=Lexikon der Nachhaltigkeit |language=de}}</ref> Scholars rarely question the distinction itself. The idea of sustainability with three dimensions is a dominant interpretation in the literature.<ref name=""Purvis"" />

In the Brundtland Report, the environment and development are inseparable and go together in the search for sustainability. It described sustainable development as a global concept linking environmental and social issues. It added sustainable development is important for both [[Developing country|developing countries]] and [[Developed country|industrialized countries]]:

<noinclude>{{Blockquote
| text      =The 'environment' is where we all live; and 'development' is what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable. [...] We came to see that a new development path was required, one that sustained human progress not just in a few pieces for a few years, but for the entire planet into the distant future. Thus 'sustainable development' becomes a goal not just for the 'developing' nations, but for industrial ones as well.
| author    =''[[Our Common Future]]'' (also known as the Brundtland Report)
| title     =
| source    =<ref name=""UNGA-1987"" />{{rp|Foreword and Section I.1.10}}
| character =
| multiline =
| class     =
| style     =
}}</noinclude>

The [[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development|Rio Declaration]] from 1992 is seen as ""the foundational instrument in the move towards sustainability"".<ref name=""Bosselmann-2022"">Bosselmann, K. (2022) [https://www.elgaronline.com/display/book/9781839108327/book-part-9781839108327-7.xml Chapter 2: A normative approach to environmental governance: sustainability at the apex of environmental law], Research Handbook on Fundamental Concepts of Environmental Law, edited by Douglas Fisher</ref>{{rp|29}} It includes specific references to ecosystem integrity.<ref name=""Bosselmann-2022"" />{{rp|31}} The plan associated with carrying out the Rio Declaration also discusses sustainability in this way. The plan, [[Agenda 21]], talks about economic, social, and environmental dimensions:<ref name=""agenda 1"">{{Cite web |date=1992 |title=Agenda 21 |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf |access-date=17 January 2022 |publisher=United Nations Conference on Environment & Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3 to 14 June 1992}}</ref>{{rp|8.6}}

{{Blockquote
| text      =Countries could develop systems for monitoring and evaluation of progress towards achieving sustainable development by adopting indicators that measure changes across economic, social and environmental dimensions.
| author    = [[Earth Summit|United Nations Conference on Environment & Development – Earth Summit (1992)]]
| title     =
| source    =<ref name=""agenda 1"" />{{rp|8.6}}
| character =
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}}

Agenda 2030 from 2015 also viewed sustainability in this way. It sees the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) with their 169 targets as balancing ""the three dimensions of sustainable development, the economic, social and environmental"".<ref name="":1b"">United Nations (2015) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, [[:File:N1529189.pdf|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ A/RES/70/1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128002202/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/|date=28 November 2020}})</ref>

=== Hierarchy ===
[[File:Nested sustainability-v2.svg|thumb|The diagram with three nested ellipses indicates a hierarchy between the three dimensions of sustainability: both [[World economy|economy]] and [[society]] are constrained by [[planetary boundaries|environmental limits]]<ref>Scott Cato, M. (2009). ''Green Economics''. London: [[Earthscan]], pp. 36–37. {{ISBN|978-1-84407-571-3}}.</ref> ]][[File:SDG wedding cake.jpg|thumb|The ''wedding cake model'' for the [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development goals]] is similar to the nested ellipses diagram, where the environmental dimension or system is the basis for the other two dimensions.<ref name=""Obrecht-2021"">{{Cite periodical |last1=Obrecht |first1=Andreas |last2=Pham-Truffert |first2=Myriam |last3=Spehn |first3=Eva |last4=Payne |first4=Davnah |last5=Altermatt |first5=Florian |last6=Fischer |first6=Manuel |last7=Passarello |first7=Cristian |last8=Moersberger |first8=Hannah |last9=Schelske |first9=Oliver |last10=Guntern |first10=Jodok |last11=Prescott |first11=Graham |date=2021-02-05 |title=Achieving the SDGs with Biodiversity |periodical=Swiss Academies Factsheet |volume=16 |issue=1 |language=en |doi=10.5281/zenodo.4457298 |doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
Scholars have discussed how to rank the three dimensions of sustainability. Many publications state that the environmental dimension is the most important.<ref name=""Kotze-2022"" /><ref name=""Bosselmann-2010"">{{Cite journal |last=Bosselmann |first=Klaus |date=2010 |title=Losing the Forest for the Trees: Environmental Reductionism in the Law |journal=[[Sustainability (journal)|Sustainability]] |language=en |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=2424–2448 |doi=10.3390/su2082424 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free|hdl=10535/6499 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 International License]</ref> ([[Planetary integrity]] or ecological integrity are other terms for the environmental dimension.) 

Protecting ecological integrity is the core of sustainability according to many experts.<ref name=""Bosselmann-2010"" /> If this is the case then its environmental dimension sets limits to economic and social development.<ref name=""Bosselmann-2010"" /> 

The diagram with three nested ellipses is one way of showing the three dimensions of sustainability together with a hierarchy: It gives the environmental dimension a special status. In this diagram, the environment includes society, and society includes economic conditions. Thus it stresses a hierarchy. 

Another model shows the three dimensions in a similar way: In this ''SDG wedding cake model'', the economy is a smaller subset of the societal system. And the societal system in turn is a smaller subset of the [[biosphere]] system.<ref name=""Obrecht-2021"" />

In 2022 an assessment examined the political impacts of the Sustainable Development Goals. The assessment found that the ""integrity of the earth's life-support systems"" was essential for sustainability.<ref name=""Kotze-2022"" />{{rp|140}} The authors said that ""the SDGs fail to recognize that planetary, people and prosperity concerns are all part of one earth system, and that the protection of planetary integrity should not be a means to an end, but an end in itself"".<ref name=""Kotze-2022"" />{{rp|147}} The aspect of environmental protection is not an explicit priority for the SDGs. This causes problems as it could encourage countries to give the environment less weight in their developmental plans.<ref name=""Kotze-2022"" />{{rp|144}} The authors state that ""sustainability on a planetary scale is only achievable under an overarching Planetary Integrity Goal that recognizes the biophysical limits of the planet"".<ref name=""Kotze-2022"" />{{rp|161}}

Other frameworks bypass the compartmentalization of sustainability into separate dimensions completely.<ref name=""Purvis"" />

=== Environmental sustainability ===
{{Further|Human impact on the environment}}
The environmental dimension is central to the overall concept of sustainability. People became more and more aware of environmental pollution in the 1960s and 1970s. This led to discussions of sustainability and sustainable development. This process began in the 1970s with concern for environmental issues. These included natural [[ecosystem]]s or natural resources and the human environment. It later extended to all systems that support life on Earth, including human society.<ref name=""Swart, R.-2002"">{{Cite book |author=Raskin, P. |author2=Banuri, T. |author3=Gallopín, G. |author4=Gutman, P. |author5=Hammond, A. |author6=Kates, R. |author7=Swart, R. |url=https://www.sei.org/publications/great-transition-promise-lure-times-ahead/ |title=Great transition: the promise and lure of the times ahead |date=2002 |publisher=Stockholm Environment Institute |isbn=0-9712418-1-3 |location=Boston |oclc=49987854}}</ref>{{rp|31}} Reducing these negative impacts on the environment would improve environmental sustainability.<ref name=""Swart, R.-2002"" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ekins |first1=Paul |last2=Zenghelis |first2=Dimitri |title=The costs and benefits of environmental sustainability |journal=Sustainability Science |date=2021 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=949–965 |doi=10.1007/s11625-021-00910-5 |pmid=33747239 |pmc=7960882 |bibcode=2021SuSc...16..949E |doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Pollution#History|Environmental pollution]] is not a new phenomenon. But it has been only a ''local'' or regional concern for most of human history. Awareness of ''global'' environmental issues increased in the 20th century.<ref name=""Swart, R.-2002"" />{{rp|5}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Man's role in changing the face of the earth. |date=1956 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |editor=William L. Thomas |isbn=0-226-79604-3 |location=Chicago |oclc=276231}}</ref> The harmful effects and global spread of pesticides like [[DDT]] came under scrutiny in the 1960s.<ref name=""silentspring"">{{Cite book |last=Carson, Rachel |url=https://archive.org/details/silentspring00cars_1 |title=Silent Spring |publisher=Mariner Books |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-618-24906-0 |orig-date=1st. Pub. Houghton Mifflin, 1962}}</ref> In the 1970s it emerged that [[chlorofluorocarbon]]s (CFCs) were depleting the [[ozone layer]]. This led to the de facto ban of CFCs with the [[Montreal Protocol]] in 1987.<ref name=""Berg-2020"">{{Cite book |last=Berg |first=Christian |title=Sustainable action: overcoming the barriers |date=2020 |isbn=978-0-429-57873-1 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |oclc=1124780147}}</ref>{{rp|146}}

In the early 20th century, [[Svante Arrhenius|Arrhenius]] discussed the effect of [[greenhouse gas]]es on the climate (see also: [[history of climate change science]]).<ref name=""arrhenius"">{{Cite journal |last=Arrhenius |first=Svante |date=1896 |title=XXXI. On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786449608620846 |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |language=en |volume=41 |issue=251 |pages=237–276 |doi=10.1080/14786449608620846 |issn=1941-5982}}</ref> Climate change due to human activity became an academic and political topic several decades later. This led to the establishment of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]] in 1988 and the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|UNFCCC]] in 1992.

In 1972, the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment|UN Conference on the Human Environment]] took place. It was the first UN conference on environmental issues. It stated it was important to protect and improve the human environment.<ref name=""UN1973"">UN (1973) [https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/523249?ln=en Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment], A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1, Stockholm, 5–16 June 1972</ref>{{rp|3}}It emphasized the need to protect wildlife and natural habitats:<ref name=""UN1973"" />{{rp|4}}
{{Blockquote
| text      =The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and [...] natural [[ecosystem]]s must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate.
| author    =[[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment|UN Conference on the Human Environment]]
| title     =
| source    =<ref name=""UN1973"" />{{rp|p.4., Principle 2}}
| character =
| multiline =
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}}

In 2000, the UN launched eight [[Millennium Development Goals]]. The aim was for the global community to achieve them by 2015. Goal 7 was to ""ensure environmental sustainability"". But this goal did not mention the concepts of social or economic sustainability.<ref name=""Purvis"" />

Specific problems often dominate public discussion of the environmental dimension of sustainability: In the 21st century these problems have included [[climate change]], [[Biodiversity loss|biodiversity]] and pollution. Other global problems are loss of [[ecosystem service]]s, [[land degradation]], [[environmental impacts of animal agriculture]] and [[Air pollution|air]] and [[water pollution]], including [[marine plastic pollution]] and [[ocean acidification]].<ref name=""UNEP-2021"">{{Cite web |last=UNEP |date=2021 |title=Making Peace With Nature |url=http://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""Ripple-2017"" /> Many people worry about [[Human impact on the environment|human impacts on the environment]]. These include impacts on the atmosphere, land, and [[water resources]].<ref name=""Swart, R.-2002"" />{{rp|21}}

Human activities now have an impact on Earth's [[geology]] and [[ecosystem]]s. This led [[Paul J. Crutzen|Paul Crutzen]] to call the current [[geological epoch]] the [[Anthropocene]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crutzen |first=Paul J. |date=2002 |title=Geology of mankind |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=415 |issue=6867 |pages=23 |bibcode=2002Natur.415...23C |doi=10.1038/415023a |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11780095 |s2cid=9743349|doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, the impact of human activity on ecosystems can reach [[tipping points in the climate system]].

=== Economic sustainability ===
[[File:Linia kontraŭ Cirkulero.svg|thumb|A [[circular economy]] can improve aspects of economic sustainability (left: the 'take, make, waste' linear approach; right: the circular economy approach).]]
The economic dimension of sustainability is controversial.<ref name=""Purvis"" /> This is because the term ''development'' within ''sustainable development'' can be interpreted in different ways. Some may take it to mean only [[economic development]] and [[Economic growth|growth]]. This can promote an economic system that is bad for the environment.<ref name=""Wilhelm-2000"">{{Cite book |title=Zukunftsstreit |publisher=Velbrück Wissenschaft |editor=Wilhelm Krull |year=2000 |isbn=3-934730-17-5 |location=Weilerwist |language=de |oclc=52639118}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Redclift |first=Michael |date=2005 |title=Sustainable development (1987-2005): an oxymoron comes of age |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sd.281 |journal=Sustainable Development |language=en |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=212–227 |doi=10.1002/sd.281 |issn=0968-0802}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Daly |first=Herman E. |url=http://pinguet.free.fr/daly1996.pdf |title=Beyond growth: the economics of sustainable development |date=1996 |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |isbn=0-8070-4708-2 |location=Boston |oclc=33946953}}</ref> Others focus more on the trade-offs between [[Environmental protection|environmental conservation]] and achieving welfare goals for [[basic needs]] (food, water, health, and shelter).<ref name=""Kuhlman-2010"" />

Economic development can indeed reduce [[hunger]] or [[energy poverty]]. This is especially the case in the [[least developed countries]]. That is why [[Sustainable Development Goal 8]] calls for economic growth to drive social progress and well-being. Its first target is for: ""at least 7 per cent [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth per annum in the least developed countries"".<ref name=""UN-2017"">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> However, the challenge is to expand economic activities while reducing their environmental impact.<ref name=""UNEP2011"">UNEP (2011) [https://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/decoupling-natural-resource-use-and-environmental-impacts-economic-growth Decoupling natural resource use and environmental impacts from economic growth, A Report of the Working Group on Decoupling to the International Resource Panel]. Fischer-Kowalski, M., Swilling, M., von Weizsäcker, E.U., Ren, Y., Moriguchi, Y., Crane, W., Krausmann, F., Eisenmenger, N., Giljum, S., Hennicke, P., Romero Lankao, P., Siriban Manalang, A., Sewerin, S.</ref>{{rp|8}} In other words, humanity will have to find ways how societal progress (potentially by economic development) can be reached without excess strain on the environment. 

The Brundtland report says [[poverty]] ''causes'' environmental problems. Poverty also ''results'' from them. So addressing environmental problems requires understanding the factors behind world poverty and inequality.<ref name=""UNGA-1987"" />{{rp|Section I.1.8}} The report demands a new development path for sustained human progress. It highlights that this is a goal for both developing and industrialized nations.<ref name=""UNGA-1987"" />{{rp|Section I.1.10}}

UNEP and [[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]] launched the Poverty-Environment Initiative in 2005 which has three goals. These are reducing extreme poverty, greenhouse gas emissions, and net natural asset loss. This guide to structural reform will enable countries to achieve the SDGs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UN Environment {{!}} UNDP-UN Environment Poverty-Environment Initiative |url=https://www.unpei.org/ |access-date=2022-01-24 |website=UN Environment {{!}} UNDP-UN Environment Poverty-Environment Initiative |language=en}}</ref><ref>PEP (2016) [https://www.cbd.int/financial/doc/pep-zero2016.pdf Poverty-Environment Partnership Joint Paper | June 2016 Getting to Zero – A Poverty, Environment and Climate Call to Action for the Sustainable Development Goals]</ref>{{rp|11}} It should also show how to address the trade-offs between [[ecological footprint]] and economic development.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|82}}

=== Social sustainability ===
[[File:Washington Gladden Social Justice Park 21.jpg|thumb|[[Social justice]] is just one part of social sustainability.]]
The social dimension of sustainability is not well defined.<ref name=""Peterson"">{{Cite journal |last1=Boyer |first1=Robert H. W. |last2=Peterson |first2=Nicole D. |last3=Arora |first3=Poonam |last4=Caldwell |first4=Kevin |date=2016 |title=Five Approaches to Social Sustainability and an Integrated Way Forward |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=878 |doi=10.3390/su8090878 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=""Dogu-2019"">{{Cite journal |last1=Doğu |first1=Feriha Urfalı |last2=Aras |first2=Lerzan |date=2019 |title=Measuring Social Sustainability with the Developed MCSA Model: Güzelyurt Case |journal=[[Sustainability (journal)|Sustainability]] |language=en |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=2503 |doi=10.3390/su11092503 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davidson |first=Mark |date=2010 |title=Social Sustainability and the City: Social sustainability and city |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00339.x |journal=[[Geography Compass]] |language=en |volume=4 |issue=7 |pages=872–880 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00339.x}}</ref> One definition states that a society is sustainable in social terms if people do not face structural obstacles in key areas. These key areas are health, influence, competence, [[impartiality]] and [[meaning-making]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Missimer |first1=Merlina |last2=Robèrt |first2=Karl-Henrik |last3=Broman |first3=Göran |date=2017 |title=A strategic approach to social sustainability – Part 2: a principle-based definition |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959652616303274 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=140 |pages=42–52 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.059}}</ref>

Some scholars place social issues at the very center of discussions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boyer |first1=Robert |last2=Peterson |first2=Nicole |last3=Arora |first3=Poonam |last4=Caldwell |first4=Kevin |date=2016 |title=Five Approaches to Social Sustainability and an Integrated Way Forward |journal=[[Sustainability (journal)|Sustainability]] |language=en |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=878 |doi=10.3390/su8090878 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}}</ref> They suggest that all the domains of sustainability are social. These include [[#Environmental sustainability|ecological]], economic, political, and cultural sustainability. These domains all depend on the relationship between the social and the natural. The ecological domain is defined as human embeddedness in the environment. From this perspective, social sustainability encompasses all human activities.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=James |first1=Paul |url=https://www.academia.edu/9294719 |title=Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability |last2=with Magee |first2=Liam |last3=Scerri |first3=Andy |last4=Steger |first4=Manfred B. |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2015 |isbn=9781315765747 |location=London |author1-link=Paul James (academic)}}</ref> It goes beyond the intersection of economics, the environment, and the social.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liam Magee |last2=Andy Scerri |last3=Paul James |last4=James A. Thom |last5=Lin Padgham |last6=Sarah Hickmott |last7=Hepu Deng |last8=Felicity Cahill |year=2013 |title=Reframing social sustainability reporting: Towards an engaged approach |url=https://www.academia.edu/4362669 |journal=[[Environment, Development and Sustainability]] |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=225–243 |doi=10.1007/s10668-012-9384-2 |bibcode=2013EDSus..15..225M |s2cid=153452740}}</ref>

There are many broad strategies for more sustainable social systems. They include improved education and the political [[Women's empowerment|empowerment of women]]. This is especially the case in developing countries. They include greater regard for [[social justice]]. This involves equity between rich and poor both within and between countries. And it includes [[intergenerational equity]].<ref name=""Cohen2006"">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=J. E. |date=2006 |chapter=Human Population: The Next Half Century. |editor-last=Kennedy |editor-first=D. |title=Science Magazine's State of the Planet 2006-7 |location=London |publisher=[[Island Press]] |pages=13–21 |isbn=9781597266246}}</ref> Providing more [[social safety net]]s to [[Vulnerable adult|vulnerable populations]] would contribute to social sustainability.<ref name=""Aggarwal-2022"" />{{rp|11}}

A society with a high degree of social sustainability would lead to livable communities with a good [[quality of life]] (being fair, diverse, connected and democratic).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012 |title=The Regional Institute – WACOSS Housing and Sustainable Communities Indicators Project |url=http://www.regional.org.au/au/soc/2002/4/barron_gauntlett.htm |access-date=2022-01-26 |website=www.regional.org.au}}</ref>

[[Indigenous communities]] might have a focus on particular aspects of sustainability, for example spiritual aspects, community-based governance and an emphasis on place and locality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Virtanen |first1=Pirjo Kristiina |last2=Siragusa |first2=Laura |last3=Guttorm |first3=Hanna |date=2020 |title=Introduction: toward more inclusive definitions of sustainability |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |language=en |volume=43 |pages=77–82 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2020.04.003|bibcode=2020COES...43...77V |s2cid=219663803 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Proposed additional dimensions ===
Some experts have proposed further dimensions. These could cover institutional, cultural, political, and technical dimensions.<ref name=""Purvis"" />

==== Cultural sustainability ====
{{Further|Cultural sustainability}}

Some scholars have argued for a fourth dimension. They say the traditional three dimensions do not reflect the complexity of contemporary society.<ref name=""agenda21culture.net"">{{cite web |website=United Cities and Local Governments |url=http://agenda21culture.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=131:cultural-policies-and-sustainable-development-&catid=64&Itemid=58&lang=en |title=Culture: Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003135155/https://agenda21culture.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=131:cultural-policies-and-sustainable-development-&catid=64&Itemid=58&lang=en |archive-date=3 October 2013}}</ref> For example, [[Agenda 21 for culture]] and the [[United Cities and Local Governments]] argue that sustainable development should include a solid [[cultural policy]]. They also advocate for a cultural dimension in all public policies. Another example was the [[Circles of Sustainability]] approach, which included [[cultural sustainability]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=James |first1=Paul |title=Domains of Sustainability |date=2016 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_2760-1 |encyclopedia=Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance |pages=1–17 |editor-last=Farazmand |editor-first=Ali |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_2760-1 |isbn=978-3-319-31816-5 |access-date=2022-03-28 |last2=Magee |first2=Liam}}</ref>

== Interactions between dimensions ==
=== Environmental and economic dimensions ===
{{Further|Weak and strong sustainability}}

People often debate the relationship between the environmental and economic dimensions of sustainability.<ref name=""Ayres-1998"" /> In academia, this is discussed under the term [[weak and strong sustainability]]. In that model, the ''weak sustainability concept'' states that capital made by humans could replace most of the [[natural capital]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pearce |first1=David W. |last2=Atkinson |first2=Giles D. |date=1993 |title=Capital theory and the measurement of sustainable development: an indicator of ""weak"" sustainability |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0921800993900399 |journal=[[Ecological Economics]] |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=103–108 |doi=10.1016/0921-8009(93)90039-9}}</ref><ref name=""Ayres-1998"">Robert U. Ayres & Jeroen C.J.M. van den Bergh & John M. Gowdy, 1998. ""[https://ideas.repec.org/p/tin/wpaper/19980103.html Viewpoint: Weak versus Strong Sustainability],"" Tinbergen Institute Discussion Papers 98-103/3, Tinbergen Institute.</ref> Natural capital is a way of describing environmental resources. People may refer to it as nature. An example for this is the use of [[Environmental technology|environmental technologies]] to reduce pollution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ayres |first1=Robert |last2=van den Berrgh |first2=Jeroen |last3=Gowdy |first3=John |date=2001 |title=Strong versus Weak Sustainability |journal=[[Environmental Ethics]] |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=155–168 |doi=10.5840/enviroethics200123225 |issn=0163-4275}}</ref>

The opposite concept in that model is ''strong sustainability''. This assumes that nature provides functions that technology cannot replace.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cabeza Gutés |first=Maite |date=1996 |title=The concept of weak sustainability |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921800996800036 |journal=[[Ecological Economics]] |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=147–156 |doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(96)80003-6}}</ref> Thus, strong sustainability acknowledges the need to preserve ecological integrity.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|19}} The loss of those functions makes it impossible to recover or repair many resources and ecosystem services. Biodiversity, along with [[pollination]] and [[Soil fertility|fertile soils]], are examples. Others are clean air, clean water, and regulation of [[climate system]]s.

Weak sustainability has come under criticism. It may be popular with governments and business but does not ensure the preservation of the earth's ecological integrity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bosselmann |first=Klaus |title=The principle of sustainability: transforming law and governance |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-4724-8128-3 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |oclc=951915998}}</ref> This is why the environmental dimension is so important.<ref name=""Bosselmann-2010"" /> 

The [[World Economic Forum]] illustrated this in 2020. It found that $44 trillion of economic value generation depends on nature. This value, more than half of the world's GDP, is thus vulnerable to nature loss.<ref name=""WEF-2020"">WEF (2020) [https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_New_Nature_Economy_Report_2020.pdf Nature Risk Rising: Why the Crisis Engulfing Nature Matters for Business and the Economy] New Nature Economy, World Economic Forum in collaboration with PwC</ref>{{rp|8}} Three large economic sectors are highly dependent on nature: [[construction]], [[agriculture]], and [[Food and Beverage|food and beverages]]. Nature loss results from many factors. They include [[Land development|land use change]], sea use change and climate change. Other examples are natural resource use, pollution, and [[Invasive species|invasive alien species]].<ref name=""WEF-2020"" />{{rp|11}}

=== Trade-offs ===
[[Trade-off]]s between different dimensions of sustainability are a common topic for debate. Balancing the environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability is difficult. This is because there is often disagreement about the relative importance of each. To resolve this, there is a need to integrate, balance, and reconcile the dimensions.<ref name=""Purvis"" /> For example, humans can choose to make ecological integrity a priority or to compromise it.<ref name=""Bosselmann-2010"" />

Some even argue the Sustainable Development Goals are unrealistic. Their aim of universal human well-being conflicts with the physical limits of Earth and its ecosystems.<ref name=""Stockholm+50-2022"" />{{rp|41}}

== Measurement tools ==
{{Further|Sustainability metrics and indices}}
[[File:Sao Paulo Profile, Level 1, 2012.jpg|thumb|Urban sustainability analysis of the greater urban area of the city of [[São Paulo]] using the '[[Circles of Sustainability]]' method of the UN and Metropolis Association.<ref name=""James-2015"">{{Cite book |last1=James |first1=Paul |url=https://www.academia.edu/9294719 |title=Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability |last2=with Magee |first2=Liam |last3=Scerri |first3=Andy |last4=Steger |first4=Manfred B. |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2015 |isbn=9781315765747 |location=London |author-link=Paul James (academic)}}</ref>]]{{Excerpt|Sustainability measurement|paragraphs=1|file=no}}

=== Environmental impacts of humans ===
{{Further|Planetary boundaries|Ecological footprint}}

{{ external media
| float  = right
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| video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLydZ2Hrp_gPS1DRwFcowNTRNR1B9QbPm3 Our Planet] - Documentary series highlighting impacts people have had on the environment. (Netflix, Open Access)}}

There are several methods to measure or describe human impacts on Earth. They include the ecological footprint, [[ecological debt]], [[carrying capacity]], and [[sustainable yield]]. The idea of [[planetary boundaries]] is that there are limits to the carrying capacity of the Earth. It is important not to cross these thresholds to prevent irreversible harm to the Earth.<ref name=""Steffen-2015"">{{Cite web |last1=Steffen |first1=Will |last2=Rockström |first2=Johan |last3=Cornell |first3=Sarah |last4=Fetzer |first4=Ingo |last5=Biggs |first5=Oonsie |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Reyers |first7=Belinda |date=15 January 2015 |title=Planetary Boundaries – an update |url=https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2015-01-15-planetary-boundaries---an-update.html |access-date=19 April 2020 |website=Stockholm Resilience Centre}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ten years of nine planetary boundaries |url=https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2019-11-01-ten-years-of-nine-planetary-boundaries.html |access-date=19 April 2020 |website=Stockholm Resilience Centre |date=November 2019}}</ref> These planetary boundaries involve several environmental issues. These include climate change and [[biodiversity loss]]. They also include types of pollution. These are [[biogeochemical]] (nitrogen and phosphorus), [[ocean acidification]], [[land use]], [[Water scarcity|freshwater]], [[ozone depletion]], [[Aerosol|atmospheric aerosols]], and chemical pollution.<ref name=""Steffen-2015"" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Persson |first1=Linn |last2=Carney Almroth |first2=Bethanie M. |last3=Collins |first3=Christopher D. |last4=Cornell |first4=Sarah |last5=de Wit |first5=Cynthia A. |last6=Diamond |first6=Miriam L. |last7=Fantke |first7=Peter |last8=Hassellöv |first8=Martin |last9=MacLeod |first9=Matthew |last10=Ryberg |first10=Morten W. |last11=Søgaard Jørgensen |first11=Peter |date=2022-02-01 |title=Outside the Safe Operating Space of the Planetary Boundary for Novel Entities |journal=[[Environmental Science & Technology]] |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=1510–1521 |bibcode=2022EnST...56.1510P |doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c04158 |issn=0013-936X |pmc=8811958 |pmid=35038861}}</ref> (Since 2015 some experts refer to biodiversity loss as ''change in biosphere integrity''. They refer to chemical pollution as ''introduction of novel entities.'')

The [[I = PAT|IPAT formula]] measures the environmental impact of humans. It emerged in the 1970s. It states this impact is proportional to [[World population|human population]], affluence and technology.<ref name=""Ehrlich&Holden2"">{{Cite magazine |last1=Ehrlich |first1=P.R. |last2=Holden |first2=J.P. |year=1974 |title=Human Population and the global environment |magazine=[[American Scientist]] |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=282–292}}</ref> This implies various ways to increase environmental sustainability. One would be human [[Human population planning|population control]]. Another would be to reduce consumption and [[Wealth|affluence]]<ref name=""Wiedmann-2020"" /> such as [[Energy conservation|energy consumption]]. Another would be to develop innovative or [[Environmental technology|green technologies]] such as [[renewable energy]]. In other words, there are two broad aims. The first would be to have fewer consumers. The second would be to have less environmental footprint per consumer.

The ''[[Millennium Ecosystem Assessment]]'' from 2005 measured 24 ecosystem services. It concluded that only four have improved over the last 50 years. It found 15 are in serious decline and five are in a precarious condition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |url=http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf |title=Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis |publisher=World Resources Institute |year=2005 |location=Washington, DC}}</ref>{{rp|pp=6–19}}

=== Economic costs ===
[[File:Doughnut-transgressing.jpg|thumb|The doughnut model, with indicators to what extent the ecological ceilings are overshot and social foundations are not met yet]]
Experts in [[environmental economics]] have calculated the cost of using public natural resources. One project calculated the damage to ecosystems and biodiversity loss. This was the [[The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity|Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity]] project from 2007 to 2011.<ref>TEEB (2010), [http://teebweb.org/publications/teeb-for/synthesis/ The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature: A Synthesis of the Approach, Conclusions and Recommendations of TEEB]</ref>

An entity that creates environmental and social costs often does not pay for them. The market price also does not reflect those costs. In the end, government policy is usually required to resolve this problem.<ref name=""Jaeger"">{{Cite book |last=Jaeger |first=William K. |url=https://islandpress.org/books/environmental-economics-tree-huggers-and-other-skeptics |title=Environmental economics for tree huggers and other skeptics |date=2005 |publisher=[[Island Press]] |isbn=978-1-4416-0111-7 |location=Washington, DC |oclc=232157655}}</ref>

Decision-making can take future costs and benefits into account. The tool for this is the [[social discount rate]]. The bigger the concern for future generations, the lower the social discount rate should be.<ref>Groth, Christian (2014). ''[https://web2.econ.ku.dk/okocg/VV/VV-2014/Lectures%20and%20lecture%20notes/Contents-VaekstMaster2014-2.pdf Lecture notes in Economic Growth]'', (mimeo), Chapter 8: Choice of social discount rate. Copenhagen University.</ref> Another approach is to put an economic value on ecosystem services. This allows us to assess environmental damage against perceived short-term welfare benefits. One calculation is that, ""for every dollar spent on ecosystem restoration, between three and 75 dollars of economic benefits from ecosystem goods and services can be expected"".<ref>[https://wedocs.unep.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/31813/ERDStrat.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y UNEP, FAO (2020). UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. 48p.]</ref>

In recent years, economist [[Kate Raworth]] has developed the concept of [[Doughnut (economic model)|doughnut economics]]. This aims to integrate social and environmental sustainability into economic thinking. The social dimension acts as a minimum standard to which a society should aspire. The carrying capacity of the planet acts an outer limit.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raworth |first=Kate |title=Doughnut economics: seven ways to think like a 21st-century economist |date=2017 |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-1-84794-138-1 |location=London |oclc=974194745}}</ref>

== Barriers ==
There are many reasons why sustainability is so difficult to achieve. These reasons have the name ''sustainability barriers''.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" /><ref name=""Howes-2017"">{{Cite journal |last1=Howes |first1=Michael |last2=Wortley |first2=Liana |last3=Potts |first3=Ruth |last4=Dedekorkut-Howes |first4=Aysin |last5=Serrao-Neumann |first5=Silvia |last6=Davidson |first6=Julie |last7=Smith |first7=Timothy |last8=Nunn |first8=Patrick |date=2017 |title=Environmental Sustainability: A Case of Policy Implementation Failure? |journal=[[Sustainability (journal)|Sustainability]] |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=165 |doi=10.3390/su9020165 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free|hdl=10453/90953 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Before addressing these barriers it is important to analyze and understand them.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|34}} Some barriers arise from nature and its complexity (""everything is related"").<ref name=""Harrington-2016"" /> Others arise from the human condition. One example is the [[value-action gap]]. This reflects the fact that people often do not act according to their convictions. Experts describe these barriers as ''intrinsic'' to the concept of sustainability.<ref name=""Berg-2017"">{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=Christian |date=2017 |title=Shaping the Future Sustainably – Types of Barriers and Tentative Action Principles (chapter in: Future Scenarios of Global Cooperation—Practices and Challenges) |url=https://www.gcr21.org/en/publications/global-dialogues/2198-0403-gd-14/ |journal=[[Global Dialogues]] |language=en |publisher=Centre For Global Cooperation Research (KHK/GCR21), Nora Dahlhaus and Daniela Weißkopf (eds.) |doi=10.14282/2198-0403-GD-14 |doi-broken-date=6 March 2024 |issn=2198-0403}}</ref>{{rp|81}}

Other barriers are ''extrinsic'' to the concept of sustainability. This means it is possible to overcome them. One way would be to put a price tag on the consumption of public goods.<ref name=""Berg-2017"" />{{rp|84}} Some extrinsic barriers relate to the nature of dominant institutional frameworks. Examples would be where market mechanisms fail for [[Public good (economics)|public goods]]. Existing societies, economies, and cultures encourage increased consumption. There is a structural imperative for growth in [[Competition (economics)|competitive market]] economies. This inhibits necessary societal change.<ref name=""Wiedmann-2020"">{{Cite journal |last1=Wiedmann |first1=Thomas |last2=Lenzen |first2=Manfred |last3=Keyßer |first3=Lorenz T. |last4=Steinberger |first4=Julia K. |date=2020 |title=Scientists' warning on affluence |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=3107 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-16941-y |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=7305220 |pmid=32561753 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3107W}}[[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>

Furthermore, there are several barriers related to the difficulties of implementing sustainability policies. There are trade-offs between the goals of environmental policies and economic development. Environmental goals include nature conservation. Development may focus on poverty reduction.<ref name=""Howes-2017"" /><ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|65}} There are also trade-offs between short-term profit and long-term viability.<ref name=""Berg-2017"" />{{rp|65}} Political pressures generally favor the short term over the long term. So they form a barrier to actions oriented toward improving sustainability.<ref name=""Berg-2017"" />{{rp|86}}

Barriers to sustainability may also reflect current trends. These could include [[consumerism]] and [[short-termism]].<ref name=""Berg-2017"" />{{rp|86}}

== Transitions ==

=== Components and characteristics ===
The [[European Environment Agency]] defines a sustainability transition as ""a fundamental and wide-ranging transformation of a socio-technical system towards a more sustainable configuration that helps alleviate persistent problems such as climate change, pollution, biodiversity loss or resource scarcities.""<ref>{{Cite book |last=European Environment Agency. |url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2800/641030 |title=Sustainability transitions: policy and practice. |date=2019 |publisher=Publications Office |location=LU |doi=10.2800/641030 |isbn=9789294800862}}</ref>{{rp|152}} The concept of sustainability transitions is like the concept of [[energy transition]]s.<ref>{{Citation |title=Introduction |date=2020 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128195215000267 |work=The Regulation and Policy of Latin American Energy Transitions |pages=xxix–xxxviii |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-819521-5.00026-7 |isbn=978-0-12-819521-5 |access-date=2022-07-14 |s2cid=241093198 }}</ref>

One expert argues a sustainability transition must be ""supported by a new kind of culture, a new kind of collaboration, [and] a new kind of leadership"".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuenkel |first=Petra |title=Stewarding Sustainability Transformations: An Emerging Theory and Practice of SDG Implementation |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-030-03691-1 |location=Cham |oclc=1080190654 |publisher=Springer}}</ref> It requires a large investment in ""new and greener capital goods, while simultaneously shifting capital away from unsustainable systems"".<ref name=""Stockholm+50-2022"" />{{rp|107}} It prefers these to unsustainable options.<ref name=""Stockholm+50-2022"" />{{rp|101}}

A sustainability transition requires major change in societies. They must change their fundamental values and organizing principles.<ref name=""Swart, R.-2002"" />{{rp|15}} These new values would emphasize ""the quality of life and material sufficiency, human solidarity and global equity, and affinity with nature and environmental sustainability"".<ref name=""Swart, R.-2002"" />{{rp|15}} A transition may only work if far-reaching lifestyle changes accompany technological advances.<ref name=""Wiedmann-2020"" />

Scientists have pointed out that: ""Sustainability transitions come about in diverse ways, and all require civil-society pressure and evidence-based advocacy, political leadership, and a solid understanding of policy instruments, markets, and other drivers.""<ref name=""Ripple-2017"" />

There are four possible overlapping processes of transformation. They each have different political dynamics. Technology, markets, government, or citizens can lead these processes.<ref name=""Scoones-2016"" />

=== Action principles ===
It is possible to divide action principles to make societies more sustainable into four types. These are nature-related, personal, society-related and systems-related principles.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|206}}

* Nature-related principles: [[Low-carbon economy|decarbonize]]; reduce human environmental impact by efficiency, sufficiency and consistency; be net-positive – build up environmental and societal capital; prefer local, seasonal, plant-based and labor-intensive; [[Polluter pays principle|polluter-pays principle]]; [[precautionary principle]]; and appreciate and celebrate the beauty of nature.
* Personal principles: practise contemplation, apply policies with caution, celebrate frugality.
* Society-related principles: grant the least privileged the greatest support; seek mutual understanding, trust and many wins; strengthen social cohesion and collaboration; engage stakeholders; foster education – share knowledge and collaborate.
* Systems-related principles: apply [[systems thinking]]; foster diversity; make what is relevant to the public more transparent; maintain or increase option diversity.

=== Example steps ===
In 2017 scientists published an update to the 1992 [[World Scientists' Warning to Humanity]]. It showed how to move towards environmental sustainability. It proposed steps in three areas:<ref name=""Ripple-2017"" /> 

* Reduced consumption: reducing food waste, promoting dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods.
* Reducing the number of consumers: further reducing fertility rates and thus population growth.
* Technology and nature conservation: there are several related approaches. One is to maintain nature's ecosystem services. Another is promote new green technologies. Another is changing energy use. One aspect of this is to adopt renewable energy sources. At the same time it is necessary to end subsidies to energy production through [[fossil fuel]]s.

==== Agenda 2030 for the Sustainable Development Goals ====
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals.svg|thumb|United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.]]
In 2015, the United Nations agreed the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs). Their official name is Agenda 2030 for the Sustainable Development Goals. The UN described this programme as a very ambitious and transformational vision. It said the SDGs were of unprecedented scope and significance.<ref name="":1b"" />{{rp|3/35}} 

The UN said: ""We are determined to take the bold and transformative steps which are urgently needed to shift the world on to a sustainable and resilient path.""<ref name="":1b"" /> 

The 17 goals and targets lay out transformative steps. For example, the SDGs aim to protect the future of planet Earth. Here the UN pledged to ""protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so that it can support the needs of the present and future generations"".<ref name="":1b"" />

== Options for overcoming barriers ==
{{Further|Sustainable development#Pathways}}

=== Issues around economic growth ===
{{Further|Eco-economic decoupling|Degrowth|Steady-state economy}}

[[Eco-economic decoupling]] is an idea to resolve tradeoffs between economic growth and environmental conservation. The idea is to ""decouple ''environmental bads'' from ''economic goods'' as a path towards sustainability"".<ref name=""Vaden-2020"" /> This would mean ""using less resources per unit of economic output and reducing the environmental impact of any resources that are used or economic activities that are undertaken"".<ref name=""UNEP2011"" />{{rp|8}} The intensity of [[pollutant]]s emitted makes it possible to measure pressure on the environment. This in turn makes it possible to measure decoupling. This involves following changes in the [[emission intensity]] associated with economic output.<ref name=""UNEP2011"" /> Examples of absolute long-term decoupling are rare. But some industrialized countries have decoupled GDP growth from production- and consumption-based {{CO2}} emissions.<ref name=""Wiedenhofer"">{{Cite journal |last1=Haberl |first1=Helmut |last2=Wiedenhofer |first2=Dominik |last3=Virág |first3=Doris |last4=Kalt |first4=Gerald |last5=Plank |first5=Barbara |last6=Brockway |first6=Paul |last7=Fishman |first7=Tomer |last8=Hausknost |first8=Daniel |last9=Krausmann |first9=Fridolin |last10=Leon-Gruchalski |first10=Bartholomäus |last11=Mayer |first11=Andreas |date=2020 |title=A systematic review of the evidence on decoupling of GDP, resource use and GHG emissions, part II: synthesizing the insights |journal=[[Environmental Research Letters]] |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=065003 |bibcode=2020ERL....15f5003H |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ab842a |issn=1748-9326 |s2cid=216453887|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet, even in this example, decoupling alone is not enough. It is necessary to accompany it with ""sufficiency-oriented strategies and strict enforcement of absolute reduction targets"".<ref name=""Wiedenhofer"" />{{rp|1}}

One study in 2020 found no evidence of necessary decoupling. This was a [[meta-analysis]] of 180 scientific studies. It found that there is ""no evidence of the kind of decoupling needed for ecological sustainability"" and that ""in the absence of robust evidence, the goal of decoupling rests partly on faith"".<ref name=""Vaden-2020"" /> Some experts have questioned the possibilities for decoupling and thus the feasibility of [[green growth]].<ref name=""Parrique T-2019"">Parrique T., Barth J., Briens F., C. Kerschner, Kraus-Polk A., Kuokkanen A., Spangenberg J.H., 2019. [https://gaiageld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/decoupling_debunked_evidence_and_argumen.pdf Decoupling debunked: Evidence and arguments against green growth as a sole strategy for sustainability]. European Environmental Bureau.</ref> Some have argued that decoupling on its own will not be enough to reduce environmental pressures. They say it would need to include the issue of economic growth.<ref name=""Parrique T-2019"" /> There are several reasons why adequate decoupling is currently not taking place. These are rising energy expenditure, [[rebound effect]]s, problem shifting, the underestimated impact of services, the limited potential of recycling, insufficient and inappropriate technological change, and cost-shifting.<ref name=""Parrique T-2019"" /> 

The decoupling of economic growth from environmental deterioration is difficult. This is because the entity that causes environmental and social costs does not generally pay for them. So the market price does not express such costs.<ref name=""Jaeger"" /> For example, the cost of packaging into the price of a product. may factor in the cost of packaging. But it may omit the cost of disposing of that packaging. Economics describes such factors as [[Externality|externalities]], in this case a negative externality.<ref>{{cite book |first=Arthur Cecil |last=Pigou |date=1932 |url=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4154221/mod_resource/content/0/Pigou-The_Economic_of_Welfare_1920.pdf |title=The Economics of Welfare |edition=4th |location=London |publisher=Macmillan}}</ref> Usually, it is up to government action or local governance to deal with externalities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jaeger |first=William K. |title=Environmental economics for tree huggers and other skeptics |date=2005 |publisher=[[Island Press]] |isbn=978-1-4416-0111-7 |location=Washington, DC |oclc=232157655}}</ref> 

There are various ways to incorporate environmental and social costs and benefits into economic activities. Examples include: taxing the activity (the [[Polluter pays principle|polluter pays]]); subsidizing activities with positive effects (rewarding [[stewardship]]); and outlawing particular levels of damaging practices (legal limits on pollution).<ref name=""Jaeger"" />

=== Government action and local governance ===
A textbook on natural resources and environmental economics stated in 2011: ""Nobody who has seriously studied the issues believes that the economy's relationship to the natural environment can be left entirely to market forces.""<ref>{{Cite book |title=Natural resource and environmental economics |date=2011 |publisher=Pearson Addison Wesley |author=Roger Perman |author2=Yue Ma |author3=Michael Common |author4=David Maddison |author5=James Mcgilvray |isbn=978-0-321-41753-4 |edition=4th |location=Harlow, Essex |oclc=704557307}}</ref>{{rp|15}} This means  natural resources will be over-exploited and destroyed in the long run without government action.

[[Elinor Ostrom]] (winner of the 2009[[Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences | Nobel economics prize]]) expanded on this. She stated that local governance (or self-governance) can be a third option besides the market or the national government.<ref name=""Anderies-2012"">{{Cite journal |last1=Anderies |first1=John M. |last2=Janssen |first2=Marco A. |date=2012-10-16 |title=Elinor Ostrom (1933–2012): Pioneer in the Interdisciplinary Science of Coupled Social-Ecological Systems |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=e1001405 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001405 |issn=1544-9173 |pmc=3473022 |doi-access=free }}</ref> She studied how people in small, local communities manage shared natural resources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Nobel Prize: Women Who Changed the World |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/nobel-prize-awarded-women/ |access-date=31 March 2022 |website=thenobelprize.org}}</ref> She showed that communities using natural resources can establish rules their for use and maintenance. These are resources such as pastures, fishing waters, and forests. This leads to both economic and ecological sustainability.<ref name=""Anderies-2012"" /> Successful self-governance needs groups with frequent communication among participants. In this case, groups can manage the usage of [[Common good (economics)|common goods]] without overexploitation.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|117}} Based on Ostrom's work, some have argued that: ""Common-pool resources today are overcultivated because the different agents do not know each other and cannot directly communicate with one another.""<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|117}}

=== Global governance ===
[[File:Launching of The UN Sustainability Development Solution Network (SDSN) Chapter Indonesia by The President of The Republic Indonesia (10111448114).jpg|thumb|Launch of the UN [[Sustainable Development Solutions Network]] (SDSN) Chapter Indonesia ]]
Questions of global concern are difficult to tackle. That is because global issues need global solutions. But existing global organizations (UN, [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], and others) do not have sufficient means.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|135}} For example, they lack sanctioning mechanisms to enforce existing global regulations.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|136}} Some institutions do not enjoy universal acceptance. An example is the [[International Criminal Court]]. Their agendas are not aligned (for example [[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]], [[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]], and WTO) And some accuse them of nepotism and mismanagement.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|135–145}} 

[[Multilateralism|Multilateral]] international agreements, treaties, and [[intergovernmental organization]]s (IGOs) face further challenges. These result in barriers to sustainability. Often these arrangements rely on voluntary commitments. An example is  [[Nationally Determined Contribution]]s for climate action. There can be a lack of enforcement of existing national or international regulation. And there can be gaps in regulation for international actors such as multi-national enterprises.Critics of some global organizations say they lack legitimacy and democracy. Institutions facing such criticism include the WTO, [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[World Bank]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|UNFCCC]], [[Group of Seven|G7]], [[Group of Eight|G8]] and [[OECD]].<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|135}}

== Responses by nongovernmental stakeholders ==
=== Businesses ===
{{See also|Environmental, social, and corporate governance}}
[[File:Barssee und unmittelbare Umgebung 08.JPG|thumb|Today, the public primarily associates [[Sustainable products|sustainable production]] with special seals of quality (here the [[Forest Stewardship Council]] (FSC) seal for [[Wood|wood products]] in a forest in Germany).]]
[[Sustainable business]] practices integrate ecological concerns with social and economic ones.<ref name=""Kinsley-1997"">Kinsley, M. and Lovins, L.H. (September 1997). [http://www.natcapsolutions.org/publications_files/PayingForGrowth_ChronPilot_Sep1997.pdf ""Paying for Growth, Prospering from Development.""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717081554/http://www.natcapsolutions.org/publications_files/PayingForGrowth_ChronPilot_Sep1997.pdf |date=17 July 2011}} Retrieved 15 June 2009.</ref><ref name=""Callenbach-2011"">[http://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/node/968 Sustainable Shrinkage: Envisioning a Smaller, Stronger Economy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411191530/http://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/node/968 |date=11 April 2016}}. Thesolutionsjournal.com. Retrieved 13 March 2016.</ref> One accounting framework for this approach uses the phrase ""people, planet, and profit"". The name of this approach is the [[triple bottom line]]. The [[circular economy]] is a related concept. Its goal is to decouple environmental pressure from economic growth.<ref name=""Ghisellini 11–32"">{{Cite journal |last1=Ghisellini |first1=Patrizia |last2=Cialani |first2=Catia |last3=Ulgiati |first3=Sergio |date=2016-02-15 |title=A review on circular economy: the expected transition to a balanced interplay of environmental and economic systems |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652615012287 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |series=Towards Post Fossil Carbon Societies: Regenerative and Preventative Eco-Industrial Development |language=en |volume=114 |pages=11–32 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.007 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nobre |first1=Gustavo Cattelan |last2=Tavares |first2=Elaine |date=2021-09-10 |title=The quest for a circular economy final definition: A scientific perspective |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652621021910 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=314 |pages=127973 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127973 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref>

Growing attention towards sustainability has led to the formation of many organizations. These include the Sustainability Consortium of the [[Society for Organizational Learning]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zhexembayeva, N. |date=May 2007 |title=Becoming Sustainable: Tools and Resources for Successful Organizational Transformation |url=http://worldbenefit.case.edu/newsletter/?idNewsletter=143&idHeading=46&idNews=589 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613010521/http://worldbenefit.case.edu/newsletter/?idNewsletter=143&idHeading=46&idNews=589 |archive-date=2010-06-13 |website=[[Center for Business as an Agent of World Benefit]] |publisher=Case Western University |volume=3 |issue=2 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> the Sustainable Business Institute,<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=http://www.sustainablebusiness.org/2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517000948/http://www.sustainablebusiness.org/2.html |archive-date=17 May 2009 |publisher=Sustainable Business Institute}}</ref> and the [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the WBCSD |url=http://www.wbcsd.ch/templates/TemplateWBCSD2/layout.asp?type=p&MenuId=NDEx&doOpen=1&ClickMenu=LeftMenu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909144305/http://www.wbcsd.ch/templates/TemplateWBCSD2/layout.asp?type=p&MenuId=NDEx&doOpen=1&ClickMenu=LeftMenu |archive-date=9 September 2007 |access-date=1 April 2009 |publisher=World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)}}</ref> [[Supply chain sustainability]] looks at the environmental and human impacts of products in the supply chain. It considers how they move from raw materials sourcing to production, storage, and delivery, and every transportation link on the way.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Supply Chain Sustainability {{!}} UN Global Compact |url=https://www.unglobalcompact.org/what-is-gc/our-work/supply-chain |access-date=2022-05-04 |website=www.unglobalcompact.org}}</ref>

=== Religious communities ===
{{Further|Religion and environmentalism}}
Religious leaders have stressed the importance of caring for nature and environmental sustainability. In 2015 over 150 leaders from various faiths issued a joint statement to the [[2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference|UN Climate Summit in Paris 2015]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://actalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/COP21_Statement_englisch2.pdf |title=""Statement of Faith and Spiritual Leaders on the upcoming United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP21 in Paris in December 2015"" |access-date=21 March 2022 |archive-date=22 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222085536/http://actalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/COP21_Statement_englisch2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> They reiterated a statement made in the Interfaith Summit in New York in 2014:<blockquote>As representatives from different faith and religious traditions, we stand together to express deep concern for the consequences of climate change on the earth and its people, all entrusted, as our faiths reveal, to our common care. Climate change is indeed a threat to life, a precious gift we have received and that we need to care for.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Statement — Interfaith Climate |url=https://www.interfaithclimate.org/the-statement/ |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=www.interfaithclimate.org}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Individuals ===
{{Further|Sustainable living}}

Individuals can also live in a more sustainable way. They can change their lifestyles, practise [[ethical consumerism]], and embrace frugality.<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|236}}  These [[sustainable living]] approaches can also make cities more sustainable. They do this by altering the built environment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDilda |first=Diane Gow |title=The everything green living book: easy ways to conserve energy, protect your family's health, and help save the environment |date=2007 |publisher=Adams Media |isbn=978-1-59869-425-3 |location=Avon, Mass. |oclc=124074971}}</ref> Such approaches include [[sustainable transport]], [[sustainable architecture]], and [[Zero carbon housing|zero emission housing]]. Research can identify the main issues to focus on. These include flying, meat and dairy products, car driving, and household sufficiency. Research can show how to create cultures of sufficiency, care, solidarity, and simplicity.<ref name=""Wiedmann-2020"" />

Some young people are using activism, litigation, and on-the-ground efforts to advance sustainability. This is particularly the case in the area of climate action.<ref name=""Aggarwal-2022"">Aggarwal, D., Esquivel, N., Hocquet, R., Martin, K., Mungo, C., Nazareth, A., Nikam, J., Odenyo, J., Ravindran, B., Kurinji, L. S., Shawoo, Z., & Yamada, K. (2022). [https://www.stockholm50.report/charting-a-youth-vision-for-a-just-and-sustainable-future.pdf Charting a youth vision for a just and sustainable future]. Stockholm Environment Institute. DOI: 10.51414/sei2022.010</ref>{{rp|60}}

== Critiques ==

=== Impossible to reach ===
Scholars have criticized the concepts of sustainability and sustainable development from different angles. One was [[Dennis Meadows]], one of the authors of the first report to the Club of Rome, called ""[[The Limits to Growth]]"". He argued many people deceive themselves by using the Brundtland definition of sustainability.<ref name=""Wilhelm-2000"" /> This is because the needs of the present generation are actually not met today. Instead, economic activities to meet present needs will shrink the options of future generations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gambino |first=Megan |date=15 March 2012 |title=Is it Too Late for Sustainable Development? |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/is-it-too-late-for-sustainable-development-125411410/ |access-date=2022-01-12 |website=[[Smithsonian Magazine]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|27}} Another criticism is that the paradigm of sustainability is no longer suitable as a guide for transformation. This is because societies are ""socially and ecologically self-destructive consumer societies"".<ref name=""Blühdorn 2017 42–61"">{{Cite journal |last=Blühdorn |date=2017 |title=Post-capitalism, post-growth, post-consumerism? Eco-political hopes beyond sustainability |journal=Global Discourse |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=42–61 |doi=10.1080/23269995.2017.1300415 |issn=2043-7897|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Some scholars have even proclaimed the end of the concept of sustainability. This is because humans now have a significant impact on Earth's climate system and ecosystems.<ref name=""Melinda Harm"" /> It might become impossible to pursue sustainability because of these complex, radical, and dynamic issues.<ref name=""Melinda Harm"" /> Others have called sustainability a [[utopia]]n ideal: ""We need to keep sustainability as an ideal; an ideal which we might never reach, which might be utopian, but still a necessary one.""<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|5}}

=== Vagueness ===
The term is often hijacked and thus can lose its meaning. People use it for all sorts of things, such as ''saving the planet'' to ''recycling your rubbish''.<ref name=""Halliday-2016"" /> A specific definition may never be possible. This is because sustainability is a concept that provides a normative structure. That describes what human society regards as good or desirable.<ref name=""Ramsey-2015"" />

But some argue that while sustainability is vague and contested it is not meaningless.<ref name=""Ramsey-2015"" /> Although lacking in a singular definition, this concept is still useful. Scholars have argued that its fuzziness can actually be liberating. This is because it means that ""the basic goal of sustainability (maintaining or improving desirable conditions [...]) can be pursued with more flexibility"".<ref name=""Harrington-2016"" />

=== Confusion and greenwashing ===
Sustainability has a reputation as a [[buzzword]].<ref name=""Purvis"" /> People may use the terms ''sustainability'' and ''sustainable development'' in ways that are different to how they are usually understood. This can result in confusion and mistrust. So a clear explanation of how the terms are being used in a particular situation is important.<ref name=""Harrington-2016"" />

[[Greenwashing]] is a practice of deceptive marketing. It is when a company or organization provides misleading information about the sustainability of a product, policy, or other activity.<ref name=""Aggarwal-2022"" />{{rp|26}}<ref>{{Cite news |first=Bruce |last=Watson |date=2016-08-20 |title=The troubling evolution of corporate greenwashing |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/aug/20/greenwashing-environmentalism-lies-companies |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018015320/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/aug/20/greenwashing-environmentalism-lies-companies |archive-date=18 October 2016}}</ref> Investors are wary of this issue as it exposes them to risk.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-18 |title=The Troubling Evolution Of Large Scale Corporate Greenwashing |url=https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/investors-are-increasingly-calling-out-corporate-greenwashing-1.1125826 |website=www.bloomberg.ca |publisher=BNN Bloomberg}}</ref> The reliability of eco-labels is also doubtful in some cases.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-08-18 |title=The Troubling Evolution Of Large Scale Corporate Greenwashing |url=https://theconversation.com/greenwashing-can-you-trust-that-label-2116 |work=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}</ref> [[Ecolabel]]ling is a voluntary method of environmental performance certification and labelling for food and consumer products. The most credible eco-labels are those developed with close participation from all relevant stakeholders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ebrahimi Sirizi, M., Taghavi Zirvani, E., Esmailzadeh, A., Khosravian, J., Ahmadi, R., Mijani, N., Soltannia, R., & Jokar Arsanjani, J. |date=2023 |year=2023 |title=A scenario-based multi-criteria decision-making approach for allocation of pistachio processing facilities: A case study of Zarand, Iran. Sustainability |journal=Sustainability |volume=15 |issue=20 |page=15054 |doi=10.3390/su152015054 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of sustainability topics]]
* [[Outline of sustainability]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Library resources box |others=yes |lcheading=Sustainability}}
{{Sister project links|Sustainability}}
{{portal inline|Environment}}
{{portal inline|Earth sciences}}
{{portal inline|Ecology}}



{{Sustainability|state=not collapsed}}
{{Environmentalism}}
{{Simple living}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sustainability| ]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Human-Environment interaction]]"
Green guides,"{{Short description|Sustainability rule and incentive list}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Cleanup|date=December 2011}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2019}}
}}

A '''green guide''' (or [[sustainability]] guide) is a set of rules and guidelines provided for the use of a general or selective population to achieve the goal of becoming more green or sustainable. The guide serves to direct individuals, agencies, companies, businesses, etc. to resources that can help them become more sustainable (or ‘green’), as sustainability becomes a more popular and growing lifestyle choice. Guides are available in many ways, but the most popular being through [[website]]s to avoid using paper. There has also been a surge of guides in [[university]] websites to encourage [[student]]s towards a more sustainable way of life.

== History ==
The original “green guides” were created by the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC). The Federal Trade Commission created these “green guides” to “help marketers avoid making environmental claims that are unfair or deceptive under Section 5 of the [[Federal Trade Commission Act]]”.<ref name=ftcreporter>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ftc.gov/opa/reporter/greengds.shtm |title=Reporter Resources: The FTC's Green Guides |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127214958/http://www.ftc.gov/opa/reporter/greengds.shtm |archive-date=2011-11-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In order to guide [[consumer]]s away from dishonest environmental claims, the FTC issued two consumer-facing [[brochure]]s called “Eco-Speak: A User’s Guide to the Language of Recycling” and “Sorting out ‘Green’ Advertising Claims”.<ref name=ftcreporter/> The FTC also issued a brochure for businesses called “Complying With the Environmental Marketing Guides”.<ref name=ftcreporter/> This guide provides businesses with the complete guides and a review of [[green marketing]] claims. The Federal Trade Commission issued their first guide in 1992 and since then has updated them in 1996 and 1998.<ref name=ftcreporter/> Most recently the Federal Trade Commission has proposed a revision of their guides in October 2010.<ref name=ftcreporter/> Due to the proliferation of products claiming to be green in the marketplace in recent years the Federal Trade Commission began this third revision process early as the Commission held several workshop meetings open to the public to discuss green marketing issues. These workshops covered [[carbon offset]]s, [[Green packaging|“green” product packaging]], building products, and textiles claiming to be green. Through this review process the Federal Trade Commission is able to gain feedback from the public as well as perform a [[cost-benefit analysis]], determine the efficacy of their guides, and decide whether to maintain, modify, or discard the current set of guides and rules.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-07 |title=FTC's Endorsement Guides: What People Are Asking |url=https://www.ftc.gov/business-guidance/resources/ftcs-endorsement-guides-what-people-are-asking |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=Federal Trade Commission |language=en}}</ref>

Even before the Federal Trade Commission created its first green guide in 1992 there were plenty of people interested in sustainability and the [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]] who wanted some sort of guidance when it came to living and purchasing more [[eco friendly]]. Especially in recent years with the growing environmental movement, a myriad of organizations and individuals have released their own guides to living sustainably or in other words their own “green guides.” For example, [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] a magazine company whose slogan is “inspiring people to care about the planet since 1888” first launched its National Geographic Green Guide in 2003. This magazine guide gave readers tips and examples on how to live a more sustainable and “greener” life. National Geographic discontinued the print version of their guide in January 2009, but it continues to run the guide on their webpage.<ref name=folio>{{Cite web | url=http://www.foliomag.com/2008/national-geographic-discontinues-green-guide-print | title=National Geographic Discontinues Green Guide|website=Foliomag.com| date=2008-12-02}}</ref> There readers can read over guides on living more sustainably with their home and garden, travel and transport, food, and purchases. Also National Geographic provides readers with recent environmental news, “[[green living]] hot topics,” and interactive [[quiz]]zes to determine how sustainably their living and what they can do to change.<ref name=geo>{{Cite web | url=http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/green-guide/quizzes/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205094717/http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/green-guide/quizzes/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 5, 2011 | title=Environment|website=Environment.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref>
 
Every day more and more people and organizations keep generating new ideas and novel innovations on how to live more sustainable lives. These fresh ideas act themselves as green guides as long as their information is spread, either by print or on the [[internet]]. For example, back in November 2007 Rebecca Kelley and Joy Hatch were just two friends who happened to be [[pregnant]] at the same time, but by sharing their ideals and interests of raising their children sustainably they created a blog called “The Green Baby Guide”.<ref name=historybaby>{{cite web|url=http://greenbabyguide.com/2008/08/31/the-history-of-the-green-baby-guide/|title=The History of The Green Baby Guide|website=Greenbabyguide.com|accessdate=26 March 2019}}</ref> This blog created a guide for mothers interested in how they could make their [[child rearing]] process more environmentally friendly and sustainable. Eventually their community of interested mothers grew so large that they came out with a book in March 2010 called ""The Eco-nomical Baby Guide: Down-to-Earth Ways for Parents to Save Money and the Planet"".<ref name=greenbabyabout>{{Cite web |url=http://greenbabyguide.com/about/ |title=About Us |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126183253/http://greenbabyguide.com/about/ |archive-date=2011-11-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref> With more people wanting to become enlightened about [[sustainable living]] every day there is plenty of room for additional green guides to be produced causing the history of green guides to be changing and evolving all the time.

== Federal Trade Commission ==
The Federal Trade Commission green guide is a general guide made by the [[United States government]]. It uses examples of everyday ‘green items’. The articles are quite broad, and can be applied to almost every ‘green’ consumer product. The FTC issued its Green Guides, to help marketers avoid making environmental claims that are unfair or deceptive under Section 5 of the FTC Act. The Green Guides outline general principles that apply to all environmental marketing claims and then provide guidance on specific green claims, such as [[biodegradable]], [[compost]]able, [[recycling|recyclable]], recycled content, and [[ozone]] safe. The FTC issued the Guides in 1992, and updated them in 1996 and 1998.<ref name=""ftcreporter""/> Currently, the FTC is making revisions to the guides to keep up with the times.

== National Geographic ==
The National Geographic website gives a variety of resources aimed primarily at individuals in their easy to comprehend green guide. Here, the website focuses on ways everyday people can help towards a sustainable world as well as changes they can make to live that world as well. With categories involving home and garden, travel, transportation, and food, National Geographic encompasses the areas people have the most control over in their life.

Under the home and garden,<ref name=""buying"">{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/|title=Environment|website=Nationalgeographic.com|accessdate=26 March 2019}}</ref> the site provides simple yet shocking facts about certain products and practices that one might not even think about in one's everyday home life. Also, the site provides alternatives to these practices as well as tips to make both your home and your garden sustainable.

The travel and [[transportation]]<ref name=travel>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/|title=Environment|website=Environment|accessdate=26 March 2019}}</ref> section also provides other tips as to how one would green up their [[traveling]] as well as provides destinations for travel. In this category, National Geographic, as per its name, also has some information on [[geotourism]]. Defined as ""tourism that sustains or enhances the geographical character of place,""<ref name=tour>{{Cite web |url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/specials/sus-dest/sus-dest-geotourism.html |title=Video -- Geotourism: The Future of Travel -- National Geographic |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822091520/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/specials/sus-dest/sus-dest-geotourism.html |archive-date=2011-08-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> this section gives information about places that one might decide to go on for travel.

With [[food]],<ref name=""buying""/> the site gives valuable information about food and the impact to the environment that it could have; moreover, the site educates readers as to up to date advances in technology that could prove more sustainable than past technologies when it comes to cultivation of food. Finally, there is a section on certain recipes that provides information to certain aspects of [[food preparation]], as well as food itself, that proves harmful towards sustainability and the environment in general.

Adding to that, the website also provides a ‘buying guides’<ref name=""buying""/> option that educates people in the purchases they make and how that could affect the environment as well as their wallets. Under this option, the website provides tips and services as to products that everyday people might want to purchase. These tips encompass things like cost, what kinds of regulations one would have to understand for the product, pertinent information regarding the kind of product, as well as how the product itself and the kind you decide to buy impact the environment.

== Green Guide UK ==
“The Green Guide” is a version of a sustainable living guide that was created in the [[UK]] in 1997. This guide consists of an [[online database]] as well as a published print version. Not only is “the Green Guide” a guide to sustainable living, but it is also a directory that contains information about “products, services and organisations that help promote and encourage a sustainable lifestyle”.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://greenguide.co.uk/node/49 |title=What's Included? &#124; the Green Guide |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072722/http://www.greenguide.co.uk/node/49 |archive-date=2011-09-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The guide provides useful advice and tips, but it also contains lists of organizations and companies that can further inform and assist readers in their quests to live more sustainably. Since this guide is produced in the [[United Kingdom]], the vast majority of the listings are of companies located in the United Kingdom, but it also contains over 350 international listings as well as information and tips that are applicable almost anywhere in the world.<ref name=""direct"">{{Cite web |url=http://greenguide.co.uk/directorystatistics |title=Directory Statistics &#124; the Green Guide |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406183317/http://www.greenguide.co.uk/directorystatistics |archive-date=2012-04-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

“The Green Guide” is broken down into twelve chapters each dealing with different themes spanning a wide variety of lifestyles. Each one of these chapters is then further broken down into sections and subsections where the writers found appropriate. In total, the guide consists of 994 different sections and subsections all pertaining to different strategies, tips and information that can help readers live a more sustainable life.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://greenguide.co.uk/howthegreenguideworks |title=How the Green Guide works &#124; the Green Guide |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407171329/http://www.greenguide.co.uk/howthegreenguideworks |archive-date=2012-04-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The twelve different chapters are as listed: 
*1. Food and [[Farming]] 
*2. Fashion and Beauty 
*3. Building, Home and Garden 
*4. Renewable Energy and Recycling 
*5. [[Health]] and [[Wellbeing]] 
*6. Children, Family, Community and Gifts 
*7. Transport and [[Travel]] 
*8. Leisure, Activities and Holidays 
*9. Money, Sustainable Business and CSR
*10. [[Government]], [[political campaign|Campaigning]] and Change 
*11. Media, Arts, Events and Awards 
*12. Centres, Research, Education and Careers.

By June 14, 2010, the directory portion of “the Green Guide” had over 15,000 entries, however, only just over 10,000 are available to view online.<ref name=""direct""/> This is because not all of the potential entries are accepted by “the Green Guide” due to the fact that they do not match the standards the guide has set. One of the major problems organizations like “the Green Guide” face is the issue of green washing. Green washing is the issue of companies attempting display themselves as environmentally friendly or green just to gain customers when in fact they are not at all green. This can be an enormous concern as companies like “the Green Guide” try their best to create guides full of truly sustainable companies<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://greenguide.co.uk/inclusioncriteria |title=Inclusion Criteria &#124; the Green Guide |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407161617/http://www.greenguide.co.uk/inclusioncriteria |archive-date=2012-04-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Grassroots ==
In addition to published green guides, there are many [[grassroots]] green guides for the average, everyday consumer. These grassroots guides cover anything a consumer cannot find in any published green guides, such as green guides to [[wedding]]s or even babies. The importance of amateur writers to create green guides is cooperative to the green guide movement itself as its sole purpose it to provide information for consumers.

Grassroots green guides can be written by anyone with any sort of knowledge in the subject they are writing about. Green Guides are sparse, so any help to further the movement is encouraged. It is the hope of the individuals who create these green guides to have available, over the [[internet]], a publicly view able '[[encyclopedia]]' or green guides based on the public's needs and desires.

== University and College Guides ==
According to the [[Princeton Review]],<ref>[http://www.princetonreview.com/green-honor-roll.aspx Green Honor Roll], Princeton Review</ref> these sixteen universities in the [[United States]] have gained the Green Honor Roll based on the criteria listed in the review:

*The percentage of food expenditures that go toward local, [[organic food|organic]] or otherwise environmentally preferable food
*The availability of programs that encourage alternatives to single passenger automobile use for students
*The presence of a formal committee with participation of the students devoted to advancing sustainability on campus
*The requirement of buildings to be [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] Silver certified or equivalent
*Overall waste diversion rate
*The availability of an environmental studies major, minor, or concentration
*If the school has an ‘environmental literacy’ requirement
*If the school has a publicly available greenhouse gas [[emission inventory]] and adopted a [[Business action on climate change|climate action]] plan consistent with 80% [[greenhouse gas]] reduction by 2050
*Percentage of [[energy consumption]] derived from renewable resources
*The employment of a dedicated full-time (or the equivalent) sustainability officer

The following list of schools have received a Green rating of 99, the highest grade possible given
by the Princeton Review.

* [[American University]], [[Washington, D.C.]]
* [[Arizona State University]] at the Tempe campus
* [[College of the Atlantic]], [[Bar Harbor, Maine]]
* [[Dickinson College]], [[Carlisle, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Georgia Institute of Technology]], [[Atlanta, Georgia]]
* [[Harvard College]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
* [[Northeastern University]], [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
* [[Oregon State University]], [[Corvallis, Oregon]]
* [[San Francisco State University]]
* [[State University of New York]] at [[Binghamton]]
* [[University of California]], [[Santa Cruz, California]]
* [[University of Maine]], [[Orono, Maine]]
* [[University of Washington]], [[Seattle, Washington]]
* [[University of Wisconsin]], [[Stevens Point, Wisconsin]]
* [[Virginia Tech]], [[Blacksburg, Virginia]]
* [[Warren Wilson College]], [[Asheville, North Carolina]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://greenguide.co.uk/ Green Guide.co.uk]

[[Category:Consumer behaviour]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Ecoflation,"{{Short description|Postulated future economic scenario}}
'''Ecoflation''' (a portmanteau of ""[[ecological]]"" and ""[[inflation]]"") is a future scenario in ""Rattling Supply Chains"", a research report by the [[World Resources Institute]] and [[A.T. Kearney]], released in November 2008.<ref name="":0"">{{cite web|title=RATTLING SUPPLY CHAINS The Effect of Environmental Trends on Input Costs for the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods Industry|url=http://pdf.wri.org/rattling_supply_chains.pdf}}</ref> It is characterized by [[natural resources]] becoming scarcer and [[sustainability]] issues become more pressing, leading to an increase in the price of commodities.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book|last=Campbell-Verduyn|first=Malcolm|title=Professional Authority After the Global Financial Crisis|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2017|isbn=978-3319527819|pages=99}}</ref> The effects of the increase in the price of commodities are felt by corporations suffering [[environmental costs]] being added to their usual cost of doing business.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=n.d|first=n.d|date=2009|title=Word-Watch : Ecoflation|journal=The Futurist|volume=May–June 2009|pages=2}}</ref> 

The concept of ecoflation focuses on having environmental [[externality|externalities]] of business be the burden of the organization/business responsible, rather than costs being allocated to the general public. Ecoflation represents more accurate pricing of the true costs associated with business actions. The concepts also emphasized the necessity of businesses to be creative and innovative in order to adapt their business models and supply chains to remain competitive on the market.<ref name="":0"" /> The idea is that the more a business integrates sustainability in their core business principle, the more success they will have.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|first=|date=2008|title=The cost of ecoflation|url=https://www.nl.kearney.com/ca/operations-performance-transformation/article/?/a/the-costs-of-ecoflation|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419090142/https://www.nl.kearney.com/ca/operations-performance-transformation/article/?/a/the-costs-of-ecoflation|archive-date=April 19, 2021|access-date=April 17, 2021|website=A.T Kearney}}</ref>

== Drivers of ecoflation ==
The [[World Resources Institute]] and [[A.T. Kearney]] identified three main drivers for ecoflation :

=== Scarcity of resources ===
An increase in population and consumption leads to an increased demand for resources, such as wood, oil, water, and grain.<ref name="":2"" /> Meanwhile, climate change is an increasing threat to such resources, in the form of extreme weather events (wildfires, droughts, floods, etc.) and [[biodiversity loss]].<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|last=Zabarenko|first=Deborah|date=December 8, 2021|title=Ecoflation, a new worry, could hit consumer goods|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-climate-ecoflation-idUSTRE4B76RV20081208|url-status=live|website=Reuters|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125191349/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-climate-ecoflation-idUSTRE4B76RV20081208 |archive-date=2016-01-25 }}</ref> For example, as freshwater levels decline, and the demand keeps rising globally, because of the law of [[supply and demand]], the price of water is bound to rise, some predict by 20% to 30% by 2050.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|title=Enjeux climats inflationnistes|url=https://www.ledevoir.com/opinion/chroniques/572437/l-inflation-le-prix-a-payer-pour-la-protection-de-l-environnement|access-date=2021-04-17|website=Le Devoir|date=7 February 2020 |language=fr}}</ref> Also in regards to water, agricultural regions are facing droughts and [[water scarcity]] from climate change which has led to the increase in production costs. Hydroelectric power plants are one specific area that has been directly affected by water scarcity.  Furthermore, [[palm oil]] which is commonly in food and personal care products is largely affected by climate change, specifically water scarcity, floods, and fires.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Costs of Ecoflation |url=https://www.moss.org.au/servlet/Web?s=1999965&action=downloadResource&resourceID=1507972792}}</ref>

=== Policies ===
Governmental institutions, like the [[World Economic Forum]], [[European Union]], [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade|General Agreement on Tariff and Trade]] are increasingly aware of the necessity to react to [[climate change]], and continue to pass stronger regulations in order to protect the environment.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite book|last1=P. Vlachos|first1=Ilias|title=Markets, Business and Sustainability|last2=Malindretos|first2=George|publisher=Bentham eBooks|year=2015|isbn=978-1-68108-0260|pages=177}}</ref> One such regulation is the introduction of [[Emissions trading|carbon emissions trading]], which forces companies that pollute more than they are permitted to suffer the cost.<ref name="":5"" /> These are costs that companies will either have to internalize, decreasing their profit margin, or pass on to the consumer, potentially making them less competitive. Government-enforced carbon fees have a direct impact on transportation prices. The increase in transport costs causes an increase in the price for resources such as sugar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Costs of Ecoflation |url=https://www.moss.org.au/servlet/Web?s=1999965&action=downloadResource&resourceID=1507972792 |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=}}</ref> In addition to this, many countries have passed laws banning or limiting the use of plastic bags, according to the United Nations Environment Program. The paper states, “As of July 2018, one hundred and twenty-seven (127) out of 192 countries reviewed (about 66%) have adopted some form of legislation to regulate plastic bags. The first regulatory measures specifically targeting plastic bags were enacted in the early 2000s, gradually increasing throughout the decade, with many countries enacting restrictions in the past few years.”<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Excell |first=Carole |display-authors=etal |title=Legal Limits on Single-Use Plastics and Microplastics: A Global Review of National Laws and Regulations |journal=United Nations Environment Program}}</ref>

=== Consumers ===
Consumers are also increasingly asking companies to provide more sustainable goods and services. Adapting to such consumer demands represents a cost for companies to adapt to. For example, companies may commit to using recycled wood material in response to public concerns about [[deforestation]], or reducing plastic, because it comes from fossil fuels.

== Addressing ecoflation ==
The risk of ecoflation is not inescapable, and companies can start by taking concrete steps to counteract its effects.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-12-10|title=L'""écoflation"" menace les chaînes d'approvisionnements|url=https://novae.ca/lecoflation-menace-les-chaines-dapprovisionnements/|access-date=2021-04-17|website=Novae|language=fr-FR}}</ref>

=== Voluntary actions ===
Companies can take voluntary action in order to reduce gas emissions and avoid ecoflation.<ref name="":1"" /> For example, companies may choose to use less plastic or recycled plastic, or they may modify their distribution system to increase efficiency and decrease both greenhouse gas emissions and costs.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web |title=El cambio climático comenzará a influir en los negocios |url=https://www.nacion.com/ciencia/el-cambio-climatico-comenzara-a-influir-en-los-negocios/FDS7YH6EIJHTZI6J4QEF7R3ZRA/story/ |access-date=2021-04-17 |website=La Nación, Grupo Nación |date=4 January 2009 |language=es-LA}}</ref> Procter & Gamble is one of these companies that is looking at use both less and recycled plastic across their products. In 2018, they announced a sustainability goal for all of their packaging to use recyclable and reusable plastic by 2030. Procter & Gamble takes the lead with their Fabric Care such as Tide, Gain, and Downy which uses 73% recycled packaging.<ref>{{Cite web |title=P&G ANNOUNCES NEW GLOBAL COMMITMENT TO REDUCE PLASTIC |url=https://us.pg.com/blogs/Plastic50by2030/ |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=us.pg.com}}</ref> Also, governments may pass laws that force companies to do this as well. One example of this is New Jersey’s passing new laws. Starting May 4, 2022, New Jersey retail stores, grocery stores and food service businesses may not provide or sell single-use plastic carryout bags and polystyrene foam food service products. Single-use paper carryout bags are allowed to be provided or sold, except by grocery stores equal to or larger than 2500 square feet, which may only provide or sell reusable carryout bags. After November 4, 2021, plastic straws may be provided only upon the request of the customer.”<ref>{{Cite web |title=NJDEP |url=https://www.nj.gov/dep/get-past-plastic/#:~:text=Beginning%20May%204,%202022,%20the,single-use%20plastic%20carryout%20bags |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=www.nj.gov}}</ref>

=== Business opportunities ===
Drivers of ecoflation can be business opportunities.<ref name="":6"" /> As stated by the consulting firm Kearney in their report ""The Cost of Ecoflation"" : ""Leaders in this new landscape will be companies that make [[environmental sustainability]] one of their core business principles.""<ref name="":2"" /> In order for business to remain competitive and to emerge as leaders, sustainability is an important factor.

As pointed at the 2020 World Economic Forum [[Global Risks Report]], the five greatest global risks to the economy today are all related to the environment, starting with climate change.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Global Risks Report 2020|url=https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-global-risks-report-2020/|access-date=2021-04-17|website=World Economic Forum|language=en}}</ref> Companies will have no choice but to adapt to this reality.<ref name="":4"" /> Furthermore, the Environmental, Social, and Corporate Governance (ESG) Score rating system has been utilized to address the price impact and other assorted environmental hazard that companies pose in the confines of ecoflation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Investing? |url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/environmental-social-and-governance-esg-criteria.asp |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=Investopedia |language=en}}</ref> Investment firms often utilize these metrics to create more diverse portfolios and select more sustainable investments. As stated by Paulina Linkos, former Risk Manager at Fannie Mae, “A favorable ESG score could compel investors to invest in a company, either because investors see the company's values as aligned with their own or because investors view the company as sufficiently shielded from future risks associated with issues such as pollution or poor corporate governance.”<ref>{{Cite web |last=Linkos |first=Paulina |date=Feb 18, 2022 |title=What is ESG? |url=https://money.usnews.com/investing/news/articles/what-is-an-esg-score}}</ref>  As such, there is an incentive to companies that attempt to improve their score, thereby improving the general corporate landscape in environmental factors and cost drivers.

=== Big changes ===
Addressing ecoflation is not a task to be taken lightly, as stated by Andrew Aulisi, a researcher at the World Resource Institute. ""You should not make small 'cosmetic' changes, but work with a true vision of the future,"" he concluded.<ref name="":3"" /> As ecoflation is intertwined in many other topics, as stated by Darko B. Vukovic and Riad Shams, researchers for the Russian National research University- Higher School of Economics and Newcastle Business School- Northumbria University, “As the governments of many countries (predominantly developed) became increasingly interested in environmental issues, we began to meet more terms that are dedicated to the conservation of the environment, rational use of resources, sustainability, and the economic potential of a particular location (region). As a result of this policy, we often encounter terminology such as: Sustainable development, global ecotrends, [[green economy]], ecotourism, environmental protection, regional issues, technological impact on ecology (or new version of industrial ecology), ecopolitical problems, social responsibility, corporate responsibility, urban sustainability, sustainable tourism, circular economy, etc. In other words, the link between biodiversity, economics, and technological advancement exists in almost all socioeconomic forms.”.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vukovic |first=Darko |date=24 December 2019 |title=Economy and Ecology: Encounters and Interweaving |url=https://res.mdpi.com/d_attachment/sustainability/sustainability-12-00179/article_deploy/sustainability-12-00179-v2.pdf}}</ref> As shown by this, any small change in the realm of socioeconomics can impact many other areas of the economy of a given region.

== Impacts of ecoflation on cost drivers ==

=== Methodology ===
For the scenario, the [[World Resources Institute|World Resource Institute]] chose to focus on the industry of [[Fast-moving consumer goods|Fast-Moving-Consumer-Goods]] (FMCG), and analyses seven types commodities: oil, natural gas, electricity, cereals & grain & soy, sugar, palm oil, and timber.<ref name="":0"" /> The first impact in the study was commodity prices, and the study concluded that the price of commodities will be greatly affected by the drivers of ecoflation. The second impact in the study was the “Total Delivered Cost,” and detailed that ecoflation will cause an increase for these companies. The last impact in the study concluded that ecoflation will lead to a decrease of Earnings Before Interest and Tax between 13% and 47% between 2013 and 2018.

==See also==

* [[Economic impacts of climate change]]
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[Inflation accounting]]
* [[Effects of climate change]]
* [[Resource depletion]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Inflation]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Economics and climate change]]
[[Category:Ecology]]"
Category:Sustainability organizations,"[[Category:Sustainability|Organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations]]

[[de:Kategorie:Organisation (Nachhaltigkeit)]]

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Category:Sustainability stubs,"{{WPSS-cat}}
{{Stub Category|article=[[Sustainability]]|newstub=sustainability-stub|category=Sustainability}}

[[Category:Environment stubs| Sustainability]]
[[Category:Economics and finance stubs| Sustainability]]"
Green wedding,"{{short description|Type of wedding}}
{{more citations needed|date=March 2010}}

A '''green wedding''' or an '''eco-friendly wedding''' is any [[wedding]] where the couple plans to decrease the ecological impact of their special event on the planet. Couples plan their weddings by integrating [[eco-friendly]] alternatives, such as eco-friendly [[Wedding invitation|invitation]]s, [[flower]]s, [[Wedding dress|dress]], [[photography]], and more.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gordon|first=Jessica|title=What is a green wedding|url=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/42749367|access-date=March 21, 2012|newspaper=Summer Wedding, Cincinnati|year=2009}}</ref>
[[File:Kasteel van Rhoon Tuin.JPG|thumb|A green wedding reception]]

==Definition==
A green wedding is an eco-friendly and conscious consumption of resources that would otherwise be used in a traditional wedding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.brides.com/story/earth-day-eco-friendly-wedding-ideas|title=How to Have a Green Wedding|website=Brides|language=en|access-date=2019-08-23}}</ref> Green wedding is a new lifestyle. Compared with the extravagance and waste of traditional weddings, today's green weddings are more economical and environmentally friendly. This can include [[recycling]] waste, choosing a [[sustainable]] venue, and even neglecting to participate in traditional practices that could be considered unsustainable, such as buying unethical source rings.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tasker|first=Angela|title=Green Weddings Uniting the Elegant and Unique|year=2009|publisher=Alt health watch|pages=65–70|url=http://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=c1a04d5a-20d6-4782-849c-6574eac60753%40sessionmgr15&vid=6&hid=103}}</ref> Many people who live sustainably believe it is necessary to continue the lifestyle by making sure their weddings are also sustainable. Others choose green weddings to raise awareness about how [[sustainability]] is important in daily activities and celebrations. The largest factor that contributes to the growing number of green weddings is the impact wedding celebrations can have on the environment. Many argue that without being conscious of practices and items used, the average wedding can generate a large amount of waste.<ref>{{cite book|last=Edmunds|first=Valerie|title=The Green Wedding Guide|year=2008|publisher=Penn Publishing Ltd.|location=Little Rock, Arkansas|pages=10|isbn=9781601408693|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtmrLBTNUPAC&q=green+weddings&pg=PA8}}</ref>

==Basic principles==
One key concept for keeping a wedding [[eco-friendly]] is to ensure that the items being used will not quickly become waste, mainly one-time disposable items such as hosiery, plates, cups, ornaments, or wedding favors. Many green weddings have instead opted for borrowed or recycled items. Another option chosen is to rent items needed for the wedding instead of buying all new equipment/decorations to control the amount of waste that could be created.<ref>{{cite book|last=Napolitano|first=Wenona|title=The Everything Green Wedding Book|year=2009|publisher=Adams Media|location=Avon, MA|isbn=978--1-59869-811-4|pages=x, 93–95|url=https://archive.org/details/everythinggreenw0000napo|url-access=registration|quote=basic principles green wedding.}}</ref> In planning a green wedding, the main basis is to prevent or reduce all harmful impacts, either directly or indirectly, on the [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]]. The traditional wedding produces an average 400 lbs of garbage and 63 tons of {{CO2}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harrison|first=Kate|title=The Green Bride Guide|year=2008|publisher=Sourcebooks|location=Naperville, IL|isbn=978--1-4022-1345-8|url=https://archive.org/details/greenbrideguideh00kate|url-access=registration}}</ref> Together, American weddings are equivalent to 8.3 million cars driving on the road for a year. This can include flowers, paper (invitations), textiles (dress, suits), wedding favors, gas emissions (transportation), and everything else that can occur from the wedding.<ref>{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Emily Elizabeth|title=Eco-Chic Weddings|year=2007|publisher=Hatherleigh Press|isbn=9781578262403|pages=3–23|url=http://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/eco-chic-weddings-emily-elizabeth-anderson/1007992811?ean=9781578262403&itm=1&usri=eco%2bchic%2bweddings#CustomerReviews}}</ref>

==Flowers==
[[File:Sustainable flower decoration.jpg|thumb|Sustainable Wedding Decor with Flowers]]
Another important factor of a green wedding is the picking of flowers. Flowers can add a huge impact<ref>{{Cite web |title=Three Things You Can Do To Make A Large Wedding More Eco-Friendly — The Tamarind Tree |url=https://www.thetamarindtree.in/blog/large-wedding-eco-friendly |access-date=2023-04-12 |website=Best Heritage Wedding Venues in Bangalore - The Tamarind Tree |language=en-US}}</ref> on the environment due to [[fertilizers]] used and gas emissions that are released to transport the flowers. Many green wedding planners opt to have their flowers supplied by [[Organic farming|organic]] florist or even to grow their own. Another common practice is to consider what to do with the flowers after the wedding. Some weddings have had flowers that are replanted after the big day to minimize waste and allow the flowers to continue to grow afterward.<ref>{{cite web|last=Varner|first=Richard|title=Why are Green Weddings becoming so Popular?|url=http://www.istaygreen.net/?p=228|work=I Stay Green|publisher=Living the Green Life|access-date=March 20, 2012|archive-date=March 9, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309044547/http://www.istaygreen.net/?p=228|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some people decorate wedding halls with potted plants without picking flowers. If they give the plant to the guests as a gift, they can grow flowers while thinking about the bride and groom.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=SBS|title=1,000 flowers to be thrown away ... Now the wedding is ' green '.|date=March 16, 2018|url=https://news.sbs.co.kr/news/endPage.do?news_id=N1004668344&plink=ORI&cooper=NAVER}}</ref>

==Invitations==
There is a large amount of paper used in weddings throughout the entire process. One major reason paper is used is because of invitations. Green wedding planners are careful when selecting how to invite others due to the impact this can have. 
Some options that are more sustainable are 
*Using recycled paper
*Using the internet to send out electronic invitations instead
*Using [[Tree-free paper|tree-free milled paper]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Edmunds|first=Valerie|title=The Green Wedding Guide|year=2008|publisher=Penn Publishing Ltd.|location=Little Rock, Arkansas|pages=10|isbn=9781601408693|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtmrLBTNUPAC&q=green+weddings&pg=PA8}}</ref>

==Wedding ring==
Exchange of [[wedding ring]] is from the custom of [[Europe]] in the [[Middle Ages]]. But the ring manufacturing process such as [[gold mining]] causes many [[waste]] and [[pollution]]. For instance,[[Gold mining]] is one of the human activities that affect the quality of the environment. During [[gold mining]], large quantities of [[toxic heavy metal]] laden wastes can be generated and released [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5129257/ uncontrollably].
Some options that are more sustainable are
*Using ring made by [[environmental friendly]] material such as recycled stone and metal.
*Using [[vintage (design)|vintage]] pieces
*Using wooden rings

==Food==
Food is one important factor that affects how sustainable a wedding is. Some planners choose to get all their food supplied by local/organic growers to help eliminate the number of chemicals that would have been used in the growing of the food or the transportation of it. Also, opting for a seasonal menu ensures the food is sustainably sourced and readily available.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Macdiarmid|first=Jennie|title=Seasonality and dietary requirements: will eating seasonal food contribute to health and environmental sustainability?|journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society|year=2014 |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=368–375 |doi=10.1017/S0029665113003753 |pmid=25027288 |s2cid=4326126 |language=en|doi-access=free}}</ref> Wedding cakes are generally made out of all organic ingredients as well to reduce the chemicals used in the production of the ingredients.<ref>{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Emily Elizabeth|title=Eco-Chic Weddings|year=2007|publisher=Hatherleigh Press|isbn=9781578262403|pages=3–23|url=http://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/eco-chic-weddings-emily-elizabeth-anderson/1007992811?ean=9781578262403&itm=1&usri=eco%2bchic%2bweddings#CustomerReviews}}</ref> 
Many sustainable practices that are done in green weddings are to have the leftovers composted after or to have untouched meals donated to local charities.

Besides, entrées are also important. Compared with other meat, serving chicken as entrées is the least harmful to the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Flood |first1=Erin |last2=Kapoor |first2=Sandra |last3=de Villa-Lopez |first3=Belinda |date=2014-04-03 |title=The Sustainability of Food Served at Wedding Banquets |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15428052.2013.846882 |journal=Journal of Culinary Science & Technology |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=137–152 |doi=10.1080/15428052.2013.846882 |s2cid=94182603 |issn=1542-8052}}</ref>
In some weddings, leftover food is picked up by specific organizations such as the Leftover Cuisine<ref>{{cite web |title=Rescuing Leftover Cuisine |url=https://www.rescuingleftovercuisine.org/donate-food |website=Rescuing Leftover Cuisine |access-date=2023-04-28}}</ref> from these events or weddings for food donations which minimizes waste.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hasan |first1=Sadiba |title=How to Have a Sustainable Wedding |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/02/style/sustainability-wedding.html |access-date=2023-04-28 |publisher=TheNewYorkTimes}}</ref>

==Attire==
One of the biggest contributors to waste that can be generated is the wedding dress. Many argue that one of the ways to continue with a sustainable wedding is to use a dress that can be re-worn or borrowed from another. This eliminates the one-time use principle violation. Also choosing a wedding dress that is made out of organic fiber ensures that the garment had minimal impact on the environment during its production. Many green brides opt to purchase a vintage/second-hand dress and have it altered instead of buying a new dress. Other brides choose to sell or donate their dress after the wedding or have it recycled to create a new garment. There are some brands creating outfits from recycled materials,<ref>{{cite book|title=Textile-to-textile: Ten Nordic brands that are leading the way|isbn=978-92-893-5125-6|last1=Watson |first1=David |year=2017 |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers }}</ref> and others using environmentally friendly dyes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8 wedding dress brands for the eco-conscious bride|url=https://www.vogue.fr/wedding/article/8-wedding-dress-brands-for-the-eco-conscious-bride|access-date=2022-09-23|work=vogue.fr|date=13 June 2019 }}</ref> The popularity of green wedding outfits is confirmed by a 235% increase in 'low-waste wedding' queries in 2019 according to Printerest.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Top 10 Wedding Dress Trends for 2021 & 2022|url=https://www.cicinia.com/blogs/fashion-inspiration/top-10-wedding-dress-trends-for-2021-2022|access-date=2022-09-23|work=cicinia.com}}</ref> Also contributing to the popularity of green weddings was Princess Beatrice during her wedding to Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi. She chose the new gown over Queen Elizabeth's Norman Hartnell gown, which Her Majesty originally wore to a gala dinner in Rome in 1961.<ref>{{Cite web|title=10 stylish sustainable wedding dresses for ethical brides|url=https://www.hellomagazine.com/brides/2020031186126/sustainable-wedding-dress-designers-for-ethical-wedding/|access-date=2022-09-23|work=hellomagazine.com|date=11 March 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://goodonyou.eco/the-ultimate-guide-to-ethical-wedding-dresses/|title = The Ultimate Guide to Ethical and Sustainable Wedding Dresses|date = 9 May 2021}}</ref>

==Venue==
Those who prefer an [[eco-friendly]] wedding also look for a sustainable venue to host their wedding. Many factors can minimize the waste produced by wedding venues, from [[eco-friendly]] transportation to renewable energy options. Some prioritize reducing decoration waste by picking wedding venues surrounded by nature. The venue's size also contributes to its sustainability, which is why some of those who choose to have green weddings pick small venues. As important as other aspects of a green wedding, being conscious of where their celebration occurs can reduce the amount of waste being produced.

==See also==
*[[Zero waste|Zero-waste]] event

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Wedding]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Ethical consumerism,"{{Short description|Type of consumer activism}}
{{Anti-consumerism|Theories}}
'''Ethical consumerism''' (alternatively called '''ethical consumption''', '''ethical purchasing''', '''moral purchasing''', '''ethical sourcing''', or '''ethical shopping''' and also associated with '''sustainable and green consumerism''') is a type of [[consumer activism]] based on the concept of [[dollar voting]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/677842 |title=Creating the Responsible Consumer: Moralistic Governance Regimes and Consumer Subjectivity |year=2014 |last1=Giesler |first1=Markus|last2=Veresiu |first2=Ela|author-link1=Markus Giesler |author-link2=Ela Veresiu |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=41 |issue=October |pages=849–867|s2cid=145622639 }}</ref> People practice it by buying ethically made products that support small-scale manufacturers or local artisans and protect animals and the environment, while [[boycott]]ing products that [[child labour|exploit children as workers]], are tested on animals, or damage the environment.

The term ""ethical consumer"", now used generically, was first popularised by the UK magazine ''[[Ethical Consumer]]'', first published in 1989.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethicalconsumer.org/AboutUs/20thBirthday.aspx|title=20th Birthday! |publisher=Ethicalconsumer.org |access-date=2013-08-18}}</ref> ''Ethical Consumer'' magazine's key innovation was to produce ""ratings tables"", inspired by the criteria-based approach of the then-emerging [[ethical investment]] movement. ''Ethical Consumer''{{'}}s ratings tables awarded companies negative marks (and overall scores, starting in 2005) across a range of ethical and environmental categories such as ""animal rights"", ""human rights"", and ""pollution and toxics"", empowering consumers to make ethically informed consumption choices and providing campaigners with reliable information on corporate behaviour. Such criteria-based ethical and environmental ratings have subsequently become commonplace both in providing consumer information and in business-to-business [[corporate social responsibility]] and [[sustainability]] ratings such as those provided by Innovest, [[Calvert Investments#The Calvert Foundation|Calvert Foundation]], Domini, IRRC, [[TIAA–CREF]], and KLD Analytics. Today, [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]] and [[Reuters]] provide ""environmental, social, and governance"" ratings directly to the financial data screens of hundreds of thousands of stock market traders.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Is ESG Data Going Mainstream? | journal=Harvard Business Review | date=6 May 2009 |url=http://blogs.hbr.org/leadinggreen/2009/05/is-esg-data-going-mainstream.html|publisher=Blogs.hbr.org|access-date=2013-08-18| last1=Lubber | first1=Mindy S. }}</ref> The nonprofit Ethical Consumer Research Association continues to publish ''Ethical Consumer'' and its associated website, which provides free access to ethical rating tables.

Although single-source ethical consumerism guides such as ''Ethical Consumer'', Shop Ethical,<ref>{{cite web|title=Shop Ethical|url=https://www.ethical.org.au|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> and the Good Shopping Guide<ref>{{cite web|title=The Good Shopping Guide|url=https://thegoodshoppingguide.com/ |access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> are popular, they suffer from incomplete coverage. [[User-generated content|User-generated]] ethical reviews are more likely, long-term, to provide democratic, in-depth coverage of a wider range of products and businesses.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethical Consumerism, Part 5: Why we need User-Generated Ratings| date=22 April 2018 |url=https://greenstarsproject.org/2018/04/22/crowdsourced-ethical-consumerism-user-generated-ratings/|publisher=greenstarsproject.org|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> The Green Stars Project<ref>{{cite web|title=The Green Stars Project|url=https://greenstarsproject.org/|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> promotes the idea of including ethical ratings (on a scale of one to five green stars) alongside conventional ratings on retail sites such as [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]] or review sites such as [[Yelp]].

{{anchor|political consumerism}}The term '''""political consumerism""''', first used in a study titled ""The Gender Gap Reversed: Political Consumerism as a Women-Friendly Form of Civic and Political Engagement"" from authors Dietlind Stolle and Michele Micheletti (2003), is identical to the idea of ethical consumerism. However, in this study, the authors found that political consumerism as a form of [[social participation]] often went overlooked at the time of writing and needed to be accounted for in future studies of social participation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://umanitoba.ca/outreach/conferences/gender_socialcapital/StolleMichelettipaper.pdf|title=The Gender Gap Reversed: Political Consumerism as a Women-Friendly Form of Civic and Political Engagement: An Exploratory Study in Canada, Belgium and Sweden. Work in Progress.|last1=Stolle|first1=Dietlind|last2=Micheletti|first2=Michele|date=2003|website=umanitoba.ca|access-date=2018-12-14}}</ref> However, in ""From Ethical Consumerism to Political Consumption"", author Nick Clarke argues that political consumerism allows for marginalized groups, such as women, to participate in political advocacy in non-bureaucratic ways that draw attention to governmental weaknesses. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=Nick |title=From Ethical Consumerism to Political Consumption: From ethical consumerism to political consumption |journal=Geography Compass |date=November 2008 |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=1870–1884 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00170.x |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00170.x |access-date=29 April 2023}}</ref> Political consumerism has also been criticised on the basis that ""it cannot work"", or that it displays class bias.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor=43653954 | title=Consumer Citizenship and Cross-Class Activism: The Case of the National Consumers' League, 1899-1918 | last1=Haydu | first1=Jeffrey | journal=Sociological Forum | year=2014 | volume=29 | issue=3 | pages=628–649 | doi=10.1111/socf.12107 }}</ref> The widespread development of political consumerism is hampered by substantial mundane consumption, which does not afford reflective choice, along with complexities of everyday life, which demand negotiations between conflicting moral and ethical considerations.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Will Consumers Save The World? The Framing of Political Consumerism |url=https://rdcu.be/daJnC |access-date=2023-04-25 |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics |year=2007 |doi=10.1007/s10806-007-9043-z |language=en |last1=Jacobsen |first1=Eivind |last2=Dulsrud |first2=Arne |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=469–482 |s2cid=154330638 }}</ref>

==Consumer groups==

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, people in industrialized countries began formal consumer movements to ensure that they would get value for their money in terms of the things they purchased. These movements focused on the unfair labor practices of the companies, and on labelling requirements of food, cosmetics, drugs, etc. Examples of the consumer movements were the Consumer League which was established in New York, US in 1891, [[National Consumers League]] created in US in 1898, and Consumers Council which was established during World War I in Great Britain. During this time{{clarify|date=March 2022}} workers were neither well-paid nor did they have secure employment with benefit of social{{clarify|date=March 2022}} protection; similarly, working conditions were decent{{clarify|date=March 2022}} and the Irish Trade Union movement focused the ILO{{clarify|reason=what is the ILO?|date=March 2022}} policy of campaigning for decent work wherever there was an opportunity for job improvement or job creation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ictu.ie/download/pdf/ethical_consumer_guide_ictu.pdf|title=Ethical Consumerism: A Guide for Trade Unions|last=Irish Congress of Trade Unions}}</ref>

==Basis==

===Global morality===
[[File:Electric wire reel reused in a furniture ecodesign.jpg|right|thumb|350px|An [[cable reel|electric wire reel]] reused as a center table in a [[Rio de Janeiro]] [[Interior design|decoration]] [[fair]]. When consumers choose and reuse environmentally friendly material like this, they are practicing ethical consumerism.]]
In ''Unequal Freedoms: The Global Market As An Ethical System'' (1998), [[John McMurtry (academic)|John McMurtry]] argues that all purchasing decisions imply some moral choice, and that there is no purchasing that is not ultimately moral in nature. This mirrors older arguments, especially by the [[Anabaptists]] (e.g. [[Mennonite]]s, [[Amish]]), that one must accept all personal moral and spiritual liability for all harms done at any distance in space or time to anyone by one's own choices. Some interpretations of the book of Genesis from the [[Judeo-Christian]] scriptures appears to direct followers towards practising good stewardship of the Earth, under an obligation to a God who is believed to have created the planet for people to share with other creatures. A similar argument presented{{who|date=March 2022}} from a [[secular]] [[humanism|humanist]] point of view is that it is simply better for human beings to acknowledge that the planet supports [[life]] only because of a delicate balance of many different factors.

===Spending as morality===
Some trust criteria, e.g. [[creditworthiness]] or [[implied warranty]], are considered to be part of any purchasing or sourcing decision. However, these terms refer to broader systems of guidance that would, ideally, cause any purchasing decision to disqualify offered products or services based on non-price criteria that affect the moral rather than the functional liabilities of the entire production process.{{clarify|reason=this sentence is confusing|date=March 2022}} [[Paul Hawken]], a proponent of [[natural capitalism]], refers to ""comprehensive outcomes"" of production services as opposed to the ""culminative outcomes"" of using the product of such services.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Often, moral criteria are part of a shift away from [[commodity markets]] towards a [[service economy]] where all activities, from growing to harvesting to processing to delivery, are considered part of the [[value chain]] for which consumers are ""responsible"".

Andrew Wilson, Director of the UK's Ashridge Centre for Business and Society, argues that ""Shopping is more important than voting"", and that the disposition of [[money]] is the most basic role we play in any system of [[economics]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/sustainability/2013/06/19/ethicalspending/|title=Ethics is in the eye of the spender|website=Sustainability at LSE|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418014329/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/sustainability/2013/06/19/ethicalspending/|archive-date=2016-04-18|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-29}}</ref> Some theorists{{who|date=March 2022}} believe that it is the clearest way that we express our actual moral choices: if we say we care about something but continue to buy in a way that has a high probability of risk of harm or destruction to that thing, we don't really care about it; we are practising a form of simple [[hypocrisy]]. Ethical consumerism is widely explained by psychologists using the [[theory of planned behavior]], which attributes a consumer's choices to their perceived sense of control, social norms, and evaluation of the consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ajzen |first=Icek |date=1991-12-01 |title=The theory of planned behavior |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978%2891%2990020-T |journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes |series=Theories of Cognitive Self-Regulation |language=en |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=179–211 |doi=10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T |issn=0749-5978}}</ref> However, recent research suggests that a consumer's ethical obligation, self-identity, and virtues may also influence their buying decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=William |date=2020-12-01 |title=Toward a theory of ethical consumer intention formation: re-extending the theory of planned behavior |journal=AMS Review |language=en |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=260–278 |doi=10.1007/s13162-019-00156-6 |s2cid=203466215 |issn=1869-8182|doi-access=free }}</ref> 

In an effort by churches to advocate moral and ethical consumerism, many have become involved in the [[Fair trade|Fair Trade]] movement:
* [[Ten Thousand Villages]] is affiliated with the Mennonite Central Committee<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tenthousandvillages.com/about-history/ |title=Our History |publisher=[[Ten Thousand Villages]] |access-date=2013-08-18}}</ref>
* [[SERRV International]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.serrv.org/category/our-story |title=Our Story |publisher=SERRV |access-date=2013-08-18}}</ref> is partnered with Catholic Relief Services<ref>{{cite web|url=http://crs.org/ |title=Catholic Relief Services |publisher=Crs.org |access-date=2013-08-18}}</ref> and Lutheran World Relief<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lwr.org |title=Home - Lutheran World Relief &#124; Working to end poverty, injustice and human suffering |publisher=Lwr.org |access-date=2013-08-18}}</ref>
* Village Markets of Africa sells Fair Trade gifts from the [[Lutheran Church]] in Kenya<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.villagemarkets.org/mission/about |title=About Village Markets and Fair Trade |publisher=Villagemarkets.org |access-date=2013-08-18}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.thelutheran.org/article/article.cfm?article_id=10300&key=106089998 |title='God's love is what they pass on' : Fair trade is a mission for a Wittenberg University grad, students and faculty |publisher=The Lutheran |date=2012-03-29 |access-date=2013-08-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116021920/http://www.thelutheran.org/article/article.cfm?article_id=10300&key=106089998 |archive-date=2013-01-16 }}</ref>
* [[Catholic Relief Services]] has their own Fair Trade mission in CRS Fair Trade<ref>[http://www.crsfairtrade.org/about/] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711041739/http://www.crsfairtrade.org/about/|date=July 11, 2011}}</ref>

==Standards and labels==
A number of standards, labels and marks have been introduced for ethical consumers, such as:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[B Corporation (certification)|B corporation]]
* [[Cooperative|Co-op Marque]]
* [[Cetacean bycatch|Dolphin safe]]
* [[EKOenergy]] for electricity agreements
* [[Equal Exchange]]
* [[Ethical Consumer]] Best Buy label
* [[Fairtrade]]
* [[Free-range]] poultry
* [[Forest Stewardship Council|FSC-certified]] sustainably sourced wood
* [[Grass fed beef]]
* [[Green America]] Seal of Approval
* [[Halal]] (religious standard)
* [[Kosher]] (religious standard)
* [[Local food]]
* [[Marine Stewardship Council|MSC-certified]] sustainably sourced seafood
* [[Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork|No Pork No Lard]] (semi-religious standard)
* [[Organic food]]
* [[Organic Trade Association]]
* [[Product Red]]
* [[Rainforest Alliance|Rainforest Alliance certified]]
* [[Recycling|Recycled/recyclable]]
* [[Respects Your Freedom]]
* [[Shade-grown coffee]]
* [[SA8000|Social Accountability 8000]]
* [[Union label|Union-made]]
* [[Vegan]]
{{div col end}}
Along with disclosure of ingredients, some [[mandatory labelling]] of the origins of clothing or food is required in all [[developed nations]]. This practice has been extended in some [[developing nations]] so that, for example, every item carries the name, phone number and fax number of the factory where it was made so a buyer can inspect its conditions. This can also be used to show that the item was not made by [[child labour]] or ""[[prison labor]]"", the use of which to produce export goods is banned in most developed nations. Such labels have also been used for boycotts, as when the merchandise mark [[Made in Germany]] was introduced in 1887.

These labels serve as tokens of some reliable validation process, some instructional capital,<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://identity.coop/|title = Coop Marque|website = Coop|publisher = International Cooperative Alliance}}</ref> much as does a brand name or a nation's flag. They also signal some [[social capital]], or trust, in some community of auditors that must follow those instructions to validate those labels.

[[File:Verus Carbon Neutral Sign.JPG|thumb|right|A sign proclaiming carbon neutrality in the Virginia-Highland neighborhood of Atlanta]]
Some companies in the United States, though currently not required to reduce their [[carbon footprint]], are doing so voluntarily by changing their energy use practices, as well as by directly funding (through [[carbon offset]]s), businesses that are already sustainable—or that are developing or improving [[Environmental technology|green technologies]] for the future.

In 2009, [[Atlanta]]'s [[Virginia-Highland]] neighborhood became the first Carbon-Neutral Zone in the United States. Seventeen merchants in Virginia-Highland allowed their carbon footprint to be audited. Now, they are partnered with the Valley Wood Carbon Sequestration Project—thousands of acres of forest in rural Georgia—through the [[Chicago Climate Exchange]] (CCX).<ref>{{cite news |last = Jay |first = Kate |title = First Carbon Neutral Zone Created in the United States |date = November 14, 2008 |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS164153+14-Nov-2008+PRN20081114 |work = Reuters |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090907024146/http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS164153+14-Nov-2008+PRN20081114 |archive-date = September 7, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last = Auchmutey |first = Jim |title = Trying on carbon-neutral trend |newspaper = Atlanta Journal-Constitution |date = January 26, 2009 |url = http://www.ajc.com/services/content/printedition/2009/01/26/carbon0126b.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413102958/https://www.ajc.com/services/content/printedition/2009/01/26/carbon0126b.html |archive-date=2009-04-13 |access-date=2019-08-29 |publisher = [[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution]] }}</ref> The businesses involved in the partnership display the Verus Carbon Neutral seal in each store front and posted a sign prominently declaring the area's Carbon Neutral status. (CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/carbon-ccx-layoffs-idUSLDE6791WI20100812 |work=Reuters |title=ICE cuts staff at Chicago Climate Exchange-sources | date=12 August 2010 | access-date = 3 February 2016}}</ref> although carbon exchanges were intended{{who|date=March 2022}} to still be facilitated{{who|date=March 2022}}.)<ref>{{cite news|last=Weitzman|first=Hal|title=End of US carbon trading looms |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3fe91576-e5de-11df-af15-00144feabdc0.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3fe91576-e5de-11df-af15-00144feabdc0.html |archive-date=2022-12-10 |url-access=subscription|work=[[Financial Times]]| date=November 2010 |access-date=3 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/news/energy/2010/11/101103-chicago-climate-exchange-cap-and-trade-election/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105123957/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/news/energy/2010/11/101103-chicago-climate-exchange-cap-and-trade-election/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 5, 2010 |title=A U.S. Cap-And-Trade Experiment to End |newspaper=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |date=November 3, 2010 |last= Lavelle |first=Marianne  |access-date=3 February 2016}}</ref>

Some theorists{{Who|date=February 2016}} suggest the amount of [[social capital]] or trust invested in nation-states (or ""flags"") will continue to decrease, and that placed in corporations (or ""brands"") will increase. This can only be offset by retrenched [[national sovereignty]] to reinforce shared national standards in [[tax, trade, and tariff]] laws, and by placing the trust in civil society in such ""moral labels"".{{clarify|date=March 2022}} These arguments have been a major focus of the [[anti-globalization movement]], which includes many broader arguments against the amoral nature of markets. However, the economic school of [[Public Choice Theory]] pioneered by [[James M. Buchanan]] has offered counter-arguments based on an economic demonstration of this theory of ""amoral markets"", which lack ethics or morals, versus ""moral governments"", which are tied to ideas of justice.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Mercuro |first1=Nicholas |title=Chapter 3. Public Choice Theory |date=2020-07-21 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780691216010-004/html |pages=156–207 |access-date=2023-04-29 |publisher=Princeton University Press |language=en |doi=10.1515/9780691216010-004 |isbn=978-0-691-21601-0 |last2=Medema |first2=Steven G.}}</ref>

==Research==
[[GfK NOP]], the market research group, made a five-country study of consumer beliefs about the ethics of large companies. The countries surveyed were Germany, the United States, [[United Kingdom|Britain]], France, and Spain. More than half of respondents in Germany and the US believed there is a serious deterioration in standards of corporate practice. Almost half of those surveyed in Britain, France, and Spain held similar beliefs.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Staff Writer |title=Consumers Changing the Ethical Business Agenda |url=http://marketresearchworld.net/content/view/1269/77/ |publisher=Market Research World |access-date=7 March 2007}}</ref>

About a third of respondents told researchers they would pay higher prices for ethical brands, though the perception of various companies' ethical or unethical status varied considerably from country to country.

The most ethically perceived brands were The [[The Co-operative Group|Co-op]] (in the UK), [[Coca-Cola]] (in the US), [[Danone]] (in France), [[Adidas]] (in Germany), and [[Nestlé]] (in Spain). Coca-Cola, Danone, Adidas, and Nestlé did not appear anywhere in the UK's list of 15 most ethical companies. [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] appeared in the lists of the other four countries but not in the UK's list.

In the UK, [[The Co-operative Bank]] has produced an Ethical Consumerism Report<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goodwithmoney.co.uk/ethicalconsumerismreport|title= Ethical Consumerism Report|publisher=Co-operative Bank|access-date=2010-09-03}}</ref> (formerly the Ethical Purchasing Index) since 2001. The report measures the market size and growth of a basket of 'ethical' products and services, and valued UK ethical consumerism at [[GBP]]36.0 billion (~[[USD]]54.4 billion) in 2008, and GBP47.2 billion (USD72.5 billion) in 2012.

A number of organizations provide research-based evaluations of the behavior of companies around the world, assessing them along ethical dimensions such as [[human rights]], the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]], [[animal welfare]], and [[politics]]. [[Green America]] is a not-for-profit membership organization founded in 1982 that provides the ''Green American Seal of Approval'' and produces a ""Responsible Shopper"" guide to ""alert consumers and investors to problems with companies that they may shop with or invest in.""<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coopamerica.org/programs/responsibleshopper/about.cfm |title=Coop American: Responsible Shopping: About |publisher=Coopamerica.org |access-date=2011-12-18 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120723061114/http://www.coopamerica.org/programs/responsibleshopper/about.cfm |archive-date=2012-07-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Ethical Consumer Research Association is a not-for-profit workers' co-operative founded in the UK in 1988 to ""provide information on the companies behind the brand names and to promote the ethical use of consumer power.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corporatecritic.org/info/about/ethicalconsumer.aspx |title=Ethical Consumer Research Association: About |publisher=Corporatecritic.org |access-date=2011-12-18}}</ref> They provide an online searchable database under the name Corporate Critic<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corporatecritic.org/info/rr/ethiscore.aspx |title=Research & Ratings: About the Ethiscore |publisher=Corporate Critic |access-date=2011-12-18}}</ref> or Ethiscore.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethiscore.org/info.aspx?info=research |title=Research and ratings |publisher=Ethiscore |access-date=2011-12-18}}</ref> The Ethiscore is a weightable numerical rating designed as a quick guide to the ethical status of companies, or brands in a particular area, and is linked to a more detailed ethical assessment. ""Alonovo"" is an online shopping portal that provides similar weightable ethical ratings termed the ""Corporate Social Behavior Index"".<ref>[http://www.alonovo.com/community/SRI Alonovo Corporate Social Behavior Index] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624160954/http://www.alonovo.com/community/SRI |date=June 24, 2008 }}</ref>

==Related concepts==

===Conscientious consumption===
<!-- ""Conscientious consumption"" redirects here -->
Conscientious consumerism is when people make a habit of buying goods from ethical companies and avoid impulsive buying from unethical ones, in order to contribute positively in political, social, and environmental ways. Such a consumer rationalizes unnecessary and even unwanted consumption by saying that ""it's for a good cause.""<ref name=Sulik>{{cite book |author=Gayle A. Sulik |title=Pink Ribbon Blues: How Breast Cancer Culture Undermines Women's Health |url=https://archive.org/details/pinkribbonbluesh0000suli |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=USA |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/pinkribbonbluesh0000suli/page/111 111–132] |isbn=978-0-19-974045-1 |oclc= 535493589}}</ref> As a result, the consumer buys [[pink ribbons]] during [[National Breast Cancer Awareness Month]], [[greenwashing|green products]] to support the environment, candy and popcorn from school children, greeting cards and gift wrap from charities, and other such often-unwanted objects. The consumer avoids considering whether the price offered is fair, whether a small cash donation would be more effective with far less work, or even whether selling the item is consistent with the ostensible mission, such as when sports teams sell candy.

Some of these efforts are based on [[concept brand]]s: the consumer is buying an association with women's health or environmental concerns as much as they are buying a tangible product.<ref name=Sulik />

Conscientious consumption involves people who are ""more focused on real needs than artificially created craves,"" such as not continually following trend cycles in consumer industries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Puaschunder |first=Julia M. |chapter=Defashionization for Sustainability: from Conspicuous to Conscientious Consumption Breaking Business Cycles for Environmentalism |title=Advances in Socially Responsible Investment in Resilience Finance |series=Proceedings of the 26th Research Association for Interdisciplinary Studies (RAIS) Conference |pages=146–155 |date=February 2022 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.6414896 |ssrn=4226243 |s2cid=252650068 |chapter-url=http://rais.education/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/0178.pdf }}</ref>

Conscientious consumerism has become more popular in recent years, with consumers becoming more aware of the impact of their purchases on society and the environment. This trend has led to the growth of companies that prioritize corporate social responsibility and ethical practices in their operations to reinforce customer loyalty.<ref name=""Sustainable Production and Consumption"">{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.spc.2020.07.019 | title=The impact of corporate social responsibility on customer loyalty: The mediating role of corporate reputation, customer satisfaction, and trust | year=2021 | last1=Islam | first1=Tahir | last2=Islam | first2=Rauf | last3=Pitafi | first3=Abdul Hameed | last4=Xiaobei | first4=Liang | last5=Rehmani | first5=Mahmood | last6=Irfan | first6=Muhammad | last7=Mubarak | first7=Muhammad Shujaat | journal=Sustainable Production and Consumption | volume=25 | pages=123–135 | s2cid=225020032 }}</ref> However, some companies have taken note of this shift towards conscientious consumerism and started deceptive marketing to convey a false impression that their product is environmentally friendly. This green marketing tactic is called greenwashing, which is  prevalent in the cosmetic industry. Greenwashing has a negative impact on consumer trust with brands and cosmetic products that are marketed as green.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

===Alternative giving===
{{main|Alternative giving}}
In response to an increasing demand for ethical consumerism surrounding gift-giving occasions, charities have promoted an alternative gift market, in which charitable contributions are made on behalf of the gift ""recipient"". The ""recipient"" receives a card explaining the selected gift, while the actual gift item (frequently agricultural supplies or domestic animals) is sent to a family in a poor community.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/christmas2005/story/0,,1672350,00.html|title=Giving well is hard to do: so here's my seasonal guide|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=2007-05-03 | location=London | date=2005-12-22}}</ref>

==Criticism==
Critics argue{{who|date=March 2022}} that ethical consumerism has limited ability to effect structural change. Berkey (2021)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berkey |first1=Brian |date=2001 |title=Ethical Consumerism, Democratic Values, and Justice |journal=Philosophy & Public Affairs |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=237-274 |doi=10.1111/papa.12191}}</ref> has argued that ethical consumerism's focus on individual consumer behavior rather than systemic change can create a false sense of efficacy and distract from more effective methods of creating change, such as collective action and policy reform. Some{{who|date=March 2022}} say the actual effect of ethical consumerism is the preponderance of [[Niche marketing|niche markets]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Devinney|first1=Timothy|title=Value vs. Values: The Myth of the Ethical Consumer|url=http://www.policyinnovations.org/ideas/briefings/data/000199|website=Policy Innovations|access-date=11 June 2015}}</ref> while others{{who|date=March 2022}} argue that because it is difficult for consumers to obtain enough information about the outcomes of a given purchase, this prevents them from making informed ethical choices.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Irwin |first=Julie |date=2015-01-12 |title=Ethical Consumerism Isn't Dead, It Just Needs Better Marketing |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2015/01/ethical-consumerism-isnt-dead-it-just-needs-better-marketing |access-date=2022-07-14 |issn=0017-8012}}</ref> Critics{{who|date=March 2022}} have also argued that the uneven distribution of wealth prevents consumerism, ethical or otherwise, from fulfilling its democratic potential.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Gee|first1=Tim|title=When did fair trade become a consumerist concept?|url=http://newint.org/blog/2014/03/26/fair-trade-and-global-justice/|access-date=11 June 2015|agency=New Statesman|magazine=New Statesman|date=March 26, 2014}}</ref>

One study suggests that ""Buying Green"" serves as a license for unethical behavior. In their 2009 paper, ""Do Green Products Make Us Better People?"",<ref>Do Green Products Make Us Better People? ([[Psychological Science]], April, 2010) Nina Mazar, Chen-Bo Zhong</ref> Nina Mazar and Chen-Bo Zhong write:

<blockquote>In line with the halo associated with green consumerism, people act more altruistically after mere exposure to green than conventional products. However, people act less altruistically and are more likely to cheat and steal after purchasing green products as opposed to conventional products. Together, the studies show that consumption is more tightly connected to our social and ethical behaviors in directions and domains other than previously thought.</blockquote>

In a 2010 ''[[The Guardian]]'' article, British environmental writer and activist [[George Monbiot]] argued that green consumers who do not articulate their values are part of ""a catastrophic mistake,"" on the grounds that such consumerism ""strengthens extrinsic values"" (those that ""concern status and self-advancement""), thereby ""making future campaigns less likely to succeed"".<ref>{{cite news|last=Monbiot|first=George|title=It goes against our nature; but the left has to start asserting its own values|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cif-green/2010/oct/11/left-values-progressive-self-interest|access-date=29 December 2010|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=12 October 2010}}</ref>

James G Carrier, Associate at the [[Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology]], draws on Karl Marx's concept of [[commodity fetishism]] to argue that ethical consumption does not help consumers lead a more moral life, nor does it influence businesses as intended.<ref name="":0"">{{cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00768.x | title=Protecting the Environment the Natural Way: Ethical Consumption and Commodity Fetishism | year=2010 | last1=Carrier | first1=James G. | journal=Antipode | volume=42 | issue=3 | pages=672–689 }}</ref> The goal of ethical consumption at a personal level is to lead a more moral life, and that capitalism causes commodities to be presented in such a way that they are perceived without regard for the labor that is represented by the product, the labor that was involved in allowing that commodity to exist.{{clarify|reason=confusing run-on sentence|date=March 2022}} The goal at a public level is for consumers to use their purchasing power to put pressure on companies to change the way they conduct business. Marx argued that under capitalism, the presentation of goods obscures the people and processes behind their production.

Carrier begins by giving examples of products that have been presented in a way that misrepresents their context. He first points to the images of growers commonly found on [[fair trade coffee]] packaging. The image suggests self-reliance and ignores the dependence upon immigrant wage workers who harvest the coffee. Fairtrade coffee is viewed{{who|date=March 2022}} as a direct link to the grower without a middle man. However, there are many parties involved such as the roasters, shippers, wholesalers, and retailers of the product. Carrier also discusses fictitious commodities, which are things that are not produced in the conventional sense, material or not, and can be appropriated for commercial gain.{{clarify|reason=this does not make it clear what fictitious commodities are|date=March 2022}} The conceptual categories of ethicality need to be legible to consumers in order for a consumer to be able to participate in ethical consumption.{{clarify|reason=what are ""the conceptual categories of ethicality""?|date=March 2022}} Sellers use imagery to satisfy that need, and the images they use become emblematic and representational of the values of ethical consumers, and in some ways the presentation of these images fetishize the product, and the pervasiveness of such images begins to shape ethicality, as the absence of these images also signifies the absence of those same values. In short: it's difficult to buy ethical products because there are many aspects to commodities that consumers are unable to be fully aware of; fully informed decisions are almost impossible to make. Consumers see the images that sellers use as a means of virtue signaling, and purchase those products with the intent of ethical consumption because they believe that those images have been produced conscientiously to represent conceptual categories of ""ethical.""<ref name="":0"" />

Carrier extends commodity fetishism to include [[nature reserves]] because they are advertised and because people are urged to visit the landscapes and animals for a fee. For example, parks in Jamaica show colorful fish and coral growth on pamphlets to attract tourists. These photos fetishize coastal waters by ignoring the other important ecological aspects of the water. In [[Montego Bay|Montego Bay, Jamaica]], environmentalists{{who|date=March 2022}} argue that tourism has damaged the park. Run-off feeds into the waterways and sea-grass beds integral to local nutrient cycles are removed.<ref name="":0"" />

The strategic direction of the consumer's attention further mystifies and fetishizes the object of consumption.{{clarify|reason=what does that even mean?|date=March 2022}} Carrier points out that the moment of [[consumer choice]] is emphasized rather than the context that leads people to seek ethicality.<ref name="":0"" /> He believes that more attention should be paid to how the consumer acquired their moral leanings.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Anti-consumerism]]
* [[Carrying capacity]]
* [[Cause marketing]]
* [[Consumerism]]
* [[Critical consumerism]]
* [[Cultured meat]]
* [[Double-duty dollar]]
* [[Ecologism]]
* [[Ethical banking]]
* [[Ethical eating]]
* [[Ethical investing]]
* [[FIRE movement]]
* [[Fair trade]]
* [[Frugality]]
* [[Green brands]]
* [[Intentional living]]
* {{section link|Leon Sullivan#Selective Patronage Movement}}
* [[Organic food culture]]
* [[Socially responsible investing]]
* [[Sustainable living]]
* [[Veganism]]
* [[Vegetarianism]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Speth|first=James Gustave|title=The Bridge at the End of the World: Capitalism, the Environment, and Crossing from Crisis to Sustainability|year=2008|publisher=Caravan Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Bartley|first=Tim and colleagues|title=Looking Behind the Label: Global Industries and the Conscientious Consumer|year=2015|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]}}

{{Consumerism}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Recycling}}
{{Social accountability}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ethical Consumerism}}
[[Category:Ethical consumerism| ]]
[[Category:Consumer boycotts]]
[[Category:Protectionism]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Category:Sustainability by subject,"{{cat main|Sustainability}}

[[Category:Sustainability| ]]
[[Category:Environment by subject| ]]"
Bibliography of sustainability,"{{Short description|none}}
{{Main|Sustainability}}

This is a '''bibliography of sustainability''' publications.

==Bibliography==
* Atkinson, G., Dietz, S. & Neumayer, E. (2007). ''Handbook of Sustainable Development''. Cheltenham: [[Edward Elgar Publishing]]. {{ISBN|978-1-84376-577-6}}.
* Bartlett, A. (1998). [http://www.hubbertpeak.com/bartlett/reflections.htm Reflections on Sustainability, Population Growth, and the Environment—Revisited] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722224500/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/bartlett/reflections.htm |date=2012-07-22 }} revised version (January 1998) paper first published in ''Population & Environment'' '''16(1)''': 5–35. Retrieved on: 2009-03-12.
* Braungart, M., and W. McDonough (2002). ''Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things''. North Point Press. 
* [[Janine Benyus|Benyus, J.]] (1997). ''Biomimicry: Innovations Inspired by Nature''. New York: [[William Morrow (publisher)|William Morrow]]. {{ISBN|0-06-053322-6}}.
* Blackburn, W.R. (2007). ''The Sustainability Handbook''. London: Earthscan. {{ISBN|978-1-84407-495-2}}.
* [[Robert Costanza|Costanza, R.]], Graumlich, L.J. & Steffen, W. (eds), (2007). ''Sustainability or Collapse? An Integrated History and Future of People on Earth''. Cambridge, MA.: [[MIT Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-262-03366-4}}.
* Edwards, A.R., and B. McKibben (2010). ''Thriving Beyond Sustainability: Pathways to a Resilient Society'', New Society Publishers. 
* [http://www.eoearth.org/ Encyclopedia of Earth]
* Formica, P. (2020). ''Nature's Voice: Health and Humanities'' Chicago: bioGraph. {{ISBN|1951946103}}.
* {{cite book|last1=Komiyama|first1=Hiroshi|last2=Kraines|first2=Steven Benjamin|title=Vision 2050: Roadmap for a Sustainable Earth|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/n1x671/?p=f493b0b03f4d4cc39facd89eecfea21e&pi=1|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121211052550/http://www.springerlink.com/content/n1x671/?p=f493b0b03f4d4cc39facd89eecfea21e&pi=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-12-11|year=2008|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|location=Berlin|isbn=978-4-431-09430-2}}
* Huesemann, M.H., and J.A. Huesemann (2011). ''Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment'', Chapter 6, ""Sustainability or Collapse"", New Society Publishers. 
* Jackson, T. (2011). ''Prosperity without Growth: Economics for a Finite Planet''. Routledge.
* {{Cite book | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= with Magee | first2= Liam | last3= Scerri | first3= Andy | last4= Steger | first4= Manfred B. | title= Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability | url= https://www.academia.edu/9294719 | year= 2015 | publisher= Routledge | location= London}} 
* {{Cite book | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= Nadarajah | first2= Yaso | last3= Haive | first3= Karen | last4= Stead | first4= Victoria | title= Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea | url= https://www.academia.edu/3230875 | year= 2012 | publisher= University of Hawaii Press | location= Honolulu }}
* Li, R.Y.M. (2011). ''Building Our Sustainable Cities''. Illinois: Common Ground Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-86335-834-7}}.
* {{Cite journal | year=2013 |author1=Liam Magee |author2=Andy Scerri |author3=Paul James |author4=James A. Thom |author5=Lin Padgham |author6=Sarah Hickmott |author7=Hepu Deng |author8=Felicity Cahill | title= Reframing social sustainability reporting: Towards an engaged approach | url= https://www.academia.edu/4362669 | journal= Environment, Development and Sustainability | volume= 15 | issue= 1 |pages=225–43 | doi=10.1007/s10668-012-9384-2
|s2cid=153452740 }}
* Norton, B. (2005). ''Sustainability, A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management''. Chicago: The [[University of Chicago Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-226-59521-4}}.
* Rogers, P., K.F. Jalal, and J.A. Boyd (2007). ''An Introduction to Sustainable Development''. Routledge.
* Welford, R. (1997). ''Hijacking Environmentalism: Corporate Responses to Sustainable Development''. Routledge.

[[Category:Sustainability|*]]
[[Category:Lists of publications in science|Sustainability]]"
Category:Sustainability journals,"This category includes peer-reviewed, scholarly journals related to [[sustainability]].

[[Category:Sustainability|Journals]]
[[Category:Environmental science journals]]"
Radical sustainability,"{{Short description|Holistic philosophy of sustainability}}
[[File:Are you reusable bag ready - Target Portland plastic bag ban ordinance (16803680204).jpg|thumb|Laws banning plastic bags are ways to solve core issues of plastic emissions.]]
'''Radical sustainability''' is a movement that recognizes the holistic and integrated nature of [[sustainability]], and according to the 2008 publication ''Toolbox for Radical Sustainable City Living'' by Scott Kellogg and Stacy Pettigrew, its main purpose is focused on the idea of addressing the root issues, versus their resulting symptoms.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book |last=T. |first=Kellogg, Scott |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/213408618 |title=Toolbox for sustainable city living (a do-it-ourselves guide) |date=2008 |publisher=South End Press |isbn=978-0-89608-780-4 |oclc=213408618}}</ref>  Though not a common enough term to be directly mentioned in many organizations or policy, its foundational principles and concepts can be seen in practice across many disciplines such as architecture and design.<ref name="":0"">Hansen, Erik G.; Schaltegger, Stefan (2017-04-19). ""Sustainability Balanced Scorecards and their Architectures: Irrelevant or Misunderstood?"". ''Journal of Business Ethics''. '''150''' (4): 937–952. {{doi|10.1007/s10551-017-3531-5}}. {{ISSN|0167-4544}}</ref><ref name="":2"">Schuler, Timothy A. ""Future100: Student Designers Explore Radical Sustainability"". ''Metropolis''. Retrieved 2022-10-12.</ref> The term is relatively new, appearing in the last one hundred years, though arguments have been made that the concept has existed throughout human history, affecting industry, social systems, and urbanization long before the term existed.<ref name="":6"">Du Pisani, Jacobus A. (2006). ""Sustainable development – historical roots of the concept"". ''Environmental Sciences''. '''3''' (2): 83–96.</ref> In reflection of this, in recent years, theorists of radical sustainability have pointed to recent policies passed in the United States as examples of this movement's principles becoming more mainstream and accepted in modern practices.<ref name="":3"">Romer, Jennie (2010-08-11). ""The Evolution of San Francisco's Plastic-Bag Ban"". ''Golden Gate University Environmental Law Journal''. '''1''' (2).</ref><ref name="":4"">Thompson, Ben (2021-09-28). ""New Austin climate plan would shave decade off city's emissions goal; target racial, economic, environmental equity"". ''impact''. Retrieved 2022-10-13.</ref> The movement is not without its criticism, launching from concern over its potential to incite drastic change in economic and social practices, and the push to enforce this change leading to an oppressive state infringing on personal liberties<ref name="":7"">Johns-Putra, Adeline; Parham, John; Squire, Louise, eds. (2017-03-24). ''Literature and sustainability: Concept, Text and Culture''. Manchester University Press. {{doi|10.2307/j.ctt1wn0s7q.16}}. {{ISBN|978-1-5261-0763-3}}.</ref>

== Definition ==
Radical sustainability recognizes that a system is not sustainable if any part of it is unsustainable. Theorists believe the [[economy]] cannot be sustained if the underlying [[social structure]] is unsustainable, a social structure cannot be sustained if the [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]] it depends upon is unsustainable, and that the environment cannot be sustained unless proper economical and social practices are in place.<ref name="":1"" /> A radical sustainability viewpoint focuses on the inseparability of [[Environmental issues|ecological]] and [[social issues]] and the necessity of ensuring the solution to one problem does not create or worsen another. The radical sustainable philosophy looks at sustainability through a [[Top-down and bottom-up design|bottom-up approach]] – a form of grassroots sustainability. Radical sustainability advocates and supports [[Autonomy|autonomous]] development, [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] movements, [[women's rights]], [[social justice]] and [[Green politics|green]] practices.<ref name="":1"" /> It has begun to appear in political spheres, and policies in certain cities across the United States reflect many of the tenets of the philosophy. It has faced criticism for the drastic changes it demands in personal lifestyles, as well as its potential ramifications on social and economical systems.

Radical sustainability is a movement that recognizes that for a system to be considered truly [[sustainable]], it must aspire to create a world and community that is environmentally sustainable, economically viable, and socially equitable. It shares much of its platform with [[radical environmentalism]] and [[environmental justice]] movements. It focuses on addressing the root cause of unsustainable or inequitable practices – such as [[Capitalist system|capitalist systems]] and [[systemic racism]], rather than addressing what it refers to as the symptoms, citing examples of ineffective practices such as solar panel installation in rural communities and many current marketing strategies employed by corporations and governments alike.<ref name="":1"" /> It pays special attention to the fact that many implemented solutions may worsen others or create new problems, such as the earlier mentioned example of installing solar panels in a rural community. Radical sustainability claims an action such as this, with no plan for future replacement or repair creates a system of dependency on a corporation or government, and contributes to maintaining colonial mindsets.<ref name="":1"" />

== Application ==
The term is often used in reference to [[sustainable architecture]], [[Sustainable design|design]], and [[Sustainable urban planning|urban planning]].<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":2"" /> This subset of radical sustainability is strongly supportive of autonomous development, which is looking to pioneer systems that allow the citizens living within and utilizing these systems control over the basic resources involved such as food and water.<ref name="":0"" /> This group control of necessities is thought to foster communities that are [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] and advance quality and [[social justice]]. Within larger cities, radical sustainability looks to empower citizens to create change and ensure their cities have the capability to provide such necessities as food, clean water, proper sanitation and waste management, and green energy within their jurisdiction. <ref name="":1"" /> Radical sustainable change, due to its intense nature, has a difficult time being implemented in urban environments that contain many moving parts. Several barriers have been documented as contributing to this difficulty. This includes the idea of [[technological lock-in]], or the idea that the more a community gets used to and adapts to a technology, the less willing or likely they are to switch to another, regardless of perceived advantage or upgrades. <ref name="":5"">""Technological Lock-in and the Role of Innovation"". ''Handbook of Sustainable Development''. {{doi|10.4337/9781847205223.00017}}.</ref>  It has roots in economics and the cost of new technology, a trend of aversion to having to learn new technology, and psychology and the uncertainty and perceived distrust of this new technology.<ref name="":5"" /> It also includes institutional inertia, which is simply the resistance of large institutions to change, and has been blamed for slow progress across [[climate change]] and [[Environmental movement|ecological movements]] as seen in the Moore et. al case study in urban sustainability in Australia.<ref>Munck af Rosenschöld, Johan; Rozema, Jaap G.; Frye-Levine, Laura Alex (2014-05-29). ""Institutional inertia and climate change: a review of the new institutionalist literature"". ''Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change''. '''5''' (5): 639–648. {{doi|10.1002/wcc.292}}. {{ISSN|1757-7780}}</ref><ref>Moore, De Haan, Horne, Gleeson. ''Urban Sustainability Transitions : Australian Cases- International Perspectives''. {{ISBN|981-10-4792-8}}. {{OCLC|1109074994}}.</ref>

Radical sustainability can also be seen in business practices and discussions of entrepreneurship and innovation.<ref>""Radical innovation and sustainability"". ''us.milliman.com''. Retrieved 2022-10-12.</ref>  In this context, radical sustainability refers to drastic, expedient changes, often in human systems such as product and service management. It also deals with the responsibility of [[sustainable consumption]], and business practices that can encourage changes in the consumer's behavior, by accessibility, ease, incentive, or other methods. This is in opposition to the argument of the more gradual incremental change, which while typically seen as the easier type of change to accomplish, is also argued by those who believe in radical sustainability as being not enough to combat ecological changes resulting from current business practices. Some theorists go so far as to argue that sticking to incremental change – where many businesses are comfortable – could even be dangerous.<ref name="":8"">Tukker, Arnold; Tischner, Ursula, eds. (2017-09-29). ""New Business for Old Europe"". {{doi|10.4324/9781351280600}}.</ref><ref>''Sustainable innovation and entrepreneurship''. Rolf Wüstenhagen. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. 2008. {{ISBN|978-1-84844-155-2}}. {{OCLC|232661158}}.</ref>

Indirectly, there have been signs of its use in regulation and policy in recent years as well, so argued by Ben Thomson and Jennie Rommer in their discussion of recent United States policies and supported by the foundations of radical sustainability as proposed by Kellogg and Pettigrew.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":3"" />

== Origin ==
The term ''sustainability'' appeared for the first time in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' in the second half of the 20th century. Yet the overall concept of how civilization was impacting the environment can be traced back to a time long before then. The issue surrounding the increasing demand for materials and how this intense need affected the environment can be found throughout history, as early as the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. As society progressed throughout time and the world saw increasing numbers of the Earth's population and advancements in technology, the idea of a radical form of sustainability was created. At its core, the concept of radical sustainability discusses how to be a sustainable system, it must be sustainable across all components, such as ecology, economy, and equity. All parts must be aligned with one another to ensure that the system is functioning. While the origins of the specific term are not concretely known, the addition to this ancient idea is a modern one that has only been coined in recent years.<ref name="":6"" />

== Policy examples ==

=== Austin, Texas ===
One of the most well-known initiatives that the city has incorporated is its [[Climate resilience|climate preparedness]]. The city recognized the effects of a changing climate on its infrastructure and is working to bring awareness to those most impacted by disastrous weather events, the low-income communities. Because of their few resources to combat the changing environment, they are at high risk of being severely affected by climate change. Austin's goal is to reduce emissions locally and bring attention to the concept of climate preparedness in its jurisdiction, which includes changes like upgrading roads and planting trees to offset potential dangers. They believe this will alleviate the risks of a changing environment for those who do not have the financial means to recover from dangerous weather events.<ref name="":4"" />

=== San Francisco, California ===
More specifically, the city is known for its initiative to ban the use of plastic bags. It was the first American city to incorporate a [[plastic bag ban]] and encouraged members of the community to use alternative options like reusable totes. Compostable bags also became widely used, which aided in the mission of limiting plastic as they are created from materials that have been recycled. Because of these efforts, the city has restricted around 1.6 million tons of waste from their landfills per year.<ref name="":3"" />

== Reception and criticism ==
The movement of radical sustainability has both supporters of the movement along with critics. There are those who note that radical sustainability is accepted as a general vision, indicating a complex process once it is translated to specific goals.<ref name="":8"" /> Those who believe in the concept acknowledge that implementing radical sustainability would mean significant changes in lifestyle for people of the area. For example, ideas like consolidating land use and using more [[Self-sustainability|self-sustaining]] technologies are prevalent ideals to supporters; however, they acknowledge that these modifications would alter the future of what day-to-day life would look like. Yet, their mission in this movement is to create a more sustainable environment, and they recognize the success of the campaign relies on confronting the already present power of political and economic interests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hester |first=Randolph T. |last2=Blazej |first2=Nova J. |last3=Moore |first3=Ian S. |date=1999 |title=Whose Wild? Resolving Cultural and Biological Diversity Conflicts in Urban Wilderness |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3368/lj.18.2.137 |journal=Landscape Journal |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=137–146 |doi=10.3368/lj.18.2.137 |issn=0277-2426}}</ref>

Critics of the radical sustainability movement oppose those who support the notion's more optimistic approach. The concerns lie with the ramifications that imposing these new alterations would have on society from an economic and political perspective. Critics have claimed that utilizing sustainable techniques by means of enforcing changes to society as it currently stands enables ""risk, irony and [[jouissance]].""<ref name="":7"" />

==See also==
* [[Interdependence]]
* [[Green economy]]
* [[Ecological economics]]
* [[Eco-socialism]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainability]]"
The Karlskrona Manifesto,"{{more citations needed|date=June 2019}}

{{Infobox organization
| name = The Karlskrona Manifesto for Sustainability Design
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| key_people = [[Christoph Becker]]<br>Ruzanna Chitchyan<br>Leticia Duboc<br>Steve Easterbrook<br>Martin Mahaux<br>[[Birgit Penzenstadler]]<br>Guillermo Rodríguez-Navas<br>Camille Salinesi<br>Norbert Seyff<br>Colin C. Venters
| website = 
| remarks = 
}}

'''The Karlskrona Manifesto'''<ref>{{Cite book |doi=10.1109/ICSE.2015.179|isbn=9781479919345|chapter=Sustainability Design and Software: The Karlskrona Manifesto|title=2015 IEEE/ACM 37th IEEE International Conference on Software Engineering|pages=467–476|year=2015|last1=Becker|first1=Christoph|last2=Chitchyan|first2=Ruzanna|last3=Duboc|first3=Leticia|last4=Easterbrook|first4=Steve|last5=Penzenstadler|first5=Birgit|last6=Seyff|first6=Norbert|last7=Venters|first7=Colin C.|s2cid=14777274 |chapter-url=http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/23424/1/sustainability-design-software-4.pdf}}</ref> for [[sustainability]] design in software was created as an output of the Third International Workshop on Requirements Engineering for Sustainable Systems (RE4SuSy) held in [[Karlskrona, Sweden]], co-located with the 22nd [[IEEE]] International Requirements Engineering Conference (RE'14). The manifesto arose from a suggestion in the paper by [[Christoph Becker]], ""Sustainability and Longevity: Two Sides of the Same Quality?"" that sustainability is a common ground for several disciplines related to software, but that this commonality had not been mapped out and made explicit and that a focal point of reference would be beneficial.

The Karlskrona Manifesto can be split into nine principles:

# Sustainability is never isolated and can also be looked at globally. 
# Sustainability has multiple dimensions, so it is necessary to define which dimension is being looked at during analysis.
# Sustainability is multidisciplinary and requires multiple perspectives.
# When looking at sustainability, this should be done independently of the focus of the system. 
# Sustainability can be assessed by the system itself and how the system fits into the larger system.
# System status at different levels of usage is important for responsible decisions to be made with sustainable design.
# Identify the most effective way to be sustainable over alternative options at different levels to ensure the most sustainable choice is being made.
# The current generation shouldn't be compromised, however meeting the needs of the future generations is necessary when evaluating the most sustainable choice.
# Assessing software over a long term and consider decisions with this in mind.

These principles were later made into a catalogue to support software sustainable design.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oyedeji |first1=Shola |last2=Seffah |first2=Ahmed |last3=Penzenstadler |first3=Birgit |date=July 2018 |title=A Catalogue Supporting Software Sustainability Design |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=2296 |doi=10.3390/su10072296 |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==External links==
* [https://archive.today/20140828150016/http://www.ics.uci.edu/~bpenzens/2014re4susy/ Third International Workshop on Requirements Engineering for Sustainable Systems (RE4SuSy)]
* [http://webhotel.bth.se/re14/ 22nd IEEE International Requirements Engineering Conference (RE'14)]
* [http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1216/ Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Requirements Engineering for Sustainable Systems]
* [http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1216/paper1.pdf Christoph Becker, Sustainability and Longevity: Two Sides of the Same Quality?]
* [https://arxiv.org/abs/1410.6968 Christoph Becker, Ruzanna Chitchyan, Leticia Duboc, Steve Easterbrook, Martin Mahaux, Birgit Penzenstadler, Guillermo Rodriguez-Navas, Camille Salinesi, Norbert Seyff, Colin Venters, Coral Calero, Sedef Akinli Kocak, Stefanie Betz, The Karlskrona manifesto for sustainability design]
* [http://sustainabilitydesign.org/ Karlskrona Manifesto for Sustainability Design Official site]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Karlskrona Manifesto, The}}
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Software design]]


{{sustainability-stub}}"
Ecological debt,"{{Short description|Environmental debt between Global North and South}}
[[File:EarthOvershootDay Countries.png|alt=World map coloured according to the number of days each country takes to exhaust the resources it produces in the same year (green-high to red-low).|thumb|upright=1.85|The Global North consumption is higher than its production (shown by the red color), while the Global South produces more than consumes (green color). The resource proportion between consumption and production relates to the amount of environmental degradation.]]
'''Ecological debt''' refers to the accumulated [[debt]] seen by some campaigners as owed by the [[Global North and Global South|Global North]] to [[Global North and Global South#Uses of the term Global South|Global South]] countries, due to the net sum of historical [[environmental injustice]], especially through [[resource exploitation]], [[habitat degradation]], and [[pollution]] by [[waste]] discharge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Warlenius |first1=Rikard |last2=Pierce |first2=Gregory |last3=Ramasar |first3=Vasna |date=2015-01-01 |title=Reversing the arrow of arrears: The concept of ""ecological debt"" and its value for environmental justice |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378014001812 |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=30 |pages=21–30 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.10.014 |issn=0959-3780}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Donoso|first=A.|date=2015|title=We are not debtors, we are creditors. In: Bravo, E., & Yánez, I. (Eds.), No more looting and destruction! We the peoples of the south are ecological creditors|journal=Southern Peoples Ecological Debt Creditors Alliance (SPEDCA)}}</ref> The concept was coined by Global Southerner [[non-governmental organization]]s in the [[1990s]] and its definition has varied over the years, in several attempts of greater specification.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paredis |first=Erik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X01-m72T6XcC&dq=ecological+debt&pg=PR9 |title=The Concept of Ecological Debt: Its Meaning and Applicability in International Policy |date=2009 |publisher=Academia Press |isbn=978-90-382-1341-5 |language=en}}</ref>

Within the ecological debt broad definition, there are two main aspects: the [[environmental degradation|ecological damage]] caused over time by a country in one or other countries or to [[ecosystem]]s beyond national jurisdiction through its production and consumption patterns; and the exploitation or use of ecosystems over time by a country at the expense of the [[equitable right]]s to these ecosystems by other countries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ecological debt|url=http://www.ejolt.org/2013/05/ecological-debt/|access-date=2020-10-07|language=en}}</ref>

==  History ==
The term 'ecological debt' first appeared on paper in 1985, in a yellow booklet with the title “Women in movement"" made by the German ecofeminist [[c:Category:Eva Quistorp|Eva Quistorp]] and edited by the [[Green Party (Germany)|Green Party]] in Germany in 1985. The work was intended to be used for a workshop she gave on 'women, peace and ecology' in [[Nairobi]] during the [[UN Women|United Nation Women’s Conference]] (the first workshop of this kind).

In 1992, the term appeared again in two reports published in different places around the world: “''Deuda ecológica''” by Robleto and Marcelo in [[Chile]] and “''Miljöskulden''” by Jernelöv in [[Sweden]].<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last=Warlenius, R., Pierce, G., Ramasar, V., Quistorp, E., Martínez-Alier, J., Rijnhout, L., Yanez, I.|date=2015|title=Ecological debt. History, meaning and relevance for environmental justice|journal=EJOLT Report|volume=18|pages=48}}</ref> Robleto and Marcelo's report, published by the critical NGO ''[https://iepe.org Instituto de Ecologia Politica]'' (IEP),<ref>{{Cite book|title=La deuda ecológica. Una perspectiva sociopolítica|last=Robleto M.L., Marcelo W.|publisher=Instituto Ecología Política (IEP)|year=1992|location=Santiago de Chile}}</ref> was a political and activist response to the global environmental negotiations happening during the Rio Summit. It shed light on the debate occurring in Latin America since the 1980s about the crucial nature's heritage that had been consumed and not returned (i.e. ecological debt). On the other hand, Jernelöv's report goal was to calculate the Swedish debt for [[future generations]] and was intended to serve nationally for the [[Environmental Protection Agency (Sweden)|Swedish Environmental Advisory]]. Although the last one had less world-wide influence in the concept's debate, it is important to note that both reports have opposite approach in considering the ecological debt: Robleto and Marcelo's report expresses it in symbolic terms, focusing on the moral and political aspects, whereas Jernelöv's report tries to quantify and monetize it in economic terms.[[File:Klimaforum09 closing ceremony wahu kaara.jpg|thumb|Wahu Kaara ([[Global justice]] activist / Kenya Debt Relief Network) spoke at the closing ceremony of Klimaforum09 - People's Climate Summit in Copenhagen December 2009.]]In 1994, the Colombian lawyer [[Misael Pastrana Borrero|Borrero]], wrote a book on ecological debt.<ref>{{Cite book|title=La deuda ecológica. Testimonio de una reflexión|last=Borrero Navia|first=J.|publisher=Fipma y Cela|year=1994|location=Cali}}</ref> It referred to the environmental liabilities of Northern countries for the excessive per capita production of greenhouse gases, historically and at present. The concept has then been reused by some [[environmental organization]]s from the [[Global south|Global South]]. Campaigns on the ecological debt were launched since 1997 by [[Accion Ecologica]] of [[Ecuador]] and [[Friends of the Earth]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.deudaecologica.org/|title=Deuda Ecologica|date=2018|website=Deuda Ecologica|language=es|access-date=2018-02-28|archive-date=2019-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508080613/http://www.deudaecologica.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Overall, the ecological debt 'movement' was born of the convergence of three main factors during the 80s-90s: 1) the consequences of the debt crisis in the 70s due to the [[Volcker shock]]s or the drastic increase of interest rates (followed by [[structural adjustment]]s made by the US to solve the [[stagflation]] in 1981, and thus putting heavily indebted third world countries in an impossible situation in regards to debt repayment); 2) the rising of environmental awareness as seen previously (activists and NGOs attending the [[Rio Summit]] in 1992); 3) an increase in recognition of the violence caused by [[colonialism]] over the years <ref name=""salleh"" /> (the demand of recognition is over 500 years, since [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] arrived in [[North America]]).

In 2009, [[Ecofeminism|ecofeminist]] scholar [[Ariel Salleh]] explained how the [[capitalist]] processes at work in the global North [[Exploitation of natural resources|exploit nature]] and [[Exploitation of labour|people]] simultaneously, ultimately sustaining a large ecological debt in her article, ""Ecological Debt: Embodied Debt"".<ref name=""salleh"" /> At the 1992 [[Rio Earth Summit]], politicians and corporate leaders from the global North introduced the supposed solution for the [[foreign debt]] crisis in the global South.<ref name=""salleh"" /> They proposed 'debt for nature swaps', which essentially means that those countries that possess abundant [[biodiversity]] and [[natural resource|environmental resource]]s would give them up to the global North in return for the [[World Bank]] reducing their debt.<ref name=""salleh"" />

Feminist [[environmentalist]]s, Indigenous activists, and peasants from the Global South, exposed how the Global North is much more indebted to the Global South.<ref name=""salleh"" /> Salleh justified this by explaining how the 500-year-long colonization process involving the extraction of resources has caused immense damage and destruction to the ecosystem of the [[Global South]].<ref name=""salleh"" /> In fact, scientists at the US National [[Academy for Science and Design|Academy for Sciences]] state that in the time period of 1961–2000, by analyzing the cost of [[greenhouse gas emissions]] created by the rich (the Global North) alone, it has become apparent that the rich have imposed climate changes on the poor that greatly outweigh the poor's foreign debt.<ref name=""srinivasan"">{{cite journal|author=U. Thara Srinivasan|display-authors=etal|year=2008|title=The debt of nations and the distribution of ecological impacts from human activities|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]|volume=105|issue=5|pages=1768–1773|doi=10.1073/pnas.0709562104|pmc=2234219|pmid=18212119|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.1768S|doi-access=free}}</ref> All of this [[environmental degradation]] amounts to ecological debt, seizing the people's livelihood resources in the Global South.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rice|first=James|date=March 2009|title=North—South Relations and the Ecological Debt: Asserting a Counter-Hegemonic Discourse|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0896920508099193|journal=Critical Sociology|language=en|volume=35|issue=2|pages=225–252|doi=10.1177/0896920508099193|s2cid=145372698|issn=0896-9205}}</ref>

In 2009 as well, [[Andrew Simms]] used the ecological debt in a more bio-physical way and defined it as the consumption of resources from within an ecosystem that exceeds the system's regenerative capacity.<ref>Andrew Simms. ''Ecological Debt: The Health of the Planet & the Wealth of Nations.'' (London: [[Pluto Press]], 2009) p.200.</ref> This is seen in particular in [[non-renewable resource]]s wherein consumption outstrips production. In a general sense in his work, it refers to the depletion of global resources beyond the Earth's ability to regenerate them.</ref> Andrew Simms. The concept in this sense is based on the bio-physical [[carrying capacity]] of an ecosystem; through measuring [[ecological footprints]] human society can determine the rate at which it is depleting natural resources. Recent writings have highlighted the ubiquity of ecological debts, such as to [https://californiawaterblog.com/2023/06/11/facing-the-dragon-californias-nasty-ecological-debts/ Pacific salmon populations, groundwater and polluted waterways]. Ultimately, the imperative of [[sustainability]] requires human society to live within the means of the ecological system to support life over the long term. Ecological debt is a feature of unsustainable economic systems.

== Political dimension ==

=== Historical context ===
There have been several debates around the notion of ecological debt, and this is mostly because the concept arises from various social movements in response to the distributional injustice of climate change's consequences on the environment and people's livelihood.

Salleh, in particular, showed how the ecological debt manifested in the destruction of the environment and associated climate change the North has created is made possible through the process of [[Modernization theory|modernization]] and [[capitalism]].<ref name=""salleh"">Salleh, A. (2009). Ecological debt: embodied debt. Eco-Sufficiency and Global Justice. London: Pluto Press.</ref> The rise of the nature-culture divide that emerged due to rapid [[industrialisation]] is a perfect illustration of a human-nature dualism in which [[human being]] has the central role above everything else. The notion of humans being embedded in the ecosystem that they live in is crucial to the discipline of [[political ecology]].<ref name=""salleh"" />

In political ecology, which reconnects nature and the economy, ecological debt is crucial because it recognizes that colonization has not only resulted in a loss of culture, way of life, and language for [[Indigenous peoples]], but it has shaped the [[world economy]] into one that [[monetization|monetizes]] and [[commodification|commodifies]] the environment.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chapter 3: Habitation versus Improvement. In The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time|last=Polanyi|first=Karl|publisher=Boston: Beacon Press|year=1944|pages=35–44}}</ref> For example, when the [[Colonization of south america|colonization of South America]] occurred over 500 years ago, European settlers brought with them their [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]] values, seeing themselves as better than and therefore entitled to the [[Indigenous Knowledge|Indigenous people's knowledge]] and the land they lived on. In a perceived [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial world]], large corporations and Western governments tend to present solutions to global warming by [[commodification of nature|commodifying nature]] and hoping to make a profit out of it.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makki|first=Fouad|date=2014|title=Development by Dispossession: Terra Nullius and the Social-Ecology of New Enclosures in Ethiopia|journal=Rural Sociology|volume=79| issue = 1|pages=79–103|doi=10.1111/ruso.12033}}</ref> This better-than-thou attitude has created the conditions for [[global warming]] to occur, making the North’s [[ecological footprint]] soar,<ref>Seager, J. (2009). The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World (4th ed.). New York, NY: Penguin.</ref> while also constructing an ecological debt so large as to completely rid the entire Global South of their [[Debt|financial debt]].

During the [[Rio Earth Summit]] in 1992, attending [[NGOs]] created the Debt Treaty, a document gathering all information to better define the ecological debt concept. They demanded compensation for damages over 500 years (1992 is exactly 500 years after the arrival of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] in North America). The countries in question were given options from the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Money Fund]] a choice to defaulting on these debts or make structural adjustments to continue to receive further funding.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Reversing the arrow of arrears: The concept of ""ecological debt"" and its value for environmental justice|last=Warlenius|first=Rikard|publisher=Global Environmental Change|year=2014|pages=22}}</ref>  It was the first push back, reversing the stream, but it stayed as a draft paper not recognized by international institutions or lead countries at that time.
[[File:ActionAid1.jpg|thumb|Copenhagen Climate Summit in 2009 - Action Aid demonstration]]

=== Today ===
In the 2000s, two networks were created and still exist today: the [http://www.socioeco.org/bdf_organisme-56_en.html Southern Peoples Ecological Debt Creditors Alliance (SPEDCA)] which is a network of [[creditor]]s that launched a campaign for the recognition of ecological debt, and the European Network for the Recognition of Ecological Debt (ENRED) which is a network of [[debtor]]s.

During the [[Conference of the parties|COP]] in Copenhagen in December 2009, some governments from developing countries or countries most [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]] consequences (such as Bolivia, Mauritania, Chad, or island countries as Maldives or Haiti) have argued that the principle of shared responsibility demands that rich nations or [[developed economies]] (such as the United States, some European countries, China) go beyond donations or adaptation [[Debits and credits|credits]] and make reparations that recognize an ecological debt for excessive [[pollution]] over several decades. The top United States ambassador, [[Todd Stern]], flatly rejected arguments by diplomats from these countries that the United States owed such a debt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/06/weekinreview/06zeller.html|title=Negotiators at Climate Talks Face Deep Set of Fault Lines|last=Zeller Jr.|first=Tom|date=December 5, 2009|website=New York Times|access-date=February 22, 2018}}</ref>

The [[COP 21]] in Paris brought minor progress with an increase in financial aid for developing countries. Although the goal was to prepare future action to be undertaken for adapting to climate change and consider loss and damages (especially [[displaced people]]) of some countries, no real action was adopted. There were no recognition of responsibilities but recommendations only.

==  Calculations ==

=== Climate debt ===
When discussing ecological debt, [[climate debt]] appears to be the only example of a scientific attempt to quantify the debt. It incorporates two different elements: the [[Climate debt|adaptation debt]] which is the cost to communities of adapting to [[climate damage]]s they are not responsible for, and the consumption debt or emission's debt which is compensation due for emitting carbon in the present time. Emission debts should hypothetically be paid for by those countries that have over-emitted their fair-share of emissions. To determine this debt, an emissions or [[Emissions budget|carbon budget]] can and is calculated, and distributed among countries.

=== Calculations ===
Academic work on calculations of the ecological debt came later. An article published in 2008 looked at the distribution of [[Environmental issue|ecological impacts]] for various human activities.<ref name=""srinivasan"" /> Studies were also produced at regional level within countries, for instance for Orissa in [[India]].<ref>S. Khatua and W. Stanley, ""Ecological Debt: a case study from Orissa, India"" (2006) [http://www.deudaecologica.org/publicaciones/Chapter5(125-168).pdf]</ref>

As seen previously, calculation of the ecological debt implies various aspects related to [[political ecology]]. While calculating the amount of emissions, some scholars have disregard inequalities of emissions from the past whereas others have considered historical accountability. In addition, there is a connection between ecological issues and the economy due to the value natural resources have and the important role they play in benefiting our economy.<ref>{{Citation |last=Wessell |first=Kelly J. |title=Ecological Debt and the Holistic Value of Nature |date=2022 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96355-2_4 |work=Care, Climate, and Debt: Transdisciplinary Problems and Possibilities |pages=49–72 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Benjamin C. |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-96355-2_4 |isbn=978-3-030-96355-2 |access-date=2022-10-24}}</ref>

In 2000, Neumayer calculated what he named the 'historical emissions debt', consisting on the difference in emissions of actual historical emissions (from a specific date in the past) and equal per-capita emissions (current emissions).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neumayer|first=E.|date=2000|title=In defence of historical accountability for greenhouse gas emissions|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/18906/1/__Libfile_repository_Content_Neumayer%2C%20E_In%20defense%20of%20historical%20accountability%20for%20greenhouse%20gas%20emissions_In%20defense%20of%20historical%20accountability%20for%20greenhouse%20gas%20emissions%20%28LSE%20RO%29.pdf|journal=Ecol. Econ.|volume=33|issue=2|pages=185–192|doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00135-X|s2cid=154625649}}</ref>

Theoretically, it may be possible to put a money value on ecological debt by calculating the value of the environmental and social [[Externality|externalities]] associated with historic resource extraction and adding an estimated value for the share of global [[Pollution|pollution problems]] borne by poor countries as the result of higher consumption levels in rich ones.<ref name=""srinivasan"" /> This includes efforts to value the [[external costs]] associated with climate change.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last=Goeminne, G. & Paredis, E.|date=2010|title=The concept of ecological debt: Some steps towards an enriched sustainability paradigm|journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability|volume=12|issue=5|pages=691–712|doi=10.1007/s10668-009-9219-y|s2cid=154241874}}</ref>

In 2015, Matthews proposed a method to calculate the ecological debt, by looking at the accumulated `carbon debts' for each country.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last=Matthews|first=Damon|date=September 2015|title=Quantifying Historical Carbon and Climate Debts among Nations|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=6|pages=60–64|doi=10.1038/nclimate2774|bibcode=2016NatCC...6...60M}}</ref> The model uses historical estimates of [[Fossil fuel emissions|national fossil fuel CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Le Quéré, C.|display-authors=etal|date=2015|title=Global Carbon Budget 2014|journal=Earth System Science Data|volume=7| issue = 1|pages=47–85|doi=10.5194/essd-7-47-2015|bibcode=2015ESSD....7...47L|doi-access=free|hdl=1871.1/0def6242-391e-40da-b5fb-eb620bdab9ac|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and [[population]] and this since 1960. Furthermore, it runs a comparison between [[temperature]] changes each year by each country's emissions compared to a proportional temperature change of each country's share of the world population (this same year). This gives the accumulated credits and debts related to a larger range of emissions and the 'climate debts' obtained would be the difference between the actual temperature change (caused by each country) and their [[Per capita|per-capita]] share of global temperature change.<ref name="":0"" />

Other scholars have proposed a different approach, a `modified equal shares' approach, that would consider each country's [[basic needs]] and would weight each ones' share of emissions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Vanderheiden|first=S.|date=2008|title=Atmospheric Justice: A Political Theory of Climate Change|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199733125}}</ref> However, this approach brings potential [[Ethics|ethical]] and political difficulties to quantitatively defining what would thus be the equal shares.

== Key debates ==
Although some recent emerging countries have participated in the increase of [[carbon emissions]], the situation tend to stay uneven in-between developing and developed countries<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Matthews, H., Graham, T., Keverian, S., Lamontagne, C., Seto, D., & Smith, T.|date=2014|title=National contributions to observed global warming|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=9| issue = 1|pages=014010|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/9/1/014010|bibcode=2014ERL.....9a4010D|doi-access=free}}</ref> regarding who is affected the most versus who pollutes the most.

Recent studies on ecological debt focus more on sub-topics as the notion of historical responsibility<ref name="":1"" /> (whether or not a country is considered ethically responsible or accountable for carbon emissions prior 1990, i.e. when global warming was universally recognized), the components of [[climate debt]] (see above sections), the difficulties in deciding when to start counting past emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fridahl, M., Friman, M., & Strandberg, G.|date=2014|title=Historical responsibility for climate change: science and the science-policy interface|url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-104040|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change|volume=5|issue=3|pages=297–316|doi=10.1002/wcc.270|s2cid=46996496 }}</ref> and if this debate is slowing the implementation of programs or the legal and political consecration of the debt through treaties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martinez-Alier|first=J.|date=2002|title=Ecological debt and property rights on carbon sinks and reservoirs|journal=Capitalism Nature Socialism|volume=13|issue=1|pages=115–119|doi=10.1080/104557502101245404|s2cid=154314395}}</ref>

Present key debates focus on how is the debt going to be paid back. First, some academia have pushed for financial [[debt cancellation]] rather than being paid for ecological damages and then paying back the country's national financial debt. However, financial debts were not even agree by people (in developing countries especially) in the first place, calling it the unfair ""[[Volcker Rule|Volcker]] debt"". Accepting this option could hold the risk of giving legitimize credits to these financial debts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thecritique.com/ojaRg/articles/ecological-debt-versus-financial-debt-in-the-african-context/|title=Ecological Debt Versus Financial Debt In The African Context|last=Ngosso|first=Thierry|date=2016|website=The Critique|access-date=February 27, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228181934/http://www.thecritique.com/ojaRg/articles/ecological-debt-versus-financial-debt-in-the-african-context/|archive-date=February 28, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> A second solution proposed is the [[Basic income guarantee|Basic Income Guarantee]] (BIG) or the universal basic income. It consists on regular cash payments to everyone in a community (or country) and has proven a certain efficacy in some places around the world (like Namibia).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/a-new-approach-to-aid-how-a-basic-income-program-saved-a-namibian-village-a-642310.html|title=A New Approach to Aid: How a Basic Income Program Saved a Namibian Village|last=Krahe|first=Dialika|date=2009-08-10|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=2018-02-28}}</ref>

Another debate addresses the fact that the ecological debt risks “commodifying nature” is exhausting ecosystem services. Researchers have tackled this risk by showing how it will expand the inclination of objectifying, monetizing and ultimately commodifying nature.<ref name="":1"" /> Moreover, the language of debt, repayments, credits and so forth is understood in Northern countries mostly, and is mostly focused on recognition of wrongdoing but not payment for loss of services for instance.<ref name="":1"" />

== Resources ==

===Books===
*[https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/0745324045 Ecological debt: the health of the planet and the wealth of nations], [[Andrew Simms]], Pluto books, 2005
*Larkin, Amy (2013). ''Environmental Debt: The Hidden Costs of a Changing Global Economy '' {{ISBN|9781137278555}}

===Reports===
*[https://www.academia.edu/10316481/Ecological_debt._History_meaning_and_relevance_for_environmental_justice Ecological debt. History, meaning and relevance for environmental justice, Warlenius, R. et al., 2015]
*{{cite journal|author=J. Timmons Roberts and Bradley C. Parks|year=2009|title=Ecologically Unequal Exchange, Ecological Debt, and Climate Justice: The History and Implications of Three Related Ideas for a New Social Movement|journal=International Journal of Comparative Sociology|volume=50|issue=3–4|pages=381–408|doi=10.1177/0020715209105147|s2cid=143911217}}
*{{cite journal|author=James Rice|year=2009|title= North-South Relations and the Ecological Debt: Asserting a Counter-Hegemonic Discourse|journal= Critical Sociology |volume=35|issue=2|pages=225–252|doi=10.1177/0896920508099193|s2cid=145372698 }}
*[http://www.ohlj.ca/english/specissues_4312.htmLeading Towards a Level Playing Field, Repaying Ecological Debt, or Making Environmental Space: Three Stories about International Environmental Cooperation, Osgoode Hall Law Journal,2005, VOL 43; NUMB 1/2, pages 137-170]{{Dead link|date=August 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120425075237/http://www.cdo.ugent.be/publicaties/005.ecodebt_report_presentation.pdf Elaboration of the concept of ecological debt, Centre for Sustainable Development, Ghent University, 2004]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060713033126/http://www.foe-scotland.org.uk/pubs/pubs_index.html Credit Where it's Due: The Ecological Debt Education Project, Friends of the Earth Scotland, 2003]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050120144011/http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC7216.htm Who owes who?: Climate change, debt, equity and survival, Christian Aid, 1999]

==See also==
*[[Carbon footprint]]
*[[Carrying capacity]]
*[[Ecological economics]]
*[[Ecological footprint]]
*[[Environmental racism]]
*[[Green imperialism]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217234021/http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=overshoot Global Footprint Network - Ecological Debt Day]
* [http://www.neweconomics.org/gen/ecologicaldebt091006.aspx New Economics Foundation - Ecological Debt Day]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071227101642/http://www.enredeurope.org/principal.htm European Network for the recognition of the Ecological Debt]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081010001434/http://www.worldsummit2002.org/index.htm?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldsummit2002.org%2Fissues%2Fecodebt.htm World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 - Ecological Debt]
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[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Global environmental issues]]"
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[[Category:Sustainability| Country]]
[[Category:Environment by country| Sustainability]]
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[[Category:Sustainability| Continent]]
[[Category:Environment by continent| ]]
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Cornucopianism,"{{Short description|Ideological position in futurism}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2021}}
'''Cornucopianism''' is the idea that continued progress and provision of material items for mankind can be met by similarly continued advances in technology. It relies on the belief that there is enough matter and energy on the Earth to provide for the population of the world, which appears adequate to give humanity almost unlimited room for growth.{{clarify|is it unlimited or ""almost"" unlimited which is another way of saying ""limited""|date=June 2022}}

The term comes from the [[cornucopia]], the ""horn of plenty"" of [[Greek mythology]], which magically supplied its owners with endless food and drinks.  Adherents are called ""cornucopians"" or sometimes ""boomsters,"" in contrast to [[doomer]]s, whose views are more aligned with [[Malthusianism]].""<ref name=""Tierney"">{{cite news |last1=Tierney |first1=John |title=Betting on the Planet |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/02/magazine/betting-on-the-planet-505690.html |work=The New York Times |date=2 December 1990 }}</ref>

==Theory==
{{Quotation|""When civilization [population] increases, the available labor again increases. In turn, luxury again increases in correspondence with the increasing profit, and the customs and needs of luxury increase. Crafts are created to obtain luxury products. The value realized from them increases, and, as a result, profits are again multiplied in them. Production there is thriving even more than before. And so it goes with the second and third increase. All the additional labor serves luxury and wealth, in contrast to the original labor that served the necessity of life."" — [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406), from [[Muqaddimah]]<ref>[[Ibn Khaldun]], ''[[Muqaddimah]]'', 2:272-73, quoted in {{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Dieter |title=Ibn Khaldun on Economic Transformation |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |date=1995 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=29–37 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800061560 |jstor=176185 }} [30].</ref>}}

As a society becomes more wealthy, it also creates a well-developed set of legal rules to produce the conditions of freedom and security that progress requires.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

In ''[[Progress and Poverty]]'' written in 1879, after describing the powerful reproductive forces of nature, the political economist [[Henry George]] wrote, ""That the earth could maintain a thousand billions of people as easily as a thousand millions is a necessary deduction from the manifest truths that, at least so far as our agency is concerned, matter is eternal and force must forever continue to act.""<ref>{{cite book |last1=George |first1=Henry |title=Progress and Poverty, Volumes I and IIAn Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial Depressions and of Increase of Want with Increase of Wealth |date=1898 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55308 }}{{page needed|date=July 2022}}</ref>

[[Julian Simon]] was one of the best known cornucopian thinkers in modern times who suggested in his book, ''[[The Ultimate Resource]]'', published in 1981, that humans have always found a way in the past to develop and enhance past resources over virtually any roadblock. He suggested that while resources may come and go, the knowledge that can come from a bigger population, and thus more manpower/intellect, humanity would continuously be able to find newer sources of energy. Simon did argue however that in order for humans to seek innovation and new sources of energy, free markets must be present to place value on sources of energy through their price to produce and use. Once the price of a certain resource become too high due to lack of supply, it would encourage new research into alternative sources to seek cheaper energy. <ref>{{Cite book|title=An Introduction to Human-Environment Geography: local dynamics and global process|last=Moseley|first=William|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4051-8931-6|location=|pages=240-241}}</ref>

==Description by an opposing view==

Stereotypically, a cornucopian is someone who posits that there are few intractable natural limits to growth and believes the world can provide a practically limitless abundance of natural resources.  The label 'cornucopian' is rarely self-applied, and is most commonly used derogatorily by those who believe that the target is overly optimistic about the resources that will be available in the future.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

One common example of this labeling is by those who are skeptical of the view that technology can solve, or overcome, the problem of an [[population growth|exponentially-increasing human population]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/human_pop/human_pop.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724101452/http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/human_pop/human_pop.html |archive-date=July 24, 2011 |title=Population Growth over Human History |publisher=University of Michigan}}</ref> living off a finite base of natural resources.  Cornucopians might counter that human [[population growth]] has slowed dramatically, and not only is currently growing at a linear rate,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/worldpop.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017032423/http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/worldpop.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2007 |title=International Data Base (IDB): Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950–2050 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau }}</ref> but is projected to peak and start declining in the second half of the 21st century.<ref name=""UN"">[https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/longrange2/WorldPop2300final.pdf World population to 2300] United Nations; Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2004</ref> However, more recent projections have the global population rising to 11&nbsp;billion by 2100 with continued growth into the next century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerland |first1=Patrick |last2=Raftery |first2=Adrian E. |last3=Ševčíková |first3=Hana |last4=Li |first4=Nan |last5=Gu |first5=Danan |last6=Spoorenberg |first6=Thomas |last7=Alkema |first7=Leontine |last8=Fosdick |first8=Bailey K. |last9=Chunn |first9=Jennifer |last10=Lalic |first10=Nevena |last11=Bay |first11=Guiomar |last12=Buettner |first12=Thomas |last13=Heilig |first13=Gerhard K. |last14=Wilmoth |first14=John |title=World population stabilization unlikely this century |journal=Science |date=10 October 2014 |volume=346 |issue=6206 |pages=234–237 |doi=10.1126/science.1257469 |pmid=25301627 |pmc=4230924 |bibcode=2014Sci...346..234G }}</ref> Furthermore, it always has in the past, even when population was increasing at a far faster rate.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}}

==Criticism==
Lindsey Grant accuses cornucopians, especially [[Julian Simon]] and [[Herman Kahn]], of making arguments with logical flaws, omissions and oversights and of making assumptions and choosing methodologies that ignore or dismiss the most critical issues.<ref>[https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED228033 The Cornucopian Fallacies. TEF Reports.] by Lindsey Grant</ref> Historian of science [[Naomi Oreskes]] criticized cornucopianism, arguing that while there were technological innovations to increase agricultural productivity for a growing world, ""the cornucopian perspective ignores other important facts"", such as that ""an enormous number of these inventions"" such as gains in health and life expectancy, ""came into being through government actions"", and arguing that ""technological progress has not stopped the unfolding climate crisis.""<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/eight-billion-people-in-the-world-is-a-crisis-not-an-achievement/# |title= Eight Billion People in the World Is a Crisis, Not an Achievement |last=Oreskes |first=Naomi |date=March 1, 2023 |website=Scientific American |publisher=Springer Nature |access-date=April 3, 2023 |quote=This argument is a retread of a theoretical framework that was named cornucopianism in the 1980s. Cornucopians, led by economist Julian Simon and military strategist Herman Kahn, argued that anxiety over limited natural resources is misguided because human ingenuity can overcome any limits. Let populations grow alongside markets operating under minimal government constraints, and people will invent solutions to whatever problems they face. It's true that technological innovations in the 19th and 20th centuries created more agricultural productivity—enough to feed much of a growing population. But the cornucopian perspective ignores other important facts. For instance, an enormous number of these inventions came into being through government actions. From the canals and railroads of the 19th century to the interstate highways and Internet of the 20th, most large-scale technological achievements have relied, at least in part, on government initiatives and support. Big gains in health and life expectancy stemmed from state investments in scientific research and public health. In the early 21st century the price of renewable solar energy fell dramatically, largely because of state-funded research and policies to help ensure demand. And although much of our population grew healthily in the 20th century, hundreds of millions died in famines, pandemics and wars. Scientists have been warning us about the risks of anthropogenic climate disruption since the 1950s, but technological progress has not stopped the unfolding climate crisis.}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Ibn Khaldun]]
*[[Albert Allen Bartlett]]
*[[Candide]]
*[[William R. Catton Jr.]]
*[[Food security]]
*[[Jacque Fresco]]
*[[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]]
*[[Julian Simon]] and [[Simon–Ehrlich wager]]
*[[Matt Simmons]]
*[[Ron Arnold]]
*[[Post-scarcity economy]]
*[[RethinkX]]

==References==
<references />

==Further reading==
* [[William R. Catton]], Jr, ""[http://www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/thoc/Denial.source.html The Problem of Denial]"" ''Environment & Society'', 1994.
* Frank J. Tipler, [http://www.tkpw.net/tcr/volume-03/number-02/v03n02.pdf ""There Are No Limits To The Open Society""] ''Critical Rationalist'', Vol. 3, No. 2, September 23, 1998. -- expresses cornucopian views, e.g. ""The laws of physics as we presently understand them place no ultimate limits to growth. The wealth of society can grow to become literally infite at the end of time.""
* Ernest Partridge, ""[http://gadfly.igc.org/papers/cornuc.htm Perilous Optimism]"", 2007, gadfly.igc.org -- a criticism of Simon and Sagoff; ""Prof. Simon's ideas have been universally dismissed by environmental scientists as crackpot, and yet he was something of a hero among libertarians, neo-classical economists, and their political disciples.""
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/cornucopian cornucopian], britannica.com
* [https://www.britannica.com/explore/savingearth/cornucopian Cornucopian | Saving Earth], britannica.com
* [https://www.encyclopedia.com/food/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/food-future-history Food, Future of: A History], encyclopedia.com
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229398647_Neo-Malthusians_and_Cornucopians_put_to_the_test_Global_2000_and_The_Resourceful_Earth_revisited Neo-Malthusians and Cornucopians put to the test: Global 2000 and The Resourceful Earth revisited] by Jonathan Lee Chenoweth and Eran Feitelson, 2005
* [[Wikiversity:History of cornucopian thought]]

[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Simple living,"{{Short description|Simplified, minimalistic lifestyle}}
{{Redirect|Simple life||Simple Life (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Gandhi spinning 1942.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mahatma Gandhi]] [[Spinning wheel|spinning yarn]] in 1942. Gandhi believed in a life of simplicity and self-sufficiency.]]
'''Simple living''' refers to practices that promote [[simplicity]] in one's lifestyle. Common practices of simple living include reducing the number of possessions one owns, depending less on technology and services, and spending less money.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/choosingsimplici0000pier |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/choosingsimplici0000pier/page/304 304] |title=Choosing Simplicity|publisher=Gallagher Press |author=Linda Breen Pierce|year=2000|quote=Rather than being consumed by materialism, we choose to surround ourselves with only those material possessions we truly need or genuinely cherish|isbn=978-0967206714}}</ref><ref name=Howard>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AKHxP8xncfcC&pg=PT24 |title=Quotes about Happiness|author=Vernon Howard|quote=You have succeeded in life when all you really want is only what you really need|author-link=Vernon Howard}}</ref> In addition to such external changes, simple living also reflects a person's mindset and values.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.becomingminimalist.com/encouragement-for-your-first-step-towards-living-with-less/comment-page-1/ | title=Minimalism: 7 Reasons that Keep People from Getting Started | date=29 June 2011 }}</ref> Simple living practices can be seen in history, religion, art, and economics.

Adherents may choose simple living for a variety of personal reasons, such as [[spirituality]], [[health]], increase in [[quality time]] for family and friends, [[work–life balance]], personal taste, financial sustainability, increase in [[philanthropy]], [[frugality]], [[environmentalism|environmental sustainability]],<ref name="":0"">{{Cite news |last=Taylor|first=Matthew|date=2019-05-22|title=Much shorter working weeks needed to tackle climate crisis – study|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/22/working-fewer-hours-could-help-tackle-climate-crisis-study |access-date=2021-11-02|newspaper=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> or reducing [[Stress (biology)|stress]]. Simple living can also be a reaction to [[economic materialism]] and [[consumer culture]]. Some cite [[sociopolitical]] goals aligned with environmentalist, [[Anti-consumerism|anti-consumerist]], or [[anti-war movement]]s, including [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]], [[degrowth]], [[deep ecology]], and [[tax resistance]].<ref name=""NWTRCC"">{{cite web|url=https://nwtrcc.org/war-tax-resistance-resources/pamphlets/practical-war-tax-resistance-5/|title=Low Income/Simple Living as War Tax Resistance|date=January 2020 |publisher=NWTRCC}}</ref>

==History==

===Religious and spiritual===

A number of religious and spiritual traditions encourage simple living.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|first=Helena|last=Echlin|date=December 2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vekDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA92|title=Be Happier With Less|journal=Yoga Journal|page=92}}
|2={{cite journal|first=W. Bradford|last=Swift|date=July–August 1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fekDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA81|journal=Yoga Journal|title=Living Simply in a Complex World|page=81}}
}}</ref> Early examples include the [[Śramaṇa]] traditions of [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age India]] and biblical [[Nazirite]]s. More formal traditions of simple living stretch back to antiquity, originating with religious and philosophical leaders such as [[Jesus]], [[Laozi|Lao Tzu]], [[Confucius]], [[Zoroaster|Zarathustra]], [[The Buddha|Gautama Buddha]], and [[Muhammad]].{{cn|reason=Muhammad doesn't seem to have lived a particularly simple life, for example|date=September 2023}} These traditions were heavily influenced by both national cultures and religious ethics.<ref name=""shi"">{{cite book|last=Shi|first=David|title=The Simple Life|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2001}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2023}} Simplicity was one of the primary concepts espoused by Lao Tzu, the founder of [[Taoism]]. This is most embodied in the principles of [[Pu (Taoism)|Pu]] and [[Ziran]].<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=Tao Te Ching |last= |first=}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}} Confucius has been quoted numerous times as promoting simple living.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gain Insight and Awareness With These 47 Confucius Quotes |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/best-confucius-quotes-2833291 |website=ThoughtCo |access-date=7 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite wikisource |title=Analects |last= |first=}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}}

Gautama Buddha espoused simple living as a central virtue of [[Buddhism]]. The [[Four Noble Truths]] advocate detachment from desire as the path to ending suffering and attaining [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nirvana]].<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=Dhammapada |last= |first=}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mark |first1=Joshua J. |title=Four Noble Truths |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Four_Noble_Truths/ |website=World History Encyclopedia |access-date=7 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Jesus]] is said to have lived a simple life. He is said to have encouraged his [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] ""to take nothing for their journey except a staff—no bread, no bag, no money in their belts—but to wear sandals and not put on two tunics"".<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|6:8–9|ESV}}: [[English Standard Version]]</ref> He also told his disciples that they cannot serve God and money at the same time, and explained that God is capable of providing them with the essentials for life (food and clothing), so long as they ""seek his kingdom first"".<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|6:24–33|ESV}}</ref> [[The Apostle Paul]] taught that people should be content with food and clothing, and that the desire to be rich is the cause of many kinds of evils.<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Timothy|6:6–10|ESV}}</ref>

Many other notable religious individuals, such as [[Benedict of Nursia]], [[Francis of Assisi]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Slocock|first=N.|date=May 2004|url=http://www.tssf.org.uk/attachments/article/219/Living_a_Life_of_Simplicity.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727121313/http://www.tssf.org.uk/attachments/article/219/Living_a_Life_of_Simplicity.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-27|title='Living a Life of Simplicity?' A Response to Francis of Assisi by Adrian House}}</ref> [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Albert Schweitzer]], and [[Mahatma Gandhi]], have claimed that spiritual inspiration led them to a simple living lifestyle.<ref name=""shi""/>{{page needed|date=September 2023}}

[[File:Preziosi - Derviş cerşetor.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ottoman Turks|Ottoman]] [[Dervish]] portrayed by [[Amedeo Preziosi]], 1860s circa, [[Muzeul Naţional de Artă al României]]]]
[[Sufism]] in the [[Muslim world]] emerged and grew as a mystical, somewhat hidden tradition in the mainstream [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Shia Islam|Shia]] [[Islamic schools and branches|denominations]] of [[Islam]].<ref name=""Cook 2015"">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Cook |author-first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |date=May 2015 |title=Mysticism in Sufi Islam |url=https://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51 |isbn=9780199340378 |doi-access= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128012740/http://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 |archive-date=28 November 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=4 January 2022}}</ref> Sufism grew particularly in the frontier areas of [[Muslim world|Islamic states]],<ref name=""Cook 2015""/><ref name=""Findley 2005"">{{cite book |last=Findley |first=Carter Vaughn |author-link=Carter V. Findley |year=2005 |chapter=Islam and Empire from the Seljuks through the Mongols |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ToAjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA56|chapter-url-access=subscription |title=The Turks in World History |location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=56–66 |isbn=9780195177268 |oclc=54529318}}</ref> where the asceticism of its [[fakir]]s and [[dervish]]es appealed to populations already used to the monastic traditions of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Christianity]].<ref name=hanson104>{{cite book |last=Hanson |first=Eric O. |title=Religion and Politics in the International System Today |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wz4nCOMd8ucC&pg=PA102 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=[[New York City|New York]] |pages=102–104 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511616457 |isbn=978-0-521-85245-6}}</ref><ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|author=Shahzad Bashir|title=Sufi Bodies: Religion and Society in Medieval Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArurAgAAQBAJ|url-access=subscription |year=2013|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-14491-9 |pages=9–11, 58–67 }}
|2={{cite book|author=Antony Black|title=The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd1vAAAAQBAJ |url-access=subscription|year=2011|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-8878-4 |pages=241–242}} }}</ref> Sufis were influential and successful in [[Spread of Islam|spreading Islam]] between the 10th and 19th centuries.<ref name=""Cook 2015""/> Some scholars have argued that Sufi Muslim ascetics and mystics played a decisive role in converting the [[Turkic peoples]] to Islam, mainly because of the similarities between the extreme, ascetic Sufis ([[fakir]]s and [[dervish]]es) and the [[Shamanism|Shamans]] of the [[Tengrism|traditional Turco-Mongol religion]].<ref name=""Findley 2005""/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Amitai-Preiss |first=Reuven |date=January 1999 |title=Sufis and Shamans: Some Remarks on the Islamization of the Mongols in the Ilkhanate |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=27–46 |doi=10.1163/1568520991445605 |issn=1568-5209 |jstor=3632297}}</ref>

[[Plain people]] typically belonged to Christian groups that practised lifestyles that excluded forms of [[wealth]] or [[technology]] for religious or philosophical reasons. Such Christian groups include the [[Shakers]], [[Old Order Mennonite|Mennonites]], [[Amish]], [[Hutterites]], [[Amana Colonies]], [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]],<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite news|first=Pete|last=Ascosi|date=2016-08-25|url=https://christlife.org/blog/learning-from-the-bruderhof-an-intentional-christian-community|title=Learning from the Bruderhof: An Intentional Christian Community|work=ChristLife|access-date=2017-05-23|language=en}}
|2={{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/inside-the-bruderhof|title=Inside The Bruderhofe|website=BBC Media Centre|date=2019-07-09|access-date=2019-07-19}} }}</ref> [[Old German Baptist Brethren]], [[Harmony Society]], and some [[Quakers]]. A Quaker belief called ''[[Testimony of simplicity]]'' states that a person ought to live her or his life simply. Some tropes about complete exclusion of technology in these groups may not be accurate though. The Amish and other groups do use some modern technology, after assessing its impact on the community.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@dallincrump/what-the-amish-are-teaching-me-about-how-to-use-technology-aa8bd1816260|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801091934/https://medium.com/@dallincrump/what-the-amish-are-teaching-me-about-how-to-use-technology-aa8bd1816260|archive-date=2019-08-01|title=What the Amish are Teaching Me about How to Use Technology|last=Crump|first=Dallin|date=2018-08-22|website=Medium|language=en|access-date=2019-08-01}}
|2={{Cite web|last=Novak|first=Kim|url=https://metro.co.uk/2019/07/20/unknown-christian-community-in-sussex-lives-without-electricity-possessions-or-debt-10431308/|title=Unknown Christian community in Sussex lives without electricity or possessions|date=2019-07-20|website=Metro|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-01}}
}}</ref>

The 18th-century [[French Enlightenment]] philosopher [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] strongly praised the simple way of life in many of his writings, especially in two books: ''Discourse on the Arts and Sciences'' (1750) and ''Discourse on Inequality'' (1754).<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Peter Marshall (author)|last=Marshall|first=Peter|title=[[Nature's Web: Rethinking Our Place on Earth]]|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=1996|pages=235, 239–244}}</ref>

===Secular and political===
[[Epicureanism]], based on the teachings of the [[Athens]]-based [[philosopher]] [[Epicurus]], flourished from about {{BCE|the fourth century}} to {{CE|the third century}}. Epicureanism held that the paradigm of happiness was the untroubled life, which was made possible by carefully considered choices. Epicurus pointed out that troubles entailed by maintaining an extravagant lifestyle tend to outweigh the pleasures of partaking in it. He therefore concluded that what is necessary for happiness, bodily comfort, and life itself should be maintained at minimal cost, while all things beyond what is necessary for these should either be tempered by moderation or completely avoided.<ref>{{cite web|last=Smith|first=M.F.|year=2001|url=http://www.epicurus.info/etexts/introlucretius.html#III|url-status=dead|title=Introduction to Lucretius: On the Nature of Things|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060301142624/http://www.epicurus.info/etexts/introlucretius.html|website=Epicurus.info|archive-date=2006-03-01}}</ref>

[[File:Thoreau's cabin inside.jpg|thumb|left|Reconstruction of [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s cabin on the shores of [[Walden Pond]]]]
[[Henry David Thoreau]], an American [[natural history|naturalist]] and author, made the classic [[Secularity|secular]] advocacy of a life of simple and [[sustainable living]] in his book ''[[Walden]]'' (1854). Thoreau conducted a two-year experiment living a plain and simple life on the shores of [[Walden Pond]]. He concluded: ""Our life is frittered away by detail. Simplify, simplify, simplify! I say, let your affairs be as two or three, and not a hundred or a thousand; instead of a million count half a dozen, and keep your accounts on your thumb-nail.""<ref>{{cite book|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|title=Walden|chapter=Where I Lived, and What I Lived For|chapter-url=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/henry-david-thoreau/walden/text/where-i-lived-and-what-i-lived-for|year=1854}}</ref>

In Victorian Britain, [[Henry Stephens Salt]], an admirer of Thoreau, popularised the idea of ""Simplification, the saner method of living"".<ref name=Gould>{{cite book|first=Peter C.|last=Gould|title=Early Green Politics}}</ref>{{rp|22}} Other British advocates of the simple life included [[Edward Carpenter]], [[William Morris]], and the members of the ""[[Fellowship of the New Life]]"".{{r|Gould|pages=27–28}} Carpenter popularised the phrase the ""Simple Life"" in his essay ''Simplification of Life'' in his ''England's Ideal'' (1887).<ref>{{cite book|last=Delany|first=Paul|year=1987|title=The Neo-pagans: Rupert Brooke and the ordeal of youth|url=https://archive.org/details/neopagansrupertb00dela|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]]|isbn=978-0029082805|page=10}}</ref>

[[Charles Robert Ashbee|C.R. Ashbee]] and his followers also practised some of these ideas, thus linking simplicity with the [[Arts and Crafts movement]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Fiona|last=Maccarthy|title=The Simple Life: C.R. Ashbee in the Cotswolds|location=London|year=1981}}</ref> British novelist [[John Cowper Powys]] advocated the simple life in his 1933 book ''A Philosophy of Solitude''.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last=Powys|first=John Cowper|title=A Philosophy of Solitude|location=London|year=1933}}
|2=See also {{cite book|author-link=David Goodway|first=David|last=Goodway|title=[[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow]]|location=Liverpool|year=2006|pages=48–49, 174|postscript=, for Goodway's comparison of Powys' ideas of the Simple Life to Carpenter's.}} }}</ref> [[John Middleton Murry]] and [[Max Plowman]] practised a simple lifestyle at their Adelphi Centre in Essex in the 1930s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hardy|first=Dennis|title=Utopian England: Community Experiments 1900–1945|page=42}} Hardy's book details other simple living movements in the U.K. in this period.</ref>
Irish poet [[Patrick Kavanagh]] championed a ""right simplicity"" philosophy based on [[Agrarianism|ruralism]] in some of his work.<ref>{{cite news|first=Alan|last=O'Riordan|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/kavanagh-s-lessons-for-simple-living-1.776937|title=Kavanagh's Lessons for Simple Living|publisher=Irish Times|date=November 23, 2009}}</ref>

[[George Lorenzo Noyes]], a [[Natural history|naturalist]], [[Mineralogy|mineralogist]], [[Postdevelopment theory|development critic]], writer, and artist, is known as the Thoreau of Maine. He lived a wilderness lifestyle, advocating through his creative work a simple life and reverence for nature. During the 1920s and 1930s, the [[Southern Agrarians|Vanderbilt Agrarians]] of the [[Southern United States]] advocated a lifestyle and culture centered upon traditional and sustainable [[agrarianism|agrarian values]] as opposed to the progressive urban [[Industrial Revolution|industrialism]] which dominated [[Western culture|the Western world]] at that time.

[[File:Veblen - Theory of the leisure class, 1924 - 5854536.tif|thumb|right|upright|''[[The Theory of the Leisure Class]]'', 1924]]
The Norwegian-American economist and sociologist [[Thorstein Veblen]] warned against the [[conspicuous consumption]] of the [[Economic materialism|materialistic]] society in his ''[[The Theory of the Leisure Class]]'' (1899); [[Richard Gregg (social philosopher)|Richard Gregg]] coined the term ""voluntary simplicity"" in ''The Value of Voluntary Simplicity'' (1936). From the 1920s, a number of modern authors articulated both the theory and practice of living simply, among them [[Gandhism|Gandhian]] Richard Gregg, economists [[Ralph Borsodi]] and [[Scott Nearing]], anthropologist-poet [[Gary Snyder]], and [[utopia]]n fiction writer [[Ernest Callenbach]]. Economist [[E. F. Schumacher]] argued against the notion that ""bigger is better"" in ''[[Small Is Beautiful]]'' (1973); and [[Duane Elgin]] continued the promotion of the simple life in ''Voluntary Simplicity'' (1981).

The Australian academic [[Ted Trainer]] practices and writes about simplicity, and established The Simplicity Institute<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://simplicityinstitute.org/ted-trainer|title=Ted Trainer|website=Simplicity Institute}}</ref> at Pigface Point, some {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the [[University of New South Wales]] to which it is attached.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unsw.edu.au/arts-design-architecture|title=Arts, Design & Architecture - UNSW Sydney|website=UNSW Sites}}</ref> A secular set of nine values was developed with the [https://ethify.org/en/content/values ''Ethify Yourself''] project in [[Austria]], having a simplified life style in mind. In the [[United States]] voluntary simplicity started to garner more public exposure through a movement in the late 1990s around a popular ""simplicity"" book, ''The Simple Living Guide'' by Janet Luhrs.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Janet|last=Luhrs|title=The Simple Living Guide|publisher=Harmony|year=1997|isbn=978-0553067965}}</ref> Around the same time, [[minimalism]] (a similar movement) started to feature in the public eye.

== Changing mindset ==
Danny Dover, author of ''The Minimalist Mindset'', says implementing and acting on ideas makes those ideas habitual, allowing a change in mindset.<ref>{{Citation|last=Fox|first=Danny|chapter=On Logical Form|doi=10.1002/9780470758342.ch2|pages=82–123|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-0470758342 |title=Minimalist Syntax|year=2003}}</ref> Leo Babauta believes finding beauty and joy in less is what ""more is better"" advocates fail to do. [[Minimalism#Minimalist lifestyle|Minimalists]] prefer quality over quantity.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Millburn|first1=Joshua|title=Minimalism Essential Essays|last2=Nicodemus|first2=Ryan|publisher=Mins Publishing|year=2011|pages=9–12}}</ref>  They emphasize that we should value things that make us happy and are essential to us, rather than value the idea of just having things to have.<ref name=""auto"">{{Cite web|url=https://tonywideman.com/minimalist+life+guide.pdf|title=the simple guide to a minimalist life|last=Babauta|first=Leo}}</ref>

This mindset has spread among many individuals due to the influence of other people living this lifestyle. The benefits of this lifestyle include more freedom, more time, more pleasure, more life value, and a healthier and greener way of life.<ref name=""auto""/>

==Practices==

===Reducing consumption, work time, and possessions===
[[File:Portland alternative dwellings workshop.jpg|thumb|left|265x265px|Living simply in a [[tiny house movement|small dwelling]]]]

Some people practice simple living by reducing their [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]]. Lowering consumption can reduce individual debt, which allows for greater flexibility and simplicity in one's life. If one spends less on goods or services, one needs to spend less time earning [[money]]. The time saved may be used to pursue other interests, to help others through [[volunteering]], or to improve their [[quality of life]], for example by pursuing creative activities. Developing a [[detachment (philosophy)|detachment]] from the pursuit of money has led some individuals, such as [[Suelo]] and [[Mark Boyle (Moneyless Man)|Mark Boyle]], to live with no money at all.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite news|last=Osborne |first=Hilary |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/blog/2009/jul/23/daniel-suelo-caveman |title=Daniel Suelo: Free spirit or freeloader? |work=The Guardian |location=UK |access-date=20 October 2011 |date=23 July 2009}}
|2={{cite news|last=Salter |first=Jessica |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/greenerliving/7951968/The-man-who-lives-without-money.html |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820084055/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/greenerliving/7951968/The-man-who-lives-without-money.html |archive-date=20 August 2010 |title=The man who lives without money |work=The Telegraph |location=U.K. |date=18 August 2010}} }}</ref> People who reduce their expenses can also increase their savings, which can lead to [[financial independence]] and the possibility of [[Retirement#Early retirement|early retirement]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Robinson |first=Nancy |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/financialfinesse/2012/08/02/retiring-at-age-50-is-realistic-using-unorthodox-strategies/ |title=Retiring At Age 50 Is Realistic Using These Unorthodox Strategies |work=Forbes |location=U.S. |access-date=20 August 2012| date=2 August 2012}}</ref>
{{Quote box
 |quote  = You have succeeded in life when all you really want is only what you really need.<ref name=Howard/>
 |source = [[Vernon Howard]]
 |width  = 22%
 |align  = right
}}

The ""100 Thing Challenge"" is a grassroots movement to whittle down personal possessions to one hundred items, with the aim of de-cluttering and simplifying life.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1812048,00.html|title=How to Live with Just 100 Things|author=Lisa McClaughlin|date=June 5, 2008|publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> People in the [[tiny house movement]] chose to live in small, mortgage-free, low-impact dwellings, such as [[log cabin]]s or [[beach hut]]s.<ref>{{cite news|first=Leigh|last=Paterson|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/magazine-16348594/less-is-more-simple-living-in-small-spaces|title=Less is more: Simple living in small spaces|work=BBC News | date=28 December 2011}}</ref>

[[Joshua Becker]] suggests that people who desire to simplify their lives begin by simplifying their homes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Minimalist Home|last=Becker|first=Joshua|publisher=WaterBrook|year=2018|pages=3–5}}</ref>

===Increasing self-sufficiency===
[[Image:Forestgarden2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Robert Hart (horticulturist)|Robert Hart]]'s [[Forest gardening|forest garden]] in Shropshire, England, UK]]
One way to simplify life is to get [[Back-to-the-land movement|back-to-the-land]] and grow your own food. Increased [[Self-sustainability|self-sufficiency]] reduces dependency on money and the broader [[economy]].<ref>{{cite conference |first1=Khairul Hisyam|last1= Baharuddin |first2=Nazatul Syima |last2=Mohd Nasir |first3=Fairuz A'dilah|last3= Rusdi |date=2022 |title=Self-Reliance, Simple Living, and Happiness in the Man Who Quit Money |book-title=Proceeding of International Conference on Ummah |url=http://myscholar.umk.edu.my/bitstream/123456789/3952/1/eProceeding%20ICU%202022%20khisyam%20and%20others.pdf |via=My Scholar, Digital Library Repository, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan}}</ref> [[Tom Hodgkinson]] believes the key to a free and simple life is to stop consuming and start producing.<ref>{{cite book|title=How To Be Free|author=Tom Hodgkinson|year=2006|publisher=Hamish Hamilton |isbn=978-0241143216}}</ref> Writer and eco-blogger Jennifer Nini left the city to live off-grid, grow food, and ""be a part of the solution; not part of the problem.""<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nini|first1=Jennifer|title=So You Think You Can Farm?|date=September 2014|url=https://ecowarriorprincess.net/2014/09/so-you-think-you-can-farm/|access-date=1 September 2014}}</ref>

[[Forest gardening]], developed by simple living adherent [[Robert Hart (horticulturist)|Robert Hart]], is a low-maintenance, plant-based food production system based on woodland ecosystems. It incorporates fruit and nut trees, shrubs, herbs, vines, and perennial vegetables.<ref name=Hart>{{cite book|title=Forest gardening: Cultivating an edible landscape|first=Robert|last=Hart|isbn=978-1603580502|date=1996-09-01}}</ref>{{rp|97}} Hart created a model forest garden from a {{convert|0.12|acre|m2}} orchard on his farm at [[Wenlock Edge]] in [[Shropshire]].{{r|Hart|page=45}}

""[[Food miles]]"" is a description of the number of miles a given item of food or its ingredients has travelled between the farm and the table. Simple living advocates use this metric to argue for locally grown food, for example in books like ''[[The 100-Mile Diet]]'' and [[Barbara Kingsolver]]'s ''[[Animal, Vegetable, Miracle|Animal, Vegetable, Miracle: A Year of Food Life]]''. In each of those cases, the authors devoted a year to reducing their carbon footprint by eating locally.<ref>{{cite news|last=Taylor|first=Kate|date=2007-08-08|url=https://www.nysun.com/arts/year-i-saved-the-world/60056/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114072028/https://www.nysun.com/arts/year-i-saved-the-world/60056/|archive-date=2009-01-14|title=The Year I Saved The World|location=New York|newspaper=The Sun}}</ref>

City dwellers can produce home-grown fruit and vegetables in [[Container garden|pot gardens]] or miniature indoor greenhouses. Tomatoes, lettuce, spinach, Swiss chard, peas, strawberries, and several types of herbs can all thrive in pots. [[Jim Merkel]] says ""A person could sprout seeds. They are tasty, incredibly nutritious, and easy to grow... We grow them in wide-mouthed mason jars with a square of nylon window screen screwed under a metal ring"".<ref>{{cite book|last=Merkel|first=Jim|title=Radical Simplicity. British Columbia: New Society|year=2003|pages=170–171}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>

The [[DIY ethic|do it yourself ethic]] refers to the principle of undertaking necessary tasks oneself rather than having others, who are more skilled or experienced, complete them for you.

===Reconsidering technology===
People who practice simple living have diverse views on the role of technology. The American political activist [[Scott Nearing]] was skeptical about how humanity would use new technology, citing destructive inventions such as [[nuclear weapon]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Scott Nearing|title=Civilization and Beyond |page=101 |year=2006 |publisher=Echo Library |isbn=978-1406834970 }}</ref> Those who eschew modern technology are often referred to as [[Luddite]]s or [[neo-Luddism|neo-Luddites]].<ref name = Luddites>{{cite web|last=Sale|first=Kirkpatrick|date=February 1997|url=https://mondediplo.com/1997/02/20luddites|url-access=subscription|title=America's New Luddites|website=Le Monde diplomatique}}</ref> Although simple living is often a [[Secularity|secular]] pursuit, it may still involve reconsidering [[appropriate technology]] as [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] groups such as the [[Amish]] or [[Mennonites]] have done.

Technology can make a simple lifestyle within mainstream culture easier and more sustainable. The [[internet]] can reduce an individual's [[carbon footprint]] through [[remote work]] and lower paper usage. Some have calculated their energy consumption to show that one can live simply and in a satisfying way by using much less energy than is typically used in Western countries.<ref>{{cite web|first=Anil K.|last=Rajvanshi|title=How to Live Simply and in a Sustainable Way|date=2012-05-27|url=http://www.speakingtree.in/spiritual-blogs/masters/self-improvement/how-to-live-simply-and-in-a-sustainable-way|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219004528/http://www.speakingtree.in/spiritual-blogs/masters/self-improvement/how-to-live-simply-and-in-a-sustainable-way|archive-date=2013-12-19}}</ref> Technologies they may embrace include computers, [[photovoltaic system]]s, [[wind turbine]]s, and [[water turbine]]s.

Technological interventions that appear to simplify living may actually induce side effects elsewhere or in the future. [[Evgeny Morozov]] warns that tools like the internet can facilitate [[mass surveillance]] and [[political repression]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Evgeny |last=Morozov|title=The Net Delusion: The Dark Side of Internet Freedom |year=2011 }}</ref> The book ''[[Green Illusions]]'' identifies how wind and solar energy technologies have hidden side effects and can actually increase energy consumption and entrench environmental harms over time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Zehner|first=Ozzie|title=Green Illusions: The Dirty Secrets of Clean Energy and the Future of Environmentalism|year=2012|publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]]|isbn=978-0803237759}}</ref> The authors of the book ''Techno-Fix'' criticize technological optimists for overlooking the limitations of technology in solving agricultural problems.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Huesemann|first1=Michael H.|first2=Joyce A.|last2=Huesemann|year=2011|title=Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment|publisher=New Society Publishers|location=Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada|isbn=978-0865717046}}</ref>

[[Advertising]] is criticised for encouraging a consumerist mentality. Many advocates of simple living agree that cutting out, or cutting down on, [[television]] viewing is a key ingredient in simple living.{{cn|reason=|date=September 2023}}

===Simplifying diet===
[[File:Figs, berries and cheese.jpg|thumb|Figs, berries, and cheese]]
In contrast to diets like vegetarianism, a simplified diet focuses on principles rather than a set of rules. People may use less sophisticated and cheaper ingredients, and eat dishes considered as ""comfort food"", including home-cooked dishes. Simple diets are usually considered to be ""healthy"", since they include a significant amount of fruit and vegetables.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=Katie |date=February 25, 2009 |title=Slow economy calls for simple living |work=Free Lance-Star |url=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document-view?p=WORLDNEWS&docref=news/126937DCC5E81D90&f=basic}}</ref> A simple diet usually avoids highly processed foods and fast-food eating.<ref>{{Cite news |date=October 18, 2020 |title=Women urged for changing culture of extra protein rich, spicy food |work=Daily Messenger |location=Pakistan |url=}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=September 2023}} Simplicity may also entail taking time to be present while eating, such as by following rituals, avoiding multitasking when eating, and putting time aside to consume food mindfully and gratefully, potentially in the company of others.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McDonald |first=Glenn |title=For us, simple living isn't easy—Author advocates the joy of less stuff |work=News & Observer |url=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document-view?p=WORLDNEWS&docref=news/1315CB0B2B616478|url-access=subscription}}{{when|date=September 2023}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=September 2023}} Moreover, it is common to cook one's own food, by following simple recipes that are not particularly time consuming, in an attempt to reduce the amount of energy necessary for cooking.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Weidner |first=Johanna |date=January 8, 2005 |title=Food helps define life, editor says |work=Record, The |location=Kitchner, Ontario, Canada |url=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document-view?p=WORLDNEWS&docref=news/10AA68B2F82643EB.|url-access=subscription}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=September 2023}}

A simple diet looks different from person to person and can be adapted to suit individual needs and desires. For instance, in the United Kingdom, the Movement for Compassionate Living was formed by Kathleen and Jack Jannaway in 1984 to spread the message of [[veganism]] and promote simple living and self-reliance as a remedy against the [[Exploitation of natural resources|exploitation of humans, animals, and the planet]].

==Politics and activism==
{{Globalize|section|the [[United States]]|date=February 2019}}

===Environmentalism===
[[Environmentalism]] is inspired by simple living, as harmony with [[nature]] is intrinsically dependent on a simple lifestyle.{{According to whom|date=March 2022}} For example, [[Green party|Green parties]] often advocate simple living as a consequence of their ""four pillars"" or the ""Ten Key Values"" of the [[Green Party of the United States]]. This includes, in policy terms, their rejection of [[genetic engineering]] and [[nuclear power]] and other technologies they consider to be hazardous. The [[Green politics|Greens]]' support for simplicity is based on the reduction in natural resource usage and environmental impact.<ref name="":0"" /> This concept is expressed in [[Ernest Callenbach]]'s ""green triangle"" of [[ecology]], [[frugality]], and health.

Some avoid involvement even with [[green politics]] as compromising simplicity, however, and instead advocate forms of [[green anarchism]] that attempt to implement these principles at a smaller scale, e.g. the [[ecovillage]]. [[Deep ecology]], a belief that the world does not exist as a resource to be freely exploited by humans, proposes [[Habitat conservation|wilderness preservation]], [[human population control]], and simple living.<ref>{{cite book|title=International Encyclopedia of Environmental Politics|editor-first1=John|editor-last1=Barry|editor-first2=E. Gene|editor-last2=Frankland|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|page=161|isbn=978-0415202855}}</ref>

===Anti-war===
[[File:PeacePark.jpg|thumb|right|The [[White House Peace Vigil]], started by simple living adherent [[Ellen Thomas]] in 1981]]
If [[economic growth]] leads to [[war]] in the pursuit of control and [[exploitation of natural resources|exploitation of natural]] and human resources, those who oppose war have an additional reason to consider a simple living lifestyle.

[[Anti-war movement|Opposition to war]] has led [[Pacifism|peace activists]], such as [[Ammon Hennacy]] and [[Ellen Thomas]], to a form of [[tax resistance]] in which they reduce their income below the [[income tax threshold|tax threshold]] by taking up a simple living lifestyle.<ref name=""NWTRCC""/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sniggle.net/TPL/index5.php?entry=19Mar05|title=2005 Annual Report on My Tax Resistance • TPL|first=David M.|last=Gross|website=The Picket Line|date=19 March 2004 }}</ref> These individuals believe that their government is engaged in immoral, unethical, or destructive activities such as war, and that if they were to pay taxes they would fund such activities.<ref name=NWTRCC />

===Arts===
The term ""[[bohemianism]]"" describes a tradition of both voluntary and involuntary poverty by [[artist]]s who devote their time to artistic endeavors rather than paid labor. The term was coined by the French bourgeoisie as a way to describe social non-conformists.<ref name="":03"">{{Cite web |first=Elena|last=Martinique|date=2023-04-24|title=Famous Artists of the 20th Century Who Knew How to Live |url=https://www.widewalls.ch/magazine/famous-artists-bohemians |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Widewalls |language=en}}</ref> Bohemians sometimes also expressed their unorthodoxy through simplistic art, for instance in the case of Amedeo Modigliani.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amedeo Modigliani |url=https://www.theartstory.org/artist/modigliani-amedeo/ |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=The Art Story}}</ref> Minimalistic art inspired ""rebel"" artistic movements into the 20th century.<ref name="":03"" />

Positive attitudes towards living in poverty for the sake of art are becoming less common among [[List of American artists 1900 and after|young American artists]]. One recent graduate of the [[Rhode Island School of Design]] said ""her classmates showed little interest in living in [[garret]]s and eating [[Ramen|ramen noodles]].""<ref>{{Cite episode |publisher=NPR |credits=[[Neda Ulaby]] (Director) |title=In Pricey Cities, Being A Bohemian Starving Artist Gets Old Fast |work=All Things Considered |access-date=2014-05-31 |date=2014-05-15 |url=https://www.npr.org/2014/05/15/312779821/in-pricey-cities-being-a-bohemian-starving-artist-gets-old-fast |series=War On Poverty, 50 Years Later}}</ref>

==Economics==
A new economics movement has been building since the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] in 1972,<ref>{{cite web|website=United Nations Environment Program|url=http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=97|url-status=dead|title=Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070411124414/http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=97 |archive-date=2007-04-11 |location=Stockholm|year=1972|access-date=March 24, 2008}}</ref> and the publications that year of ''Only One Earth'', ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'', and ''[[A Blueprint for Survival|Blueprint for Survival]]'', followed by ''[[Small Is Beautiful]]: Economics As If People Mattered'' in 1973.<ref name=Robertson>{{cite book|last=Robertson|first=James|year=1999|url=http://www.jamesrobertson.com/book/neweconomicsofsustainabledevelopment.pdf|title=The New Economics of Sustainable Development: A Briefing for Policy Makers|publisher=Kogan Page |isbn=0749430931}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2023}}

David Wann introduced the idea of ""simple prosperity"" as it applies to a [[Sustainability|sustainable]] lifestyle. From his point of view, ""it is important to ask ourselves three fundamental questions: what is the point of all our commuting and consuming? What is the economy for? And, finally, why do we seem to be unhappier now than when we began our initial pursuit for rich abundance?""<ref>{{cite book|last=Wann|first=David|title=Simple Prosperity: Finding Real Wealth in a Sustainable Lifestyle|location=New York|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|year=2007|isbn=978-0312361419}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2023}}

[[James Robertson (activist)|James Robertson]]'s ''A New Economics of Sustainable Development''<ref name=Robertson /> inspired work of thinkers and activists who participate in his ''Working for a Sane Alternative'' network and program. According to Robertson, the shift to sustainability is likely to require a widespread shift of emphasis from raising incomes to reducing costs.

The principles of the new economics, as set out by Robertson, are the following:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellis |first1=Howard S. |title=The State of the ""New Economics"" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1812743 |journal=The American Economic Review |access-date=7 November 2023 |pages=465–477 |date=1949|volume=39 |issue=2 |jstor=1812743 }}</ref>
* systematic [[empowerment]] of people (as opposed to making and keeping them dependent), as the basis for people-centred development
* systematic conservation of resources and [[Biophysical environment|the environment]], as the basis for environmentally [[sustainable development]]
* evolution from a ""wealth of nations"" model of economic life to a one-world model, and from today's inter-national economy to an ecologically sustainable, decentralising, multi-level one-world economic system
* restoration of [[Politics|political]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] factors to a central place in economic life and thought
* respect for [[Qualitative property|qualitative]] values, not just quantitative values

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Agrarianism]]
* ''[[Ahimsa|Ahiṃsā]]'' (concept in [[Dharmic religion|Dhārmic religions]])
* [[Anarcho-primitivism]]
* [[Anti-consumerism]]
* [[Asceticism]]
* [[Back-to-the-land movement]]
* [[Black Bear Ranch]]
* [[Buddha-like mindset]]
* [[Buddhist economics]]
* [[Buddhist ethics]]
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[Christian pacifism]]
* [[Corporate poverty]]

* [[Deep ecology]]
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Degrowth]]
* [[Downshifting (lifestyle)|Downshifting]] (lifestyle)
* [[Engaged Buddhism]]
* [[Epicureanism]]
* [[Eye of a needle]]
* [[Gross National Happiness]]
* [[Homesteading]]
* [[Intentional living]]
* [[Jesus and the rich young man]]
* [[Marie Kondo]]
* [[Off-the-grid]] (lifestyle)
* ''[[Pu (Taoism)|Pu]]'' (concept in [[Taoism]])
* [[Religion and vegetarianism]]
** [[Buddhist vegetarianism]]
** [[Christian vegetarianism]]
** [[Jain vegetarianism]]
** [[Jewish vegetarianism]]
** [[Taoist diet]]
* [[:Category:Simple living advocates|Simple living advocates]] (category)
* [[Slow living]]
* [[Sustainable living]]
* [[Swedish death cleaning]]
* [[Tiny-house movement]]
* [[Tribe]]
* [[Ziran]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Additional reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Wendell Berry|last=Berry|first=Wendell|year=1990|title=What Are People For?|publisher=North Point Press|isbn=0865474370}}
* {{cite book|first=Dave|last=Bruno|year=2010|title=The 100 Thing Challenge|publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0061787744}}
* {{cite book|first=Amy|last=Dacyczyn|year=1998|title=The Complete Tightwad Gazette: Promoting Thrift as a Viable Alternative Lifestyle|publisher=Random House Publishing |isbn=0375752250}}
* {{cite book|first1=John|last1=de Graaf|first2=David|last2=Wann|author-link3=Thomas Naylor|first3=Thomas|last3=Naylor|year=2002|title=[[Affluenza: The All-Consuming Epidemic]]|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers |isbn=1576751996}}
* {{cite book|last=Delany|first=Paul|title=The Neo-pagans: Rupert Brooke and the ordeal of youth|url=https://archive.org/details/neopagansrupertb00dela|url-access=registration|date= 1987|publisher=[[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]]|isbn=978-0029082805}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Duane Elgin|last=Elgin|first=Duane|orig-year=1981|year=2010|title=Voluntary Simplicity|publisher=Harper|isbn=978-0061779268}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Vernard Eller|first=Vernard|last=Eller|year=1973| url=http://www.hccentral.com/eller3/index.html|title=The Simple Life|publisher=W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn=0802815375}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Jacob Lund Fisker|last=Fisker|first=Jacob Lund|year=2010|title=Early Retirement Extreme: A philosophical and practical guide to financial independence|publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |isbn=978-1453601211}}
* {{cite book|first=Dolly|last=Freed|orig-year=1978|title=Possum Living: How to Live Well Without a Job and with (Almost) No Money|year=2010|publisher=Tin House Books |isbn=978-0982053935}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Marie Kondo|first=Marie|last=Kondo|year=2014|title=The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up|publisher=Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed |isbn=978-1607747307}}
* {{cite book|first=Charles|last=Long|orig-year=1986|title=How to Survive Without a Salary: Living the Conserver Lifestyle|year=1996|publisher=Warwick |isbn=1894622375}}
* {{cite book|first=Janet|last=Luhrs|year=1997|title=The Simple Living Guide: A Sourcebook for Less Stressful, More Joyful Living|publisher=Harmony/Rodale |isbn=0553067966}}
* {{cite book|first=Stephanie|last=Mills|year=2002|title=Epicurean Simplicity|publisher=Island Press|isbn=978-1559636896}}
* {{cite book|author-link1=Helen Nearing|first1=Helen|last1=Nearing|author-link2=Scott Nearing|first2=Scott|last2=Nearing|year=1970|title=The Good Life: Helen and Scott Nearing's Sixty Years of Self-Sufficient Living|publisher=Schocken}}
* {{cite book|author-link1=Vicki Robin|first1=Vicki|last1=Robin|first2=Joe|last2=Dominguez|year=1992|title=Your Money or Your Life|publisher=Viking}}<br />{{cite book|author-link1=Vicki Robin|first1=Vicki|last1=Robin|first2=Monique|last2=Tilford|first3=Mark|last3=Zaifman|title=Your Money or Your Life: Revised and Updated for the 21st Century|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|year=2008}}
* {{cite book|first=Edward|last=Romney|orig-year=1992|title=Living Well on Practically Nothing|year=2001|publisher=Paladin Press |isbn=1581602820}}
* {{cite book|first=Deborah|last=Taylor-Hough|year=2000|title=A Simple Choice: A practical guide for saving your time, money and sanity|publisher=SourceBooks|isbn=1891400495}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline|Simple living}}

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History of environmental pollution,"[[File:Dirty father Thames.jpg|thumb|""Dirty Father Thames"", a satirical depiction of the ""[[Great Stink]]"", an 1858 pollution event in the [[River Thames]].]]{{Pollution sidebar}}
The '''history of environmental pollution''' traces human-dominated [[Ecology|ecological]] systems from the earliest [[Civilization|civilizations]] to the present day.<ref>Caradonna, Jeremy L. (2014) ''Sustainability: A History''. Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199372409}}</ref> This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a particular [[society]], followed by crises that were either resolved, producing [[sustainability]], or not, leading to decline.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Beddoea, R.|author2=Costanzaa, R.|author3=Farleya, J.|author4=Garza, E.|author5=Kent, J.|author6=Kubiszewski, I.|author7=Martinez, L.|author8=McCowen, T.|author9=Murphy, K.|author10=Myers, N.|author11=Ogden, Z.|year=2009|title=Overcoming systemic roadblocks to sustainable health|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106|issue=28|pages=E80; author reply E81|bibcode=2009PNAS..106E..80K|doi=10.1073/pnas.0902558106|pmc=2710687|pmid=19584255|doi-access=free|author13=Woodward, J.|author12=Stapleton, K.}}</ref><ref>[[Ronald Wright|Wright, R.]] (2004). ''A Short History of Progress''. Toronto: Anansi. {{ISBN|0-88784-706-4}}.</ref> In early human history, the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities.<ref name="":0"">Scholars, R. (2003).  Stories from the Stone Age. Beyond Productions in association with S4C and S4C International. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved on: 16 April 2009.</ref> Between 8,000 and 12,000 years ago, [[Agrarian community|agrarian communities]] emerged which depended largely on their [[Natural environment|environment]] and the creation of a ""structure of permanence.""<ref name="":1"">Clarke, W. C. (1977). ""The Structure of Permanence: The Relevance of Self-Subsistence Communities for World Ecosystem Management,"" in ''Subsistence and Survival: Rural Ecology in the Pacific''. Bayliss-Smith, T. and R. Feachem (eds). London: Academic Press, pp. 363–384. {{doi|10.1016/B978-0-12-083250-7.50017-0}}. {{ISBN|978-0-12-083250-7}}.</ref>

The Western [[industrial revolution]] of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in [[fossil fuels]]. [[Coal]] was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity. Modern [[sanitation]] systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease.<ref>Hilgenkamp, K. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCNxKlDLogC&dq=sanitation+systems+medicine+disease+history&pg=PA41 Environmental Health: Ecological Perspectives]. London: Jones & Bartlett. {{ISBN|978-0-7637-2377-4}}.</ref> In the mid-20th century, a gathering [[environmental movement]] pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed. In the late 20th century, environmental problems became global in scale.<ref name="":2"">D.H. Meadows, D.L. Meadows, J. Randers, and W. Behrens III. (1972). ''[[The Limits to Growth]]''. New York: Universe Books. {{ISBN|0-87663-165-0}}.</ref><ref name=""LPR2008"">{{cite web|title=Living Planet Report|url=http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/living_planet_report/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327153856/http://footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/living_planet_report|archive-date=27 March 2009|publisher=[[Global Footprint Network]]}}{{cite report|url=http://assets.panda.org/downloads/living_planet_report_2008.pdf|title=Living Planet Report 2008|date=2008|publisher=[[World Wide Fund for Nature]], [[Zoological Society of London]], Global Footprint Network|access-date=1 October 2008}}</ref><ref name=""millenniumassessment.org"">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf ''Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis.''] World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. Retrieved on: 2009-07-08-01.</ref><ref name="":3"">{{cite journal|author=Turner, G.M.|year=2008|title=A comparison of the Limits to Growth with 30 years of reality|url=http://www.manicore.com/fichiers/Turner_Meadows_vs_historical_data.pdf|journal=Global Environmental Change|volume=18|issue=3|pages=397–411|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.05.001}}</ref> The 1973 and 1979 [[Energy crisis|energy crises]] demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources. By the 1970s, the ecological footprint of humanity exceeded the carrying capacity of earth, therefore the mode of life of humanity became unsustainable.<ref name=""See chapter 3.2.1 - &quot;Global Trends&quot;"">{{cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=David|last2=Hanscom|first2=Laurel|last3=Murthy|first3=Adeline|last4=Galli|first4=Alessandro|last5=Evans|first5=Mikel|last6=Neill|first6=Evan|last7=Serena Mancini|first7=Maria|last8=Martindill|first8=Jon|last9=Medouar|first9=Fatime-Zahra|last10=Huang|first10=Shiyu|last11=Wackernagel|first11=Mathis|date=17 September 2018|title=Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018|journal=Resources|volume=7|issue=3|pages=58|doi=10.3390/resources7030058|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the 21st century, there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by global [[climate change]], produced largely by the burning of [[Fossil fuel|fossil fuels]].<ref name="":4"">U.S. Department of Commerce. [http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/research/themes/carbon/ Carbon Cycle Science]. NOAA [[Earth System Research Laboratories]]. Retrieved on: 14 March 2009</ref><ref name="":5"">BBC News (August 2008). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2004/climate_change/default.stm In depth: ""Climate Change.""] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 14 March 2009</ref> Another major threat is [[biodiversity loss]], caused primarily by [[land use]] change.

==Early civilizations==
{{See|Neolithic Revolution}}
In early human history, although the [[energy]] and other [[Natural resource|resource]] demands of nomadic hunter-gatherers were small, the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities.<ref name="":0"" /> Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago, [[agriculture]] emerged in various regions of the world.<ref>Wright, p. 55.</ref> [[Agrarian community|Agrarian communities]] depended largely on their [[Natural environment|environment]] and the creation of a ""structure of permanence"".<ref name="":1"" /> Societies outgrowing their local food supply or depleting critical resources either moved on or faced collapse.<ref name=collapse>Diamond, J. (2005).''Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed''. New York: Viking Books. {{ISBN|1-58663-863-7}}.</ref>
[[File:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A Sumerian harvester's sickle, 3000 BC, made from baked clay|[[Sumer]]ian harvester's sickle, 3000 BC, made from baked clay]]

Archeological evidence suggests that the first civilizations arose in [[Sumer]], in southern [[Mesopotamia]] (now Iraq) and [[Egypt]], both dating from around 3000 [[BCE]]. By 1000 BCE, civilizations were also established in the Indus Valley, China, Mexico, Peru, and in parts of Europe.<ref>Kramer, S. (1988). ''History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in Recorded History.'' University of Pennsylvania Press; 3rd edition (April 1988), pp. 52–55.{{ISBN|9780812212761}}.</ref><ref>Wright, R., p. 42.</ref> Sumer illustrates issues central to the sustainability of human civilization.<ref name = Wright>Wright, R., pp. 86–116</ref> Sumerian cities practiced intensive, year-round [[history of agriculture|agriculture]] from {{circa|5300}}&nbsp;BCE. The surplus of storable food created by this economy allowed the population to settle in one place instead of migrating in search of wild foods and grazing land. It also allowed for a much greater population density. The development of agriculture in Mesopotamia required many labourers to build and maintain its [[irrigation]] system. This, in turn, led to political [[hierarchy]], [[bureaucracy]], and [[religion|religious]] sanction, along with standing [[Army|armies]] to protect the emergent civilization. Intensified agriculture allowed for population increase, but also led to [[deforestation]] in upstream areas with resultant flooding and over-irrigation, which raised [[soil salinity]].  While there was a shift from the cultivation of [[wheat]] to the more salt-tolerant [[barley]], yields still diminished. Eventually, decreasing agricultural production and other factors led to the decline of the civilization. From 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population was reduced by nearly sixty percent.<ref name = Wright/><ref name=Thompson>{{cite journal|last1=Thompson |first1=W. R. |year=2004 |title=Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation |journal=Journal of World Systems Research |url=http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol10/number3/pdf/jwsr-v10n3-thompson.pdf |doi=10.1007/s00268-004-7605-z |volume=28 |pages=1187–98 |access-date= 2009-07-07 |pmid=15517490 |last2=Hay |first2=ID |issue=12 |s2cid=23452777 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219134627/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol10/number3/pdf/jwsr-v10n3-thompson.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-19 }}</ref> Civilizations similarly thought to have eventually fallen because of poor management of resources include the [[Mayans]], [[Anasazi]] and [[Easter Island]]ers, among many others.<ref>[[Jared Diamond|Diamond, J.]] (2005). ''Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies''. New York: W.W. Norton. {{ISBN|978-0-393-06131-4}}.</ref><ref>Diamond, J. (2005). ''Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed.'' London: Penguin. {{ISBN|978-0-14-303655-5}}.</ref> In contrast, stable communities of [[Shifting cultivation|shifting cultivators]] and [[horticulturists]] existed in [[New Guinea]] and [[South America]], and large agrarian communities in [[China]], [[India]] and elsewhere have farmed in the same localities for centuries. Some Polynesian cultures have maintained stable communities for between 1,000 and 3,000 years on small islands with minimal resources using [[rahui]]<ref>Cook Islands National Environment Service. [http://www.environment.org.ck/protected_areas.htm National Parks and Conservation Areas] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805150722/http://www.environment.org.ck/protected_areas.htm |date=2009-08-05 }}. Retrieved on: 2009-02-24.</ref> and [[kaitiaki]]tanga<ref>Miller, D. N. Tüwharetoa & N. Kahungunu (2005). [http://www.firstfound.org/david%20miller.htm Western and Mäori Values for Sustainable Development]. MWH New Zealand Ltd. Retrieved on: 2009-02-24.</ref> to control human pressure on the environment. In Sri Lanka  nature reserves  established during the reign of king [[Devanampiyatissa]] and dating back to 307 BC were devoted to sustainability and harmonious living with nature.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mackee | first1 = J. | last2 = Obbard | first2 = J. | last3 = Briffett | first3 = C. | year = 2001 | title = Environmental Assessment in Sri Lanka: Its Status and the Potential for the Introduction of Strategic Environmental Assessment | journal = Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy & Management | volume = 3 | issue = 2| page = 209 | doi=10.1142/s1464333201000674}}</ref>

==Emergence of industrial societies==
{{See|Fossil fuel}}
[[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|right|thumb|alt=A museum display of Watt's steam engine|A [[Watt steam engine]], the [[steam engine]] fuelled primarily by [[coal]] that propelled the Industrial Revolution in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the world]]
Technological advances over several millennia gave humans increasing control over the environment. But it was the Western [[industrial revolution]] of the 18th to 19th centuries that tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in [[fossil fuels]]. [[Coal]] was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity. Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease.<ref name=""Hilgenkamp"">Hilgenkamp, K. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCNxKlDLogC&dq=sanitation+systems+medicine+disease+history&pg=PA41 Environmental Health: Ecological Perspectives]. London: Jones & Bartlett. {{ISBN|978-0-7637-2377-4}}.</ref> Such conditions led to a human population explosion and unprecedented industrial, technological and scientific growth that has continued to this day, marking the commencement of a period of global human influence known as the [[Anthropocene]]. From 1650 to 1850, the global population doubled from around 500 million to 1 billion people.<ref>Goudie A. (2005). ''The Human Impact on the Natural Environment.'' 6th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-4051-2704-2}}.</ref>

Concerns about the environmental and social impacts of industry were expressed by some [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] political economists and through the [[Romantic movement]] of the 1800s. The Reverend [[Thomas Malthus]], devised catastrophic and [[Malthusian catastrophe#Criticism|much-criticised theories of ""overpopulation""]], while [[John Stuart Mill]] foresaw the desirability of a ""stationary state"" economy, thus anticipating concerns of the modern discipline of [[ecological economics]].<ref>Martinez-Alier, J. (1987). ''Ecological Economics.'' London: Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0-631-15739-7}}.</ref><ref>Schumacher, E. (1973). ''Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered''. London: Blond and Briggs. {{ISBN|978-0-85634-012-3}}.</ref><ref>Daly, H.E. & Farley, J. (2004). ''Ecological Economics: Principles and Applications''. London: Island Press. {{ISBN|1-55963-312-3}}.</ref>  In the late 19th century [[Eugenius Warming]] was the first botanist to study physiological relations between plants and their environment, heralding the scientific discipline of [[ecology]].<ref>Goodland, R.J. (1975). [https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3543715 ""The tropical origin of ecology: Eugen Warming's jubilee.""] ''Oikos'' '''26''': 240–245. Retrieved on: 2009-03-14</ref>
{{See|Hans Carl von Carlowitz}}

==Early 20th century==
{{See also|Environmental movement}}
By the 20th century, the industrial revolution had led to an exponential increase in the human consumption of resources. The increase in health, wealth and population was perceived as a simple path of progress.<ref>de Long, B. (2000). ""Cornucopia: The Pace of Economic Growth in the
Twentieth Century."" Working Paper 7602. Cambridge, MA:National Bureau of Economic Research.</ref>  However, in the 1930s economists began developing models of [[non-renewable resource]] management (see [[Hotelling's rule]])<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hotelling | first1 = H | year = 1931 | title = The Economics of Exhaustible Resources | url = http://www.e-elgar.com/shop/isbn/9781852785802| journal = Journal of Political Economy | volume = 39 | issue = 2| pages = 137–175 | doi=10.1086/254195| s2cid = 222432341 }}</ref> and the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable resources ([[Hartwick's rule]]).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hartwick | first1 = J | year = 1977 | title = Intergenerational Equity and the Investing of Rents from Exhaustible Resources | journal = American Economic Review | volume = 66 | pages = 972–974 }}</ref>

[[Ecology]] had now gained general acceptance as a scientific discipline, and many concepts vital to sustainability were being explored. These included: the interconnectedness of all living systems in a single living planetary system, the [[biosphere]]; the importance of [[biogeochemical cycles|natural cycles]] (of water, nutrients and other chemicals, materials, waste); and the passage of energy through [[trophic level]]s of living systems.<ref>Worster, D (1994) ""Nature's economy: a history of ecological ideas"". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-46834-5}}</ref>

==Mid 20th century: environmentalism==
{{See also|Environmentalism|Environmental science}}
Following the deprivations of the great depression and World War II the [[Developed country|developed world]] entered a new period of escalating growth, a post-1950s ""great acceleration ... a surge in the human enterprise that has emphatically stamped humanity as a global geophysical force.""<ref>Robin, L. (2008). [http://www-histecon.kings.cam.ac.uk/history-sust/files/Big_Here_and_Long_Now-presentation.pdf ""The 'Big Here and the Long Now': agendas for history and sustainability.""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326111311/http://www-histecon.kings.cam.ac.uk/history-sust/files/Big_Here_and_Long_Now-presentation.pdf |date=2009-03-26 }} Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University/Centre for Historical Research, National Museum of Australia. Retrieved on: 2009-03-16.</ref>  A gathering [[environmental movement]] pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed. Innovations in technology (including plastics, synthetic chemicals, nuclear energy) and the increasing use of fossil fuels, were transforming society. Modern industrial agriculture—the ""[[Green Revolution]]""—was based on the development of synthetic fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides which had devastating consequences for rural wildlife, as documented by American marine biologist, naturalist and environmentalist  [[Rachel Carson]] in ''[[Silent Spring]]'' (1962).

In 1956, American geoscientist [[M. King Hubbert|M. King Hubbert's]] [[peak oil]] theory predicted an inevitable peak of oil production, first in the United States (between 1965 and 1970), then in successive regions of the world—with a global peak expected thereafter.<ref>Grove, N. (1974). [http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/natgeog.htm ""Oil, the Dwindling Treasure.""] ''[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]].'' Retrieved on: 2009-03-29.</ref> In the 1970s environmentalism's concern with pollution, the population explosion, consumerism and the depletion of finite resources found expression in ''[[Small Is Beautiful]],'' by British economist  [[E. F. Schumacher]] in 1973, and ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'' published by the global think tank, the [[Club of Rome]], in 1975.

==Late 20th century==
{{See|Sustainability|Sustainable development}}
Environmental problems were now becoming global in scale.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name=""LPR2008"" /><ref name=""millenniumassessment.org"" /><ref name="":3"" /> The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on a nonrenewable resource; President [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] in his State of the Union Address called on Americans to ""Conserve energy. Eliminate waste. Make 1980 indeed a year of energy conservation.""<ref>Carter, J. (1980). [http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.org/documents/speeches/su80jec.phtml State of the Union Address]. Jimmy Carter Library & Museum, Georgia State University, and the Board of Regents of the University System of Georgia. Retrieved on: 2009-04-05.</ref> While the developed world was considering the problems of unchecked development the developing countries, faced with continued poverty and deprivation, regarded development as essential  to raise the living standards of their peoples.<ref>The Group of 77 (1964). [http://www.g77.org/doc/Joint%20Declaration.html Joint Declaration of the 77 Developing Countries]. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Geneva, 1964.  Retrieved on: 2009-03-31.</ref>  In 1980 the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] had published its influential ''World Conservation Strategy,''<ref>[[IUCN]]/[[UNEP]]/[[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] (1991). [http://coombs.anu.edu.au/~vern/caring/caring.html ""Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living.""] Gland, Switzerland. Retrieved on: 2009-03-29.</ref> followed in 1982 by its ''[[World Charter for Nature]],''<ref>UN General Assembly (1982). [https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm World Charter for Nature]. 48th plenary meeting, A/RES/37/7. Retrieved on: 2009-03-30.</ref> which drew attention to the decline of the world's [[ecosystems]].

In 1987 the [[United Nations|United Nation's]] [[Brundtland Commission|World Commission on Environment and Development]] (the Brundtland Commission), in its report ''[[Our Common Future]]'' suggested that development was acceptable, but it must be [[sustainable development]] that would meet the needs of the poor while not increasing environmental problems. Humanity's demand on the planet has more than doubled over the past 45 years as a result of population growth and increasing individual consumption. In 1961 almost all countries in the world had more than enough capacity to meet their own demand; by 2005 the situation had changed radically with many countries able to meet their needs only by importing resources from other nations.<ref name=""LPR"">World Wide Fund for Nature (2008). [http://assets.panda.org/downloads/living_planet_report_2008.pdf ''Living Planet Report 2008'']. Retrieved on: 2009-03-29.</ref> A move toward [[sustainable living]] by increasing public awareness and adoption of [[recycling]], and [[renewable energies]] emerged. The development of renewable sources of energy in the 1970s and '80s, primarily in [[wind turbines]] and [[photovoltaics]] and increased use of [[hydroelectricity]], presented some of the first sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel and [[Nuclear power|nuclear energy]] generation, the first large-scale solar and wind power plants appearing during the 1980s and '90s.<ref>Southface Energy and Environmental Resource Center. [http://www.southface.org/solar/solar-roadmap/solar_how-to/history-of-solar.htm The history of solar power]. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07.</ref><ref>Dodge, D. [http://www.telosnet.com/wind/ An Illustrated history of wind power development]. TelosNet. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07.</ref> Also at this time many local and state governments in developed countries began to implement small-scale sustainability policies.<ref>International Centre for Sustainable Cities. [http://sustainablecities.net/ ""Sustainable Cities.""] The international Sustainable Cities program founded in 1993. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07.</ref>

==21st century: global awareness==
Through the work of climate scientists in the  [[IPCC]] there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by global [[climate change]], produced largely by the burning of fossil fuels.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"" /> In March 2009 the [[Copenhagen Climate Council]], an international team of leading climate scientists, issued a strongly worded statement:
""The climate system is already moving beyond the patterns of natural variability within which our society and economy have developed and thrived. These parameters include global mean surface temperature, sea-level rise, ocean and [[ice sheet dynamics]], [[ocean acidification]], and extreme climatic events. There is a significant risk that many of the trends will accelerate, leading to an increasing risk of abrupt or irreversible climatic shifts.""<ref>University of Copenhagen (March 2009). [http://climatecongress.ku.dk/newsroom/congress_key_messages/ ""Key Messages from the Congress.""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316181631/http://climatecongress.ku.dk/newsroom/congress_key_messages/ |date=2009-03-16 }} ''Proc. International Scientific Congress on Climate Change.'' Retrieved on: 2009-04-01.</ref>

[[Ecological economics]] now seek to bridge the gap between ecology and traditional [[neoclassical economics]]:<ref>Golubiewski, N. & Cleveland, C. (eds.) [http://www.eoearth.org/by/Topic/Ecological%20economics ""Problems and Principles of Ecological Economics.""] ''The Encyclopedia of Earth,'' Chapter 3. Retrieved on: 2009-04-01.</ref><ref name=EarlyHistory>Costanza R. (2003). [http://www.ecoeco.org/pdf/costanza.pdf ""Early History of Ecological Economics and ISEE.""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207193521/http://www.ecoeco.org/pdf/costanza.pdf |date=2009-02-07 }} ''Internet Encyclopaedia of Ecological Economics.'' Retrieved on: 2009-04-01</ref> it provides an inclusive and ethical economic model for society. A plethora of new concepts to help implement and measure sustainability are becoming more widely accepted including the [[car-free movement]], [[smart growth]] (more sustainable urban environments), [[life cycle assessment]] (the [[cradle to cradle design|cradle to cradle]] analysis of resource use and environmental impact over the life cycle of a product or process), [[ecological footprint|ecological footprint analysis]], [[green building]], [[Dematerialization (products)|dematerialization]] (increased recycling of materials), [[decarbonisation]] (removing dependence on fossil fuels) and much more.<ref>Blewitt, J. (2008). ''Understanding Sustainable Development''. London: Earthscan.  {{ISBN|978-1-84407-454-9}}.</ref>

The work of [[Bina Agarwal]] and [[Vandana Shiva]] amongst many others, has brought some of the cultural wisdom of traditional, sustainable agrarian societies into the academic discourse on sustainability, and also blended that with modern scientific principles.<ref>Ganguly, M. [https://web.archive.org/web/20020823103246/http://www.time.com/time/2002/greencentury/heroes/index_shiva.html ""Vandana Shiva: Seeds of Self-Reliance.""] Time.com, Heroes for the Green Century. Retrieved on: 2009-04-01.</ref> In 2009 the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] of the United States determined that greenhouse gases ""endanger public health and welfare"" of the American people by contributing to [[climate change]] and causing more heat waves, droughts and flooding, and threatening food and water supplies.<ref>United States Environmental Protection Agency (April 2009). [http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/0/0EF7DF675805295D8525759B00566924 ""EPA Finds Greenhouse Gases Pose Threat to Public Health, Welfare / Proposed Finding Comes in Response to 2007 Supreme Court Ruling.""] News Releases by date. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17.</ref> Between the years 2016 and 2018, the United States saw an increase in 5.7% of the annual average fine [[particulate matter]], which aids in quantifying ambient air quality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clay |first1=Karen |last2=Muller |first2=Nicholas Z. |last3=Wang |first3=Xiao |date=2021-01-01 |title=Recent Increases in Air Pollution: Evidence and Implications for Mortality |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/712983 |journal=Review of Environmental Economics and Policy |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=154–162 |doi=10.1086/712983 |s2cid=233312047 |issn=1750-6816}}</ref> Rapidly advancing technologies now provide the means to achieve a transition of economies, energy generation, water and waste management, and food production towards sustainable practices using methods of [[systems ecology]] and [[industrial ecology]].<ref>Kay, J. (2002). [http://www.nesh.ca/jameskay/www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/u/jjkay/pubs/IE/ie.pdf Kay, J.J. ""On Complexity Theory, Exergy and Industrial Ecology: Some Implications for Construction Ecology.""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060106201301/http://www.nesh.ca/jameskay/www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/u/jjkay/pubs/IE/ie.pdf |date=2006-01-06 }} In: Kibert C., Sendzimir J., Guy, B. (eds.) ''Construction Ecology: Nature as the Basis for Green Buildings,'' pp. 72–107. London: Spon Press. Retrieved on: 2009-04-01.</ref><ref name = Quest>Baksh, B. and Fiksel  J. (June 2003) [http://www.resilience.osu.edu/CFR-site/pdf/6-03perspective.pdf ""The Quest for Sustainability: Challenges for Process Systems Engineering.""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720024343/http://www.resilience.osu.edu/CFR-site/pdf/6-03perspective.pdf |date=2011-07-20 }} ''American Institute Of Chemical Engineers Journal'' '''49'''(6):1355. Retrieved on: 2009-04-04.</ref>

==See also==
*[[History of sustainable transport]]
*[[Legacy pollution]]
*[[Outline of sustainability]]
*[[Environmental issue]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091125231339/http://archis.org/history-of-sustainability/ The Complex History of Sustainability, a Timeline of Trends, Authors, Projects and Fiction]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100121101206/http://www-histecon.kings.cam.ac.uk/envdoc/sustainability/index.html History and sustainability project led by Paul Warde at the Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge.]

{{Sustainability}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Sustainability}}
[[Category:Sustainability|*]]
[[Category:Environmental history|Sustainability]]
[[Category:Pollution]]"
Amsterdam Global Conference on Sustainability and Transparency,"{{Short description|2006–2010 conference}}
The '''Amsterdam Global Conference on Sustainability and Transparency''' was held for the third time in May 2010. Over the years, the conference has seen the world’s largest gathering of leaders, thinkers and doers in the field of sustainability reporting, with debates being convened  on how reporting can be used to help build a better future. Thought leaders from business, finance, government and civil society have been brought together to debate the political, strategic and practical choices confronting the world and expert practitioners have led workshops and interactive sessions to define the building blocks of more effective reporting.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=32 |title=Amsterdam GRI Conference |accessdate=2010-02-25 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316225737/http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=32 |archivedate=2010-03-16 }}</ref>

The first Amsterdam Global Conference on Sustainability and Transparency, held by the [[Global Reporting Initiative]] (GRI), took place in October 2006, with over 1,200 participants. In May 2008, the second Amsterdam Global Conference was held. This climate neutral conference brought together over 1,000 participants from 58 countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinacsrmap.org/E_OrgShow.asp?CCMOrg_ID=1287 |title=Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)----China CSR Map |accessdate=2010-03-11 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725170436/http://www.chinacsrmap.org/E_OrgShow.asp?CCMOrg_ID=1287 |archivedate=2011-07-25 }}</ref> The 2010 Amsterdam Global Conference on Sustainability and Transparency was held from 26–28 May 2010 at the Amsterdam RAI Exhibition and Convention Centre in The Netherlands.<ref>http://www.csrnewseurope.com/article.php?articleID=189 {{Dead link|date=March 2022}}</ref>

==2010 conference themes==
* '''Rethink''' Our resource consumption has gone beyond what our planet can sustain, yet billions continue to live in poverty. The world’s population is set to increase massively and more and more people will, understandably, expect to live the lifestyles currently enjoyed by the few. This unsustainable outlook has become a core business issue, requiring companies and governments to rethink the fundamentals.
* '''Rebuild''' As we climb out of global recession we have a unique opportunity &mdash; and an urgent need &mdash; to rebuild our economies to meet the challenges of the future, not the past. We have the opportunity to drive the transition to sustainable practices, where sustainability is at the core of public policy and business strategy, evident in products and processes, and key to [[consumer choice]]s.
* '''Report''' Sustainability reporting can be an effective tool for change. Credible disclosures map out current positions and point the way forwards, towards solutions that benefit both business and wider society. Full economic, environmental and social accountability is based on transparent communication. Transparent communication changes perceptions, builds trust, and motivates action towards greater sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=32 |title=Amsterdam GRI Conference |accessdate=2010-02-25 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316225737/http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=32 |archivedate=2010-03-16 }}</ref>

==2010 conference in review== 
The third GRI Global Conference on Sustainability and Transparency attracted more participants than ever before and from a greater number of countries. In 2010, 77 countries were represented with over 1200 attendees. Participants enjoyed a diverse range of topics in 60 main hall, parallel, and academic sessions on best practices in ESG disclosure and the future of sustainability reporting.

During the Opening Plenary, GRI’s chief executive Ernst Ligteringen outlined two goals for the next decade:

# GRI proposes that [[environmental, social, and corporate governance|environmental, social, and governance]] (ESG) reporting should become a general practice to help markets and society take informed and responsible decisions. GRI advocates that by '''2015''' all large and medium-sized companies in OECD countries and fast-growing emerging economies should be required to report publicly on their ESG performance, or if they don’t, explain why. 
# GRI proposes that ESG reporting and financial reporting need to converge over the coming decade. GRI advocates that a standard for integrated reporting should be defined, tested and adopted by '''2020'''. In line with this, The Prince’s Accounting for Sustainability Project (A4S) and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) announced the formation of the [http://www.integratedreporting.org/ International Integrated Reporting Committee] (IIRC).

==History==
Over 1000 participants from more than 50 countries attended each of the first biennial conferences in 2006 and 2008. Of the participants, over 40% came from countries outside of Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/media/documents/conference_brochure_v4_2504.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-02-25 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903233422/http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/media/documents/conference_brochure_v4_2504.pdf |archivedate=2011-09-03 }}</ref> 10% of participants at the previous two conferences were CEO/Board of Director level, and over 30% were vice presidents, senior managers, or heads of departments. Industries represented included automotive, food and beverage, mining and metals, apparel, IT, oil and gas, construction and real estate, media, telecommunications, and logistics. In addition representatives from finance, NGOs, accountancy, government and regulatory bodies attended the previous two conferences.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=36 |title=Amsterdam GRI Conference |accessdate=2010-02-25 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903233408/http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=36 |archivedate=2011-09-03 }}</ref>

Conference speaker alumni include:
* His Royal Highness [[Willem Alexander, Prince of Orange]], The Netherlands
* [[Al Gore]], former United States vice president
* Sir [[Mark Moody-Stuart]], chairman Anglo American
* [[Kumi Naidoo]], honorary president CIVICUS (now executive director at Greenpeace International)
* [[Rajendra K. Pachauri]], chairman Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
* [[Achim Steiner]], executive director United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)
* [[Margot Wallström]], vice president European Commission
* [[Queen Rania of Jordan]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.queenrania.jo/media/speeches/global-reporting-initiative-gri-conference-amsterdam-netherlands|title = Queen Rania's Speech at Global Reporting Initiative Conference 2008 - Amsterdam, Netherlands &#124; Queen Rania|date = 8 May 2008}}</ref>

==Organizers==
This conference was organized by [[Global Reporting Initiative]] based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The [[Global Reporting Initiative]] has pioneered the development of the world’s most widely used sustainability reporting framework and is committed to its continuous improvement and application worldwide. This framework sets out the principles and indicators that organizations can use to measure and report their economic, environmental, and social performance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalreporting.org/AboutGRI/WhatIsGRI/ |title=GRI Portal - What is GRI? |accessdate=2010-02-25 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225044310/http://www.globalreporting.org/AboutGRI/WhatIsGRI |archivedate=2010-02-25 }}</ref>
<!-- [[:File:GRI logo 1color.png|thumb|alt=ALT text|GRI Logo]] Non free file removed by DASHBot-->

==References==
<!--- See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] on how to create references using <ref></ref> tags which will then appear here automatically -->
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080616060215/http://www.globalreporting.org/Home]
* [http://globalblogs.deloitte.com/deloitteperspectives/2010/05/the-global-reporting-initiative-conference-kicks-off.html]
* [http://www.triplepundit.com/2010/06/report-from-gri-amsterdam-the-future-of-transparent-sustainability-reporting/]
* [http://www.vimeo.com/14029112]

==See also==
* [[Integrated reporting]]
* [[Socially responsible investing]]
 *[[Corporate social responsibility]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Amsterdam Global Conference On Sustainability And Transparency}}
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Category:Sustainable development,"{{Commons category|Sustainable development}}
{{JEL code|Q01}}
{{Cat main|Sustainable development}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Development}}
[[Category:Academic disciplines]]
[[Category:Economic development]]
[[Category:Sustainability|Development]]
[[Category:Social concepts]]
{{CatAutoTOC}}

{{CatTrack}}"
Convergence (sustainability science),"'''Convergence''' in [[sustainability science]]s refers to mechanisms and pathways that lead towards [[sustainability]] with a specific focus on 'Equity within biological planetary limits'. These pathways and mechanisms explicitly advocate equity and recognise the need for redistribution of the Earth's resources in order for human society to operate enduringly within the Earth's biophysical limits.

The term was first introduced by [[Phillip A. Sharp]] and [[Robert Langer]] in 2011 in the context of [[biomedical science]]. They called for a problem-solving approach that integrated knowledge from the fields of engineering, the physical sciences, computer science, and the life sciences to find solutions to human problems.  The idea has since been applied in areas including [[climate change]], [[environmental health]], [[public health]], [[Systemic bias|systemic inequities]]. and [[sustainability]].<ref name=""McNutt""/><ref name=""Sharp"">{{cite journal |last1=Sharp |first1=Phillip A. |last2=Langer |first2=Robert |title=Promoting Convergence in Biomedical Science |journal=Science |date=29 July 2011 |volume=333 |issue=6042 |pages=527 |doi=10.1126/science.1205008 |pmid=21798916 |s2cid=206533715 }}</ref>  One strategy is to add “friction” to undesirable practices and make them harder to do, while making the desired practices “frictionless” or easy to do.<ref name=""McNutt"">{{cite journal |last1=McNutt |first1=Marcia K. |title=Civilization-Saving Science for the Twenty-First Century |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |date=31 May 2022 |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-033021-081125 |s2cid=242005175 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-033021-081125 |access-date=1 June 2022 |issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Wood"">{{cite book |last1=Wood |first1=Wendy |title=Good Habits, Bad Habits: The Science of Making Positive Changes That Stick |date=2021 |publisher=MacMillan |location=[S.l.] |isbn=9781509864768}}</ref>

This use of the term 'convergence' harkens from the concept of [[contraction and convergence]] (C&C), taking its core principles of Equity and Survival and applying them beyond the frame of [[greenhouse gas emissions]] to the wider sustainability agenda.<ref name=""Häyhä"">{{cite journal |last1=Häyhä |first1=Tiina |last2=Lucas |first2=Paul L. |last3=van Vuuren |first3=Detlef P. |last4=Cornell |first4=Sarah E. |last5=Hoff |first5=Holger |title=From Planetary Boundaries to national fair shares of the global safe operating space — How can the scales be bridged? |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=1 September 2016 |volume=40 |pages=60–72 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.06.008 |s2cid=156791692 |language=en |issn=0959-3780|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Vadovics"">{{cite book |last1=Vadovics |first1=E. |last2=Milton |first2=S. |last3=CONVERGE Project Team |title=Case Studies ('initiatives') Illustrating Contraction and Convergence. Equity within Limits in Theory and Practice. CONVERGE Deliverable 33 |date=2012 |publisher=GreenDependent Institute |location=Hungary |url=http://www.gci.org.uk/Documents/CONVERGE_ebook_EquityWithinLimits_initiatives_doublepageprint.pdf |access-date=1 June 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]

{{Sustainability-stub}}"
Category:Sustainability and environmental management,"{{commons category|Environmental management}}
{{cat main|Sustainability and environmental management}}

[[Category:Human impact on the environment|Management]]
[[Category:Management by type]]
[[Category:Sustainability|Management]]"
Planetary boundaries,"{{Short description|Limits not to be exceeded if humanity wants to survive in a safe ecosystem}}
{{Distinguish|Planetary boundary layer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
[[File:PBs2023.png|thumb|Visualizations of the Planetary Boundaries; data for September 2023<ref name="":8"">{{cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=Katherine |last2=Steffen |first2=Will |last3=Lucht |first3=Wolfgang |date=2023 |title=Earth beyond six of nine planetary boundaries |journal=[[Science Advances]] |volume=9 |issue=37 |pages=eadh2458 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.adh2458|pmid=37703365 |pmc=10499318 |bibcode=2023SciA....9H2458R |s2cid=261742678 }}</ref>]]

'''Planetary boundaries''' are a framework to describe limits to the impacts of human activities on the [[Earth system]]. Beyond these limits, the environment may not be able to self-regulate anymore. This would mean the Earth system would leave the period of stability of the [[Holocene]], in which human society developed.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last1=Rockström |first1=Johan |last2=Steffen |first2=Will |last3=Noone |first3=Kevin |last4=Persson |first4=Åsa |last5=Chapin |first5=F. Stuart |last6=Lambin |first6=Eric F. |last7=Lenton |first7=Timothy M. |last8=Scheffer |first8=Marten |last9=Folke |first9=Carl |last10=Schellnhuber |first10=Hans Joachim |last11=Nykvist |first11=Björn |date=2009 |title=A safe operating space for humanity |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |language=en |volume=461 |issue=7263 |pages=472–475 |doi=10.1038/461472a |pmid=19779433 |bibcode=2009Natur.461..472R |s2cid=205049746 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal |last1=Rockström |first1=Johan |last2=Steffen |first2=Will |last3=Noone |first3=Kevin |last4=Persson |first4=Åsa |last5=Chapin |first5=F. Stuart III |last6=Lambin |first6=Eric |last7=Lenton |first7=Timothy M. |last8=Scheffer |first8=Marten |last9=Folke |first9=Carl |last10=Schellnhuber |first10=Hans Joachim |last11=Nykvist |first11=Björn |date=2009 |title=Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity |url=http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/ |journal=[[Ecology and Society]] |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=art32 |doi=10.5751/ES-03180-140232 |s2cid=15182169 |issn=1708-3087|doi-access=free |hdl=10535/5421 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rockström |first1=Johan |last2=Gupta |first2=Joyeeta |last3=Qin |first3=Dahe |last4=Lade |first4=Steven J. |last5=Abrams |first5=Jesse F. |last6=Andersen |first6=Lauren S. |last7=Armstrong McKay |first7=David I. |last8=Bai |first8=Xuemei |last9=Bala |first9=Govindasamy |last10=Bunn |first10=Stuart E. |last11=Ciobanu |first11=Daniel |last12=DeClerck |first12=Fabrice |last13=Ebi |first13=Kristie |last14=Gifford |first14=Lauren |last15=Gordon |first15=Christopher |last16=Hasan |first16=Syezlin |last17=Kanie |first17=Norichika |last18=Lenton |first18=Timothy M. |last19=Loriani |first19=Sina |last20=Liverman |first20=Diana M. |last21=Mohamed |first21=Awaz |last22=Nakicenovic |first22=Nebojsa |last23=Obura |first23=David |last24=Ospina |first24=Daniel |last25=Prodani |first25=Klaudia |last26=Rammelt |first26=Crelis |last27=Sakschewski |first27=Boris |last28=Scholtens |first28=Joeri |last29=Stewart-Koster |first29=Ben |last30=Tharammal |first30=Thejna |last31=van Vuuren |first31=Detlef |last32=Verburg |first32=Peter H. |last33=Winkelmann |first33=Ricarda |last34=Zimm |first34=Caroline |last35=Bennett |first35=Elena M. |last36=Bringezu |first36=Stefan |last37=Broadgate |first37=Wendy |last38=Green |first38=Pamela A. |last39=Huang |first39=Lei |last40=Jacobson |first40=Lisa |last41=Ndehedehe |first41=Christopher |last42=Pedde |first42=Simona |last43=Rocha |first43=Juan |last44=Scheffer |first44=Marten |last45=Schulte-Uebbing |first45=Lena |last46=de Vries |first46=Wim |last47=Xiao |first47=Cunde |last48=Xu |first48=Chi |last49=Xu |first49=Xinwu |last50=Zafra-Calvo |first50=Noelia |last51=Zhang |first51=Xin |title=Safe and just Earth system boundaries |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=2023 |volume=619 |issue=7968 |pages=102–111 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06083-8 |pmid=37258676 |pmc=10322705 |bibcode=2023Natur.619..102R |doi-access=free}}</ref> The framework is based on scientific evidence that human actions, especially those of industrialized societies since the [[Industrial Revolution]], have become the main driver of global environmental change. According to the framework, ""transgressing one or more planetary boundaries may be deleterious or even catastrophic due to the risk of crossing thresholds that will trigger non-linear, abrupt environmental change within continental-scale to planetary-scale systems.""<ref name="":4"" />

The [[Normativity|normative]] component of the framework is that [[Human history|human societies]] have been able to thrive under the comparatively stable climatic and ecological conditions of the [[Holocene]]. To the extent that these Earth system process boundaries have not been crossed, they mark the ""safe zone"" for human societies on the planet.<ref name="":5"" /> Proponents of the planetary boundary framework propose returning to this environmental and climatic system; as opposed to human science and technology deliberately creating a more beneficial climate. The concept doesn't address how humans have massively altered ecological conditions to better suit themselves. The climatic and ecological Holocene this framework considers as a ""safe zone"" doesn't involve massive industrial farming. So this framework begs a reassessment of how to feed modern populations. 

The concept has since become influential in the international community (e.g. [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]]), including governments at all levels, international organizations, civil society and the scientific community.<ref name="":6"" /> The framework consists of nine global change processes. In 2009, according to [[Johan Rockström|Rockström]] and others, three boundaries were already crossed (biodiversity loss, climate change and nitrogen cycle), while others were in imminent danger of being crossed.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |date=2009 |title=Earth's boundaries? |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |language=en |volume=461 |issue=7263 |pages=447–448 |doi=10.1038/461447b |pmid=19779405 |bibcode=2009Natur.461R.447. |s2cid=29052784 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In 2015, several of the scientists in the original group published an update, bringing in new co-authors and new model-based analysis. According to this update, four of the boundaries were crossed: climate change, loss of biosphere integrity, land-system change, altered biogeochemical cycles (phosphorus and nitrogen).<ref name=""Cornell2015"" /> The scientists also changed the name of the boundary ""[[Loss of biodiversity]]"" to ""Change in biosphere integrity"" to emphasize that not only the number of species but also the functioning of the biosphere as a whole is important for Earth system stability. Similarly, the ""Chemical pollution"" boundary was renamed to ""Introduction of novel entities"", widening the scope to consider different kinds of human-generated materials that disrupt Earth system processes.

In 2022, based on the available literature, the introduction of novel entities was concluded to be the 5th transgressed planetary boundary.<ref name="":0"" /> Freshwater change was concluded to be the 6th transgressed planetary boundary in 2023.<ref name="":8"" />{{TOC limit|3}}

==Framework overview and principles==
The basic idea of the Planetary Boundaries framework is that maintaining the observed resilience of the Earth system in the [[Holocene]] is a precondition for humanity's pursuit of long-term social and economic development.{{sfn|Rockström|28 others|2009}} The Planetary Boundaries framework contributes to an understanding of global [[sustainability]] because it brings a planetary scale and a long timeframe into focus.<ref name=""Cornell2015"" />

The framework described nine ""planetary life support systems"" essential for maintaining a ""desired [[Holocene]] state"", and attempted to quantify how far seven of these systems had been pushed already.<ref name="":1"" /> Boundaries were defined to help define a ""safe space for human development"", which was an improvement on approaches aiming at minimizing [[Human impact on the environment|human impacts]] on the planet.{{sfn|Rockström|28 others|2009}}

The framework is based on scientific evidence that human actions, especially those of industrialized societies since the [[Industrial Revolution]], have become the main driver of global environmental change. According to the framework, ""transgressing one or more planetary boundaries may be deleterious or even catastrophic due to the risk of crossing thresholds that will trigger non-linear, abrupt [[environmental change]] within continental-scale to planetary-scale systems.""{{sfn|Rockström|28 others|2009}} The framework consists of nine global change processes. In 2009, two boundaries were already crossed, while others were in imminent danger of being crossed.<ref name="":1"" /> Later estimates indicated that three of these boundaries—[[climate change]], [[biodiversity]] loss, and the biogeochemical flow boundary—appear to have been crossed.

The scientists outlined how breaching the boundaries increases the threat of functional disruption, even collapse, in Earth's biophysical systems in ways that could be catastrophic for human wellbeing. While they highlighted scientific uncertainty, they indicated that breaching boundaries could ""trigger feedbacks that may result in crossing thresholds that drastically reduce the ability to return within safe levels"". The boundaries were ""rough, first estimates only, surrounded by large uncertainties and knowledge gaps"" which interact in complex ways that are not yet well understood.{{sfn|Rockström|28 others|2009}}

The planetary boundaries framework lays the groundwork for a shifting approach to governance and management, away from the essentially sectoral analyses of limits to growth aimed at minimizing negative [[Externality|externalities]], toward the estimation of the safe space for human development. Planetary boundaries demarcate, as it were, the ""planetary playing field"" for humanity if major [[Human impact on the environment|human-induced environmental change]] on a global scale is to be avoided.<ref name=""Cornell2015"" />

=== Authors ===
The authors of this framework was a group of [[Earth system science|Earth System]] and [[environmental science|environmental scientists]] in 2009 led by [[Johan Rockström]] from the [[Stockholm Resilience Centre]] and [[Will Steffen]] from the [[Australian National University]]. They collaborated with 26 leading academics, including [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel]] laureate [[Paul Crutzen]], [[Goddard Institute for Space Studies]] climate scientist [[James Hansen]], oceanographer [[Katherine Richardson Christensen|Katherine Richardson]], geographer [[Diana Liverman]] and the [[German Chancellor]]'s chief climate adviser [[Hans Joachim Schellnhuber]].

Most of the contributing scientists were involved in strategy-setting for the [[Earth System Science Partnership]], the precursor to the international global change research network [[Future Earth]]. The group wanted to define a ""safe operating space for humanity"" for the wider scientific community, as a precondition for [[sustainable development]].

== Nine boundaries ==

=== Thresholds and tipping points ===
The 2009 study identified nine planetary boundaries and, drawing on current scientific understanding, the researchers proposed quantifications for seven of them. These are:

# climate change ([[Carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] concentration in the atmosphere <&nbsp;350&nbsp;ppm and/or a maximum change of +1&nbsp;W/m<sup>2</sup> in [[radiative forcing]]); 
# [[ocean acidification]] (mean surface seawater saturation state with respect to [[aragonite]] ≥ 80% of pre-[[Industrial Revolution|industrial]] levels); 
# [[Stratosphere|stratospheric]] ozone depletion (less than 5% reduction in total atmospheric [[Ozone|O<sub>3</sub>]] from a pre-industrial level of 290 [[Dobson Unit]]s); 
# [[Biogeochemical cycle|biogeochemical]] flows in the [[Nitrogen cycle|nitrogen (N) cycle]] (limit industrial and agricultural fixation of N<sub>2</sub> to 35&nbsp;Tg N/yr) and [[Phosphorus cycle|phosphorus (P) cycle]] (annual P inflow to oceans not to exceed 10 times the natural background [[weathering]] of P); 
# global freshwater use (<&nbsp;4000&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>/yr of consumptive use of runoff resources); 
# land system change (<&nbsp;15% of the ice-free land surface under cropland);
# the erosion of biosphere integrity (an annual rate of loss of biological diversity of < 10 extinctions per million species). 
# [[Pollution|chemical pollution]] (introduction of novel entities in the environment).
For one process in the planetary boundaries framework, the scientists have not specified a global boundary quantification:
<ol start=""9"">
<li>[[Air pollution|atmospheric aerosol loading]];</li>
</ol>

The quantification of individual planetary boundaries is based on the observed dynamics of the interacting Earth system processes included in the framework. The control variables were chosen because together they provide an effective way to track the human-caused shift away from Holocene conditions.

For some of Earth's dynamic processes, historic data display clear [[Ecological threshold|thresholds]] between comparatively stable conditions. For example, past [[Ice age|ice-ages]] show that during peak glacial conditions, the atmospheric concentration of CO<sub>2</sub> was ~180-200 ppm. In interglacial periods (including the Holocene), CO<sub>2</sub> concentration has fluctuated around 280 ppm. To know what [[:File:All%20palaeotemps.svg|past climate conditions]] were like with an atmosphere with over 350 ppm CO<sub>2</sub>, scientists need to look back about 3 million years. The [[Paleoclimatology|paleo record]] of climatic, ecological and biogeochemical changes shows that the Earth system has experienced [[Tipping point (climatology)|tipping points]], when a very small increment for a control variable (like CO<sub>2</sub>) triggers a larger, possibly catastrophic, change in the response variable (global warming) through [[Climate change feedback|feedbacks]] in the natural Earth System itself.

For several of the processes in the planetary boundaries framework, it is difficult to locate individual points that mark the threshold shift away from Holocene-like conditions. This is because the Earth system is complex and the scientific evidence base is still partial and fragmented. Instead, the planetary boundaries framework identifies many Earth system thresholds at multiple scales that will be influenced by increases in the control variables.<ref name="":1"" /> Examples include shifts in [[monsoon]] behavior linked to the [[Particulates|aerosol loading]] and [[Fresh water#Freshwater withdrawal|freshwater use]] planetary boundaries.

{| class=""wikitable""
|+Planetary Boundaries (as defined in 2023)<ref name="":8"" />
|-
! Earth-system<br />process !! Control variable<ref name="":8"" />!! Boundary<br />value in 2023  !! ""Current"" value 
<br />(i.e. for the year provided in the source)
! Boundary now<br />exceeded beyond the 2023 values? (based on ""current"" value) !! Preindustrial Holocene base value
|-
| rowspan=""2"" | 1.&nbsp;[[Global warming|Climate change]] || [[Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere|Atmospheric carbon dioxide]] concentration ([[Parts per million|ppm]] by volume)<ref>[http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ Recent Mauna Loa CO2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225142754/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ |date=25 December 2018 }} [[Earth System Research Laboratories]], ''[[NOAA]] Research''.</ref> {{See also|Tipping point (climatology)}} || style=""text-align:center;"" |350 || style=""text-align:center;"" |417<ref name=""igcc2022"">Forster, P. M. et al. (2023). Indicators of Global Climate Change 2022: Annual update of large-scale indicators of the state of the climate system and the human influence. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 15, 2295–2327.</ref> || style=""background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;"" |yes || style=""text-align:center;"" |280 
|-
| Total anthropogenic [[radiative forcing]] at top-of-atmosphere (W/m<sup>2</sup>) since the start of the industrial revolution (~1750) || style=""text-align:center;"" |1.0 || style=""text-align:center;"" |2.91<ref name=""igcc2022"" />|| style=""background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;"" |yes || style=""text-align:center;"" |0 
|-
| rowspan=""2"" | 2.&nbsp;[[Biodiversity loss|Change in biosphere integrity]]<ref name="":8"" />|| ''Genetic diversity:'' Extinction rate measured as E/MSY ([[extinction]]s per million species-years) || style=""text-align:center;"" |<10 E/MSY but with an aspirational goal of ca. 1 E/MSY (assumed background rate of extinction loss) || style=""text-align:center;"" |>100 E/MSY|| style=""background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;"" |yes || style=""text-align:center;"" |1 E/MSY
|-
|| ''Functional diversity:'' energy available to ecosystems (NPP) (% HANPP)|| style=""text-align:center;"" |HANPP (in billion tonnes of C year−1) <10% of preindustrial Holocene NPP, i.e., >90% remaining for supporting biosphere function|| style=""text-align:center;"" |30% HANPP|| style=""background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;"" |yes || style=""text-align:center;"" |1.9% (2σ variability of preindustrial Holocene century-mean NPP)
|-
| rowspan=""2"" | 3.&nbsp;[[Biogeochemical]] || Phosphate global: P flow from freshwater systems into the ocean; regional: P flow from fertilizers to erodible soils (Tg of P year<sup>−1</sup>)|| style=""text-align:center;"" |''Phosphate global'': 11 Tg of P year<sup>−1</sup>; ''regional'': 6.2 Tg of P year<sup>−1</sup> mined and applied to erodible (agricultural) soils.|| style=""text-align:center;"" |''Global'': 22 Tg of P year<sup>−1</sup>;<ref>Carpenter, S. R., & Bennett, E. M. (2011). Reconsideration of the planetary boundary for phosphorus. Environmental Research Letters, 6(1), 014009. DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/6/1/014009</ref> ''regional'': 17.5 Tg of P year<sup>−1</sup> || style=""background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;"" |yes || style=""text-align:center;"" |0 
|-
| Nitrogen global: industrial and intentional fixation of N (Tg of N year<sup>−1</sup>)|| style=""text-align:center;"" |62 || style=""text-align:center;"" |190|| style=""background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;"" |yes || style=""text-align:center;"" |0 
|-
| 4.&nbsp;[[Ocean acidification]] || Global mean saturation state of [[calcium carbonate]] in surface seawater (omega units) ||style=""text-align:center;"" |2.75 || style=""text-align:center;"" |2.8 || style=""background:#aaddaa;text-align:center;"" |no || style=""text-align:center;"" |3.44 
|-
| 5.&nbsp;[[Land use]] || Part of forests rested intact (percent)<ref name=""Cornell2015"" /> || style=""text-align:center;"" |75 from all forests including 85 from [[Boreal forest]], 50 from [[Temperate forest]]s and 85 from [[Tropical forest]]s<ref name=""Cornell2015"" /> || style=""text-align:center;"" |''Global'': 60<ref name=""Cornell2015"" /> || style=""background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;"" |yes || style=""text-align:center;"" |100 
|-
| rowspan=""2"" | 6.&nbsp;[[Water scarcity|Freshwater change]] || Blue water: human induced disturbance of blue water flow|| style=""text-align:center;"" |Upper limit (95th percentile) of global land area with deviations greater than during preindustrial, Blue water: 10.2%|| style=""text-align:center;"" |18.2% || style=""background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;"" |yes || style=""text-align:center;"" |9.4%  
|-
| Green water: human induced disturbance of water available to plants (% land area with deviations from preindustrial variability)|| style=""text-align:center;"" |11.1% || style=""text-align:center;"" |15.8%|| style=""background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;"" |yes || style=""text-align:center;"" |9.8% 
|-
| 7.&nbsp;[[Ozone depletion]] || [[Ozone#Ozone in Earth's atmosphere|Stratospheric ozone]] concentration ([[Dobson unit]]s) || style=""text-align:center;"" |276  || style=""text-align:center;"" |284.6 || style=""background:#aaddaa;text-align:center;"" |no || style=""text-align:center;"" |290 
|-
| 8.&nbsp;[[Aerosol|Atmospheric aerosols]] || Interhemispheric difference in AOD|| style=""text-align:center;"" |0.1 (mean annual interhemispheric difference)  || style=""text-align:center;"" |0.076 || style=""background:#aaddaa;text-align:center;"" |no || style=""text-align:center;"" |0.03 
|-
| 9.&nbsp;[[Pollution|Novel entities]] || Percentage of synthetic chemicals released to the environment without adequate safety testing || style=""text-align:center;"" |0 || style=""text-align:center;"" |Transgressed || style=""background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;"" |yes || style=""text-align:center;"" |0 
|}

=== ""Safe operating spaces"" ===
The planetary boundaries framework proposes a range of values for its control variables. This range is supposed to span the threshold between a 'safe operating space' where Holocene-like dynamics can be maintained and a highly uncertain, poorly predictable world where Earth system changes likely increase risks to societies. The ''boundary'' is defined as the lower end of that range. If the boundaries are persistently crossed, the world goes further into a danger zone.<ref name="":1"" />

It is difficult to restore a 'safe operating space' for humanity that is described by the planetary boundary concept. Even if past biophysical changes could be mitigated, the predominant paradigms of social and economic development appear largely indifferent to the looming possibilities of large scale environmental disasters triggered by human actions.{{sfn|Rockström|28 others|2009}}{{sfn|Stern|2007}} Legal boundaries can help keep human activities in check, but are only as effective as the political will to make and enforce them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chapron |first1=Guillaume |last2=Epstein |first2=Yaffa |last3=Trouwborst |first3=Arie |last4=López-Bao |first4=José Vicente |date=February 2017 |title=Bolster legal boundaries to stay within planetary boundaries |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=0086 |doi=10.1038/s41559-017-0086 |pmid=28812716 |bibcode=2017NatEE...1...86C |s2cid=31914128}}</ref>

=== Interaction among boundaries ===
Understanding the Earth system is fundamentally about understanding interactions among environmental change processes. The planetary boundaries are defined with reference to dynamic conditions of the Earth system, but scientific discussions about how different planetary boundaries relate to each other are often philosophically and analytically muddled. Clearer definitions of the basic concepts and terms might help give clarity.

There are many many interactions among the processes in the planetary boundaries framework.<ref name=""Cornell2015"">{{Cite journal |last1=Steffen |first1=Will |last2=Richardson |first2=Katherine |last3=Rockström |first3=Johan |last4=Cornell |first4=Sarah E. |last5=Fetzer |first5=Ingo |last6=Bennett |first6=Elena M. |last7=Biggs |first7=Reinette |last8=Carpenter |first8=Stephen R. |last9=de Vries |first9=Wim |last10=de Wit |first10=Cynthia A. |last11=Folke |first11=Carl |date=2015 |title=Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1259855 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |language=en |volume=347 |issue=6223 |pages=1259855 |doi=10.1126/science.1259855 |pmid=25592418 |hdl=1885/13126 |s2cid=206561765 |issn=0036-8075|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":5"" /> While these interactions can create both stabilizing and destabilizing feedbacks in the Earth system, the authors suggested that a transgressed planetary boundary will reduce the safe operating space for other processes in the framework rather than expand it from the proposed boundary levels.<ref name="":5"" /> They give the example that the [[land use]] boundary could ""shift downward"" if the freshwater boundary is breached, causing lands to become arid and unavailable for agriculture. At a regional level, water resources may decline in Asia if [[deforestation]] continues in the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazon]]. That way of framing the interactions shifts from the framework's biophysical definition of boundaries based on Holocene-like conditions to an anthropocentric definition (demand for agricultural land). Despite this conceptual slippage, considerations of known Earth system interactions across scales suggest the need for ""extreme caution in approaching or transgressing any individual planetary boundaries.""<ref name="":5"" />

Another example has to do with [[coral reef]]s and [[marine ecosystem]]s: In 2009, researchers showed that, since 1990, calcification in the reefs of the [[Great Barrier Reef|Great Barrier]] that they examined decreased at a rate unprecedented over the last 400 years (14% in less than 20 years).<ref name=""Fabricius"">{{citation |last1=De'Ath |first1=G. |title=Declining Coral Calcification on the Great Barrier Reef |date=2009 |url=http://ibl.colorado.edu/De%27ath%20et%20al.pdf |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=323 |issue=5910 |pages=116–119 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912130651/http://ibl.colorado.edu/De%27ath%20et%20al.pdf |bibcode=2009Sci...323..116D |doi=10.1126/science.1165283 |pmid=19119230 |access-date=4 July 2011 |archive-date=12 September 2011 |last2=Lough |first2=J. M. |last3=Fabricius |first3=K. E. |s2cid=206515977 |url-status=live}}</ref> Their evidence suggests that the increasing temperature stress and the declining ocean saturation state of [[aragonite]] is making it difficult for reef corals to deposit calcium carbonate. Multiple stressors, such as increased nutrient loads and [[fishing pressure]], moves corals into less desirable ecosystem states.<ref name=""Bellwood"">{{citation |last1=Bellwood |first1=D. R. |title=Confronting the coral reef crisis |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dybdahl/Bellwood.pdf |journal=Nature |volume=429 |issue=6994 |pages=827–833 |year=2004 |bibcode=2004Natur.429..827B |doi=10.1038/nature02691 |pmid=15215854 |ref=CITEREFBellwoodothers2004 |last2=Hughes |first2=T. P. |last3=Folke |first3=C. |last4=Nyström |first4=M. |s2cid=404163}}</ref> Ocean acidification will significantly change the distribution and abundance of a whole range of marine life, particularly species ""that build skeletons, shells, and tests of biogenic calcium carbonate. Increasing temperatures, surface [[UV radiation]] levels and ocean acidity all stress marine [[Biota (ecology)|biota]], and the combination of these stresses may well cause perturbations in the abundance and diversity of marine biological systems that go well beyond the effects of a single stressor acting alone.""<ref name=""Guinotte"">{{citation |last1=Guinotte |first1=J. M. |title=Ocean Acidification and Its Potential Effects on Marine Ecosystems |date=2008 |url=http://www.bio.mq.edu.au/~jmadin/docs/paper.pdf |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1134 |issue=1 |pages=320–342 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928000038/http://www.bio.mq.edu.au/~jmadin/docs/paper.pdf |bibcode=2008NYASA1134..320G |doi=10.1196/annals.1439.013 |pmid=18566099 |access-date=4 July 2011 |archive-date=28 September 2011 |last2=Fabry |first2=V. J. |s2cid=15009920 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Rockström, J. et al. 2009. Planetary Boundaries: ""Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity"". ''Ecology and Society'' '''14'''(2):32. https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/ Supplement 1: https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/appendix1.pdf</ref>

===Proposed new or expanded boundaries since 2012===
In 2012, [[Steven Running]] suggested a tenth boundary, the annual net global [[primary production]] of all [[terrestrial plant]]s, as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give ""a clear signal about the health of ecosystems"".<ref>
{{cite journal |last1=Running |first1=Steven W. |author-link=Steven W. Running |date=2012 |title=A Measurable Planetary Boundary for the Biosphere |journal=Science |volume=337 |issue=6101 |pages=1458–1459 |bibcode=2012Sci...337.1458R |doi=10.1126/science.1227620 |pmid=22997311 |s2cid=128815842}}</ref><ref>[http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/20/has-plant-life-reached-its-limits/ Has Plant Life Reached Its Limits?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001025602/https://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/20/has-plant-life-reached-its-limits/|date=1 October 2019}} ''New York Times'', 20 September 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.scidev.net/en/agriculture-and-environment/planet-under-pressure-2012-2/news/biomass-should-be-tenth-tipping-point-researcher-says-1.html Biomass should be tenth tipping point, researcher says] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414202208/http://www.scidev.net/en/agriculture-and-environment/planet-under-pressure-2012-2/news/biomass-should-be-tenth-tipping-point-researcher-says-1.html|date=14 April 2012}} ''SciDev.Net'', 27 March 2012.</ref>

In 2015, a second paper was published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' to update the Planetary Boundaries concept.<ref name=""Cornell2015"" /> The update concluded four boundaries had now been transgressed: climate, biodiversity, land use and biogeochemical cycles. The 2015 paper emphasized interactions of the nine boundaries and identified climate change and [[loss of biodiversity]] integrity as 'core boundaries' of central importance to the framework because the interactions of climate and the biosphere are what scientifically defines Earth system conditions.<ref name=""Frank"" />

In 2017, some authors argued that marine systems are underrepresented in the framework. Their proposed remedy was to include the [[seabed]] as a component of the earth surface change boundary. They also wrote that the framework should account for ""changes in vertical mixing and [[Effects of climate change on oceans#Changing ocean currents|ocean circulation patterns]]"".<ref name=""Frank"" />

Subsequent work on planetary boundaries begins to relate these thresholds at the regional scale.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last1=Steffen |first1=Will |last2=Rockström |first2=Johan |last3=Richardson |first3=Katherine |last4=Lenton |first4=Timothy M. |last5=Folke |first5=Carl |last6=Liverman |first6=Diana |last7=Summerhayes |first7=Colin P. |last8=Barnosky |first8=Anthony D. |last9=Cornell |first9=Sarah E. |last10=Crucifix |first10=Michel |last11=Donges |first11=Jonathan F. |date=2018-08-14 |title=Trajectories of the Earth System in the Anthropocene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=115 |issue=33 |pages=8252–8259 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1810141115 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=6099852 |pmid=30082409|bibcode=2018PNAS..115.8252S |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Debate and further research per boundary ===
{{See also|List of environmental issues}}
==== Climate change ====
{{See also|Effects of climate change}}
A 2018 study calls into question the adequacy of efforts to limit warming to 2&nbsp;°C above pre-industrial temperatures, as set out in the [[Paris Agreement]].<ref name="":2"" /> The scientists raise the possibility that even if [[greenhouse gas emissions]] are [[Climate change mitigation|substantially reduced]] to limit warming to 2&nbsp;°C, that might exceed the ""threshold"" at which self-reinforcing [[climate feedbacks]] add additional warming until the [[Climate|climate system]] stabilizes in a [[Climate state#Hothouse|hothouse climate state]]. This would make parts of the world uninhabitable for people, raise sea levels by up to 60 metres (200&nbsp;ft), and raise temperatures by 4–5&nbsp;°C (7.2–9.0&nbsp;°F) to levels that are higher than any [[interglacial]] period in the past 1.2 million years.<ref name="":3"">{{cite web |last=Watts |first=Jonathan |date=2018-08-07 |title=Domino-effect of climate events could push Earth into a 'hothouse' state |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/aug/06/domino-effect-of-climate-events-could-push-earth-into-a-hothouse-state |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015132136/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/aug/06/domino-effect-of-climate-events-could-push-earth-into-a-hothouse-state |archive-date=15 October 2019 |access-date=2018-08-08 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

==== Change in biosphere integrity ====
{{See also|Biodiversity loss|Deforestation|Decline in insect populations|Holocene extinction}}
According to the biologist [[Cristián Samper]], a ""boundary that expresses the probability of families of species disappearing over time would better reflect our potential impacts on the future of life on Earth.""{{sfn|Samper|2009}} The biodiversity boundary has also been criticized for framing biodiversity solely in terms of the extinction rate. The global extinction rate has been highly variable over the Earth's history, and thus using it as the only biodiversity variable can be of limited usefulness.<ref name=""Frank"" />

==== Nitrogen and phosphorus ====
The biogeochemist [[William H. Schlesinger|William Schlesinger]] thinks waiting until we near some suggested limit for nitrogen deposition and other pollutions will just permit us to continue to a point where it is too late. He says the boundary suggested for phosphorus is not sustainable, and would exhaust the known phosphorus reserves in less than 200 years.<ref name=""Schlesinger 2009"" />

The [[ocean chemist]] Peter Brewer queries whether it is ""truly useful to create a list of environmental limits without serious plans for how they may be achieved ... they may become just another stick to beat citizens with. Disruption of the global nitrogen cycle is one clear example: it is likely that a large fraction of people on Earth would not be alive today without the artificial production of fertilizer. How can such ethical and economic issues be matched with a simple call to set limits? ... food is not optional.""<ref name=""Brewer 2009"">{{Harvnb|Brewer|2009}}.</ref>

[[Peak phosphorus]] is a concept to describe the point in time at which the maximum global [[phosphorus]] production rate is reached. Phosphorus is a scarce finite resource on earth and means of production other than mining are unavailable because of its non-gaseous environmental cycle.{{sfn|Neset|Cordell|2011|p=2}} According to some researchers, Earth's phosphorus reserves are expected to be completely depleted in 50–100 years and peak phosphorus to be reached by approximately 2030.{{sfn|Cordell|Drangert|White|2009|p=292}}{{sfn|Lewis|2008|p=1}}

==== Ocean acidification ====
[[Ocean acidification|Surface ocean acidity]] is clearly interconnected with the climate change boundaries, since the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is also the underlying control variable for the ocean acidification boundary.<ref name=""Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009"" />

The ocean chemist Peter Brewer thinks ""ocean acidification has impacts other than simple changes in pH, and these may need boundaries too.""<ref name=""Brewer 2009"" />

==== Land-system change ====
Across the planet, forests, wetlands and other vegetation types are being converted to agricultural and other [[land use]]s, impacting freshwater, carbon and other cycles, and reducing biodiversity.<ref name=""Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009"" /> In the year 2015 the boundary was defined as 75% of [[forest]]s rested intact, including 85% of [[boreal forests]], 50% of [[temperate forest]]s and 85% of [[tropical forest]]s. The boundary is crossed because only 62% of forests rested intact as of the year 2015.<ref name=""Cornell2015"" />

The boundary for land use has been criticized as follows: ""The boundary of 15 per cent [[land-use change]] is, in practice, a premature policy guideline that dilutes the authors' overall scientific proposition. Instead, the authors might want to consider a limit on [[soil degradation]] or soil loss. This would be a more valid and useful indicator of the state of terrestrial health.""{{sfn|Bass|2009}}

==== Freshwater ====
The [[Water cycle|freshwater cycle]] is another boundary significantly affected by climate change.<ref name=""Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009"" /> [[Overexploitation]] of freshwater occurs if a water resource is mined or extracted at a rate that exceeds the recharge rate. [[Water pollution]] and [[saltwater intrusion]] can also turn much of the world's underground water and lakes into finite resources with ""[[peak water]]"" usage debates similar to [[peak oil|oil]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Larsen|2005}}; {{Harvnb|Sandford|2009}}.</ref><ref name=""Palaniappan 2008"">{{Harvnb|Palaniappan|Gleick|2008}}.</ref>

The hydrologist David Molden stated in 2009 that planetary boundaries are a welcome new approach in the ""[[The Limits to Growth|limits to growth]]"" debate but said ""a global limit on water consumption is necessary, but the suggested planetary boundary of 4,000 cubic kilometres per year is too generous.""<ref name=""Molden 2009"">{{Harvnb|Molden|2009}}.</ref>

===== Green and blue water =====
A study concludes that the 'Freshwater use' boundary should be renamed to the 'Freshwater change', composed of ""green"" and ""blue"" water components.<ref name=""10.1038/s43017-022-00287-8""/> 'Green water' refers to disturbances of terrestrial precipitation, evaporation and soil moisture.<ref name=""10.1038/s43017-022-00287-8""/> [[Water scarcity]] can have substantial effects in agriculture.<ref name=""physscarcity"">{{cite news |title=Water scarcity predicted to worsen in more than 80% of croplands globally this century |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-05-scarcity-worsen-croplands-globally-century.html |access-date=16 May 2022 |work=[[American Geophysical Union]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""10.1029/2021EF002567"">{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Xingcai |last2=Liu |first2=Wenfeng |last3=Tang |first3=Qiuhong |last4=Liu |first4=Bo |last5=Wada |first5=Yoshihide |last6=Yang |first6=Hong |title=Global Agricultural Water Scarcity Assessment Incorporating Blue and Green Water Availability Under Future Climate Change |journal=Earth's Future |date=April 2022 |volume=10 |issue=4 |doi=10.1029/2021EF002567|bibcode=2022EaFut..1002567L |s2cid=248398232 |url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A24825 }}</ref> When measuring and projecting water scarcity in [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|agriculture]] [[Representative Concentration Pathway|for climate change scenarios]], both ""green water"" and ""blue water"" are of relevance.<ref name=""physscarcity""/><ref name=""10.1029/2021EF002567""/>

In April 2022, scientists proposed and preliminarily evaluated 'green water' in the [[water cycle]] as a likely transgressed planetary boundary, as [[Ecohydrology|measured by root-zone soil moisture deviation from Holocene variability]].<ref name=""10.1038/s43017-022-00287-8"">{{cite journal |last1=Wang-Erlandsson |first1=Lan |last2=Tobian |first2=Arne |last3=van der Ent |first3=Ruud J. |last4=Fetzer |first4=Ingo |last5=te Wierik |first5=Sofie |last6=Porkka |first6=Miina |last7=Staal |first7=Arie |last8=Jaramillo |first8=Fernando |last9=Dahlmann |first9=Heindriken |last10=Singh |first10=Chandrakant |last11=Greve |first11=Peter |last12=Gerten |first12=Dieter |last13=Keys |first13=Patrick W. |last14=Gleeson |first14=Tom |last15=Cornell |first15=Sarah E. |last16=Steffen |first16=Will |last17=Bai |first17=Xuemei |last18=Rockström |first18=Johan |title=A planetary boundary for green water |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |date=26 April 2022 |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=380–392 |doi=10.1038/s43017-022-00287-8 |bibcode=2022NRvEE...3..380W |s2cid=248386281 |url=https://rdcu.be/cL78K |language=en |issn=2662-138X}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=May 2022}}

==== Ozone depletion ====
{{Main|Ozone depletion}}

The stratospheric [[ozone layer]] protectively filters [[ultraviolet radiation]] (UV) from the [[Sun]], which would otherwise damage biological systems. The actions taken after the [[Montreal Protocol]] appeared to be keeping the planet within a safe boundary.<ref name=""Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009"" />

The Nobel laureate in chemistry, [[Mario J. Molina|Mario Molina]], says ""five per cent is a reasonable limit for acceptable ozone depletion, but it doesn't represent a tipping point"".{{sfn|Molina|2009}}

==== Atmospheric aerosols ====
Worldwide each year, [[aerosol]] particles result in about 800,000 premature deaths from [[air pollution]].{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} Aerosol loading is sufficiently important to be included among the planetary boundaries, but it is not yet clear whether an appropriate safe threshold measure can be identified.<ref name=""Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009"" />

==== Novel entities (chemical pollution) ====
{{See also|Chemical waste}}
[[File:Map of Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.svg|thumb|State parties to the [[Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants]]]]
Some chemicals, such as [[persistent organic pollutants]], [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal]]s and [[radionuclide]]s, have potentially irreversible [[Bioaccumulation|additive]] and synergic effects on biological organisms, reducing fertility and resulting in permanent [[genetic damage]].  Sublethal uptakes are drastically reducing marine bird and mammal populations. This boundary seems important, although it is hard to quantify.<ref name=""Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009"" /><ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last1=Persson|first1=Linn|last2=Carney Almroth|first2=Bethanie M.|last3=Collins|first3=Christopher D.|last4=Cornell|first4=Sarah|last5=de Wit|first5=Cynthia A.|last6=Diamond|first6=Miriam L.|last7=Fantke|first7=Peter|last8=Hassellöv|first8=Martin|last9=MacLeod|first9=Matthew|last10=Ryberg|first10=Morten W.|last11=Søgaard Jørgensen|first11=Peter|date=2022-01-18|title=Outside the Safe Operating Space of the Planetary Boundary for Novel Entities|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c04158|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=56|issue=3|pages=1510–1521|doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c04158|pmid=35038861|pmc=8811958|bibcode=2022EnST...56.1510P|hdl=20.500.11850/532277 |issn=0013-936X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jones|first=Kevin C.|date=2021-07-20|title=Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Related Chemicals in the Global Environment: Some Personal Reflections|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c08093|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=55|issue=14|pages=9400–9412|doi=10.1021/acs.est.0c08093|pmid=33615776|bibcode=2021EnST...55.9400J|s2cid=231989472|issn=0013-936X}}</ref> In 2019, it was suggested that novel entities could include [[genetically modified organism]]s, [[pesticide]]s and even [[artificial intelligence]].<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web |title=Ten years of nine planetary boundaries |url=https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2019-11-01-ten-years-of-nine-planetary-boundaries.html |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=www.stockholmresilience.org |date=November 2019 |language=en}}</ref> 

A Bayesian emulator for persistent organic pollutants has been developed which can potentially be used to quantify the boundaries for chemical pollution.{{sfn|Handoh|Kawai|2011}} To date, critical exposure levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) above which mass mortality events of marine mammals are likely to occur, have been proposed as a chemical pollution planetary boundary.{{sfn|Handoh|Kawai|2014}}

There are at least 350,000 artificial chemicals in the world. They are coming from ""[[plastic]]s, [[pesticide]]s, [[industrial chemicals]], chemicals in consumer products, [[antibiotic]]s and other [[pharmaceuticals]]"". They have mostly ""negative effects on planetary health"". Their production increased 50 times since 1950 and is expected to increase 3 times more by 2050.  Plastic alone contain more than 10,000 chemicals and create large problems. The researchers are calling for limit on chemical production and shift to [[circular economy]], meaning to products that can be [[reuse]]d and [[Recycling|recycled]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Safe planetary boundary for pollutants, including plastics, exceeded, say researchers |url=https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2022-01-18-safe-planetary-boundary-for-pollutants-including-plastics-exceeded-say-researchers.html |website=Stockholm Resilience Centre |date=18 January 2022 |access-date=28 January 2022}}</ref>

In January 2022 a group of scientists concluded that this planetary boundary is already exceeded, which puts in risk the stability of the Earth system.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=Stockholm Resilience |date=2022 |title=Earth's Safe Planetary Boundary for Pollutants – Including Plastics – Exceeded |url=https://scitechdaily.com/earths-safe-planetary-boundary-for-pollutants-including-plastics-exceeded/ |access-date=2022-02-16 |website=SciTechDaily |language=en-US}}</ref> They integrated the literature information on how production and release of a number of novel entities, including [[plastics]] and [[hazardous chemicals]], have rapidly increased in the last decades with significant impact on the planetary processes.<ref name="":0"" /> 

In August 2022, scientists concluded that the (overall transgressed) boundary is a placeholder for multiple different boundaries for NEs that may emerge, reporting that [[Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances|PFAS pollution]] is one such new boundary. They show that levels of these so-called ""[[forever chemicals]]"" in [[rainwater]] are ubiquitously, and often greatly, above guideline safe levels worldwide.<ref name=""bbc62391069"">{{cite news |title=Pollution: 'Forever chemicals' in rainwater exceed safe levels |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-62391069 |access-date=14 September 2022 |work=BBC News |date=2 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cousins |first1=Ian T. |last2=Johansson |first2=Jana H. |last3=Salter |first3=Matthew E. |last4=Sha |first4=Bo |last5=Scheringer |first5=Martin |title=Outside the Safe Operating Space of a New Planetary Boundary for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |date=16 August 2022 |volume=56 |issue=16 |pages=11172–11179 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.2c02765 |pmid=35916421 |pmc=9387091 |bibcode=2022EnST...5611172C |language=en |issn=0013-936X|doi-access=free}}</ref> There are some moves to restrict and replace their use.<ref name=""bbc62391069""/>
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== Related concepts ==
=== Planetary integrity ===
{{See also|Sustainable Development Goals#Weak on environmental sustainability}}
''Planetary integrity'' is also called ''earth's life-support systems'' or ''ecological integrity''.<ref name=""Biermann"" />{{rp|140}} Scholars have pointed out that planetary integrity ""needs to be maintained for long-term [[sustainability]]"".<ref name=""Biermann"">{{Citation |last1=Kotzé |first1=Louis J. |date=2022-07-31 |work=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals |pages=140–171 |editor-last=Biermann |editor-first=Frank |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009082945.007 |isbn=978-1-009-08294-5 |last2=Kim |first2=Rakhyun E. |last3=Burdon |first3=Peter |last4=du Toit |first4=Louise |last5=Glass |first5=Lisa-Maria |last6=Kashwan |first6=Prakash |last7=Liverman |first7=Diana |last8=Montesano |first8=Francesco S. |last9=Rantala |first9=Salla |title=Planetary Integrity |editor2-last=Hickmann |editor2-first=Thomas |editor3-last=Sénit |editor3-first=Carole-Anne |doi-access=free}}  </ref>{{rp|140}} The current [[biodiversity loss]] is threatening ecological integrity on a global scale.<ref name=""Biermann"" />{{rp|140}} The term ''integrity'' refers to [[ecological health]] in this context. The concept of planetary integrity is interlinked within the concept of planetary boundaries.<ref name=""Biermann"" />{{rp|141}}

An expert Panel on Ecological Integrity in 1998 has defined ecological integrity as follows: ""Ecosystems have integrity when they have their native components (plants, animals and other organisms) and processes (such as growth and reproduction) intact.""<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bosselmann |first=Klaus |date=2010 |title=Losing the Forest for the Trees: Environmental Reductionism in the Law |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=2424–2448 |doi=10.3390/su2082424 |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free |hdl=10535/6499 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The [[Sustainable Development Goals]] might be able to act as a steering mechanism to address the current loss of planetary integrity.<ref name=""Biermann"" />{{rp|142}} There are many negative [[Human impact on the environment|human impacts on the environment]] that are causing a reduction in planetary integrity.<ref name=""Biermann"" />{{rp|142}}

=== The ""Limits to Growth"" (1972) and Gaia theory ===
The idea that there are limits to the burden placed upon our planet by human activities has been around for a long time. The Planetary Boundaries framework acknowledges the influence of the 1972 study, ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'', that presented a model in which [[Exponential growth|exponential]] growth in [[world population]], [[Industrialisation|industrialization]], [[pollution]], food production, and [[resources depletion]] outstrip the ability of technology to increase resources availability.{{sfn|Meadows|others|1972}} Subsequently, the report was widely dismissed, particularly by economists and business people,{{sfn|Meyer|Nørgård|2010}} and it has often been claimed that history has proved the projections to be incorrect.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Vuuren|Faber|2009|p=23}}</ref> In 2008, Graham Turner from the [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]] (CSIRO) published ""A comparison of ''The Limits to Growth'' with thirty years of reality"".{{sfn|Turner|2008|p=37}} ''The Limits to Growth'' has been widely discussed, both by critics of the modelling approach and its conclusions<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meyer |first1=N. I. |last2=Noergaard |first2=J. S. |date=2011-07-15 |title=Policy means for sustainable energy scenarios |url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/1037831 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vuuren |first=D.P. van |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/472600831 |title=Growing within limits : a report to the Global Assembly 2009 of the Club of Rome |date=2009 |publisher=Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency |others=A. Faber, Annemieke Righart |isbn=978-90-6960-234-9 |location=Bilthoven [etc.] |oclc=472600831}}</ref> and by analysts who argue that the insight that societies do not live in an unlimited world and that historical data since the 1970s support the report's findings.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=Turner |date=2008 |title=A comparison of The Limits to Growth with thirty years of reality |url=https://jancovici.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Turner_Meadows_vs_historical_data.pdf |access-date=April 8, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Nørgård |first1=J. S. |last2=Peet |first2=J. |last3=Ragnarsdóttir |first3=K. V. |date=2010 |title=The History of The Limits to Growth |url=https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/5509654/2010+The+History+of+LtG+Solutions+paper.pdf |access-date=April 8, 2022 |publisher=Solutions Journal}}</ref> The ''Limits to Growth'' approach explores how the socio-technical dynamics of the world economy may limit humanity's opportunities and introduce risks of collapse. In contrast, the Planetary Boundaries framework focuses on the biophysical dynamics of the Earth system.<ref name=""Cornell2015"" />

''[[Our Common Future]]'' was published in 1987 by United Nations' [[Brundtland Commission|World Commission on Environment and Development]].<ref name="":7"">{{cite web |title=Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> It tried to recapture the spirit of the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment|Stockholm Conference]]. Its aim was to interlock the concepts of development and environment for future political discussions. It introduced the famous definition for [[sustainable development]]: ""Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.""<ref name="":7"" />

Another key idea influencing the Planetary Boundaries framework is the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia theory or hypothesis]]. In the 1970s, [[James Lovelock]] and [[microbiologist]] [[Lynn Margulis]] presented the idea that all [[organisms]] and their [[inorganic]] surroundings on Earth are integrated into a single self-regulating system.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lovelock|1972}}; {{Harvnb|Lovelock|Margulis|1974}}.</ref> The system has the ability to react to perturbations or deviations, much like a living organism adjusts its regulation mechanisms to accommodate environmental changes such as temperature ([[homeostasis]]). Nevertheless, this capacity has limits. For instance, when a living organism is subjected to a temperature that is lower or higher than its living range, it can perish because its regulating mechanism cannot make the necessary adjustments. Similarly the Earth may not be able to react to large deviations in critical parameters.<ref name=""Cornell2015"" /> In Lovelock's book ''[[The Revenge of Gaia]]'', he suggests that the destruction of rainforests and biodiversity, compounded with [[global warming]] resulting from the increase of [[greenhouse gas]]es made by humans, could shift feedbacks in the Earth system away from a self-regulating balance to a positive (intensifying) feedback loop.

=== Anthropocene ===
{{Main|Anthropocene}}{{quote box
| quote = <div style=""text-align: center;"">'''From the [[Stockholm Memorandum]]'''</div> Science indicates that we are transgressing planetary boundaries that have kept civilization safe for the past 10,000 years. Evidence is growing that human pressures are starting to overwhelm the Earth’s buffering capacity. Humans are now the most significant driver of [[global change]], propelling the planet into a new geological epoch, the [[Anthropocene]]. We can no longer exclude the possibility that our collective actions will trigger tipping points, risking abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems.
| source = – {{Harvtxt|Stockholm Memorandum|2011}}
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Scientists have affirmed that the planet has entered a new epoch, the [[Anthropocene]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Waters |first1=Colin N. |last2=Zalasiewicz |first2=Jan |last3=Summerhayes |first3=Colin |last4=Barnosky |first4=Anthony D. |last5=Poirier |first5=Clément |last6=Gałuszka |first6=Agnieszka |last7=Cearreta |first7=Alejandro |last8=Edgeworth |first8=Matt |last9=Ellis |first9=Erle C. |last10=Ellis |first10=Michael |last11=Jeandel |first11=Catherine |date=2016-01-08 |title=The Anthropocene is functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aad2622 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=351 |issue=6269 |pages=aad2622 |doi=10.1126/science.aad2622 |pmid=26744408 |s2cid=206642594 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> In the Anthropocene, humans have become the main agents of not only change to the Earth System<ref>{{Harvnb|Crutzen|2002}}; {{Harvnb|Steffen|Crutzen|McNeill|2007}}; {{Harvnb|Zalasiewicz|others|2010}}.</ref> but also the driver of Earth System ''rupture'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Clive |title=Defiant earth: the fate of humans in the anthropocene |date=2017 |publisher=Polity |isbn=9781509519743 |oclc=1027177323}}</ref> disruption of the Earth System's ability to be resilient and recover from that change, potentially ultimately threatening [[planetary habitability]]. The previous geological epoch, the [[Holocene]] began about 10,000 years ago. It is the current [[interglacial]] period, and was a relatively stable environment of the Earth. There have been natural environmental fluctuations during the Holocene, but the key atmospheric and biogeochemical parameters have remained within relatively narrow bounds.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dansgaard|others1993}}; {{Harvnb|Petit|others|1999}}; {{Harvnb|Rioual|others|2001}}.</ref> This stability has allowed societies to thrive worldwide, developing agriculture, large-scale settlements and complex networks of trade.{{sfn|van der Leeuw|2008}}

According to Rockström ''et al.'', we ""have now become so dependent on those investments for our way of life, and how we have organized society, technologies, and economies around them, that we must take the range within which Earth System processes varied in the Holocene as a scientific reference point for a desirable planetary state.""{{sfn|Rockström|28 others|2009}}

Various [[biophysical]] processes that are important in maintaining the [[Ecological resilience|resilience]] of the Earth system are also undergoing large and rapid change because of human actions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mace|Masundire|Baillie|2005}}; {{Harvnb|Folke|others|2004}}; {{Harvnb|Gordon|Peterson|Bennett|2008}}.</ref> For example, since the advent of the Anthropocene, the rate at which species are going extinct has increased over 100 times,{{sfn|Mace|Masundire|Baillie|2005}} and humans are now the driving force altering global river flows{{sfn|Shiklomanov|Rodda|2003}} as well as water vapor flows from the land surface.{{sfn|Gordon|Peterson|Bennett|2008}} Continuing perturbation of Earth system processes by human activities raises the possibility that further pressure could be destabilizing, leading to non-linear, abrupt, large-scale or irreversible [[environmental change]] responses by the Earth system within [[continent]]al- to planetary-scale systems.<ref name=""Cornell2015"" />

{{clear}}

== Reception and debate ==
{{See also|#Debate and further research per boundary}}
{{quote box
| quote = In summary, the planetary boundary concept is a very important one, and its proposal should now be followed by discussions of the connections between the various boundaries and of their association with other concepts such as the '[[limits to growth]]'. Importantly, this novel concept highlights the risk of reaching thresholds or tipping points for non-linear or abrupt changes in Earth-system processes. As such, it can help society to reach the agreements required for dealing effectively with existing global environmental threats, such as climate change.
| source = – Nobel laureate [[Mario&nbsp;J.&nbsp;Molina]]{{sfn|Molina|2009}}
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The 2009 report<ref name="":5"" /> was presented to the General Assembly of the [[Club of Rome]] in Amsterdam.{{sfn|Rockström|2009}} An edited summary of the report was published as the featured article in a special 2009 edition of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''<ref name="":4"" /> alongside invited critical commentary from leading academics like Nobel laureate [[Mario J. Molina]] and biologist [[Cristián Samper]].{{sfn|Molina|2009}}

[[Development studies]] scholars have been critical of aspects of the framework and constraints that its adoption could place on the [[Global South]]. Proposals to conserve a certain proportion of Earth's remaining forests can be seen as rewarding the countries such as those in Europe that have already economically benefitted from exhausting their forests and converting land for agriculture. In contrast, countries that have yet to industrialize are asked to make sacrifices for global environmental damage they may have had little role in creating.<ref name=""Frank"">{{cite journal |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |last2=Kim |first2=Rakhyun E. |year=2020 |title=The Boundaries of the Planetary Boundary Framework: A Critical Appraisal of Approaches to Define a ""Safe Operating Space"" for Humanity |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=45 |pages=497–521 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-080337 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The biogeochemist [[William H. Schlesinger|William Schlesinger]] queries whether thresholds are a good idea for pollutions at all. He thinks waiting until we near some suggested limit will just permit us to continue to a point where it is too late. ""Management based on thresholds, although attractive in its simplicity, allows pernicious, slow and diffuse degradation to persist nearly indefinitely.""<ref name=""Schlesinger 2009"">{{Harvnb|Schlesinger|2009}}.</ref>

In a global empirical study, researchers investigated how students of environmental and sustainability studies in 35 countries assessed the planetary boundaries. It was found that there are substantial global differences in the perception of planetary boundaries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kleespies |first1=Matthias Winfried |last2=Hahn-Klimroth |first2=Max |last3=Dierkes |first3=Paul Wilhelm |date=2023-04-01 |title=How university students assess the planetary boundaries: A global empirical study |journal=Environmental Challenges |language=en |volume=11 |pages=100712 |doi=10.1016/j.envc.2023.100712 |s2cid=257895735 |issn=2667-0100|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Subsequent developments==

=== The ""safe and just space"" doughnut ===
[[File:Doughnut (economic model).jpg|thumb|Doughnut (economic model)]]
{{excerpt|Doughnut (economic model)|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}

===National environmental footprints===
Several studies have assessed environmental footprints of nations based on planetary boundaries: for Portugal,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=da Silva Vieira |first1=Ricardo |url=https://gulbenkian.pt/de-hoje-para-amanha/wp-content/uploads/sites/46/2021/11/JI_LimitesEcologicos_EN_web-2.pdf |title=Environmental Boundaries: The intergenerational impacts of biophysical resource use. Final report |last2=Domingos |first2=Tiago |publisher=Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation and Associação para o Desenvolvimento do Instituto Superior Técnico |year=2021 |location=Lisbon |language=English}}</ref> Sweden,<ref>Björn Nykvist, Åsa Persson, Fredrik Moberg, Linn Persson, Sarah Cornell, Johan Rockström: [https://www.naturvardsverket.se/Documents/publikationer6400/978-91-620-6576-8.pdf ''National Environmental Performance on Planetary Boundaries''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125064755/https://www.naturvardsverket.se/Documents/publikationer6400/978-91-620-6576-8.pdf |date=25 November 2020 }}, commissioned by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2013.</ref> Switzerland,<ref name=""Dao"">Hy Dao, Pascal Peduzzi, Damien Friot: [https://www.unige.ch/environnement/files/8715/2951/0463/1-s2.0-S0959378017312153-main.pdf '' National environmental limits and footprints based on the Planetary Boundaries framework: The case of Switzerland''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122145547/https://www.unige.ch/environnement/files/8715/2951/0463/1-s2.0-S0959378017312153-main.pdf |date=22 January 2019 }}, University of Geneva, Institute for Environmental Sciences, GRID-Geneva, EA - Shaping Environmental Action, 2018.</ref> the Netherlands,<ref name=""Lucas & Wilting"">Paul Lucas, Harry Wilting: [https://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/cms/publicaties/Towards%20a%20safe%20operating%20space%20for%20the%20Netherlands%20-%203333. ''Towards a Safe Operating Space for the Netherlands: Using planetary boundaries to support national implementation of environment-related SDGs''], PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency 2018.</ref> the European Union,<ref>Tina Häyhä, Sarah E. Cornell, Holger Hoff, Paul Lucas, Detlef van Vuuren: [https://www.stockholmresilience.org/publications/artiklar/2018-07-03-operationalizing-the-concept-of-a-safe-operating-space-at-the-eu-level---first-steps-and-explorations.Operationalizing the concept of a safe operating space at the EU level – first steps and explorations], Stockholm Resilience Centre, 2018.</ref> India,<ref>{{Citation |last1=Roy |first1=Ajishnu |title=Safe and Just Operating Space for India |date=2020 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58538-3_210-1 |work=Handbook of Environmental Materials Management |pages=1–32 |editor-last=Hussain |editor-first=Chaudhery Mustansar |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-58538-3_210-1 |isbn=978-3-319-58538-3 |access-date=2022-04-17 |last2=Pramanick |first2=Kousik|s2cid=226479906 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roy |first1=Ajishnu |last2=Pramanick |first2=Kousik |date=2019-02-15 |title=Analysing progress of sustainable development goal 6 in India: Past, present, and future |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479718313252 |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |language=en |volume=232 |pages=1049–1065 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.11.060 |pmid=33395757 |s2cid=104399897 |issn=0301-4797}}</ref> many of Belt and Road Initiative countries <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roy |first1=Ajishnu |last2=Li |first2=Yan |last3=Dutta |first3=Tusheema |last4=Basu |first4=Aman |last5=Dong |first5=Xuhui |date=2022-01-27 |title=Understanding the relationship between globalization and biophysical resource consumption within safe operating limits for major Belt and Road Initiative countries |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18683-4 |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=40654–40673 |language=en |doi=10.1007/s11356-022-18683-4 |pmid=35084683 |bibcode=2022ESPR...2940654R |s2cid=246296716 |issn=1614-7499}}</ref> as well as for the world's most important economies.<ref>bluedot.world: [http://bluedot.world/ ''Environmental footprint of nations''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102121738/http://bluedot.world/ |date=2 January 2019 }}.</ref><ref>Kai Fang, Reinout Heijungs, Zheng Duan, Geert R. de Snoo: [http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/11285 ''The Environmental Sustainability of Nations: Benchmarking the Carbon, Water and Land Footprints against Allocated Planetary Boundaries''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109153324/https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/11285 |date=9 November 2018 }}, Sustainability 2015, 7, 11285-11305.</ref> While the metrics and allocation approaches applied varied, there is a converging outcome that resource use of wealthier nations – if extrapolated to world population – is not compatible with planetary boundaries.

===Boundaries related to agriculture and food consumption===
[[File:PB english cc-BY-NC-ND.png|upright=1.15|thumb|right|Visualization of the planetary boundaries related to agriculture and nutrition<ref name=""Meier 2017"">{{Harvnb|Meier|2017}}</ref>]]

Human activities related to agriculture and nutrition globally contribute to the transgression of four out of nine planetary boundaries. Surplus nutrient flows (N, P) into aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are of highest importance, followed by excessive land-system change and biodiversity loss. Whereas in the case of biodiversity loss, P cycle and land-system change, the transgression is in the zone of uncertainty—indicating an increasing risk (yellow circle in the figure), the N boundary related to agriculture is more than 200% transgressed—indicating a high risk (red marked circle in the figure). Here, nutrition includes food processing and trade as well as food consumption (preparation of food in households and gastronomy). Consumption-related environmental impacts are not quantified at the global level for the planetary boundaries of freshwater use, atmospheric aerosol loading ([[air pollution]]) and stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref name=""Meier 2017"">{{Harvnb|Meier|2017}}</ref>

===Individual and collective allowances===
Approaches based on a general framework of ecological limits include (transferable) [[personal carbon allowance]]s and ""legislated"" national greenhouse gas emissions limits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Fergus |title=Ecological limits: Science, justice, policy, and the good life |journal=Philosophy Compass |date=June 2021 |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=e12740 |doi=10.1111/phc3.12740 |pmid=35860674 |pmc=9285753 |s2cid=236560071 |language=en |issn=1747-9991}}</ref> Consumers would have freedom in their (informed) choice within (the collective) boundaries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hauschild |first1=Michael Z. |title=Better – But is it Good Enough? On the Need to Consider Both Eco-efficiency and Eco-effectiveness to Gauge Industrial Sustainability |journal=Procedia CIRP |date=1 January 2015 |volume=29 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1016/j.procir.2015.02.126 |s2cid=55994719 |url=https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/118946760/Better_but_good_enough.pdf |language=en |issn=2212-8271}}</ref>

== Usage at international policy level ==

=== United Nations ===
The United Nations secretary general [[Ban Ki-moon]] endorsed the concept of planetary boundaries on 16&nbsp;March 2012, when he presented the key points of the report of his High Level Panel on Global Sustainability to an informal [[Plenary session|plenary]] of the UN General Assembly.<ref>[http://www.scidev.net/en/science-and-innovation-policy/science-at-rio-20/news/rio-20-zero-draft-accepts-planetary-boundaries-.html Rio+20 zero draft accepts 'planetary boundaries'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331031921/http://www.scidev.net/en/science-and-innovation-policy/science-at-rio-20/news/rio-20-zero-draft-accepts-planetary-boundaries-.html|date=31 March 2012}} ''SciDev.Net'', 28 March 2012.</ref> Ban stated: ""The Panel's vision is to eradicate poverty and reduce inequality, to make growth inclusive and production and consumption more sustainable, while combating climate change and respecting a range of other planetary boundaries.""<ref>[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2012/sgsm14166.doc.htm Secretary-General Highlights Key Points...] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320215723/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2012/sgsm14166.doc.htm|date=20 March 2012}} ''United Nations News'', 16 March 2012.</ref> The concept was incorporated into the so-called ""zero draft"" of the outcome of the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]] to be convened in Rio de Janeiro 20–22 June 2012.<ref>[http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/content/documents/370The%20Future%20We%20Want%2010Jan%20clean%20_no%20brackets.pdf Zero draft of the outcome document] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417074707/http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/content/documents/370The%20Future%20We%20Want%2010Jan%20clean%20_no%20brackets.pdf|date=17 April 2012}} RIO+20, United Nations Conference on Sustainability Development.</ref> However, the use of the concept was subsequently withdrawn from the text of the conference, ""partly due to concerns from some poorer countries that its adoption could lead to the sidelining of poverty reduction and economic development. It is also, say observers, because the idea is simply too new to be officially adopted, and needed to be challenged, weathered and chewed over to test its robustness before standing a chance of being internationally accepted at UN negotiations.""<ref>[http://www.scidev.net/en/agriculture-and-environment/features/your-guide-to-science-and-technology-at-rio-20-1.html Your guide to science and technology at Rio+20] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621181116/http://www.scidev.net/en/agriculture-and-environment/features/your-guide-to-science-and-technology-at-rio-20-1.html|date=21 June 2012}} ''scidev.net'', 12 June 2012.</ref>

In 2011, at their second meeting, the High-level Panel on Global Sustainability of the United Nations had incorporated the concept of planetary boundaries into their framework, stating that their goal was: ""To eradicate poverty and reduce inequality, make growth inclusive, and production and consumption more sustainable while combating climate change and respecting the range of other planetary boundaries.""{{sfn|UN GSP 2 meeting|2011|p=5}}

Elsewhere in their proceedings, panel members have expressed reservations about the political effectiveness of using the concept of ""planetary boundaries"": ""Planetary boundaries are still an evolving concept that should be used with caution [...] The planetary boundaries question can be divisive as it can be perceived as a tool of the ""North"" to tell the ""South"" not to follow the resource intensive and environmentally destructive development pathway that rich countries took themselves... This language is unacceptable to most of the developing countries as they fear that an emphasis on boundaries would place unacceptable brakes on poor countries.""{{sfn|UN Sherpa 3 meeting|2011}}

However, the concept is routinely used in the proceedings of the United Nations,{{sfn|UN Agenda 21}} and in the ''UN Daily News''. For example, the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) Executive Director [[Achim Steiner]] states that the challenge of agriculture is to ""feed a growing global population without pushing humanity's [[Ecological footprint|footprint]] beyond planetary boundaries.""<ref>[https://www.un.org/news/dh/pdf/english/2011/01062011.pdf Sustainable agriculture key to green growth, poverty reduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304085522/http://www.un.org/news/dh/pdf/english/2011/01062011.pdf|date=4 March 2016}} ''UN Daily News'', 1 June 2011, page 8.</ref> The UNEP Yearbook 2010 also repeated Rockström's message, conceptually linking it with [[ecosystem management]] and [[Sustainable Governance Indicators|environmental governance indicators]].{{sfn|UNEP|2010|p={{page needed|date=December 2020}}}}

In their 2012 report entitled ""Resilient People, Resilient Planet: A future worth choosing"", The High-level Panel on Global Sustainability called for bold global efforts, ""including launching a major global scientific initiative, to strengthen the interface between science and policy. We must define, through science, what scientists refer to as ""planetary boundaries"", ""environmental thresholds"" and ""tipping points"""".{{sfn|UN GSP meeting|2012|page=14}}

=== European Commission ===
The planetary boundaries concept is also used in proceedings by the [[European Commission]],<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2011 |title=The Budapest Declaration |url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/agriculture/conference/declaration_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103230342/http://ec.europa.eu/research/agriculture/conference/declaration_en.htm |archive-date=2012-11-03 |website=Transition towards sustainable food consumption and production in a resource constrained world |at=Conference 4–5 May 2011 Budapest, Hungary}}</ref>{{sfn|Greenfield|2010}} and was referred to in the [[European Environment Agency]] synthesis report ''The European environment – state and outlook 2010''.{{sfn|Martin|Henrichs|others|2010}}

==See also==

* [[Ecological footprint]]
* [[Global catastrophic risk]]
* [[Global change]]
* [[Holocene extinction]]
* [[Human impact on the nitrogen cycle]]
* [[Human impacts on the environment]]
* [[Planetary health]]
* [[Planetary management]]
*[[Sustainability]]
*[[Triple planetary crisis|Triple Planetary Crisis]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=""Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009"">{{cite web |title=The nine planetary boundaries |date=17 September 2009 |type=web page |url=http://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/researchnews/tippingtowardstheunknown/thenineplanetaryboundaries.4.1fe8f33123572b59ab80007039.html |access-date=2016-07-30 |publisher=[[Stockholm Resilience Centre]] |archive-date=30 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830234347/http://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/researchnews/tippingtowardstheunknown/thenineplanetaryboundaries.4.1fe8f33123572b59ab80007039.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
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*{{cite journal |last1=Neset |first1=Tina-Simone S. |last2=Cordell |first2=Dana |title=Global phosphorus scarcity: identifying synergies for a sustainable future |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=2–6 |year=2011 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.4650 |pmid=21969145}}
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MOVED FROM WITHIN TEXT TO KEEP TOGETHER:  
[[Johan Rockström|Rockström J]], [[William L. Steffen|Steffen W]], Noone K, Persson Å, Chapin III FS, Lambin EF, [[Tim Lenton|Lenton TM]], Scheffer M, Folke C, [[Hans Joachim Schellnhuber|Schellnhuber HJ]],  Nykvist B, de Wit CA, Hughes T, van der Leeuw S, Rodhe H, Sörlin S, Snyder PK, [[Robert Costanza|Costanza R]], Svedin U, Falkenmark M, Karlberg L, [[Robert Corell|Corell RW]], Fabry VJ, [[James Hansen|Hansen J]], [[Brian Walker (ecologist)|Walker B]], Liverman D, [[Katherine Richardson|Richardson K]], [[Paul Crutzen|Crutzen P]] and Foley JA (2009) [http://www.stockholmresilience.org/download/18.8615c78125078c8d3380002197/ES-2009-3180.pdf ""Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity""] ''[[Ecology and Society]],'' '''14'''(2): 32
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{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Planetary boundaries}}
* [https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/planetary-boundaries/planetary-boundaries-data.html Figures and data] for the updated Planetary Boundaries can be found at the [[Stockholm Resilience Centre]] website.
* [http://www.nature.com/news/specials/planetaryboundaries/index.html#feature Planetary Boundaries: Specials] ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]],'' 24 September 2009.
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/johan_rockstrom_let_the_environment_guide_our_development Johan Rockstrom: Let the environment guide our development] [[TED (conference)|TED]] video, July 2010. [http://initforthegold.blogspot.com/2010/09/rockstrom-on-planetary-boundaries.html Transcript html]
* {{YouTube|id=SieN0IrZ5wg|title=The Planetary Boundaries and what they mean for the Future of Humanity}}

{{human impact on the environment|state=expanded}}
{{Globalization|state=autocollapse}}
{{Sustainability|state=expanded}}
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology}}

[[Category:Earth sciences]]
[[Category:Global environmental issues]]
[[Category:Globalization]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Criticism of capitalism]]"
Sustainable growth rate,"According to [[Profit impact of marketing strategy|PIMS]] (profit impact of marketing strategy), an important lever of business success is growth. Among 37 variables, growth is mentioned as one of the most important variables for success: market share, market growth, marketing expense to sales ratio<ref name=""Lancaster2001"" /> or a strong market position.<ref name=""Dibb2005"" /> 

The question how much growth is sustainable is answered by two concepts with different perspectives:

* The '''sustainable growth rate''' ('''SGR''') concept by Robert C. Higgins, describes optimal growth from a financial perspective assuming a given strategy with clear defined financial frame conditions/ limitations. Sustainable growth is defined as the annual percentage of increase in sales that is consistent with a defined financial policy (target debt to equity ratio, target [[dividend payout ratio]], target [[profit margin]], target ratio of [[total assets]] to [[net sales]]). This concept provides a comprehensive financial framework and formula for case/ company specific SGR calculations.<ref name=""Higgins1977"" />
* The '''optimal growth''' concept by Martin Handschuh, Hannes Lösch, Björn Heyden et al. assesses sustainable growth from a total shareholder return creation and profitability perspective—independent of a given strategy, business model and/ or financial frame condition. This concept is based on statistical long-term assessments and is enriched by case examples. It provides an orientation frame for case/ company specific mid- to long-term growth target setting.<ref name=""Boernsen2011"" />

==From a financial perspective==
{{seealso|Stock valuation#Growth rate|Earnings growth|Growth stock|Dividend discount model#Growth cannot exceed cost of equity|PEG ratio|PVGO}}
The sustainable growth rate is the growth rate in profits that a company can reasonably achieve, consistent with its established [[financial policy]]. 
Relatedly, an assumption re the company's sustainable growth rate is a required input to several valuation models {{--}} for instance the [[Gordon model]] and other [[discounted cash flow]] models {{--}} where this is used in the calculation of continuing or [[terminal value (finance)|terminal value]]; 
see [[Valuation using discounted cash flows]].  

Several formulae are available here.<ref>See for example, [https://ssrn.com/abstract=256987 Valuing Companies by Cash Flow Discounting: Ten Methods and Nine Theories], Pablo Fernandez: University of Navarra - IESE Business School</ref> 
In general, these link long term profitability targets, [[dividend policy]], and [[capital structure]] assumptions, returning the sustainable, long-run business growth-rate attainable as a function of these. These formulae reflect the general requirement that all assumptions are internally consistent; see {{sectionlink|Financial modeling#Accounting}}.
The sustainable growth rate may be returned via the following formula: <ref>Chapter 4 in {{cite book | author= Robert C. Higgins | title=Analysis for Financial Management | publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] | year=2018| isbn=978-1259918964| edition=12th }}</ref>  

:<math>\text{SGR} = \frac{\mathrm{pm}\cdot(1-d)\cdot(1+L)}{T-(\mathrm{pm}\cdot(1-d)\cdot(1+L))}</math>
:* {{math|pm}} is the existing and target profit margin
:* {{mvar|d}} is the target dividend payout ratio
:* {{mvar|L}} is the target total debt to equity ratio
:* {{mvar|T}} is the ratio of total assets to sales

Note that the model presented here, assumes several simplifications: 
the [[profit margin]] remains stable; 
the proportion of assets and sales remains stable; 
related, the value of existing assets is maintained after [[depreciation]]; 
the company maintains its current capital structure and [[dividend policy|dividend payout policy]].

A check on the formula inputs, and on the resultant growth number, is provided by a respective twofold economic argument.
{{olist|list-style-type=lower-roman
| The [[macroeconomic]] check: The long-run growth of the company (industry) cannot exceed overall [[economic growth]] by any significant amount {{--}} otherwise the company in question would eventually constitute the bulk of the economy; see {{sectionlink|Earnings growth#Relationship with GDP growth}}.  A calculated growth rate, where the given assumptions are input to a growth formula, can then also act a check as to whether [[budget]]s or [[business plan]]s are reasonable. 
| The [[microeconomic]] argument: Where the ([[Risk-adjusted return on capital|risk adjusted]]) [[Return on capital]] is significantly higher than achievable in other industries, then this success will attract [[Competition (economics)|competition]]; in the long-run then, the company's returns will tend to those of its industry, in turn tending to the economy; see [[Profit (economics)]]. Formulae inputs {{--}} i.e. assumed profit as compared to targeted capital structure {{--}} must be limited correspondingly.
}}

Often, the [[risk-free rate]] can serve as a proxy, or limit, for the growth rate. <ref>wallstreetprep.com (2023). [https://www.wallstreetprep.com/knowledge/terminal-value/ What is Terminal Value?]</ref>

==Optimal growth rates from a total shareholder value creation and profitability perspective==
'''Optimal growth''' according to Martin Handschuh, Hannes Lösch and Björn Heyden is the growth rate which assures sustainable company development – considering the long-term relationship between revenue growth, total [[shareholder value]] creation and profitability. 
Assessment basis: The work is based on assessments on the performance of more than 3500 stock-listed companies with an initial revenue of greater 250 million Euro globally and across industries over a period of 12 years from 1997 till 2009. Due to this long time period, the authors consider their findings as to a large extent independent of specific economic cycles.<ref name=""Boernsen2011"" />

===Relationship between revenue growth, total shareholder value creation and profitability===
In the long-term and across industries, total shareholder value creation (stock price development plus dividend payments) rises steadily with increasing revenue growth rates. The more long-term revenue growth companies realize, the more investors appreciate this and the more they get rewarded.

[[File:Graf1 revenue.JPG]]

[[Return on assets]] (ROA), [[return on sales]] (ROS) and [[return on equity]] (ROE) do rise with increasing revenue growth up to 10 to 25% and then fall with further increasing revenue growth rates.

[[File:Graf2 profitability.JPG]]

Also the combined ROX-index (average of ROA, ROS and ROE) shows rises with increasing growth rates to a broad maximum in the range of 10 to 25% revenue growth per year and falls towards higher growth rates. 

[[File:Graf3 rox.JPG]]

The authors attribute the continuous profitability increase towards the maximum of two effects:

# '''Profitability drives growth: ''' Companies with substantial profitability have the opportunity to invest more in additional growth.
# '''Growth drives profitability: ''' Substantial growth may be a driver for additional profitability, e.g. by higher attractiveness for high performing young professionals, higher employee motivation, higher attractiveness for business partners as well as higher self-confidence.

Beyond the profitability maximum extra efforts to handle additional growth – e.g. based on integrating new staff in large dimensions and handling culture and quality - do rise sharply and reduce overall profitability. 

The combination of the patterns of revenue growth, total shareholder value creation and profitability indicates three growth zones:

[[File:Graf4 zones of growth.JPG]]

* '''Low Return: ''' Low profitability and low value generation below 10% per year
* '''Long-term Sweet-Spot: ''' Solid value generation and highest on average profitability in the revenue growth interval from 10% to 25% per year
* '''High Speed: ''' Even higher total shareholder value generation however in combination with lower profitability beyond 25% per year

Growth rates of the assessed companies are widely independent of initial company size/market share which is in alignment with [[Gibrat's law]].  Gibrat's law, sometimes called Gibrat's rule of proportionate growth is a rule defined by [[Robert Gibrat]] (1904–1980) stating that the size of a firm and its growth rate are independent.
Independent of industry consolidation and industry growth rate, companies in many industries with growth rates in the range of 10 to 25% revenue growth p.a. have both, higher total shareholder value generation as well as profitability than their slower growing peers.

===Base strategies and growth moves===
These findings do suggest two base strategies for companies:

* For companies (e.g. in established markets like central Europe and USA) with low single-digit growth rates: Consider acceleration of growth given the fact that corporate social responsibility (CSR) and profitability are higher in the sweet-spot.
* For companies (e.g. in fast growing regional markets like China with India and/ or rapidly growing industry segments) with growth rates beyond 25%: Consider best ways to “digest” and to stabilize rapid growth and ensure a “soft landing” should market growth come to a sudden stop.

===How to achieve long-term growth in the sweet-spot and beyond===
The authors have identified a set of preconditions and levers to achieve long-term growth in their defined sweet-spot and beyond:

====Preconditions====
* Generating a common understanding regarding growth and profit ambitions among the management team as a prerequisite for aligned and coordinated strategy development and implementation.
* Understanding relevant markets (current or future promising markets). Generating market foresight when identifying and assessing growth initiatives, e.g.  [[megatrends]] and [[Scenario planning|scenario analyses]], segment specific [[benchmarking]] and in depth assessments, market demand projections.

====Levers and strategy====
* Applying formulas for rapid growth, e.g. maxing out the number of relevant customers, maxing out the share of wallet and lifecycle potentials, continuous innovation, killer offerings, network based growth, M&A/buy-and-build driven growth, franchising proven business concepts, pyramid-like network expansion and managing value networks
* Defining the growth strategy as a portfolio of best suited growth initiatives considering a multidimensional set of criteria, e.g. ease of implementation, growth and profit impact, expected risk vs. return, [[cash flow]] stability
* Making growth happen: Strategy and corresponding culture must be addressed in a consistent way, e.g. [[change management|creating the case for growth]], clearly defining and communicating vision and strategy as well as actively developing and energizing the organization.<ref name=""Boernsen2011"" />

A study be Davidsson et al. (2009) found that small and medium-sized firms (SMEs) are much more likely to get a position of high growth AND high profitability starting from high profitability/low growth than from high growth/low profitability. Firms with the latter performance configuration instead more often transitioned to low growth/low profitability.

Brännback et al. (2009) replicated these findings in a sample of biotech firms.

Ben-Hafaïedh & Hamelin (2022) undertook a replication on more than 650,000 firms and confirmed the same main result separately in each of 28 studied countries as well as across industry sectors, firm age and size classes, time spans from 1 to 7 years, alternative growth and profitability measures, and using several alternative analysis techniques.
The conclusion is that firms do usually not grow into profitability. Instead, profitable growth usually starts with a sound level of profitability at smaller scale. These are arguably among the most consistently data-supported conclusions in all of business research.

==Criticism==
As described the sustainable growth rate (SGR) concept by Robert C. Higgins is based on several assumptions such as constant [[profit margin]], constant [[debt to equity ratio]] or constant asset to sales ratio. Therefore, general applicability of SGR concept in cases where these parameters are not stable is limited.

The Optimal Growth concept by Martin Handschuh, Hannes Lösch, Björn Heyden et al.  has no restrictions to certain strategies or business model and is therefore more flexible in its applicability. However, as a broad framework, it only provides an orientation for case/company specific mid- to long-term growth target setting.  Additional company and market specific considerations, e.g. market growth, growth culture, appetite for change, are required to come up with the optimal growth rate of a specific company. 

Additionally, considering the increasing criticism of excessive growth and shareholder value orientation by philosophers, economists and also managers, e.g. [[Stéphane Hessel]], [[Kenneth Boulding]], [[Jack Welch]] (nowadays), one might expect that investors' investment criteria might also change in the future. This may lead to changes in the relationship of revenue growth rates and total shareholder value creation. Regular reviews of the optimal growth assessments may be used as an indicator for the development of stock markets` appetite for rapid growth.

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=""Dibb2005"">Dibb, Sally; Simkin, Lyndon; Pride, William (2005): Marketing.Concepts and Strategies, 5th edition, Houghton Mifflin, p. 676</ref>
<ref name=""Higgins1977"">Higgins, Robert (1977): How much growth can a firm afford, Financial Management 6 (3) p. 7-16</ref>
<ref name=""Lancaster2001"">Lancaster, Geoff; Massingham, Lester; Ashford, Ruth (2001): Essentials of Marketing: Text and Cases, Mcgraw-Hill Higher Education, p. 535</ref>
<ref name=""Boernsen2011"">Börnsen, Arne; Körner, Florian (2011):  Optimal Growth, Conceptualization of a strategy to benefit from Optimal Growth, Mannheim Business School</ref>
}}

Ben-Hafaïedh, C., & Hamelin, A. (2022). Questioning the Growth Dogma: A Replication Study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 10422587211059991.

Brännback, M., Carsrud, A., Renko, M., Östermark, R., Aaltonen, J., & Kiviluoto, N. (2009). Growth and profitability in small privately held biotech firms: Preliminary findings. New Biotechnology, 25(5), 369-376.

Davidsson, P., Steffens, P., & Fitzsimmons, J. (2009). Growing profitable or growing from profits: Putting the horse in front of the cart? Journal of Business Venturing, 24(4), 388-406.

==Further reading==
* Fonseka, Mohan; Tian, Gaoloang (2011): The most appropriate Sustainable Growth Rate (SGR) Model for Managers and Researchers, American Accounting Association
* Graeme, Deans; Kroeger, Fritz (2004): ''Stretch!: How Great Companies Grow in Good Times and Bad'', John Wiley & Sons
* Handschuh, Martin (2011): What we can learn from self-made billionaires?, WHU Otto Beisheim School of Management lecture
* Handschuh, Martin; Lösch, Hannes (2011): Optimal Growth – Does it exist and if so how to realize it?, Mannheim Business School lecture
* Handschuh, Martin; Reinartz, Sebastian; Heyden, Björn (2011): Megafusionen als Lehrbuch, M&A Review 05/2011
* Higgins, Robert (1981): Sustainable growth under inflation, Financial Management 10 (4) p.&nbsp;36-40
* Jonk, Gillis (2006): Resources for Growth, published in: executive agenda, ideas and insights for business leaders, volume IX, Number 1, 2006, A.T. Kearney
* Lösch, Hannes (2017): [http://diglib.uibk.ac.at/ulbtirolhs/content/titleinfo/2341624?lang=de The high-growth company: Perils of excessive growth], Master thesis University of Innsbruck
* Lösch, Hannes (2018): [https://limendo.com/optimales-wachstum/ Optimal Growth: Optimales Wachstum erhöht Ihren Unternehmenserfolg und steigert Ihren Wert].
* Neumann, Dietrich; Sonnenschein, Martin; Schumacher, Nikolas (2003): Fünf Wege zu organischem Wachstum: Wie Unternehmen antizyklischen Erfolg programmieren können, campus Verlag
* Slywotzky, Adrian; Wise, Richard; Weber, Karl (2004): ''How to Grow When Markets Don’t: Discovering the New Drivers for Growth''
* Sonnenschein, Martin (2011): ''Innovation and Growth in Volatile Times'', Stuttgarter Strategieforum
* Velthius, Carol (2010): ''Surfing the Long Summer: How Market Leaders Grow Faster Than Their Markets, Infinite Ideas''
* Zook, Chris (2007): ''[[Unstoppable: Finding Hidden Assets to Renew the Core and Fuel Profitable Growth]]''; Mcgraw-Hill Professional
* Zook, Chris; Allen, James (2010): ''Profit from the Core: A Return to Growth in Turbulent Times''; Harvard Business Press

{{Financial ratios}}

[[Category:Financial ratios]]
[[Category:Strategic management]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Cultural sustainability,"[[File:Johannesburg Profile, Level 2, 2013.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A sustainability profile for Johannesburg using the [[Circles of Sustainability]] approach that includes culture as one of its major domains.<ref>{{Cite book | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | last2= with Magee | first2= Liam | last3= Scerri | first3= Andy | last4= Steger | first4= Manfred B. | title= Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability | url= https://www.academia.edu/9294719 | year= 2015 | publisher= Routledge | location= London| isbn= 9781315765747 }}</ref>]]
[[File:Sustainable development.svg|thumb|The Three Pillars of Sustainability]]
'''Cultural sustainability''' as it relates to [[sustainable development]] (or to [[sustainability]]), has to do with maintaining cultural beliefs, [[cultural practice]]s, [[Historic preservation|heritage conservation]], culture as its own entity, and the question of whether or not any given cultures will exist in the future.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last1=Soini|first1=Katriina|last2=Birkland|first2=Inger|year=2014|title=Exploring the scientific discourse on cultural sustainability|journal=Geoforum|volume=51|pages=213–223|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.12.001}}</ref> From cultural heritage to cultural and creative industries, culture is both an enabler and a driver of the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.<ref>Culture for Sustainable Development. (2020, July 23). Retrieved October 23, 2020, from https://en.unesco.org/themes/culture-sustainable-development</ref> Culture is defined as a set of beliefs, morals, methods, institutions and a collection of human knowledge that is dependent on the transmission of these characteristics to younger generations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture|title=Definition of CULTURE|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|access-date=2017-03-30}}</ref> Cultural sustainability has been categorized under the social pillar of the three pillars of sustainability, but some argue that cultural sustainability should be its own pillar, due to its growing importance within social, political, environmental, and economic spheres.<ref name="":0"" /> The importance of cultural sustainability lies within its influential power over the people, as decisions that are made within the context of society are heavily weighed by the beliefs of that society.<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bender |first1=Oliver |last2=Haller |first2=Andreas |year=2017 |title=The cultural embeddedness of population mobility in the Alps: Consequences for sustainable development |journal=Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift - Norwegian Journal of Geography |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=132–145 |doi=10.1080/00291951.2017.1317661 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Cultural sustainability can be regarded as a fundamental issue, even a precondition to be met on the path towards [[sustainable development]]. However, the theoretical and conceptual understanding of cultural sustainability within the general frames of sustainable development remains vague. And consequently, the role of culture is poorly implemented in the environmental, as well as political and social policy. Determining the impact of cultural sustainability is found by investigating the concept of culture in the context of sustainable development, through multidisciplinary approaches and analyses. This means examining the best practices for bringing culture into political and social policy as well as practical domains, and developing means and indicators for assessing the impacts of culture on sustainable development.<ref name="":4"" />

== Sociopolitical landscapes ==
Culture has an overwhelming effect on social, economic and political planning, but as of yet, has failed to be incorporated into social, and political policy on a grand scale.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last1=Axelsson|first1=Robert|last2=Angelstam|first2=Per|last3=Degerman|first3=Erik|last4=Teitelbaum|first4=Sara|last5=Andersson|first5=Kjell|last6=Elbakidze|first6=Marine|last7=Drotz|first7=Marcus K.|date=2013-03-01|title=Social and Cultural Sustainability: Criteria, Indicators, Verifier Variables for Measurement and Maps for Visualization to Support Planning|journal=Ambio|language=en|volume=42|issue=2|pages=215–228|doi=10.1007/s13280-012-0376-0|issn=0044-7447|pmc=3593035|pmid=23475657}}</ref> However, certain policies regarding both policy and politics have managed to be implemented into some conventions that are implemented on a global scale.<ref name="":4"" /> Culture is found everywhere within a society, from the relics of previous generations, to the accumulated values of a society.<ref name="":3"" /> Culture within society can be divided into two, equally important subtopics that aid in the description of cultural specific characterizations. These categories, as defined by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]) are ""Material"" and ""Immaterial"".<ref name="":3"" /> Material objects such as shrines, paintings, buildings, landscapes and other humanistic formations act as a physical representation of the culture in that area.<ref name="":3"" /> Although they have little social and political utility, they serve as physical landmarks and culturally dependent objects whose meaning is created and maintained within the context of that society.<ref name="":0"" /> The accumulation of these cultural characteristics are what measures a society's cultural integrity, and these characteristics are inherently capable of transforming landscapes of political, social and environment nature via the influence that these values and historical remains have on the population.<ref name="":3"" />

Little success has come with the implementations of cultural policy within the context of politics due to a lack of empirical information regarding the topic of cultural sustainability.<ref name="":2"" /> The Immaterial category contains more socially and politically applicable characteristics such as practices, traditions, aesthetics, knowledge, expressions etc.<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal|last=Chiu|first=Rebecca|year=2004|title=Socio-Cultural Sustainability of Housing: a Conceptual Exploration|url=http://journals2.scholarsportal.info.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/pdf/14036096/v21i0002/65_ssohace.xml|journal=Housing, Theory and Society|volume=21|issue=2|pages=65–76|doi=10.1080/14036090410014999|s2cid=154738373}}</ref> These characteristics embody social and political utility through education of people, housing, [[social justice]], [[human rights]], employment and more.<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":6"" /> These values contribute to the well-being of a society through the use of collective thinking and ideals i.e. culture. Culture also presents more room for expansion on its effects on a society. Specifically, creativity, respect, empathy, and other practices are being used to create social integration and also to create a sense of ""self"" in the world.<ref name="":3"" />

=== Convention implementation ===

Implementation of policy on a global scale has had little success, but enough to show an increasing interest in the topic of Cultural Sustainability. The conventions that have been implemented, have done so on a large scale, involving multiple countries, across most continents. UNESCO has been responsible for the vast majority of these conventions, maintaining that cultural sustainability and cultural heritage are a strong cornerstone of society.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/convention|title=Text of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage - intangible heritage - Culture Sector - UNESCO|website=www.unesco.org|language=en|access-date=2017-03-30}}</ref> One of the more relevant conventions created in 2003 is the ""[[Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage]]"" which proclaims that culture must be protected against all adversarial combatants.<ref name="":5"" /> This safeguard was implemented as an understanding that culture guarantees sustainability. Implementing policy based on cultural history is in the process of becoming a widely talked about subject and holds that cultures will be able to thrive in the context of both present and future. Conventions made by UNESCO regarding cultural preservation and sustainability are surrounding the promotion of [[cultural diversity]], which means multiple cultures and ideals within one grand culture.<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":0"" />

== Cultural heritage ==
Cultural memorabilia and artifacts from a cultures history maintain an important role in modern society as they are kept as relics and shrines in order to remember the stories, knowledge, skills and methods of ancestors and learn invaluable lessons from the past. Today, cultures use libraries, art exhibits and museums as a placeholder for these important objects and other culturally significant artifacts.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal|last1=Loach|first1=Kirsten|last2=Rowley|first2=Jennifer|last3=Griffiths|first3=Jillian|date=2017-03-04|title=Cultural sustainability as a strategy for the survival of museums and libraries|journal=International Journal of Cultural Policy|volume=23|issue=2|pages=186–198|doi=10.1080/10286632.2016.1184657|issn=1028-6632|doi-access=free}}</ref> Not only are these objects revered, but the buildings themselves are oftentimes a symbol of cultural integrity to the community which it belongs. Linking with the other pillars of sustainability, the biggest barrier to cultural sustainability is funding. Economic sustainability relies on a number of systems with goals to ensure economic prosperity by eliminating spending where it is not needed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.international.gc.ca/development-developpement/priorities-priorites/segs-sced.aspx?lang=eng|title=Development Sustainable Economic Growth Strategy|last=Government of Canada|first=Foreign Affairs Trade and Development Canada|website=GAC|access-date=2017-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331212603/http://www.international.gc.ca/development-developpement/priorities-priorites/segs-sced.aspx?lang=eng|archive-date=2017-03-31|url-status=dead}}</ref> Cultural buildings such as museums oftentimes fail to receive the funding it needs to continue the preservation of culturally significant artifacts.<ref name="":4"" />

[[Human-centered design]] and cultural collaboration have been popular frameworks for sustainable development in marginalized communities.<ref name="":13"">{{Cite journal|last1=Edmunds|first1=David S.|last2=Shelby|first2=Ryan|last3=James|first3=Angela|date=November 2013|title=Tribal Housing, Codesign, and Cultural Sovereignty|journal=Science, Technology & Society, & Human Values|volume=38|issue=6|pages=801–828|doi=10.1177/0162243913490812|jstor=43671157|s2cid=56421238}}</ref><ref name="":22"">{{Cite journal|last=Saiyed|first=Zahraa|date=September 2017|title=Native American Storytelling Toward Symbiosis and Sustainable Design|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=31|pages=249–252|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2017.05.029}}</ref><ref name="":33"">{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Tania|date=September 2005|title=Thinking the Other: Towards Cultural Diversity in Architecture|journal=Journal of Architectural Education|volume=59|pages=3–16|doi=10.1111/j.1531-314X.2005.00001.x|s2cid=142865996}}</ref><ref name="":42"">{{Cite journal|last1=Necefer|first1=Len|last2=Wong-Parodi|first2=Gabrielle|last3=Paulina|first3=Jaramillo|last4=Small|first4=Mitchell J.|date=May 2015|title=Energy development and Native Americans: Values and beliefs about energy from the Navajo Nation|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=7|pages=1–11|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2015.02.007|doi-access=free}}</ref> These frameworks involve open dialogue which entails sharing, debating, and discussing, as well as holistic evaluation of the site of development.

== Sustainable tourism ==
[[Tourism]] is a traveling method for which people can venture to different areas of the globe and experience new ways of living, and explore landscapes not native to their country of origin. Tourism is constantly being criticized for its impact on the social, political and environmental landscapes due to its high volume of mass consumers. Within the realm of tourism exists more sustainable practices and ideals that are aligned with the idea of cultural sustainability.

=== Geotourism ===
[[File:Forest view stairs in Thenmala 1.jpg|left|thumb]]
[[Geotourism]] is a form of tourism which relies heavily upon the sustainability, or even the improvement of a selected geological location.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=Farsani|first1=Neda Torabi|last2=Coelho|first2=Celeste|last3=Costa|first3=Carlos|year=2012|title=Geotourism and Geoparks as Gateways to Socio-cultural Sustainability in Qeshm Rural Areas, Iran|journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research|volume=17|pages=30–48|doi=10.1080/10941665.2011.610145|s2cid=154571686}}</ref> Serving as an alternative to [[mass tourism]], Geotourism was created with the purpose of aiding in the sustainable development movement. Geotourism is a method which focuses on Sustainable culture, ecological preservation and restoration, welfare of local populous, and the wildlife in the immediate area.<ref name="":1"" /> The link between Geotourism and Cultural sustainability lies within their role in maintaining the natural state of the environment, including the social and cultural environment. Preservation of the local culture has been a key element of Geotourism from its inception, and due to this form of tourism, travelers are able to experience true local culture, lifestyles, and practices experienced by the people native to that region.<ref name="":1"" /> The scope of Geotourism covers many geological features, from wider areas such as mountains or coasts to smaller rock formations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gordon |first1=John |title=Geoheritage, Geotourism and the Cultural Landscape: Enhancing the Visitor Experience and Promoting Geoconservation |journal=Geosciences |date=21 January 2021 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=39 |doi=10.3390/geosciences8040136 |doi-access=free |hdl=10023/13150 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This form of tourism provides education regarding destinations they have traveled to via ethnographic methods, and also calls upon the traveler to become aware of the footprint they leave on the environment, as well as social changes that may be harmful to the indigenous peoples.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last1=Jamal|first1=Tazim|last2=Camargo|first2=Blanca|last3=Sandlin|first3=Jennifer|last4=Segrado|first4=Romano|date=2010-01-01|title=Tourism and Cultural Sustainability: Towards an Eco-cultural Justice for Place and People|journal=Tourism Recreation Research|volume=35|issue=3|pages=269–279|doi=10.1080/02508281.2010.11081643|s2cid=155010718|issn=0250-8281}}</ref> Responsibility plays an important role in Geotourism by informing travelers of their duties to respect, and preserve the local culture.<ref name="":2"" /> Many countries have adapted this method of tourism, going as far as to implement geotourism sites equipped with guides that discuss matters of importance in that area such as environmental or cultural concerns.<ref name="":1"" /> Such countries include:<ref name="":1"" /> 
* Many states within the U.S.A. including California & Arizona 
* Romania 
* Norway 
* Honduras 
Geotourism in Honduras includes The [[Bay Islands Department|Bay Islands]],  a Caribbean archipelago made up of three main islands, Utila, Roatan, and Guanaja and a few lesser islands and cays located off the north coast of Honduras. These islands have been blessed with stunning natural scenery, highlighted by idyllic beaches, tropical hillsides, and mangrove forests.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1025_041025_travelwatch.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050406015943/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1025_041025_travelwatch.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=April 6, 2005 | title=National Geographic }}</ref>
* Mexico 
Geotourism in Mexico includes Puerto Peñasco. This region includes the protected Sea of Cortez, the Pinacate Crator which offers barren deserts, sacred tribal and Indian lands, fishing zones, estuaries, oyster beds,  and vibrant farmland and wine country.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://geo-mexico.com/?p=12768 | title=30 top geotourism sites in Mexico (Geo-Mexico special) &#124; Geo-Mexico, the geography of Mexico | date=14 May 2015 }}</ref> Over the past decade, Puerto Peñasco, a former modest fishing village in Sonora situated just 65 kilometers away from the US border, has transformed into one of the most rapidly expanding urban areas in Mexico.<ref>Bryant, E. (2007). Barriers to Sustainable Coastal Development in Puerto Peñasco, Sonora, Mexico.</ref>
* Canada 
Geotourism in Canada includes [[Nova Scotia]]. It was visited by explorers and geologists from around the world for centuries, Nova Scotia′s geological sites are now recognized for their beauty as much as for their rich history. Nova Scotia’s sites include the iconic lighthouses, which is built on rocky precipices that reach out into the sea.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://press.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/24/canadian-parks-wilderness-newfoundland-labrador-geotourism-mapguide/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130428014622/http://press.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/24/canadian-parks-wilderness-newfoundland-labrador-geotourism-mapguide/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=April 28, 2013 | title=National Geographic and Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society's Newfoundland and Labrador Chapter Introduce Eastern Newfoundland Geotourism MapGuide and Website – National Geographic Partners Press Room| date=2013-04-24}}</ref>
* Portugal

Geotourism in [[Arouca, Portugal|Portugal includes]] the Geopark of Arouca, which, in 2010, was officially recognized and joined the [[Global Network of Geoparks|Global network of Geoparks]], under the auspices of UNESCO. The park is known for its natural, gastronomical, and cultural heritage. This mountainous area, with rivers, natural parks, steep slopes and lush vegetation covers the entire municipality of Arouca. The granite used to build so many religious and historical monuments, Romanesque chapels and Baroque churches in the region came was extracted from its mountains – Freita and Montemuro.
<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://visitportoandnorth.travel/Porto-and-the-North/Visit/Artigos/Geotourism-in-the-north-of-Portugal | title=Geotourism in the north of Portugal | access-date=2018-05-02 | archive-date=2018-05-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502140250/http://visitportoandnorth.travel/Porto-and-the-North/Visit/Artigos/Geotourism-in-the-north-of-Portugal | url-status=dead }}</ref>
As the practice of sustainability in all forms (environmental, social, and economy) becomes a more revered topic and gains traction within political spheres, sociologists suggest refining the practices of tourism to fit a mold that is more conducive to the sustainability models.<ref name="":1"" />

Tazim et al. suggests the key to [[sustainable tourism]] lies within the responsible practice of travelers, but also within the direct participation of the locals in tourism practices.<ref name="":2"" /> Although Geotourism shows to be a viable alternative for mass tourism, reducing the footprint of travellers on different parts of the world, there have been criticisms made regarding its fairness to the local population. Issues of fair pay, and the rights of the local people are the basis of the ethical dilemmas this kind of tourism faces. Tourism has a direct effect on the culture of the local populous, and as such, the focus of sociologists has been how to maintain the local environment (physically, socioculturally, and economically) while at the same time, introduce people to a new culture.<ref name="":2"" />

== See also ==
*[[Circles of Sustainability]]
*[[Geotourism]]
*[[Human rights]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sociology of culture]]"
ISO 20121,"{{Short description|International standard}}
{{Close paraphrasing|source=http://aroundtherings.com/site/A__40367/Title__London-2012-drives-new-international-standard-for-sustainable-event-management/292/Articles|date=September 2020}}
'''ISO 20121''' (full name: ISO 20121:2012, ''Event sustainability management systems –- Requirements with guidance for use'') is a voluntary [[international standard]] for [[sustainable event management]], created by the [[International Organization for Standardization]]. The standard aims to help organizations improve sustainability throughout the entire event management cycle.

==Background==
Every event – from a village barbecue to a major sporting event like the Olympics – will have economic, social and environmental impacts. Water and energy resources are put under pressure, significant amounts of waste and carbon emissions can be generated. Sometimes events can put a strain on local communities. By 2005, practitioners within the events industry were becoming aware of the need for more sustainable practices.

Specifically, the Head of Sustainability at the [[London 2012]] Olympic and Paralympic Games, David Stubbs, was looking for a way to make good on the sustainability promises made in the London Games bid.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pelham|first=Fiona|title=The story of ISO 20121|url=http://positiveimpactevents.co.uk/feature/the-story-of-iso-20121/|publisher=Positive Impact|access-date=12 Nov 2012|date=18 Jun 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130505042453/http://positiveimpactevents.co.uk/feature/the-story-of-iso-20121/|archive-date=2013-05-05}}</ref>

He raised the issue with the [[British Standards Institution]] (BSI) in the UK. This led to the creation of BS 8901:2007 ''Specification for a sustainable event management system with guidance for use''.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Press release|title=BSI British Standards launches new standard for managing a more sustainable event|url=https://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/about-bsi/media-centre/press-releases/2007/11/BSI-British-Standards-launches-new-standard-for-managing-a-more-sustainable-event/|publisher=BSI|access-date=10 November 2017}}</ref> After a period of review, the second version of BS 8901 was published in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|last=Thorley|first=Chantelle|title=BS8901 made easier to understand|url=http://www.eventmagazine.co.uk/Event_suppliers/article/901701/BS8901-made-easier-understand/|publisher=Event|access-date=3 December 2012|date=28 April 2009}}</ref>

BS 8901 was received very positively by the international event industry, and was soon being widely used. For example, COP15, the United Nations Conference on Climate Change, was certified as compliant with BS 8901 in December 2009.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Press Release |title=COP15 certified to British Standard for sustainable event management |url=https://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/about-bsi/media-centre/press-releases/2009/12/COP15-certified-to-British-Standard-for-sustainable-event-management/ |website=www.bsigroup.com |publisher=BSI Group |access-date=11 October 2019}}</ref> The Microsoft Corporation achieved certification to BS 8901 at its Microsoft Convergence® 2009 event in New Orleans, Louisiana, in March 2009.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nastu |first1=Paul |title=Microsoft Eyes First Sustainable Events Management Certification |url=http://www.environmentalleader.com/2009/02/17/microsoft-eyes-first-sustainable-events-management-certification/ |website=Environmentalleader.com |date=17 February 2009 |publisher=Environment +Energy Leader |access-date=11 October 2019}}</ref>

==Development of ISO 20121==
Responding to this international enthusiasm for BS 8901, in May 2009 a proposal for an international sustainable event management standard was jointly submitted to the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) by [[BSI Group]] and [[ABNT]], the Brazilian national standards body.<ref>{{cite web|title=ISO to develop sustainable event standard in the run up to 2012 Olympics|url=http://www.tourism-review.com/travel-tourism-magazine-sustainable-event-standard-to-be-developed-by-2012-article1273|publisher=Tourism Review|access-date=3 December 2012}}</ref>

Delegations of experts of the national standards institutions of 25 countries developed the standard, with another 10 countries as observers. Eight stakeholder organizations from the event industry, or with a strong interest in sustainability, also participated.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pdf|title=Sustainable events with ISO 20121|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/sustainable_events_iso_2012.pdf|publisher=ISO Central Secretariat|access-date=12 November 2012|page=10|date=June 2012}}</ref> Members of the sustainability team of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games were among the stakeholders who provided input into the development of the standard.<ref name=""iso"">{{cite web|last=Frost|first=Roger|title=New ISO 20121 standard for sustainable events management|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/home/news_index/news_archive/news.htm?refid=Ref1598|publisher=ISO|access-date=12 November 2012|date=20 June 2012}}</ref>
 
Subsequently, ISO 20121:2012 ''Event sustainability management systems –- Requirements with guidance for use'' was published in June 2012.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bull|first=Rachel|title=Locog launches new global sustainability standard|url=http://www.eventmagazine.co.uk/go/home/article/1137328/locog-launches-new-global-sustainability-standard/|publisher=Event|access-date=3 December 2012|date=20 June 2012}}</ref>

== How ISO 20121 works ==
ISO 20121 is relevant to all members of the event industry supply chain including organizers, event managers, stand builders, caterers and logistics suppliers.

The standard takes a [[management systems]] approach to running more sustainable events. It provides a framework to help identify the potentially negative social, economic and environmental impacts of events. Organizers can then remove or reduce negative impacts through improved planning and processes.

This should lead to improvements in key sustainability issues such as venue selection, transport, recycling or reusing demolition waste, creating a [[sustainable food systems|sustainable food]] strategy, promoting healthy living and creating skills, employment and business legacies.

The standard can reduce costs, carbon emissions and waste; better manage the biodiversity of venues; and achieve a diverse and inclusive workforce.

ISO 20121 also includes practical guidance on communications, operational planning and control, stakeholder identification and engagement, supply chain management and procurement, and issue evaluation.

ISO 20121 is suitable for all sizes and types of events.

Organizations can demonstrate voluntary conformity with ISO 20121 by either: first party self-declaration; second party confirmation of conformance by parties having an interest in the organization, such as clients; or by certification by an independent third party, e.g. a [[certification body]].

== ISO 20121 and the London 2012 Olympics ==
Having been highly influential in the creation of the standard, The [[London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games]] (LOCOG) and the [[Olympic Delivery Authority]] both successfully implemented ISO 20121 in June 2012.<ref>{{cite web|last=Press Release|title=London 2012 drives new international standard for sustainable event management|url=http://www.london2012.com/media-centre/article=london-2012-drives-new-international-standard-for-sustainable-event-management.html|publisher=London 2012|access-date=12 November 2012|date=20 June 2012|archive-date=30 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030134808/http://www.london2012.com/media-centre/article=london-2012-drives-new-international-standard-for-sustainable-event-management.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
  
The Head of Sustainability, David Stubbs, commented: ""London 2012 is proud to have been the catalyst for ISO 20121. This is a piece of legacy with the potential to transform how events around the world consider their economic, environmental and social impacts.""<ref>{{cite web|last1=Press release |title=London 2012 |date=20 June 2012 |url=https://www.iso.org/news/2012/06/Ref1598.html |publisher=ISO |access-date=15 April 2021}}</ref>

[[Sebastian Coe]], Chair of LOCOG commented: ""In our bid to host the Olympic and Paralympic Games in London, we pledged to hold the greenest Games of modern times and I am pleased to say we were hugely successful in doing this.""<ref>{{cite web |last1=Press release |title=London 2012: Sustainable procurement for construction guide developed |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/london-2012-sustainable-procurement-for-construction-guide-developed |website=www.gov.uk |publisher=UK Government |access-date=11 October 2019}}</ref>

Another early adopter of ISO 20121 was the [[Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy]] (WPNSA) in the UK, which was the venue for the London 2012 sailing events.

WPNSA reported that as a result of using the standard they achieved cost savings of around 15 per cent through better waste management and electricity optimization. They also enhanced their international reputation as a sports and corporate event venue, and reduced the risks of legislative breaches. Finally, they are demonstrably operating in accordance with the ‘One Planet Living’ principles of sustainable development, which as an organization they aspire to do.<ref>{{cite web |title=Olympic venue reduced utility costs by 15% due to better waste management and utilisation of energy |url=https://www.bsigroup.com/Documents/iso-20121/case-studies/BSI-ISO-20121-Case-Study-WPNSA-UK-EN.pdf |website=bsigroup.com |publisher=BSI Group |access-date=17 May 2019}}</ref>

Following an extensive systems assessment, Plaza Athénée Bangkok A Royal Meridien Hotel became the first “ISO 20121 Event Sustainability Management System” hotel in the world.  Since the implementation of the system in 2012, the hotel has reduced electricity consumption by 9.4%, water by 5.03%, and paper by 4.9% year-on-year. [[Carbon footprint]] profiling revealed a 47.05% reduction in printer ink consumption and a 25.0% l in plastic bottle use.

== History ==
{|class = ""wikitable"" font-size = 95%; width = 50%; background-color = transparent
!Year
!Description
|-
|align = ""center"" | 2012 || ISO 20121 (1st Edition) 
|}

== See also ==
*[[Sustainable Event Management]]
*[[International Organization for Standardization]]
*[[BSI Group]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.iso.org/iso/home.htm International Organization for Standardization website]
*[http://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/ British Standards Institution website]

{{ISO standards}}

[[Category:ISO standards|#20121]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Biocapacity,"{{short description|Estimate of an ecosystem's production of certain biological materials}}
{{distinguish|Carrying capacity}}
The '''biocapacity''' or '''biological capacity''' of an [[ecosystem]] is an estimate of its production of certain biological materials such as [[natural resources]], and its absorption and filtering of other materials such as [[carbon dioxide]] from the atmosphere.<ref name=FAQ>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://www.footprintnetwork.org/|website=[[Global Footprint Network]]: Advancing the Science of Sustainability|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref><ref name=JEM>{{cite journal|last1=Yue|first1=Dongxia|last2=Guo|first2=Jianjun|last3=Hui|first3=Cang|title=Scale dependency of biocapacity and the fallacy of unsustainable development|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|date=2013|volume=126|pages=13–19|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.04.022|pmid=23648317|hdl=10019.1/118295|hdl-access=free}}<!--|access-date=11 August 2014--></ref>

Biocapacity is used together with [[ecological footprint]] as a method of measuring [[human impact on the environment]]. Biocapacity and ecological footprint are tools created by the [[Global Footprint Network]], used in sustainability studies around the world.

Biocapacity is expressed in terms of [[global hectares]] per person, thus is dependent on human population. A global hectare is an adjusted unit that represents the average biological productivity of all productive [[hectares]] on Earth in a given year (because not all hectares produce the same amount of [[ecosystem services]]). Biocapacity is calculated from [https://www.un.org/ United Nations] population and land use data, and may be reported at various regional levels, such as a city, a country, or the world as a whole.

For example, there were roughly 12.2 billion hectares of biologically productive land and water areas on this planet in 2016. Dividing by the number of people alive in that year, 7.4 billion, gives a '''biocapacity for the Earth of 1.6 global hectares per person.''' These 1.6 global hectares includes the areas for wild species that compete with people for space.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/ecological_wealth_of_nations_en |title=Ecological Wealth of Nations: Earth's Biocapacity as a new framework for International Cooperation |access-date=2011-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506105848/http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/ecological_wealth_of_nations_en/ |archive-date=2012-05-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Applications of biocapacity==
An increase in global population can result in a decrease in biocapacity.  This is usually due to the fact that the Earth's resources have to be shared; therefore, there becomes little to supply the increasing demand of the increasing [[population]].<ref name=WWF>{{cite web|title=What does ecological overshoot mean?|url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/living_planet_report/demands_on_our_planet/overshoot/|website=World Wildlife Fund|publisher=WWF|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref> Currently, this issue can be resolved by [[outsourcing]]. However, resources will run out due to the increasing demands and as a result a collapse of an ecosystem can be the consequence of such actions.<ref name=WWF/> When the [[ecological footprint]] becomes greater than the biocapacity of the population, a [[ecological deficit|biocapacity deficit]] is suspected.<ref name=biocap>{{cite web|title=Natures regenerative capacity|url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/living_planet_report/demands_on_our_planet/biocapacity/|website=World Wildlife Fund|publisher=WWF|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref>
'Global biocapacity' is a term sometimes used to describe the total capacity of an ecosystem to support various continuous activity and changes.  When the [[ecological footprint]] of a population exceeds the biocapacity of the environment it lives in, this is called an 'biocapacity deficit'. Such a deficit comes from three sources: overusing one's own ecosystems (""overshoot""), net imports, or use of the global commons.<ref name=biocap/><ref name=RefiningEF>{{cite journal|last1=Venetoulis|first1=Jason|last2=Talberth|first2=John|title=Refining the ecological footprint|journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability|date=5 January 2007|volume=10|issue=4|pages=441–469|doi=10.1007/s10668-006-9074-z|s2cid=153900117 }}<!--|access-date=11 August 2014--></ref> Latest data from [[Global Footprint Network]] suggests that humanity was using an equivalence of 1.7 Earths in 2016.<ref name=fpn>{{cite web | url=http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=5001&type=earth | title=Open Data Platform }}</ref>  The dominant factor of global ecological [[Overshoot (population)|overshoot]] comes from carbon dioxide emissions stemming from fossil fuel burning.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Does the Shoe Fit? Real versus Imagined Ecological Footprints|year = 2013|publisher=PLOS biology journal |doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001700|last1 = Blomqvist|first1 = Linus|last2 = Brook|first2 = Barry W.|last3 = Ellis|first3 = Erle C.|last4 = Kareiva|first4 = Peter M.|last5 = Nordhaus|first5 = Ted|last6 = Shellenberger|first6 = Michael|journal = PLOS Biology|volume = 11|issue = 11|pages = e1001700|pmid = 24223517|pmc = 3818165 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Additional stresses of [[greenhouse gas]]es, [[climate change]], and [[ocean acidification]] can also aggravate the problem.<ref name=WWF/> 
In reference to the definition of biocapacity: 1.7 Earths means the [[renewable resource]]s are being liquidated because they are being consumed faster than the resources can regenerate.<ref name=""WWF"" /> Therefore, it will take one year and eight months for the resources humanity uses in one year to be able to regenerate again, including absorbing all the waste we generate.<ref name=""WWF"" /> So instead of taking one year's worth of resources per year, we are yearly consuming [[resource]]s that ''should'' last us one year and eight months.

In addition, if this matter becomes severe, an [[nature reserve|ecological reserve]] will be set on areas to preserve their ecosystems. Awareness about our depleting resources include: [[agricultural land]], [[forest]] resources and [[rangeland]].<ref name=EB>{{cite web|last1=Hayden|first1=Anders|title=ecological footprint (EF)|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1699724/ecological-footprint-EF|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|access-date=11 August 2014|date=December 30, 2013}}</ref> Biocapacity used in correlation to ecological footprint can therefore suggest whether a specific population, region, country or part of a world is living in the means of their capital. Accordingly, the study of biocapacity and ecological footprint is known as the [[ecological footprint|Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA)]].<ref name=FAQ />

Biocapacity is also affected by the [[technology]] used during the year. With new technologies emerging, it is not clear whether the technology in that year is good or bad but the technology does impact resource supply and demand, which in turn affects biocapacity.<ref name=FAQ /> Hence what is considered “useful” can change from year to year (e.g. use of corn (maize) stover for [[cellulosic ethanol]] production would result in corn stover becoming a useful material, and thus increase the biocapacity of maize cropland).

Moreover, environmentalists have created [[ecological footprint|ecological footprint calculators]] for a single person(s) to determine whether they are encompassing more than what is available for them in their population.<ref name=RegionalScale>{{cite journal|last1=Hopton|first1=Matthew E.|last2=White|first2=Denis|title=A simplified ecological footprint at a regional scale|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|date=2012|volume=111|pages=279–286|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.07.005|pmid=22033065}}<!--|access-date=11 August 2014--></ref> Consequently, biocapacity results will be applied to their ecological footprint to determine how much they may contribute or take away from sustainable development.

In general, biocapacity is the amount of resources available to people at a specific moment in time to a specific population ([[resource|supply]]) and to differentiate between ecological footprint – which is the environmental demand of a '''regional ecosystem'''.<ref name=RegionalScale /> Biocapacity is able to determine the human impacts on Earth. By determining productivity of land (i.e. the resources available for human consumption), biocapacity will be able to predict and perhaps examine the effects on the ecosystems closely based on collected results of human consumption<!-- this sentence (to the left) needs to be made clearer -->.  The biocapacity of an area is calculated by multiplying the actual physical area by the yield factor with the appropriate equivalence factor. Biocapacity is usually expressed in [[global hectare|global hectares (gha)]].<ref name=Serres>{{cite web|title=Bioresources, Biocapacity of Ecosystems, and related terms|url=http://institutmichelserres.ens-lyon.fr/spip.php?article37|website=Michel Serres Institute: for resources and public goods|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref> Since global hectares is able to convert [[Consumer (food chain)|human consumptions]] like food and water into a measurement, biocapacity can be applied to determine the [[carrying capacity]] of the Earth. Likewise, because an economy is tied to various production factors such as natural resources, biocapacity can also be applied to determine [[human capital]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ünal |first1=Huseyin |last2=Aktuğ |first2=Muhammet |title=The impact of human capital and bio-capacity on the environmental quality: evidence from G20 countries |journal=Environ Sci Pollut Res |date=11 February 2022 |volume=29 |issue=30 |pages=45635–45645 |doi=10.1007/s11356-022-19122-0 |pmid=35149945 |bibcode=2022ESPR...2945635U |s2cid=246752753 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-022-19122-0 |access-date=29 April 2023}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of countries by ecological footprint]]
*[[Global Footprint Network]]
*[[Global Hectare]]
*[[Human population]]
*[[Carrying capacity|Carrying Capacity]]
*[[Ecological reserve]]
*[[Sustainable development|Sustainable Development]]
*[[Ecological footprint|Ecological Footprint]]
*[[world energy consumption|World Energy Consumption]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Other resources==
Videos
:[https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/agriculture/australias-biocapacity/ Finding Australia’s biocapacity] Dr Mathis Wackernagel explains biocapacity and how it’s calculated. 
:[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_T5M3MiPfW4 Ecological Balance Sheets for 180+ Countries] [[Global Footprint Network]]
Peer-reviewed Articles
:[https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-021-00708-4 The importance of resource security for poverty eradication];
:[https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/7/2164 Defying the Footprint Oracle: Implications of Country Resource Trends]
Data
:[https://data.footprintnetwork.org Results from the National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts]

{{Population}}
{{Population country lists}}

[[Category:Human overpopulation]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Population ecology]]"
Sustainable city,"{{short description|City designed with consideration for social, economic, environmental impact}}
{{Redirect|Green city|the place in Missouri|Green City, Missouri|other uses|Green City (disambiguation)}}
{{more citations needed|date=April 2019}}
[[File:Tram in front of the Taschenbergpalais Hotel, Dresden - 1448.jpg|thumb|[[Sustainable transport]] and [[cyclability]] are components of improving the sustainability of a city.]]
{{Sustainable energy}}
A '''sustainable city''', '''eco-city''', or '''green city''' is a city designed with consideration for [[Sustainability|social, economic, environmental impact]] (commonly referred to as the [[triple bottom line]]), and resilient habitat for existing populations, without compromising the ability of future generations to experience the same.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Triple Bottom Line: What Is It and How Does It Work?|url=https://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930094037/http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.html|archive-date=2019-09-30|access-date=2019-10-02|website=www.ibrc.indiana.edu}}</ref> The [[Sustainable Development Goal 11|UN Sustainable Development Goal 11]] defines sustainable cities as those that are dedicated to achieving green sustainability, [[social sustainability]] and economic sustainability. They are committed to doing so by enabling opportunities for all through a design focused on inclusivity as well as maintaining a sustainable economic growth. The focus will also includes minimizing required inputs of energy, water, and food, and drastically reducing [[waste]], output of heat, [[air pollution]] – {{CO2|link=yes}}, [[methane]], and [[water pollution]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Larsen |first1=Tove A. |last2=Hoffmann |first2=Sabine |last3=Lüthi |first3=Christoph |last4=Truffer |first4=Bernhard |last5=Maurer |first5=Max |title=Emerging solutions to the water challenges of an urbanizing world |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=2016 |volume=352 |issue=6288 |pages=928–933 |doi=10.1126/science.aad8641|pmid=27199414 |bibcode=2016Sci...352..928L |s2cid=9690225 }}</ref> Richard Register, a visual artist, first coined the term ''ecocity'' in his 1987 book ''Ecocity Berkeley: Building Cities for a Healthy Future,'' where he offers innovative city planning solutions that would work anywhere.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYE-Q8MAF3MC|title=Ecocity Berkeley: Building Cities for a Healthy Future|last=Register|first=Richard|date=1987|publisher=North Atlantic Books|isbn=9781556430091|language=en}}</ref> Other leading figures who envisioned  sustainable cities are [[architect]] [[Paul F Downton]], who later founded the company Ecopolis Pty Ltd, as well as authors [[Timothy Beatley]] and [[Steffen Lehmann]], who have written extensively on the subject. The field of [[industrial ecology]] is sometimes used in planning these cities.

The UN Environment Programme calls out that most cities today are struggling with [[environmental degradation]], traffic congestion, inadequate urban infrastructure, in addition to a lack of basic services, such as water supply, sanitation, and waste management. A sustainable city should promote economic growth and meet the basic needs of its inhabitants, while creating [[sustainable living]] conditions for all.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-01-23|title=Sustainable Cities|url=http://www.unenvironment.org/regions/asia-and-pacific/regional-initiatives/supporting-resource-efficiency/sustainable-cities|access-date=2020-09-22|website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme|language=en|archive-date=2021-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119155627/https://www.unenvironment.org/regions/asia-and-pacific/regional-initiatives/supporting-resource-efficiency/sustainable-cities|url-status=live}}</ref> Ideally, a sustainable city is one that creates an enduring way of life across the four domains of [[ecology]], [[economics]], [[politics]], and [[culture]]. The [[European Investment Bank]] is assisting cities in the development of long-term strategies in fields including renewable transportation, [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]], [[Green building|sustainable housing]], education, and [[health care]]. The European Investment Bank has spent more than €150 billion in bettering cities over the last eight years.<ref name="":16"">{{Cite web|title=Barcelona creates more green space as COVID-19 urban planning meets climate action|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/covid-19-urban-planning|access-date=2021-04-20|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=2021-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420153641/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/covid-19-urban-planning|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Urban Development sector|url=https://www.eib.org/en/projects/sectors/urban-development/index.htm|access-date=2021-04-20|website=EIB.org|language=en|archive-date=2021-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417173720/https://www.eib.org/en/projects/sectors/urban-development/index.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Cities occupy just 3 percent of the Earth's land but account for 60 to 80 percent of energy consumption and at least 70 percent of carbon emissions. Thus, creating safe, resilient, and sustainable cities is one of the top priorities of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html|access-date=2020-09-22|website=UNDP|language=en|archive-date=2021-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504033911/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Adelaide City Council states that socially sustainable cities should be equitable, diverse, connected, democratic, and provide a good quality of life.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Adelaide green city {{!}} WWF|url=http://wwf.panda.org/?204334/Adelaide-green-city|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122222259/https://wwf.panda.org/?204334%2FAdelaide-green-city|archive-date=2021-11-22|access-date=2019-10-02|website=wwf.panda.org}}</ref> Priorities of a sustainable city include the ability to feed itself with a sustainable reliance on the surrounding natural environment and the ability to power itself with [[Renewable energy|renewable sources of energy]], while creating the smallest conceivable [[ecological footprint]] and the lowest quantity of [[pollution]] achievable. All of this is to be accomplished by efficient land use, [[compost]]ing organic matter, [[recycling]] used materials, and/or converting [[waste-to-energy]]. The idea is that these contributions will lead to a decrease of the [[Climate change and cities|city's impact on climate change]].

Today, 55 percent of the world is estimated to be living in [[urban area]]s and the [[United Nations]] estimates that by the year 2050, that number will rise to 70 percent.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-22|title=7 innovative projects making cities more sustainable|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/09/cities-sustainability-innovation-global-goals/|website=World Economic Forum|language=en-US|access-date=2020-09-22|archive-date=2020-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922211416/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/09/cities-sustainability-innovation-global-goals|url-status=live}}</ref> By 2050, there may be nearly 2.5 more billion individuals living in urban cities, possibly making it more difficult to create more sustainable communities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/climate-solutions/cities-pollution |website=United Nations Climate Action |publisher=United Nations |access-date=20 October 2022|title=Generating power }}</ref> These large communities provide both challenges and opportunities for [[environmentally-conscious]] developers. There are distinct advantages to further defining and working towards the goals of sustainable cities. Humans thrive in urban spaces that foster social connections. [[Richard Florida]], an urban studies theorist, focuses on the social impact of sustainable cities and states that cities need more than a competitive business climate; they should promote a great people climate that appeals to individuals and families of all types. Because of this, a shift to denser urban living would provide an outlet for social interaction and conditions under which humans can prosper. These types of urban areas would also promote the use of public transit, [[walkability]], and biking which would benefit citizens' health as well as benefiting the environment.<ref name=""asla.org"">{{Cite web |title=The Sustainable SITES Initiative® (SITES®) {{!}} asla.org |url=https://www.asla.org/sites/ |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=www.asla.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartig |first1=Terry |last2=Kahn |first2=Peter H. |title=Living in cities, naturally |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=2016 |volume=352 |issue=6288 |pages=938–940 |doi=10.1126/science.aaf3759|pmid=27199417 |bibcode=2016Sci...352..938H |s2cid=206647916 }}</ref>

==Practical methods to create sustainable cities==

*Different [[Agriculture|agricultural systems]] such as agricultural plots within the city ([[suburbs]] or [[City center|centre]]).<!-- British form of 'center' --> This reduces the distance food has to travel from [[food miles|field to fork]]. This may be done by either small-scale/private farming plots or through larger-scale agriculture (e.g. [[Vertical farming|farmscrapers]]).
*[[Renewable energy]] sources, such as [[wind turbine]]s, [[solar panel]]s, or [[bio-gas]] created from [[sewage]] to reduce and manage pollution. Cities provide [[economies of scale]] that make such energy sources viable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kammen |first1=Daniel M. |last2=Sunter |first2=Deborah A. |title=City-integrated renewable energy for urban sustainability |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=2016 |volume=352 |issue=6288 |pages=922–928 |doi=10.1126/science.aad9302|pmid=27199413 |bibcode=2016Sci...352..922K |s2cid=206645615 |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9bt3c7q8 }}</ref>
*Various methods to reduce the need for [[air conditioning]] (a massive energy demand), such as [[passive daytime radiative cooling]] applications, planting trees and lightening surface colors, [[Natural ventilation|natural ventilation systems]], an increase in water features, and green spaces equaling at least 20% of the city's surface. These measures counter the ""[[heat island effect]]"" caused by an abundance of tarmac and asphalt, which can make urban areas several degrees warmer than surrounding rural areas—as much as six degrees Celsius during the evening.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-02-28|title=Heat Island Effect|url=https://www.epa.gov/heatislands|access-date=2021-12-09|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref>[[File:Global Urban Heat Island (UHI) Data Set, 2013 Average Summer Nighttime Minimum Surface Temperature (29968026924).jpg|thumb|Showing pockets of urban spaces creating the Heat Island effect with ranging temperatures <ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Urban Heat Island (UHI) Data Set, v1: Satellite-Derived Environmental Indicators {{!}} SEDAC |url=https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/sdei-global-uhi-2013 |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu |language=en}}</ref>]]
*Improved [[public transport]] and an increase in pedestrianization to reduce car emissions. This requires a radically different approach to city planning, with integrated business, industrial, and residential zones. Roads may be designed to make driving difficult.
*Optimal building density to make public transport viable but avoid the creation of [[urban heat island]]s. 
*[[Green roof]]s alter the surface energy balance and can help mitigate the urban heat island effect. Incorporating [[Green roof|eco roofs]] or green roofs in your design will help with air quality, climate, and water runoff.
*[[Zero-emission transport]]                                                                                                                                                                                                    [[File:Green_roof.jpg|thumb|Plants growing on building]]
*[[Zero-energy building]] to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions using renewable energy sources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Wei |last2=Skye |first2=Harrison M. |date=2021-05-01 |title=Residential Net-Zero energy Buildings: Review and Perspective |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=142 |page=110859 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2021.110859 |issn=1364-0321 |pmc=8370022 |pmid=34413697}}</ref> 
*[[Sustainable urban drainage systems]] or SUDS in addition to other systems to reduce and manage waste.
*[[Energy conservation|Energy conservation systems/devices]] 
*[[Xeriscaping]] – garden and landscape design for water conservation
*[[Sustainable transport]], incorporates five elements: fuel economy, occupancy, electrification, pedal power, and urbanization.
*[[Circular economy]] to combat inefficient resource patterns and ensure a sustainable production and consumption roadmap. 
*Increase of [[cycling infrastructure]] would increase cycling within cities and reduce the number of cars being driven and in turn reduce car emissions. This would also benefit the health of citizens as they would be able to get more exercise through cycling.
*[[Key performance indicator]]s – development and operational management tool providing guidance and M&V for city administrators currently monitor and evaluate energy savings in various facilities.
*[https://www.sustainablesites.org/ Sustainable Sites Initiative] or SSI – voluntary national guidelines and performance benchmarks for sustainable land design, construction and maintenance practices. Key areas of focus are soil, vegetation, hydrology, materials, and human health and well-being.

Sustainable cities are creating '''safe spaces for its inhabitants''' through various means, such as:

* Solutions to decrease [[urban sprawl]], by seeking new ways of allowing people to live closer to the workspace.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-03-22|title=How Can Cities Reverse Urban Sprawl, Increase Transit Use, Reduce Emissions?|url=https://www.perc.org/2012/03/22/how-can-cities-reverse-urban-sprawl-increase-transit-use-reduce-emissions/|access-date=2020-02-28|website=PERC|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228205231/https://www.perc.org/2012/03/22/how-can-cities-reverse-urban-sprawl-increase-transit-use-reduce-emissions/|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the workplace tends to be in the city, downtown, or urban center, they are seeking a way to increase density by changing the antiquated attitudes many suburbanites have towards inner-city areas.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Benfield|first=Kaid|title=This Is What a Neighborhood Revitalization Actually Looks Like|url=http://www.theatlanticcities.com/neighborhoods/2012/10/what-neighborhood-revitalization-actually-looks/3627/|access-date=2020-02-28|website=CityLab|language=en|archive-date=2014-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509210733/http://www.theatlanticcities.com/neighborhoods/2012/10/what-neighborhood-revitalization-actually-looks/3627/|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the new ways to achieve this is by solutions worked out by the [[Smart Growth]] Movement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smart Growth: The Environment & Equity {{!}} Smart Cities Dive |url=https://www.smartcitiesdive.com/ex/sustainablecitiescollective/environment-equity-smart-growth/126281/ |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=www.smartcitiesdive.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Educating residents of cities about the importance and positive impacts of living in a more sustainable city. This is to boost the initiative to have sustainable developments and push people to live in a more sustainable and [[Environmentally friendly|environmentally-friendly]] way.
* Policy and planning changes to meet the unmet demands for urban services (water, energy, transport).

With regard to methods of emissions counting cities can be challenging as production of goods and services within their territory can be related either to domestic consumption or exports. Conversely the citizens also consume imported goods and services. To avoid double counting in any emissions calculation it should be made clear where the emissions are to be counted: at the site of production or consumption. This may be complicated given long production chains in a globalized economy. Moreover, the embodied energy and consequences of large-scale raw material extraction required for renewable energy systems and electric vehicle batteries is likely to represent its own complications – local emissions at the site of utilization are likely to be very small but life-cycle emissions can still be significant.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130912 | title=Carbon-neutral cities: Critical review of theory and practice | year=2022 | last1=Huovila | first1=Aapo | last2=Siikavirta | first2=Hanne | last3=Antuña Rozado | first3=Carmen | last4=Rökman | first4=Jyri | last5=Tuominen | first5=Pekka | last6=Paiho | first6=Satu | last7=Hedman | first7=Åsa | last8=Ylén | first8=Peter | journal=Journal of Cleaner Production | volume=341 | page=130912 | s2cid=246818806 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Architecture ==
Buildings provide the infrastructure for a functioning city and allow for many opportunities to demonstrate a commitment to sustainability. A commitment to [[sustainable architecture]] encompasses all phases of building including the planning, building, and restructuring. Sustainable Site Initiative is used by landscape architects, designers, engineers, architects, developers, policy-makers, and others to align land development and management with innovative sustainable design.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Sustainable SITES Initiative® (SITES®) {{!}} asla.org|url=https://www.asla.org/sites/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930185037/https://www.asla.org/sites/|archive-date=2020-09-30|access-date=2020-09-23|website=www.asla.org}}</ref>

=== Eco-industrial park ===
The [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]] (United Nation's Industrial Development Organization) defines [[eco-industrial park]] as a community of businesses located on a common property in which businesses seek to achieve enhanced environmental, economic, and social performance through collaboration in managing environmental and resource issues. This is an industrial symbiosis where companies gain an added benefit by physically exchanging materials, energy, water, and by-products, thus enabling sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Eco-industrial parks {{!}} UNIDO|url=https://www.unido.org/our-focus-safeguarding-environment-resource-efficient-and-low-carbon-industrial-production/eco-industrial-parks|access-date=2020-09-22|website=www.unido.org|archive-date=2020-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920095512/https://www.unido.org/our-focus-safeguarding-environment-resource-efficient-and-low-carbon-industrial-production/eco-industrial-parks|url-status=live}}</ref> This collaboration reduces environmental impact while simultaneously improves economic performance of the area.

The components for building an eco-industrial park include natural systems, more efficient use of energy, and more efficient material and water flows. Industrial parks should be built to fit into their natural settings in order to reduce environmental impacts, which can be accomplished through plant design, landscaping, and choice of materials. For instance, there is an industrial park in Michigan built by Phoenix Designs that is made almost entirely from recycled materials. The landscaping of the building will include native trees, grasses, and flowers, and the landscaping design will also act as climate shelter for the facility.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Michigan Market Development|url=https://www.michigan.gov/documents/egle/egle-mmd-Michigan-Market-_Development-Final-Report_678214_7.pdf|access-date=2020-09-22|archive-date=2020-10-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018112928/https://www.michigan.gov/documents/egle/egle-mmd-Michigan-Market-_Development-Final-Report_678214_7.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In choosing the materials for building an eco-industrial park, designers must consider the life-cycle analysis of each medium that goes into the building to assess their true impact on the environment and to ensure that they are using it from one plant to another, steam connections from firms to provide heating for homes in the area, and using renewable energy such as wind and solar power. In terms of material flows, the companies in an eco-industrial park may have common waste treatment facilities, a means for transporting by-products from one plant to another, or anchoring the park around [[resource recovery]] companies that are recruited to the location or started from scratch. To create more efficient water flows in industrial parks, the processed water from one plant can be reused by another plant and the park's infrastructure can include a way to collect and reuse stormwater runoff.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stormwater Runoff - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/stormwater-runoff |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>

== Examples ==

=== Recycled Park in Rotterdam, the Netherlands ===
The Recycled Park in Rotterdam, the second-largest city in the Netherlands, is an initiative introduced by [https://solarimpulse.com/companies/recycled-island-foundation Recycled Island Foundation], a Netherlands-based organization focused on recycling littered waste via creating their iconic island-parks, among other sustainable projects. Rotterdam's Recycled Park is a cluster of floating, green hexagonal ""islands"" composed of reused litter. The group has utilized a system of passive litter traps to collect this litter from the Maas River.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Litter traps|url=https://www.recycledisland.com/litter-traps|access-date=2019-11-20|website=Recycled Island|language=en}}</ref> The park's location upon the Maas River reflects a circular process aimed at creating a more sustainable city.

On the underside of the recycled park are materials that will support the growth of plants and wildlife indigenous to the area. This interest in growing the biodiversity of Rotterdam's natural elements is also reflected in other cities. Chicago's Urban Rivers organization is similarly trying to solve this issue by building and growing the Wild Mile of floating parks and forests along the [[Chicago River]] with the goal of [[revegetation]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home|url=https://www.urbanriv.org/the-wild-mile|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101034014/https://www.urbanriv.org/the-wild-mile/|archive-date=2020-01-01|access-date=2019-11-20|website=Urban Rivers|language=en-US}}</ref> Both Urban Rivers' and Recycled Island Foundation's interest in improving the area's biodiversity reflects an interest in [[greening]] the built urbanism of the surrounding city.

Rotterdam's Recycled Park may suggest a greater trend in creating floating structures in response to greater climate-change-motivated impacts. The Floating Farm in Rotterdam sustainably approaches food production and transport.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-05-15|title=world's first floating farm welcomes cows in rotterdam|url=https://www.designboom.com/architecture/floating-farm-rotterdam-cows-05-15-2019/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111113031/https://www.designboom.com/architecture/floating-farm-rotterdam-cows-05-15-2019/|archive-date=2019-11-11|access-date=2019-11-20|website=designboom {{!}} architecture & design magazine|language=en}}</ref> Other floating structures include renewable energy-powered houseboats and luxury residences some 800 meters from the coast.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-13|title=+31architects' floating houseboat uses solar power to sail across lakes and rivers|url=https://www.designboom.com/architecture/plus-31-architects-floating-houseboat-solar-power-naturecruiser-03-13-2019/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502093618/https://www.designboom.com/architecture/plus-31-architects-floating-houseboat-solar-power-naturecruiser-03-13-2019/|archive-date=2019-05-02|access-date=2019-11-20|website=designboom {{!}} architecture & design magazine|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.designboom.com/architecture/wojciech-morsztyn-ocean-community-vessel-rising-sea-levels-luxury-houseboats-11-07-2019/|title=the 'ocean community' responds to rising sea levels with luxury houseboats|date=2019-11-07|website=designboom {{!}} architecture & design magazine|language=en|access-date=2019-11-20|archive-date=2019-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108131652/https://www.designboom.com/architecture/wojciech-morsztyn-ocean-community-vessel-rising-sea-levels-luxury-houseboats-11-07-2019/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Dutch city of Amsterdam likewise boasts a neighbourhood of artificial, floating islands in the suburb of [[IJburg]].

The idea of expanding both commercial enterprise and residential developments onto the water is oftentimes reflective of the demand to limit land-usage in urban areas. This has various, wide-reaching environmental impacts: reducing the aggregation of the [[Urban heat island|urban heat-island effect]], the zoning efforts expended on engineering and regulating the [[floodplain]] (and potentially, the capacity of [[Wastewater|waste-water reservoirs]]), and reduce the demands of the [[automobility]] state.

The Recycled Park is a holistic approach to limiting the expense of waste. The employment of greenery has air-purifying effects, to reduce pollution. Additionally, the modular, hexagonal design allows reconstruction of each ""island""; this space thus also offers environmental sustainability, as well as an open space for community-growing and other social opportunities.

=== Urban farming ===
{{See also|Urban agriculture}}
[[File:Urban Farming in Lowell, MA.jpg|thumb|right|Urban farming in Lowell, Massachusetts]]

[[Urban farming]] is the process of growing and distributing food, as well as raising animals, in and around a city or in urban areas. According to the RUAF Foundation, urban farming is different from rural agriculture because it is integrated into the urban economic and ecological system: [[urban agriculture]] is embedded in and interacting with the urban ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ruaf.org/|title=The RUAF Foundation|website=The RUAF Foundation|language=en|access-date=2019-10-02|archive-date=2019-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904221755/https://www.ruaf.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Such linkages include the use of urban residents as the key workers, use of typical urban resources (such as utilizing organic waste as compost or urban wastewater for irrigation), direct links with urban consumers, direct impacts on [[urban ecology]] (positive and negative), being part of the urban food system, competing for land with other urban functions, being influenced by urban policies and plans. One motivation for urban agriculture in sustainable cities includes saving energy that would be used in food transportation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin-Moreau |first1=M. |last2=Ménascé |first2=D. |date=September 2019 |title=Urban Agriculture: Another Way to Feed Cities |journal=The Journal of Field Actions |volume=20 |pages=1–126 |issn=1867-8521 |url=http://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/5536 |access-date=2021-11-19 |archive-date=2021-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119102011/https://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/5536 |url-status=live }}</ref> Urban farming infrastructure can include common areas for community gardens or farms, as well as common areas for farmers markets in which the food items grown within the city can be sold to the residents of the urban system.

Tiny forests or miniature forests is a new concept where many trees are grown on a small patch of land. These forests are said to grow 10x faster and 30x denser with 100x biodiversity than larger forests. Additionally, they are 100% organic. The ratio of shrub layer, sub-tree layer, tree layer, and canopy layer of the miniature forest along with the percentage of each tree species are planned and fixed before planting so as to promote biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tiny Forest|website = [[YouTube]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=583&v=MDSlft037gk&feature=emb_logo|access-date=2020-09-23|archive-date=2020-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001211202/https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=583&v=MDSlft037gk&feature=emb_logo|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== New Urbanism ===
The most clearly defined form of walkable urbanism is known as the Charter of [[New Urbanism]]. It is an approach for successfully reducing environmental impacts by altering the [[built environment]] to create and preserve smart cities that support [[sustainable transport]]. Residents in compact urban neighbourhoods drive fewer miles and have significantly lower environmental impacts across a range of measures, compared with those living in [[Urban sprawl|sprawling]] suburbs. The concept of [[circular flow land use management]] has also been introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land use patterns that strive for compact cities and a reduction of greenfield land taken by urban sprawl.

[[Sustainable architecture]], a recent movement of [[New Classical Architecture]], promotes a sustainable approach towards construction that appreciates and develops [[smart growth]], walkability, [[Vernacular architecture|vernacular tradition]], and [[Classical architecture|classical design]]. This in contrast to [[Modern architecture|modernist]] and [[International Style (architecture)|globally uniform]] architecture and opposes solitary [[housing estate]]s and suburban sprawl. Both trends started in the 1980s.

=== Individual buildings (LEED) ===
{{Main|Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design}}

The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System encourages and accelerates global adoption of sustainable green building and development practices through the creation and implementation of universally understood and accepted tools and performance criteria.

LEED, or [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]], is an internationally recognized [[green building]] certification system. LEED recognizes whole building sustainable design by identifying key areas of excellence including: Sustainable Sites, Water Efficiency, Energy and Atmosphere, Materials and Resources, Indoor Environmental Quality, Locations & Linkages, Awareness and Education, Innovation in Design, Regional Priority. In order for a building to become LEED certified sustainability needs to be prioritized in design, construction, and use. One example of sustainable design would be including a [[certified wood]] like bamboo. Bamboo is fast growing and has an incredible replacement rate after being harvested. By far the most credits are rewarded for optimizing energy performance. This promotes innovative thinking about alternative forms of energy and encourages increased efficiency.

A new district in Helsinki, Finland is being made almost entirely using timber.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wood City|website = [[YouTube]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L4QYkEpw9pA|access-date=2020-09-23|archive-date=2020-10-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002033237/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L4QYkEpw9pA|url-status=live}}</ref> This timber is a form of a [[Laminated veneer lumber|Laminated Veneer Lumbar]] (LVL) that has high standards of fire resistance. The idea is that wood construction has a much smaller {{CO2}} footprint than concrete and steel construction and thus, this project is going to take Finland's timber architecture to new heights of sustainability.

=== Sustainable Sites Initiative (SSI) ===
Sustainable Sites Initiative, a combined effort of the [[American Society of Landscape Architects]], The Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center at The [[University of Texas at Austin]], and the [[United States Botanic Garden]], is a voluntary national guideline and performance benchmark for sustainable land design, construction and maintenance practices.<ref name=""asla.org""/> The building principles of SSI are to design with nature and culture, use a decision-making hierarchy of preservation, conservation, and regeneration, use a system thinking approach, provide regenerative systems, support a living process, use a collaborative and ethical approach, maintain integrity in leadership and research, and finally foster [[environmental stewardship]]. All of these help promote solutions to common environmental issues such as [[greenhouse gas]]es, [[urban climate]] issues, [[water pollution]] and waste, [[energy consumption]], and health and wellbeing of site users. The main focus is hydrology, soils, vegetation, materials, and human health and well-being.

In SSI, the main goal for [[hydrology]] in sites is to protect and restore existing hydrologic functions. To design storm water features to be accessible to site users, and manage and clean water on site. For site design of [[soil]] and [[vegetation]] many steps can be done during the construction process to help minimize the [[urban heat island]] effects, and minimize the building heating requirements by using plants.

=== Regenerative architecture ===
Regenerative architecture includes repurposing abandoned spaces to increase green space by using cost-effective design techniques. An old railway line in Bangkok has been recently converted in the Phra Pok Klao Sky Park, a green park in the congested city of Bangkok.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On the right track: How Bangkok turned an old unused train line into a park|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/06/bangkok-green-space-park-old-train-line-thailand-climate-change/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=World Economic Forum|date=19 June 2020 |language=en|archive-date=2020-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918200725/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/06/bangkok-green-space-park-old-train-line-thailand-climate-change|url-status=live}}</ref> The New York High Line project is one of the oldest examples of regenerative architecture where an abandoned railway line is repurposed into an elevated park and social gathering space for its citizens.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Coldwell|first=Will|date=2014-09-22|title=Final stretch of New York's High Line complete|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2014/sep/22/final-stretch-new-york-high-line-complete|access-date=2020-09-23|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=2020-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814023227/https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2014/sep/22/final-stretch-new-york-high-line-complete|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Eco-cities ===
[[Eco-cities]] are rooted in various urban planning traditions, including the early garden city movement initiated by Ebenezer Howard. These early efforts sought self-contained, green, and interconnected communities. In the latter 20th century, a broader understanding of ecological systems prompted the need for cities to address their ecological impact both locally and globally. Concepts like ""urban metabolism"" and McHarg's ecological site planning emerged. The term ""ecocity"" was coined by [[Richard Register]] in the 1980s during the rise of sustainability concerns, as outlined in the [[Brundtland Commission]] Report. Sustainability in urban planning focuses on inter-generational equity, environmental protection, and more. In the 2000s, resilience became a key perspective, highlighting the importance of ecological and social resilience in cities facing climate change challenges.<ref Name=""BorgElArab"" />

== Transportation ==
[[File:Energy Efficiency of different Transport Modes.png|thumb]]
As major focus of the sustainable cities, [[sustainable transportation]] attempts to reduce a city's reliance and use of greenhouse emitting gases by utilizing eco-friendly [[urban planning]], low environmental impact vehicles, and residential proximity to create an urban center that has greater environmental responsibility and [[social equity]].

Poor transportation systems lead to traffic jams and high levels of pollution. Due to the significant impact that transportation services have on a city's energy consumption, the last decade has seen an increasing emphasis on sustainable transportation by developmental experts. Currently, transportation systems account for nearly a quarter of the world's energy consumption and carbon dioxide emission. In order to reduce the environmental impact caused by transportation in metropolitan areas, sustainable transportation has three widely agreed-upon pillars that it utilizes to create more healthy and productive urban centers.

The [[Carbon Trust]] states that there are three main ways cities can innovate to make transport more sustainable without increasing journey times – better land use planning, modal shift to encourage people to choose more efficient forms of transport, and making existing transport modes more efficient.

=== Car free city ===
The concept of [[Carfree city|car free cities]] or a city with large [[pedestrian area]]s is often part of the design of a sustainable city. A large part of the [[carbon footprint]] of a city is generated by cars so the car free concept is often considered an integral part of the design of a sustainable city. Large parts of London city are to be made car-free to allow people to walk and cycle safely following the COVID-19 lockdown. Similarly, 47 miles of bike lanes are planned to be opened in Bogotá, Colombia in addition to the existing 75-mile network of streets that was recently made to be traffic-free all week.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Taylor|first=Matthew|date=2020-05-15|title=Large areas of London to be made car-free as lockdown eased|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/may/15/large-areas-of-london-to-be-made-car-free-as-lockdown-eased|access-date=2020-09-23|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=2021-08-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806185826/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/may/15/large-areas-of-london-to-be-made-car-free-as-lockdown-eased|url-status=live}}</ref> [[New urbanism]] frees residents of [[Masdar City|Masdar City, UAE]] from automobiles and makes possible walkable and sustainable communities by integrating daily facilities such as plazas and sidewalks into the neighborhoods. Public transit systems like the Group Rapid Transit and the [[Abu Dhabi Metro|Metro]] provide direct access to wide areas of Masdar, as well as Abu Dhabi’s [[Central business district|CBD]], and other parts of the city.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} The COVID-19 pandemic gave birth to proposals for radical change in the organisation of the city, such as the Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the city after COVID19, published in Barcelona and signed by 160 academics and 300 architects, being the elimination of the car one of the key elements.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Paolini|first=Massimo|date=2020-04-20|title=Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the City after COVID19|language=en-GB|url=https://www.degrowth.info/en/2020/05/manifesto-for-the-reorganisation-of-the-city-after-covid-19/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623202509/https://www.degrowth.info/en/2020/05/manifesto-for-the-reorganisation-of-the-city-after-covid-19/|archive-date=2021-06-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Argemí|first=Anna|date=2020-05-08|title=Por una Barcelona menos mercantilizada y más humana|language=es|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/05/06/alterconsumismo/1588769208_267470.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905011210/https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/05/06/alterconsumismo/1588769208_267470.html|archive-date=2021-09-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Maiztegui|first=Belén|date=2020-06-18|title=Manifiesto por la reorganización de la ciudad tras el COVID-19|language=es|url=https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/941897/manifiesto-por-la-reorganizacion-de-la-ciudad-tras-el-covid-19?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_all|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816105501/https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/941897/manifiesto-por-la-reorganizacion-de-la-ciudad-tras-el-covid-19?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_all|archive-date=2021-08-16}}</ref>

=== Emphasis on proximity ===
{{See also|Compact city|Pocket neighbourhood}}

Created by eco-friendly urban planning, the concept of urban proximity is an essential element of current and future sustainable transportation systems. This requires that cities be built and added onto with appropriate population and landmark density so that destinations are reached with reduced time in transit. This reduced time in transit allows for reduced fuel expenditure and also opens the door to alternative means of transportation such as bike riding and walking. Furthermore, close proximity of residents and major landmarks allows for the creation of efficient public transportation by eliminating long sprawled out routes and reducing commute time. This in turn decreases the social cost to residents who choose to live in these cities by allowing them more time with families and friends instead by eliminating part of their commute time.

Melbourne is leading the way in creating the 20-minute neighbourhood where biking, walking or using public transport can get you to work, shops or a government agency within 20 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-09|title=20-minute neighbourhoods|url=https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/policy-and-strategy/planning-for-melbourne/plan-melbourne/20-minute-neighbourhoods|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920083131/https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/policy-and-strategy/planning-for-melbourne/plan-melbourne/20-minute-neighbourhoods|archive-date=2021-09-20|access-date=2020-09-23|website=Planning|language=en}}</ref> Paris is experimenting with a similar concept in the Rue de Rivoli area where travel time for any destination is capped at 15 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-15|title=How the '15-Minute City' Could Help Post-Pandemic Recovery|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-15/mayors-tout-the-15-minute-city-as-covid-recovery|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817050340/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-15/mayors-tout-the-15-minute-city-as-covid-recovery|archive-date=2021-08-17|access-date=2020-09-23|website=Bloomberg.com}}</ref>

=== Diversity in modes of transportation ===
Sustainable transportation emphasizes the use of a diversity of [[fuel-efficient]] transportation vehicles in order to reduce greenhouse emissions and diversity fuel demand. Due to the increasingly expensive and volatile cost of energy, this strategy has become very important because it allows a way for city residents to be less susceptible to varying highs and lows in various energy prices.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-12-29 |title=Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions |url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref>

Among the different [[modes of transport]]ation, the use alternative energy cars and widespread installation of refueling stations has gained increasing importance, while the creation of centralized [[Bike path|bike]] and [[walking path]]s remains a staple of the sustainable transportation movement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Road to Sustainable Transport |url=https://www.iisd.org/articles/deep-dive/road-sustainable-transport |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=International Institute for Sustainable Development |language=en}}</ref>

[[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] is one of the pioneers in creating electric vehicles, which is said to reduce {{CO2}} footprints of cars. More companies globally are developing their own versions of electric cars and public transport to promote sustainable transportation.

=== Access to transportation ===
In order to maintain the aspect of [[social responsibility]] inherent within the concept of sustainable cities, implementing [[sustainable transportation]] must include access to transportation by all levels of society. Due to the fact that car and fuel cost are often too expensive for lower-income urban residents, completing this aspect often revolves around efficient and accessible public transportation. Social inclusion is a key goal of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html|access-date=2020-09-23|website=UNDP|language=en|archive-date=2021-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504033911/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In order to make public transportation more accessible, the cost of rides must be affordable and stations must be located no more than walking distance in each part of the city. As studies have shown, this accessibility creates a great increase in social and productive opportunity for city residents. By allowing lower-income residents cheap and available transportation, it allows for individuals to seek employment opportunities all over the urban center rather than simply the area in which they live. This in turn reduces unemployment and a number of associated social problems such as crime, drug use, and violence.

=== Smart transportation ===
In this age of [[Smart city|smart cities]], many smart solutions are being experimented with to regulate transportation and make public transport more efficient. Israel is reinventing commute by engaging in a public-private partnership that uses algorithms to route public transport according to needs. Using the concept of [[mobility as a service]] (MaaS), the people of Israel are encouraged to put in their destination on a mobile application; this data is then processed by the application to reroute transportation according to demands and options of different modes of transportation are suggested to the commuters to choose from. This decreases futile trips and helps the government regulate the number of people in a train or a bus at a time, especially useful in times of a pandemic like the [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] [[pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Israel's ""smart commuting"" shows what transport could be like after COVID-19|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/07/israel-smart-commuting-after-covid-public-transport-innovation/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=World Economic Forum|date=24 July 2020 |language=en|archive-date=2020-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918195731/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/07/israel-smart-commuting-after-covid-public-transport-innovation|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Urban strategic planning ==
Although there is not an international policy regarding sustainable cities and there are not established international standards, the organization [[United Cities and Local Governments]] (UCLG) is working to establish universal urban strategic guidelines. The UCLG is a democratic and decentralized structure that operates in Africa, Eurasia, Latin America, North America, Middle East, West Asian and a Metropolitan section work to promote a more sustainable society. The 60 members of the UCLG committee evaluate urban development strategies and debate these experiences to make the best recommendations. Additionally, the UCLG accounts for differences in regional and national context. All the organizations are making a great effort to promote this concept by media and Internet, and in conferences and workshops. An International conference was held in Italy at Università del Salento and Università degli Studi della Basilicata, called 'Green Urbanism', from 12 to 14 October 2016.

=== Development ===
Recently,{{When|date=January 2021}} local and national governments and regional bodies such as the [[European Union]] have recognized the need for a holistic understanding of [[urban planning]]. This is instrumental to establishing an international policy that focuses on cities challenges and the role of the local authorities responses. The sustainable development of urban areas is crucial since more than 56% of the world's population lives in cities. Cities are in the lead of climate action, while being responsible for an estimated 75% of the world's [[Greenhouse gas emissions|carbon emissions]].<ref name="":55"">{{Cite book |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/sustainability-report-2021 |title=EIB Group Sustainability Report 2021 |date=2022-07-06 |publisher=European Investment Bank |doi=10.2867/50047 |isbn=978-92-861-5237-5 |language=EN|author1=European Investment Bank }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-26 |title=Cities and climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/explore-topics/resource-efficiency/what-we-do/cities/cities-and-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-27 |website=UNEP - UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Urban Climate Action Is Crucial to Bend the Emissions Curve |url=https://unfccc.int/news/urban-climate-action-is-crucial-to-bend-the-emissions-curve |date=2020-10-05 |access-date=2022-10-23 |website=unfccc.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-09-18 |title=Cities: a 'cause of and solution to' climate change |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/09/1046662 |access-date=2022-07-27 |website=UN News |language=en}}</ref>

Generally, in terms of urban planning, the responsibility of local governments are limited to [[land use]] and infrastructure provision excluding inclusive urban development strategies. The advantages of urban strategic planning include an increase in governance and cooperation that aids local governments in establishing performance based-management, clearly identifying the challenges facing local community and more effectively responding on a local level rather than national level, and improves institutional responses and local decision making. Additionally, it increases dialogue between stakeholders and develops consensus-based solutions, establishing continuity between sustainability plans and change in local government; it places environmental issues as the priority for the sustainable development of cities and serves as a platform to develop concepts and new models of housing, energy and mobility.

=== Obstacles ===
The City Development Strategies (CDS) addresses new challenges and provides space for innovative policies that involves all stakeholders. The inequality in spatial development and socio-economic classes paired with concerns of [[poverty reduction]] and [[climate change]] are factors in achieving global sustainable cities, as highlighted by the [[United Nations]] [[Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goal]] 11. According to the [[UCLG]] there are differences between regional and national conditions, framework and practice that are overcome in the international commitment to communication and negotiation with other governments, communities and the private sector to continue to develop through innovative and participatory approaches in strategic decisions, building consensus and monitoring performance management and raising investment.

=== Social factors of sustainable cities ===
According to the [https://www.undp.org/ United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)], over half of the world's population is concentrated in cities, a proportion which is expected to rise to two-thirds by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainable Development Goals {{!}} United Nations Development Programme|url=https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals|access-date=2021-12-08|website=UNDP|language=en}}</ref> [[United Cities and Local Governments]] has specifically identified 13 global challenges to establishing sustainable cities: demographic change and migration, globalisation of the job market, poverty and unmet Millennium Development Goals, segregation, spatial patterns and urban growth, metropolisation and the rise of urban regions, more political power for local authorities, new actors for developing a city and providing services, decline in public funding for development, the environment and climate change, new and accessible building technologies, preparing for uncertainty and limits of growth and global communications and partnerships.

== Social equity ==

=== Gender ===
Gender associates an individual with a set of traits and behaviors that are construed to be female and/or male by society.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gender: definitions|url=https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-determinants/gender/gender-definitions|access-date=2021-12-08|website=www.euro.who.int|language=en}}</ref> Gender is a key part of a person's identity, which can influence their experiences and opportunities as they navigate through life. This is no different for how gender impacts how they navigate through the built environment.

Men and women experience the built environment differently. For over two decades, professionals in urban planning have called for the routine consideration of gender relations and gendered experiences in the urban design process. Specifically, city planners emphasize the need to account for systemic differences in people's lived experiences by gender, when designing built environments that are safe and equitable.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=Marion|date=June 1998|title=Urban design, gender and the future of cities|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13574809808724421|journal=Journal of Urban Design|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|pages=133–135|doi=10.1080/13574809808724421|issn=1357-4809}}</ref> This applies to the development of climate resilient cities.

Women represent 80% of people who've been displaced by the climate crisis.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite news|date=2018-03-08|title=Climate change 'impacts women more than men'|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43294221|access-date=2021-12-08}}</ref> Women are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because of the roles they are socially assigned by gender. For instance, women are primarily responsible for food provision in the household.<ref name="":2"" /> Unprecedented patterns in the frequency and magnitude of floods and droughts – due to climate change – directly impact the caregiving responsibilities of many women, causing them to disproportionately suffer from the consequences of these natural disasters.

The inequitable distribution of the burden of climate change by gender is unjust and must be addressed in the design of sustainable cities. Achieving gender equality is not only ethically important but economically smart, since supporting female development benefits economic growth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lozano-Torres|first=Yancili|date=2021-05-03|title=Planning Befriends Women: A Look of a Gender Responsive City in the Colombian Context|url=http://ried.unizar.es/index.php/revista/article/view/559|journal=Revista iberoamericana de estudios de desarrollo = Iberoamerican journal of development studies|volume=10|issue=1|pages=310–336|doi=10.26754/ojs_ried/ijds.559|s2cid=236693425|issn=2254-2035|doi-access=free}}</ref> Moreover, it's socially and economically relevant to design sustainable cities not only for women, but ''by'' women.

Notable women spearheading the sustainable city movement include mayors [[Anne Hidalgo]], [[Ada Colau|Ada Colau Ballano]], [[Claudia López Hernández|Claudia Lopez]], [[Yvonne Aki-Sawyerr]], [[Muriel Bowser]], [[Patricia de Lille]], Helen Fernandez, and [[Clover Moore]]. Other female leaders include [[Christiana Figueres|Christina Figueres]], [[Patricia Espinosa]], [[Laurence Tubiana]], and [[Hakima El Haite]].

=== Race and Income ===
Mobility or the ability to move/go places is essential to daily life. Our mobility is primarily determined by the transportation infrastructure that surrounds us. Throughout US history, mobility and right to place have been regulated through codified social rules of who can go where, and how. Many of these rules were drawn along racial/ethnic and nationalistic lines.

Discriminatory housing and transit policies, like red lining, have compounded the oppressive living conditions marginalized racial groups have been subjected to centuries, and have limited the socioeconomic opportunities of future generations.<ref name=tk>{{Cite journal|last1=Kollmann|first1=Trevor|last2=Marsiglio|first2=Simone|last3=Suardi|first3=Sandy|last4=Tolotti|first4=Marco|date=September 2021|title=Social interactions, residential segregation and the dynamics of tipping|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Economics|language=en|volume=31|issue=4|pages=1355–1388|doi=10.1007/s00191-021-00742-7|s2cid=239717392|issn=0936-9937|doi-access=free|hdl=10278/3742622|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The legacies of these discriminatory policies are responsible for many environmental injustices we see today.

Environmental injustice refers to the unequal distribution of risk to environmental threats, with vulnerable populations – e.g., people of low- and middle-income (LMI) and people of color (POC) – experiencing the greatest exposure and least protection.<ref name=tk/> Environmental injustice is pervasive and manifests in many ways, from contaminated drinking water to mold-infested housing stock.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-22|title=Environmental Justice|url=https://www.gcu.edu/blog/nursing-health-care/environmental-justice|access-date=2021-12-10|website=GCU|language=en}}</ref> One example of environmental injustice is the varying burden of heat exposure on different racial and socioeconomic groups.

Urban areas often experience higher surface temperatures than less developed regions because the concentrated impermeable surfaces are good at absorbing heat, creating the “heat-island” effect mentioned earlier.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-02-28|title=Heat Island Effect|url=https://www.epa.gov/heatislands|access-date=2021-12-10|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref> The risk of adverse health effects caused by the heat island effect is and will be compounded by the increasing frequency in heat waves due to the climate crisis.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last=Wilson|first=Bev|date=2020-10-01|title=Urban Heat Management and the Legacy of Redlining|journal=Journal of the American Planning Association|volume=86|issue=4|pages=443–457|doi=10.1080/01944363.2020.1759127|s2cid=219511822|issn=0194-4363|doi-access=free}}</ref> This threat is quite dangerous for vulnerable populations – including infants and the elderly – who lack access to air conditioning and/or tree coverage to cool down. This limited adaptive capacity to urban heat is concentrated in LMI and historically segregated neighborhoods.<ref name="":3"" />

Specifically, neighborhoods in cities that were historically targeted by redlining and divestment experience higher average land surface temperatures than surrounding areas.<ref name="":3"" /> These differences in surface temperatures embody the legacy of discriminatory housing policies in the US, and highlight how historic urban planning practices will interact with the effects of the climate crisis. We must create the sustainable cities of the future with these historic practices in mind. The heat island effect also exacerbates the impacts of another form of environmental injustice that disproportionately affects minority and low-income groups: air pollution.

Urban infrastructure projects that produce environmental toxins – like industrial plants and highways – are frequently built near or in LMI and POC communities because of favorable zoning codes, cheaper land prices, and less political backlash. This is not because residents don't care, but because they often lack the time, resources, and connections necessary to prevent such construction.<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 13, 2017|title=What Is Environmental Justice?|url=https://www.nrdc.org/stories/what-is-environmental-justice|access-date=2021-12-10|website=NRDC|language=en}}</ref> In turn, pollutant-producing operations disproportionately impact LMI and POC communities, harming the health outcomes of these groups.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-12|title=Environmental injustice in Pittsburgh: Poor, minority neighborhoods see higher rates of deaths from air pollution|url=https://www.ehn.org/environmental-injustice-pittsburgh-air-pollution-2646169635.html|access-date=2021-12-10|website=EHN|language=en}}</ref>

A study by the University of Minnesota found that if nitrogen dioxide levels (NO<sub>2</sub> – a product of the combustion of fossil fuels) in non-white communities were reduced to equal those in white communities, there would be around 7,000 fewer deaths from heart disease per year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clark|first1=Lara P.|last2=Millet|first2=Dylan B.|last3=Marshall|first3=Julian D.|date=2014|title=National patterns in environmental injustice and inequality: outdoor NO<sub>2</sub> air pollution in the United States|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=4|pages=e94431|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0094431|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3988057|pmid=24736569|bibcode=2014PLoSO...994431C|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-03-12|title=The Sources and Solutions: Fossil Fuels|url=https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/sources-and-solutions-fossil-fuels|access-date=2021-12-10|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref> This mortality disparity highlights the health impacts of discriminatory zoning and urban planning policies, which disproportionately expose LIM and POC communities to air pollution. The disparity also shows how much we have to gain from sustainable transportation reform which eliminates combustion-engine vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maantay|first=Juliana|date=April 2002|title=Mapping environmental injustices: pitfalls and potential of geographic information systems in assessing environmental health and equity.|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|language=en|volume=110|issue=suppl 2|pages=161–171|doi=10.1289/ehp.02110s2161|pmid=11929725|pmc=1241160|issn=0091-6765}}</ref>

The inequitable breakdown of exposure to environmental risks by race and income reinforces the understanding that the climate crisis is a social issue, and that [[environmental justice]] depends upon racial justice. There is no one right way to address these issues. Proposed solutions include eliminating single-family zoning, pricing a minimum proportions of housing units for LMI households, and requiring community engagement in future urban planning projects.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-04|title=The Quest for Justice: Revitalizing Cities|url=https://now.tufts.edu/articles/quest-justice-revitalizing-cities|access-date=2021-12-10|website=Tufts Now|language=en}}</ref> To select the best combination of solutions to create sustainable cities tailored to their environments, each city must be designed for all community members, by all community members.

Leaders in the environmental justice movement include [[Robert D. Bullard|Robert Bullard]], [[Benjamin Chavis]], [[Peggy Shepard]], Kandi Moseett-White, Mustafa Santiago Ali, Jamie Margolin, Elizabeth Yeampierre, LeeAnne Walters, and Dana Johnson.

==Examples==
===Australia===

==== Adelaide ====
'''[[Urban forest]]s'''

In [[Adelaide]], South Australia (a city of 1.3 million people) Premier Mike Rann (2002 to 2011) launched an urban forest initiative in 2003 to plant 3 million native trees and shrubs by 2014 on 300 project sites across the metro area. The projects range from large habitat restoration projects to local biodiversity projects. Thousands of Adelaide citizens have participated in community planting days. Sites include parks, reserves, transport corridors, schools, water courses and coastline. Only trees native to the local area are planted to ensure genetic integrity. Premier Rann said the project aimed to beautify and cool the city and make it more liveable; improve air and water quality and reduce Adelaide's [[greenhouse gas emissions]] by 600,000 tonnes of {{CO2}} a year. He said it was also about creating and conserving habitat for wildlife and preventing species loss.

'''Solar power'''

The Rann government also launched an initiative for Adelaide to lead Australia in the take-up of solar power. In addition to Australia's first 'feed-in' tariff to stimulate the purchase of solar panels for domestic roofs, the government committed millions of dollars to place arrays of solar panels on the roofs of public buildings such as the museum, art gallery, Parliament, Adelaide Airport, 200 schools and Australia's biggest rooftop array on the roof of Adelaide Showgrounds' convention hall which was registered as a power station.

'''Wind power'''

South Australia went from zero wind power in 2002 to wind power making up 26% of its electricity generation by October 2011. In the five years preceding 2011 there was a 15% drop in emissions, despite strong economic growth.

'''Waste recycling'''

For Adelaide the South Australian government also embraced a Zero Waste recycling strategy, achieving a recycling rate of nearly 80% by 2011 with 4.3 million tonnes of materials diverted from landfill to recycling. On a per capita basis, this was the best result in Australia, the equivalent of preventing more than a million tonnes of {{CO2}} entering the atmosphere. In the 1970s [[container-deposit legislation]] was introduced. Consumers are paid a 10 cent rebate on each bottle, can, or container they return to recycling. In 2009 non-reusable plastic bags used in supermarket checkouts were banned by the Rann Government, preventing 400 million plastic bags per year entering the litter stream. In 2010 Zero Waste SA was commended by a UN Habitat Report entitled 'Solid Waste Management in the World Cities'.

==== Melbourne ====

* [[City of Merri-bek]]. The City of Merri-bek in Melbourne's north, has programs for becoming carbon neutral, one of which is '[https://web.archive.org/web/20160407004537/http://www.morelandsolarcity.org.au/ Zero Carbon Merri-bek]', amongst other existing sustainable implementations and proposals.
* [[City of Melbourne]]. Over the past 10 years, various methods of improving public transport have been implemented, car free zones and entire streets have also been implemented.

==== Sydney ====
Sydney was ranked the most sustainable city in Australia by the 2018 Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index. While most cities in Australia ranked low in the green sustainability categories, a lot of them have made a remarkable shift to improve social sustainability by being more inclusive, supporting culture and general happiness among its people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sydney is Australias most sustainable city|url=https://www.arcadis.com/en/australia/news/latest-news/2018/10/sydney-is-australias-most-sustainable-city/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=Arcadis|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305170327/https://www.arcadis.com/en/australia/news/latest-news/2018/10/sydney-is-australias-most-sustainable-city/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== City of Greater Taree, New South Wales ====
The [[City of Greater Taree]] north of Sydney has developed a masterplan for Australia's first low-to-no carbon urban development.

=== Austria ===
[[Vienna]] is aiming for only 20% of trips to be made by automobile.<ref name="":292"">{{Cite web|date=2018-11-30|title='It's the only way forward': Madrid bans polluting vehicles from city centre|url=http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/nov/30/its-the-only-way-forward-madrid-bans-polluting-vehicles-from-city-centre|access-date=2021-06-07|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=2021-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607170301/https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/nov/30/its-the-only-way-forward-madrid-bans-polluting-vehicles-from-city-centre|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|title=Cycle superhighways - a path for sustainable mobility|url=https://ramboll.com/media/rgr/cycle-superhighways-a-path-for-sustainable-mobility|access-date=2021-06-07|website=Ramboll Group|language=en|archive-date=2021-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154049/https://ramboll.com/media/rgr/cycle-superhighways-a-path-for-sustainable-mobility|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|title=Segregated cycleways and e-bikes - the future of urban travel {{!}} Policy and insight|url=https://policy.friendsoftheearth.uk/insight/segregated-cycleways-and-e-bikes-future-urban-travel|access-date=2021-06-07|website=policy.friendsoftheearth.uk|language=en|archive-date=2021-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154050/https://policy.friendsoftheearth.uk/insight/segregated-cycleways-and-e-bikes-future-urban-travel|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Brazil ===
'''Belo Horizonte, Brazil''' was created in 1897 and is the third-largest metropolis in Brazil, with 2.4 million inhabitants. The Strategic Plan for [[Belo Horizonte]] (2010–2030) is being prepared by external consultants based on similar cities' infrastructure, incorporating the role of local government, state government, city leaders and encouraging citizen participation. The need for environmentally sustainable development is led by the initiative of new government following planning processes from the state government. Overall, the development of the metropolis is dependent on the land regularization and infrastructure improvement that will better support the cultural technology and economic landscape. Despite being a developing or newly industrialized nation,<ref>{{cite book |author=International Monetary Fund |author-link=International Monetary Fund |title=World Economic Outlook: Tensions from the Two-Speed Recovery |date=April 2011 |isbn=978-1-61635-059-8 |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/pdf/text.pdf |access-date=2019-10-20 |archive-date=2014-01-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107200049/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/pdf/text.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> it is home to two sustainable cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sustainablecities.net/citiesnetwork/network-map |title=Sustainable Cities International Network Map |publisher=Sustainable Cities International |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422145541/http://sustainablecities.net/citiesnetwork/network-map |archive-date=2012-04-22 |access-date=2012-03-07}}</ref> The southern cities of [[Porto Alegre]] and [[Curitiba]] are often cited as examples of urban sustainability.

=== Cameroon ===

*[[Bafut, Cameroon|Bafut]], is a town and traditional kingdom which is working towards becoming an eco-city by 2020, through the Bafut Council Eco-city Project.

===Canada===
Since 2016 the Green Score City Index has been studying the urban footprints of Canadian cities.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://greenscore.eco/greenscore_city_index.html |title=Green Score City Index - Index Outline |access-date=2021-06-27 |archive-date=2021-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627155623/https://greenscore.eco/greenscore_city_index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It uses recognized governmental and institutional data to calculate the urban footprints of 50 cities.

* [[Vancouver]] had 2018's highest green score for '''large''' cities.
* [[Burlington, Ontario|Burlington]] had 2018's highest green score for '''medium''' cities.
* [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] had 2018's highest green score for '''small''' cities.

Most cities in Canada have sustainability action plans which are easily searched and downloaded from city websites.

In 2010, [[Calgary]] ranked as the top eco-city in the planet for its, ""excellent level of service on waste removal, sewage systems, and water drinkability and availability, coupled with relatively low air pollution.""  The survey was performed in conjunction with the reputable [[Mercer (consulting firm)|Mercer]] Quality of Living Survey.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#Ranking_Eco_CitiesGF |title=Quality of Living worldwide city rankings 2010 – Mercer survey |access-date=2010-05-26 |archive-date=2009-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501104841/http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#Ranking_Eco_CitiesGF |url-status=live }}</ref>

===China===
{{See also|Eco-Cities in China}}
The Chinese government has launched three sustainable city programs to promote pilot projects and foster innovation.<ref name="":18"">{{Cite journal |last1=de Jong |first1=Martin |last2=Yu |first2=Chang |last3=Joss |first3=Simon |last4=Wennersten |first4=Ronald |last5=Yu |first5=Li |last6=Zhang |first6=Xiaoling |last7=Ma |first7=Xin |date=2016-10-15 |title=Eco city development in China: addressing the policy implementation challenge |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652616301524 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |series=Special Volume: Transitions to Sustainable Consumption and Production in Cities |language=en |volume=134 |pages=31–41 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.083 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref> Beginning in the early 2000s, China acknowledged the importance of sustainable development in addressing the challenges brought about by rapid urbanization and industrialization.<ref name="":32"">{{Cite journal |last=Lin |first=Zhongjie |date=2018-11-01 |title=Ecological urbanism in East Asia: A comparative assessment of two eco-cities in Japan and China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204618306467 |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |language=en |volume=179 |pages=90–102 |doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.07.008 |s2cid=91369184 |issn=0169-2046}}</ref><ref name="":02"">{{Cite book |last=Sandalow |first=David |url=https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/pictures/Guide%20to%20Chinese%20Climate%20Policy%207-27-18.pdf |title=Guide to Chinese Climate Policy |date=July 2018 |publisher=Columbia Center on Global Energy Policy |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-7261-8430-4 |location=New York |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227115928/https://energypolicy.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/pictures/Guide%20to%20Chinese%20Climate%20Policy%207-27-18.pdf |archive-date=2022-02-27 |url-status=live}}</ref> As a result, hundreds of eco-city projects have been initiated throughout the country,<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last=Xu |first=Miao |date=2023 |title=Developer-led new eco-cities in China - identification, assessment and solution of environmental issues in planning |url=https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-325789 |url-status=live |journal= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530033008/https://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1750958&dswid=4830 |archive-date=2023-05-30}}</ref> making China home to the world's largest eco-city program.<ref name="":33"">{{Cite journal |last=Lin |first=Zhongjie |date=2018-11-01 |title=Ecological urbanism in East Asia: A comparative assessment of two eco-cities in Japan and China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204618306467 |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |language=en |volume=179 |pages=90–102 |doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.07.008 |s2cid=91369184 |issn=0169-2046}}</ref>
* [[Tianjin]]: [[Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-city]] is a large and one of the very first ecocity collaboration project created with the cooperation between China and [[Singapore]], in November 2007, covering an area of 31.23 km². Locating at Binhai, Tianjin, it has been rated as the Eco-city with the most living experience in 2018.
* [[Dongtan, Shanghai|Dongtan]] Eco-city, [[Shanghai]]: The project, located in the east of [[Chongming Island]] developed by Arup and Parthers, was scheduled to accommodate 50,000 residents by 2010, but its developer has currently put construction on hold. An additional project was made in 2007 in this area: an Eco-Village based on the concept made by an Italian professor from the School of Architecture of Tianjin University.
* [[Huangbaiyu]], [[Benxi]], [[Liaoning]] is a small village of 42 homes that has come under great criticism: most of the homes are unoccupied by villagers.
* [[Nanjing]]: As of April 2008, an ecocity collaboration project is being proposed here.
* [[Rizhao]], [[Shandong]] mandates solar water heaters for households, and has been designated the Environmental Model City by China's [[State Environmental Protection Administration|SEPA]].
* [[Chengdu Tianfu District Great City]] is a planned city located just outside [[Chengdu]] that is planned to be sustainable and has the goal of being a self-sustaining city that discourages the use of cars.
* [[Dalian]], [[Liaoning]]: The 100 MW Dalian Flow Battery Energy Storage Peak-shaving Power Station,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=Alexandre |last2=Chondrogiannis |first2=Stamatios |title=Smart grid energy storage controller for frequency regulation and peak shaving, using a vanadium redox flow battery |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0142061516000375 |journal=International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems |access-date=2 May 2023 |pages=26–36 |language=en |doi=10.1016/j.ijepes.2016.01.025 |date=1 September 2016|volume=80 }}</ref> with the largest power and capacity in the world so far, was connected to the grid in Dalian, China, on September 29, and it was put into operation in mid-October.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Tao |title=World's Largest Flow Battery Energy Storage Station Connected to Grid |url=http://english.dicp.cas.cn/news/headline/202210/t20221010_321218.html |website=Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics. Chinese Academy of Sciences |access-date=29 April 2023}}</ref>

=== Denmark ===
Two comprehensive studies were carried out for the whole of Denmark in 2010 (The IDA Climate Plan 2050) and 2011 (The Danish Commission on Climate Change Policy). The studies analysed the benefits and obstacles of running Denmark on [[100% renewable energy]] from the year 2050. There is also a larger, ambitious plan in action: the Copenhagen 2025 Climate Plan.

On a more local level, the [[Kalundborg Eco-industrial Park|industrial park in Kalundborg]] is often cited as a model for industrial ecology. However, projects have been carried out in several Danish cities promoting 100% renewable energy. Examples include [[Aalborg]], [[Ballerup]] and [[Frederikshavn]]. [[Aalborg University]] has launched a master education program on sustainable cities (Sustainable Cities @ Aalborg University Copenhagen). See also the Danish Wikipedia.

* [[Copenhagen]]: [[Cycling in Copenhagen]]: One of the most bicycle-friendly city's in the world where over 50% of the population get around on bikes. The city has infrastructure that caters to cycling with hundreds of kilometres of curb segregated bike lanes to separate cyclists and car traffic. A notable feature is The Cycle Super Highways which feature elevated bike lanes which ensure fast, unhindered travel between destinations. The city is aiming for just 25% of trips to be made by automobile.<ref name="":292""/><ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" />

=== Ecuador ===
[[Loja, Ecuador]] won three international prizes for the sustainability efforts begun by its mayor Dr. Jose Bolivar Castillo.<ref name=""Worldwatch"">[[Worldwatch Institute]]. (2007). ''[[State of the World (book series)|State of the World]] : Our Urban Future''.</ref>{{rp|25}}

=== Estonia ===
Oxford Residences for four seasons in [[Estonia]],  winning a prize for Sustainable Company of the Year, is arguably one of the most advanced sustainable developments, not only trying to be [[carbon neutral]], but already carbon negative.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Key challenges to sustainable development |url=https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/achieving-sustainable-development/0/steps/35495 |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=www.futurelearn.com}}</ref>

=== Finland ===
The Finnish city of [[Turku]] has adopted a ""Carbon Neutral Turku by 2040"" strategy to achieve [[carbon neutrality]] via combining the goal with [[circular economy]].

[[VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland]] has formulated an EcoCity concept tailored to address the unique requirements of developing countries and emerging economies. Prominent reference examples include EcoCity Miaofeng in China, EcoNBC in Egypt, EcoGrad in St. Petersburg, Russia, UN Gigiri in Kenya, and MUF2013 in Tanzania.<ref name=""BorgElArab"">Antuña-Rozado, C., García-Navarro, J., Reda, F. and Tuominen, P. (2016): [https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/9/8/631 Methodologies Developed for EcoCity Related Projects: New Borg El Arab, an Egyptian Case Study]. ''Energies'' 2016, 9(8), 631.</ref>

=== France ===
In Paris, bike lanes are being doubled, while electric car incentives are being created. The French capital is banning the most polluting automobiles from key districts.<ref>{{Cite web|title=5 reasons the world looks to Europe's cities|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/future-european-cities|access-date=2021-06-07|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=2021-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154103/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/future-european-cities|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=McMahon|first=Jeff|title=How Bike Lanes Are Transforming Paris|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2019/12/28/how-bike-lanes-are-transforming-paris/|access-date=2021-06-07|website=Forbes|language=en|archive-date=2021-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154047/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2019/12/28/how-bike-lanes-are-transforming-paris/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Germany ===

* [[Freiburg im Breisgau]] often refers to itself as a green city. It is one of the few cities with a [[Alliance '90/The Greens|Green]] mayor and is known for its strong solar energy industry. [[Vauban, Freiburg]] is a sustainable model district. All houses are built to a low energy consumption standard and the whole district is designed to be car-free. 
* Another green district in Freiburg is Rieselfeld, where houses generate more energy than they consume. There are several other green sustainable city projects such as Kronsberg in Hannover and current developments around Munich, Hamburg, and Frankfurt.
*[[Berlin]]: The [[Tiergarten (park)]] is a large park that takes up 520 acres and is an example of social sustainability where it is a green space but also used for transportation. The Tiergarten has inter paths where people can safely bike and walk without the disturbance of cars. Paths connect to notable areas within the city, such as government buildings, shopping areas and monuments. Berlin is mimicking [[London]]'s ""superhighways"" for cyclists.<ref name="":292""/><ref name="":0""/><ref name="":1""/>

=== Hong Kong ===
The government portrays the proposed [[Hung Shui Kiu]] [[New towns of Hong Kong|New Town]] as an eco-city. The same happened with the urban development plan on the site of the former [[Kai Tak Airport]].

=== Iran ===
Isfahan dedicated smart city office began buildings architectures sustaintability programs in May 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-16 |title=اجرای سیستم ساختمان پایدار بر اساس شاخص‌های بین‌المللی در اصفهان |url=https://www.imna.ir/news/575560/اجرای-سیستم-ساختمان-پایدار-بر-اساس-شاخص-های-بین-المللی-در-اصفهان |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=ایمنا |language=fa}}</ref>

=== Ireland ===
South Dublin County Council announced plans in late 2007 to develop Clonburris, a new suburb of Dublin to include up to 15,000 new homes, to be designed to achieve the highest of international standards. The plans for Clonburris include countless green innovations such as high levels of energy efficiency, mandatory renewable energy for heating and electricity, the use of recycled and sustainable building materials, a [[district heating]] system for distributing heat, the provision of allotments for growing food, and even the banning of tumble driers, with natural drying areas being provided instead.

In 2012 an energy plan was carried out by the Danish [[Aalborg University]] for the municipalities of [[Limerick]] and [[County Clare]]. The project was a short-term 2020 renewable energy strategy giving a 20% reduction in CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, while ensuring that short-term actions are beneficial to the long-term goal of 100% renewable energy.

===India===
[[India]] is working on [[Gujarat International Finance Tec-City]] or GIFT which is an under-construction world-class city in the Indian state of [[Gujarat]]. It will come up on 500 acres (2.0&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) land.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://giftgujarat.in/ |title=Gujarat International Finance Tec-City plans |access-date=2018-04-12 |archive-date=2019-09-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916191638/http://www.giftgujarat.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It will also be first of its kind fully Sustainable City.
[[Auroville]] was founded in 1968 with the intention of realizing human unity, and is now home to approximately 2,000 individuals from over 45 nations around the world. Its focus is its vibrant community culture and its expertise in renewable energy systems, habitat restoration, ecology skills, mindfulness practices, and holistic education.
[[Amaravati|The new capital of Andhra Pradesh]] is also planned to be a sustainable city in the future. As a part of the UN Global Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) cities initiative, [[Noida]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] was selected in 2018 to become one of 25 cities in the world to become models of SDGs by 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|title=UN selects Noida to participate in Global Sustainable Cities 2025 initiative|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/un-selects-noida-to-participate-in-global-sustainable-cities-2025-initiative/articleshow/66799311.cms|access-date=2020-09-23|archive-date=2021-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122222400/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/un-selects-noida-to-participate-in-global-sustainable-cities-2025-initiative/articleshow/66799311.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Indonesia ===
The cities of [[Bandung]], [[Cimahi]], and [[Soreang]] in [[Indonesia]] become world leaders in zero waste cities program after significantly reducing the amount of waste and improving its management.<ref>{{cite web |title=YPBB: Indonesia's Pioneer in Zero Waste |url=https://www.no-burn.org/meetourmembers-ypbb/ |website=Gaia |date=15 October 2018 |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=11 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811102636/https://www.no-burn.org/meetourmembers-ypbb/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Korea ===
[[Songdo International Business District|Songdo IBD]] is a planned city in [[Incheon]] which has incorporated a number of eco-friendly features. These include a central park irrigated with seawater, a subway line, bicycle lanes, rainwater catchment systems, and pneumatic waste collection system. 75% of the waste generated by the construction of the city will be recycled.

Gwanggyo City Centre is another planned sustainable city.

=== Malaysia ===
As of 2014 a Low Carbon Cities programme is being piloted in Malaysia by KeTTHA, the Malaysian Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water, Malaysian Green Technology Corporation (GreenTech Malaysia) and the [[Carbon Trust]].

[[Malacca]] has a stated ambition to become a carbon-free city, taking steps towards creating a smart electricity grid. This is being done as part of an initiative to create a Green Special Economic Zone, where it is intended that as many as 20 research and development centers will be built focusing on renewable energy and clean technology, creating up to 300,000 new green jobs.

The Federal Department of Town and Country Planning (FDTCP) in peninsular Malaysia is a focal point for the implementation of the Malaysian Urban Rural National Indicators Network for Sustainable Development (MURNInets), which includes 36 sets of compulsory indicators grouped under 21 themes under six dimensions. Most of the targets and standards for the selected indicators were adjusted according to hierarchy of local authorities. In MURNInets at least three main new features are introduced. These include the Happiness Index, an indicator under the quality of life theme to meet the current development trend that emphasizes on the well-being of the community. Another feature introduced is the customer or people satisfaction level towards local authorities' services. Through the introduction of these indicators the bottom-up approach in measuring sustainability is adopted.

===Morocco===
Planned for 2023, Zenata is the first African city to be awarded the Eco-City Label.  It will include a total of 470 hectares of green spaces. It will also have water retention basins and promotes groundwater recharge and afforestation of the site. The naturally irrigated parks leading to the sea are designed as ecological corridors.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/morocco-sustainable-zenata-will-be-inhabited-from-2023/ |title=Sustainable Zenata will be inhabited from 2023 |date=20 August 2019 |access-date=2020-09-13 |archive-date=2020-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811191103/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/morocco-sustainable-zenata-will-be-inhabited-from-2023/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== New Zealand ===
[[Waitakere City]], a local body that formerly existed in [[West Auckland, New Zealand|West Auckland]], was [[New Zealand]]'s first eco-city, working from the Greenprint, a guiding document that the City Council developed in the early 1990s.

=== Norway ===
Oslo city was ranked first in the 2019 SDG Index and Dashboards Report for European Cities with a high score of 74.8.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SDG Index and Dashboards Report for European Cities|url=https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=www.sustainabledevelopment.report|language=en|archive-date=2019-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922112837/https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/|url-status=live}}</ref>  In order to achieve its ambitious targets for reducing carbon emissions in the European Green City index, Oslo plans to convert cities to biofuels and has considerably reduced traffic by 4–7% by introducing a congestion charge. Its aim is to cut-down emissions by 50 per cent since 1990 and it has taken a number of transportation, waste recycling, energy consumption and green space measures among others to meet its target.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What makes Oslo a sustainable city?|url=http://sustainablecity-oslo-samansayip.weebly.com/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=What makes Oslo a sustainable city?|archive-date=2017-09-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917084313/http://sustainablecity-oslo-samansayip.weebly.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Philippines ===
[[Clark Freeport Zone]] is a former United States Air Force base in the Philippines. It is located on the northwest side of Angeles City and on the west side of Mabalacat City in the province of Pampanga, about 40 miles (60&nbsp;km) northwest of Metro Manila. A multi-billion project will convert the {{cvt|36000|ha}} former Clark Air Force Base into a mix of industrial, commercial and institutional areas of green environment. The heart of the project is a 9,450-hectare metropolis dubbed as the ""[[Clark Green City]]"". Builders will use the green building system for environmentally-friendly structures. Its facilities will tap renewable energy such as solar and hydro power.

=== Portugal ===
The organization Living PlanIT is currently constructing a city from scratch near Porto, Portugal. Buildings will be electronically connected to vehicles giving the user a sense of personal eco-friendliness.

=== Pakistan ===
[[Islamabad]] The capital of Pakistan is full of green spaces and is an eco friendly city.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}

=== Spain ===

* [[Bilbao]]: The city faced economic turmoil following the decline of the steel and port industries but through communication between stakeholders and authorities to create inner-city transformation, the local government benefited from the increase in land value in old port areas. The Strategic Plan for the Revitalisation of Metropolitan Bilbao was launched in 1992 and have flourished regenerating old steel and port industries. The conversion from depleted steel and port industries to one of Europe's most flourishing markets is a prime example of a sustainable project in action.
* [[Barcelona]]: The city is planning an urban redesign of civic super blocks, they plan to convert nine-block areas into unified mega block neighbourhoods. The aim is to decrease car-related traffic, noise and pollution by over 20% and to free up to 60% of road areas for reuse as citizen spaces. This is being done because they realized that people in Barcelona die prematurely due to poor air quality and everyday noise levels are deemed harmful. By converting roads to spaces for festivals, farmer markets, bikes, and walkability it promotes a healthier lifestyle and potentially a happier one. In 2020, the [[European Investment Bank]] approved a €95 million loan to assist Barcelona in the completion of approximately 40 projects, with an emphasis on [[climate change]] and [[Social inequality|social inequity]]. The city plans to redevelop streets to create more space for pedestrians and bicyclists, enhance building energy efficiency, and expand social, cultural, and recreational opportunities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Barcelona creates more green space as COVID-19 urban planning meets climate action|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/covid-19-urban-planning|access-date=2021-05-20|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=2021-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607190438/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/covid-19-urban-planning|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Continued EU funding commitment to support energy efficiency in urban areas|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/news/continued-eu-funding-commitment-support-energy-efficiency-urban-areas-2021-jan-29_en|access-date=2021-05-20|website=European Commission - European Commission|language=en|archive-date=2021-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422184144/https://ec.europa.eu/info/news/continued-eu-funding-commitment-support-energy-efficiency-urban-areas-2021-jan-29_en|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=European Investment Bank Finances Large-Scale Solar PV Project in Spain - Sustainable Recovery 2020|url=https://www.iisd.org/sustainable-recovery/news/eib-finances-large-scale-solar-pv-project-in-spain/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=www.iisd.org|date=13 July 2020|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-04-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425003827/https://www.iisd.org/sustainable-recovery/news/eib-finances-large-scale-solar-pv-project-in-spain/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Madrid]]: In 2018, Madrid banned all non-resident vehicles from its downtown areas.<ref name="":292""/><ref>{{Cite news|last=Wolfe|first=Jonathan|date=2018-12-19|title=Oslo Puts Up a Stop Sign|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/19/travel/oslo-restricts-cars-in-city-center.html|access-date=2021-06-07|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2021-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154048/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/19/travel/oslo-restricts-cars-in-city-center.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Saudi Arabia===

Saudi Arabia recently unveiled a proposed one of the most ambitious eco-city projects; Neom. Development is planned in the northwest region of the country along the Red Sea and would cover over 26,500 sq-km (10,230 sq-miles). Some of the most notable aspects of this development are The Line and Oxagon. The Line is advertised as a smart city that will stretch for 170 km with easily accessible amenities throughout. Oxagon is a planned floating city off the coast. If built, it will be the largest city.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-59601335 | title=Neom: What's the green truth behind a planned eco-city in the Saudi desert? | work=BBC News | date=22 February 2022 }}</ref>

=== Sweden ===

* Norra Älvstranden (Swedish), in [[Gothenburg]] by the river [[Göta älv]], is an example of a sustainable city in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gothenburg |url=https://iwa-network.org/city/gothenburg/ |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=International Water Association |language=en}}</ref> It has low environmental impact, and contains passive houses, recycling system for waste, etc.
* [[Hammarby Sjöstad]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm, Sweden {{!}} Urban green-blue grids |url=https://www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/projects/hammarby-sjostad-stockholm-sweden/ |access-date=2022-06-18}}</ref>
* Västra Hamnen or [[Bo01]], Malmö<ref>{{Cite web |title=Startsida Malmö stad |url=https://malmo.se/Uppleva-och-gora/Arkitektur-och-kulturarv/Malmos-historia/Handelser-och-fenomen/Bo01.html |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=malmo.se |language=sv}}</ref>
* Stockholm Royal Seaport

=== United Arab Emirates ===

* [[Masdar City]], [[Abu Dhabi]] is a planned city that relies entirely on solar energy and other renewable energy sources, with a sustainable, zero-carbon, zero-waste ecology.
* [[Dubai The Sustainable City]], [[Dubai]]

=== United Kingdom ===

* London has committed to reaching net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. To do so, it aims to drastically reduce the proportion of trips made by cars and also ban all new petrol and diesel cars by 2035. Similarly, according to the [[UK Green Building Council]], 40 per cent of UK's total carbon footprint comes from the built environment. Steel, which is used to make skyscrapers, is responsible for 7 per cent of the global {{CO2}} emissions. Timber, especially CLT is a being considered as a great alternative to reduce construction-based emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Perry|first=Francesca|title=What 'net-zero carbon' really means for cities|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200922-how-london-could-achieve-net-zero-carbon-by-2050|access-date=2020-09-23|website=www.bbc.com|language=en|archive-date=2020-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922232430/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200922-how-london-could-achieve-net-zero-carbon-by-2050|url-status=live}}</ref> 
* The built environment is responsible for around 40% of the UK's total carbon footprint, according to the UK Green Building Council
* [[London Borough of Sutton]] is the first One Planet Region in the United Kingdom, with significant targets for reducing the ecological footprint of residents and creating the UK's greenest borough.
* [[Middlesbrough]] is another One Planet Region in the United Kingdom.
*[[Milton Keynes]]' original design concept aimed for a ""forest city"" and the foresters of the designers planted millions of trees from its own nursery in Newlands in the following years.<ref name=""walker2"">Walker ''The Architecture and Planning of Milton Keynes'', Architectural Press, London 1981. Retrieved 13 February 2007</ref> Parks, lakes and green spaces cover about 25% of Milton Keynes;<ref name=""parkstrust1"">{{cite web |url=https://www.theparkstrust.com/our-work/about-us/the-parks-trust-model/ |title=The Parks Trust model |publisher=The [[Milton Keynes Parks Trust]] |access-date=7 March 2012 |archive-date=6 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306042834/https://www.theparkstrust.com/our-work/about-us/the-parks-trust-model/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""dmk-p&l"">{{cite web |url=http://www.destinationmiltonkeynes.co.uk/What-to-do/Parks-and-Lakes |title=Parks & Lakes |publisher=Destination MK |access-date=3 March 2019 |archive-date=6 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306042912/http://www.destinationmiltonkeynes.co.uk/What-to-do/Parks-and-Lakes |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|2018|lc=y}}, there are 22 million trees and shrubs in public open spaces.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.miltonkeynes.co.uk/our-region/milton-keynes/millions-of-trees-in-milton-keynes-to-be-spruced-up-in-2019-1-8726346 | title=Millions of trees in Milton Keynes to be spruced up in 2019 | first=Paige | last=Browne | work=[[Milton Keynes Citizen]] | date=23 December 2018 | access-date=6 February 2019 | archive-date=7 February 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207072233/https://www.miltonkeynes.co.uk/our-region/milton-keynes/millions-of-trees-in-milton-keynes-to-be-spruced-up-in-2019-1-8726346 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""dmk-p&l"" />
* [[St Davids]], the smallest city in the United Kingdom, aims to be the first carbon-neutral city in the world.
* [[Leicester]] is the United Kingdom's first environment city.

===United States===
* [[Arcosanti]], Arizona
*[[Coyote Springs, Nevada|Coyote Springs]] Nevada largest planned city in the [[United States]].
*[[Babcock Ranch Florida]] a proposed solar-powered city.
*[[Douglass Ranch in Buckeye]] Arizona
*[[Mesa del Sol]] in [[Albuquerque]], New Mexico
*San Francisco, California is ranked the most sustainable city in the United States according to the 2019 US Cities Sustainable Development Report.<ref>{{Cite web|title=2019 US Cities Sustainable Development Report|url=https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=www.sustainabledevelopment.report|language=en|archive-date=2019-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922112837/https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Treasure Island development|Treasure Island]], San Francisco: is a project that aims to create a small eco city.
*Sonoma Mountain Village in Rohnert Park, California*

==See also==
[[Sustainable design|See also the Sustainability navigational box at the bottom of the page.]]
{{Div col|colwidth=35em}}
* [[2000-watt society]]
* [[BedZED]]
* [[Carfree city]]
* [[Circles of Sustainability]]
* [[Covenant of Mayors]]
* [[Cyclability]]
* [[Eco hotel]]
* [[Eco-cities]]
* [[Ecodistrict]]
* [[Ecological engineering]]
* [[Environmental economics]]
* [[Freeway removal]]
* [[Floating ecopolis]]
* [[Global Ecovillage Network]]
* [[Green infrastructure]]
* [[Green retrofit]]
* [[Green urbanism]]
* [[Land recycling]]
* {{Annotated link|List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration}}
* {{Annotated link|Most livable cities}}
* [[Pedestrian village]]
* [[Street reclamation]]
* [[Sustainable design]]
* {{Annotated link|Sustainable Development Goal 11}}
* [[Sustainable urbanism]]
* [[Transition town]]
* [[Urban design]]
* [[Urban forestry]]
* [[Urban green space]]
* [[Urban reforestation]]
* [[Urban vitality]]
* [[Walking audit]]
* [[Zero-carbon city]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Helmut Bott, Gregor Grassl, Stephan Anders (2019) [https://shop.detail.de/eu_e/sustainable-urban-planning.html Sustainable Urban Planning: Vibrant Neighbourhoods – Smart Cities – Resilience], DETAIL Publishers, Volume 1, {{ISBN|978-3-95553-462-2}}
*Stanislav E. Shmelev and Irina A. Shmeleva (2009) ""[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46514162_Sustainable_cities_Problems_of_integrated_interdisciplinary_research Sustainable cities: problems of integrated interdisciplinary research]"", International Journal of Sustainable Development, Volume 12, Number 1, 2009, pp.&nbsp;4 – 23
*Richard Register (2006) ''[http://worldcat.org/oclc/48558979&referer=brief_results Ecocities: building cities in balance with nature]'', New Society Publishers. {{ISBN|0-86571-552-1}}.
*Shannon May (2008) ""[https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13604810802168117 Ecological citizenship and a plan for sustainable development]"", City,12:2,237 — 244 
*Timothy Beatley (1997) ''[http://www.landstewardship.org/resources/resource/190/ Eco-city dimensions : healthy communities, healthy planet]'', New Society Publishers. {{ISBN|0-86571-353-7}}, {{OCLC|36695680}}.
*Richard Register (1987) ''[http://worldcat.org/oclc/15055352&referer=brief_results Ecocity Berkeley: building cities for a healthy future]'', North Atlantic Books. {{ISBN|1-55643-009-4}}.
*Sim Van der Ryn and Peter Calthorpe (1986) ''[http://worldcat.org/oclc/9394364&referer=brief_results Sustainable communities: a new design synthesis for cities, suburbs, and towns]'', Sierra Club Books.  {{ISBN|0-87156-629-X}}.
*Paolo Soleri (1973) ''[http://worldcat.org/oclc/34901911&referer=brief_results Arcology : the city in the image of man]'', MIT Press.  {{ISBN|0-262-19060-5}}.
*Ian L. McHarg (1969) ''[http://worldcat.org/oclc/8518?tab=holdings Design with nature]'', Published for the American Museum of Natural History [by] the Natural History Press.
*Federico Caprotti (2014) ''[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/anti.12087 Eco-urbanism and the Eco-city, or, Denying the Right to the City?]'', [[Antipode (journal)|Antipode]], Volume 46, Issue 1, pp. 1285-1303
*Simon Joss (2015) ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080970868740104 Eco-cities and Sustainable Urbanism]'', [[International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences]] (Second Edition). {{ISBN|978-0-08097-086-8}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sustainable urban planning}}
*[http://www.shannonmay.com/Publications.html Eco Cities in China] Publications by Anthropologist Shannon May on the transformation of Huangbaiyu, China into an Eco Village
*[http://www.habitat.org.tr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=378:ecocity2009&catid=75:ekokenr&Itemid=89 Ecocity Summit 2009 ISTANBUL – TURKIYE]
*[http://www.habitat.org.tr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=401:ecopolisecology&catid=75:ekokenr&Itemid=89 ECOPOLIS]
*[https://greenscore.eco/greenscore_city_index.html Green Score City Index], GreenScore.eco
*[http://www.ecotopia2121.com Ecotopia 2121]. An Atlas of 100 ""Visionary Super-Green"" cities of the future from around the world.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070625135937/http://www.ithacahours.com/losangeles.html Los Angeles: A History of the Future]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/ENVI/sprawl.html Resource Guide on Sprawl and the New Urbanism] edited by Deborah Sommer, Environmental Design Library, University of California, Berkeley.
*[https://sustainablecities.vattenfall.com Vattenfall Sustainable Cities]
*[https://manifiesto.perspectivasanomalas.org/en/ Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the City after COVID19] | author: Massimo Paolini [20 April 2020]
*[http://www.terrain.org/articles/13/strategy.htm Sustainable Cities], Terrain.org
*[http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/297-Which-way-China- Which way China?] Herbert Girardet, 2006 October 42, chinadialogue. Discusses the emergence of ecocities in China.
*[http://environment.harvard.edu/related-programs/sustainable-cities Working Group for Sustainable Cities at Harvard University]

{{Sustainability}}{{Cities}}

[[Category:Landscape]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Types of cities]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning| ]]
[[Category:Environment by city]]"
Outline of sustainability,"{{See also|Index of sustainability articles}}
{{Short description|1=Overview of and topical guide to sustainability}}
<!--... Attention:  THIS IS AN OUTLINE

        part of the set of 830+ outlines listed at
             [[Wikipedia:Contents/Outlines]].

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{{Pillars of sustainability|[[Venn diagram]] of [[sustainable development]]:<br /> at the confluence of three constituent parts}}

The following [[Outline (list)|outline]] is provided as an overview of and topical guide to sustainability:

'''[[Sustainability]]''' &ndash; capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of [[stewardship]] and responsible [[resource management]].

{{TOC limit|limit=2}}

== Essence of sustainability ==
{{See also|Sustainability}}
* [[Environmentalism]]
* [[Environmental ethics]]
* [[Planetary boundaries]]
* [[Sustainable development]]
* [[Sustainability science]]
* [[Sustainability accounting]]
* [[Sustainability governance]]
* [[Sustainability education]]

== Taxonomy ==
Sustainability is divided into two main branches: [[sustainability science]] and [[sustainability governance]]. Each of these branches is divided into a number of subfields:

=== Sub-fields of sustainability science ===
{{See also|Sustainability science}}
* [[Environmental impact assessment]]
* [[Environmental psychology]]
* [[Environmental philosophy]]
* [[Environmental law]]
* [[Sustainability measurement]]

=== Sub-fields of sustainability governance ===
{{See also|Sustainability governance}}[[File:Molding packaging from straw, k9837-1.jpg|right|thumb|[[Sustainable packaging]] – [[molded pulp]] uses recycled [[newsprint]] to form package components.  Here, researchers are molding packaging from [[straw]].]]
* '''Economic sector:'''
** [[Circular economy]]
** [[Steady-state economy]]
** [[Sustainable art]]
** [[Sustainable advertising]]
** [[Sustainable architecture]]
*** [[New Classical Architecture]]
** [[Sustainable business]]
** [[Sustainable fashion]]
** [[Sustainable industries]]
*** [[Hannover Principles]]
** [[Sustainable landscape architecture]]
** [[Sustainable packaging]]
** [[Sustainable procurement]]
** [[Sustainable tourism]]
** [[Sustainable transport]]
* [[Political]]
* '''Organizational'''
** [[Fisheries management]]
** [[Sustainable forest management]]
** [[Sustainable city]]
*** [[New Urbanism]]
*** [[Eco-cities]]
*** [[Sustainable urban infrastructure]]
*** [[Sustainable urban drainage systems]]
*** [[Sustainable urban planning]]
** [[Sustainable community]]
*** [[Sustainable Communities Plan]]
** [[Sustainability reporting]]
* '''Activity'''
** [[Sustainable design]]
** [[Sustainable living]]
** [[Sustainable yield]]

=== Related disciplines ===

* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Ecological humanities]]
* [[Environmental biotechnology]]
* [[Environmental chemistry]]
* [[Environmental design]]
* [[Environmental economics]]
* [[Environmental engineering]]
* [[Environmental ethics]]
* [[Environmental history]]
* [[Environmental law]]
* [[Environmental psychology]]
* [[Environmental science]]
* [[Environmental sociology]]
* [[Green politics]]

== Biodiversity ==
[[Image:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|thumb|[[Coral reef]]s are amongst the most diverse [[ecosystem]]s on earth.]]
see also: [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Biosecurity]]
* [[Ecosystem services]]
* [[Ecosystem-based management]]
* [[Ecosystem management]]
* [[Endangered species]]
* [[Holocene extinction event]]
* [[Invasive species]]
* [[Nature conservation]]

=== Levels of biological organisation ===
* [[Biosphere]]
* [[Biome]]

== Politics of sustainability ==
* [[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development]]
* International reports and agreements
** [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment|United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)]]
** [[Brundtland Commission|Brundtlandt Commission Report, 1983]]
*** [[Our Common Future|''Our Common Future'', 1987]]
** [[Earth Summit (1992)]]
** [[Agenda 21|Agenda 21 (1992)]]
** [[Convention on Biological Diversity|Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)]]
** [[International Conference on Population and Development|ICPD Programme of Action (1994)]]
** [[Earth Charter]]
** [[Millennium Declaration|Millennium Declaration (2000)]]
** [[Millennium Ecosystem Assessment|Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)]]
* [[Politics of global warming]]
** [[Climate change policy of the United States]]
** [[Climate change in China]]

== Population control ==
[[Population control]]

* [[Birth control]]
* [[Carrying capacity]]
* [[Family planning]]
* [[Human overpopulation]]
* [[Sustainable population]]
* [[Unintended pregnancy]]
* [[Zero population growth]]

== Environmental technology ==
[[File:Ombrière SUDI - Sustainable Urban Design & Innovation.jpg|thumb|[[Sustainable design|Sustainable urban design]] and [[innovation]]: Photovoltaic ombrière SUDI is an autonomous and mobile station that replenishes energy for electric vehicles using [[solar energy]].]]{{See also|Environmental technology}}
* [[Sustainable energy]]
* [[Sustainable sanitation]]

* [[Renewable energy]]
** [[Biofuel]]
** [[Biomass]]
<!--*** [[Blue energy or Osmotic energy]] br / (add later when commercial projects are a reality)-->
** [[Geothermal power]]
** [[Hydroelectricity]]
** [[Solar energy]]
** [[Tidal power]]
** [[Wave power]]
** [[Wind power]]

=== Energy conservation ===
{{See also|Energy conservation}}
* [[Carbon footprint]]
* [[Emissions trading]]
* [[Energy descent]]
* [[Peak oil]]
* [[Renewable energy]] (see above)

=== Over consumption ===
{{See also|Over-consumption}}
* [[Anti-consumerism]]
* [[Ecological footprint]]
* [[Ethical consumerism]]
* [[Tragedy of the commons]]
* [[Micro-sustainability]]
=== Food ===
[[File:Urban salad growing-London.jpg|thumb|[[Urban horticulture]] – Salad lettuce cultivation at the Growing Communities‘ urban plot, in Springfield Park, Clapton, North London.]]
{{See also|Food sustainability}}
* [[Food security]]
* [[Local food]]
* [[Permaculture]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Sustainable gardening]]
* [[Sustainable fisheries]]
* [[Urban horticulture]]

=== Water ===
{{See also|Water sustainability}}
* [[Water footprint]]
* [[Water crisis (disambiguation)|Water crisis]]
* [[Water efficiency]]
* [[Water conservation]]

=== Materials ===
[[File:DeutscheBahnRecycling20050814 CopyrightKaihsuTai Rotated.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Recycling]] and [[rubbish bin]] in a [[Germany|German]] [[railway station]]]]{{See also|Material Sustainability}}
* [[Industrial ecology]]
* [[Recycling]]
* [[Waste]]
* [[Zero waste]]

== Sustainability organizations ==

* [[Association of Environmental Professionals]]

== Sustainability publications ==
[[Sustainability (journal)]]

== Sustainability advocates==
* [[:Category:Sustainability advocates]]

== See also ==
{{Portal|Renewable energy}}

; Sustainability lists
* [[List of climate change topics]]
* [[List of conservation issues]]
* [[List of conservation topics]]
* [[List of environmental agreements]]
* [[List of environmental health hazards]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[Lists of environmental topics]]
* [[List of environmental studies topics]]
* [[List of global sustainability statistics]]

; Sustainability glossaries
* [[Glossary of climate change]]
* [[Glossary of environmental science]]

==References==
<references />

{{Sister project links|sustainability}}

{{Sustainability}}
{{Outline footer}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainability}}
[[Category:Outlines of applied sciences|Sustainability]]
[[Category:Outlines|Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainability|*]]"
Category:Degrowth,"{{See also|Category:Criticism of economic growth}}

{{Commons category|Degrowth}}
{{Cat main|Degrowth}}

[[Category:Green politics]]
[[Category:Schools of economic thought]]
[[Category:Anti-consumerism]]
[[Category:Environmental movements]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Ecological economics]]"
Together for Sustainability,"{{COI|date=August 2018}}
'''Together for Sustainability''' AISBL (TfS)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://tfs-initiative.com/ |title=TOGETHER FOR SUSTAINABILITY – The chemical initiative for sustainable supply chains |accessdate=10 October 2019}}</ref> is a joint initiative of chemical companies, founded in 2011. It focuses on the promotion of [[sustainability]] practices in the chemical industry's [[supply chain]], currently gathering chemical companies around a single standard of auditing and assessment. {{Infobox company
| name     = Together for Sustainability
| logo     = [[File:TfS-Logo.jpg|200px]]
| type     = [[Membership organization]]
| key_people     = {{Unbulleted list|[[Rüdiger Eberhard]] (President (2015-2019)|[[Bertrand Conquéret]] (President (2019-2023)|[[Jennifer Jewson]] (President (2023-20..)|[[Gabriele Unger]] (General Manager)}}
| location         = [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]
| industry         = [[Chemical Industry]]
| homepage         = https://tfs-initiative.com/
| foundation       = {{start date and age|2011}}
}}

== Sustainability in chemical supply chains ==

Over the past few years sustainability aspects in the chemical industry have become more important and holistic. Nowadays, chemical companies' measures focusing sustainability include apart from ecological aspects also social concerns and collaborative issues.

Today, it has been well accepted that the creation of sustainable chemical supply chains requires a joint effort beyond individual businesses. These efforts should integrate chemical companies, suppliers, customers as well as consumers.<ref>{{cite report|date = 2015 | title = Guide to Corporate Sustainability | url = https://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/publications/UN_Global_Compact_Guide_to_Corporate_Sustainability.pdf | publisher = United Nations Global Compact | access-date = 18 November 2018}}</ref>

Prof. Dr Wolfgang Stolze and Marc Müller of the [[University of St. Gallen]] summarize the development in the chemical industry in recent years as follows: ""The scope of sustainability in the chemical industry has evolved from a firm-level construct with a strong focus on green aspects to a chain-level approach attempting to address the triple bottom line of economic, social and environmental elements.""<ref>{{cite report |author= Prof. Dr. Martin Müller|date= 23 September 2016|title= Nachhaltige Lieferketten – Herausforderungen und Lösungsansätze ''(Sustainable supply chains - challenges and solutions)''|url= https://www.ranking-nachhaltigkeitsberichte.de/data/ranking/user_upload/2015/Präsentationen/Müller_Universitaet_Ulm_Nachhaltige_Lieferketten-Herausforderungen_und_Loesungsansätze.pdf|language= German|publisher= Ulm University|access-date= 14 November 2018 }}</ref>

== History ==

The Together for Sustainability initiative was founded in 2011 by [[BASF]], [[Bayer]], [[Evonik Industries|Evonik]], [[Henkel]], [[Lanxess]], and [[Solvay S.A.|Solvay]]. The objective was to develop a global supplier engagement program and improve their own sustainability sourcing practices in line with the [[United Nations Global Compact]]. Since January 2015, the TfS initiative is incorporated as an international non-profit association according to the Belgian law.

Since June 2012, TfS conducts  assessments and audits by independent experts, as well as the early partnership with the French company EcoVadis, which provided with sustainability scorecards and benchmarks.<ref>{{cite web|title=BASF, Bayer Among Chemical Firms Pushing Supply Chain Sustainability|date=15 October 2013 |url=https://www.environmentalleader.com/2013/10/basf-bayer-among-chemical-firms-pushing-supply-chain-sustainability/|publisher=Environmental Leader|accessdate=13 August 2018}}</ref>

In June 2023, Jennifer Jewson, CPO of [[LyondellBasell]], was elected as president of the TfS.<ref>{{cite web|title=TfS General Assembly elects new President and Steering Committee|date=14 June 2023 |url=https://www.tfs-initiative.com/news/tfs-general-assembly-elects-new-president-and-steering-committee}}</ref>

== Structure ==

The TfS is governed by two main organs, the General Assembly and the Steering Committee. 
The General Assembly is formed by all the [[Chief procurement officer|Chief Procurement Officers]] of the member companies, and holds power over the direction and structure of the organization, as well as approving the decisions of the Steering Committee. 
The Steering Committee, formed by six elected members of the General Assembly as well as the TfS president, is the executive council of the organization and decides upon its activities and projects.

Additionally, TfS has several Regional Operating Committees (Asia, North America and South America) as well as, currently, five mission-specific work streams led and staffed by participants from the TfS member companies:
* Work Stream 1: Governance and Partnerships
* Work Stream 2: TfS Assessments
* Work Stream 3: TfS Audits
* Work Stream 4: TfS Communications and Capability Building
* Work Stream 5: Scope 3 GHG Emissions

TfS' headquarter is in [[Brussels]]. It manages the day-to-day affairs of the organization and stays in close contact with the representatives and coordinators of the member companies.

TfS has a partnership with several other chemical industry associations: [[American Chemistry Council|American Chemistry Council (ACC)]], [[European Chemical Industry Council|European Chemical Industry Council (CEFIC)]], [[German Chemistry Council (VCI)]],  [[China petroleum and chemical|China Petroleum and Chemical Industry Federation (CPCIF)]], [[Indian Chemical Council (ICC)]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sustainablebrands.com/press/together_sustainability_initiative_launched_india_chemical_industry|title=Together for Sustainability Initiative launched in India for Chemical Industry|date=28 September 2016 |publisher=Sustainable Brands|accessdate=13 August 2018}}</ref> and the [[Associação Brasileira da Indústria Química (ABIQUIM)]].

== Members ==
TfS Membership is open to all companies in the chemical industry who subscribe to the [[United Nations Global Compact]], [[Responsible Care]], and show a commitment to sustainability. TfS membership has been growing steadily since its founding, and in April 2022 its members have a joint global turnover of over €500 billion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Together for Sustainability: The Chemical Industry Initiative for Sustainable Supply Chains|url=http://www.essensciaforsustainability.be/planet/together-for-sustainability-the-chemical-industry-initiative-for-sustainable-supply-chains/|publisher=Essenscia for Sustainability|accessdate=13 August 2018|archive-date=28 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428034337/http://www.essensciaforsustainability.be/planet/together-for-sustainability-the-chemical-industry-initiative-for-sustainable-supply-chains/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

As of January 2024, TfS has 51 member companies.

{| class=""wikitable sortable mw-collapsible""
!Company
!Headquarters
!Year of membership
|-
|[[AdvanSix|Advansix]]
|[[Parsippany, New Jersey]]
|2021
|-
|[[AkzoNobel]]
|[[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]
|2013
|-
|[[Allnex]]
|[[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]]
|2022
|-
|[[Archroma]]
|[[Reinach, Basel-Landschaft|Reinach]], [[Switzerland]]
|2021
|-
|[[Arkema]]
|[[Colombes]], [[France]]
|2014
|-
|[[Azelis]]
|[[Antwerp|Antwerp, Belgium]] 
|2020
|-
|[[BASF]]
|[[Ludwigshafen]], [[Germany]]
|2011
|-
|[[Bayer]]
|[[Leverkusen]], [[Germany]]
|2011
|-
|[[Brenntag]]
|[[Essen]], [[Germany]]
|2017
|-
|[[CABB]]
|[[Sulzbach am Taunus]], [[Germany]]
|2022
|-
|[[Chemours]]
|[[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]], [[Delaware]]
|2021
|-
|[[Clariant]]
|[[Muttenz]], [[Switzerland]]
|2014
|-
|[[Corteva]] 
|[[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington, United States]]
|2020
|-
|[[Covestro]]
|[[Leverkusen]], [[Germany]]
|2015
|-
|[[Croda International|Croda]]
|[[Snaith]], [[United Kingdom]]
|2021
|-
|[[Dow Inc.|Dow]] 
|[[Midland, Michigan|Midland]], [[United States]]
|2021
|-
|[[DSM (company)|DSM-Firmenich]] 
|[[Heerlen]], [[Netherlands]]
|2015
|-
|[[Eastman Chemical Company|Eastman]]
|[[Kingsport, Tennessee]], [[United States]]
|2015
|-
|[[Evonik]]
|[[Essen]], [[Germany]]
|2011
|-
|[[Givaudan]]
|[[Vernier, Switzerland|Vernier]], [[Switzerland]]
|2021
|-
|[[HA Group]]
|[[Düsseldorf]], [[Germany]]
|2023
|-
|[[Henkel]]
|[[Düsseldorf]], [[Germany]]
|2011
|-
|[[Israel Chemicals|ICL]]
|[[Tel-Aviv]], [[Israel]]
|2018
|-
|[[International Flavors & Fragrances|IFF]]
|[[New York City]], [[United States]]
|2015
|-
|IMCD
|[[Rotterdam, Netherlands]] 
|2022
|-
|[[Indorama Ventures|Indorama]]
|[[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]] 
|2023
|-
|[[Johnson Matthey]]
|[[London]], [[United Kingdom]] 
|2023
|-
|[[Kraton (polymer)|Kraton]]
|[[Houston|Houston, United States]] 
|2020
|-
|[[Lanxess]]
|[[Cologne]], [[Germany]]
|2011
|-
|[[Lenzing AG]]
|[[Lenzing]], [[Austria]]
|2022
|-
|[[Lonza Group|Lonza]]
|[[Basel, Switzerland]] 
|2022
|-
|[[LyondellBasell]]
|[[Houston]], [[Texas]]
|2021
|-
|[[Merck Group|Merck]] 
|[[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]]
|2014
|-
|[[Mitsui & Co.]] 
|[[Japan]], [[Tokyo]]
|2022
|-
|[[Momentive Performance Materials]]
|[[Niskayuna]], [[United States]]
|2023
|-
|[[Nouryon]] 
|[[Houston]], [[United States]]
|2023
|-
|[[Oleon NV]]
|[[Ertvelde]], [[Belgium]]
|2023
|-
|[[OMV]]
|[[Vienna]], [[Austria]]
|2021
|-
|[[SABIC|Sabic]]
|[[Riyadh]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
|2023
|-
|[[Semperit]]
|[[Vienna|Vienna, Austria]] 
|2021
|-
|[[Sennics]]
|[[Shanghai]], [[China]]
|2022
|-
|[[Sika AG|Sika]]
|[[Baar, Switzerland]]
|2020
|-
|[[Solvay S.A.|Solvay]]
|[[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]
|2011
|-
|[[Syensqo|Syensqo]]
|[[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]
|2024
|-
|[[Syngenta]]
|[[Basel]], [[Switzerland]]
|2015
|-
|[[Synthomer]]
|[[London]], [[United Kingdom]]
|2023
|-
|[[Tricon Energy|Tricon]]
|[[Houston]], [[United States]]
|2023
|-
|[[UPM (company)|UPM]] 
|[[Helsinki]], [[Finland]]
|2018
|-
|[[Wacker Chemie|Wacker]]
|[[Munich]], [[Germany]]
|2015
|-
|[[Wanhua Chemical Group|Wanhua]] 
|[[Yantai]], [[China]]
|2019
|-
|[[Yara International|Yara]] 
|[[Oslo]], [[Norway]]
|2023
|}

== Recognition ==

* 2015 - Highly Commended at the Ethical Corporation Responsible Business Award 2015<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethical Corporation Responsible Business Award 2015|url=http://ethicalcorp.com/people-careers/ethical-corporation-responsible-business-awards-2015-review|publisher=Ethical Corporation|accessdate=13 August 2018}}</ref>
* 2016 - Sustainable Purchasing Leadership Council Market Transformation Award<ref>{{cite web |title=PRESS RELEASE: 2016 Sustainable Purchasing Leadership Award Winners Announced |url=http://www.mitsuipr.com/en/member/index.html |publisher=Sustainable Purchasing Leadership Council Market Transformation Award |accessdate=13 August 2018 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220035801/http://www.mitsuipr.com/en/member/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*2018 - Best Third Sector/Not-for-profit Procurement Project at CIPS Supply Management Awards<ref>{{cite web|title=CIPS SM Awards Results 2018|url=http://www.cipssmawards.com/results-2018/|publisher=CIPS Awards|accessdate=13 September 2018}}</ref>
* 2018 - Finalist for international Responsible Business Awards<ref>{{cite web|title=Finalists for the international Responsible Business Awards have been revealed|url=http://www.ethicalcorp.com/finalists-international-responsible-business-awards-have-been-revealed|publisher=Ethical Corporation|accessdate=13 August 2018}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[ISO 26000]]
* [[Corporate social responsibility]]
* [[United Nations Global Compact]]
* [[Sustainable Stock Exchanges Initiative]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=https://tfs-initiative.com/}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://tfs-initiative.com/ TfS Initiative website]

[[Category:Chemical industry]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Corporate social responsibility]]
[[Category:Supply chain management]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Brussels]]"
Cosmopolitan localism,"{{short description|Social innovation}}
'''Cosmopolitan localism''' or '''Cosmolocalism'''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Schismenos, A.)), ((Niaros, V.)), ((Lemos, L.)) | journal=TripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique | title=Cosmolocalism: Understanding the Transitional Dynamics Towards Post-Capitalism | pages=670–684 | date=21 September 2020 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/4415304/files/Schismenos_et_al_2020.pdf | issn=1726-670X | doi=10.31269/triplec.v18i2.1188 | s2cid=226359162 | access-date=4 November 2022| doi-access=free }}</ref> is a [[social innovation]] approach to [[community development]] that seeks to link [[Local community|local]] and [[Global community|global]] communities through resilient infrastructures that bring [[Production (economics)|production]] and [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] closer together, building on [[Distributed computing|distributed systems]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Designs for the pluriverse : radical interdependence, autonomy, and the making of worlds|first=Arturo|last=Escobar|isbn=9780822370901|location=Durham|oclc=983824383|date=2018-03-22|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/designsforpluriv00esco}}</ref> The concept of cosmopolitan localism was pioneered by [[Wolfgang Sachs]], a scholar in the field of environment, development, and globalization.<ref>Sachs, Wolfgang (2015) ''Planet Dialectics: Explorations in Environment and Development''. 2nd Edition. London: Zed Books</ref> Sachs is known as one of the many followers of [[Ivan Illich]] and his work has influenced the green and ecological movements. Contrary to glocalisation, cosmolocalism moves from locality to universality, acknowledging the local as the locus of social co-existence and emphasizing the potential of global networking beyond capitalist market rules.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schismenos |first1=Alexandros |last2=Niaros |first2=Vasilis |last3=Lemos |first3=Lucas |date=2021 |editor-last1=Ramos |editor-first1=José |editor-last2=Bauwens |editor-first2=Michel |editor-last3=Ede |editor-first3=Sharon |editor-last4=Wong |editor-first4=James |title=Cosmolocal Reader|publisher=Futures Lab |pages=37–51 |chapter=A Genealogy of Cosmolocalism |isbn=978-0-9953546-3-0 }}</ref>

Cosmopolitan localism fosters a global network of mutually supportive communities (neighbourhoods, villages, towns, cities and regions) who share and exchange knowledge, ideas, skills, technology, culture and (where socially and ecologically sustainable) resources.<ref>Kossoff, G. (2019). ''Cosmopolitan Localism: The Planetary Networking of Everyday Life in Place''. Cuarderno Journal 73: Transition Design Monograph:  61-65. doi: https://doi.org/10.18682/cdc.vi73.1037</ref> The approach seeks to foster a creative, reciprocal relationship between the local and the global. Cosmopolitan localism aims to address problems that emerge from [[globalization]]—namely, the subsuming of local cultures and economies into a homogenised and unsustainable global system<ref>{{Cite book|title=The McDonaldization of society|first=George|last=Ritzer|date=2004|publisher=Pine Forge Press|isbn=978-0761988113|edition=Rev. new century|location=Thousand Oaks, Calif.|oclc=53315154|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/mcdonaldizationo0000ritz}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=When Corporations Rule the World.|year=2016|others=Korten, David C., Burns, Traber|publisher=Audible Studios on Brilliance audio|isbn=9781511397162|oclc=933522026}}</ref>—while simultaneously avoiding the pitfalls of [[Localism (politics)|localization]], such as [[parochialism]] and [[isolationism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Murray Bookchin reader|first=Murray|last=Bookchin|date=1999|publisher=Black Rose Books|others=Biehl, Janet, 1953-|isbn=978-1551641195|location=Montréal|oclc=41976257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The condition of postmodernity : an enquiry into the origins of cultural change|first=David|last=Harvey|date=1990|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-0631162926|location=Oxford [England]|oclc=18747380}}</ref>

The self-organization of people with access to the fostered global network, collaborate and produce shared resources and their own governance systems. This system is built around a [[commons]] and entails the social practices of creating and governing a resource through the institutions that a community of producers or users creates and manages. They manifest in various formats, from the co-management of natural resources (e.g., fisheries, pastures) to the co-creation and co-management of digitally shared content. Initiatives such as the free encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]], which has displaced the corporate-organized ''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' and [[Microsoft Encarta]], and the [[Apache HTTP Server]], the leading software in the web-server market, have exemplified digital commons. The beginning of commons almost exclusively contained digital forms of virtual projects and communities. The later movements of commons have now also included local manufacturing and the entanglement between analog and digital technologies across natural and digital commons, physical and digital spaces, activities, and time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kostakis |first1=Vasilis |last2=Pantazis |first2=Alekos |title=Is 'Deschooling Society' Possible? Notes from the Field |journal=Postdigital Science and Education |date=2021-04-13 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=686–692 |doi=10.1007/s42438-021-00228-6 |s2cid=234874364 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/5180774 }}</ref>     

Italian design and social innovation educator and academic [[Ezio Manzini]] describes cosmopolitan localism as having the potential to generate a new [[sense of place]]. With cosmopolitan localism, places are not considered isolated entities, but nodes in short-distance and long-distance networks which globally link local communities in distributed networks of shared exchange, bringing production and consumption closer together. The short-distance networks generate and regenerate the local socio-economic fabric and the long-distance networks connect a particular community to the rest of the world.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Design, when everybody designs : an introduction to design for social innovation|last=Ezio|first=Manzini|isbn=9780262328630|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|oclc=904398409}}</ref> This form of cosmolocalism is rooted in an emerging productive model that is based on the concept of the digital commons and the motto ""design global, manufacture local"" (DGML).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kostakis |first1=V. |last2=Niaros |first2=V. |last3=Dafermos |first3=G. |last4=Bauwens |first4=M. |date=2015 |title= Design global, manufacture local: Exploring the contours of an emerging productive model |journal=Futures |language=en |volume=73 |pages=126–135 |doi= 10.1016/j.futures.2015.09.001 |s2cid=43960216|url=https://zenodo.org/record/996189 }}</ref> 
 
Cosmopolitan localism is a topic of focus for transition designers who explore design-led societal transition toward more sustainable futures.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Irwin|first=Terry|date=2015-04-03|title=Transition Design: A Proposal for a New Area of Design Practice, Study, and Research|journal=Design and Culture|language=en|volume=7|issue=2|pages=229–246|doi=10.1080/17547075.2015.1051829|s2cid=117643577|issn=1754-7075}}</ref> It captures the dynamic of dispersed technology initiatives, which exhibit conceptualisations of living, working and making around the commons. Cosmopolitan localism or cosmolocalism has been viewed as a structural framework for organising production by prioritising socio-ecological well-being over corporate profits, over-production and excess consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kostakis|first1=Vasilis|last2=Niaros|first2=Vasilis|last3=Giotitsas|first3=Chris|date=2023-06-30|title=Beyond global versus local: illuminating a cosmolocal framework for convivial technology development|journal=Sustainability Science|volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=2309–2322 |language=en|doi=10.1007/s11625-023-01378-1|issn=1937-0709|doi-access=free}}</ref> Others have argued that cosmolocalism advances alternatives that could potentially undermine dominant [[capitalism|capitalist]] imaginary significations, attitudes and modalities. It can lead the way for a transition towards a post-capitalist, commons-centric economy and society where value is collectively created and accessible to all. In order for cosmolocalism to become more than a blueprint for a mode of production, the autonomy of local communities and individuals is essential.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schismenos|first1=Alexandros|last2=Niaros|first2=Vasilis|last3=Lemos|first3=Lucas|date=2020-09-21|title=Cosmolocalism: Understanding the Transitional Dynamics Towards Post-Capitalism|url=https://zenodo.org/records/4415304/files/Schismenos_et_al_2020.pdf|journal=TripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique |language=en|pages=670–684|doi=10.31269/triplec.v18i2.1188|issn=1726-670X|doi-access=free}}</ref> 

==See also==
* [[Commons-based peer production]]
* [[Distributed manufacturing]]
* [[Open manufacturing]]
* [[Open-design movement]]
* [[Open-source architecture]]
* [[Hackerspace]]
* [[Fab Lab]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.cosmolocalism.eu/ COSMOLOCALISM  | A European Research Council project]
* Manzini, E. (2013) [https://designobserver.com/feature/small-local-open-and-connected-resilient-systems-and-sustainable-qualities/37670 Small, Local, Open and Connected: Resilient Systems and Sustainable Qualities] in [[Design Observer]]
*Kostakis, V., Niaros, V. & Giotitsas, C. (2023) [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11625-023-01378-1 Beyond global versus local: illuminating a cosmolocal framework for convivial technology development] in ''Sustainability Science''.
* Schismenos, A., Niaros, V. & Lemos, L. (2020) [[doi:10.31269/triplec.v18i2.1188|Cosmolocalism: Understanding the Transitional Dynamics Towards Post-Capitalism]]<nowiki/>in ''Triple-C.'' '''18''' (2): 670–684.

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Innovation]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Community development]]
[[Category:Community building]]


{{Sustainability-stub}}"
Category:Anti-consumerism,"{{Cat main}}
{{Commons cat}}

[[Category:Anti-corporate activism]]
[[Category:Consumerism]]
[[Category:Ethical consumerism]]
[[Category:Counterculture]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Utopian movements]]"
Anti-consumerism,"{{Short description|Opposition to excessive systemic buying and use of material possessions}}
[[File:City in Motion (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Picture of the [[Times Square]], emphasizing on its prevalence of advertisements]]
{{Anti-consumerism}}{{For|anti-consumer business practices|Unfair business practices|Anti-competitive practices}}
'''Anti-consumerism''' is a [[sociopolitical]] [[ideology]] that is opposed to [[consumerism]], the continual buying and consuming of material possessions.  Anti-consumerism is concerned with the private actions of business corporations in pursuit of financial and economic goals at the expense of the [[public welfare]], especially in matters of [[environmental protection]], [[social stratification]], and [[ethics]] in the governing of a society. In politics, anti-consumerism overlaps with [[environmental activism]], [[anti-globalization]], and [[animal-rights]] activism; moreover, a conceptual variation of anti-consumerism is ''[[post-consumerism]]'', living in a material way that transcends consumerism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postconsumers.com |title=Postconsumers |publisher=Postconsumers |date=2018-06-13 |access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref>

Anti-consumerism arose in response to the problems caused by the long-term mistreatment of human consumers and of the animals consumed, and from the incorporation of [[consumer education]] to school [[curriculum|curricula]]; examples of anti-consumerism are the book ''[[No Logo]]'' (2000) by [[Naomi Klein]], and documentary films such as ''[[The Corporation (2003 film)|The Corporation]]'' (2003), by [[Mark Achbar]] and [[Jennifer Abbott]], and ''[[Surplus (film)|Surplus: Terrorized into Being Consumers]]'' (2003), by [[Erik Gandini]]; each made [[anti-corporate activism]] popular as an ideologically accessible form of civil and political action. Predictors of anti-consumption attitudes and behaviours include individual and collective motivations resulting from negative experiences with a particular product or brand or may relate to a symbolic incongruence between one's sense of identity and a company's image (Iyer and Muncy, 2009, Kozinets et al., 2010, Lee and Ahn, 2016)

The criticism of [[economic materialism]] as a dehumanizing behaviour that is destructive to Earth, as [[biosphere|human habitat]], comes from [[religion]] and [[social activism]]. The religious criticism asserts that materialist consumerism interferes with the connection between the individual and God, and so is an inherently [[immoral]] style of life; thus the German historian [[Oswald Spengler]] (1880–1936) said that, ""Life in America is exclusively economic in structure, and lacks depth.""<ref name= ""ReferenceA"">{{cite book|last=Stearns|first= Peter|title=Consumerism in World History|publisher= Routledge|date = 2001|isbn = 9780415244091}}</ref> From the Roman Catholic perspective, [[Thomas Aquinas]] said that, ""Greed is a sin against God, just as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns things eternal for the sake of temporal things"";<ref>{{Cite book|last=Aquinas|first=Saint Thomas|title=Summa Theologica: Complete English in Five Volumes|publisher=Ave Maria Press|year=1981|isbn=9780870610639|volume=3|pages=1680}}</ref> in that vein, [[Francis of Assisi]], [[Ammon Hennacy]], and [[Mohandas Gandhi]] said that spiritual inspiration guided them towards [[simple living]].

From the secular perspective, social activism indicates that from consumerist [[materialism]] derive [[crime]] (which originates from the [[poverty]] of [[economic inequality]]), industrial [[pollution]] and the consequent [[environmental degradation]], and [[war]] as a business.

About the societal discontent born of [[malaise]] and [[hedonism]], [[Pope Benedict XVI]] said in 2008 that the philosophy of materialism offers no purpose for human existence,<ref>{{cite news |title=Our world has grown weary of greed: Pope |url=https://www.iol.co.za/mercury/news/world/our-world-has-grown-weary-of-greed-pope-408709 |access-date=2 January 2022 |work=[[Independent Online (South Africa)|Independent Online]] |date=17 July 2008|language=en}}</ref> and in 2011 specifically attacked the [[commercialization of Christmas]];<ref>{{cite web |title=Pope Benedict XVI attacks Christmas consumerism at Mass |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16328318 |website=BBC News |date=25 December 2011}}</ref> likewise, the writer [[Georges Duhamel]] said that ""American materialism [is] a beacon of mediocrity that threatened to eclipse French civilization"".<ref name=""ReferenceA""/>

==Background==
 
Anti-consumerism originated from criticism of consumption, starting with [[Thorstein Veblen]], who, in the book ''[[Theory of the Leisure Class|The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions]]'' (1899), indicated that [[consumerism]] dates from the [[cradle of civilization]];<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.esdaw.eu/anti-consumerism.html |title= Anti-Consumerism|author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= ESDAW |publisher= |access-date= 2024-02-29|quote=}}</ref> the term ''consumerism'' also denotes economic policies associated with [[Keynesian economics]], and the belief that the free choice of consumers should dictate the economic structure of a society (cf. [[producerism]]). Modern anti-consumerism came to the fore in the 1990s, although attempts were made in the 1980s to define the concept.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/mar.21319 |title= ''What we know about anticonsumption: An attempt to nail jelly to the wall'' (Section 2.1: The concept of anticonsumption)|last= Makri |first= Katerina |date= February 28, 2020 |website= Wiley Online Library |publisher= |access-date= 2024-02-29|quote=}}</ref>

==Politics and society==
{{more citations needed section|date=May 2019}}
[[File:Anticonsumismo.JPG|thumb|250px|An anti-consumerist [[stencil graffiti]] saying ""Consuming consumes you""]]
Many [[anti-corporate activist]]s believe the rise of large-business corporations poses a threat to the legitimate authority of [[nation states]] and the public sphere.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Conversi|first=Daniele|date=2012|title=Majoritarian democracy and globalization versus ethnic diversity?|journal=Democratization|volume=19|issue=4|pages=789–811|doi=10.1080/13510347.2011.626947|s2cid=146288346}}</ref> They feel corporations are invading people's [[privacy]], manipulating politics and governments, and creating false needs in consumers.  They state evidence such as invasive advertising [[adware]], [[spam (electronic)|spam]], [[telemarketing]], child-targeted advertising, aggressive [[guerrilla marketing]], massive corporate campaign contributions in political elections, interference in the policies of sovereign nation states ([[Ken Saro-Wiwa]]), and news stories about [[corporate corruption]] ([[Enron]], for example).<ref>Clinard, M. B. (1990) Corporate corruption: The abuse of power. Greenwood Publishing</ref>

Anti-consumerism protesters point out that the main responsibility of a corporation is to answer only to [[shareholders]], giving [[human rights]] and other issues almost no consideration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/corporate-human-rights-obligations-controversial-but-necessary|title=Corporate Human Rights Obligations: Controversial but necessary {{!}} Business & Human Rights Resource Centre|last=Carrillo-Santarelli|first=Nicolás|website=www.business-humanrights.org|language=en|access-date=2019-07-01}}</ref> The management does have a primary responsibility to their shareholders, since any [[philanthropic]] activities that do not directly serve the business could be deemed to be a [[Position of trust|breach of trust]].  This sort of financial responsibility means that multi-national corporations will pursue strategies to intensify labor and reduce costs. For example, they will attempt to find low wage economies with laws which are conveniently lenient on human rights, the [[natural environment]], [[trade union]] organization and so on (see, for example, [[Nike, Inc.#Human rights concerns|Nike]]).

An important contribution to the critique of consumerism has been made by French philosopher [[Bernard Stiegler]], arguing modern capitalism is governed by consumption rather than production, and the advertising techniques used to create [[consumer behaviour]] amount to the destruction of psychic and collective [[individuation]].  The diversion of libidinal energy toward the consumption of consumer products, he argues, results in an addictive cycle of consumption, leading to hyper-consumption, the exhaustion of desire, and the reign of symbolic misery.

In art, [[Banksy]], an influential British graffiti master, painter, activist, filmmaker and all-purpose provocateur,<ref name=""Kakutani"">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/18/books/banksy-the-man-behind-the-wall-by-will-ellsworth-jones.html|title='Banksy: The Man Behind the Wall,' by Will Ellsworth-Jones|last=Kakutani|first=Michiko|date=2013-02-17|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-03-16|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> has created satirical and provocative works about the consumerist society (notable examples include ""Napalm"", also known as ""Can't Beat That Feelin'"", an attack on [[Walt Disney Pictures]] and [[McDonald's]],<ref>{{Citation|title=Banksy Napalm/Can't Beat That Feeling (Hexagon Gallery)|url=https://hexagongallery.com/catalog/artist/banksy/napalm-cant-beat-that-feeling/|language=en|access-date=2021-09-01}}</ref> and ""Death By [[Swoosh]]"", directed at [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]]<ref>{{Citation|title=Banksy Nike Canvas Print Or Poster (Canvas Art Rocks)|url=https://us.canvasartrocks.com/products/banksy-nike-canvas-print-or-poster|language=en|access-date=2021-09-01}}</ref>). Working undercover, the secretive street artist challenges social ideas and goads viewers into rethinking their surroundings, to acknowledge the absurdities of closely held preconceptions.<ref name=""Kakutani""/> In an essay contained in his 2004 book ''Cut It Out'', he writes, ""You owe the companies nothing. Less than nothing, you especially don't owe them any courtesy. They owe you. They have re-arranged the world to put themselves in front of you. They never asked for your permission, don't even start asking for theirs."".<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/28811.Banksy |title= Banksy: Quotes |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= GoodReads |publisher= |access-date= 2024-02-29|quote=}}</ref>

After 2003, Banksy wrote the ''New Yorker'' by e-mail: ""I give away thousands of paintings for free. I don't think it's possible to make art about world poverty and trouser all the cash."" Banksy believes that there is a consumerist shift in art, and for the first time, the bourgeois world of art belongs to the people. On his [http://www.banksy.co.uk/menu.asp website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619145403/https://www.banksy.co.uk/menu.asp |date=2021-06-19 }}, he provides high-resolution images of his work for free downloading.

Anti-Consumerism from a sustainability perspective also ties into the social and political understanding of the term, as ideas surrounding this perspective are rooted in sustainability efforts. Practicing anti-consumerism can mean voluntarily simplifying and minimizing one's lifestyle; this can be in efforts to exist more sustainably in a consumer culture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=SEEGEBARTH |first1=BARBARA |title=The Sustainability Roots of Anti-Consumption Lifestyles and Initial Insights Regarding Their Effects on Consumers' Well-Being|journal=[[The Journal of Consumer Affairs]]|date=Spring 2016 |volume=50 |page=68 |doi=10.1111/joca.12077 |url=https://cdn.auckland.ac.nz/assets/business/about/our-research/research-groups/icar/2016-icar/4%20Seegabarth%20et%20al%20JOCA%202016%20Sustainability%20roots.pdf}}</ref> These lifestyle changes, which include choosing paper bags over plastic bags when shopping, are also in line with anti-corporate activism and green consumerism—both large contributors to the ethical market.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gunkel |first=Christian |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/919201704 |title=Politicizing consumer choice : ethical dimensions of consumerism in the United States |date=December 23, 2014 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-631-65475-0 |language=English |oclc=919201704}}</ref> Degrowth, Commoning and other movements aim to collectively address sustainability issues through practices and approaches that radically reduce consumption and replace consumer culture with new ethics and values.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nelson |first=Anitra |date=2024-01-31 |title=Degrowth as a Concept and Practice: Introduction |url=https://commonslibrary.org/degrowth-as-a-concept-and-practice-introduction/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=E. T. |date=2024-01-23 |title=Practising Commoning |url=https://commonslibrary.org/practising-commoning/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref>

===Conspicuous consumption===
{{Main|Conspicuous consumption}}{{See also|Individual action on climate change}}{{See also|individual action on climate change#less consumption of goods and services}}{{blockquote|It is preoccupation with possessions, more than anything else, that prevents us from living freely and nobly.|sign=[[Bertrand Russell]]<ref>''The Routledge Dictionary of Quotations'', by Robert Andrews, [[Routledge]], 1987, {{ISBN|0-7102-0729-8}}, pg 212</ref>|title=|source=}}

{{blockquote|Trying to reduce environmental pollution without reducing consumerism is like combating drug trafficking without reducing the drug addiction.| sign=[[Jorge Majfud]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Majfud |first1=Jorge |title=The Pandemic of Consumerism |journal=[[UN Chronicle]] |volume=46 |issue=3–4 |date=August 2009 |page=85 |url=https://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/home/archive/issues2009/toprotectsucceedinggenerations/pid/21570 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719034751/http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/home/archive/issues2009/toprotectsucceedinggenerations/pid/21570 |archive-date=19 July 2013 }}<!-- Note: this ""sidebar"" article is missing from this issue on the new UN Chronicle website. --></ref>}}

In many critical contexts,{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} the term describes the tendency of people to identify strongly with products or services they consume, especially with commercial [[brand]] names and obvious [[status symbol|status-enhancing]] appeal, such as a brand of expensive automobiles or [[jewelry]]. It is a pejorative term which most people deny, having some more specific excuse or [[rationalization (psychology)|rationalization]] for consumption other than the idea that they are ""compelled to consume"". A culture that has a high amount of consumerism is referred to as a [[consumer culture]].

To those who embrace the idea of consumerism, these products are not seen as valuable in themselves, but rather as social signals that allow them to identify like-minded people through consumption and display of similar products. Few would yet go so far, though, as to admit that their relationships with a product or brand name could be substitutes for healthy human relationships that sometimes lack in a dysfunctional modern [[society]].

The older term ''conspicuous consumption'' described the [[United States]] in the 1960s, but was soon linked to larger debates about [[media influence]], [[culture jamming]], and its corollary [[productivism]]. 
[[File:BarsStencil.jpg|thumb|Anti-consumerist [[stencil]] art]]
The term and concept of ''conspicuous consumption'' originated at the turn of the 20th century in the writing of economist [[Thorstein Veblen]]. The term describes an apparently irrational and confounding form of economic behaviour. Veblen's scathing proposal that this unnecessary consumption is a form of status display is made in darkly humorous observations like the following, from his 1899 book, ''The Theory of the Leisure Class'':
{{blockquote |It is true of dress in even a higher degree than of most other items of consumption, that people will undergo a very considerable degree of privation in the comforts or the necessaries of life in order to afford what is considered a decent amount of wasteful consumption; so that it is by no means an uncommon occurrence, in an inclement climate, for people to go ill clad in order to appear well dressed.<ref>[[The Theory of the Leisure Class]], 1899</ref>}}

In 1955, economist [[Victor Lebow]] stated (as quoted by [[William E. Rees (academic)|William Rees]], 2009):
{{blockquote |Our enormously productive economy demands that we make consumption our way of life, that we convert the buying and use of goods into rituals, that we seek our spiritual satisfaction and our ego satisfaction in consumption. We need things consumed, burned up, worn out, replaced, and discarded at an ever-increasing rate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fondationtrudeau.ca/sites/default/files/u5/pages_de_trudeaupapers2009_-_text_from_william_e._rees.pdf |title=William E. Rees |publisher=Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation |access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref>}}

According to archaeologists, evidence of conspicuous consumption up to several millennia ago has been found, suggesting that such behavior is inherent to humans.<ref>{{cite book
 |last1= Renfrew |first1= Colin |author-link1= Colin Renfrew
 |last2= Bahn |first2= Peter
 |title= Archaeology: Theories, methods and practice
 |edition= 5th |year= 2008
 |publisher= [[Thames & Hudson]] |location= London |isbn= 978-0-500-28719-4 |oclc= 181139910
 |chapter= <!-- Please give the page or chapter numbers. -->
 }}</ref>

=== Collaborative consumption ===
[[Collaborative consumption]] describes the way that consumers of a good engage in shared consumption either through temporary rentals or second-hand purchases. Anti-consumerism opposes the continuous consumption of material possessions in part because of the unsustainability that individuals who seek the experience of consumer culture without the desire of long-term possession.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guzzetti |first1=Alice |last2=Crespi |first2=Roberta |last3=Belvedere |first3=Valeria |date=January 2021 |title=""Please don't buy!"": Consumers attitude to alternative luxury consumption |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jsc.2390 |journal=Strategic Change |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=67–78 |doi=10.1002/jsc.2390 |s2cid=234233497 |issn=1086-1718}}</ref>

Collaborative consumption is understood as anti-consumption<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ozanne |first1=Lucie K. |last2=Ballantine |first2=Paul W. |date=November 2010 |title=Sharing as a form of anti-consumption? An examination of toy library users |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cb.334 |journal=Journal of Consumer Behaviour |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=485–498 |doi=10.1002/cb.334 |s2cid=144805081 |issn=1472-0817|doi-access=free }}</ref> by focusing on the temporary usage of the products, consumers are able to express sustainable attitudes with the intent of reducing natural resources by reducing direct consumption of a product or brand.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chatzidakis |first1=Andreas |last2=Lee |first2=Michael S. W. |date=September 2013 |title=Anti-Consumption as the Study of Reasons against |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276146712462892 |journal=Journal of Macromarketing |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=190–203 |doi=10.1177/0276146712462892 |s2cid=3850581 |issn=0276-1467}}</ref> 
Modern day [[creative destruction]] culture causes sustainability issues, and in order to mitigate them, a more collaborative mindset is necessary when it comes to consumption.<ref>George Loewenstein, The Creative Destruction of Decision Research, Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 28, Issue 3, December 2001, Pages 499–505, https://doi.org/10.1086/323738</ref>

===Consumerism and advertising===
Anti-consumerists believe [[advertising]] plays a huge role in human life by informing values and assumptions of the cultural system, deeming what is acceptable, and determining social standards.<ref name=""World. Dir 1997"">[ Advertising and the End of the World. Dir. Sut Jhally. Perf. [[Sut Jhally]]. DVD. Media Education Foundation, 1997.]</ref>  They declare that ads create a hyper-real world where commodities appear as the key to securing happiness.  Anti-consumerists cite studies that find that individuals believe their [[quality of life]] improves in relation to social values that lie outside the capability of the marketplace.  Therefore, advertising attempts to equate the social with the material by utilizing images and slogans to link commodities with the real sources of human happiness, such as meaningful relationships.  Ads are then a detriment to society because they tell consumers that accumulating more and more possessions will bring them closer to self-actualization, or the concept of a complete and secure being.  ""The underlying message is that owning these products will enhance our image and ensure our popularity with others.""<ref>[Tim Kasser, ""The High Price of Materialism"", 2002, p.9, Achorn Graphic Services]</ref> And while advertising promises that a product will make the consumer happy, advertising simultaneously depends upon the consumer never being truly happy, as then the consumer would no longer feel the need to consume needless products.

Anti-consumerists claim that in a consumerist society, advertisement images disempower and objectify the consumer.<ref name=""Rumbo"">{{cite journal|first=Joseph D.|last= Rumbo|title=Consumer Resistance in a World of Advertising Clutter: The Case of Adbusters|journal= Psychology and Marketing|volume=19|issue=2|date= February 2002|doi= 10.1002/mar.10006}}</ref>  By stressing individual power, choice and desire, advertising falsely implies the control lies with the consumer.  Because anti-consumerists believe commodities supply only short-term gratification, they detract from a sustainably happy society.  Further, advertisers have resorted to new techniques of capturing attention, such as the increased speed of ads and [[product placement]]s.<ref name=""World. Dir 1997""/>  In this way, commercials infiltrate the consumerist society and become an inextricable part of the culture. In a review of research on materialistic values and goals, [[Tim Kasser]] (2016) argues that the pursuit of material possessions can lead to short-term gratification at the expense of long-term well-being.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kasser |first=Tim |date=2016-01-04 |title=Materialistic Values and Goals |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033344 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=489–514 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033344 |pmid=26273896 |issn=0066-4308|doi-access=free }}</ref> Anti-consumerists condemn advertising because it constructs a simulated world that offers fantastical [[escapism]] to consumers, rather than reflecting actual reality.  They further argue that ads depict the interests and lifestyles of the elite as natural; cultivating a deep sense of inadequacy among viewers.<ref name=""Rumbo"" /> They denounce the use of beautiful models because they glamorize the commodity beyond the reach of the average individual.

In an opinion segment of ''[[New Scientist]]'' magazine published in August 2009, reporter Andy Coghlan cited [[William E. Rees (academic)|William Rees]] of the [[University of British Columbia]] and [[Epidemiology|epidemiologist]] [[Warren Hern]] of the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]], saying that human beings, despite considering themselves civilized thinkers, are ""subconsciously still driven by an impulse for survival, domination and expansion... an impulse which now finds expression in the idea that inexorable economic growth is the answer to everything, and, given time, will redress all the world's existing inequalities."" He argues that consumerism is making these tendencies worse by encouraging consumption without limit.<ref>{{cite news |title=Consumerism is 'eating the future' |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17569-consumerism-is-eating-the-future/ |access-date=3 January 2022 |work=New Scientist |date=7 August 2009}}</ref>

Supporters of anti-consumerism often accuse advertising of [[attention theft]], i.e. they believe it unjustifiably invades public areas, thereby imposing itself on people who consider its presence unwanted. American graphic designer [[Sean Tejaratchi]] expresses his resentment of this ""[[ad creep]]"" in a 1999 issue of his [[clip art]] [[zine]] ''Crap Hound'': ""Advertising increasingly invades my environment instead of letting me come to it on my own terms when I need it... The most powerful and well-funded methods of mass communication in history have been used to create a one-way, unending flow of shit into my life... In the twenty-eight years since I was born, I've been subjected to a stunning amount of advertising, and I don't recall anyone ever asking me if I minded.""<ref>{{Citation|title=Banksy and Tejaratchi on Advertising & Going Viral|date=11 October 2018|url=https://www.yatesweb.com/banksy-and-tejaratchi-on-advertising/|language=en|access-date=September 29, 2021}}</ref>

Anti-consumerism has paved the way for a ""[[subvertising]]"" (also known as culture jamming) movement, which uses artistic and political strategies to protest modern forms of publicity; acts of ""subvertising"" include ""removing advertising from public spaces, tweeting to inform the city's mayor of illicit advertising practices, recuperating posters from bus stop advertising panels, producing critical advertising guides, documentaries or organising public workshops.""<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lekakis |first=Eleftheria J. |date=2021-11-02 |title=Adversaries of advertising: anti-consumerism and subvertisers' critique and practice |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2020.1837102 |journal=Social Movement Studies |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=740–757 |doi=10.1080/14742837.2020.1837102 |s2cid=226375476 |issn=1474-2837}}</ref>

==Austrian economics==

[[Austrian Economic|Austrian economic]] advocates focus on the entrepreneur, promoting a productive lifestyle rather than a materialistic one wherein the individual is defined by things and not their self.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mises.org/library/consumerism-defense|title=Consumerism: A Defense - Tibor R. Machan|last=kanopiadmin|date=27 October 2000}}</ref>

==Criticism==
Critics of anti-consumerism have accused anti-consumerists of opposing [[modernity]] or [[utilitarianism]], arguing that it can lead to [[elitism]], primarily among libertarian viewpoints, who argue that every person should decide their level of consumption independent of outside influence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.setthings.com/en/criticism-anti-consumerism/|title=Anti-consumerism}} {{dead link|date=June 2023}}</ref> Right-wing critics see anti-consumerism as rooted in socialism. In 1999, the [[Right-libertarianism|right-libertarian]] magazine [[Reason (magazine)|''Reason'']] attacked anti-consumerism, claiming [[marxism|Marxist]] academics were repackaging themselves as anti-consumerists. [[James B. Twitchell]], a professor at the [[University of Florida]] and popular writer, referred to anti-consumerist arguments as ""Marxism Lite"".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://reason.com/news/show/27795.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080207201008/https://reason.com/news/show/27795.html|archive-date = 2008-02-07|title = In Praise of Consumerism|date = August 2000}}</ref>

There have also been socialist critics of anti-consumerism who see it as a form of anti-modern ""reactionary socialism"", and state that anti-consumerism has also been adopted by ultra-conservatives and [[fascism|fascists]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varul |first1=Matthias Zick |title=Towards a consumerist critique of capitalism: A socialist defence of consumer culture |journal=Ephemera: Theory & Politics in Organization |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=293–315 |date=May 2013 |url=http://www.ephemerajournal.org/contribution/towards-consumerist-critique-capitalism-socialist-defence-consumer-culture |issn=1473-2866 |isbn=9781906948177 }} {{open access}}</ref>

==In popular media==
In ''[[Fight Club]]'', the protagonist finds himself participating in terroristic acts against corporate society and consumer culture. The film is widely regarded as the most widely recognizeable piece of anti-consumerist media.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/edward-norton-discusses-political-impact-fight-club/ |title= Edward Norton Discusses the Political Impact of ‘Fight Club’|last= Russell |first= Calum |date= August 18, 2022 |website= Far Out Magazine |publisher= |access-date= 2024-02-29|quote=}}</ref> The success of the book and the film comes despite the author [[Chuck Palahniuk]] publically stating that the story is both anticonsumerist and anticommericialist.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://edition.cnn.com/books/news/9910/29/fight.club.author/ |title= Palahniuk: Marketing 'Fight Club' is 'the ultimate absurd joke’ |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= CNN |publisher= |access-date= 2024-02-29|quote=}}</ref> 

In ''[[Mr. Robot]]'', Elliot Alderson, a young cybersecurity engineer, joins a hacker group known as ""fsociety"", which aims to crash [[U.S. Economy|the U.S. economy]], eliminating all debt.

In the novel ''[[American Psycho]]'' by [[Bret Easton Ellis]], the protagonist [[Patrick Bateman]] criticizes the consumerist society of America in the 1980s of which he is a personification. Later on he goes on a killing spree without any consequences, suggesting that the people around him are so self-absorbed and focused on consuming that they either do not see or do not care about his acts.

In the ''[[Pixar]]'' movie, ''[[WALL-E]]'', earth is depicted in an apocalyptic state caused by the negative effects of human consumerism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Oosterwjik |first1=Iris |last2=McCartney |first2=William |title=Once upon a Dystopian Time… the Portrayal and Perception of Environmentalism in Pixar's Finding Nemo and WALL-E |journal=Quarterly Review of Film and Video |date=17 March 2022 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1080/10509208.2022.2049181 |s2cid=247545305 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10509208.2022.2049181 |access-date=22 October 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
* [[:Category:Anti-consumerists|Anti-consumerists]] (category)
* [[Affluenza]]
* [[Anti-capitalism]]
* [[Brandalism]]
* [[Buy Nothing Day]]
* [[Shopping cart#Conceptual detours of the shopping cart in art, design and consumerism|Conceptual detours of the shopping cart in art, design and consumerism]]
* [[Degrowth]]
* [[Détournement]]
* [[Downshifting (lifestyle)]]
* [[Ethical consumerism]]
* [[Freeganism]]
* ''[[Growth Fetish]]''
* [[Mottainai]]
* [[Neoism]]
* [[Over-consumption]]
* [[Philosophy of futility]]
* [[Planned obsolescence]]
* [[Post-growth]]
* [[Slow movement (culture)]]
* [[Steady-state economy]]
* [[Waste picker]]
* [[The Zeitgeist Movement]]
{{colend}}

==References==
<references/>

===Sources===
* Bakan, Joel (2004) ''[[The Corporation (2003 film)|The Corporation]]''.
* Elizabeth Chin (2001) ''Purchasing Power: Black Kids and American Consumer Culture'' University of Minnesota Press {{ISBN|978-0-8166-3511-5}}
* Hertz, N (2002) ''Silent Takeover: Global Capitalism and the Death of Democracy''. Arrow.
* {{cite book | author=Klein, Naomi | title=No Logo | publisher=Vintage Canada | year=2000 | isbn=0-676-97282-9| title-link=No Logo }}
* Luedicke, Marius K, Craig J. Thompson and Markus Giesler. 2010. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/644761?seq=1 ""Consumer Identity Work as Moral Protagonism: How Myth and Ideology Animate a Brand-Mediated Moral Conflict"".] ''Journal of Consumer Research.'' 36 (April).
* Monbiot, G (2001) ''Captive State: The Corporate Takeover of Britain''. Pan.
* Schor, J. (2010) [https://web.archive.org/web/20121225225126/http://www.julietschor.org/the-book/ ''Plenitude''], Penguin Press HC. 
* Zehner, O (2012) [http://greenillusions.org ''Green Illusions''], University of Nebraska Press.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Anti-consumerism}}
*[http://www.earthhealing.info/fifty.htm Fifty Possible Ways to Challenge Over-Commercialism] by Albert J. Fritsch, SJ, PhD
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060626020927/http://www.thismagazine.ca/issues/2002/11/rebelsell.php The Rebel Sell], ''[[This Magazine]]'', By [[Joseph Heath]] and [[Andrew Potter]]
*[http://www.multinationalmonitor.org/mm2005/012005/ruskin.html 25 Years of Monitoring the Multinationals]
*[http://www.storyofstuff.com The Story of Stuff] by [[Annie Leonard]]
*[https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/article/the-good-life-an-international-perspective/?fullscreen=true The Good Life: An International Perspective]

{{Simple living}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Consumerism}}
{{Anarchism}}

[[Category:Anti-consumerism| ]]
[[Category:Consumerism]]
[[Category:Anti-corporate activism]]
[[Category:Counterculture]]
[[Category:Ethical consumerism]]
[[Category:Social theories]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Sustainability in construction,"{{see also|Construction|Sustainable development}}
{{essay-like|date=December 2018}}

Precise definitions of sustainable construction vary from place to place, and are constantly evolving to encompass varying approaches and priorities. In the United States, the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) defines sustainable construction as ""the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction.""<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.epa.gov/greenbuilding/web/html/about.html|title=Basic Information {{!}} Green Building {{!}}US EPA|website=archive.epa.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> The Netherlands defines sustainable construction as ""a way of building which aims at reducing (negative) health and environmental impacts caused by the construction process or by buildings or by the built-up environment.""<ref name="":3"">{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Development and the Future of Construction: A comparison of visions from various countries|isbn=978-90-6363-011-9|page=29|publisher=International Council for Building Research Studies and Documentation }}</ref> More comprehensively, sustainability can be considered from three dimension of planet, people and profit across the entire construction supply chain.<ref>Solaimani, S., & Sedighi, M. (2019). Toward a holistic view on Lean sustainable construction: a literature review. Journal of Cleaner Production, DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119213</ref> Key concepts include the protection of the natural environment, choice of non-toxic materials, reduction and reuse of resources, waste minimization, and the use of [[life-cycle cost analysis]].

== Definition of sustainable construction ==
The definition of ""Sustainable Construction"" is the introduction of healthy living and workplace environments, the use of materials that are sustainable, durable and by extension environmentally friendly. 

== Evolution path ==
In the 1970s, awareness of sustainability emerged,<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/31737/10-1316-estimating-co2-emissions-supporting-low-carbon-igt-report.pdf|title=Estimating the Amount of {{CO2}} Emissions that the Construction Industry Can Influence|website=GOV.UK, Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> amidst oil crises. At that time, people began to realize the necessity and urgency of energy conservation, which is to utilize energy in an efficient way and find alternatives to contemporary sources of energy. Additionally, shortages of other natural resources at that time, such as water, also raised public attention to the importance of sustainability and conservation.<ref name="":5"" /> In the late 1960s, the construction industry began to explore ecological approaches to construction, aiming to seek harmony with nature.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Architecture and the Four Encounters with Complexities|journal = Architectural Engineering and Design Management|volume = 4|pages = 15–30|last=Leonard R.|first=Bachman|doi=10.3763/aedm.2008.s407|year = 2008|s2cid = 56667681}}</ref>

The concept of sustainable construction was born out of [[sustainable development]] discourse.<ref name="":73"">{{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=Richard C.|last2=Bowen|first2=Paul A.|date=1997-05-01|title=Sustainable construction: principles and a framework for attainment|journal=Construction Management and Economics|volume=15|issue=3|pages=223–239|doi=10.1080/014461997372971|issn=0144-6193}}</ref>  The term sustainable development was first coined in the [[Our Common Future|Brundtland report]] of 1987, defined as the ability to meet the needs of all people in the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own.<ref name="":73""/> This report defined a turning point in sustainability discourse since it deviated from the earlier [[The Limits to Growth|limits-to-growth]] perspective to focus more on achieving social and economic milestones, and their connection to environmental goals, particularly in developing countries.<ref name="":73""/><ref>{{Citation|last1=Meadows|first1=Donella H.|title=The Limits to Growth|date=2019-09-06|work=Green Planet Blues|pages=27–31|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-32220-4 |last2=Meadows|first2=Dennis L.|last3=Randers|first3=Jørgen|last4=Behrens|first4=William W.|doi=10.4324/9780429322204-3}}</ref> Sustainable development interconnects three socially concerned systems—environment, society and economy—a system seeking to achieve a range of goals as defined by the United Nations Development Program.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html|title=Sustainable Development Goals|website=UNDP|language=en|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref>

The introduction of sustainable development into the environmental/economical discourse served as a middle ground for the limits-to-growth theory, and earlier pro-growth theories that argued maintaining economic growth would not hinder long-term sustainability.<ref name="":73""/>  As a result, scholars have faulted sustainable development for being too value-laden since applications of its definition vary heavily depending on relevant stakeholders, allowing it to be used in support of both pro-growth and pro-limitation perspectives of development arguments despite their vastly different implications.<ref name="":73"" />  In order for the concept to be effective in real-life applications, several specified frameworks for its use in various fields and industries, including sustainable construction, were developed.

The construction industry's response to sustainable development is sustainable construction.<ref name="":3"" /> In 1994, the definition of sustainable construction was given by Professor Charles J. Kibert during the Final Session of the First International Conference of CIB TG 16 on Sustainable Construction as ""the creation and responsible management of a healthy built environment based on resource efficient and ecological principles"".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sustainable construction: proceedings of the First International Conference of CIB TG 16, November 6-9, 1994, Tampa, Florida, U.S.A|date=1994|publisher=Center for Construction and Environment, M.E. Rinker Sr. School of Building Construction, College of Architecture, University of Florida|isbn=978-0-9643886-1-1 |location=Gainesville, Fla.|language=en|editor-last=Kibert|editor-first=Charles J |oclc = 33013532}}</ref> Notably, the traditional concerns in construction (performance, quality, cost) are replaced in sustainable construction by [[resource depletion]], [[environmental degradation]] and healthy environment.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB_DC24773.pdf|title=Establishing Principles and a Model for Sustainable Construction|last=Kibert|first=Charles J.|website=www.irbnet.de|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> Sustainable construction addresses these criteria through the following principles set by the conference:<ref name="":9"" />

* Minimize [[resource consumption]] (Conserve)by effective procurment systems and strategies
*
* Maximize resource reuse (Reuse)
* Use renewable or [[recyclable]] resources (Renew/Recycle/Repurpose 
* Protect and incorporate the natural environment (Protect Nature)
* Create a healthy, non-toxic environment (Non-Toxics)
* Pursue quality in creating the built environment (Quality)

Additional definitions and frameworks for sustainable construction practices were more rigorously defined in the 1999 Agenda 21 on Sustainable Construction, published by the International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB).<ref name="":02"">{{Cite journal|last=Du Plessis|first=Chrisna|date=2002|title=Agenda 21 for sustainable construction in developing countries|journal=CSIR Report BOU E|volume=204}}</ref> The same council also published an additional version of the agenda for sustainable construction in [[Developing country|developing countries]] in 2001 to counteract biases present in the original report as a result of most contributors being from the developed world.<ref name="":02""/>

Since 1994, much progress to sustainable construction has been made all over the world. According to 2015 Green Building Economic Impact Study released by [[U.S. Green Building Council]] (USGBC) [https://new.usgbc.org/], green building industry contributes more than $134.3 billion in labor income to working Americans. The study also found that green construction's growth rate is rapidly outpacing that of conventional construction and will continue to rise.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgbc.org/articles/new-study-finds-green-construction-major-us-economic-driver|title=New Study Finds Green Construction is Major U.S. Economic Driver {{!}} U.S. Green Building Council|website=www.usgbc.org|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref>

== Goals of sustainable construction ==

=== Current state ===
According to United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), ""''the increased construction activities and urbanization will increase waste which will eventually destroy natural resources and wild life habitats over 70% of land surface from now up to 2032.'' "" <ref>{{Cite book|title=Global Environmental Outlook 3|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/globalenvironmen0000unse_z8s0|url-access=registration|publisher=Unite Nation Environment Programmes(UNEP) /Earth scan|location=London}}</ref> Moreover, construction uses around half of natural resources that humans consume. Production and transport of building materials consumes 25 - 50 percent of all energy used (depending on the country considered).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://anzasca.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/ANZAScA2004_Sattary.pdf|title=Assessment of sustainable construction practices|last=Sattary|first=Sattar|website=anzasca.net|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> Taking UK as a sample, the construction industry counts for 47% of {{CO2}} emission, of which manufacturing of construction products and materials accounts for the largest amount within the process of construction.<ref name="":5"" />

=== Benefits ===
By implementing sustainable construction, benefits such as lower cost, environmental protection, sustainability promotion, and expansion of the market may be achieved during the construction phase. As mentioned in ConstructionExecutive,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ten Benefits of Sustainable Construction|url=https://www.constructionexec.com/article/ten-benefits-of-sustainable-construction|access-date=2021-10-08|website=www.constructionexec.com}}</ref> construction waste accounts for 34.7% of all waste in Europe. Implementing sustainability in construction would cut down on wasted materials substantially.

==== Potential lower cost ====
Sustainable construction might result in higher investment at the construction stage of projects, the competition between contractors, due to the promotion of sustainability in the industry, would encourage the application of sustainable construction technologies, ultimately decreasing the construction cost. Meanwhile, the encouraged cooperation of designer and engineer would bring better design into the construction phase.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal|title=The Business Case For Green Building|journal=World Green Building Council|volume=6|issue=3|pages=299–309|doi=10.1007/BF02941258|year=2006|last1=Pantouvakis|first1=John-Paris|last2=Manoliadis|first2=Odysseus G.|s2cid=29736660}}</ref>

Using more sustainable resources reduces cost of construction as there will be less water and energy being used for construction and with less resources being used in the projects, it would lead to lower disposal costs as there is less waste being made.<ref>{{Cite web |last=exak@dmin |date=2020-08-11 |title=Sustainable Construction Benefits, Technologies and Best Practices |url=https://www.exaktime.com/blog/sustainable-construction-benefits/ |access-date=2023-04-28 |website=ExakTime |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Environment protection<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Manoliadis|first1=Odysseus G.|last2=Pantouvakis|first2=John-Paris|date=2006-09-01|title=A practical approach to resource - constrained project scheduling|journal=Operational Research|language=en|volume=6|issue=3|pages=299–309|doi=10.1007/BF02941258|s2cid=29736660|issn=1866-1505}}</ref> ====
By adopting sustainable construction, contractors would make the construction plan or sustainable site plan to minimize the environmental impact of the project. According to a study took place in Sri Lanka,<ref name="":7"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.civil.mrt.ac.lk/conference/ICSBE2012/SBE-12-174.pdf|title=Benefits of Adopting Green Concept for Construction of Building in Sri lanka|website=www.civil.mrt.ac.lk|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> considerations of sustainability may influence the contractor to choose more sustainable, locally sourced products and materials, and to minimize the amount of waste and water pollution.  Another example is from a case study in Singapore,<ref name="":8"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB21705.pdf|title=Sustainable Building and Construction in Singapore|website=www.irbnet.de|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> the construction team implemented rainwater recycling and waste water treatment systems that help achieve a lower environmental impact.

==== Promoting sustainability<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.branz.co.nz/cms_show_download.php?id=292a5866bacbf3aad00794c5f014c024f8f36a6d|title=Sustainable Construction: Reducing the Impact of Creating Building|website=www.branz.co.nz|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> ====
According to ""Sustainable Construction: Reducing the Impact of Creating a Building"", the contractor in collaboration with the owner would deliver the project in a sustainable way. More importantly, the contractor would have known this was a key performance indicator for the client from day one, allowing them the opportunity to not tender for the work, should this not appeal to them. Moreover, ""It also sends a clear message to the industry, 'sustainability is important to us' and this, especially within the government and public sectors can significantly drive change in the way projects are undertaken, as well as up-skilling the industry to meet this growing demand.

==== Expand market<ref name="":7"" /> ====
By promoting sustainable methods and products in daily work, the good result directly shows the public the positive effect of sustainable construction. Consequently, there would be potential to expand the market of sustainable concepts or products. According to a report published by USGBC, ""The global green building market grew in 2013 to $260 billion, including an estimated 20 percent of all new U.S. commercial real estate construction.""{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

== Sustainable construction strategies ==
Globally, construction industries are attempting to implement sustainable construction principles. Below are some examples of successful implementations of sustainable construction promotion on a national level. Also included are new technologies that could improve the application of sustainable construction.

=== Strategic Policy and Guide ===

* Creation of a national strategy to improve the development : The Government in Singapore has announced their Sustainable Singapore Blueprint in April 2009 to make a long-term strategy of sustainable construction development.<ref name="":8"" /> Another example is Strategy for sustainable construction in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file46535.pdf|title=Strategy For Sustainable Construction|website=bis.gov.uk|archive-url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130220131336/http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file46535.pdf|archive-date=2013-02-20|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref>
* Investing money on research and education : S$50 million ""Research Fund for the Built Environment"" was launched in 2007 by Singapore Government to kick-start R&D efforts in sustainable development.<ref name="":8"" />
* Guidance for sustainable application: Government department cooperating with academic institutes to make an industrial guide for workers, for example, the Field Guide for Sustainable Construction published in 2004.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbdg.org/FFC/DOD/DODHDBK/fieldg.pdf|title=Field Guide for Sustainable Construction|website=www.wbdg.org|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref>

=== Changing Mindset in the Way of Development ===
The Government in Singapore has developed a Sustainable Construction Master Plan with the hope to transform the industrial development path from only focusing on the traditional concerns of ""cost, time, and quality"" to construction products and materials, to reduce natural resource consumption and minimize waste on site. With the expediting concern of the climate crisis, it is essential to keep in mind the importance of reducing energy consumption and toxic waste whilst moving forward with sustainable architectural plans.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jackson |first1=Chris |title=The Methods and Benefits of Sustainable Construction |url=https://www.construction21.org/articles/h/the-methods-and-benefits-of-sustainable-construction.html |website=Construction21 International |access-date=24 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="":8"" />

=== New Technologies ===
The development of efficiency codes has prompted the development of new construction technologies and methods, many pioneered by academic departments of construction management that seek to improve efficiency and performance while reducing [[construction waste]].

New techniques of building construction are being researched, made possible by advances in [[3D printing]] technology. In a form of ''additive building construction'', similar to the additive manufacturing techniques for manufactured parts, [[Construction 3D printing|building printing]] is making it possible to flexibly construct small commercial buildings and private habitations in around 20 hours, with built-in plumbing and electrical facilities, in one continuous build, using large 3D printers. Working versions of 3D-printing building technology are already printing {{convert|2|m}} of building material per hour {{asof|2013|01|lc=y}}, with the next-generation printers capable of {{convert|3.5|m}} per hour, sufficient to complete a building in a week.<ref name=""gizmodo20130131"">
{{cite news|url=https://gizmodo.com/moon-base/|title=This Is What the First Lunar Base Could Really Look Like|last=Diaz|first=Jesus|date=2013-01-31|newspaper=Gizmodo|access-date=2013-02-01}}</ref> Dutch architect Janjaap Ruijssenaars's [[performative architecture]] 3D-printed building was scheduled to be built in 2014.<ref name=""tc20120120"">{{cite news|url=https://techcrunch.com/2013/01/20/the-worlds-first-3d-printed-building-will-arrive-in-2014-and-it-looks-awesome/|title=The World's First 3D-Printed Building Will Arrive In 2014|date=2012-01-20|newspaper=TechCrunch|access-date=2013-02-08}}</ref>

Over the years, the construction industry has seen a trend in IT adoption, something it always found hard to compete with when paired against other fields such as, the manufacturing or healthcare industries. Nowadays, construction is starting to see the full potential of technological advancements, moving on to paperless construction, using the power of automation and adopting BIM, the internet of things, cloud storage and co-working, and mobile apps, implementation of surveying drones, and more.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jbknowledge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/2017-JBKnowledge-ConTech-Report.pdf|title=2017 6th Annual Construction Technology Report|website=JB Knowledge|access-date=13 September 2018}}</ref><ref name=""8 Technology Trends for the US Commercial Construction Industry in 2018 (And the Statistics to Support Them)"">{{cite web|url=https://render3dquick.com/blog/2018/8/28/8-technology-trends-construction-industry-2018|title=8 Technology Trends for the US Commercial Construction Industry in 2018 (And the Statistics to Support Them)|date=2018-08-28|publisher=Render3dquick.com|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref>

In the current trend of [[Sustainable architecture|sustainable construction]], the recent movements of [[New Urbanism]] and [[New Classical architecture]] promote a sustainable approach towards construction, that appreciates and develops [[smart growth]], [[Vernacular architecture|architectural tradition]] and [[Classical architecture|classical design]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnu.org/charter|title=The Charter of the New Urbanism|last=taotiadmin|date=20 April 2015}}</ref> This is in contrast to [[Modern architecture|modernist]] and short-lived [[International Style (architecture)|globally uniform]] architecture, as well as opposing solitary [[housing estate]]s and [[Urban sprawl|suburban sprawl]].<ref>[http://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities]. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23.</ref> Both trends started in the 1980s.

[[Timber]] is being introduced as a feasible material for skyscrapers (nicknamed ""plyscrapers"") thanks to new developments incorporating engineered timber, whose collective name is ""mass timber"" and includes [[Cross laminated timber|cross-laminated timber]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/good-weekend/new-wood-how-it-will-change-our-skyline-20160815-gqsmrn.html|title=New wood: how it will change our skyline|last=Callaghan|first=Greg|date=27 August 2016|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=6 September 2017}}</ref>

[[Hemp|Industrial hemp]] is becoming increasingly recognised as an eco-friendly building material. It can be used in a range of ways, including as an alternative to concrete (known as '[[hempcrete]]'), flooring, and insulation. King Charles [https://princes-foundation.org/practice/the-natural-house is reported] to have used hemp to insulate an eco-home. In December 2022, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) emphasised hemp's versatility and sustainability, and advocated its use as a building material, in a report entitled '[https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditccom2022d1_en.pdf Commodities at a glance: Special issue on industrial hemp]'.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

== Sustainable construction in developing countries ==
Specific parameters are needed for sustainable construction projects in developing countries. Scholar Chrisna Du Plessis of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) defines the following key issues as specific to work in developing countries:<ref name="":02""/>

* New, non-western frameworks for development
* Understanding the connection between [[urbanization]] and [[rural development]]
* Sustainable housing solutions
* Education
* Innovative materials
* Innovative methods of construction
* Merging modern and traditional practices
* Promoting equity in gender roles
* Development of new financing systems
* Improving the capacity of the government and the construction industry

In a later work, Du Plessis furthers the definition for sustainable construction to touch on the importance of sustainability in social and economic contexts as well.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last=Plessis|first=Chrisna Du|date=2007-01-01|title=A strategic framework for sustainable construction in developing countries|journal=Construction Management and Economics|volume=25|issue=1|pages=67–76|doi=10.1080/01446190600601313|s2cid=218555430 |issn=0144-6193}}</ref>  This is especially relevant in construction projects in the Global South, where local value systems and social interactions may differ from the western context in which sustainable construction frameworks were developed.<ref name="":1"" />

=== Debates surrounding sustainable construction in developing countries ===
First, the need for sustainable development measures in developing countries is considered. Most scholars have reached a consensus on the concept of the 'double burden' placed on developing countries as a result of the interactions between development and the environment. Developing countries are uniquely vulnerable to problems of both development (resource strain, pollution, waste management, etc.) and under-development (lack of housing, inadequate water and sanitation systems, hazardous work environments) that directly influence their relationship with the surrounding environment.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last=Véron|first=René|date=2010|title=Small Cities, Neoliberal Governance and Sustainable Development in the Global South: A Conceptual Framework and Research Agenda|journal=Sustainability|language=en|volume=2|issue=9|pages=2833–2848|doi=10.3390/su2092833|doi-access=free}}</ref>  Additionally, scholars have defined two classes of environmental problems faced by developing countries; 'brown agendas' consider issues that cause more immediate environmental health consequences on localized populations, whereas '[[Green Agenda|green agendas]]' consider issues that address long-term, wide-scope threats to the environment.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":32"">{{Citation|last1=McGranahan|first1=Gordon|title=Environmental health or ecological sustainability? Reconciling the brown and green agendas in urban development|date=2000|work=Planning in Cities|pages=43–57|publisher=Practical Action Publishing|isbn=978-1-85339-543-7 |last2=Satterthwaite|first2=David|doi=10.3362/9781780441283.004|doi-broken-date=2024-03-14 }}</ref>  Typically, green agenda solutions are promoted by environmentalists from developed, western countries, leading them to be commonly criticized as being elitist and ignorant to the needs of the poor, especially since positive results are often delayed due to their long-term scope.<ref name="":32"" /> Scholars have argued that sometimes these efforts can even end up hurting impoverished communities; for example, [[Conservation movement|conservation]] initiatives often lead to restrictions on resource-use despite the fact that many rural communities rely on these resources as a source of income, forcing households to either find new livelihoods or find different areas for harvesting.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sarkar|first=Siddhartha|date=2010|title=Gender, Environment and Poverty Linkages|journal=Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics|volume=2|issue=4|pages=145–156}}</ref> General consensus is that the best approaches to sustainable construction in developing countries is through a merging of brown and green agenda ideals.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":32"" />

=== Stakeholders ===

==== Foreign investors and organizations ====
Since all of the definitions and frameworks for the major concepts outlined previously are developed by large international organizations and commissions, their research and writings directly influence the organization, procedures, and scale of rural development projects in the [[Global South]]. Attempts at community development by foreign organizations like the ones discussed have questionable records of success. For instance, billions of dollars of aid have flowed into Africa over the past 60 years in order to address infrastructure shortcomings, yet this aid has created numerous social and economic problems without making any progress toward infrastructure development.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal|last=du Plessis|first=Chrisna|date=2005|title=Action for sustainability: preparing an African plan for sustainable building and construction|journal=Building Research & Information|volume=33|issue=5|pages=405–415|doi=10.1080/09613210500218974|bibcode=2005BuRI...33..405D |s2cid=218591642 |issn=0961-3218}}</ref> One compelling explanation for why infrastructure projects as a result of foreign aid have failed in the past is that they are often eurocentric in modelling and applied off successful strategies used in western countries without adapting to local needs, environmental circumstances and cultural value systems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adebayo|first=Ambrose A.|date=2002|title=Sustainable construction in Africa|journal=Agenda 21|pages=1–11}}</ref>

==== NGOs/Non-profits ====
Often [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] and development [[Nonprofit organization|nonprofits]] are criticized for taking over responsibilities that are traditionally carried out by the state, causing governments to become ineffective in handling these responsibilities over time. Within Africa, NGOs carry out the majority of sustainable building and construction through donor-funded, low-income housing projects.<ref name="":4"" />

== Future development ==
Currently, sustainable construction has become mainstream in the construction industry. The increasing drive to adopt a better way of construction, stricter industrial standards and the improvement of technologies have lowered the cost of applying the concept, according to Business Case For Green Building Report.<ref name="":6"" /> The current cost of sustainable construction may be 0.4% lower than the normal cost of construction.

== History of East Asian sustainable construction ==

== See also ==
*[[Development Fund of the Swedish Construction Industry]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Construction overview}}

[[Category:Construction]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Sustainable dentistry,"'''Sustainable dentistry''' is when a dental organization voluntarily embeds corporate social responsibility into its organizational culture through the creation of a sustainability policy that outlines its commitment to and strategy for internally and externally focusing all its activities on realizing a [[triple bottom line]], i.e. economic prosperity, social responsibility, and environmental stewardship. Managing sustainability in dentistry, therefore, is the implementation, monitoring, and adjusting of what this sustainability policy entails within a dental organization.<ref>Oviedo, B. (2018). [https://www.acd.org/wp-content/uploads/JACD-85-3-Summer-2018.pdf A New Dental Ethic]. Journal of the American College of Dentists, 85(3), 5-7.</ref><ref>Willard, B. (2018). [https://www.acd.org/wp-content/uploads/JACD-85-3-Summer-2018.pdf The Business Case for Sustainable Dentistry]. Journal of the American College of Dentists, 85(3), 8-14.</ref><ref>United Nations. Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Resolution adopted by the 80th General Assembly, September 25, 2015.</ref> Dental practices can uphold sustainable dentistry by reducing their carbon footprint through various methods such as monitoring product procurement.<ref>Lee, J. (2022). [https://www.ada.org/publications/ada-news/viewpoint/my-view/2022/april/my-view-sustainable-dentistry My View: Sustainable dentistry].</ref> 

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Dentistry]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]


{{Sustainability-stub}}
{{dentistry-stub}}"
Category:Sustainability advocates,"This category contains people who actively promote '''[[sustainability]]'''.

{{Commons category|Sustainability advocates}}
{{catseealso|Sustainability books}}
[[Category:Sustainability|*]]
[[Category:Environmentalists]]
[[Category:People in environmental occupations]]
[[Category:Activists by issue]]
{{CatAutoTOC}}"
Carbon capture and utilization,"[[File:CCU_vs_CCS.png|alt=|thumb|429x429px|Comparison between sequestration and utilization of captured carbon dioxide]]

'''Carbon capture and utilization''' ('''CCU''') is the process of capturing [[carbon dioxide]] ([[Carbon|C]][[Oxygen|O]]<sub>2</sub>) from industrial processes and transporting it via pipelines to where one intends to use it in industrial processes.<ref name="":0"">{{cite journal |last1=Cuéllar-Franca |first1=Rosa M. |last2=Azapagic |first2=Adisa |title=Carbon capture, storage and utilisation technologies: A critical analysis and comparison of their life cycle environmental impacts |journal=Journal of CO<sub>2</sub> Utilization |date=March 2015 |volume=9 |pages=82–102 |doi=10.1016/j.jcou.2014.12.001 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Captured CO<sub>2</sub> can be converted to several products: one group being [[alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]]s, such as methanol, to  use as efuels and other [[Carbon-neutral fuel|alternative and renewable sources of energy]]. Other commercial products include plastics, concrete and reactants for various chemical synthesis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dibenedetto |first1=Angela |last2=Angelini |first2=Antonella |last3=Stufano |first3=Paolo |title=Use of carbon dioxide as feedstock for chemicals and fuels: homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis: Use of carbon dioxide as feedstock for chemicals and fuels |journal=Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology |date=March 2014 |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=334–353 |doi=10.1002/jctb.4229 }}</ref>

Regarding a single product, CCU does not result in a net carbon positive to the atmosphere. If, in addition, this product substitutes one of fossil origin an overall CO<sub>2</sub> emission reduction occurs.

There are several additional considerations to be taken into account. As CO<sub>2</sub> is a thermodynamically stable form of [[carbon]], manufacturing products from it is energy intensive.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Carbon Capture and Sequestration|last1=Smit|first1=Berend|last2=Reimer|first2=Jeffrey A|last3=Oldenburg|first3=Curtis M|last4=Bourg|first4=Ian C|date=2013-06-18|publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=9781783263271|series=The Berkeley Lectures on Energy|doi=10.1142/p911}}</ref> The availability of other raw materials to create a product should also be considered before investing in CCU.

Considering the different potential options for capture and utilization, research suggests that those involving chemicals, fuels and microalgae have limited potential for {{CO2}} removal, while those that involve construction materials and agricultural use can be more effective.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hepburn |first1=Cameron |last2=Adlen |first2=Ella |last3=Beddington |first3=John |last4=Carter |first4=Emily A. |last5=Fuss |first5=Sabine |last6=Mac Dowell |first6=Niall |last7=Minx |first7=Jan C. |last8=Smith |first8=Pete |last9=Williams |first9=Charlotte K. |title=The technological and economic prospects for CO<sub>2</sub> utilization and removal |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=6 November 2019 |volume=575 |issue=7781 |pages=87–97 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1681-6 |pmid=31695213 |bibcode=2019Natur.575...87H |doi-access=free |hdl=10044/1/75208 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The profitability of CCU depends partly on the [[carbon price]] of CO<sub>2</sub> being released into the atmosphere.
Carbon capture and utilization may offer a response to the global challenge of significantly reducing [[greenhouse gas emissions]] from major stationary (industrial) emitters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.c2es.org/content/carbon-capture/|title=Carbon Capture|website=Center for Climate and Energy Solutions|access-date=2020-04-22}}</ref> 
 
==Definition and distinction==
{{expand section |date=September 2023}}
Carbon capture and utilization (CCU) is defined as capturing {{CO2}} from industrial processes and transporting it via pipelines to where one intends to use it in industrial processes. The pipelines are pressurized as the only option for transporting the {{CO2}} over long distances.<ref name=""ichem"">{{Cite journal |last=Mike Bilio, Solomon Brown, Michael Fairweather and Haroun Mahgerefteh |date=2009 |title={{CO2}} PIPELINES MATERIAL AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS |url=https://www.icheme.org/media/9558/xxi-paper-061.pdf |journal=IChemE}}</ref><ref name=""crs"">{{Cite journal |last=Paul W. Parfomak, Peter Folger |date=2008-01-17 |title=Carbon Dioxide ({{CO2}}) Pipelines for Carbon Sequestration: Emerging Policy Issues |url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20080117_RL33971_e9b75f9639ed7835dcbc3c565c1b1e03b632b204.pdf |journal=CRS Report for Congress}}</ref>

CCU differs from ''[[carbon capture and storage]]'' (CCS) in that CCU does not aim nor result in permanent [[Carbon sequestration|geological storage]] of carbon dioxide. Instead, CCU aims to convert the captured carbon dioxide into more valuable substances or products; such as plastics, concrete or [[Electrofuel|efuel]]; while retaining the [[carbon neutrality]] of the production processes.

CCU and CCS are sometimes discussed collectively as ''[[carbon capture, utilization, and sequestration]]'' (CCUS).

== Sources of carbon ==
CO<sub>2</sub> is typically captured from fixed point sources in [[heavy industry]] such as [[Petrochemical industry|petrochemical plants]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Carbon capture, utilisation and storage - Fuels & Technologies |url=https://www.iea.org/fuels-and-technologies/carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> CO<sub>2</sub> captured from these exhaust stream itself varies in concentration. A typical coal power plant will have 10-12% CO<sub>2</sub> concentration in its [[flue gas]] exhaust stream.<ref name="":1"">{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Yixiang |last2=Isom |first2=Loren |last3=Hanna |first3=Milford A. |title=Adding value to carbon dioxide from ethanol fermentations |journal=Bioresource Technology |date=May 2010 |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3311–3319 |doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2010.01.006 |pmid=20110166 |bibcode=2010BiTec.101.3311X }}</ref> A biofuel refinery produces a high purity (99%) of CO<sub>2</sub> with small amount of impurities such as water and ethanol.<ref name="":1"" /> The captured {{CO2}} contains impurities and the {{CO2}} transported through pipelines will contain impurities, such as ammonia, {{chem2|N2}} , {{H2S}} , C<sub>2</sub>+. CO +, {{chem2|O2}} +, [[NOx|{{NOx}}]], {{chem|SO|x}}+ and Arsenic. Hydrogen can cause [[hydrogen embrittlement]], and water can cause corrosion in steel pipes.<ref name=""ichem""/>{{rp|424 }}

The separation process itself can be performed through separation processes such as [[Absorption (chemistry)|absorption]], [[adsorption]], or [[membrane]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=De Ras |first1=Kevin |last2=Van de Vijver |first2=Ruben |last3=Galvita |first3=Vladimir V |last4=Marin |first4=Guy B |last5=Van Geem |first5=Kevin M |title=Carbon capture and utilization in the steel industry: challenges and opportunities for chemical engineering |journal=Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering |date=December 2019 |volume=26 |pages=81–87 |doi=10.1016/j.coche.2019.09.001 |bibcode=2019COCE...26...81D |s2cid=210619173 |url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8635595 |hdl=1854/LU-8635595 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Another possible source of capture in CCU process involves the use of plantation. The idea originates from the observation in the [[Keeling Curve|Keeling curve]] that the CO<sub>2</sub> level in the atmosphere undergoes annual variation of approximately 5 ppm ([[parts per million]]), which is attributed to the seasonal change of vegetation and difference in land mass between the northern and southern hemisphere.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keeling |first1=Charles D. |title=The Concentration and Isotopic Abundances of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere |journal=Tellus |date=January 1960 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=200–203 |doi=10.3402/tellusa.v12i2.9366 |bibcode=1960Tell...12..200K |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keeling |first1=Charles D. |last2=Bacastow |first2=Robert B. |last3=Bainbridge |first3=Arnold E. |last4=Ekdahl Jr. |first4=Carl A. |last5=Guenther |first5=Peter R. |last6=Waterman |first6=Lee S. |last7=Chin |first7=John F. S. |title=Atmospheric carbon dioxide variations at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii |journal=Tellus |date=January 1976 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=538–551 |doi=10.3402/tellusa.v28i6.11322 |bibcode=1976Tell...28..538K |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, the CO<sub>2</sub> sequestered by the plants will be returned to the atmosphere when the plants die. Thus, it is proposed to plant crops with [[C4 carbon fixation|{{C4}} photosynthesis]], given its rapid growth and high carbon capture rate, and then to process the biomass for applications such as [[biochar]] that will be stored in the soil permanently.<ref>{{Citation|last=X, the moonshot factory|title=We Solve for X: Mike Cheiky on negative carbon liquid fuels|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zkYVlZ9v_0o|access-date=2018-12-08}}</ref>

== Examples of technology and application ==
{{Sustainable energy}}

=== CO<sub>2</sub> electrolysis ===
{{main|Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide}}
{{See also|Heterogeneous catalysis}}

CO<sub>2</sub> electroreduction to a variety of value-added products has been under development for many years. Some major targets are [[formate]], [[oxalate]], and [[methanol]], as electrochemical formation of these products from CO<sub>2</sub> would constitute a very environmentally sustainable practice.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Robert Francke |author2=Benjamin Schille |author3=Michael Roemelt |title=Homogeneously Catalyzed Electroreduction of Carbon Dioxide—Methods, Mechanisms, and Catalysts |year=2018 |journal=Chem. Rev. |volume=118 |issue=9 |pages=4631–4701 |doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00459|pmid=29319300 }}</ref>
For example, CO<sub>2</sub> can be captured and converted to [[carbon-neutral fuel]]s in an aqueous [[catalysis]] process.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=Yang|last2=Peng|first2=Rui|last3=Hensley|first3=Dale K.|last4=Bonnesen|first4=Peter V.|last5=Liang|first5=Liangbo|last6=Wu|first6=Zili|last7=Meyer|first7=Harry M.|last8=Chi|first8=Miaofang|author-link8=Miaofang Chi|last9=Ma|first9=Cheng|last10=Sumpter|first10=Bobby G.|last11=Rondinone|first11=Adam J.|date=2016-11-16|title=High-Selectivity Electrochemical Conversion of CO 2 to Ethanol using a Copper Nanoparticle/N-Doped Graphene Electrode|journal=ChemistrySelect|volume=1|issue=19|pages=6055–6061|doi=10.1002/slct.201601169|s2cid=99987768 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite web |date=October 12, 2016 |title=Nano-spike catalysts convert carbon dioxide directly into ethanol |website=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url=https://www.ornl.gov/news/nano-spike-catalysts-convert-carbon-dioxide-directly-ethanol}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Dohyung |last2=Kley |first2=Christopher S. |last3=Li |first3=Yifan |last4=Yang |first4=Peidong |title=Copper nanoparticle ensembles for selective electroreduction of {{CO2}} to C<sub>2</sub>–{{C3}} products |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=2017-10-03 |volume=114 |issue=40 |pages=10560–10565 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1711493114 |pmid=28923930 |pmc=5635920 |bibcode=2017PNAS..11410560K |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite web |author=Sarah Yang |date=September 18, 2017 |title=Copper Catalyst Yields High Efficiency {{CO2}}-to-Fuels Conversion |website=University of California Berkeley |url=https://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/news/copper-catalyst-yields-high-efficiency-co2-fuels-conversion}}</ref> It is possible to convert CO<sub>2</sub> in this way directly to [[ethanol]], which can then be upgraded to [[gasoline]] and [[jet fuel]].<ref>{{cite news |author1=Pacific Northwest National Laboratory |title=PNNL, Lanzatech team to make new jet fuel |url=http://www.ethanolproducer.com/articles/15663/pnnl-lanzatech-team-to-make-new-jet-fuel |work=Ethanol Producer Magazine |date=4 October 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Prajapati |first1=Aditya |last2=Sartape |first2=Rohan |last3=Galante |first3=Miguel T. |last4=Xie |first4=Jiahan |last5=Leung |first5=Samuel L. |last6=Bessa |first6=Ivan |last7=Andrade |first7=Marcio H. S. |last8=Somich |first8=Robert T. |last9=Rebouças |first9=Márcio V. |last10=Hutras |first10=Gus T. |last11=Diniz |first11=Nathália |last12=Singh |first12=Meenesh R. |date=2022-12-07 |title=Fully-integrated electrochemical system that captures CO<sub>2</sub> from flue gas to produce value-added chemicals at ambient conditions |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2022/ee/d2ee03396h |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |language=en |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=5105–5117 |doi=10.1039/D2EE03396H |s2cid=253862974 |issn=1754-5706}}</ref>

=== Carbon-neutral fuel ===
{{Main|Carbon-neutral fuel}}A carbon-neutral fuel can be synthesized by using the captured CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere as the main hydrocarbon source. The fuel is then combusted and CO<sub>2</sub>, as the byproduct of the combustion process, is released back into the air. In this process, there is no net carbon dioxide released or removed from the atmosphere, hence the name carbon-neutral fuel.

==== Methanol fuel ====
A proven process to produce a hydrocarbon is to make [[methanol]].  Traditionally, methanol is produced from natural gas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garcia-Garcia |first1=Guillermo |last2=Fernandez |first2=Marta Cruz |last3=Armstrong |first3=Katy |last4=Woolass |first4=Steven |last5=Styring |first5=Peter |title=Analytical Review of Life-Cycle Environmental Impacts of Carbon Capture and Utilization Technologies |journal=ChemSusChem |date=18 February 2021 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=995–1015 |doi=10.1002/cssc.202002126|issn=1864-5631  |pmid=33314601 |pmc=7986834 |bibcode=2021ChSCh..14..995G }}</ref> Methanol is easily synthesized from {{CO2}} and H<sub>2</sub>.  Based on this fact the idea of a [[methanol economy]] was born.

[[Methanol]], or methyl alcohol, is the simplest member of the family of alcohol organic compound with a chemical formula of [[Carbon|C]][[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>3</sub>[[Oxygen|O]][[Hydrogen|H]]. [[Methanol fuel]] can be manufactured using the captured carbon dioxide while performing the production with renewable energy. Consequently, methanol fuel has been considered as an alternative to [[fossil fuels]] in power generation for achieving a carbon-neutral sustainability.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olah |first1=George A. |title=Beyond Oil and Gas: The Methanol Economy |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |date=29 April 2005 |volume=44 |issue=18 |pages=2636–2639 |doi=10.1002/anie.200462121 |pmid=15800867 |url=http://d-nb.info/1149717262/04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Hagen |first1=David LeRoy |title=Methanol: its synthesis, use as fuel, economics, and hazards |date=1976 |publisher=University of Minnesota |id={{OSTI|7113633}} |oclc=43007998 }}</ref> Synthesis of methanol from carbon dioxide is done through a hydrogenation reaction in the presence of a [[Catalysis|catalyst]]. Commonly used catalysts are copper, zinc, and palladium. These reactions are typically performed under high pressure conditions to shift the reaction [[Equilibrium chemistry|equilibrium]] towards the methanol product via [[Le Chatelier's principle|Le Chatelier's Principle]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xinbao |last2=Zhang |first2=Guanghui |last3=Song |first3=Chunshan |last4=Guo |first4=Xinwen |date=2021 |title=Catalytic Conversion of Carbon Dioxide to Methanol: Current Status and Future Perspective |journal=Frontiers in Energy Research |volume=8 |doi=10.3389/fenrg.2020.621119 |issn=2296-598X |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Carbon Recycling International]], a company with production facility in [[Grindavík|Grindavik, Iceland]], markets such Emission-to-Liquid renewable high octane methanol fuel with current 4,000 [[tonne]]/year production capacity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.carbonrecycling.is/vulcanol/|title=Vulcanol|website=CRI - Carbon Recycling International|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-08|archive-date=2019-10-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031103631/https://www.carbonrecycling.is/vulcanol|url-status=dead}}</ref>

'''Dimethyl Ether'''

[[Dimethyl ether|Dimethyl Ether]] has shown promise as a carbon neutral fuel as a potential alternative to [[diesel fuel]]. Dimethyl Ether has typically been synthesized from a dehydration reaction of methanol in the presence of an acid catalyst, but researchers have recently developed a one step method to convert carbon dioxide into dimethyl ether using a bifunctional catalyst and similar conditions to the synthesis of methanol from syngas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mota |first1=Noelia |last2=Millán Ordoñez |first2=Elena |last3=Pawelec |first3=Bárbara |last4=Fierro |first4=José Luis G. |last5=Navarro |first5=Rufino M. |date=2021 |title=Direct Synthesis of Dimethyl Ether from CO<sub>2</sub>: Recent Advances in Bifunctional/Hybrid Catalytic Systems |journal=Catalysts |language=en |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=411 |doi=10.3390/catal11040411 |issn=2073-4344 |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/236211 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Chemical synthesis ===
As a highly desirable C<sub>1</sub> (one-carbon) chemical feedstock, CO<sub>2</sub> captured previously can be converted to a diverse range of products. Some of these products include: [[polycarbonate]]s (via Zinc based [[Catalysis|catalyst]]) or other organic products such as [[acetic acid]],<ref name="":2"">{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/catalog/10153/carbon-management-implications-for-r-d-in-the-chemical-sciences|title=Carbon Management: Implications for R & D in the Chemical Sciences and Technology (A Workshop Report to the Chemical Sciences Roundtable)|last=Council|first=National Research|date=2001-06-27|isbn=9780309075732|language=en|doi=10.17226/10153|pmid=20669488}}</ref> [[urea]],<ref name="":2"" /> and [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]].<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|date=March 2011|title=Accelerating the uptake of CCS: industrial use of captured carbon dioxide|url=https://www.globalccsinstitute.com/archive/hub/publications/14026/accelerating-uptake-ccs-industrial-use-captured-carbon-dioxide.pdf|access-date=3 October 2020|website=globalccsinstitute.com|publisher=Global CCS Institute}}</ref> Currently 75% (112 million tons) of urea production, 2% (2 million tons) of methanol production, 43% (30 thousand tons) of salicylic acid production, and 50% (40 thousand tons) of cyclic carbonates production utilize CO<sub>2</sub> as a feedstock.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Erdogan Alper |author2=Ozge Yuksel Orhan |title=CO<sub>2</sub> utilization: Developments in conversion processes |year=2017 |journal=Petroleum |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=109–126 |doi=10.1016/j.petlm.2016.11.003|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017Pet.....3..109A }}</ref> Chemical synthesis is not a permanent storage/utilization of CO<sub>2</sub>, as [[Aliphatic compound|aliphatic]] (straight chain) compounds may degrade and release CO<sub>2</sub> back to the atmosphere as early as 6 months.<ref name="":3"" /> As the use of fossil fuels decreases, removing carbon dioxide from the air is increasingly seen as a way to stop the long-term accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Carbon emissions and storage coupled with reductions in fossil fuel use are known as ""negative emissions"".

Carbon dioxide also could be used in chemoenzymatic processes to synthesize starch without cells. In nature starch is usually synthesized within cells from carbon dioxide via photosynthesis. In cell-free synthesis, carbon dioxide is reduced to methanol with an inorganic catalyst; then methanol is converted to three carbon sugar units. The three carbon sugar units will be converted to six carbon sugar units and finally polymerize into starch. Compared to photosynthesis, which involves sixty biochemical reactions, cell-free synthesis needs eleven steps. This means cell-free synthesis can be faster than photosynthesis. The synthesis rate is 8.5 times that of corn starch, and the absorbance rate of carbon dioxide is more efficient than that of plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Tao |last2=Sun |first2=Hongbing |last3=Qiao |first3=Jing |last4=Zhu |first4=Leilei |last5=Zhang |first5=Fan |last6=Zhang |first6=Jie |last7=Tang |first7=Zijing |last8=Wei |first8=Xinlei |last9=Yang |first9=Jiangang |last10=Yuan |first10=Qianqian |last11=Wang |first11=Wangyin |last12=Yang |first12=Xue |last13=Chu |first13=Huanyu |last14=Wang |first14=Qian |last15=You |first15=Chun |last16=Ma |first16=Hongwu |last17=Sun |first17=Yuanxia |last18=Li |first18=Yin |last19=Li |first19=Can |last20=Jiang |first20=Huifeng |last21=Wang |first21=Qinhong |last22=Ma |first22=Yanhe |title=Cell-free chemoenzymatic starch synthesis from carbon dioxide |journal=Science |pages=1523–1527 |language=en |doi=10.1126/science.abh4049 |date=24 September 2021|volume=373 |issue=6562 |pmid=34554807 |bibcode=2021Sci...373.1523C |s2cid=237615280 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This method is still developing, and the first publication on the topic was only in 2021, so there are still some problems. First, this method needs significant energy inputs, just as plants need sunlight. If the electricity used is not produced cleanly, large carbon dioxide emissions will still result. Moreover, high costs present a barrier to commercialization.

In 2023, an international team of researchers at the University of Sydney and the University of Toronto developed a new [[acid]]-based electrochemical process for the conversion of {{CO2}} captured from emission sources or directly from air.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2023/03/15/more-efficient-transformation-of-captured-co2-developed-by-resea.html| title=New process gives {{CO2}} conversion more ""bang for buck"" |website=University of Sydney |access-date=12 April 2023}}</ref>

=== Enhanced oil or gas recovery  ===

In [[enhanced oil recovery]], the captured CO<sub>2</sub> is injected into depleted oil fields with the goal to increase the amount of oil to be extracted by the wells. This method is proven to increase oil output by 5-40%.<ref name="":3"" />

Carbon Sequestration with Enhanced Gas Recovery (CSEGR) is a process in which CO<sub>2</sub> is injected deep in the gas reservoir and as a result, at the gas wells which are some distance away, methane (CH<sub>4</sub>) is produced. This process by active injection of CO<sub>2</sub> causes repressurization and methane displacement, so that the gas recovery becomes enhanced compared to water-drive or depletion-drive operations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oldenburg |first1=Curtis M. |title=Carbon sequestration in natural gas reservoirs: Enhanced gas recovery and natural gas storage |date=8 April 2003 |url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/813580 |website=Office of Scientific and Technical Information |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy |language=en |osti=813580}}</ref>

=== Carbon mineralization ===
{{main|Mineralization (soil science)}}
Carbon dioxide from sources such as [[flue gas]] are reacted with minerals such as [[magnesium oxide]] and [[calcium oxide]] to form stable solid [[carbonates]]. These minerals can be mined, or existing [[brine]] and waste industrial minerals (including [[slag]]) can be reused.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite book|title=Report: Greenhouse Gas Removal|year=2018|isbn=978-1-78252-349-9|url=https://royalsociety.org/-/media/policy/projects/greenhouse-gas-removal/royal-society-greenhouse-gas-removal-report-2018.pdf|pages=54|publisher=Royal Society }}</ref>  The carbonates produced can be used for construction, consumer products, and as an alternative for [[carbon capture and sequestration]] (CCS).

Approximately 1 tonne of CO<sub>2</sub> is removed from the air for every 3.7 tonnes of mineral carbonate produced.<ref name="":5""/>

=== Biofuel from microalgae ===
{{Main|Algae fuel}}
[[File:Algae fuel in a beaker.jpg|thumb|Fuels can be produced from algae]]
A study has suggested that microalgae can be used as an alternative source of energy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oncel |first1=Suphi S. |title=Microalgae for a macroenergy world |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |date=October 2013 |volume=26 |pages=241–264 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2013.05.059 }}</ref> A pond of microalgae is fed with a source of carbon dioxide such as flue gas, and the microalgae is then allowed to proliferate. The algae is then harvested and the biomass obtained is then converted to biofuel. About 1.8 tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> can be removed from the air per 1 tonne of dry algal biomass produced, though this number actually varies depending on the species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/accelerating-uptake-ccs-industrial-use-captured-carbon-dioxide/online/28426#c25|title=Accelerating the uptake of CCS: Industrial use of captured carbon dioxide|publisher=Global CCS Institute|access-date=7 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916011508/http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/accelerating-uptake-ccs-industrial-use-captured-carbon-dioxide/online/28426#c25|archive-date=16 September 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The CO<sub>2</sub> captured will be stored non-permanently as the biofuel produced will then be combusted and the CO<sub>2</sub> will be released back into the air. However, the CO<sub>2</sub> released was first captured from the atmosphere and releasing it back into the air makes the fuel a [[carbon-neutral fuel]]. Microalgae biofuels are considered to be a part of the third generation of biofuels, being an alternative energy source for fossil fuels without the disadvantages accompanying first and second generation biofuels.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Medipally |first1=Srikanth |last2=Yussof |first2=Fatimah |last3=Banerjee |first3=Sanjoy |last4=Shariff |first4=M. |title=Microalgae as Sustainable Renewable Energy Feedstock for Biofuel Production |journal=BioMed Res. Int. |date=March 22, 2015 |volume=2015 |page=519513 |doi=10.1155/2015/519513 |pmid=25874216 |pmc=4385614 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This technology is not mature yet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chemengonline.com/mechanical-co2-sequestration-improves-algae-production/|title = Mechanical {{CO2}} sequestration improves algae production|date = March 2019}}</ref> Current microalgal culture systems have not been designed for high throughput biomass growth and carbon capture. Raceways, high-rate algal ponds, and photobioreactors are the most widely used for microalgal cultivation at a large-scale. The limitations of these systems are related to microalgal growth requirements. Ponds are operated at narrow depth to ensure sufficient light distribution and thus need a large land surface.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Luong N. |last2=Vu |first2=Minh T. |last3=Vu |first3=Hang P. |last4=Johir |first4=Md. Abu Hasan |last5=Labeeuw |first5=Leen |last6=Ralph |first6=Peter J. |last7=Mahlia |first7=T. M. I. |last8=Pandey |first8=Ashok |last9=Sirohi |first9=Ranjna |last10=Nghiem |first10=Long D. |date=2023-01-17 |title=Microalgae-based carbon capture and utilization: A critical review on current system developments and biomass utilization |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2022.2047141 |journal=Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=216–238 |doi=10.1080/10643389.2022.2047141 |bibcode=2023CREST..53..216N |s2cid=247350232 |issn=1064-3389}}</ref>

=== Agriculture ===
{{Main|Biochar}}
An approach that is also proposed as a climate change mitigation effort is to perform plant-based carbon capture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matovic |first1=Darko |title=Biochar as a viable carbon sequestration option: Global and Canadian perspective |journal=Energy |date=April 2011 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=2011–2016 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2010.09.031 }}</ref> The resulting biomass can then be used for [[Biofuel|fuel]], while the biochar byproduct is then utilized for applications in agriculture as soil-enhancer. [https://www.coolplanet.com Cool Planet] is a private company with an R&D plant in [[Camarillo, California]], performed development of biochar for agricultural applications and claimed that their product can increase crops yield by 12.3% and three-fold return of investment via improvement of [[soil health]] and nutrient retention.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.coolplanet.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Cool-Planet-Completes-100th-Independent-Trial-of-Cool-Terra%C2%AE-1.pdf|title=Cool Planet Completes 100th Independent Trial of Cool Terra®|date=19 March 2018|website=Cool Planet}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=June 2021}} However, the claims on the efficacy of plant-based carbon capture for climate change mitigation has received a fair amount of skepticism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/4/14/5561250/cool-planet|title=The inventor of everything|last=Popper|first=Ben|date=2014-04-14|website=The Verge|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-08}}</ref>

== Environmental impacts ==
[[File:CCU projects - 2011.png|thumb|273x273px|Sites of Carbon Capture and Utilization projects and development, per 2011 report from [[Global CCS Institute]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hub.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/accelerating-uptake-ccs-industrial-use-captured-carbon-dioxide/demonstration-projects|title=Demonstration projects {{!}} Global CCS Institute|website=hub.globalccsinstitute.com|access-date=2018-12-07|archive-date=2019-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412141429/http://hub.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/accelerating-uptake-ccs-industrial-use-captured-carbon-dioxide/demonstration-projects|url-status=dead}}</ref>|alt=]] 
Pipelines can fail through either ductile fracture and/or a [[brittle fracture]].<ref name=""ichem""/>{{rp|425 }}

As of 2015, 16 life cycle environmental impact analyses had been done to assess the impacts of four main CCU technologies against conventional CCS: Chemical synthesis, carbon mineralization, biodiesel production, as well as [[Enhanced Oil Recovery]] (EOR). These technologies were assessed based on 10 [[Life-cycle assessment]] (LCA) impacts such as: acidification potential, eutrophication potential, global warming potential, and ozone depletion potential. The conclusion from the 16 different models was that chemical synthesis has the highest global warming potential (216 times that of CCS) while enhanced oil recovery has the least global warming potential (1.8 times that of CCS).<ref name="":0""/>{{Clarify|reason=gwp explained wrong?|date=October 2021}}

Life-cycle assessments (LCA) are not standardized as studies that perform them use different assessment methodologies and parameter that change the results of the LCA. Enhanced methodology guidelines and standardization of practice are necessary to better gauge and compare the impact of the various CCU technologies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Thonemann |first1=Nils |last2=Zacharopoulos |first2=Leon |last3=Fromme |first3=Felix |last4=Nühlen |first4=Jochen |date=2022-01-15 |title=Environmental impacts of carbon capture and utilization by mineral carbonation: A systematic literature review and meta life cycle assessment |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=332 |pages=130067 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.130067 |s2cid=245201124 |issn=0959-6526|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Regulation==
In the US, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) and the Surface Transportation Board (STB) exercise jurisdiction.<ref name=crs/> The Corps of Engineeers may issue nationwide permits.<ref name=""sehn"">{{Cite journal |date=2023-08-28 |title=Who must protect the rivers, streams and wetlands from {{CO2}} Pipelines? |url=https://www.sehn.org/sehn/2023/8/24/who-must-protect-the-rivers-streams-and-wetlands-from-co2-pipelines |language=en-US}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Energy|Renewable energy}}{{Div col|colwidth=30em}} 
*[[Carbon capture and storage]]
*[[Carbon neutral fuel]]
*[[Carbon sequestration]]
*[[Climate change mitigation]]
*[[Greenhouse gas removal]]
*[[List of energy topics]]
*[[Low-carbon economy]]
*[[Solar Foods Ltd.]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
<references />

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book |doi=10.1142/p911 |title=Introduction to Carbon Capture and Sequestration |series=The Berkeley Lectures on Energy |year=2014 |volume=1 |isbn=978-1-78326-327-1 }}
* {{cite report |doi=10.26356/CARBONCAPTURE |date=2018 |title=Novel carbon capture and utilisation technologies: Research and climate aspects Berlin: SAPEA |website=Science Advice for Policy by European Academies}}
*[https://www.dtu.dk/english/news/2019/09/new-route-to-carbon-neutral-fuels-from-carbon-dioxide-discovered-by-stanford-dtu-team?id=4feafcd3-bf1d-4e02-80ea-ea018bfc6caf New route to carbon-neutral fuels from carbon dioxide discovered by Stanford-DTU team]

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon capture and utilization}}
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Carbon capture and storage| ]]
[[Category:Climate engineering]]
[[Category:Environmental technology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Applications of carbon dioxide| ]]"
Direct air capture,"{{short description|Method of carbon capture from carbon dioxide in air}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}[[File:Direct Air Capture Process Flow Diagram using Caustic Soda.png|alt=Flow diagram of direct air capture process using sodium hydroxide as the absorbent and including solvent regeneration.|thumb|380x380px|Flow diagram of direct air capture process using sodium hydroxide as the absorbent and including solvent regeneration]]
'''Direct air capture''' ('''DAC''') is the use of chemical or physical processes to extract [[carbon dioxide]] directly from the ambient air.<ref name="":4""/> If the extracted {{co2}} is then [[Carbon sequestration|sequestered]] in safe long-term storage (called '''direct air carbon capture and sequestration''' ('''DACCS''')), the overall process will achieve [[carbon dioxide removal]] and be a ""negative emissions technology"" (NET). 

The carbon dioxide ({{co2}}) is captured directly from the ambient air; this is contrast to [[Carbon capture and storage|carbon capture and storage (CCS)]] which captures {{co2}} from [[Point source pollution|point sources]], such as a [[cement]] factory or a [[bioenergy]] plant.<ref name=
""Erans Sanz-Pérez Hanak et al 2022"">{{cite journal |last1=Erans |first1=María |last2=Sanz-Pérez |first2=Eloy S. |last3=Hanak |first3=Dawid P. |last4=Clulow |first4=Zeynep |last5=Reiner |first5=David M. |last6=Mutch |first6=Greg A. |title=Direct air capture: process technology, techno-economic and socio-political challenges |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |date=2022 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=1360–1405 |doi=10.1039/D1EE03523A |s2cid=247178548 |doi-access=free |hdl=10115/19074 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> After the capture, DAC generates a concentrated stream of {{CO2}} for [[Carbon sequestration|sequestration]] or [[Carbon capture and utilization|utilization]] or production of [[carbon-neutral fuel]]. Carbon dioxide removal is achieved when ambient air makes contact with chemical media, typically an aqueous [[alkaline]] [[solvent]]<ref name="":10"">{{Cite journal |last1=Keith |first1=David W. |last2=Holmes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=St. Angelo |first3=David |last4=Heide |first4=Kenton |date=June 7, 2018 |title=A Process for Capturing {{CO2}} from the Atmosphere |journal=Joule |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=1573–1594 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2018.05.006 |doi-access=free}}</ref> or [[sorbent]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beuttler |first1=Christoph |last2=Charles |first2=Louise |last3=Wurzbacher |first3=Jan |title=The Role of Direct Air Capture in Mitigation of Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas Emissions |journal=Frontiers in Climate |date=21 November 2019 |volume=1 |pages=10 |doi=10.3389/fclim.2019.00010 |doi-access=free }}</ref> These chemical media are subsequently stripped of CO<sub>2</sub> through the application of energy (namely heat), resulting in a CO<sub>2</sub> stream that can undergo dehydration and compression, while simultaneously regenerating the chemical media for reuse.

When combined with long-term storage of {{CO2}}, DAC is known as direct air carbon capture and storage ('''DACCS''' or '''DACS'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Quarton |first1=Christopher J. |last2=Samsatli |first2=Sheila |date=1 January 2020 |title=The value of hydrogen and carbon capture, storage and utilisation in decarbonising energy: Insights from integrated value chain optimisation |journal=Applied Energy |volume=257 |pages=113936 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113936 |bibcode=2020ApEn..25713936Q |s2cid=208829001 |url=https://purehost.bath.ac.uk/ws/files/198830637/Quarton_and_Samsatli_2019_Applied_Energy_Accepted_version.pdf }}</ref>). It would require [[sustainable energy]] to power since approximately 400kJ of energy is needed per mole of CO<sub>2</sub> capture. DACCS can act as a [[carbon dioxide removal]] mechanism (or a carbon negative technology), although {{As of|2023|lc=y}} it has yet to be integrated into [[Carbon emission trading|emissions trading]] because, at over 1000 USD,<ref name="":3"">{{cite news |title=Carbon-dioxide-removal options are multiplying |url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2023/11/20/carbon-dioxide-removal-options-are-multiplying |newspaper=The Economist |date=20 November 2023 }}</ref> the cost per tonne of carbon dioxide is many times the [[carbon price]] on those markets.<ref>{{cite news |title=The many prices of carbon dioxide |url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2023/11/20/the-many-prices-of-carbon-dioxide |newspaper=The Economist |date=20 November 2023 }}</ref> 

DAC was suggested in 1999 and is still in development.<ref name=""ReviewDAC2016"">{{cite journal|last1=Sanz-Pérez|first1=Eloy S.|last2=Murdock|first2=Christopher R.|last3=Didas|first3=Stephanie A.|last4=Jones|first4=Christopher W.|date=12 October 2016|title=Direct Capture of carbon dioxide from Ambient Air|journal=Chemical Reviews|volume=116|issue=19|pages=11840–11876|doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00173|pmid=27560307|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="":02"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.geoengineeringmonitor.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Geoengineering-factsheet-DirectAirCapture.pdf|title=Direct Air Capture (Technology Factsheet)|date=2018-05-24|work=Geoengineering Monitor|access-date=2019-08-27|language=en-US|archive-date=2019-08-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826112646/http://www.geoengineeringmonitor.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Geoengineering-factsheet-DirectAirCapture.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Several commercial plants are planned or in operation in Europe and the US. Large-scale DAC deployment may be accelerated when connected with economical applications or policy incentives.

In contrast to carbon capture and storage (CCS) which captures emissions from a point source such as a factory, DAC reduces the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere as a whole. Thus, CCS is recommended for large and stationary sources of CO<sub>2</sub> rather than distributed and movable ones. On the contrary, DAC has no limitation on sources.<ref name=
""Erans Sanz-Pérez Hanak et al 2022""/>

== Methods of capture ==
[[File:2010- Direct Air Capture - global - International Energy Agency (IEA) - bar chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.5 | The [[International Energy Agency]] reported growth in direct air capture global operating capacity.<ref name=IEA_202204>{{cite web |title=Direct Air Capture / A key technology for net zero |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/78633715-15c0-44e1-81df-41123c556d57/DirectAirCapture_Akeytechnologyfornetzero.pdf |website=International Energy Agency (IEA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410210408/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/78633715-15c0-44e1-81df-41123c556d57/DirectAirCapture_Akeytechnologyfornetzero.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2022 |page=18 |date=April 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Most commercial techniques require large fans to push ambient air through a filter. More recently, Ireland-based company Carbon Collect Limited<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-02|title=Carbon Collect's MechanicalTree selected for US Department of Energy award|url=https://news.asu.edu/20210702-carbon-collect-mechanicaltree-selected-us-department-energy-award|access-date=2021-12-09|website=ASU News|language=en}}</ref> has developed the MechanicalTree™ which simply stands in the wind to capture {{CO2}}. The company claims this 'passive capture' of {{CO2}} significantly reduces the energy cost of Direct Air Capture, and that its geometry lends itself to scaling for gigaton {{CO2}} capture.

Most commercial techniques use a liquid [[solvent]]—usually [[amine]]-based or [[Corrosive substance#Chemical terms|caustic]]—to [[Absorption (chemistry)|absorb]] {{co2}} from a gas.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite book|title=Introduction to carbon capture and sequestration|last1=Smit|first1=Berend|last2=Reimer|first2=Jeffrey A.|last3=Oldenburg|first3=Curtis M.|last4=Bourg|first4=Ian C|publisher=Imperial College Press|year=2014|isbn=9781783263295|location=London|oclc=872565493|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StS3CgAAQBAJ}}</ref> For example, a common caustic solvent: [[sodium hydroxide]] reacts with {{CO2}} and precipitates a stable [[sodium carbonate]]. This carbonate is heated to produce a highly pure gaseous {{CO2}} stream.<ref name="":22"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.aps.org/policy/reports/assessments/upload/dac2011.pdf|title=Direct Air Capture of {{CO2}} with Chemicals: A Technology Assessment for the APS Panel on Public Affairs|date=1 June 2011|website=APS physics|access-date=2019-08-26|archive-date=2019-09-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903151926/https://www.aps.org/policy/reports/assessments/upload/dac2011.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="":9"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.geoengineeringmonitor.org/2019/07/direct-air-capture-recent-developments-and-future-plans/|title=Direct Air Capture: Recent developments and future plans|last=Chalmin|first=Anja|date=2019-07-16|website=Geoengineering Monitor|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-27|archive-date=2019-08-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826115711/http://www.geoengineeringmonitor.org/2019/07/direct-air-capture-recent-developments-and-future-plans/|url-status=live}}</ref> Sodium hydroxide can be recycled from sodium carbonate in a process of [[Sodium hydroxide#Production|causticizing]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00173 | title=Direct Capture of {{CO2}} from Ambient Air | year=2016 | last1=Sanz-Pérez | first1=Eloy S. | last2=Murdock | first2=Christopher R. | last3=Didas | first3=Stephanie A. | last4=Jones | first4=Christopher W. | journal=Chemical Reviews | volume=116 | issue=19 | pages=11840–11876 | pmid=27560307 | s2cid=19566110 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Alternatively, the {{CO2}} binds to solid sorbent in the process of [[chemisorption]].<ref name="":12"" /> Through heat and vacuum, the {{CO2}} is then desorbed from the solid.<ref name="":9"" /><ref name="":8"">{{cite journal |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Cost plunges for capturing carbon dioxide from the air |journal=Science |date=7 June 2018 |doi=10.1126/science.aau4107 |s2cid=242097184 }}</ref>

Among the specific chemical processes that are being explored, three stand out: causticization with alkali and alkali-earth hydroxides, [[carbonation]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nikulshina |first1=V. |last2=Ayesa |first2=N. |last3=Gálvez |first3=M.E. |last4=Steinfeld |first4=A. |title=Feasibility of Na-based thermochemical cycles for the capture of {{CO2}} from air—Thermodynamic and thermogravimetric analyses |journal=Chemical Engineering Journal |date=July 2008 |volume=140 |issue=1–3 |pages=62–70 |doi=10.1016/j.cej.2007.09.007 |url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/psi/islandora/object/psi%3A55397 }}</ref> and organic−inorganic hybrid sorbents consisting of amines supported in porous [[adsorbents]].<ref name=""ReviewDAC2016"" />

=== Other explored methods ===
The idea of using many small dispersed DAC [[carbon dioxide scrubber|scrubbers]]—analogous to live plants—to create environmentally significant reduction in {{CO2}} levels, has earned the technology a name of ''artificial trees'' in popular media.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Biello|first=David|date=2013-05-16|title=400 PPM: Can Artificial Trees Help Pull {{CO2}} from the Air?|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/prospects-for-direct-air-capture-of-carbon-dioxide/|access-date=2019-09-04|website=Scientific American|language=en|archive-date=2019-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904170823/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/prospects-for-direct-air-capture-of-carbon-dioxide/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Burns|first=Judith|date=2009-08-27|title='Artificial trees' to cut carbon|language=en-GB|work=BBC News {{!}} Science & Environment|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8223528.stm|access-date=2019-09-06|archive-date=2017-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814024457/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8223528.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Freitas RA Jr. Diamond Trees (Tropostats): A Molecular Manufacturing Based System for Compositional Atmospheric Homeostasis. IMM Report No. 43, 10 Feb 2010; http://www.imm.org/Reports/rep043.pdf.</ref>{{Expand section|date=September 2019}}

==== Moisture swing sorbent ====
In a cyclical process designed in 2012 by professor [[Klaus Lackner]], the director of the [[Center for Negative Carbon Emissions]] (CNCE), dilute {{CO2}} can be efficiently separated using an [[Ion-exchange resin|anionic exchange polymer resin]] called Marathon MSA, which absorbs air {{CO2}} when dry, and releases it when exposed to moisture. A large part of the energy for the process is supplied by the latent heat of phase change of water.<ref name=Lackner2013>{{cite journal |last1=Lackner |first1=Klaus S. |title=The thermodynamics of direct air capture of carbon dioxide |journal=Energy |date=1 February 2013 |volume=50 |pages=38–46 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2012.09.012 }}</ref> The technology requires further research to determine its cost-effectiveness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://energy.columbia.edu/?id=research_carbon_capture|title=Carbon Capture|website=Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121220210058/http://energy.columbia.edu/?id=research_carbon_capture|archive-date=2012-12-20|access-date=2019-09-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/prospects-for-direct-air-capture-of-carbon-dioxide/|title=400 PPM: Can Artificial Trees Help Pull {{CO2}} from the Air?|last=Biello|first=David|date=2013-05-16|website=Scientific American|language=en|access-date=2019-09-04|archive-date=2019-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904170823/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/prospects-for-direct-air-capture-of-carbon-dioxide/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="":1"" />

==== Metal-organic frameworks ====
{{Main|Carbon dioxide scrubber#Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)}}
Other substances which can be used are [[Metal–organic framework|Metal-organic frameworks]] (or MOF's).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2015/03/17/a-better-way-of-scrubbing-co2/|title=A Better Way of Scrubbing {{CO2}}|last=Yarris|first=Lynn|date=2015-03-17|website=News Center|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-07|archive-date=2017-12-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225211331/http://newscenter.lbl.gov/2015/03/17/a-better-way-of-scrubbing-co2/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Membranes ====
[[Membrane]] separation of {{CO2}} rely on semi-permeable membranes. This method requires little water and has a smaller footprint.<ref name="":12"" /> Typically polymeric membranes, either glassy or rubbery, are used for direct air capture. Glassy membranes typically exhibit high selectivity with respect to Carbon Dioxide; however, they also have low permeabilities. Membrane capture of carbon dioxide is still in development and needs further research before it can be implemented  on a larger scale.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castro-Muñoz |first1=Roberto |last2=Zamidi Ahmad |first2=Mohd |last3=Malankowska |first3=Magdalena |last4=Coronas |first4=Joaquín |title=A new relevant membrane application: {{CO2}} direct air capture (DAC) |journal=Chemical Engineering Journal |date=October 2022 |volume=446 |pages=137047 |doi=10.1016/j.cej.2022.137047 |s2cid=248930982 |hdl=10261/280157 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><!-- Not a method of DAC, rather of CCS and not in scope of this article -->

== Environmental impact ==
Proponents of DAC argue that it is an essential component of [[climate change mitigation]].<ref name="":4"">{{cite book |author1=European Commission. Directorate General for Research and Innovation |author2=European Commission's Group of Chief Scientific Advisors |date=2018 |title=Novel carbon capture and utilisation technologies |publisher=Publications Office |doi=10.2777/01532 }}{{pn|date=March 2024}}</ref><ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/pulling_co2_from_atmosphere_climate_change_lackner|title=Why {{CO2}} 'Air Capture' Could Be Key to Slowing Global Warming|last=Schiffman|first=Richard|date=2016-05-23|website=Yale E360|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-06|archive-date=2019-09-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903153142/https://e360.yale.edu/features/pulling_co2_from_atmosphere_climate_change_lackner|url-status=live}}</ref> Researchers posit that DAC could help contribute to the goals of the [[Paris Agreement]] (namely limiting the increase in global average temperature to well below 2&nbsp;°C above pre-industrial levels). However, others claim that relying on this technology is risky and might postpone emission reduction under the notion that it will be possible to fix the problem later,<ref name="":02"" /><ref name="":6"">{{cite journal |last1=Ranjan |first1=Manya |last2=Herzog |first2=Howard J. |title=Feasibility of air capture |journal=Energy Procedia |date=2011 |volume=4 |pages=2869–2876 |doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2011.02.193 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and suggest that reducing emissions may be a better solution.<ref name="":22"" /><ref name="":5"">{{cite news |last1=Vidal |first1=John |title=How Bill Gates aims to clean up the planet |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/feb/04/carbon-emissions-negative-emissions-technologies-capture-storage-bill-gates |work=The Observer |date=4 February 2018 }}</ref>

DAC relying on amine-based absorption demands significant water input. It was estimated, that to capture 3.3&nbsp;gigatonnes of {{CO2}} a year would require 300&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> of water, or 4% of the water used for [[irrigation]]. On the other hand, using sodium hydroxide needs far less water, but the substance itself is highly caustic and dangerous.<ref name="":02"" />

DAC also requires much greater energy input in comparison to traditional capture from point sources, like [[flue gas]], due to the low concentration of {{CO2}}.<ref name="":22"" /><ref name="":6"" /> The theoretical minimum energy required to extract {{CO2}} from ambient air is about 250&nbsp;kWh per tonne of {{CO2}}, while capture from natural gas and coal power plants requires, respectively, about 100 and 65 kWh per tonne of {{CO2}}.<ref name="":4"" /> Because of this implied demand for energy, some have proposed using ""[[Small modular reactor|small nuclear power plants]]"" connected to DAC installations.<ref name="":02"" />

When DAC is combined with a [[Carbon capture and storage|carbon capture and storage (CCS)]] system, it can produce a negative emissions plant, but it would require a [[Renewable energy|carbon-free electricity source]]. The use of any [[Fossil fuel|fossil-fuel-generated]] electricity would end up releasing more {{CO2}} to the atmosphere than it would capture.<ref name="":6"" /> Moreover, using DAC for enhanced oil recovery would cancel any supposed climate mitigation benefits.<ref name="":02"" /><ref name="":9"" />

== Applications ==
Practical applications of DAC include:

*[[enhanced oil recovery]],<ref name="":02"" />
* production of [[carbon-neutral fuel|carbon-neutral synthetic fuel]] and plastics,<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":02"" />
* [[Carbonated water|beverage carbonation]],<ref name="":11"">{{Cite web|url=https://singularityhub.com/2019/08/23/the-promise-of-direct-air-capture-making-stuff-out-of-thin-air/|title=The Promise of Direct Air Capture: Making Stuff Out of Thin Air|last=Diamandis|first=Peter H.|date=2019-08-23|website=Singularity Hub|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-29|archive-date=2019-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829100722/https://singularityhub.com/2019/08/23/the-promise-of-direct-air-capture-making-stuff-out-of-thin-air/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[carbon sequestration]],<ref name="":4"" />
* improving concrete strength,<ref name="":11"" />
* creating carbon-neutral concrete alternative,<ref name="":11"" />
* enhancing productivity of algae farms,<ref name="":2"" />
*enrichment of air in [[greenhouse]]s<ref name="":2"" />

These applications require different concentrations of {{CO2}} product formed from the captured gas. Forms of carbon sequestration such as geological storage require pure {{CO2}} products  (concentration > 99%), while other applications such as agriculture can function with more dilute products (~ 5%). Since the air that is processed through DAC originally contains 0.04% {{CO2}} (or 400 ppm), creating a pure product requires more energy than a dilute product and is thus typically more expensive.<ref name=Lackner2013/><ref name="":2"" />

DAC is not an alternative to traditional, point-source carbon capture and storage (CCS), rather it is a complementary technology that could be utilized to manage carbon emissions from distributed sources, [[fugitive emission]]s from the CCS network, and leakage from geological formations.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":22"" /> Because DAC can be deployed far from the source of pollution, synthetic fuel produced with this method can use already existing fuel transport infrastructure.<ref name="":11"" />

==Cost==
One of the largest hurdles to implementing DAC is the cost of separating {{CO2}} and air.<ref name="":2"">{{cite book |doi=10.17226/25259 |title=Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration |date=2019 |pmid=31120708 |isbn=978-0-309-48452-7 |s2cid=134196575 }}{{pn|date=March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fasihi |first1=Mahdi |last2=Efimova |first2=Olga |last3=Breyer |first3=Christian |title=Techno-economic assessment of CO2 direct air capture plants |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=July 2019 |volume=224 |pages=957–980 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.086 |s2cid=159399402 |doi-access=free }}</ref> {{As of|2023}} it is estimated that the total system cost is over $1,000 per tonne of CO<sub>2.</sub><ref name="":3"" /> Large-scale DAC deployment can be accelerated by policy incentives.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Simon|first=Frédéric|date=2021-11-23|title=LEAK: EU strategy seeks to remove carbon from atmosphere|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/climate-environment/news/leak-eu-strategy-seeks-to-remove-carbon-from-atmosphere/|access-date=2021-12-01|website=www.euractiv.com|language=en-GB}}</ref> 

== Development ==
=== Carbon Engineering ===
{{Main|Carbon Engineering}}
Carbon Engineering is a commercial DAC company founded in 2009 and backed, among others, by [[Bill Gates]] and [[N. Murray Edwards|Murray Edwards]].<ref name="":11"" /><ref name="":5"" /> {{As of|2018||df=}}, it runs a pilot plant in British Columbia, Canada, that has been in use since 2015<ref name="":8"" /> and is able to extract about a tonne of {{co2}} a day.<ref name="":02"" /><ref name="":5"" /> An economic study of its pilot plant conducted from 2015 to 2018 estimated the cost at $94–232 per tonne of atmospheric {{co2}} removed.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":10"" />

Partnering with California energy company Greyrock, Carbon Engineering converts a portion of its concentrated {{CO2}} into [[synthetic fuel]], including gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":5"" />

The company uses a [[potassium hydroxide]] solution. It reacts with {{CO2}} to form [[potassium carbonate]], which removes a certain amount of {{CO2}} from the air.<ref name="":11"" />

===Climeworks===
{{Main|Climeworks}}
Climeworks's first industrial-scale DAC plant, which started operation in May 2017 in [[Hinwil]], in the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, can capture 900 tonnes of {{CO2}} per year. To lower its energy requirements, the plant uses heat from a local [[Incineration|waste incineration plant]]. The {{CO2}} is used to increase vegetable yields in a nearby greenhouse.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-climatechange-carbon-idUSKBN1CG2D4|title=From thin air to stone: greenhouse gas test starts in Iceland|last=Doyle|first=Alister|date=2017-10-11|work=Reuters|access-date=2019-09-04|language=en|archive-date=2019-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901215905/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-climatechange-carbon-idUSKBN1CG2D4|url-status=live}}</ref>

The company stated that it costs around $600 to capture one tonne of {{CO2}} from the air.<ref name="":7"">{{cite journal|title=Sucking carbon dioxide from air is cheaper than scientists thought|last1=Tollefson|first1=Jeff|date=7 June 2018|journal=Nature|volume=558|issue=7709|page=173|doi=10.1038/d41586-018-05357-w|pmid=29895915|bibcode=2018Natur.558..173T|s2cid=48355402|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="":12"" />{{Request quote|date=November 2023|reason=source behind paywall}}

[[Climeworks]] partnered with [[Reykjavik Energy]] in [[Carbfix]], a project launched in 2007. In 2017, the CarbFix2 project was started<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.climeworks.com/public-update-on-carbfix/|title=Public Update on CarbFix|date=2017-11-03|website=Climeworks|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-09-02|archive-date=2019-08-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826112716/https://www.climeworks.com/public-update-on-carbfix/|url-status=live}}</ref> and received funding from [[Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development#Horizon 2020|European{{Nbsp}}Union's Horizon{{Nbsp}}2020]] research program. The CarbFix2 pilot plant project runs alongside a [[Geothermal power|geothermal power plant]] in [[Hellisheiði Power Station|Hellisheidi, Iceland]]. In this approach, {{CO2}} is injected 700 meters under the ground and mineralizes into [[basalt]]ic [[bedrock]] forming carbonate minerals. The DAC plant uses low-grade waste heat from the plant, effectively eliminating more {{CO2}} than they both produce.<ref name="":02"" /><ref name="":0"">{{Cite news|url=http://www.powermag.com/test-of-carbon-capture-technology-underway-at-iceland-geothermal-plant/|title=Test of Carbon Capture Technology Underway at Iceland Geothermal Plant|last=Proctor|first=Darrell|date=2017-12-01|work=POWER Magazine|access-date=2019-09-04|language=en-US|archive-date=2019-08-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826225130/https://www.powermag.com/test-of-carbon-capture-technology-underway-at-iceland-geothermal-plant/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Global Thermostat===
Global Thermostat is private company founded in 2010, located in [[Manhattan]], New York, with a plant in [[Huntsville, Alabama]].<ref name="":11"" /> Global Thermostat uses amine-based sorbents bound to carbon sponges to remove {{CO2}} from the atmosphere. The company has projects ranging from 40 to 50,000 tonnes per year.<ref name="":32"">{{Cite web|url=https://globalthermostat.com/|title=Global Thermostat|website=Global Thermostat|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-07|archive-date=2018-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109150348/https://globalthermostat.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=August 2019}}{{Third-party inline|date=August 2019}}

The company claims to remove {{CO2}} for $120 per tonne at its facility in Huntsville.<ref name="":11"" />{{Dubious|date=November 2023|reason=cannot find anywhere on its website to buy at that price}}

Global Thermostat has closed deals with [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]] (which aims to use DAC to source {{CO2}} for its carbonated beverages) and [[ExxonMobil]] which intends to start a DAC{{Non breaking hyphen}}to{{Non breaking hyphen}}fuel business using Global Thermostat's technology.<ref name="":11"" />

===Soletair Power===
[[Soletair Power]] is a startup founded in 2016, located in [[Lappeenranta]], Finland, operating in the fields of DAC and [[Power-to-X]]. The startup is primarily backed by the Finnish technology group [[Wärtsilä]]. According to [[Soletair Power]], its technology is the first to combine DAC with building integration. It absorbs {{CO2}} from ventilation units inside buildings and captures it to improve air quality. Soletair focuses on the fact that DAC can improve employees' cognitive function by 20% per 400 ppm indoor {{CO2}} removed, according to one study.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Joseph G. |last2=MacNaughton |first2=Piers |last3=Satish |first3=Usha |last4=Santanam |first4=Suresh |last5=Vallarino |first5=Jose |last6=Spengler |first6=John D. |date=2016-06-01 |title=Associations of Cognitive Function Scores with Carbon Dioxide, Ventilation, and Volatile Organic Compound Exposures in Office Workers: A Controlled Exposure Study of Green and Conventional Office Environments |url= |journal=[[Environmental Health Perspectives]] |volume=124 |issue=6 |pages=805–812 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1510037 |pmc=4892924 |pmid=26502459}}</ref>

The company uses the captured {{CO2}} in creating synthetic [[Renewable fuels|renewable fuel]] and as raw material for industrial applications. In 2020, [[Wärtsilä]], together with Soletair Power and Q Power, created their first demonstration unit of [[Power-to-X]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Expo 2020 Dubai: The key to clean air inside Finland Pavilion? Carbon dioxide|url=https://gulfnews.com/expo-2020/pavilions/expo-2020-dubai-the-key-to-clean-air-inside-finland-pavilion-carbon-dioxide-1.1624371469375|access-date=2021-07-28|website=gulfnews.com|date=28 June 2021 |language=en|archive-date=2021-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728044157/https://gulfnews.com/expo-2020/pavilions/expo-2020-dubai-the-key-to-clean-air-inside-finland-pavilion-carbon-dioxide-1.1624371469375|url-status=live}}</ref> for Dubai [[Expo 2020]], that can produce synthetic [[methane]] from captured {{CO2}} from buildings.

=== Prometheus Fuels ===
{{Main|Prometheus Fuels}}
Is a start-up company based in [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]] which launched out of [[Y Combinator]] in 2019 to remove CO<sub>2</sub> from the air and turn it into zero-net-carbon gasoline and jet fuel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/former-playwright-aims-turn-solar-and-wind-power-gasoline|title=This former playwright aims to turn solar and wind power into gasoline|last=Service|first=Robert F.|date=2019-07-03|website=Science {{!}} AAAS|language=en|access-date=2020-01-23|archive-date=2019-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006130909/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/07/former-playwright-aims-turn-solar-and-wind-power-gasoline|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-30/in-silicon-valley-the-quest-to-make-gasoline-out-of-thin-air|title=In Silicon Valley, the Quest to Make Gasoline Out of Thin Air|last=Brustein|first=Joshua|date=2019-04-30|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|access-date=2020-01-23|archive-date=2020-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129010245/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-30/in-silicon-valley-the-quest-to-make-gasoline-out-of-thin-air|url-status=live}}</ref> The company uses a DAC technology, [[Adsorption|adsorbing]] CO<sub>2</sub> from the air directly into process electrolytes, where it is converted into alcohols by [[Catalysis|electrocatalysis]]. The alcohols are then separated from the electrolytes using [[Nanotube membrane|carbon nanotube membranes]], and upgraded to gasoline and jet fuels. Since the process uses only electricity from [[Renewable energy|renewable]] sources, the fuels are [[Carbon neutrality|carbon neutral]] when used, emitting no net CO<sub>2</sub> to the atmosphere.

=== Heirloom Carbon Technologies ===
Heirloom's first direct air capture facility opened in [[Tracy, California|Tracy]], California in November 2023. The facility can remove up to 1,000 [[Short ton|U.S. tons]] of {{CO2}} annually, which is then mixed into concrete using technologies from CarbonCure. Heirloom also has a contract with [[Microsoft]] in which the latter will purchase 315,000 metric tons of {{CO2}} removal.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Plumer |first1=Brad |title=In a U.S. First, a Commercial Plant Starts Pulling Carbon From the Air |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/09/climate/direct-air-capture-carbon.html |work=The New York Times |date=9 November 2023 }}</ref>

=== Other companies ===

* Infinitree – earlier known as Kilimanjaro Energy and Global Research Technology. Part of US-based Carbon Sink. Demonstrated a pre-prototype of economically viable DAC technology in 2007<ref name="":9"" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2007/story04-24-07.php|title=First Successful Demonstration of Carbon Dioxide Air Capture Technology Achieved by Columbia University Scientist and Private Company|date=2007-04-24|website=Columbia University|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622200945/http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2007/story04-24-07.php|archive-date=2010-06-22|access-date=2019-08-30}}</ref>
* Skytree – a company from Netherlands<ref name="":0"" />
* UK Carbon Capture and Storage Research Centre<ref name="":5"" />
*[[Center for Negative Carbon Emissions]] of [[Arizona State University]]<ref>{{cite news| last=Clifford| first=Catherine| title=Carbon capture technology has been around for decades — here's why it hasn't taken off| publisher=CNBC| date=February 1, 2021| url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/31/carbon-capture-technology.html|  access-date=November 21, 2021| archive-date=November 21, 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121025920/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/31/carbon-capture-technology.html| url-status=live}}</ref>
* Carbyon – a startup company in Eindhoven, the Netherlands<ref>{{cite news| last=Carrington| first=Damian| title=Climate crisis: do we need millions of machines sucking {{CO2}} from the air?| newspaper=The Guardian| date=September 24, 2021| url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/24/climate-crisis-machines-sucking-co2-from-the-air|  access-date=November 21, 2021| archive-date=November 21, 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121025916/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/24/climate-crisis-machines-sucking-co2-from-the-air| url-status=live}}</ref>
* TerraFixing – a startup in Ottawa, Canada<ref>{{cite news| last=Lunan| first=Dale| title=Five Projects Earn Canadian Cleantech Funding| work=Natural Gas World| date=September 22, 2021| url=https://www.naturalgasworld.com/five-projects-earn-canadian-cleantech-funding-92319|  access-date=November 21, 2021| archive-date=November 21, 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121025924/https://www.naturalgasworld.com/five-projects-earn-canadian-cleantech-funding-92319| url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Carbfix]] – a subsidiary of [[Reykjavik Energy]], Iceland<ref>{{cite news| last1=Sigurdardottir| first1=Ragnhildur| last2=Rathi| first2=Akshat| title=This startup has unlocked a novel way to capture carbon—by turning the fouling gas into rocks| work=Fortune| date=March 6, 2021| url=https://fortune.com/2021/03/06/carbon-capture-storage-rocks-net-zero-carbfix-startup-iceland/|  access-date=November 21, 2021| archive-date=November 21, 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121025918/https://fortune.com/2021/03/06/carbon-capture-storage-rocks-net-zero-carbfix-startup-iceland/| url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Energy Impact Center]] – a research institute that advocates for the use nuclear energy to power direct air capture technologies.<ref>{{cite news| last=Takahashi| first=Dean| title=Last Energy raises $3 million to fight climate change with nuclear energy| work=VentureBeat| date=February 25, 2020| url=https://venturebeat.com/2020/02/25/last-energy-raises-3-million-to-fight-climate-change-with-nuclear-energy/|  access-date=November 21, 2021| archive-date=January 12, 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112122823/https://venturebeat.com/2020/02/25/last-energy-raises-3-million-to-fight-climate-change-with-nuclear-energy/| url-status=live}}</ref>
*[https://www.missionzero.tech/ Mission Zero Technologies] — a startup in London, UK.<ref>{{cite news| last=Patel| first=Prachi| title=Carbon-Removal Tech Grabs Elon Musk's Check Millions poured into XPrize effort to pull CO2 out of the sky| work=IEEE Spectrum| date=May 28, 2022| url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/carbon-removal-x-prize-finalists|  access-date=June 16, 2023| archive-date=May 28, 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528160248/https://spectrum.ieee.org/carbon-removal-x-prize-finalists| url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Artificial photosynthesis]]
* [[Carbon dioxide removal]]
* [[Water capture of CO₂]]
* [[CityTrees]]
* [[Smog tower|Smog Towers]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Carbon dioxide removal]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Climate engineering]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Direct air capture]]"
Ecosystem-based adaptation,"'''Ecosystem-based adaptation''' ('''EBA''') encompasses a broad set of approaches to [[Climate change adaptation|adapt to climate change]]. They all involve the [[Ecosystem management|management of ecosystems]] and their services to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the [[Effects of global warming|impacts of climate change]]. The [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] defines EBA as ""the use of [[biodiversity]] and [[ecosystem services]] as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse [[Effects of climate change on humans|effects of climate change]]"".<ref name="":0"">CBD (2009). Connecting Biodiversity and Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Report of the Second Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Biodiversity and Climate Change. Montreal, Technical Series No. 41, 126 pages.</ref>

EbA involves the [[Habitat conservation|conservation]], [[Ecosystem management|sustainable management]] and [[Restoration ecology|restoration of ecosystems]], such as [[forest]]s, [[grassland]]s, [[wetland]]s, [[mangrove]]s or [[coral reef]]s to reduce the harmful impacts of climate hazards including shifting patterns or levels of rainfall, changes in maximum and minimum temperatures, stronger storms, and increasingly variable climatic conditions. EbA measures can be implemented on their own or in combination with engineered approaches (such as the construction of [[Reservoir|water reservoirs]] or dykes), hybrid measures (such as [[artificial reef]]s) and approaches that [[Adaptive capacity|strengthen the capacities]] of individuals and institutions to address [[climate risk]]s (such as the introduction of [[early warning system]]s).

EbA is nested within the broader concept of [[nature-based solutions]] and complements and shares common elements with a wide variety of other approaches to building the resilience of [[Socio-ecological system|social-ecological systems]].<ref>Cohen-Shacham, E., Walters, G., Janzen, C. and Maginnis, S. (eds.) (2016). Nature-based Solutions to address global societal challenges. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. xiii + 97pp.</ref> These approaches include community-based adaptation, [[ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction]], [[climate-smart agriculture]], and [[green infrastructure]], and often place emphasis on using participatory and inclusive processes and [[Stakeholder engagement|community/stakeholder engagement]]. The concept of EbA has been promoted through international fora, including the processes of the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)]] and the [[Convention on Biological Diversity|Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)]]. A number of countries make explicit references to EbA in their strategies for adaptation to climate change and their [[Intended nationally determined contributions|Nationally Determined Contributions]] (NDCs) under the [[Paris Agreement]].<ref>Seddon, N., Hou-Jones, X., Pye, T., Reid, H., Roe, D., Mountain, D. and Rizvi, A.R. (2016). Ecosystem based adaptation: a win–win formula for sustainability in a warming world? IIED Briefing. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.</ref>

While the barriers to widespread uptake of EbA by public and private sector stakeholders and decision makers are substantial, cooperation toward generating a greater understanding of the potential of EbA is well established among researchers, advocates, and practitioners from nature conservation and sustainable development groups. EbA is increasingly viewed as an effective means of addressing the linked challenges of climate change and poverty in developing countries, where many people are dependent on natural resources for their lives and livelihoods.<ref name="":1"">Reid, H. et al. (2019). Is ecosystem-based adaptation effective? Results and lessons learned from 13 project sites. ''In press.''</ref>

== <!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Three conceptual pillars of Ecosystem-based Adaptation.jpg|thumb|right|Figure 1. The interlinkages between EbA and other related approaches - climate change adaptation, people-centered development strategies and the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. UNEP 2019<ref>UNEP (2019) Making EbA an effective part of balanced adaptation strategies: introducing the UN Environment EbA briefing notes. UN Environment Guide to Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Projects and Programmes. Nairobi: UN Environment Programme.</ref> adapted from Midgley et al. 2012<ref>Midgley, G.F., Marais, S., Barnett, M. and Wågsæther, K., 2012. Biodiversity, climate change and sustainable development–harnessing synergies and celebrating successes. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), Conservation South Africa (CSA), and Indigo Development and Change.</ref>.|471x471px]] -->  Overview ==
Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) describes a variety of approaches for [[Climate change adaptation|adapting to climate change]], all of which involve [[Ecosystem management|the management of ecosystems]] to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the [[Effects of global warming|impacts of climate change]] such as storm and flood damage to physical assets, coastal erosion, salinisation of freshwater resources, and loss of agricultural productivity. EbA lies at the intersection of [[climate change adaptation]], [[Economic development|socio-economic development]], and [[Conservation biology|biodiversity conservation]] (see Figure 1).

While ecosystem services have always been used by societies, the term Ecosystem-based Adaptation was coined in 2008 by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)]] and its member institutions at the UN Climate Change Convention Conference in 2008.<ref>UNFCCC. 2008. Ideas and proposals on the elements contained in paragraph 1 of the Bali Action Plan. Submissions from intergovernmental organizations. Addendum. FCCC/AWGLCA/2008/MISC.6/Add.2 </ref> EbA was officially defined in 2009 at the UN Convention on Biological Diversity Conference.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Adaptation to climate change hazards ===
Healthy ecosystems provide important [[ecosystem services]] that can contribute to climate change adaptation. For example, healthy mangrove ecosystems provide protection from the impacts of climate change, often for some of the world's most vulnerable people, by absorbing wave energy and storm surges, adapting to rising sea levels, and stabilizing shorelines from [[erosion]]. EbA focuses on benefits that humans derive from [[Ecosystem services|biodiversity and ecosystem services]] and how these benefits can be used for managing risk to climate change impacts. Adaptation to climate change is particularly urgent in [[Developing country|developing countries]] and many [[Small Island Developing States]] that are already experiencing some of the most severe impacts of climate change, have economies that are highly sensitive to disruptions, and that have lower adaptive capacity.

=== Making active use of biodiversity and ecosystem services ===
EbA can involve a wide range of ecosystem management activities that aim to reduce [[Climate resilience#Vulnerability|the vulnerability of people to climate change hazards]] (such as rising sea levels, changing rainfall patterns, and stronger storms) through using nature. For example, EbA measures include coastal habitat restoration in ecosystems such as; coral reefs, mangrove forests, and marshes to protect communities and infrastructure from [[storm surge]]s; [[agroforestry]] to increase resilience of crops to droughts or excessive rainfall; [[Integrated water resources management|integrated water resource management]] to cope with consecutive dry days and change in rainfall patterns; and sustainable forest management interventions to stabilise slopes, prevent landslides, and regulate water flow to prevent flash flooding (see Table 1 and Figure 2).

=== Co-benefits of EbA ===
By deploying EbA, proponents cite that many other benefits to people and nature are delivered simultaneously. These correlated benefits include improved human health, [[Economic development|socioeconomic development]], [[food security]] and [[water security]], [[disaster risk reduction]], [[carbon sequestration]], and [[Habitat conservation|biodiversity conservation]]. For example, [[Restoration ecology|restoration of ecosystems]] such as forests and coastal wetlands can contribute to food security and enhance livelihoods through the collection of non-timber forest products, maintain watershed functionality, and sequester carbon to mitigate global warming. Restoration of [[Mangrove|mangrove ecosystems]] can help increase food and livelihood security by supporting fisheries, and reduce disaster risk by decreasing wave height and strength during hurricanes and storms.

== Implementation and examples ==

=== Examples of EBA measures and outcomes ===
Particular ecosystems can provide a variety of specific climate change adaptation benefits (or services). The most suitable EbA measures will depend on '''''local context''''', '''''the health of the ecosystem''''' and '''''the primary climate change hazard that needs to be addressed'''.'' The below table provides an overview of these factors, common EbA measures and intended outcomes.
{| class=""wikitable""
|+Table 1. '''Examples of EBA measures and outcomes'''
'''The table shows climate hazards and their potential impacts on people, as well as examples of corresponding EbA measures. Many of the same climate hazards affect different ecosystems and have similar impacts on people, as such, the table illustrates the overlap between impacts, EbA measures and adaptation outcomes. Adapted from the [http://panorama.solutions/en PANORAMA database]'''
!Climate change hazards
!Potential impacts on people
!EBA measures by ecosystem type
!Expected outcomes
|-
|Erratic rainfall
Floods

Shift of seasons

Temperature increases

Drought

Extreme heat
|Higher flood risks for people and infrastructure;
Decrease in agricultural (and livestock) production;

Food insecurities;

Economic losses and/or insecurities;

Threats to human health and well-being;

Higher risk of heat strokes

Lack of water
|'''Mountains and forests:'''
* Sustainable mountain wetland management
* Forest and pasture restoration

'''Inland waters:'''
* Conservation of wetlands and peat lands
* River basin restoration
* Trans-boundary water governance and ecosystem restoration

'''Agriculture and drylands:'''
* Ecosystem restoration and agroforestry
* Using trees to adapt to changing seasons
* Intercropping of adapted species
* Sustainable livestock management and pasture restoration
* Sustainable dryland management

'''Urban areas:'''
* Green aeration corridors for cities
* Storm water management using green spaces
* River restoration in urban areas
* Green facades for buildings
|Improved water regulation;

Erosion prevention;

Improved water storage capacity;

Flood risk reduction;

Improved water provisioning;

Improved water storage capacity;

Adaptation to higher temperatures;
Heat wave buffering
|-
|Storm surges
Cyclones

[[Sea level rise]]

Salinisation

Coastal erosion
|Higher flood risks for people and infrastructure;

Higher storm and cyclone risk for people and infrastructure;

Decrease in agricultural (and livestock) production;

Food insecurities;

Economic losses and/or insecurities;
Threats to human health and well-being;
Lack of potable water
|'''Marine and coastal:'''
* [[Mangrove restoration]] and coastal protection
* Coastal realignment
* Sustainable fishing and mangrove rehabilitation
* Coastal reef restoration
|Storm and cyclone reduction;

Flood risk reduction;

Improved water quality;
Adaptation to higher temperatures
|}

=== Principles and standards for implementing EBA ===
Since the evolution of the concept and practice of EBA, various principles and standards have been developed to guide best practices for implementation.<ref>Andrade, A., Córdoba, R., Dave, R., Girot, P., Herrera-F, B., Munroe, R., Vergar, W. (2011). Draft Principles and Guidelines for Integrating Ecosystem-Based Approaches to Adaptation in Project and Policy Design: A Discussion Document. Retrieved from IUCN- CEM, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica.</ref><ref name="":2"">FEBA (Friends of Ecosystem-based Adaptation) (2017). Making Ecosystem-based Adaptation Effective: A Framework for Defining Qualification Criteria and Quality Standards (FEBA technical paper developed for UNFCCC-SBSTA 46). Bertram, M., Barrow, E., Blackwood, K., Rizvi, A.R., Reid, H., and von Scheliha-Dawid, S. (authors). GIZ, Bonn, Germany, IIED, London, UK, and IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.</ref> The guidelines adopted by the CBD build on these efforts and include a set of principles to guide planning and implementation.<ref name="":3"">CBD (2018). Decision Adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity: 14/5 Biodiversity and climate change. CBD/COP/DEC/14/5.</ref> The principles are broadly clustered into four themes:

# ''Building resilience and enhancing adaptive capacity through EBA interventions;''
# ''Ensuring inclusivity and equity in planning and implementation;''
# ''Consideration of multiple spatial and temporal scales in the design of EBA interventions;''
# ''Improving the effectiveness and efficiency of EBA, for example, by incorporating adaptive management, identifying limitations and trade-offs, integrating the knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities.''

These principles are complemented by safeguards, which are social and environmental measures to avoid unintended consequences of EBA to people, ecosystems and biodiversity.

Standards have also been developed to help practitioners understand what interventions qualify as EBA, including the elements of helping people adapt to climate change, making active use of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and being part of an overall adaptation strategy.<ref name="":2"" />Challenges

Although interest in Ecosystem-based Adaptation has grown, and meta-analyses of case studies are demonstrating the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of EbA interventions,<ref name="":1"" /> there are recognized challenges that should be addressed or considered to increase adoption of the approach. These include:

'''Potential limitations of ecosystem services under a changing climate.''' One challenge facing EbA is the identification of limits and thresholds beyond which EbA might not deliver adaptation benefits and the extent ecosystems can provide ecosystem services under a changing climate.<ref>Roberts, D., Boon, R., Diederichs, N., Douwes, E., Govender, N., Mcinnes, A., et al. (2012). Exploring ecosystem-based adaptation in Durban, South Africa: ""learning-by-doing"" at the local government coal face. ''Environ. Urban.'' 24 (1), 167–195.</ref><ref name="":4"">Nalau, J., Becken, S., and B. Mackey (2018). ""Ecosystem-based Adaptation: A review of the constraints."" ''Environmental Science & Policy'' 89: 357-364.</ref>

'''Difficulty in monitoring, evaluation, and establishing the evidence base for effective EbA.''' Confusion around what Ecosystem-based Adaptation means has led to an array of different methodologies used for assessments, and the lack of consistent and comparable quantitative measures of EbA success and failure makes it difficult to argue the case for EbA in socio-economic terms.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"">Doswald, N., Munroe, R., Roe, D., Giuliani, A., Castelli, I., Stephens, J., et al. (2014). Effectiveness of ecosystem-based approaches for adaptation: a review of the evidence base. ''Clim. Dev.'' 6 (2), 185–201</ref> EbA research has also relied heavily on Western scientific knowledge without due consideration of local and traditional knowledge.<ref name="":5"" /> In addition, it can be difficult to implement a plan for monitoring and evaluation due to potentially long timescales required to observe the impacts of EbA.

'''Governance and institutional constraints.''' Because EbA is a multi-sectoral policy issue, the challenges of governing and planning are immense.<ref name="":4"" /> This is due in part to the fact that EbA involves both the sectors that manage ecosystems and those that benefit from ecosystem services.<ref name="":4"" />

'''Economic and financial constraints.''' Broad macroeconomic considerations such as economic development, poverty, and access to financial capital to implement climate adaptation options are contributing factors to constraints impeding greater uptake of EbA.<ref name="":4"" /> Public and multilateral funding for EbA projects thus far has been available through the International Climate Initiative of the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, the Global Environment Facility, the Green Climate Fund, the European Union, the Department for International Development of the Government of the United Kingdom, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency and the Danish International Development Agency, among other sources.

'''Social and cultural barriers.''' A clear factor constraining EbA is varying perceptions of risks and cultural preferences for particular types of management approaches such as cultural preferences for what a particular landscape should look like.<ref name="":4"" /> Potential stakeholders can hold negative perceptions about particular types of EbA strategies.<ref>Doswald, N. and Osti, M. (2011). Ecosystem-based Approaches to Adaptation and Mitigation: Good Practice Examples and Lessons Learned in Europe. BfN, Federal Agency for Nature Conservation</ref>

== Policy frameworks ==
Several international policy fora have acknowledged the multiple roles that ecosystems play in delivering services and addressing global challenges, including those related to climate change, natural disasters, sustainable development, and biodiversity conservation.

=== Climate change policy ===
The [[Paris Agreement]] explicitly recognises nature's role in helping people and societies address climate change, calling on all Parties to acknowledge ""the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans, and the protection of biodiversity, recognised by some cultures as Mother Earth""; its Articles include several references to ecosystems, natural resources and forests.

This notion has translated into high-level national intent, as revealed by comparative analyses of the [[Paris Agreement#Nationally determined contributions|Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)]] submitted to the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)]] by signatories of the Paris Agreement.<ref>Seddon, N, Daniels, E, Davis, R, Harris, R, Hou-Jones, X, et al. (in review). Global recognition that ecosystems are key to human resilience in a warming world. ''Nat. Clim. Chang.'' </ref><ref>Seddon N., Espinosa, M.G., Hauler, I., Herr, D., Sengupta, S. and Rizvi, A.R. (in press). ''Nature-based Solutions and the Nationally Determined Contributions: a synthesis and recommendations for enhancing ambition and action by 2020.'' A report prepared by IUCN and Oxford University.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbspolicyplatform.org|title=Nature-based Solutions Policy Platform|website=University of Oxford}}</ref> The UNFCCC also established the national adaptation plan (NAP) process as a way to facilitate adaptation planning in [[Least Developed Countries|least developed countries (LDCs)]] and other [[Developing country|developing countries]]. Because of their lower level of development, climate change risks magnify development challenges for LDCs.

=== Disaster risk reduction policy ===
Measures and interventions applied as part of EbA are often closely linked or similar to those employed under ecosystem-based [[disaster risk reduction]] (Eco-DRR). [[Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction|The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction]] acknowledges that in order to strengthen disaster risk governance and manage disaster risk and risk reduction at global and regional levels, it is important ""to promote transboundary cooperation to enable policy and planning for the implementation of ecosystem-based approaches with regard to shared resources, such as within river basins and along coastlines, to build resilience and reduce disaster risk, including epidemic and displacement risk"".

=== Sustainable development policy ===
The [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) are a collection of 17 global goals set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. Biodiversity and ecosystems feature prominently across many of the SDGs and associated targets. They contribute directly to human well-being and development priorities. Biodiversity is at the centre of many economic activities, particularly those related to crop and livestock agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. Globally, nearly half of the human population is directly dependent on natural resources for its livelihood, and many of the most vulnerable people depend directly on biodiversity to fulfil their daily subsistence needs.<ref>CBD (2016). Biodiversity and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: Technical note. Montreal, 25 pages.</ref> Ecosystem-based Adaptation offers potential to contribute towards the implementation of numerous SDGs, including the goals related to climate adaptation ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]), eliminating poverty and hunger (SDGs 1 and 2), ensuring livelihoods and economic growth ([[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]) and life on land and life under water (SDGs 14 and 15), among others.

=== Biodiversity conservation policy ===
The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the [[Aichi Biodiversity Targets]], under [[Convention on Biological Diversity|the Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD), aim to halt the [[loss of biodiversity]] to ensure ecosystems are resilient and continue to provide essential services. Most recently, the Conference of the Parties has adopted voluntary guidelines for the design and effective implementation of ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation and disaster risk reduction.<ref name="":3"" />

EbA and similar approaches have been called for in other policy frameworks, including [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)]] and the [[Ramsar Convention]].

== References ==
<!-- Inline citations added to your article will automatically display here. See en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:REFB for instructions on how to add citations. -->
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/ AdaptationCommunity]
* [http://web.unep.org/coastal-eba/what-is-eba Coastal EbA]
* [http://ebacommunity.com/en/ EbA Community]
* [https://www.iucn.org/feba Friends of EbA]
* [https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/ecosystem-based-adaptation/international-eba-community-of-practice/ International EbA Community of Practice]
* [https://panorama.solutions/en/portal/ecosystem-based-adaptation PANORAMA Solutions – EbA Portal]
* [https://www.weadapt.org/knowledge-base/ecosystem-based-adaptation We Adapt]

[[Category:Applied sciences]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Climate change adaptation]]"
Sustainable film production,"{{Orphan|date=October 2019}}
{{Cleanup-PR|date=October 2019}}
[[File:Vancouver Film School production site 2011-02-24.jpg|thumb|Behind the scenes at VFS Film Production.]]

'''Sustainable film production''' is the concept of [[Filmmaking#Production|film production]] with particular concern for environmental, economic, and social issues. [[Sustainability]] in film production incorporates socially and environmentally responsible decision making into the pre-production and production of the film. It involves sustainable development principles at all levels of filmmaking and is best accomplished in a unified manner with collaboration and cooperation from all departments and/or participants in making the film. The sustainability of the film production should start at the launch of the project, and involve all of the key stakeholders including the [[Film director|director]], [[film producer]], [[Production designer|production]] or [[costume designer]], [[Casting (performing arts)|cast]], and [[Film crew|crew]].

Film production can be sustainable by working with the triple bottom line of environmental, social, and economic factors. Environmentally, for example, by reducing carbon emissions produced by travel arrangements; selecting vehicles with less [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sup>2</sup> emissions]], improved route planning, carpooling or adopting a more sustainable means of transport can help reduce the environmental footprint. Socially, by establishing clear guidelines for minimizing the impact of the filming schedule on local communities (one way this can be achieved by limiting hours of work and engaging early with communities about the logistical effects on the area) and by integrating [[Social enterprise|social enterprising]] suppliers in the production's [[Supply-chain sustainability|supply chain.]] Economically, the film production can be intentional about helping communities’ benefit from film activities: for example, by employing local residents and paying them appropriately or utilizing local props, extras and catering. [[Green marketing|Green]] shooting encompasses pre-production, production, and post-production phases, advocating for the integration of eco-consultants to ensure compliance with sustainable practices across departments. Digitization efforts, in pre-production especially, aim to reduce paper use and increase energy efficiency and post-production continues these efforts with digital technologies that further reduce the footprint<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lopera-Mármol |first1=Marta |last2=Jiménez-Morales |first2=Manel |date=January 2021 |title=Green Shooting: Media Sustainability, A New Trend |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=3001 |doi=10.3390/su13063001 |doi-access=free |issn=2071-1050}}</ref>.

==History==

The discussion of sustainability in film began in the early 1990s, as reported in ''The Hollywood Reporter'' and ''Variety''<ref>Corbett, Charles J, and Richard P Turco. ''Sustainability in the Motion Picture Industry''. UCLA Institute of the Environment, 2006, ''Sustainability in the Motion Picture Industry'', www.ioes.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/mpisreport.pdf.</ref>''.'' However, the attention was demonstrated in environmental content, environmental activism, and the philanthropy of celebrities rather than the production operations.

In Canada, British Columbia formalized their sustainable production efforts in 2006 through the [https://www.creativebc.com/industry-sectors/motion-picture/reel-green/index#about-reel-green Reel Green initiative], a ""resource centre with a collection of best practices to help productions reduce their environmental impacts and improve their overall environmental footprint"".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greenproductionguide.com/sustainability-could-play-leading-role-in-the-film-industry/|title=Sustainability could play leading role in the film industry – Green Production Guide|website=www.greenproductionguide.com|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> Following those initiatives in Canada, vendors such as [http://www.greensparkgroup.com/ Green Spark Group] (2014) and [http://www.keepitgreenrecycling.ca/ Keep it Green Recycling] (2017) have emerged to help productions with recycling and greenhouse gas accounting.

In the UK, the [https://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030218744&_ga=2.212735452.913551837.1571047779-1302751657.1571047779 British Standard 8909] was announced at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] in 2011 to improve the British film industry's environmental, social, and economic impact<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/about-bsi/media-centre/press-releases/2011/5/uk-film-industry-pioneers-sustainability-standard-developed-by-bsi/|title=UK film industry pioneers sustainability standard developed by BSI {{!}} BSI Group|website=www.bsigroup.com|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> after seeing how [https://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030196056 BS8901] helped the British events sector.

Globally, many film studios have adopted sustainability initiatives, including the ""[[Major film studio|Big Five]]"": [[Universal Pictures]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.greenisuniversal.com/learn/about-us/film-production/|title=Green is Universal {{!}} Film Production|website=www.greenisuniversal.com|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> [[Walt Disney Pictures]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewaltdisneycompany.com/environmental-sustainability/|title=Environmental Sustainability|website=The Walt Disney Company|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-26}}</ref> [[Warner Bros.]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbgood.com/about/|title=About|website=WB Good|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> [[Columbia Pictures]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sonypicturesgreenerworld.com/|title=Greener World - Sony Pictures Television|website=www.sonypicturesgreenerworld.com|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> and [[Paramount Pictures]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paramount.com/giving-back/tags/119/environment|title=Giving Back {{!}} Paramount Pictures|website=www.paramount.com|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> As well as large television production studios like [[CBS]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbseyeontheenvironment.com/|title=CBS Eye on the Environment|website=cbseye|language=en|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref>

The global dedication to sustainable production by the industry has cultivated in the [https://www.sustainableproductionforum.com/ Sustainable Production Forum]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sustainableproductionforum.com/about|title=Sustainable Film Production Vancouver|website=Sustainable Production Forum {{!}} Vancouver 2019|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> annually in Vancouver to gather for collaboration and dedication on sustainable film production. Topics discussed at the forum have included [[Fleet management|fleet transport]] in the film industry, [[Biodegradable plastic|compostable plastics and packaging]], [[Cultural diversity|diversity in film]], and the [[Sustainable energy|future of energy.]]

== Awards for Sustainable Production[edit] ==

=== Environmental Media Association ===

The [[Environmental Media Association]] (EMA) has a ""Green Seal"" for various categories, one of which being production. The EMA Green Seal recognizes programs honoring progress in sustainable production. The score for production practices is evaluated on a scale of 200 points, with 75 points being the lowest threshold to receive the Green Seal and 125 needed to receive the Gold Seal label. Evaluations are made on best practices in categories such as: production, accounting, art, assistant directors, camera, catering, construction, costume & wardrobe, craft service, electric, greens, grip, hair, locations, make-up, props, set decoration, special effects, sound, and transportation.

=== Sustainable Production Forum ===

The [https://www.sustainableproductionforum.com/ Sustainable Production Forum] is the first and only forum to bring together leaders of the film industry to discuss sustainable practices in production, rather than simply environmental friendly content. This forum gives away two awards annually: Sustainable Production Impact and Sustainable Production Champion. The Sustainable Production Impact Award recognizes productions that ""have had measurable reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and/or waste diversion and contributed positively to the local community"". The Sustainable Production Champion award recognizes individuals that ""go above and beyond to advance sustainable production in the motion picture industry"".

== Impacts of Film Productions ==

=== Resource Consumption ===
The production process generates a variety of emissions and pollutants, including greenhouse gasses, air pollutants, and chemical waste<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Batmunkh |first=Altanshagai |date=January 2022 |title=Carbon Footprint of The Most Popular Social Media Platforms |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=2195 |doi=10.3390/su14042195 |doi-access=free |issn=2071-1050}}</ref>. Aspects like transportation, energy use, and on-set activities contribute to these emissions, which lead to climate change and air quality deterioration<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |last=Calawerts |first=Georgia |date=March 1, 2022 |title=The Impact Of Emerging Sustainable Practices In The Film Industry |url=https://amt-lab.org/blog/2021/12/what-does-sustainability-look-like-in-the-film-industry}}</ref>. The usage of electricity during filming and post-production contributes substantially to the environmental footprint of film production, a typical [[Tent-pole (entertainment)|tentpole film]] production consumes enough energy to power New York Times Square for five days<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |last=Catterall |first=Elise |date=October 26, 2023 |title=EVERYDAY ENVIRO WITH ELISE: THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF FILM PRODUCTION |url=https://planetark.org/newsroom/news/everyday-enviro-with-elise-the-environmental-impact-of-film-production |access-date=March 13, 2024}}</ref>. Film production sites are also heavily reliant on energy, water, and raw material consumption. The average production with a budget of $70 million will produce a substantial carbon footprint of 3,370 metric tons<ref name="":0"" />.  Other factors that can attribute to this emission is the process of set construction, equipment operation, and transportation<ref name="":0"" />. Transporting crew, equipment, and cast to remote filming locations significantly increases fuel consumption by 11,478 times of an average car tank, while the air miles equate to 11 one-way trips from Earth to the moon<ref name="":1"" />. Another example that contributes to this emission is the number of cameras being utilized, with a larger production scale usually resulting in higher carbon emissions.

==Examples of Sustainable Film Production==
Several film productions have been able to successfully implement sustainable practices in order to reduce their environmental footprint. Initiatives such as alternative fuels, waste diversion programs, and material reuse have demonstrated significant reductions in carbon emissions and waste generation.

===''The X-Files''===

During the [[The X-Files (season 10)|X-Files]] Season 10 reboot, 21st Century Fox utilized alternative fuels and practiced proper recycling which diverted more than 81% of its total waste from landfills.<ref>{{Cite web |last=21st Century Fox Social Impact |date=February 16, 2016 |title='The X-Files' went green |url=https://www.connect4climate.org/article/x-files-went-green }}</ref> In addition, 100% of the aluminum and steel used in set construction was recycled. A total of 33 tons of {{CO2}} emissions were avoided, as well as 45,740 plastic bottles. The switch from bottles to jugs alone saved production by $35,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bcbusiness.ca/Its-a-Good-Thing-Green-Spark-Group-puts-the-spotlight-on-the-environment|title=BCBusiness|last=Mckenzie|first=Kevin Hinton & Ryan|website=BCBusiness|date=3 October 2019 |language=en|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> 

===''Fifty Shades Freed''===

''[[Fifty Shades Freed (film)|Fifty Shades Freed]]'' is the third movie in the ""[[Fifty Shades (film series)|Fifty Shades]]"" phenomenon. The film was filmed mainly in Vancouver, BC and the production worked hard to reduce their footprint.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.greenisuniversal.com/learn/about-us/film-production/|title=Green is Universal {{!}} Film Production|website=www.greenisuniversal.com|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> To begin, [[Fifty Shades Freed (film)|Fifty Shades Freed]] was shot consecutively with its predecessor [[Fifty Shades Darker (film)|Fifty Shades Darker]] which helped the production combine and reuse materials. Also, the crew eliminated plastic bottles and saved about 80,000 single use bottles. The set contained a comprehensive recycling and composing program, and had a dedicated Sustainability Production Assistant to take the point on that initiative which resulted in 75% of waste diverted from landfills. Set dressing and materials were donated to [[Habitat for Humanity|Habitat for Humanity ReStore]], Great Northern Way Scene Shop, MakerLabs, and Squamish Arts Council at wrap. The [[Universal Pictures]]’ Assets Department worked with the Sustainable Lock Up in Vancouver and Recycled Movie Sets in Los Angeles to recirculate the stored sets from the trilogy for reuse and donation to local film schools, non-profits, and other productions. In total, 288 tons of set materials were donated to be reused and 99% of the trilogy's sets were kept out of landfills. [[Fifty Shades Freed (film)|Fifty Shades Freed]] was a recipient of a 2016 EMA Green Seal Award''.''

===''Downton Abbey''===

When filming in the United Kingdom, the ''[[Downton Abbey]]'' film's production team did a number of things to reduce their footprint including sending call sheets, scripts, and production documents electronically, no disposable food service products on site, and recycling/composting. In addition, [[Carnival Films]] stored sets from the six seasons of the television series ''[[Downton Abbey]]'' that production was able to re-use or re-purpose to save the consumption of new materials. Disposables were also saved by issuing the crew reusable water bottles and the sound department used reusable batteries. At the conclusion of production, the costume department donated $800 worth of fabric and materials to the [[Wimbledon College of Arts]]. Storage boxes and hangers were donated to local sewing and flower shops and set decoration donated produce to The Hounslow Urban Farm to be used to feed animals. Downton Abbey received a 2019 EMA Green Seal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.greenisuniversal.com/learn/about-us/film-production/|title=Green is Universal {{!}} Film Production|website=www.greenisuniversal.com|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref>

===''Yesterday''===

''[[Yesterday (2019 film)|Yesterday]]'' implemented a strict-no idling policy to reduce CO<sup>2</sup> emissions and many of the crew utilized public transportation. In addition to the sustainable practices, the set decoration team incorporated green messaging on the posters on the school set. The [[Yesterday (2019 film)|Yesterday]] team donated 2,860lbs of excess catering and set decoration to [[City Harvest (United Kingdom)|City Harvest London]], feeding 2,383 in need. The construction department donated $6,000 worth of leather tapestries to a firefighting charity.  Costumes and props were donated to [[Dress For Success (organization)|Dress for Success]] and [[British Heart Foundation]]. ''Yesterday'' received a 2019 EMA Gold Seal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.greenisuniversal.com/learn/about-us/film-production/|title=Green is Universal {{!}} Film Production|website=www.greenisuniversal.com|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref>

=== '''''Call of the Wild''''' ===
In Disney's 2020 adaption of [[The Call of the Wild (2020 film)|''Call of the Wild'']], with the guidance of sustainability manager Adrienne Pfieffer, the production implemented various initiatives to manage materials and waste effectively<ref name="":02"">{{Cite web |last=Calawerts |first=Georgia |date=March 1, 2022 |title=The Impact Of Emerging Sustainable Practices In The Film Industry |url=https://amt-lab.org/blog/2021/12/what-does-sustainability-look-like-in-the-film-industry}}</ref>. These initiatives resulted in approximately 82% of materials being diverted from landfills, which significantly  reduced the film's overall carbon footprint<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web |last=Bruce |date=2020-06-05 |title=Go Behind the Scenes to See How ""The Call of the Wild"" Went Green on Set |url=https://thewaltdisneycompany.com/go-behind-the-scenes-to-see-how-the-call-of-the-wild-went-green-on-set/ |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=The Walt Disney Company |language=en-US}}</ref>. Small changes around the set made a significant difference in sustainability outcomes. Proper food waste management practices prevented 1,515 pounds of food from ending up in landfills. Disney also opted to make the sets of ""Call of the Wild"" permanent in order to reuse them in future projects<ref name="":2"" />.

==Environmental Production Guides==

===Green Production Guide===

The [https://www.greenproductionguide.com/ Green Production Guide] was developed by the [[Producers Guild of America]] Foundation and PGAGreen.org with primary support from [[NBCUniversal]], [[Paramount Global]], [[Amblin Partners]], [[Sony Pictures|Sony Pictures Entertainment]], [[HBO]], [[Netflix]], [[Amazon Studios]], [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[Warner Bros. Discovery]], [[20th Century Studios]], [[CBS]] & Participant Media.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greenproductionguide.com/about/|title=About – Green Production Guide|website=www.greenproductionguide.com|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref>

The Green Production Guide includes a [https://www.greenproductionguide.com/green-vendors/ comprehensive database] of vendors including info about their services, experience, and locations. The website additionally offers a [https://www.greenproductionguide.com/tools/carbon-calculator/ Production Environmental Accounting Report (PEAR)] that can be downloaded to aid production in analyzing their [[carbon footprint]] and the [https://www.greenproductionguide.com/tools/best-practices/ Production Environmental Actions Checklist (PEACH)], which clarifies best practices in the industry.

===Reel Green===

[https://www.creativebc.com/industry-sectors/motion-picture/reel-green/index Reel Green] offers free [https://www.creativebc.com/industry-sectors/motion-picture/reel-green/carbon-literacy-courses#overview carbon footprint literacy courses] to members of the motion picture industry. The 6-hour workshops leave participants with knowledge on how to ""have a sound understanding of the science of climate change, understand how to act to reduce their impact, recognize the impact that production has on the environment, and have knowledge of the tools and techniques to lessen this impact"".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.creativebc.com/industry-sectors/motion-picture/reel-green/carbon-literacy-courses#what-is-carbon-literacy|title=Carbon Literacy Courses {{!}} Creative BC|website=www.creativebc.com|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref>

[[Universal Pictures|Universal]] Filmed Entertainment Group recently launched their new initiative titled the ""GreenerLight Program,"" which is designed to embed sustainable practices throughout the entire filmmaking process. It will also examine the content and behaviors onscreen through an environmentally friendly lens. All films will include a sustainability plan, and will continue focus on areas such as energy efficiency, fuel-use reduction and donations of food and set material.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pener |first=Degen |date=2023-03-09 |title=Universal Filmed Entertainment Group Launches GreenerLight Sustainability Program (Exclusive) |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/universal-filmed-entertainment-greenerlight-sustainability-program-1235346745/ |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=The Hollywood Reporter |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
{{empty section|date=February 2024}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Corbett, Charles J, and Richard P Turco. ''Sustainability in the Motion Picture Industry''. UCLA Institute of the Environment, 2006, ''Sustainability in the Motion Picture Industry'', www.ioes.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/mpisreport.pdf.


[[Category:Film production]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Sustainable food system,"{{Short description|Balanced growth of nutritional substances and their distribution}}
<noinclude>[[File:Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector.svg|thumb|320px|The large [[environmental impact of agriculture]] – such as [[greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture|its greenhouse gas emissions]], [[soil degradation]], [[deforestation]] and [[pollinator decline]] effects – make the food system a critical set of processes that need to be addressed for [[climate change mitigation]] and a stable healthy environment.]]</noinclude>
A '''sustainable food system''' is a type of [[food system]] that provides [[healthy diet|healthy food]] to people and creates [[sustainable]] environmental, economic, and social systems that surround food. Sustainable food systems start with the development of [[Sustainable agriculture|sustainable agricultural]] practices, development of more [[Food distribution|sustainable food distribution]] systems, creation of [[sustainable diet]]s, and reduction of [[food waste]] throughout the system. Sustainable food systems have been argued to be central to many<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/sustainable-food-system-report.pdf |title=A sustainable food system for the European Union |publisher=SAPEA, Science Advice for Policy by European Academies |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-9820301-7-3 |location=Berlin |pages=22 |doi=10.26356/sustainablefood|author1=SAPEA }}</ref> or all<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://foodsustainability.eiu.com/food-sustainability-key-reach-sustainable-development-goals/|title=FOOD SUSTAINABILITY: KEY TO REACH SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS|date=2018-10-01|website=BCFN Foundation: Food and Nutrition Sustainability Index|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> [[Sustainable Development Goals|17 Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ca2079en/CA2079EN.pdf|title=Sustainable food systems|website=Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations}}</ref>

Moving to sustainable food systems, including via [[Sustainable consumption#Sustainable food consumption|shifting consumption to sustainable diets]], is an important component of [[climate change mitigation|addressing]] the [[causes of climate change]] and [[Climate change adaptation#Agriculture|adapting to it]]. A 2020 review conducted for the European Union found that up to 37% of global greenhouse gas emissions could be attributed to the food system, including crop and livestock production, transportation, changing land use (including deforestation), and food loss and waste.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/sustainable-food-system-report.pdf |title=A sustainable food system for the European Union |publisher=SAPEA, Science Advice for Policy by European Academies |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-9820301-7-3 |location=Berlin |pages=39 |doi=10.26356/sustainablefood|author1=SAPEA }}</ref> Reduction of meat production, which [[Environmental impact of meat production|accounts for ~60% of greenhouse gas emissions and ~75% of agriculturally used land]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Xiaoming |last2=Sharma |first2=Prateek |last3=Shu |first3=Shijie |last4=Lin |first4=Tzu-Shun |last5=Ciais |first5=Philippe |last6=Tubiello |first6=Francesco N. |last7=Smith |first7=Pete |last8=Campbell |first8=Nelson |last9=Jain |first9=Atul K. |title=Global greenhouse gas emissions from animal-based foods are twice those of plant-based foods |journal=Nature Food |date=September 2021 |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=724–732 |doi=10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x |pmid=37117472 |hdl=2164/18207 |s2cid=240562878 |language=en |issn=2662-1355|hdl-access=free }}<br/>News article: {{cite news |title=Meat accounts for nearly 60% of all greenhouse gases from food production, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/13/meat-greenhouses-gases-food-production-study |access-date=27 May 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=13 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=If the world adopted a plant-based diet we would reduce global agricultural land use from 4 to 1 billion hectares |url=https://ourworldindata.org/land-use-diets |website=Our World in Data |access-date=27 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=20 meat and dairy firms emit more greenhouse gas than Germany, Britain or France |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/07/20-meat-and-dairy-firms-emit-more-greenhouse-gas-than-germany-britain-or-france |access-date=27 May 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=7 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref> is one major component of this change.<ref name=""10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340a"">{{cite journal |last1=Parlasca |first1=Martin C. |last2=Qaim |first2=Matin |title=Meat Consumption and Sustainability |journal=Annual Review of Resource Economics |date=5 October 2022 |volume=14 |pages=17–41 |doi=10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340 |issn=1941-1340|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The [[Economic globalization|global]] food [[complex system|system]] is facing major [[Sociocybernetics#Socioeconomic sustainability establishment and health|interconnected]] challenges, including mitigating [[food insecurity]], [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|effects from climate change]], [[biodiversity loss]], [[malnutrition]], inequity, [[soil degradation]], [[Pest (organism)|pest outbreaks]], [[Water scarcity|water]] and energy scarcity, economic and political crises, [[natural resource depletion]], and preventable ill-health.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scarborough |first1=Peter |last2=Clark |first2=Michael |last3=Cobiac |first3=Linda |last4=Papier |first4=Keren |last5=Knuppel |first5=Anika |last6=Lynch |first6=John |last7=Harrington |first7=Richard |last8=Key |first8=Tim |last9=Springmann |first9=Marco |title=Vegans, vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters in the UK show discrepant environmental impacts |journal=[[Nature Food]] |date=2023 |volume=4 |issue=7 |pages=565–574 |doi=10.1038/s43016-023-00795-w |pmid=37474804 |pmc=10365988 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Brajesh K. |last2=Arnold |first2=Tom |last3=Biermayr-Jenzano |first3=Patricia |last4=Broerse |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Brunori |first5=Gianluca |last6=Caron |first6=Patrick |last7=De Schutter |first7=Olivier |last8=Fan |first8=Shenggen |last9=Fanzo |first9=Jessica |last10=Fraser |first10=Evan |last11=Gurinovic |first11=Mirjana |last12=Hugas |first12=Marta |last13=McGlade |first13=Jacqueline |last14=Nellemann |first14=Christine |last15=Njuki |first15=Jemimah |last16=Sonnino |first16=Roberta |last17=Tuomisto |first17=Hanna L. |last18=Tutundjian |first18=Seta |last19=Webb |first19=Patrick |last20=Wesseler |first20=Justus |title=Enhancing science–policy interfaces for food systems transformation |journal=Nature Food |date=November 2021 |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=838–842 |doi=10.1038/s43016-021-00406-6 |pmid=37117505 |s2cid=243475557 |language=en |issn=2662-1355|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schipanski |first1=Meagan E. |last2=MacDonald |first2=Graham K. |last3=Rosenzweig |first3=Steven |last4=Chappell |first4=M. Jahi |last5=Bennett |first5=Elena M. |last6=Kerr |first6=Rachel Bezner |last7=Blesh |first7=Jennifer |last8=Crews |first8=Timothy |last9=Drinkwater |first9=Laurie |last10=Lundgren |first10=Jonathan G. |last11=Schnarr |first11=Cassandra |date=2016-05-04 |title=Realizing Resilient Food Systems |journal=BioScience |volume=66 |issue=7 |pages=600–610 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biw052 |issn=1525-3244|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tendall |first1=D. M. |last2=Joerin |first2=J. |last3=Kopainsky |first3=B. |last4=Edwards |first4=P. |last5=Shreck |first5=A. |last6=Le |first6=Q. B. |last7=Kruetli |first7=P. |last8=Grant |first8=M. |last9=Six |first9=J. |date=2015-10-01 |title=Food system resilience: Defining the concept |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912415300031 |journal=Global Food Security |language=en |volume=6 |pages=17–23 |doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2015.08.001 |issn=2211-9124}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2022 Global Food Policy Report: Climate Change and Food Systems - World {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/2022-global-food-policy-report-climate-change-and-food-systems |access-date=2023-02-21 |website=reliefweb.int |date=15 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

The concept of sustainable food systems is frequently at the center of sustainability-focused policy programs, such as proposed [[Green New Deal]] programs.

== Definition ==
There are many different definitions of a sustainable food system.

From a global perspective, the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations describes a sustainable food system as follows:<ref name="":0"">{{cite report|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ca2079en/CA2079EN.pdf|title=Sustainable food systems Concept and framework|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref>[[File:Environmental-impact-of-food-by-life-cycle-stage.png|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Life-cycle assessment]] of GHG emissions for foods]]
{{Blockquote|text=A sustainable food system (SFS) is a food system that delivers food security and nutrition for all in such a way that the economic, social and environmental bases to generate food security and nutrition for future generations are not compromised. This means that:
* It is profitable throughout (economic sustainability);
* It has broad-based benefits for society ([[social sustainability]]); and
* It has a positive or neutral impact on the natural environment ([[environmental sustainability]])|sign=|source=}}

The [[American Public Health Association]] (APHA) defines a sustainable food system as:<ref>{{cite web |title=Toward a Healthy, Sustainable Food System (Policy Number: 200712) |publisher=American Public Health Association |date=2007-06-11 |url=http://www.apha.org/advocacy/policy/policysearch/default.htm?id=1361 |access-date=2008-08-18}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=one that provides healthy food to meet current food needs while maintaining healthy ecosystems that can also provide food for generations to come with minimal negative impact to the environment. A sustainable food system also encourages local production and distribution infrastructures and makes nutritious food available, accessible, and affordable to all. Further, it is humane and just, protecting farmers and other workers, consumers, and communities|sign=|source=}}

The [[European Union]]'s [[Scientific Advice Mechanism]] defines a sustainable food system as a system that:<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/sustainable-food-system-report.pdf |title=A sustainable food system for the European Union |publisher=SAPEA, Science Advice for Policy by European Academies |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-9820301-7-3 |location=Berlin |pages=68 |doi=10.26356/sustainablefood|author1=SAPEA }}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=provides and promotes safe, nutritious and healthy food of low environmental impact for all current and future EU citizens in a manner that itself also protects and restores the natural environment and its ecosystem services, is robust and resilient, economically dynamic, just and fair, and socially acceptable and inclusive. It does so without compromising the availability of nutritious and healthy food for people living outside the EU, nor impairing their natural environment|sign=|source=}}

== Problems with conventional food systems ==
{{See also|Environmental effects of meat production|Food systems}}
[[File:Food-, land-, and climate change mitigation-gaps for 2050.jpg|thumb|center|700px|Food-, land-, and [[climate change mitigation]]-gaps for 2050,<ref name=""10.5670/oceanog.2022.213""/> indicating current trajectories are not sustainable longer-term (without collapse, pervasive conflict or similar problems)]]
[[File:Deforestation central Europe - Rodungen Mitteleuropa.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Deforestation in [[Europe]], 2018. Almost all of Europe's original forests have been removed.]]

Industrial agriculture causes environmental impacts, as well as health problems associated with both [[obesity]] and [[hunger]].<ref name="":1"">{{cite journal|last=Garnett|first=Tara|date=February 2013|title=Food sustainability: problems, perspectives and solutions|journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society|volume=72|issue=1|pages=29–39|doi=10.1017/S0029665112002947|pmid=23336559|issn=0029-6651|doi-access=free}}</ref> This has generated a strong interest in healthy, sustainable eating as a major component of the overall movement toward [[sustainability]] and [[climate change mitigation]].<ref>Mason, J. & Singer, P. (2006). ''The Way We Eat: Why Our Food Choices Matter''. London: Random House. {{ISBN|1-57954-889-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/worlds-food-system-failing-new-report-2621850618.html|title=Our Food Systems Are Failing Us': 100+ Academies Call for Overhaul of Food Production|last1=Rosane|first1=Olivia|date=29 November 2018|access-date=27 May 2019|agency=Ecowatch}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rajão |first1=Raoni |last2=Soares-Filho |first2=Britaldo |last3=Nunes |first3=Felipe |last4=Börner |first4=Jan |last5=Machado |first5=Lilian |last6=Assis |first6=Débora |last7=Oliveira |first7=Amanda |last8=Pinto |first8=Luis |last9=Ribeiro |first9=Vivian |last10=Rausch |first10=Lisa |last11=Gibbs |first11=Holly |last12=Figueira |first12=Danilo |title=The rotten apples of Brazil's agribusiness |journal=Science |date=17 July 2020 |volume=369 |issue=6501 |pages=246–248 |doi=10.1126/science.aba6646 |pmid=32675358 |bibcode=2020Sci...369..246R |s2cid=220548355 |language=en |issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Amazon soya and beef exports 'linked to deforestation' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-53438680 |work=BBC News |date=17 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=zu Ermgassen |first1=Erasmus K. H. J. |last2=Godar |first2=Javier |last3=Lathuillière |first3=Michael J. |last4=Löfgren |first4=Pernilla |last5=Gardner |first5=Toby |last6=Vasconcelos |first6=André |last7=Meyfroidt |first7=Patrick |title=The origin, supply chain, and deforestation risk of Brazil's beef exports |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=15 December 2020 |volume=117 |issue=50 |pages=31770–31779 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2003270117|pmid=33262283 |pmc=7749302 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11731770Z |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=McCoy |first1=Terrence |last2=Ledur |first2=Júlia |title=How Americans' love of beef is helping destroy the Amazon rainforest |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2022/amazon-beef-deforestation-brazil/ |access-date=27 May 2022 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=January 2024}}

Conventional food systems are largely based on the availability of inexpensive [[fossil fuels]], which is necessary for [[mechanized agriculture]], the manufacturing or collection of chemical [[fertilizers]], the processing of food products, and the packaging of foods. Food processing began when the number of consumers started growing rapidly. The demand for cheap and efficient calories climbed, which resulted in nutrition decline.<ref>Nestle, Marion. (2013). ''Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health."" Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-27596-6}}''</ref> Industrialized agriculture, due to its reliance on economies of scale to reduce production costs, often leads to the compromising of local, regional, or even global [[ecosystems]] through fertilizer runoff, [[Nonpoint source pollution|nonpoint source]] pollution,<ref>(1993); Schnitkey, G.D., Miranda, M.; ""The Impact of Pollution Controls on Livestock Crop producers"", Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics</ref> [[deforestation]], suboptimal mechanisms affecting [[Consumer choice|consumer product choice]], and [[greenhouse gas emission]]s.<ref>{{cite news |title=Reducing global food system emissions key to meeting climate goals |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-11-global-food-emissions-key-climate.html |access-date=8 December 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Michael A. |last2=Domingo |first2=Nina G. G. |last3=Colgan |first3=Kimberly |last4=Thakrar |first4=Sumil K. |last5=Tilman |first5=David |last6=Lynch |first6=John |last7=Azevedo |first7=Inês L. |last8=Hill |first8=Jason D. |title=Global food system emissions could preclude achieving the 1.5° and 2°C climate change targets |journal=Science |date=6 November 2020 |volume=370 |issue=6517 |pages=705–708 |doi=10.1126/science.aba7357 |pmid=33154139 |bibcode=2020Sci...370..705C |s2cid=226254942 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aba7357 |access-date=8 December 2020 |language=en |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>

===Food and power===
In the contemporary world, transnational corporations execute high levels of control over the food system. In this system, both farmers and consumers are disadvantaged and have little control; power is concentrated in the center of the supply chain, where corporations control how food moves from producers to consumers.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hossain |first1=Naomi |title=Inequality, Hunger, and Malnutrition: Power Matters |url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/issues-in-focus/2017.html}}</ref> 

====Disempowerment of consumers====
People living in different areas face substantial inequality in their access to healthy food. Areas where affordable, healthy food, particularly fresh fruits and vegetables, is difficult to access are sometimes called [[food deserts]]. This term has been particularly applied in the USA.<ref>{{cite web |title=Exploring America's Food Deserts |url=https://www.aecf.org/blog/exploring-americas-food-deserts |website=The Annie E. Tracey Foundations|date=14 February 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Dutko |first1=Paula |last2=Ver Ploeg |first2=Michele |last3=Farrigan |first3=Tracey |title=Characteristics and Influential Factors of Food Deserts |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/45014/30940_err140.pdf |website=usda.gov}}</ref> In addition, conventional channels do not distribute food by emergency assistance or charity. Urban residents receive more sustainable food production from healthier and safer sources than low-income communities. Nonetheless, conventional channels are more sustainable than charitable or welfare food resources. Even though the [[conventional food system]] provides easier access and lower prices, their food may not be the best for the environment nor consumer health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pothukuchi|first1=Kameshwari|last2=Kaufman|first2=Jerome L.|date=1999-06-01|title=Placing the food system on the urban agenda: The role of municipal institutions in food systems planning|journal=Agriculture and Human Values|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=213–224|doi=10.1023/A:1007558805953|s2cid=91181337|issn=1572-8366}}</ref>

Both obesity and undernutrition are associated with poverty and marginalization. This has been referred to as the ""double burden of malnutrition.""<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hossain |first1=Naomi |title=Inequality, Hunger, and Malnutrition: Power Matters |url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/issues-in-focus/2017.html}}</ref> In low-income areas, there may be abundant access to fast-food or small convenience stores and ""corner"" stores, but no supermarkets that sell a variety of healthy foods.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hager |first1=Erin R |last2=Cockerham |first2=Alexandra |last3=O'Reilly |first3=Nicole |last4=Harrington |first4=Donna |last5=Harding |first5=James |last6=Hurley |first6=Kristen M |last7=Black |first7=Maureen M |title=Food swamps and food deserts in Baltimore City, MD, USA: associations with dietary behaviours among urban adolescent girls |journal=Public Health Nutr |date=2017 |volume=20 |issue=14 |pages=2598–2607 |doi=10.1017/S1368980016002123 |pmid=27652511 |pmc=5572508 }}</ref> 

====Disempowerment of producers====
Small farms tend to be more sustainable than large farming operations, because of differences in their management and methods.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ebel |first1=Roland |title=Are Small Farms Sustainable by Nature? |journal=Challenges in Sustainability |date=2020 |volume=8 |issue=1 |doi=10.12924/cis2020.08010017 |s2cid=216488481 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340564736|doi-access=free }}</ref> Industrial agriculture replaces human labor using increased usage of fossil fuels, fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery and is heavily reliant on [[monoculture]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Industrial Agriculture and Small-scale Farming |url=https://www.globalagriculture.org/report-topics/industrial-agriculture-and-small-scale-farming/industrial-agriculture-and-small-scale-farming.html |website=globalagriculture.org}}</ref> However, if current trends continue, the number of operating farms in existence is expected to halve by 2100, as smallholders' farms are consolidated into larger operations.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Number of Farms in the World Is Declining, Here's Why It Matters to You |url=https://www.enn.com/articles/72572-the-number-of-farms-in-the-world-is-declining-here-s-why-it-matters-to-you |website=Environmental News Network}}</ref> The percentage of people who work as farmers worldwide dropped from 44% to 26% between 1991 and 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Booth |first1=Amy |title=The reason we're running out of farmers |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/bespoke/follow-the-food/the-reason-we-are-running-out-of-farmers/}}</ref> 

Small farmers worldwide are often trapped in poverty and have little agency in the global food system.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Lives of Smallholder Farmers |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2016/02/25/a-year-in-the-lives-of-smallholder-farming-families |website=worldbank.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dias |first1=Lino Miguel |last2=Kaplan |first2=Robert S. |last3=Singh |first3=Harmanpreet |title=Making Small Farms More Sustainable — and Profitable |url=https://hbr.org/2021/08/making-small-farms-more-sustainable-and-profitable |journal=Harvard Business Review|date=24 August 2021 }}</ref> Smallholder farms produce a greater diversity of crops as well as harboring more non-crop biodiversity,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ricciardi |first1=Vincent |last2=Mehrabi |first2=Zia |last3=Wittman |first3=Hannah |last4=James |first4=Dana |last5=Ramankutty |first5=Navin |title=Higher yields and more biodiversity on smaller farms |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=2021 |volume=4 |issue=7 |pages=651–657 |doi=10.1038/s41893-021-00699-2 |bibcode=2021NatSu...4..651R |s2cid=232360314 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-021-00699-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Fanzo |first1=Jessica |title=From big to small: the significance of smallholder farms in the global food system |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196%2817%2930011-6/fulltext |publisher=The Lancet}}</ref> but in wealthy, industrialized countries, small farms have declined severely. For example, in the USA, 4% of the total number of farms operate 26% of all agricultural land.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Abbot |first1=Chuck |title=U.S. AND EU, AGRICULTURAL GIANTS WITH FEWER AND FEWER FARMERS |date=27 February 2023 |url=https://www.agriculture.com/news/us-and-eu-agricultural-giants-with-fewer-and-fewer-farmers |publisher=Successful Farming}}</ref>

===Complications from globalization===
The need to reduce production costs in an increasingly global market can cause production of foods to be moved to areas where economic costs (labor, taxes, etc.) are lower or environmental regulations are more lax, which are usually further from consumer markets. For example, the majority of salmon sold in the United States is raised off the coast of Chile, due in large part to less stringent Chilean standards regarding fish feed and regardless of the fact that salmon are not indigenous in Chilean coastal waters.<ref>(2001); Bjorndal, T., ""The Competitiveness of the Chilean Salmon Aquaculture Industry"", Foundation for Research in Economics and Business Administration, Bergen, Norway</ref> The globalization of food production can result in the loss of traditional food systems in [[Developing country|less developed countries]] and have negative impacts on the [[population health]], ecosystems, and [[cultures]] in those countries.<ref>(1996); Kuhnlein, H.V., Receveur, O.; Dietary Change and Traditional Food Systems of Indigenous Peoples; Centre for Nutrition and the Environment of Indigenous Peoples, and School of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, McGill University, Quebec, Canada</ref>

Globalization of sustainable food systems has coincided the proliferation of [[technical standard|private standards]] in the agri-food sector where big food retailers have formed [[multistakeholder governance|multi-stakeholder initiatives]] (MSIs) with governance over [[standards organization|standard setting organizations (SSOs)]] who maintain the standards. One such MSI is the [[Consumer Goods Forum]](CGF). With CGF members openly using [[lobbying]] dollars<ref>{{cite web |last1=Doering |first1=Christopher |title=Where the dollars go: Lobbying a big business for large food and beverage CPGs |url=https://www.fooddive.com/news/where-the-dollars-go-lobbying-a-big-business-for-large-food-and-beverage-c/607982/ |website=fooddive.com |publisher=Food Dive}}</ref> to influence trade agreements for food systems which leads to creating barriers to competition.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who's Tipping the Scales? |url=http://www.ipes-food.org/pages/tippingthescales |website=ipes-food.org |publisher=IPES-Food}}</ref> Concerns around corporate governance within food systems as a substitute for regulation were raised by the Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity.<ref>{{cite book |title=Not Fit-for-Purpose The Grand Experiment of Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives in Corporate Accountability, Human Rights and Global Governance |date=July 2020 |publisher=MSI Integrity |location=San Francisco: Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity |url=https://www.msi-integrity.org/not-fit-for-purpose/ }}</ref> The proliferation of [[technical standard|private standards]] resulted in [[Harmonization (standards)|standard harmonization]] from organizations that include the [[Global Food Safety Initiative]] and [[Sustainability standards and certification|ISEAL Alliance]]. The unintended consequence of [[Harmonization (standards)|standard harmonization]] was a [[perverse incentive]] because companies owning [[technical standard|private standards]] generate revenue from fees that other companies have to pay to implement the standards.  This has led to more and more private standards entering the marketplace who are enticed to make money.

===Systemic structures===
Moreover, the existing conventional food system lacks the inherent framework necessary to foster sustainable models of food production and consumption. Within the decision-making processes associated with this system, the burden of responsibility primarily falls on consumers and private enterprises. This expectation places the onus on individuals to voluntarily and often without external incentives, expend effort to educate themselves about sustainable behaviours and specific product choices. This educational endeavour is reliant on the availability of public information. Subsequently, consumers are urged to alter their decision-making patterns concerning production and consumption, driven by prioritised ethical values and sometimes health benefits, even when significant drawbacks are prevalent. These drawbacks faced by consumers include elevated costs of [[Organic food|organic foods]], imbalanced monetary price differentials between animal-intensive diets and plant-based alternatives, and an absence of comprehensive consumer guidance aligned with contemporary valuations. In 2020, an analysis of [[Externality#Negative|external climate costs]] of foods indicated that external greenhouse gas costs are typically [[environmental impact of meat|highest for animal-based products]] – conventional and organic to about the same extent within that [[ecosystem]] subdomain – followed by conventional dairy products and lowest for [[organic food|organic]] [[Plant-based diet#Sustainability|plant-based foods]]. It finds  contemporary monetary evaluations to be ""inadequate"" and [[policy]]-making that lead to reductions of these costs to be possible, appropriate and urgent.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=Organic meat production just as bad for climate, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/23/organic-meat-production-just-as-bad-for-climate-study-finds |access-date=16 January 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=23 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Organic meats found to have approximately the same greenhouse impact as regular meats |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-12-meats-approximately-greenhouse-impact-regular.html |access-date=16 January 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pieper |first1=Maximilian |last2=Michalke |first2=Amelie |last3=Gaugler |first3=Tobias |title=Calculation of external climate costs for food highlights inadequate pricing of animal products |journal=Nature Communications |date=15 December 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6117 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19474-6 |pmid=33323933 |pmc=7738510 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.6117P |url=|language=en |issn=2041-1723}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Available under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ CC BY 4.0].</ref>

===Agricultural pollution===
{{Excerpt|Agricultural pollution}}

== Sourcing sustainable food ==
[[File:Countries’ evaluation of trends in the use of selected management practices and approaches.svg|thumb|A matrix of the progress in the adoption of management practices and approaches{{Update inline|date=November 2022|reason=}}]]
{{Further|Sustainable agriculture}}
[[File:Microalgae cultivation facility along the Kona Coast of the Big Island of Hawai’i.jpg|thumb|A Microalgae cultivation facility<ref name=""10.5670/oceanog.2022.213""/>]]
[[File:Land and freshwater footprints for protein production from various sources.jpg|thumb|Comparison of footprints for protein production{{Update inline|date=November 2022|reason=GHGs, deforestation, and other foods should also be included among other things}}<ref name=""10.5670/oceanog.2022.213""/>]]
[[File:Lab Grown Meat explained by New Harvest.webm|thumb|thumbtime=0:39|A video explaining the development of [[cultured meat]] and a ""post-animal bio-economy"" driven by lab grown protein (meat, eggs, milk)]]
[[File:Global average human diet and protein composition and usage of crop-based products.webp|thumb|Global average human diet and protein composition and usage of crop-based products<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xia |first1=Lili |last2=Robock |first2=Alan |last3=Scherrer |first3=Kim |last4=Harrison |first4=Cheryl S. |last5=Bodirsky |first5=Benjamin Leon |last6=Weindl |first6=Isabelle |last7=Jägermeyr |first7=Jonas |last8=Bardeen |first8=Charles G. |last9=Toon |first9=Owen B. |last10=Heneghan |first10=Ryan |title=Global food insecurity and famine from reduced crop, marine fishery and livestock production due to climate disruption from nuclear war soot injection |journal=Nature Food |date=August 2022 |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=586–596 |doi=10.1038/s43016-022-00573-0 |pmid=37118594 |s2cid=251601831 |language=en |issn=2662-1355|doi-access=free |hdl=11250/3039288 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>]]
At the global level the environmental impact of [[agribusiness]] is being addressed through [[sustainable agriculture]], [[cellular agriculture]] and [[organic farming]].

Various alternatives to meat and novel classes of foods can substantially increase sustainability. There are large potential benefits of [[Algaculture|marine algae-based aquaculture]] for the development of a future [[healthy diet|healthy]] and sustainable food system.<ref name=""10.5670/oceanog.2022.213"">{{cite journal |last1=Greene |first1=Charles |last2=Scott-Buechler |first2=Celina |last3=Hausner |first3=Arjun |last4=Johnson |first4=Zackary |last5=Lei |first5=Xin Gen |last6=Huntley |first6=Mark |title=Transforming the Future of Marine Aquaculture: A Circular Economy Approach |journal=Oceanography |date=2022 |pages=26–34 |doi=10.5670/oceanog.2022.213 |issn=1042-8275|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diaz |first1=Crisandra J. |last2=Douglas |first2=Kai J. |last3=Kang |first3=Kalisa |last4=Kolarik |first4=Ashlynn L. |last5=Malinovski |first5=Rodeon |last6=Torres-Tiji |first6=Yasin |last7=Molino |first7=João V. |last8=Badary |first8=Amr |last9=Mayfield |first9=Stephen P. |title=Developing algae as a sustainable food source |journal=Frontiers in Nutrition |date=2023 |volume=9 |doi=10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841 |pmid=36742010 |pmc=9892066 |issn=2296-861X|doi-access=free}}
* News article about the study: {{cite news |title=Nutrient-rich algae could help meet global food demand: Cornell researchers |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/nutrient-rich-algae-could-help-meet-global-food-demand-cornell-researchers-1.6117300 |access-date=17 November 2022 |work=CTVNews |date=20 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref> [[Fungiculture]], another sector of a growing [[bioeconomy]] besides algaculture, may also become a larger component of a sustainable food system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lange |first1=Lene |title=The importance of fungi and mycology for addressing major global challenges* |journal=IMA Fungus |date=December 2014 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=463–471 |doi=10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.02.10 |pmid=25734035 |pmc=4329327 |issn=2210-6340}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Awasthi |first1=Mukesh Kumar |last2=Kumar |first2=Vinay |last3=Hellwig |first3=Coralie |last4=Wikandari |first4=Rachma |last5=Harirchi |first5=Sharareh |last6=Sar |first6=Taner |last7=Wainaina |first7=Steven |last8=Sindhu |first8=Raveendran |last9=Binod |first9=Parameswaran |last10=Zhang |first10=Zengqiang |last11=Taherzadeh |first11=Mohammad J. |title=Filamentous fungi for sustainable vegan food production systems within a circular economy: Present status and future prospects |journal=Food Research International |date=1 February 2023 |volume=164 |pages=112318 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112318 |pmid=36737911 |s2cid=254518455 |language=en |issn=0963-9969}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schweiggert-Weisz |first1=Ute |last2=Eisner |first2=Peter |last3=Bader-Mittermaier |first3=Stephanie |last4=Osen |first4=Raffael |title=Food proteins from plants and fungi |journal=Current Opinion in Food Science |date=1 April 2020 |volume=32 |pages=156–162 |doi=10.1016/j.cofs.2020.08.003 |s2cid=225203498 |language=en |issn=2214-7993|doi-access=free }}</ref> Consumption shares of various other ingredients for meat analogues such as protein from pulses may also rise substantially in a sustainable food system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weinrich |first1=Ramona |title=Opportunities for the Adoption of Health-Based Sustainable Dietary Patterns: A Review on Consumer Research of Meat Substitutes |journal=Sustainability |date=January 2019 |volume=11 |issue=15 |pages=4028 |doi=10.3390/su11154028 |language=en |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Pavan |last2=Chatli |first2=M. K. |last3=Mehta |first3=Nitin |last4=Singh |first4=Parminder |last5=Malav |first5=O. P. |last6=Verma |first6=Akhilesh K. |title=Meat analogues: Health promising sustainable meat substitutes |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |date=24 March 2017 |volume=57 |issue=5 |pages=923–932 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2014.939739 |pmid=25898027 |s2cid=5445686 |issn=1040-8398}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tziva |first1=M. |last2=Negro |first2=S. O. |last3=Kalfagianni |first3=A. |last4=Hekkert |first4=M. P. |title=Understanding the protein transition: The rise of plant-based meat substitutes |journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions |date=1 June 2020 |volume=35 |pages=217–231 |doi=10.1016/j.eist.2019.09.004 |s2cid=211769379 |language=en |issn=2210-4224|doi-access=free }}</ref> The integration of [[single-cell protein]], which can be produced from captured CO<sub>2</sub>.<ref name=""allfed"">{{Cite web |title=High-tech resilient food solutions |url=https://allfed.info/resilient-foods/resilient-food-solutions/high-tech-solutions |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923001759/https://allfed.info/resilient-foods/resilient-food-solutions/high-tech-solutions |archive-date=2023-09-23 |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=ALLFED - Alliance to Feed the Earth in Disasters |language=en-gb}}</ref> Optimized dietary scenarios would also see changes in various other types of foods such as nuts, as well as pulses such as beans, which have favorable environmental and [[healthy diet|health]] profiles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steenson |first1=Simon |last2=Buttriss |first2=Judith L. |title=Healthier and more sustainable diets: What changes are needed in high-income countries? |journal=Nutrition Bulletin |date=September 2021 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=279–309 |doi=10.1111/nbu.12518 |s2cid=238695900 |language=en |issn=1471-9827|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Semba |first1=Richard D. |last2=Ramsing |first2=Rebecca |last3=Rahman |first3=Nihaal |last4=Kraemer |first4=Klaus |last5=Bloem |first5=Martin W. |title=Legumes as a sustainable source of protein in human diets |journal=Global Food Security |date=1 March 2021 |volume=28 |pages=100520 |doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100520 |s2cid=233821367 |language=en |issn=2211-9124}}</ref> {{Further|#Substitution of meat and sustainable meat and dairy}}

Complementary approaches under development include [[vertical farming]] of various types of foods and various agricultural technologies, often using [[digital agriculture]].

=== Sustainable seafood ===
{{Main|Sustainable seafood}}
[[Sustainable seafood]] is seafood from either fished or farmed sources that can maintain or increase production in the future without jeopardizing the ecosystems from which it was acquired. The sustainable seafood movement has gained momentum as more people become aware about both [[overfishing]] and environmentally destructive fishing methods. The goal of sustainable seafood practices is to ensure that [[Population|fish populations]] are able to continue to thrive, that marine habitats are protected, and that [[fishing]] and aquaculture practices do not have negative impacts on local communities or economies.

There are several factors that go into determining whether a seafood product is sustainable or not. These include the method of [[fishing]] or [[farming]], the health of the fish population, the impact on the surrounding environment, and the social and economic implications of the seafood production. Some sustainable seafood practices include using methods that minimize [[bycatch]], implementing [[Season|seasonal]] or area closures to allow fish populations to recover, and using aquaculture methods that minimize the use of antibiotics or other chemicals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainable Fishing |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/sustainable-fishing |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref> Organizations such as the [[Marine Stewardship Council]] (MSC) and the [[Aquaculture Stewardship Council]] (ASC) work to promote sustainable seafood practices and provide certification for products that meet their sustainability standards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Farmed Fish {{!}} The ASC Certification Label {{!}} Buying Sustainable Aquaculture |url=https://www.foodunfolded.com/article/farmed-fish-the-asc-certification-label-buying-sustainable-aquaculture#:~:text=The%20Difference%20Between%20MSC%20Label%20&%20ASC%20Label&text=MSC,%20or%20Marine%20Stewardship%20Council,aquaculture%20and%20all%20farmed%20seafood. |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=www.foodunfolded.com |language=en}}</ref> In addition, many retailers and restaurants are now offering sustainable seafood options to their customers, often labeled with a sustainability certification logo to make it easier for consumers to make informed choices. Consumers can also play a role in promoting sustainable seafood by making conscious choices about the seafood they purchase and consume. This can include choosing seafood that is labeled as sustainably harvested or farmed, asking questions about the source and production methods of the seafood they purchase, and supporting restaurants and retailers that prioritize sustainability in their seafood offerings.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Creative |first=Grist |date=2021-06-29 |title=Consumers are demanding more sustainable seafood — and it's working |url=https://grist.org/article/consumers-are-demanding-more-sustainable-seafood-and-its-working/ |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=Grist |language=en-us}}</ref> By working together to promote sustainable seafood practices, we can help to ensure the health and sustainability of our oceans and the communities that depend on them.

=== Sustainable animal feed ===
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}
A study suggests there would be large environmental benefits of using [[insects as food|insects]] for [[animal feed]].When substituting mixed grain, which is currently the main animal feed, insect feed lowers water and land requirement and emits fewer greenhouse gas and ammonia. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=van Huis |first1=Arnold |last2=Gasco |first2=Laura |title=Insects as feed for livestock production |journal=Science |date=13 January 2023 |volume=379 |issue=6628 |pages=138–139 |doi=10.1126/science.adc9165 |pmid=36634163 |bibcode=2023Sci...379..138V |s2cid=255749691 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367089543 |language=en |issn=0036-8075}}
* News article about the study: {{cite news |last1=Yirka |first1=Bob |title=Making the case for using insects as food for both humans and livestock |url=https://phys.org/news/2023-01-case-insects-food-humans-livestock.html |access-date=17 February 2023 |work=[[phys.org]] |language=en |archive-date=28 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128211900/https://phys.org/news/2023-01-case-insects-food-humans-livestock.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Sustainable pet food ====
Recent studies show that vegan diets, which are more sustainable, would not have negative impact on the health of [[pet food|pet dogs and cats]] if implemented appropriately. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Domínguez-Oliva |first1=Adriana |last2=Mota-Rojas |first2=Daniel |last3=Semendric |first3=Ines |last4=Whittaker |first4=Alexandra L. |title=The Impact of Vegan Diets on Indicators of Health in Dogs and Cats: A Systematic Review |journal=Veterinary Sciences |date=January 2023 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=52 |doi=10.3390/vetsci10010052 |pmid=36669053 |pmc=9860667 |language=en |issn=2306-7381|doi-access=free}}</ref> It aims to minimize the [[ecological footprint]] of pet food production while still providing the necessary nutrition for pets. Recent studies have explored the potential benefits of vegan diets for pets in terms of sustainability.

One example is the growing body of research indicating that properly formulated and balanced vegan diets can meet the nutritional needs of dogs and cats without compromising their health.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 6 Best Sustainable Pet Food Brands of 2023 |url=https://www.thesprucepets.com/best-sustainable-pet-food-brands-6560551 |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=The Spruce Pets |language=en}}</ref> These studies suggest that with appropriate planning and supplementation, pets can thrive on [[Plant-based diet|plant-based diets]]. This is significant from a sustainability perspective as traditional pet food production heavily relies on animal-based ingredients, which contribute to [[deforestation]], [[greenhouse gas emissions]], and [[overfishing]]. 

By opting for sustainable pet food options, such as plant-based or [[Eco-friendly products|eco-friendly alternatives]], pet owners can reduce their pets' [[carbon footprint]] and support more ethical and sustainable practices in the pet food industry. Additionally, sustainable pet food may also prioritize the use of responsibly sourced ingredients, organic farming practices, and minimal [[packaging waste]]. It is important to note that when considering a vegan or alternative diet for pets, consultation with a veterinarian is crucial.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Graham |last=Lawton |date=19 September 2022 |title=Vegan pet food: Can cats and dogs be happy and healthy without meat? |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/0-vegan-pet-food-can-cats-and-dogs-be-happy-and-healthy-without-meat/ |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=New Scientist |language=en-US}}</ref> Each pet has unique nutritional requirements, and a professional can help determine the most suitable diet plan to ensure all necessary nutrients are provided.

=== Substitution of meat and sustainable meat and dairy ===
{{Excerpt|Environmental impact of meat production|Alternatives to meat production and consumption}}

==== Meat reduction strategies ====
{{Excerpt|Environmental impact of animal agriculture|Meat-reduction strategies}}

==== Effects and combination of measures ====
{{Excerpt|Environmental impact of animal agriculture|Mitigation options|paragraphs=-1-2}}
""[[Policy#Induction of policies|Policy sequencing]]"" to gradually extend regulations once established to other forest risk commodities (e.g. other than beef) and regions while coordinating with other importing countries could prevent ineffectiveness.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bager |first1=Simon L. |last2=Persson |first2=U. Martin |last3=dos Reis |first3=Tiago N. P. |title=Eighty-six EU policy options for reducing imported deforestation |journal=One Earth |date=19 February 2021 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=289–306 |doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2021.01.011 |bibcode=2021OEart...4..289B |s2cid=233930831 |language=en |issn=2590-3322|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Meat and dairy ====
Despite meat from livestock such as beef and lamb being considered unsustainable, some [[regenerative agriculture]] proponents suggest  rearing livestock with a mixed farming system to restore organic matter in grasslands.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Finney|first=Clare|date=2021-06-29|title=Eat this to save the world! The most sustainable foods – from seaweed to venison|url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/jun/29/eat-this-to-save-the-world-the-most-sustainable-foods-from-seaweed-to-venison|access-date=2021-11-05|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-01-01|title=What Is the Most Environmentally Friendly Meat?|url=https://www.ecoandbeyond.co/articles/most-environmentally-friendly-meat/|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Eco & Beyond|language=en-GB}}</ref> Organizations such as the Canadian Roundtable for Sustainable Beef (CRSB) are looking for solutions to reduce the impact of meat production on the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Roberrts|first=Wayne|date=2019-12-02|title=Is 'sustainable beef' a load of bull?|url=https://www.corporateknights.com/perspectives/guest-comment/is-sustainable-beef-a-load-of-bull/|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Corporate Knights|language=en-US}}</ref> In October 2021, 17% of beef sold in Canada was certified as sustainable beef by the CRSB.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stockford|first=Alexis|date=2021-10-18|title=Sustainable beef interest hits new peak|url=https://www.manitobacooperator.ca/news-opinion/news/sustainable-beef-interest-hits-new-peak/|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Manitoba Co-operator|language=en}}</ref> However, sustainable meat has led to criticism, as environmentalists point out that the meat industry excludes most of its emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lazarus|first1=Oliver|last2=McDermid|first2=Sonali|last3=Jacquet|first3=Jennifer|date=2021-03-25|title=The climate responsibilities of industrial meat and dairy producers|journal=Climatic Change|language=en|volume=165|issue=1|pages=30|doi=10.1007/s10584-021-03047-7|bibcode=2021ClCh..165...30L |s2cid=232359749|issn=1573-1480}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Christen|first=Caroline|date=2021-07-18|title=Meat Industry Climate Claims – Criticisms and Concerns|url=https://www.desmog.com/2021/07/18/meat-industry-climate-claims-criticisms-and-concerns/|access-date=2021-11-05|website=DeSmog|language=en-US}}</ref>

Important mitigation options for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock include genetic selection,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.genomecanada.ca/en/programs/large-scale-science/past-competitions/strategic-initiatives/bovine-genomics|title=Bovine Genomics &#124; Genome Canada|website=www.genomecanada.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/canada-is-using-genetics-to-make-cows-less-gassy/|title=Canada Is Using Genetics to Make Cows Less Gassy|magazine=Wired|via=www.wired.com|last1=Airhart|first1=Ellen}}</ref> introduction of [[Methanotroph|methanotrophic bacteria]] into the rumen,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01137190/document|title=The use of direct-fed microbials for mitigation of ruminant methane emissions: a review}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/21553769.2015.1063550 |title=Exploring diet-dependent shifts in methanogen and methanotroph diversity in the rumen of Mehsani buffalo by a metagenomics approach |journal=Frontiers in Life Science |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=371–378 |year=2015 |last1=Parmar |first1=N.R. |last2=Nirmal Kumar |first2=J.I. |last3=Joshi |first3=C.G. |s2cid=89217740 }}</ref> vaccines, feeds,<ref>{{cite news |title=Kowbucha, seaweed, vaccines: the race to reduce cows' methane emissions |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/30/cow-methane-emissions-reduce-seaweed-kowbucha |access-date=1 December 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=30 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref> toilet-training,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dirksen |first1=Neele |last2=Langbein |first2=Jan |last3=Schrader |first3=Lars |last4=Puppe |first4=Birger |last5=Elliffe |first5=Douglas |last6=Siebert |first6=Katrin |last7=Röttgen |first7=Volker |last8=Matthews |first8=Lindsay |title=Learned control of urinary reflexes in cattle to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions |journal=Current Biology |date=13 September 2021 |volume=31 |issue=17 |pages=R1033–R1034 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2021.07.011 |pmid=34520709 |s2cid=237497867 |language=English |issn=0960-9822|doi-access=free }}</ref> diet modification and grazing management.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Boadi | first1 = D | year = 2004 | title = Mitigation strategies to reduce enteric methane emissions from dairy cows: Update review | journal = Can. J. Anim. Sci. | volume = 84 | issue = 3| pages = 319–335 | doi = 10.4141/a03-109 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>Martin, C. et al.  2010. Methane mitigation in ruminants: from microbe to the farm scale. ''Animal'' 4 : pp 351-365.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Eckard | first1 = R. J. | display-authors = etal | year = 2010 | title = Options for the abatement of methane and nitrous oxide from ruminant production: A review | journal = Livestock Science | volume = 130 | issue = 1–3| pages = 47–56 | doi=10.1016/j.livsci.2010.02.010}}</ref> Other options include shifting to [[ruminant]]-free alternatives, such as [[milk substitute]]s and [[meat analogue]]s or poultry, which generates far fewer emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03016226/96/1|title=Livestock Production Science &#124; Livestock Farming Systems and their Environmental Impacts &#124; ScienceDirect.com by Elsevier|website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>

Plant-based meat is proposed for sustainable alternatives to meat consumption. [[Meat analogue|Plant-based meat]] emits 30%–90% less greenhouse gas than conventional meat (kg-{{CO2}}-eq/kg-meat) <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Poore|first1=J.|last2=Nemecek|first2=T.|date=June 2018|title=Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers|journal=Science|volume=360|issue=6392|pages=987–992|doi=10.1126/science.aaq0216|pmid=29853680|bibcode=2018Sci...360..987P |s2cid=206664954|issn=0036-8075|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:b0b53649-5e93-4415-bf07-6b0b1227172f |doi-access=free}}</ref> and 72%–99% less water than conventional meat.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lamb|first1=Anthony|last2=Green|first2=Rhys|last3=Bateman|first3=Ian|last4=Broadmeadow|first4=Mark|last5=Bruce|first5=Toby|last6=Burney|first6=Jennifer|last7=Carey|first7=Pete|last8=Chadwick|first8=David|last9=Crane|first9=Ellie|last10=Field|first10=Rob|last11=Goulding|first11=Keith|date=May 2016|title=The potential for land sparing to offset greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2910|journal=Nature Climate Change|language=en|volume=6|issue=5|pages=488–492|doi=10.1038/nclimate2910|bibcode=2016NatCC...6..488L |s2cid=86091754 |issn=1758-6798|hdl=2164/7643|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Public company [[Beyond Meat]] and privately held company [[Impossible Foods]] are examples of plant-based food production.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Greenberg|first=Sarah|title=10 Leading Companies in Plant-Based Meat|url=https://blog.bccresearch.com/10-leading-companies-in-plant-based-meat|access-date=2021-11-08|website=blog.bccresearch.com|language=en-us}}</ref> However, consulting firm [[Sustainalytics]] assured that these companies are not more sustainable than meat-processors competitors such as food processor [[JBS USA|JBS]], and they don't disclose all the {{CO2}} emissions of their supply chain.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Creswell|first=Julie|date=2021-10-15|title=Plant-Based Food Companies Face Critics: Environmental Advocates|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/15/business/beyond-meat-impossible-emissions.html|access-date=2021-11-08|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Beyond reducing negative impacts of meat production, facilitating shifts towards more sustainable meat, and facilitating reduced meat consumption (including via plant-based meat substitutes), [[cultured meat]] may offer a potentially sustainable way to produce real meat without the associated negative environmental impacts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bryant |first1=Christopher J |title=Culture, meat, and cultured meat |journal=Journal of Animal Science |date=3 August 2020 |volume=98 |issue=8 |pages=skaa172 |doi=10.1093/jas/skaa172 |pmid=32745186 |issn=0021-8812|pmc=7398566 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hong |first1=Tae Kyung |last2=Shin |first2=Dong-Min |last3=Choi |first3=Joonhyuk |last4=Do |first4=Jeong Tae |last5=Han |first5=Sung Gu |title=Current Issues and Technical Advances in Cultured Meat Production: AReview |journal=Food Science of Animal Resources |date=May 2021 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=355–372 |doi=10.5851/kosfa.2021.e14 |pmid=34017947 |issn=2636-0772|pmc=8112310 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Treich |first1=Nicolas |title=Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges |journal=Environmental and Resource Economics |date=1 May 2021 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=33–61 |doi=10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3 |pmid=33758465 |language=en |issn=1573-1502|pmc=7977488 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bryant |first1=Christopher J |title=Culture, meat, and cultured meat |journal=Journal of Animal Science |date=1 August 2020 |volume=98 |issue=8 |pages=skaa172 |doi=10.1093/jas/skaa172|pmid=32745186 |pmc=7398566 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Treich |first1=Nicolas |title=Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges |journal=Environmental and Resource Economics |date=May 2021 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=33–61 |doi=10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3|pmid=33758465 |pmc=7977488 }}</ref>

=== Phase-outs, co-optimization and environmental standards ===
[[File:Five broad food policy categories.webp|thumb|380px|Five broad food policy categories<ref name=""10.3390/su12177161""/>]]
In regards to [[deforestation]], a study proposed kinds of ""climate clubs"" of ""as many other states as possible taking similar measures and establishing uniform environmental standards"". It suggested that ""otherwise, global problems remain unsolvable, and shifting effects will occur"" and that ""border adjustments [...] have to be introduced to target those states that do not participate—again, to avoid shifting effects with ecologically and economically detrimental consequences"", with such ""border adjustments or [[eco-tariff]]s"" incentivizing other countries to adjust their standards and domestic production to join the climate club.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stubenrauch |first1=Jessica |last2=Garske |first2=Beatrice |last3=Ekardt |first3=Felix |last4=Hagemann |first4=Katharina |title=European Forest Governance: Status Quo and Optimising Options with Regard to the Paris Climate Target |journal=Sustainability |date=January 2022 |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=4365 |doi=10.3390/su14074365 |language=en |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free }}</ref> Identified potential barriers to sustainability initiatives may include contemporary trade-policy goals and [[competition law]].<ref name=""10.3390/su12177161"">{{cite journal |last1=Saviolidis |first1=Nína M. |last2=Olafsdottir |first2=Gudrun |last3=Nicolau |first3=Mariana |last4=Samoggia |first4=Antonella |last5=Huber |first5=Elise |last6=Brimont |first6=Laura |last7=Gorton |first7=Matthew |last8=von Berlepsch |first8=David |last9=Sigurdardottir |first9=Hildigunnur |last10=Del Prete |first10=Margherita |last11=Fedato |first11=Cristina |last12=Aubert |first12=Pierre-Marie |last13=Bogason |first13=Sigurdur G. |title=Stakeholder Perceptions of Policy Tools in Support of Sustainable Food Consumption in Europe: Policy Implications |journal=Sustainability |date=January 2020 |volume=12 |issue=17 |pages=7161 |doi=10.3390/su12177161 |language=en |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free |hdl=11585/776038 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Greenhouse gas emissions for countries are often measured according to production, for imported goods that are produced in other countries than where they are consumed ""[[embedded emissions]]"" refers to the emissions of the product. In cases where such products are and remain imported, eco-tariffs could over time adjust prices for specific categories of products – or for specific non-collaborative polluting origin countries – such as deforestation-associated meat, foods with intransparent supply-chain origin or foods with high embedded emissions.

=== Agricultural productivity and environmental efficiency ===
[[Agricultural productivity]] (including e.g. reliability of yields) is an important component of [[food security]]{{sfn|Mbow|Rosenzweig|Barioni|Benton|2019|p=454}} and increasing it sustainably (e.g. with high efficiency in terms of environmental impacts) could be a major way to decrease negative environmental impacts, such as by decreasing the amount of land needed for farming or reducing [[environmental degradation]] like [[deforestation]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-06|title=Sustainable Intensification for Smallholders|url=https://www.drawdown.org/solutions/sustainable-intensification-for-smallholders|access-date=2020-10-16|website=Project Drawdown|language=en}}</ref>

==== Genetically engineered crops ====
There is research and development to engineer [[genetically modified crops]] with increased heat/drought/stress resistance, increased yields, lower water requirements, and overall lower environmental impacts, among other things.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kovak |first1=Emma |last2=Blaustein-Rejto |first2=Dan |last3=Qaim |first3=Matin |title=Genetically modified crops support climate change mitigation |journal=Trends in Plant Science |date=8 February 2022 |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=627–629 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2022.01.004 |pmid=35148945 |language=en |issn=1360-1385|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Liang |first1=Chanjuan |title=Drought Stress Tolerance in Plants, Vol 2 |chapter=Genetically Modified Crops with Drought Tolerance: Achievements, Challenges, and Perspectives |journal=Drought Stress Tolerance in Plants, Vol 2: Molecular and Genetic Perspectives |date=2016 |pages=531–547 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-32423-4_19 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-32421-0 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Novel agricultural technologies ====
{{See also|Agricultural technology}}
{{Excerpt|Food system|Novel agricultural technologies}}

=== Organic food ===
{{See also|Organic farming|Pesticide#Alternatives}}
[[File:Soil_profile.jpg|thumb|Farming, especially non-organic farming degrades soil often intended to be used to provide food in the future.]]
{{Excerpt|Organic food|Environmental sustainability}}

=== Local food systems ===
{{Main|Local food}}
{{See also|#Food security, nutrition and diet|International trade#International trade versus local production|}}
{{Hard to navigate|date=May 2022}}
[[File:WheatYield.png|thumb|right|350px|A map of wheat production (average percentage of land used for its production times average yield in each grid cell) across the world.]]
In [[Local food systems|local and regional food systems]], food is produced, distributed, and consumed locally. This type of system can be beneficial both to the consumer (by providing fresher and more sustainably grown product) and to the farmer (by fetching higher prices and giving more direct access to consumer feedback).<ref name="":22"">O'Hara, Jeffrey K. ""Description of Local Food Systems."" Union of Concerned Scientists, 2011, pp. 6–13</ref> Local and regional food systems can face challenges arising from inadequate institutions or programs, geographic limitations of producing certain crops, and seasonal fluctuations which can affect product demand within regions. In addition, [[direct marketing]] also faces challenges of accessibility, coordination, and awareness.<ref name="":22"" /> 

[[Farmers' market|Farmers' markets]], which have increased in number over the past two decades, are designed for supporting local farmers in selling their fresh products to consumers who are willing to buy. [[Food hubs]] are also similar locations where farmers deliver products and consumers come to pick them up. Consumers who wish to have weekly produce delivered can buy shares through a system called [[Community-supported agriculture|Community-Supported Agriculture]] (CSA).<ref name="":22"" /> However, these farmers' markets also face challenges with marketing needs such as starting up, advertisement, payments, processing, and regulations.<ref name="":22"" />

There are various movements working towards local food production, more productive use of urban wastelands and domestic gardens including [[permaculture]], [[guerilla gardening]], [[urban horticulture]], [[local food]], [[slow food]], [[sustainable gardening]], and [[organic gardening]].<ref>[http://www.gardensofbabylon.com/earthStats.php ""Earth Stats.""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711072419/http://www.gardensofbabylon.com/earthStats.php|date=11 July 2011}} Gardensofbabylon.com. Retrieved on: 7 July 2009.</ref><ref>Holmgren, D. (March 2005). [http://www.sbpermaculture.org/Suburbs_Holmgren.html ""Retrofitting the suburbs for sustainability.""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415103213/http://www.sbpermaculture.org/Suburbs_Holmgren.html|date=15 April 2009}} CSIRO Sustainability Network. Retrieved on: 7 July 2009.</ref>

Debates over local food system efficiency and sustainability have risen as these systems decrease transportation, which is a strategy for combating [[environmental footprint]]s and [[climate change]]. A popular argument is that the less impactful footprint of food products from local markets on communities and environment.<ref name="":02"">Shindelar, Rachel. ""The Ecological Sustainability of Local Food Systems."" RCC Perspectives, no. 1, 2015, pp. 19–24.</ref> Main factors behind climate change include land use practices and greenhouse emissions, as global food systems produce approximately 33% of theses emissions.<ref name="":02"" /> Compared to transportation in a local food system, a conventional system takes more fuel for energy and emits more pollution, such as carbon dioxide. This transportation also includes miles for agricultural products to help with agriculture and depends on factors such as transportation sizes, modes, and fuel types. Some airplane importations have shown to be more efficient than local food systems in some cases.<ref name="":02"" /> Overall, local food systems can often support better environmental practices.

==== Environmental impact of food miles ====
Studies found that [[food mile]]s are a relatively minor factor of carbon emissions; albeit increased food localization may also enable additional, more significant environmental benefits such as recycling of energy, water, and nutrients.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yi |last2=Campbell |first2=J. Elliott |title=Improving attributional life cycle assessment for decision support: The case of local food in sustainable design |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=1 March 2017 |volume=145 |pages=361–366 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.020 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652617300276 |access-date=4 December 2020 |language=en |issn=0959-6526}}</ref> For specific foods, regional differences in harvest seasons may make it more environmentally friendly to import from distant regions than more local production and storage or local production in greenhouses.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Edwards-Jones |first1=Gareth |title=Does eating local food reduce the environmental impact of food production and enhance consumer health? |journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society |year=2010 |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=582–591 |doi=10.1017/S0029665110002004 |pmid=20696093 |language=en |issn=1475-2719|doi-access=free }}</ref> This may vary depending on the environmental standards in the respective country, the distance of the respective countries and on a case-by-case basis for different foods.

However, a 2022 study suggests global food miles' {{CO2}} emissions are 3.5–7.5 times higher than previously estimated, with transport accounting for about 19% of total food-system emissions,<ref>{{cite news |title=Climate impact of food miles three times greater than previously believed, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/21/climate-impact-of-food-miles-three-times-greater-than-previously-believed-study-finds |access-date=13 July 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=20 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""10.1038/s43016-022-00531-w"">{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Mengyu |last2=Jia |first2=Nanfei |last3=Lenzen |first3=Manfred |last4=Malik |first4=Arunima |last5=Wei |first5=Liyuan |last6=Jin |first6=Yutong |last7=Raubenheimer |first7=David |title=Global food-miles account for nearly 20% of total food-systems emissions |journal=Nature Food |date=June 2022 |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1038/s43016-022-00531-w |pmid=37118044 |s2cid=249916086 |language=en |issn=2662-1355}}</ref> though shifting towards plant-based diets remains substantially more important.<ref>{{cite news |title=How much do food miles matter and should you buy local produce? |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2325164-how-much-do-food-miles-matter-and-should-you-buy-local-produce/ |access-date=13 July 2022 |work=New Scientist}}</ref> The study concludes that ""a shift towards plant-based foods must be coupled with more locally produced items, mainly in affluent countries"".<ref name=""10.1038/s43016-022-00531-w""/>

== Food distribution ==
{{Main|Sustainable distribution}}
{{Hard to navigate|date=May 2022}}
In [[food distribution]], increasing food supply is a production problem, as it takes time for products to get marketed, and as they wait to get distributed the food goes to waste. Despite the fact that throughout all [[food production]] an estimated 20-30% of food is wasted, there have been efforts to combat this issue, such as campaigns conducted to promote limiting food waste.<ref name="":12"">Kling, William. ""Food Waste in Distribution and Use."" Journal of Farm Economics, vol. 25, no. 4, 1943, pp. 848–859.</ref> However, due to insufficient facilities and practices as well as huge amounts of food going unmarketed or harvested due to prices or quality, food is wasted through each phase of its distribution.<ref name="":12"" /> Another factor for lack of sustainability within food distribution includes transportation in combination with inadequate methods for [[Food handling safety|food handling]] throughout the packing process. Additionally, poor or long conditions for food in storage and consumer waste add to this list of factors for inefficiency found in food distribution.<ref name="":12"" /> In 2019, though global production of calories kept pace with population growth, there are still more than 820 million people who have insufficient food and many more consume low-quality diets leading to micronutrient deficiencies. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walter |first1=Willett |title=Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems |journal=The Lancet Commissions |date=February 2, 2019 |volume=393 |issue=10170 |pages=447–492 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4|pmid=30660336 |s2cid=58657351 |url=https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/21633/8/Food%20Planet%20Health.pdf }}</ref>

Some modern tendencies in food distribution also create bounds in which problems are created and solutions must be formed. One factor includes growth of large-scale producing and selling units in bulk to [[chain store]]s which displays merchandising power from large scale market organizations as well as their mergence with [[manufactures]].<ref name="":3"">Pelz, V. H. ""Modern Tendencies in Food Distribution."" Journal of Farm Economics, vol. 12, no. 2, 1930, pp. 301–310.</ref> In response to production, another factor includes large scale distribution and buying units among manufacturers in development of food distribution, which also affects producers, distributors, and consumers.<ref name="":3"" /> Another main factor involves protecting [[public interest]], which means better adaptation for product and service, resulting in rapid development of food distribution.<ref name="":3"" /> A further factor revolves around [[Price Maintenance|price maintenance]], which creates pressure for lower prices, resulting in higher drive for lower cost throughout the whole food distribution process.<ref name="":3"" /> An additional factor comprises new changes and forms of newly invented technical processes such as developments of freezing food, discovered through experiments, to help with distribution efficiency. Another factor is new technical developments in distributing machinery to meet the influence of [[consumer demand]]s and economic factors.<ref name="":3"" /> Lastly, one more factor includes government relation to businesses and those who petition against it in correlation with anti-trust laws due to large scale business organizations and the fear of monopoly contributing to changing public attitude.<ref name="":3"" />

== Food security, nutrition and diet ==
{{Main|Sustainable diet}}
[[File:Cereals allocated to food, animal feed and fuel, World.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Cereal-use statistic showing an estimated large fraction of crops used as fodder]]
The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on many factors, including the proportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method of food production.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=McMichael A.J.|author2=Powles J.W.|author3=Butler C.D.|author4=Uauy R.|date=September 2007|title=Food, Livestock Production, Energy, Climate change, and Health|url=http://www.eurekalert.org/images/release_graphics/pdf/EH5.pdf|journal=Lancet|volume=370|issue=9594|pages=1253–63|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61256-2|pmid=17868818|hdl=1885/38056|s2cid=9316230|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100203152611/http://www.eurekalert.org/images/release_graphics/pdf/EH5.pdf|archive-date=3 February 2010}} Retrieved on: 18 March 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Baroni L.|author2=Cenci L.|author3=Tettamanti M.|author4=Berati M.|date=February 2007|title=Evaluating the Environmental Impact of Various Dietary Patterns Combined with Different Food Production Systems|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~choucc/environmental_impact_of_various_dietary_patterns.pdf|journal=Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.|volume=61|issue=2|pages=279–86|doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522|pmid=17035955|s2cid=16387344}} Retrieved on: 18 March 2009.</ref><ref>Steinfeld H., Gerber P., Wassenaar T., Castel V., Rosales M., de Haan, C. (2006). [http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.htm ""Livestock's Long Shadow – Environmental Issues and Options""]. Retrieved on: 18 March 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Heitschmidt R.K.|author2=Vermeire L.T.|author3=Grings E.E.|year=2004|title=Is Rangeland Agriculture Sustainable?|journal=[[Journal of Animal Science]]|volume=82|issue=E–Suppl|pages=E138–146|doi=10.2527/2004.8213_supplE138x|doi-broken-date=31 January 2024|pmid=15471792}} Retrieved on: 18 March 2009.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Peter |last2=Brown |first2=Calum |last3=Arneth |first3=Almut |last4=Finnigan |first4=John |last5=Rounsevell |first5=Mark D.A. |date=November 2016 |title=Human appropriation of land for food: The role of diet |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959378016302370 |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=41 |pages=88–98 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.09.005|hdl=20.500.11820/dd522f6a-8cc9-444e-83f8-b73e065bd269 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> At the same time, current and future food systems need to be provided with sufficient nutrition for not only the current population, but future population growth in light of a world affected by changing climate in the face of [[global warming]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unscn.org/en/topics/sustainable-food-systems|title=Sustainable food systems – UNSCN|website=www.unscn.org|access-date=2019-11-27}}</ref>

Nearly one in four households in the United States have experienced food insecurity in 2020–21.  Even before the pandemic hit, some 13.7 million households, or 10.5% of all U.S. households, experienced food insecurity at some point during 2019, according to data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. That works out to more than 35 million Americans who were either unable to acquire enough food to meet their needs, or uncertain of where their next meal might come from, last year.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Silva|first=Christianna|date=2020-09-27|title=Food Insecurity In The U.S. By The Numbers|language=en|work=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/09/27/912486921/food-insecurity-in-the-u-s-by-the-numbers|access-date=2021-10-19}}</ref>

The ""global land squeeze"" for agricultural land<ref>{{cite web |title=What is the Global Land Squeeze? |url=https://www.landcarbonlab.org/what-global-land-squeeze |website=Land & Carbon Lab |access-date=27 May 2022}}</ref> also has impacts on food security.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hanson |first1=Craig |last2=Ranganathan |first2=Janet |title=How to Manage the Global Land Squeeze? Produce, Protect, Reduce, Restore |url=https://www.wri.org/insights/manage-global-land-squeeze-produce-protect-reduce-restore |access-date=27 May 2022 |language=en |date=14 February 2022}}</ref> Likewise, [[effects of climate change on agriculture]] can result in lower crop yields and nutritional quality due to for example [[drought]], [[heat wave]]s and [[flood]]ing as well as increases in [[water scarcity]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Water scarcity predicted to worsen in more than 80% of croplands globally this century |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-05-scarcity-worsen-croplands-globally-century.html |access-date=16 May 2022 |work=[[American Geophysical Union]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Xingcai |last2=Liu |first2=Wenfeng |last3=Tang |first3=Qiuhong |last4=Liu |first4=Bo |last5=Wada |first5=Yoshihide |last6=Yang |first6=Hong |title=Global Agricultural Water Scarcity Assessment Incorporating Blue and Green Water Availability Under Future Climate Change |journal=Earth's Future |date=April 2022 |volume=10 |issue=4 |doi=10.1029/2021EF002567|bibcode=2022EaFut..1002567L |s2cid=248398232 |url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A24825 }}</ref> [[pest (organism)|pests]] and [[Plant pathology|plant diseases]]. [[Soil conservation]] may be important for food security as well. For sustainability and food security, the food system would need to adapt to such current and future problems.

According to one estimate, ""just four corporations control 90% of the global [[grain trade]]"" and researchers have argued that the food system is too fragile due to various issues, such as ""massive food producers"" (i.e. market-mechanisms) having too much power and [[nation]]s ""polarising into super-importers and super-exporters"".<ref>{{cite news |title=The banks collapsed in 2008 – and our food system is about to do the same {{!}} George Monbiot |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/may/19/banks-collapsed-in-2008-food-system-same-producers-regulators |access-date=27 May 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=19 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref>  However the impact of market power on the food system is contested with other claiming more complex context dependent outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Merkle |first1=Magnus |last2=Moran |first2=Dominic |last3=Warren |first3=Frances |last4=Alexander |first4=Peter |date=September 2021 |title=How does market power affect the resilience of food supply? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2211912421000651 |journal=Global Food Security |language=en |volume=30 |pages=100556 |doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100556|hdl=20.500.11820/0fd7b207-fb9d-4547-8580-ba1f016a4b44 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

== Production decision-making ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}
{{See also|Produce traceability|Agricultural subsidy|Environmental law}}
In the food industry, especially in agriculture, there has been a rise in problems toward the production of some food products. For instance, growing vegetables and fruits has become more expensive. It is difficult to grow some agricultural crops because some have a preferable climate condition for developing. There has also been an incline on food shortages as production has decreased.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rushcheva|first=D.|title=Food Production and National Food Security: Situation, Problems and Prospects|date=November 2, 2020|journal=Trakia Journal of Sciences|volume=18|pages=346–349| issue=Suppl.1| doi=10.15547/tjs.2020.s.01.058|s2cid=244351877|doi-access=free}}</ref> Though the world still produces enough food for the population, not everyone receives good quality food because it is not accessible to them, since it depends on their location and/or income. In addition, the amount of overweight people has increased, and there are about 2 billion people that are underfed worldwide. This shows how the global food system lacks quantity and quality according to the [[Food consumption by class|food consumption patterns]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Capone|first=Roberto|title=Relations Between Food and Nutrition Security, Diets and Food Systems|date=2016|journal=Agriculture and Forestry|volume=62|pages=49–58|doi=10.17707/AgricultForest.62.1.05|doi-access=free}}</ref>

A study estimated that ""relocating current croplands to [environmentally] [[Optimization problem|optimal]] locations, whilst allowing ecosystems in then-abandoned areas to regenerate, could simultaneously decrease the current carbon, biodiversity, and irrigation water footprint of global crop production by 71%, 87%, and 100%"", with relocation only within national borders also having substantial potential.<ref>{{cite news |title=Relocating farmland could turn back clock twenty years on carbon emissions, say scientists |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-03-relocating-farmland-clock-twenty-years.html |access-date=18 April 2022 |work=University of Cambridge |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beyer |first1=Robert M. |last2=Hua |first2=Fangyuan |last3=Martin |first3=Philip A. |last4=Manica |first4=Andrea |last5=Rademacher |first5=Tim |title=Relocating croplands could drastically reduce the environmental impacts of global food production |journal=Communications Earth & Environment |date=10 March 2022 |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=49 |doi=10.1038/s43247-022-00360-6 |bibcode=2022ComEE...3...49B |s2cid=247322845 |language=en |issn=2662-4435|doi-access=free |hdl=10810/61603 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Policies, including ones that affect consumption, may affect production-decisions such as which foods are produced to various degrees and in various indirect and direct ways. Individual studies have named several proposed options of such<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindgren |first1=Elisabet |last2=Harris |first2=Francesca |last3=Dangour |first3=Alan D. |last4=Gasparatos |first4=Alexandros |last5=Hiramatsu |first5=Michikazu |last6=Javadi |first6=Firouzeh |last7=Loken |first7=Brent |last8=Murakami |first8=Takahiro |last9=Scheelbeek |first9=Pauline |last10=Haines |first10=Andy |title=Sustainable food systems—a health perspective |journal=Sustainability Science |date=1 November 2018 |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=1505–1517 |doi=10.1007/s11625-018-0586-x |pmid=30546484 |pmc=6267166 |bibcode=2018SuSc...13.1505L |language=en |issn=1862-4057}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wynes |first1=Seth |last2=Nicholas |first2=Kimberly A |last3=Zhao |first3=Jiaying |last4=Donner |first4=Simon D |title=Measuring what works: quantifying greenhouse gas emission reductions of behavioural interventions to reduce driving, meat consumption, and household energy use |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=1 November 2018 |volume=13 |issue=11 |page=113002 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aae5d7 |bibcode=2018ERL....13k3002W |s2cid=115133659 |language=en |issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""10.3390/su12177161""/> and the restricted website [[Drawdown (climate)#Project Drawdown|Project Drawdown]] has aggregated and preliminarily evaluated some of these measures.<ref>{{cite web |title=Food, Agriculture, and Land Use @ProjectDrawdown |url=https://www.drawdown.org/sectors/food-agriculture-land-use |website=Project Drawdown |access-date=27 May 2022 |language=en |date=5 February 2020}}</ref>

=== Nitrogen pollution mitigation ===
{{Excerpt|Agricultural pollution#Mitigation|paragraphs=1}}

===Climate change adaptation===
[[File:Water stress 2019 WRI.png|thumb|upright=2|300px|Water stress per country in 2019. Water stress is the ratio of water use relative to water availability (""demand-driven scarcity"").<ref name="":15"">{{Cite journal|last1=Kummu|first1=M.|last2=Guillaume|first2=J. H. A.|last3=de Moel|first3=H.|last4=Eisner|first4=S.|last5=Flörke|first5=M.|last6=Porkka|first6=M.|last7=Siebert|first7=S.|last8=Veldkamp|first8=T. I. E.|last9=Ward|first9=P. J.|date=2016|title=The world's road to water scarcity: shortage and stress in the 20th century and pathways towards sustainability|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=38495|doi=10.1038/srep38495|issn=2045-2322|pmc=5146931|pmid=27934888|bibcode=2016NatSR...638495K}}</ref>]]
{{See also|Effects of climate change on agriculture#Adaptation}}
{{Excerpt|Climate change adaptation|Changed rainfall patterns in agriculture}}

== Food waste ==
{{Main|Food waste}}
According to the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO), food waste is responsible for 8 percent of global human-made [[greenhouse gas emissions]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/sustainability_pathways/docs/FWF_and_climate_change.pdf|title=Food wastage footprint & Climate Change|work=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref> The FAO concludes that nearly 30 percent of all available agricultural land in the world – 1.4 billion hectares – is used for produced but uneaten food. The global blue [[water footprint]] of food waste is 250&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>, the amount of water that flows annually through the [[Volga]] or three times [[Lake Geneva]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf|title=Food wastage footprint, impacts on natural resources|work=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref>

There are several factors that explain how [[food waste]] has increased globally in food systems. The main factor is population, because as population increases more food is being made, but most food produced goes to waste. Especially, during COVID-19, food waste grew sharply due to the booming of food delivery services according to a [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21681015.2021.1951858 2022 study]. In addition, not all countries have the same resources to provide the best quality of food. According to a study done in 2010, private households produce the largest amounts of food waste across the globe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schanes |first1=Karin |last2=Dobernig |first2=Karin |last3=Gözet |first3=Burcu |date=2018-05-01 |title=Food waste matters - A systematic review of household food waste practices and their policy implications |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=182 |pages=978–991 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.030 |s2cid=158803430 |issn=0959-6526|doi-access=free }}</ref> Another major factor is overproduction; the rate of food production is significantly higher than the rate of consumption, leading to a surplus of food waste.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Messner |first1=Rudolf |last2=Johnson |first2=Hope |last3=Richards |first3=Carol |date=2021-01-01 |title=From surplus-to-waste: A study of systemic overproduction, surplus and food waste in horticultural supply chains |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652620339974 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=278 |pages=123952 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123952 |s2cid=224961868 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref>
 

Throughout the world there are different ways that food is being processed. With different priorities, different choices are being made to meet their most important needs. Money is another big factor that determines how long the process will take and who is working, and it is treated differently in low income countries' food systems. 

However, high income countries food systems still may deal with other issues such as [[food security]]. This demonstrates how all food systems have their weaknesses and strengths. [[Climate change]] causes food waste to increase because the warm temperature causes crops to dry faster and creates a higher risk for fires. Food waste can occur any time throughout production.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bond|first1=M.|title=Food Waste Within Global Food Systems|last2=Meacham|first2=T.|last3=Bhunnoo|first3=R.|last4=Benton|first4=TG.|year=2013}}</ref> According to the ''World Wildlife Organization'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fight climate change by preventing food waste|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/fight-climate-change-by-preventing-food-waste|access-date=2021-03-30|website=World Wildlife Fund|language=en}}</ref> since most food produced goes to landfills, when it rots it causes methane to be produced. The [[Food disposal|disposal]] of food has a big impact on our environment and health.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-06-01|title=Environmental impacts of food waste: Learnings and challenges from a case study on UK|journal=Waste Management|language=en|volume=76|pages=744–766|doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2018.03.032|issn=0956-053X|last1=Tonini|first1=Davide|last2=Albizzati|first2=Paola Federica|last3=Astrup|first3=Thomas Fruergaard|pmid=29606533|bibcode=2018WaMan..76..744T |s2cid=4555820|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=von Massow|first1=Michael|last2=Parizeau|first2=Kate|last3=Gallant|first3=Monica|last4=Wickson|first4=Mark|last5=Haines|first5=Jess|last6=Ma|first6=David W. L.|last7=Wallace|first7=Angela|last8=Carroll|first8=Nicholas|last9=Duncan|first9=Alison M.|date=2019|title=Valuing the Multiple Impacts of Household Food Waste|journal=Frontiers in Nutrition|language=English|volume=6|page=143|doi=10.3389/fnut.2019.00143|pmid=31552260|pmc=6738328|issn=2296-861X|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Academic Opportunities ==
The study of sustainable food applies [[systems theory]] and methods of [[sustainable design]] towards [[food systems]]. As an interdisciplinary field, the study of sustainable food systems has been growing in the last several decades. University programs focused on sustainable food systems include:
* [[University of Colorado Boulder]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.colorado.edu/menv/academics/specializations/sustainable-food-systems|title=Sustainable Food Systems|date=2018-08-10|website=Masters of the Environment|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref>
* [[Harvard]] Extension<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.extension.harvard.edu/academics/professional-graduate-certificates/sustainable-food-systems-certificate|title=Sustainable Food Systems Certificate|last=rebecca|date=2019-05-23|website=Harvard Extension School|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref>
* [[University of Delaware]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.udel.edu/apply/undergraduate-admissions/major-finder/sustainable-food-systems/|title=Sustainable Food Systems {{!}} University of Delaware|website=www.udel.edu|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref>
* Mesa Community College<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mesacc.edu/departments/exercise-science/nutrition-dietetics/sustainable-food-systems|title=Sustainable Food Systems {{!}} Nutrition & Dietetics {{!}} Mesa Community College|website=www.mesacc.edu|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref>
* [[University of California, Davis]]
* [[University of Vermont]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://learn.uvm.edu/program/sustainable-food-systems/|title=Breakthrough Leaders for Sustainable Food Systems – University Of Vermont Continuing & Distance Education|website=learn.uvm.edu|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uvm.edu/foodsystems|title=Food Systems|website=www.uvm.edu|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref>
* [[Sterling College (Vermont)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sterlingcollege.edu/academics/sustainable-food-systems/|title=Sustainable Food Systems Degree Vermont {{!}} Sustainable Food Systems|website=Sterling College|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref>
* [[University of Michigan]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/sustainablefoodsystems/academic-programs/graduatelevelfoodsystemscourses/|title=Graduate Certificate in Sustainable Food Systems – Sustainable Food Systems Initiative|date=6 August 2014|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref>
* [[Portland State University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pdx.edu/food-certificate/|title=Portland State Graduate Certificate in Sustainable Food Systems {{!}} Welcome|website=www.pdx.edu|access-date=2020-02-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pdx.edu/usp/food-systems-advising-pathway|title=Portland State College of Urban & Public Affairs: Nohad A. Toulan School of Urban Studies & Planning {{!}} Food Systems Advising Pathway|website=www.pdx.edu|access-date=2020-02-07}}</ref>
* [[University of Sheffield]]'s Institute for Sustainable Food<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/sustainable-food/study/postgraduate-courses|title=Postgraduate courses {{!}} Institute for Sustainable Food {{!}} The University of Sheffield|website=www.sheffield.ac.uk|access-date=2020-04-14}}</ref>
* [[University of Georgia]]'s Sustainable Food Systems Initiative<ref>{{Cite web|title=Grad Certificate {{!}} UGA Sustainable Food Systems Initiative|url=https://site.extension.uga.edu/sfsi/grad-certificate/|access-date=2021-01-11|website=site.extension.uga.edu}}</ref>
* [[The Culinary Institute of America]]'s Master's in Sustainable Food Systems<ref>{{Cite web|title=CIA Online Master's in Sustainable Food Systems|url=https://masters.culinary.edu/sustainable-food-systems-masters-degree/|access-date=2022-02-10|website=masters.culinary.edu}}</ref>
* [[University of Edinburgh]]'s Global Academy of Agriculture and Food Systems<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Academy of Agriculture and Food Systems |url=https://www.ed.ac.uk/global-agriculture-food-systems |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=The University of Edinburgh |language=en}}</ref>

There is a debate about ""establishing a body akin to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) for food systems"" which ""would respond to questions from policymakers and produce advice based on a synthesis of the available evidence"" while identifying ""[[research question|gaps]] in the science that need addressing"".<ref>{{cite journal |title=The war in Ukraine is exposing gaps in the world's food-systems research |journal=Nature |date=12 April 2022 |volume=604 |issue=7905 |pages=217–218 |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-00994-8|pmid=35414667 |bibcode=2022Natur.604..217. |s2cid=248129049 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Public policy ==
{{Expand section|date=May 2022}}

=== European Union ===
{{See also|Digital Product Passport}}
{{Excerpt|Food system|European Union}}
=== Global ===
{{Excerpt|Sustainable agriculture|Policy}}
{{Excerpt|Sustainable agriculture|At the global level|hat=no|only=paragraphs}}
=== Asia ===
{{Excerpt|Sustainable agriculture|Asia|subsections=yes}}
<!--=== {{readercountry}} ===-->
== See also ==
* [[Standardization#Environmental protection]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

===Cited sources===
* {{Cite book |title=Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems |last1=Mbow |first1=C. |last2=Rosenzweig |first2=C. |last3=Barioni |first3=L. G. |last4=Benton |first4=T. |last5=Herrero |first5=M. |last6=Krishnapillai |first6=M. V. |year=2019 |pages=454 |chapter=Chapter 5: Food Security |display-authors=4|chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2019/11/08_Chapter-5.pdf}}

== Further reading ==
<div class=""references-small"">
* {{cite journal |last=Feenstra |first=Gail |year=2002 |title=Creating Space for Sustainable Food Systems: Lessons from the Field |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=99–106 |doi=10.1023/a:1016095421310|s2cid=59436592 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kloppenburg|first1=Jack Jr.|last2=Lezberg|first2=Sharon|last3=De Master|first3=Kathryn|last4=Stevenson|first4=George W.|last5=Hendrickson|first5=John|date=Summer 2000 |title=Tasting Food, Tasting Sustainability: Defining the Attributes of an Alternative Food System with Competent, Ordinary People |journal=Human Organization |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=177–186 |doi=10.17730/humo.59.2.8681677127123543}}
* [[George Monbiot|Monbiot, George]] (2022). ""Regenesis: Feeding the World without Devouring the Planet"". London: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|978-0-14-313596-8}}
* Pimbert, Michel, Rachel Shindelar, and Hanna Schösler (eds.), ""[http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2015/1/think-global-eat-local-exploring-foodways Think Global, Eat Local: Exploring Foodways],"" ''[http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives RCC Perspectives]'' 2015, no. 1. doi.org/10.5282/rcc/6920.
* {{cite journal |last=Wahlqvist |first=Mark L. |year=2008 |title=New nutrition science in practice |journal=Asia Pac J Clin Nutr |volume=17 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=5–11 |pmid=18296290 |url=http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/APJCN/Volume17/vol17suppl.1/5-11P-2.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wahlqvist |first=Mark L. & Lee, Meei-Shyuan |year=2007 |title=Regional food culture and development |journal=Asia Pac J Clin Nutr |volume=16 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=2–7 |pmid=17392068 |url=http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/APJCN/volume12/vol12.3/fullArticles/Mark_2_7.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wilkins |first=Jennifer |year=1995 |title=Seasonal and local diets: consumers' role in achieving a sustainable food system |journal=Research in Rural Sociology and Development |volume=6 |pages=149–166 |url=http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/NEWSLTR/v8n3/sa-12.htm}} [http://www.fao.org/agris/search/display.do?f=./1996/v2211/US9601310.xml;US9601310 AGRIS record].
</div>

{{Sustainability |state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Sustainable food system| ]]
[[Category:Food politics]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Global Green USA,"{{Multiple issues|{{Only primary sources|date=December 2023}}{{more references|date=April 2016}}}}
{{Infobox company
| logo = GlobalGreenLOGO.png
| founded = 1993
| founder = [[Diane Meyer Simon]], and [[Mikhail S. Gorbachev]]
}}
'''Global Green''' is the English-American affiliate of [[Green Cross International]], an international non-governmental organization founded by former [[List of leaders of the Soviet Union|Soviet leader]] [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in 1993 to ""foster a global value shift toward a sustainable and secure future.""<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalgreen.org/|title=Global Green - Helping the people, the places, the planet in need.|website=Global Green|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-06}}</ref> Green Cross International operates in over 30 countries and enjoys consultative status with the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]], and [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]]. Global Green USA is on a 10 year mission to ""lead a global response to keep us within planetary boundaries"" and to ""bring forth a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace"".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalgreen.org/|title=Global Green|website=Global Green  International|language=en-US|access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref> GCI is an admitted observer organization with the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] and the Conference of the Parties to the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|UN Convention to Combat Desertification]]. It also cooperates directly with the UNEP/OCHA Environmental Emergencies Section, [[UN-HABITAT]] and other international organizations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gcint.org/|title=Green Cross International|website=Green Cross International|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-06}}</ref> Celebrity advocates include [[Leonardo DiCaprio]], [[Yoko Ono]] and [[Pat Mitchell]], who serves as an Honorary Board Member. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalgreen.org/advocates/|title= Global Green Advocates |website=Global Green  International|language=en-US|access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

William Bridge serves both as Chairman of [[Green Cross International]] and CEO of Global Green USA.<ref name=""GlobeGreen"">{{cite web |title=Global Green Team |url=https://globalgreen.org/global-green-team/ |website=Global Green |access-date=21 January 2024}}</ref>

== History ==
In October 1987, five years before the first [[Earth Summit]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] addressed a gathering in the Arctic city of [[Murmansk]], and for the first time linked the concepts of environmental protection, nuclear disarmament, broader security concerns and development.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.gcint.org/who-we-are/our-history/|title=Our History|website=Green Cross International|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-06}}</ref>

On 19 January 1990, in [[Moscow]] during an address to the Global Forum on Environment and Development for Survival, Mikhail Gorbachev suggested creating an “international Green Cross that offers its assistance to States in ecological trouble.” In other words, the world needed a body that would apply the medical emergency response model of the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] to ecological issues, and expedite solutions to environmental problems that transcend national borders.<ref name="":1"" />

On 6 June 1992, six months after leaving office, the Rio Earth Summit civil society delegates appealed to Mikhail Gorbachev to create and launch Green Cross International. At the same time, Swiss National Council parliamentarian Roland Wiederkehr, founded a “World Green Cross” with the same objective. The organizations merged in 1993 to form [[Green Cross International]].<ref name="":1"" />

Green Cross International (GCI) was formally launched in [[Kyoto]], Japan, on April 18, 1993. On the invitation of Mikhail Gorbachev, many renowned figures joined and continue to serve on its board of directors and Honorary Board.<ref name="":1"" />

The first Green Cross National Organizations (GCNOs) formally joined GCI in [[The Hague]], The Netherlands, in the Spring of 1994. These included Japan, The Netherlands, the Russian Federation, Switzerland, and the United States.<ref name="":1"" />

In 2007, Starbucks and Global Green have teamed up to launch Planet Green Game, an online game where ""players can explore a virtual world and learn how everyday decisions by individuals, cities, schools and businesses can impact the climate and environment.""<ref>{{Cite web|title=Starbucks|url=https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2007/starbucks-and-global-green-usa-spotlight-climate-change-solutions-with-laun/|access-date=2020-07-23|website=stories.starbucks.com}}</ref>

In 2022 Global Green USA agreed to advance US$20.5 million to the [[Make It Right Foundation]] and to oversee the distribution of the funds following the settlement of a [[class-action lawsuit]] against the latter foundation.<ref name=nola>{{Cite web |last=writer |first=DOUG MACCASH {{!}} Staff |title=Brad Pitt's Make It Right Foundation to pay $20.5M to owners of faulty post-Katrina homes |url=https://www.nola.com/news/business/article_eed75178-c737-11ec-8011-fbcf5b31b6d7.html |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=NOLA.com |date=17 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> The Make It Right Foundation was founded by Hollywood actor [[Brad Pitt]] and others following [[Hurricane Katrina]] to rebuild homes in the [[Lower Ninth Ward]] of [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]].  Those houses had problems with construction and the residents sued the Make It Right Foundation and Brad Pitt.<ref name=""nola"" />  Global Green's CEO William Bridge was quoted by [[The Times-Picayune]] newspaper as saying that Global Green “had a great relationship with Make It Right and Brad Pitt” and that his organization's board of directors' goal was “to plug it (the money) back into the community.”<ref name=""nola"" /> 

Today, Green Cross International is headquartered in [[Geneva]], Switzerland with member countries in Argentina, Australia, Belarus, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Canada ([[Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization|PrepCom]]), Czech Republic, Denmark, Eswatini, France et Territoires, Ghana, Hungary, Taiwan (Information Office), Italy, Ivory Coast, Japan, Korea, The Netherlands, Panama, Russia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, and the United States.<ref name="":1"" />

== Board of directors ==

* [[Diane Meyer Simon]], Founder of Global Green
* Trammel S. Crow, Co-Chair of Global Green & Founder of EarthX
* Michael Cain, Vice Chair of Global Green & CEO of EarthX Film
* Rajiv Shukla, Vice Chair of Global Green & Independent Director of Ocunexus Therapeutics Inc.
* Vered Nisim, Secretary of Global Green & Founder of Curagenics & President of Brellascope
* Les McCabe, Treasurer of Board & CEO of Junior Achievement
* Christiana Musk, Founder of Flourish*ink & Curator for Near Future Summit
* Robbianne Mackin, Senior Vice President of Principal Gifts for The New York Academy of Sciences
* [[Ovie Mughelli]], Former Atlanta Falcons football player & Founder of The Ovie Mughelli Foundation
* Sarah Meyer Simon, Co-Owner of Base Coat & Partner of The Butcher’s Daughter & Founder of The Simon Collective
* [[Rick Fedrizzi]], Founding Chair of USGBC & CEO of the International WELL Building Institute
* Carlton A. Brown, Founding partner & COO of Full Spectrum NY
* Asher Simon, Artist & Musician
* Don Burris, Founder & Senior Partner of Burris & Schoenberg, LLP
* Tony Keane, CEO of EarthX
* Kai Milla-Morris, Fashion Designer & Former wife of Stevie Wonder

=== Emeritus Board Members ===

* [[Ted Turner]]
* Robert S. Bucklin
* [[Jerry Moss]]
* [[Lee H. Hamilton]]
* [[Edward Norton]]
* [[John Paul DeJoria]]
* [[Leonardo DiCaprio]]
* [[Jane Goodall|Dr. Jane Goodall]]
* Jayni Chase
* [[Norman Lear]]
* [[Pat Mitchell]]
* Scott Seydel
* [[Yoko Ono]]
* Chief Oren Lyons
* [[Robert Redford]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Environmental organizations based in California]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations established in 1993]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Artificial leather,"{{Short description|Material that imitates leather}}
{{Redirect|Pleather|the Toadies album|Pleather (album){{!}}''Pleather'' (album)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
[[File:Reproduction Mk VII Gas Mask Bag -11.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|An artificial leather bag strap, made from plastic]]

'''Artificial leather''', also called '''synthetic leather''', is a material intended to substitute for [[leather]] in upholstery, clothing, footwear, and other uses where a leather-like finish is desired but the actual material is cost prohibitive or unsuitable, or for ethical concerns. Artificial leather is known under many names, including ''leatherette'', ''imitation leather'', ''faux leather'', ''[[Veganism|vegan]] leather'', ''PU leather'' ([[polyurethane]]),  and ''pleather''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shaeffer |first=Claire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBNjDwAAQBAJ |title=Sew Any Fabric: A Quick Reference to Fabrics from A to Z |date=November 10, 2003 |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin]] |isbn=978-1-4402-2033-3 |location=New York City |page=37 |language=en}}</ref>

==Uses==
Artificial leathers are often used in clothing fabrics, furniture upholstery, water craft upholstery, and automotive interiors.<ref name=""faux"">{{cite web |last=Blesius |first=Jim |date=7 April 2014 |title=What is Faux Leather? |url=https://mitchellfauxleathers.com/Default/ViewPoint/Read/faux-leather-viewpoint/2014/04/07/what-is-faux-leather |access-date=22 August 2018}}</ref>

One of its primary advantages, especially in cars, is that it requires little maintenance in comparison to leather, and does not crack or fade easily, though the surface of some artificial leathers may rub and wear off with time.<ref name=""faux"" /> Artificial leather made from polyurethane is washable, but varieties made from [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC) are not easily cleaned.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ujević |first1=Darko |last2=Kovacevic |first2=Stana |last3=Wadsworth |first3=Larry C. |last4=Schwarz |first4=Ivana |last5=Šajatović |first5=Blaženka Brlobašić |date=October 2009 |title=Analysis of Artificial Leather With Textile Fabric on the Backside |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stana-Kovacevic/publication/277112454_Analysis_of_artificial_leather_with_textile_fabric_on_the_backside/links/55a53c3a08ae5e82ab1f8e01/Analysis-of-artificial-leather-with-textile-fabric-on-the-backside.pdf |journal=Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=1, 2 |via=Research Gate}}</ref>

=== Fashion ===
Depending on the construction, the artificial leather may be porous and breathable, or may be impermeable and waterproof.

Porous artificial leather with a non-woven microfibre backing is a popular choice for clothing, and is comfortable to wear.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Baobao |last2=Qian |first2=Yao |last3=Qian |first3=Xiaoming |last4=Fan |first4=Jintu |last5=Liu |first5=Fan |last6=Duo |first6=Yongchao |date=June 2018 |title=Preparation and Properties of Split Microfiber Synthetic Leather |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/155892501801300203 |journal=Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=155892501801300 |doi=10.1177/155892501801300203 |issn=1558-9250 |s2cid=106400171 |access-date=2022-03-27 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Manufacture==
[[File:Synthetic PU leather HC1.jpg|thumb|Steps to make synthetic [[polyurethane]] leather:{{numbered list|The base fabric|A polyurethane coating is applied|A color coat is added|A textured finish is added<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gofar.co.kr/eng/info/info_12_2.php|title=PU Synthetic Leather|website=Gofar Synthetic Co., Ltd |access-date=11 May 2005 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050511001137/http://www.gofar.co.kr/eng/info/info_12_2.php|archive-date=11 May 2005}}</ref>}}]]

Many different methods for the manufacture of imitation leathers have been developed.

A current method is to use an embossed [[release paper]] known as ''casting paper'' as a form for the surface finish, often mimicking the texture of top-grain leather.  This embossed release paper holds the final texture in negative.  For the manufacture, the release paper is coated with several layers of [[plastic]] e.g. PVC or polyurethane, possibly including a surface finish, a colour layer, a foam layer, an adhesive, a fabric layer, a reverse finish. Depending on the specific process, these layers may be wet or partially cured at the time of integration. The artificial leather is cured, then the release paper is removed and possibly reused.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Castingpapers {{!}} CASTING PAPERS R-series |url=https://www.castingpapers.com/about/ |website=www.castingpapers.com |access-date=2022-03-26}}</ref>

A fermentation method of making [[collagen]], the main chemical in real leather, is under development.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/09/modern-meadow-and-evonik-are-brewing-leather-in-a-lab.html|title=This leather is made in a lab, not from livestock|last=Kolodny|first=Lora|date=2018-03-09|work=CNBC|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>

Materials to make vegan leather can be derived from fungi, yeasts and bacterial strains using biotechnological processes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Jize |title=Recent advances concerning polyurethane in leather applications: an overview of conventional and greener solutions |journal=Collagen and Leather |date=9 March 2023 |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=5 |doi=10.1186/s42825-023-00116-8 |url=https://jlse.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42825-023-00116-8#citeas |access-date=18 September 2023|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Historical methods ===

One of the earliest artificial leathers was [[Presstoff]]. Invented in 19th century Germany, it was made of specially layered and treated paper pulp. It gained its widest use in Germany during the [[World War II|Second World War]] in place of leather, which under wartime conditions was rationed. Presstoff could be used in almost every application normally filled by leather, excepting items like footwear that were repeatedly subjected to flex wear or moisture. Under these conditions, Presstoff tends to delaminate and lose cohesion.

Another early example was [[Rexine]], a leathercloth fabric produced in the United Kingdom by Rexine Ltd of Hyde, near Manchester. It was made of cloth surfaced with a mixture of [[nitrocellulose]], [[camphor]] oil, alcohol, and pigment, embossed to look like leather. It was used as a [[bookbinding]] material and upholstery covering, especially for the interiors of motor vehicles and the interiors of railway carriages produced by British manufacturers beginning in the 1920s, its cost being around a quarter that of leather.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redeye.co.nz/glp-s.htm|title=Glossary of Bookbinding Terms P-S|website=Redeye.co.nz|access-date=18 April 2019}}</ref>

Poromerics are made from a plastic coating (usually a polyurethane) on a fibrous base layer (typically a [[polyester]]). The term poromeric was coined by [[DuPont]] as a derivative of the terms ''porous'' and ''polymeric''. The first poromeric material was DuPont's Corfam, introduced in 1963 at the Chicago Shoe Show. Corfam was the centerpiece of the DuPont pavilion at the [[1964 New York World's Fair]] in New York City. After spending millions of dollars marketing the product to shoe manufacturers, DuPont withdrew Corfam from the market in 1971 and sold the rights to a company in [[Poland]].

Leatherette is also made by covering a fabric base with a plastic. The fabric can be made of natural or synthetic fiber which is then covered with a soft polyvinyl chloride (PVC) layer. Leatherette is used in [[bookbinding]] and was common on the casings of 20th century cameras.

Cork leather is a natural-fiber alternative made from the bark of [[cork oak]] trees that has been compressed, similar to Presstoff.

== Environmental effect ==
The production of the PVC used in the production of many artificial leathers requires a [[plasticizer]] called a [[phthalate]] to make it flexible and soft. PVC requires petroleum and large amounts of energy thus making it reliant on [[fossil fuels]]. During the production process carcinogenic byproducts, [[dioxin]]s, are produced which are toxic to humans and animals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/dioxin/learn-about-dioxin|title=Learn about Dioxin|last=US EPA|first=ORD|date=2014-01-28|website=US EPA|language=en|access-date=2018-12-17}}</ref> Dioxins remain in the environment long after PVC is manufactured.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saibu |first=Salametu |last2=Adebusoye |first2=Sunday A. |last3=Oyetibo |first3=Ganiyu O. |date=2020-02-01 |title=Aerobic bacterial transformation and biodegradation of dioxins: a review |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-020-0294-0 |journal=Bioresources and Bioprocessing |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1186/s40643-020-0294-0 |issn=2197-4365|doi-access=free }}</ref> When PVC ends up in a landfill it does not decompose like genuine leather and can release dangerous chemicals into the water and soil.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chamas |first=Ali |last2=Moon |first2=Hyunjin |last3=Zheng |first3=Jiajia |last4=Qiu |first4=Yang |last5=Tabassum |first5=Tarnuma |last6=Jang |first6=Jun Hee |last7=Abu-Omar |last8=Scott |first8=Susannah L. |last9=Suh |first9=Sangwon |date=2020-03-09 |title=Degradation Rates of Plastics in the Environment |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1sh070qz |journal=ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering |language=en |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=3494–3511 |doi=10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06635 |issn=2168-0485|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Polyurethane is currently more popular for use than PVC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vocativ.com/281599/vegan-leather-isnt-as-ethical-as-you-think/|title=Vegan Leather Isn't As Ethical As You Think|date=2016-02-10|website=Vocativ|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-17}}</ref>

The production of some artificial leathers requires plastic, with others, called [[plant-based leather]]s, only requiring plant-based materials; the inclusion of artificial materials in the production of artificial leathers notably raises sustainability issues.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|last=Davis|first=Jessica|date=2020-04-17|title=Is vegan leather worse for the environment than real leather?|url=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/fashion/fashion-news/a30640996/vegan-leather-sustainability/|access-date=2021-10-22|website=Harper's BAZAAR|language=en-GB}}</ref> However, some reports state that the manufacture of artificial leather is still more sustainable than that of real leather, with the Environmental Profit & Loss, a sustainability report developed in 2018 by Kering, stating that the impact of vegan-leather production can be up to a third lower than real leather.<ref name="":0"" />

Some artificial leathers may have traces of restricted substances, like paint ingredient [[Methylethyl ketone oxime|butanone oxime]], according to a study by the FILK Freiberg Institiute.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Roshitsh |first=Kaley |date=2021-12-08 |title=Is ‘Vegan’ Leather Worse for the Environment Than Real Leather? |url=https://wwd.com/sustainability/materials/what-is-vegan-leather-which-is-worse-environment-leather-market-fashion-1235008758/ |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=WWD |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Brand names ==
[[File:1968 Mercedes Benz W108 Interior Front Seats.jpg|thumb|1968 [[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes Benz]] [[Mercedes-Benz W108/W109|280SE (W108)]] seats and door trim in blue MB-Tex.]]

* [[Alcantara (material)|Alcantara]]
* [[Clarino]]: manufactured by Kuraray Co., Ltd. of Japan.
* [[Fabrikoid]]: A [[DuPont]] brand, cotton cloth coated with [[nitrocellulose]]
* [[Kirza]]: A Russian form developed in the 1930s consisting of cotton fabric, latex, and rosin
* MB-Tex: Used in many [[Mercedes-Benz]] base trims<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.loebermotors.com/blog/what-is-mb-tex-seat-upholstery/|title=What is MB-Tex Seat Upholstery? - MB-Tex vs. Leather|website=www.loebermotors.com|access-date=7 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227050512/http://www.loebermotors.com/blog/what-is-mb-tex-seat-upholstery/|archive-date=27 February 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Naugahyde]]: An American brand introduced by [[Uniroyal]]
* [[Piñatex]]: Made from [[pineapple]] leaves
* [[Rexine]]: A British brand
* Skai: Made by the German company Konrad Hornschuch AG, its name has become a genericized trademark in Germany and surrounding countries

==See also==
* [[Bicast leather]] – a form of genuine leather coated with a plastic finish
* [[Bonded leather]] – a material made by blending scrap leather fibers with a plastic binder
* [[Microfiber]] – a material made with synthetic fibers thinner than natural silk; can be used for making synthetic suedes, like [[Ultrasuede]]
*[[Mycelium-based materials]] - [[Mycelium]], the fungal equivalent of roots in plants, has been identified as an ecologically friendly substitute to a litany of materials throughout different industries.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* ''Faux Real: Genuine Leather and 200 Years of Inspired Fakes'', by Robert Kanigel. Joseph Henry Press, 2007.

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Leather}}
{{Clothing materials and parts}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Artificial leather| ]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Nonwoven fabrics]]
[[Category:Synthetic materials]]
[[Category:Leather]]
[[Category:Textiles]]
[[Category:Fashion design]]"
Category:Sustainability scientists,"{{Portal|Science}}

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental scientists]]"
Foodscaping,"{{Short description|Ornamental landscaping with edible plants}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
[[File:Edible garden at Pixie Hollow.jpg|thumb|298x298px|Edible landscape at Pixie Hollow Garden, Epcot, [[Walt Disney World]] in Florida featuring decorative green and purple kale and chard varieties|alt=]]
'''Foodscaping''' is a modern term for the practice of integrating edible plants into ornamental landscapes. It is also referred to as '''edible landscaping''' and has been described as a crossbreed between [[landscaping]] and [[Agriculture|farming]].<ref name="":6"">Waterford, Douglas. ''21st Century Homestead: Urban Agriculture''. Lulu, 2015.</ref> As an ideology, foodscaping aims to show that edible plants are not only consumable but can also be appreciated for their [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] qualities. Foodscaping spaces are seen as multi-functional landscapes which are visually attractive and also provide edible returns.<ref name="":4"">Brown, Sydney P. ""Edible Landscaping"". ''The'' ''Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences'', 2016, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/EP/EP14600.pdf. Accessed 12 April 2020.</ref> Foodscaping is a great way to provide fresh food in an affordable way. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silvasy |first1=Tiare |title=Edible Landscaping Using the Nine Florida-Friendly Landscaping Principles}}</ref>

Differing from conventional [[Kitchen garden|vegetable gardening]], where fruits and vegetables are typically grown in separate, enclosed areas, foodscaping incorporates edible plants as a major element of a pre-existing landscaping space.<ref name="":6"" /> This may involve adding edible plantations to an existing ornamental garden or entirely replacing the traditional, non-edible plants with food-yielding species.<ref name="":5"" /> The designs can incorporate various kinds of vegetables, fruit trees, berry bushes, edible flowers, and herbs, along with purely ornamental species.<ref name="":0"" /> The design strategy of foodscaping has many benefits, including increasing [[food security]], improving the growth of nutritious food and promoting [[Sustainability|sustainable living]].<ref name="":5"" /> Edible landscaping practices may be implemented on both public and private premises.<ref name="":0"" /> Foodscaping can be practiced by individuals, community groups, businesses, or educational institutions.<ref name="":1"" />[[File:Villandry - château, potager (03).jpg|thumb|295x295px|The Renaissance-style vegetable garden at Château de Villandry, France, displays rows of cabbage, carrots, and leeks among colorful flowers to create a productive and ornamental landscape.|alt=]]

The practice of foodscaping is believed to have gained popularity in the 21st century for several reasons. Some accounts claim that the rise of foodscaping is due to the volatility of global [[food prices]] and the [[Financial crisis of 2007–08|financial crisis of 2007–2008]].<ref name="":0"" /> However, other accounts suggest that the spike in foodscaping popularity is linked to urbanization and increasing concerns for [[environmental sustainability]].<ref name="":6"" /> 

==Origins==
=== Overview ===
[[File:White cabbage garden.jpg|thumb|White cabbage garden intermixed with yellow and orange florals|278x278px]]It is unknown who first coined the expression '''foodscaping'''. The term and ideology of foodscaping have been around since the late 20th century, yet have only come into popular use during the 21st century. Despite the modernity of the term foodscaping, the strategy of integrating edible plants into [[landscaping]] spaces is not a new concept. Similar practices date back to ancient and medieval gardening and agricultural techniques.<ref name="":0"">Çelik, Filiz D. ""The Importance of Edible Landscape in the Cities"". ''Turkish Journal of Agriculture – Food Science and Technology,'' vol. 5, no. 2, 2017, pp.118–24, {{doi|10.24925/turjaf.v5i2.118-124.957}} Accessed 19 March 2020.</ref> Foodscaping as a contemporary theory presents ""a modern take on the way that past generations utilized land"".<ref>Arthur, Brie. ""Foodscaping: revolution or evolution?"". ''Acta Horticulturae'', 1212, 2018, pp. 279–84, admin.ipps.org/uploads/3B-Arthur-Brie-Foodscape.pdf. Accessed 28 March 2020.</ref> Unlike most historical [[Horticulture|horticultural practices]], foodscaping explicitly supports the idea that edible landscapes can be just as aesthetically pleasing as purely decorative landscapes.<ref name="":4"" /> Foodscaping advocates attempt to subvert the conventional perception of [[Kitchen garden|vegetable gardens]] as unattractive and instead view [[Crop|edible crops]] as design features in and of themselves. It is sometimes believed that this ideology emerged from increasingly experimental approaches to gardening and [[landscaping]] in the [[modern era]].<ref name="":0"" />

=== Historical precedents of foodscaping ===
{{See also|History of gardening}}Edible landscaping techniques that were practiced in different historical cultures and periods can be seen as ancestors of foodscaping. In [[Ancient Rome]], [[Roman gardens|Roman villa gardens]] were often both productive and ornamental, though [[Agriculture|agricultural production]] was the primary purpose of earlier villa gardens. [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] research suggests that these [[Roman gardens]] took on various forms such as large [[vineyard]] landscapes or small [[Kitchen garden|herb gardens]]. Kitchen gardens, vineyards, and [[orchard]]s played an important role in the lives of ancient Romans, whose diets were largely based on [[fruit]]s and vegetables.<ref name="":15"">Jashemski, Wilhelmina F., et al., editors. ''Gardens of the Roman Empire''. Cambridge University Press, 2017, doi: doi.org/10.1017/9781139033022. Accessed 18 March 2020.</ref>

In [[Mesoamerica]]n culture, elaborate gardens and horticultural gardens were a pleasure of [[Aztecs|Aztec]] elites. Flowering, fragrant and medicinal plants were believed to be ""perquisites of the lords"". According to historical letters written by Aztec nobles, impressive gardens often included bright flower beds, [[fruit tree]]s, herbs, and sweet-smelling [[flower]]s. Groves, orchards, and [[water garden]]s were sometimes incorporated into the designs of the more elaborate gardens.<ref name="":17"">Evans, Susan Toby. ""Aztec Royal Pleasure Parks: Conspicuous Consumption and Elite Status Rivalry.” ''Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes'', vol. 20, no. 3, Taylor & Francis Group, Sept. 2000, pp. 206–28, {{doi|10.1080/14601176.2000.10435621}} Accessed 1 June 2020.</ref>

Another ancient precedent to foodscaping can be found in [[Mesopotamia]]. [[Babylonia]]ns and [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] created gardens throughout cities and in palace courtyards that were a representation of Paradise. These featured fragrant trees and edible fruits. Archaeological evidence suggests that, in roughly 1000 BCE, Assyrian Kings developed a naturalistic landscape style in which streams of water ran through gardens that grew plants such as junipers, almonds, dates, rosewood, quince, fir pomegranate, and oak.<ref name="":18"">Dalley, Stephanie. ""Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved."" ''Garden History'', vol. 21, no. 1, Garden History Society, July 1993, pp. 1–13, {{doi|10.2307/1587050}} Accessed 1 June 2020.</ref>

During the [[Renaissance]] era, villa and chateau gardens in Europe often yielded fruit and vegetables to sell locally. The profits were used to support the maintenance costs of the villa or chateau. Some of the common kinds of plants integrated into the elaborate [[Italian Renaissance garden|Renaissance garden]] designs included [[Ficus|figs]], [[Pear|pears]], [[Apple|apples]], [[Strawberry|strawberries]], [[cabbage]], [[leek]]s, [[onion]]s, and [[pea]]s.<ref name="":0"" /> 

It is believed that English [[cottage garden]]s were originally created by village workers during Elizabethan times as a personal source of vegetables. [[Flower]]s were also planted within these gardens for ornamental purposes.<ref name="":16"">Scott-James, Anne. ''The Cottage Garden''. Allen Lane, 1981.</ref>

=== Recent trends ===
==== Urban growth ====
[[File:Urbanization over the past 500 years (Historical sources and UN (1500 to 2016)), OWID.svg|thumb|300x300px|Urban population growth over the past 500 years]]
As a result of rapid urbanization seen in recent decades, methods of [[Food industry|food production]] have undergone significant change.<ref name="":1"">Karaca, Elif. ""Edible Landscapes as a Solution to Food Security Problem"". ''Theory and Practice in Social Sciences'', edited by Viliyan Krystev, et al., St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, 2019, pp. 227–36.</ref> According to [[United Nations|the United Nations]], the Earth's [[Urban area|urban population]] has ""grown rapidly from 746 million in 1950 to 3.9&nbsp;billion in 2014"".<ref>""World's population increasingly urban with more than half living in urban areas"". ''United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs'', 10 July 2014, www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/world-urbanization-prospects-2014.html. Accessed 13 April 2020.</ref> These accelerated trends in urbanization and population density during the late 20th and 21st century have placed stress on the availability of agricultural land and contributed to growing [[Food security|food insecurity]].<ref name="":1"" /> As a result, there has been an increased desire to re-introduce food growth into [[Urban area|urban environments]].<ref name="":0"" /> The ongoing rise in the [[World population|human population]], as well as international goals to reduce hunger and [[malnutrition]], have further escalated the demand for food nutrients.<ref>Myers, Melvin L. ""Agriculture and Natural Resources Based Industries"". ''Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety,'' edited by Jeanne M. Stellman, vol. 3, International Labour Office, 1988.</ref>
It is believed that these factors have increased the number of people adopting foodscaping strategies.<ref name="":0"" />

== Sustainability ==
=== Food security ===
Foodscaping is widely accepted as a way of increasing [[food security]], availability, and accessibility.<ref>Stefani, Monique C., et al. (2018). ""Toward the Creation of Urban Foodscapes: Case Studies of Successful Urban Agriculture Projects for Income Generation, Food Security, and Social Cohesion"". ''Urban Horticulture:'' ''Sustainability for the Future'', edited by Dilip Nandwani, Springer, 2018, p. 91.</ref> The instability of supermarket food prices can largely affect the availability of food. As ""self-sufficient food systems"", edible landscapes are able to help decrease a household's dependence on imported food. Foodscaping provides these households with access to a sustainable food source, even when faced with unpredictable circumstances such as the inability to procure food from commercial stores or periods of low financial income.<ref name="":1"" /> 

Depending on the size and scale of the premise, there can be significant financial costs involved in the initial design and creation of edible landscaping.<ref name="":7"">Conway, Tenley M. ""Home-based Edible Gardening: Urban Residents' Motivations and Barriers"". ''Cities and the Environment'', vol. 9, no. 1, 2016, article 3, pp. 1–21. ''Digital Commons'', digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cate/vol9/iss1/3/. Accessed 4 April 2020.</ref> However, it is still generally accepted that foodscaping can help to lower food costs once the products of the edible plants have been [[harvest]]ed.<ref name="":4"" />

In increasing the quantity of locally grown and consumed produce, foodscaping also promotes local [[Sustainable food system|food sustainability]].<ref name="":5"">Arthur, Brie. ''The Foodscape Revolution: Finding a Better Way to Make Space for Food and Beauty in Your Garden.'' Pennsylvania, St. Lynn’s Press, 2017.</ref> It is also believed that foodscaping can help to address the demand for food within the context of [[list of global issues|global issues]] such as [[overpopulation]], an [[Global warming|unpredictable climate]] and [[Resource depletion|waning energy resources]].<ref name="":8"">Tovey, Nina. ""Grow food not lawns with the fertile world of foodscaping"". ''Endeavour College of Natural Health'', 10 November 2014, www.endeavour.edu.au/about-us/blog/grow-food-not-lawns-with-the-fertile-world-of-foodscaping/. Accessed 16 April 2020.</ref>

=== Energy and waste management ===
Large-scale agricultural premises typically require large amounts of energy, such as the use of [[Diesel fuel|diesel]], [[propane]], and electricity to carry out farming operations.<ref>Hicks, Susan. ""Energy for growing and harvesting crops is a large component of farm operating costs"". ''U.S. Energy Information Administration'', 17 October 2014, www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=18431. Accessed 20 April 2020.</ref> The practice of edible landscaping often uses less energy and produces less [[waste]] than traditional methods of food production. This is because the food products cultivated from edible landscaping usually involve little [[Food processing|processing]], [[Food packaging|packaging]] or [[refrigeration]].<ref name="":1"" />

Foodscaping can also help reduce [[food miles]] by decreasing the need for long-distance transportation of food.<ref name="":5"" /> ""A grocery store has on average 1,500 miles per product"", says horticulturalists and foodscaping advocate Brie Arthur. These ship and truck [[Greenhouse gas|emissions]] leave a harmful [[carbon footprint]] which could be reduced through the practice of growing edible plants at home instead of buying fresh produce.<ref name="":11"" /> Foodscaping can further allow participants to help reduce the use of fossil fuel-based [[pesticide]]s and [[fertilizer]]s which negatively impact the environment.<ref name="":1"" />

=== Health and nutrition ===
A common motivation behind foodscaping is the desire to grow, cook and consume foods of high [[Nutrition|nutritious]] content.<ref name="":13"">Eastman, Janet. ""Change out plants for ones you can eat: 'Foodscaping' edible landscape"". ''The Oregonian/Oregon Live'', 31 July 2015, www.oregonlive.com/hg/2015/07/edible_landscape_charlie_nardo.html. Accessed 16 Apr.</ref> In a 2014 research survey conducted by the Australian Institute, 71% of surveyed foodscaping households in Australia were incorporating edibles into their gardens for the primary purpose of having access to fresh, healthier produce.<ref>Wise, Poppy. ""Grow Your Own: The potential value and impacts of residential and community food gardening"". ''The Australian Institute'', 31 March 2014, www.tai.org.au/content/grow-your-own. Accessed 13 April 2020.</ref> It is generally accepted that homegrown fruits and vegetables are fresher and more nutritious than supermarket produce, which is sometimes sold multiple days or even weeks after harvesting.<ref name="":2"">Spellman, Frank R., & Joan Price-Bayer. ''Regulating Food Additives: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly''. Rowman & Littlefield, 2019.</ref>

In recent years, there has been increasing concern expressed towards the health effects of the [[Food additive|chemical additives]] and preservatives in commercially grown fruit and vegetables.<ref name="":2"" /> Foodscaping has been considered a way to reduce exposure to chemically modified produce.<ref>Dolce, Anne. ""What is Foodscaping?"" ''The Daily Meal'', 5 June 2013, www.thedailymeal.com/foodscaping-fancy-word-gardening-or-important-initiative. Accessed 13 April 2020.</ref>

Edible landscaping allows participants to increase fresh food production in urban areas. In these areas, the most accessible kinds of food are typically processed kinds, which can lead to greater dietary intakes of sugar, [[sodium]] and fat.<ref name="":1"" /> Many academic studies have inferred strong links between [[Urban agriculture|urban gardening]] and healthy lifestyle choices. The gardening practices involved in foodscaping are believed to increase participants' fruit and vegetable consumption and the value of preparing nutritious meals.<ref name="":3"">Garcia, Mariana T., et al. ""The impact of urban gardens on adequate and healthy food: a systematic review"". ''Public Health Nutrition'', vol. 21, no. 2, Feb. 2018, pp. 416–25, {{doi|10.1017/S1368980017002944}} Accessed 16 April 2020.</ref>

Research has also demonstrated that the creation of green spaces (created via methods such as foodscaping) can lead to an increase in individual's overall mental health in addition to physiological health benefits. This is achieved through its positive impact on socioeconomic factors such as community attachment, reduced crime, and socialization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Charles R. |last2=Knuth |first2=Melinda J. |date=2019-12-01 |title=An Update of the Literature Supporting the Well-Being Benefits of Plants: Part 3 - Social Benefits |journal=Journal of Environmental Horticulture |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=136–142 |doi=10.24266/0738-2898-37.4.136 |issn=0738-2898|doi-access=free }}</ref> 

== Maintenance ==
=== Input ===
Depending on the scale of the edible landscape, foodscaping may require extra time and manual labour to maintain than a regular garden or [[landscape]].<ref name="":0"" /> This is as the aim of foodscaping is to yield edible returns whilst also remaining aesthetically pleasing,<ref name="":4"" /> which may involve added watering, [[Fertilizer|fertilization]], [[pest control]] and [[pruning]].<ref name="":0"" /> A lack of time and unsuitable conditions such as [[climate]] and insufficient shade can be significant deterrents for people wishing to create edible landscapes.<ref name="":7"" /> However, maintenance requirements can be reduced by choosing [[Flora|plant species]] that are suited to the geographic location, climate and conditions of the area to be foodscaped.<ref name="":4"" />

=== Harvesting ===
During certain times of the year, regularly monitoring the [[Ripening|ripeness]] of food production is a requirement of successful foodscaping.<ref name="":0"" /> If fruits are not harvested at the correct time, they may rot and become visually unappealing within an edible landscape. This may also attract undesired pests or [[vermin]].<ref name="":4"" />

== Plants ==
[[File:Allium schoenoprasum in NH 01.jpg|thumb|Flowering chives make a colourful addition to an edible landscape.]]
[[File:Row of Swiss Chard at Phipps Conservatory.jpeg|thumb|A row of Swiss chard at [[Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens|Phipps Conservatory]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Swiss chard is often used in foodscaping for its vibrant colours.]]
Plants in foodscaping designs are typically chosen for their aesthetic and edible appeal.<ref name="":13"" /> There are many vegetables which can add colour to foodscaping spaces. [[Chard|Swiss chard]], [[cabbage]] and lettuce species come in many colourful varieties, making them a popular choice for foodscaping.<ref name="":5"" /> Edible flowers, such as [[Dianthus caryophyllus|carnations]], [[Tagetes erecta|marigolds]], [[Centaurea cyanus|cornflowers]] and [[Pansy|pansies]] can also be used to add decoration and brightness to an edible landscape.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-01-12 |title=Foodscaping: A ""New"" Way To Create A Garden |url=http://gardenculturemagazine.com/foodscaping-a-new-way-to-create-a-garden/ |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=Garden Culture Magazine |language=en-CA}}</ref>

Garden writer Charlie Nardozzi suggests that lemon, apple, [[plum]] and [[cherry]] trees can serve as edible alternatives for ornamental trees. He also proposes that [[blueberry]], [[Sambucus|elderberry]] and [[gooseberry]] plants can substitute popular decorative shrubs such as [[rose]]s, [[hydrangea]]s and [[Hedge|privet hedges]]. [[Fragaria vesca|Alpine strawberries]] and [[chives]] have also been suggested as suitable replacements for non-edible flowering plants.<ref name="":02"">Nardozzi, Charlie. ''Foodscaping: Practical and Innovative Ways to Create an Edible Landscape.'' Massachusetts, Cool Springs Press, 2015.</ref>

Edible landscapes generally consist of a combination of [[Annual plant|annual]] and [[Perennial plant|perennial]] plants.<ref name="":5"" /> When planning an edible landscape, it is important to be aware that certain plants require particular environmental conditions.<ref name="":4"" /> One should also consider the seasonality of the edible plants being used, meaning the time of the year during which a certain species will grow best. [[Crop|Cool season crops]] require lower temperatures for growth and [[Germination|seed germination]], whilst [[Crop|warm season crops]] are plants that thrive in higher [[soil]] and [[Temperature|air temperatures]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-20 |title=“Cool” vegetables for you to grow this spring |url=https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/cool_vegetables_for_you_to_grow_this_spring |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=MSU Extension |language=en-us}}</ref> In hot climates, the ideal plants for foodscaping are those that require little water, such as [[bean]]s, [[spinach]] and [[broccoli]]. Whilst certain fruit trees, [[Berry|berries]] and [[rhubarb]] are suitable for cooler climates, [[List of root vegetables|root vegetables]], [[cabbage]]s and [[pea]]s are examples of plants that cope well in extremely cold conditions.<ref name="":19"">{{Cite web |title=5 reasons to try foodscaping your lawn |url=https://www.saveonenergy.com/resources/try-foodscaping-your-lawn/ |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=SaveOnEnergy.com |language=en}}</ref>
{| class=""wikitable""
|+Examples of plants used in foodscaping<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rousseau |first=Nicolas |date=2016-10-17 |title=Grouping Vegetables According to Plant Families {{!}} Louis Bonduelle... |url=https://www.fondation-louisbonduelle.org/en/my-vegetable-garden/grouping-vegetables-according-to-plant-families/ |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=Fondation Louis Bonduelle |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Plants Portal {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/browse/Plants |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} </ref>
!Plant Family
!Examples
|-
|[[Amaranthaceae]]
|[[Chard]] • [[spinach]] • [[quinoa]] • [[beetroot]] • [[glasswort]]
|-
|[[Apiaceae]]
|[[Carrots]] • [[celery]] • [[Coriander|cilantro/coriander]] • [[cumin]] • [[fennel]] • [[parsley]] • [[parsnip]]s • [[anise]] • [[chervil]] • [[dill]] • [[anise]]  • [[parsnip]] • [[caraway]]
|-
|[[Asteraceae]]
|[[Artichoke]]s • [[chamomile]] • [[cardoon]]s • [[tarragon]] • [[lettuce]] • [[endive]] • [[Taraxacum|dandelions]] • [[chicory]] • [[calendula]] • [[Solidago|golden rod]] • [[chrysanthemum]] • [[Centaurea cyanus|cornflower]] • [[echinacea]] • [[elecampane]] • [[Tanacetum parthenium|feverfew]] • [[Calothamnus rupestris|mouse ears •]] [[mugwort]] • [[Stevia (genus)|stevia]] • [[pansy]] • [[bellis perennis]] • [[Cnicus|blessed thistle]] • [[Baccharis halimifolia|groundsel]]
|-
|[[Brassicaceae]]
|[[Broccoli]] • [[kale]] • [[cabbage]] • [[cauliflower]] • [[Brussels sprout]]s • [[Mustard plant|mustard]] • [[Collard (plant)|collard]]
|-
|[[Ericaceae]]
|[[Blueberry|Blueberries]] • [[Huckleberry|huckleberries]] • [[rhododendron]] • [[Azalea]]s 
|-
|[[Lamiaceae]]
|[[Salvia officinalis|Sage]] • [[rosemary]] • [[thyme]] • [[oregano]] • [[basil]] • [[catnip]] • [[Lavandula|lavender]] • [[marjoram]] • [[Marrubium vulgare|white horehound]] • [[peppermint]] • [[spearmint]]
|-
|[[Liliaceae]]
|[[Garlic]] • [[asparagus]] • [[chives]] • [[shallot]]s • [[onion]]s • [[leek]]s • [[Tulip]]s • [[fritillaria]] • [[Lilium|lilies]]
|-
|[[Rosaceae]]
|[[Strawberry|Strawberries]] • [[Cherry|cherries]] • [[Raspberry|raspberries]] • [[Blackberry|blackberries]] • [[pears]] • [[Apples|apple]] • [[plum]]s • [[peach]]es • [[apricot]]s • [[quince]]s • [[almond]]
|-
|[[Solanaceae]]
|[[Tomato]]es • [[tomatillo]]s • [[Bell pepper|capsicum/bell peppers]] • [[Potato|potatoes]] • [[eggplant]] • [[chili pepper]]s
|}
<gallery>
File:Beetroot Bettolo Capel Manor Enfield London England.jpg|alt=Beetroot (beta vulgaris)|Beetroot (''[[Beta vulgaris]]'')
File:Cabbage plant.jpg|alt=Cabbage (brassica oleracea var. capitata)|Cabbage ([[Cabbage|''Brassica oleracea var. capitata'']])
File:Tomatoes on the Vine (Unsplash).jpg|alt=Tomato vine (solanum lycopersicum)|Tomato vine ([[Tomato|''Solanum lycopersicum'']])
File:Capsicum annuum var. Fiesta - MHNT.jpg|alt=Chili peppers (capsicum annuum)|Chili peppers (''[[Capsicum annuum]]'')
File:Salvia rosmarinus (10-04-2020), vue en gros plan.jpg|alt=Flowering rosemary (salvia rosmarinus)|Flowering rosemary ([[Rosemary|''Salvia rosmarinus'']])
File:Plums.jpg|alt=Plum (prunus domestica)|Plum (''[[Prunus domestica]]'')
File:Single raspberry on bush.jpg|alt=Raspberry (rubus idaeus)|Raspberry (''[[Rubus idaeus]]'')
File:Calendula flower orange-yellow.jpg|alt=Calendula flower (calendula officinalis)|Calendula flower (''[[Calendula officinalis]]'')
File:Tagetes-Marigold-Flower 04.jpg|alt=Marigold flower (tagetes erecta)|Marigold flower (''[[Tagetes erecta]]'')
File:Chamomile@original size.jpg|alt=Camomile flower (matricaria chamomilla)|Camomile flower (''[[Matricaria chamomilla]]'')
File:Cornflower.jpg|Cornflower (''[[Centaurea cyanus]]'')
File:Viola tricolor pansy flower close up.jpg|alt=Pansy flower (viola tricolor var. hortensis)|Pansy flower ([[Pansy|''Viola tricolor var. hortensis'']])
</gallery><br />

== Examples of foodscaping ==

=== People ===
Landscape designer and author [[Rosalind Creasy]] has frequently been named the ""pioneer of edible landscapes"" in gardening-related media and publications.<ref>Long, Jim. ""The Pioneer of Edible Landscapes"". ''Mother Earth Gardener'', 2012, www.motherearthgardener.com/profiles/people/edible-landscapes-zmaz12uzfol. Accessed 13 April 2020.</ref> Since the 1970s, she has written over twenty books on the topic of edible landscaping.<ref name="":11"" /> One of her most influential works in the field of foodscaping is her book ''The Complete Book of Edible Landscaping'', published in 1982. 

Brie Arthur is an American professional [[Horticulture|horticulturalist]] who has been noted as a public advocate for the practice of suburban foodscaping.<ref name="":11"">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2018-03-10 |title=Gardening: Foodscapes -- where beauty co-exists with bounty |url=https://richmond.com/gardening-foodscapes----where-beauty-co-exists-with-bounty/article_d0354510-7fc1-5812-8fb0-60f9285f9b26.html |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=Richmond Times-Dispatch |language=en}}</ref> In order to challenge the idea that ornamental landscapes can't involve edible plants, she has spoken publicly at schools, worked with television programs, and been involved in various horticulture-related associations.<ref>Drotleff, Laura. ""Foodscaping Challenges Conventional Ideas About Landscaping"". ''Greenhouse Grower'', 9 December 2015, www.greenhousegrower.com/management/foodscaping-challenges-conventional-ideas-about-landscaping/. Accessed 16 April 2020.</ref> Her debut book titled ''The Foodscape Revolution, Finding a Better Way to Make Space for Food and Beauty in Your Garden'' was published in 2017.

=== Public projects ===
[[File:SchlossVillandryGarten03.jpg|thumb|298x298px|High angle view of six of the nine square vegetable patches in the chateau of Villandry's Ornamental Kitchen Garden]]The Ornamental Kitchen Garden is an edible landscape on the grounds of the [[Château de Villandry|château of Villandry]], located in the [[Loire Valley]] region of France. The [[Italian Renaissance garden|Italian Renaissance-style]] garden is composed of nine square patches, which each feature a geometric design of [[flower]]s and vegetables whose design layouts changes with each bi-annual planting. These patches are lined with neat [[Hedge|box hedges]] and each display vegetables of different colours such [[red cabbage]], [[beetroot]] and blue [[leek]]. Each year, forty species of vegetables within eight plant families are planted.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite web |date=2022-02-01 |title=Explore the château and gardens of Villandry |url=https://www.chateauvillandry.fr/chateau-gardens/?lang=en |access-date=2024-03-14 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Based in [[Iowa]], Backyard Abundance is a non-profit organization founded in 2006 that aims to educate more people about edible landscaping. They encourage community residents to take part in creating transformative [[landscape]]s that can help to reduce [[human impact on the environment]].

Founded in [[Kansas]], 2006, Edible Estates is a foodscaping initiative that works with local art institutions and community garden groups in different cities around the world to create productive edible landscape designs.<ref name="":14"">{{Cite web |last=Oberst |first=Lindsay |date=2018-09-12 |title=Edible Landscapes: 15 Organizations Around the World That Are Helping Turn Green Spaces and Yards into Places for Healthy, Fresh Food |url=https://foodrevolution.org/blog/edible-landscaping/ |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=Food Revolution Network |language=en-US}}</ref>

Edible Landscapes London is a non-profit organization that creates productive [[forest gardening]] spaces that integrate fruiting trees and herbs. They created the first-ever accredited course which trains people in forest gardening practices. According to Lindsay Oberst in an article on Food Revolution Network, Edible Estates ""strives to inspire others to look at underused or misappropriated green spaces in a new light, highlighting new contexts for [[Food industry|food production]] and connections to the [[natural environment]]"".<ref name="":14"" />

[[New York University|NYU's]] Urban Farm Lab is a collaborative [[urban agriculture]] project promoting the integration of edible crops into [[Urban area|urban environments]]. They have implemented foodscaping techniques in many spots around the university's campus.<ref name="":9"">Kirschner, Kylie. ""Edible Landscapes in a Concrete Jungle"". ''Washington Square News'', 24 Mar 2019, nyunews.com/culture/dining/2019/03/25/nyu-urban-landscaping-efforts/. Accessed 16 March 2020.</ref>

[[Eden Project|The Eden Project]] is a sustainability project in [[Cornwall]], England, which attracts over a million yearly visitors.<ref name="":8"" /> The 15-hectare site features large domes and a food garden, where edible produce has been incorporated into the landscaping design.<ref name="":8"" />

The Food Forest is a property in [[Adelaide]], Australia, which grows 160 varieties of [[Organic food|organic]] fruit, nuts, wheat, and vegetables on 15 hectares of land. The owners educate visitors on how ordinary families can grow their own food at home by creating productive foodscapes.<ref name="":8"" />

The [[Netherlands]]’ first ""roof field"" was created on top of a large office building near [[Rotterdam Centraal station|Rotterdam's central station]] in 2012 by Binder Groenprojecten. The 1000m<sup>2</sup> ""roof field"" is used to grow vegetables, fruits, and Herbs, and also houses [[Honeybees (food)|honeybees]].<ref name="":10"">Sjauw En Wa, Amar. ""Roof fields, Schieblok Rotterdam"". ''Urban Green-Blue Grids'', www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/projects/roof-fields-schieblok-rotterdam/. Accessed 5 May 2020.</ref>

Wayward is a [[landscaping]], art and architecture firm based in London who combine creative food growing with [[contemporary art]] and architecture installations.<ref name="":14"" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Agriculture|Food|Gardening}}

{{div col|colwidth=22em|content=*[[Allotment garden]]
*[[Aquascaping]]
*[[Back garden]]
*[[Climate-friendly gardening]]
*[[Community garden]]
*[[Computer-aided garden design]]
*[[Flower garden]]
*[[Forest gardening]]
*[[Garden designer]]
*[[Garden buildings]]
*[[Index of gardening articles]]
*[[Landscape architecture]]
*[[List of gardening topics]]
*[[Open Garden]]s
*[[Naturescaping]]
*[[Pizza farm]]
*[[Roof garden]]
*[[Royal Horticultural Society]]
*[[Sustainable landscaping]]
*[[Urban horticulture]]
*[[Vertical farming]]
*[[Victory garden]]
*[[Xeriscaping]]}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}{{Horticulture and gardening}}
{{Sustainability}}

[[Category:Urban agriculture]]
[[Category:Horticulture]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Permaculture]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]"
Growth imperative,"{{Short description|Economic concept}}
[[File:World_GDP_per_capita_1500_to_2003.svg|thumb|The role of growth imperatives for the increase in the global [[gross domestic product]] per capita is disputed.]]

'''Growth imperative''' is a term in economic theory regarding a possible necessity of [[economic growth]]. On the micro level, it describes mechanisms that force [[firm]]s or consumers (households) to increase [[revenue]]s or consumption to not endanger their income. On the macro level, a political growth imperative exists if economic growth is necessary to avoid economic and social instability or to retain democratic legitimacy, so that other political goals such as [[climate change mitigation]] or a reduction of inequality are subordinated to growth policies.<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""ferguson2019""/>

Current [[Neoclassical economics|neoclassical]], [[Keynesian economics|Keynesian]] and [[endogenous growth theory|endogenous growth theories]] do not consider a growth imperative<ref name=""lange""/> or explicitly deny it, such as [[Robert Solow]].<ref name=""solowstoll""/> In neoclassical economics, adherence to economic growth would be a question of maximizing utility, an intertemporal decision between current and future consumption (see [[Keynes–Ramsey rule]]).<ref name=""gordon""/> Other sociological and political theories consider several possible causes for pursuing economic growth, for example maximizing [[profit (accounting)|profit]], social comparison, [[culture]] ([[conformity]]), or political [[Ideology|ideologies]], but they do not regard them to be compulsive. Possible growth imperatives are discussed in [[Marxian economics|Marxist theory]], [[Schumpeterian]] theory of [[creative destruction]] and [[ecological economics]], as well as in political debates on [[post-growth]] and [[degrowth]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nelson |first=Anitra |date=2024-01-31 |title=Degrowth as a Concept and Practice : Introduction |url=https://commonslibrary.org/degrowth-as-a-concept-and-practice-introduction/ |access-date=2024-02-23 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref> It is disputed whether growth imperative is a meaningful concept altogether, who would be affected by it, and which mechanism would be responsible.<ref name=""richters_contested""/>

== Meaning and definitions ==

At the [[macroeconomic]] or political level, the concept of growth imperatives is used by some authors when there seems to be no acceptable political alternative to [[economic growth]],<ref name=""scherhorn""/> because insufficient growth would lead to economic and social instability<ref name=""paech""/> up to ""severe economic crises"".<ref name=""flotow""/> The alternative to growth would not be a stable [[Steady-state economy|stationary economy]], but uncontrolled shrinkage.<ref name=""binswanger_wachstumsspirale""/><ref name=""binswoyn""/> The consequences of a renunciation of growth would be inacceptable so that growth appears politically without alternative.<ref name=""richters_contested""/> While some search for purely ""structural theoretical explanations for the commitment to growth"",<ref name=""ferguson119""/> others argue that this macroeconomic phenomenon must be examined at the micro level in line with [[methodological individualism]] to explain how and why individual actors (firms, consumers) act and how this interacts with collective structures, and correspondingly study the growth of enterprises with [[microeconomics]] and [[business administration]] and the increase of [[consumption (economics)|consumption]] using [[Consumption (sociology)|consumption sociology]] or [[consumer choice]] theory.<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""deutschmann_wsi""/>

The discussion on growth imperatives is part of a standing debate over the primacy of [[structure or agency]] in shaping human behavior. In the social sciences the term social coercion is used when situation-related circumstances<ref name=""lane""/> or strong social pressure<ref name=""sullivan""/> determine the behaviour.<ref name=""richters_contested""/> According to Marxist theory, a coercion for firms to ""grow or die"" is due to economic competition.<ref name=""smith""/><ref name=""foster""/> According to these Marxists, capitalism ""cannot stand still, but must always be either expanding or contracting"".<ref name=""ferguson76""/> Similarly, the [[Environmental economics|environmental economist]] {{ill|Hans Christoph Binswanger|de}} speaks of a growth imperative for firms only when they are existentially threatened by steadily declining profits and ultimately bankruptcy; in other cases he uses the weaker term growth driver.<ref name=""binswanger_wachstumsspirale""/><ref name=""spiral""/><ref name=""seidl24""/><ref name=""mugier""/><ref name=""wenzlaff""/> These definitions can be summarized that a growth imperative exists if exterior conditions make it necessary for agents to increase their economic efforts as to avoid existential consequences.<ref name=""richters_contested""/>

== Microeconomic theories ==

=== Firms ===
[[File:Marx_-_Das_Kapital_-_1867_-_DHM_retusche.jpg|thumb|''[[Das Kapital]]'' by [[Karl Marx]] contains the first theory of a growth imperative, which is still disputed today.]]

The first theory of a growth imperative is attributed<ref name=""gordon""/> to [[Karl Marx]]. In [[capitalism]], zero growth is not possible, because of the mechanisms of competition and [[Capital accumulation|accumulation]].<ref name=""radkau""/><ref name=""marxde""/><ref name=""marxen""/>

{{Quote|[T]he development of capitalist production makes it constantly necessary to keep increasing the amount of the capital laid out in a given industrial undertaking, and competition makes the immanent laws of capitalist production to be felt by each individual capitalist, as external coercive laws. It compels him to keep constantly extending his capital, in order to preserve it, but extend it he cannot, except by means of progressive accumulation.|author=[[Karl Marx]] |title=|source=}}

Therefore, a company's growth is considered necessary to ensure the survival of the company (""grow or die""<ref name=""smith"" /><ref name=""foster""/>): ""investment is not an option, or a discretionary decision, it is an imperative that constrains every capitalists' actions and governs the overall economy""<ref name=""pineault""/> Correspondingly, some authors argue that the compulsion to grow can only be defused by overcoming structures of [[market economy|market economies]], or by pushing back profit-oriented companies that impropriate the [[surplus value]].<ref name=""smith""/><ref name=""foster""/><ref name=""blauwhof""/><ref name=""karathan""/><ref name=""annrev""/><ref name=""kallissoc""/> Other authors {{Who|date=January 2021}} criticize this Marxist perspective: a company could be profitable without growth if a positive [[accounting profit]] is distributed as [[dividend]] to the owners. Only if [[net income]] had to be retained, companies would be compelled to grow.<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""ferguson2019""/><ref name=""lawn""/> If a company shows an [[accounting profit]], it has not yet achieved an [[economic profit]] in the economic sense, because a return on equity and an entrepreneurial salary would have to be paid from it - the profit would not necessarily be available for growth. Therefore, a market economy with profit-oriented companies is compatible with zero growth, as it is in the models of [[Neoclassical economics|neoclassical theory]] (→ [[zero-profit condition]]).<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""lange""/><ref name=""richters_marktwirtschaft_49-59""/>

[[File:Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg|thumb|The link between technical progress and resource use is disputed]]

On the basis of concepts of [[evolutionary economics]], other authors point out that firms can become dependent on growth as a result of certain economic conditions. [[Joseph Schumpeter]]<ref name=""schump""/> had described the [[creative destruction]] in which the existence of firms is endangered if they cannot keep up with the [[innovation]] [[competition (economics)|competition]]. This is interpreted as a need to invest in new technologies and to expand production<ref name=""paech""/><ref name=""lawn""/><ref name=""richters_marktwirtschaft_S96-116""/> - but which investments would be necessary can only be understood in the light of [[growth theory]]. Within [[Neoclassical economics|neoclassical]] [[growth accounting]] it is largely undisputed that only [[technological change]] and new combinations of [[factors of production]] make [[sustainable growth]] of firms and per capita income possible.<ref name=""lange""/><ref name=""hulten""/><ref name=""blanchard""/> However, the contribution of single production factors to economic growth has been disputed for decades:<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""stern1""/> While [[endogenous growth theory]] concentrates on the role of [[human capital]] (ideas, education, innovations),<ref name=""jones""/><ref name=""rosen""/> proponents of [[ecological economics|ecological]] or [[environmental economics]] emphasize the importance of energy consumption as well as [[raw material]]s, which are often [[non-renewable resource]]s (e.g. [[fossil fuel]]s).<ref name=""kümmel""/><ref name=""kümlind""/><ref name=""ayreswarr""/><ref name=""ozturk""/> While from the human capital perspective no ecologically damaging growth imperative arises, the resource perspective emphasizes that raw material consumption is lucrative for firms because it allows them to substitute expensive labour with cheaper machines. Accordingly, they would constantly invest in new resource-intensive technologies plus the human capital needed for development, which increases resource consumption and compensates advances in [[efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] ([[Rebound effect (conservation)|rebound effects]]).<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""grahl""/>

There is also disagreement as to whether these dependencies can be overcome at the company level - provided that this is desired by the owners or the management. Proposals include new management practices, changes in product range, supply chains and distribution channels,<ref name=""paech""/><ref name=""reichel""/> as well as the creation of solidarity enterprises, collective enterprises<ref name=""lange""/><ref name=""annrev""/> and [[cooperative]]s.<ref name=""posse""/><ref name=""gebauer""/> Other authors call for [[institution]]al solutions: reforms of [[corporate law]] to overcome the legal constraint of public limited companies to maximise profits,<ref name=""binswanger_vorwaerts""/> reforms of [[competition law]] to prevent [[externality|externalisation]] at the expense of [[Common good (economics)|common goods]],<ref name=""scherhorn129""/> or an institutional limitation of resource consumption and/or increasing their costs through [[ecotax]]es or [[emissions trading]] ([[Cap and Trade]]), so that technical innovations would put a stronger focus on resource productivity instead of labour productivity.<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""richters_marktwirtschaft_S96-116""/>

=== Private households ===
[[File:Hand_held_phones.JPG|thumb|Smart phone and car: voluntary consumption or necessary increases of individual productivity?]]

An imperative for private households to increase their [[income]] and [[consumption (economics)|consumption expenditure]] is rarely discussed.<ref name=""siemoneit-offer""/> In [[Neoclassical economics|neoclassical]] [[consumer choice|household theory]], households try to [[homo economicus|maximize their utility]], whereby, in contrast to the [[profit (accounting)|profit]] maximization of firms, they are not subject to market imperatives.<ref name=""richters_contested""/> Therefore, a growth imperative is usually not assumed here, but rather a free decision between current and future consumption.<ref name=""gordon""/> This ""intertemporal optimization"" is represented, for example, by the [[Keynes-Ramsey rule]].<ref name=""blanchard89""/> In consumption sociology various theories of [[consumer society]] examine the influence of [[social norm]]s on consumption decisions. Examples are [[conspicuous consumption]], which was addressed as early as 1899 by [[Thorstein Veblen]] in his book ''[[The Theory of the Leisure Class]]'',<ref name=""veblen""/> or competition with [[positional good]]s, which was described by [[Fred Hirsch (professor)|Fred Hirsch]] in 1976 in the book ''Social Limits to Growth''.<ref name=""hirsch""/> Some authors claim that comparison with others and the unfair distribution of income and power would lead to a growth imperative for consumers: Consumers would have to work and consume more and more in order to achieve a minimum level of social participation,<ref name=""sturn""/> because the economically weak are stigmatised.<ref name=""rogall-S131""/> The reasons given for this behaviour are fear and powerlessness, guilt and shame. However, whether these theories can actually justify a compulsion to increase consumption is disputed, as long as it is not a matter of securing one's livelihood (for example because of unemployment).<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""paech_öwi""/>

Another line of argument views certain consumption decisions rather as [[investment]]s for future growth,<ref name=""perrotta"" /> but sometimes to increase one's own productivity.<ref name=""siemoneit-offer""/> Technical products such as vehicles, kitchen appliances or smartphones were used to save time and retain opportunities to earn an income. Over time, these goods would become a necessity, therefore a compulsion to increase one's consumption expenditure could be derived in order to not be left behind technically and economically.<ref name=""richters_contested""/>

== Macroeconomic theories ==

=== Political resp. macroeconomic growth imperative ===
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 08DecentWork.svg|thumb|Economic growth is part of goal 8 of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]]]]
Economic growth has been formulated as an important economic policy goal for decades.<ref name=""schmelzerecol""/><ref name=""schmelzer_hegemony""/> Examples include the ""growth duty"" in British legislation,<ref name=""growthduty""/> but also the Canadian [[Jobs and Growth Act]], the [[African Growth and Opportunity Act]] or the [[European Union|European]] [[Stability and Growth Pact]] of 1997. This has been criticised as politically adhering to a dogma or ideology by some critics of growth.<ref name=""stratmann""/><ref name=""rivera""/><ref name=""barry""/>

The theory of a political growth imperative, on the other hand, argues that economic growth would be necessary to avoid economic or social instability and to retain democratic legitimacy, or to guarantee [[national security]] and international competition.<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""ferguson2019""/> Some authors stress that public finances<ref name=""seidlstaat""/> or [[social insurance]] systems such as [[unemployment insurance]] or [[pension]]s are dependent on growth.<ref name=""paech_öwi""/><ref name=""höpflinger""/> [[Raghuram Rajan]] sees the cause primarily in political promises that are inherent to social systems.<ref name=""rajan""/> Unemployment, which would occur in the event of [[technical progress]] and simultaneous lack of [[economic growth]], is identified as a central problem ([[Okun's law]]).<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""antal""/><ref name=""antal2""/><ref name=""jacksongreen""/> Thus, growth above the employment threshold is repeatedly called for in political debates, in order to reduce unemployment.<ref name=""rivera""/> Growth enhancing state investment, but also numerous incentives for private investment would not be simply politician's free will but indispensable to prevent social instability through mass unemployment.<ref name=""richters_contested""/> This situation would be aggravated by international [[competition (economics)|competition]] and [[free trade]].<ref name=""schmelzer_hegemony""/>

As a way out, a redirection of technological development with the help of resource taxes is discussed ([[ecotax]], [[emissions trading]]),<ref name=""binswanger_vorwaerts""/><ref name=""richters_wege""/> but also a general reduction of [[working time]] to reduce unemployment.<ref name=""D'Alisa"" /><ref name=""videira"" /><ref name=""ferguson"" /> At the same time, a more equal distribution of income is demanded, either by fighting the privatisation of [[economic rent]]s such as [[land rent]] or [[resource rent]] (→ [[rentier state]]),<ref name=""richters_contested"" /><ref name=""richters_marktwirtschaft_S96-153"" /><ref name=""stratford"" /> or by calling for an unconditional [[basic income]].<ref name=""ferguson"" />

=== Monetary system and the role of positive interest rates ===

For a long time,<ref name=""onken""/> several authors especially from German-speaking countries<ref name=""strunz1""/> have been locating a macroeconomic growth imperative in the monetary system, especially due to the combination of [[credit money]] and [[compound interest]]. This is considered to lead inevitably and system-immanently to an [[exponential growth]] of [[debt]] and interest-bearing deposits.<ref name=""douthwaite""/><ref name=""lietaer""/><ref name=""walter""/> Some proponents of post-growth would derive a general criticism of positive interest rates from that and support ideas such as [[Demurrage (currency)|demurrage]] on currency, a concept from [[Freiwirtschaft]],<ref name=""onken""/><ref name=""suhr""/><ref name=""bender""/><ref name=""creutz""/><ref name=""kennedy""/> or [[full-reserve banking]].<ref name=""farley""/>

A second line of argument goes back to {{ill|Hans Christoph Binswanger|de}}, his doctoral student Guido Beltrani,<ref name=""beltrani""/> and his son {{ill|Mathias Binswanger|de}}.<ref name=""JPKE2009""/><ref name=""binschapter""/> They argue<ref name=""consistencyanalysis""/> that ""a portion of money is constantly removed from circulation"" by banks<ref name=""spiral131""/> which is mainly responsible for the growth imperative.<ref name=""wachstumsspirale131""/><ref name=""binsJPKE""/> In his book ''The Growth Spiral'' (2013), Hans Christoph Binswanger estimated a necessary minimum growth rate to be 1.8 %, while Mathias Binswanger (2009)<ref name=""binsJPKE"" /> derived a minimum growth rate of 0.45 %, such that enterprises can still generate profits in the aggregate. In his book ''Der Wachstumszwang'' (2019), this minimum rate is lowered to zero as to enable firms to accumulate profits.<ref name=""binswazwa275""/><ref name=""rezbins""/>

[[File:Njp506747f2 hr SFC model stability analysis.png|thumb|Numerical stability analysis of [[Stock-Flow consistent model]]s. For certain [[parameter]] values (here: interest rate and consumption out of wealth), zero growth is unstable, but stable for others.<ref name=""berg""/>]]
Other authors criticise the results of Beltrani as well as H. C. and M. Binswanger on the basis that they are based on inconsistent economic models and therefore not valid (→ [[Stock-Flow consistent model]]).<ref name=""gilanyi""/><ref name=""johnson""/>
Those models show how repaid interest is not simply 'removed' from circulation, but flows back into the economy where it can be earned and repeated used to service debts. Models such as those created by Jackson & Victor show that, if no money is accumulated, then all debt can be serviced, and hence that no growth imperative arises from the creation of money as debt, 'per se'. <ref name=""jacksondoes""/> This leads some theorists to conclude that the monetary growth imperative only applies for certain [[parameter]]s in the [[consumption function]].<ref name=""annrev""/><ref name=""consistencyanalysis""/><ref name=""lavoie""/> They argue that ultimately it is not the interest rate but the savings rate that is decisive for the stability of a [[steady-state economy|stationary economy]]. If any interest income is consumed in full by the lender, i.e., bank or creditor of the bank, it is available again for repayment. Whether a stationary state can be reached, therefore, depends on the saving decisions of those who earn income or own assets. For zero growth it would only be necessary that savings of some are balanced by consumption out of wealth by others<ref name=""wenzlaff""/><ref name=""consistencyanalysis""/><ref name=""berg""/> (→ [[life-cycle hypothesis]]). The assumption that banks must retain profits even in a non-growing economy would be unfounded.<ref name=""consistencyanalysis""/> Accordingly, there would be no grow imperative ""inherent"" to the monetary system, but zero growth would be impossible as long as actors decide to continuously accumulate financial assets.<ref name=""strunz""/>

In [[neoclassical economics|neoclassical theory]] and all varieties that presuppose the [[neutrality of money]] ([[classical dichotomy]]), the [[money market]] has no long-term effects on [[Real versus nominal value (economics)|real]] economic variables such as [[economic growth]]. A monetary growth imperative is already excluded here by assumption.<ref name=""strunz1""/><ref name=""binswazwa""/><ref name=""strunz""/> However, [[Post-Keynesian economics|post-Keynesian]] authors who doubt the neutrality of money reject a monetary growth imperative as well.<ref name=""berg""/><ref name=""lavoie""/><ref name=""fontana""/><ref name=""carnevali""/>

== Political demands to overcome growth imperatives ==

In September 2018, more than 200 [[scientist]]s asked the [[European Union]] to turn away from any growth imperative<ref name=""wandelat""/> – a similar demand was raised by the participants of the {{ill|International Conference on Degrowth|de|Internationale Degrowth-Konferenz}}<ref name=""dgrosalux""/><ref name=""dgprog""/> and the post-growth working group of [[Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions and for Citizens' Action|attac Germany]].<ref name=""attac""/> But even within the [[post-growth]] or [[degrowth]] [[social movement|movement]], the existence of growth imperatives is disputed.<ref name=""richters_contested""/><ref name=""annrev""/> Among German parties, the demand was included in the political programmes of the [[Ecological Democratic Party]]<ref name=""oedp""/> and [[Alliance 90/The Greens]].<ref name=""gruene"" /> Green politicians such as [[Reinhard Loske]]<ref name=""loske"" /> or [[Jürgen Trittin]]<ref name=""schulte"" /> call for overcoming growth imperatives. In a [[dissenting opinion]] on the final report of the {{ill|Enquete Commission on Growth, Prosperity and Quality of Life|de|Enquete-Kommission Wachstum, Wohlstand, Lebensqualität}} of the German parliament ([[Bundestag]]), the experts Michael Müller, {{ill|Uwe Schneidewind|de}}, [[Ulrich Brand]], {{ill|Norbert Reuter|de}} and {{ill|Martin Jänicke|de}}, as well as the members of the [[Bundestag]] {{ill|Hermann E. Ott|de}} and the parliamentary group [[The Left (Germany)|Die Linke]], argued that ""the question must be answered as to whether progress that is innovative and integrative, socially just and ecologically sustainable is possible without any growth imperative"".<ref name=""enquete""/>

== Literature ==

* {{Cite book|first1=Hans Christoph|last1=Binswanger|title=The Growth Spiral: Money, Energy, and Imagination in the Dynamics of the Market Process|date=2013|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-31881-8|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-31881-8}}
* {{Cite book|first1=Mathias|last1=Binswanger|title=Der Wachstumszwang: Warum die Volkswirtschaft immer weiterwachsen muss, selbst wenn wir genug haben|date=2019|publisher=Wiley-CVH|isbn=978-3-527-50975-1}}
* {{Cite book|first1=Peter |last1=Ferguson|title=Post-growth Politics|isbn=978-3-319-78797-8|publisher=Springer|date=2019|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-78799-2|chapter=The Growth Imperative|pages=75–100|location=Cham}}
* {{Cite book|first1=Oliver|last1=Richters|first2=Andreas|last2=Siemoneit|url=https://www.marktwirtschaft-reparieren.de|title=Marktwirtschaft reparieren: Entwurf einer freiheitlichen, gerechten und nachhaltigen Utopie|date=2019|chapter=Technologie, Ressourcenverbrauch und Wachstumszwang|publisher=oekom|location=München|isbn=978-3-96238-099-1|hdl=10419/213814}}
* {{Cite journal|first1=Oliver|last1=Richters|first2=Andreas|last2=Siemoneit|title=Growth imperatives: Substantiating a contested concept|date=2019|volume=51|pages=126–137|doi=10.1016/j.strueco.2019.07.012|journal=[[Structural Change and Economic Dynamics]]|s2cid=203243535 }} Preprint: Oldenburg Discussion Papers in Economics V-414-18, November 2018, {{Hdl|10419/184870}}.

This article was translated from [[:de:Wachstumszwang|Wachstumszwang]] in the [[German Wikipedia]] which is based on:

* {{Cite book|first1=Oliver|last1=Richters|first2=Andreas|last2=Siemoneit|url=https://zoe-institut.de/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/zoe-dp-richters-siemoneit-wachstumszwang.pdf|title=Wachstumszwang – eine Übersicht|date=February 2019|publisher=ZOE. Institut für zukunftsfähige Ökonomien|issue=3}} {{Hdl|10419/201503}}. [[Creative Commons|CC-BY-SA]] 3.0.

== References ==
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<ref name=""annrev"">{{cite journal|first1=Giorgos |last1= Kallis |author-link1=Giorgos Kallis|first2=Vasilis |last2= Kostakis |first3=Steffen |last3= Lange |first4= Barbara |last4= Muraca |first5= Susan |last5= Paulson |first6= Matthias |last6= Schmelzer |journal= [[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] |title=Research On Degrowth|date=2018|volume=43|pages=291–316|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-025941|issue=1|doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=""D'Alisa"">{{Cite book|first1=Giacomo|last1=D'Alisa|first2=Federico|last2=Demaria|first3=Giorgios|last3=Kallis|author-link3=Giorgos Kallis|title=Degrowth: A Vocabulary for a New Era|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-1380-0077-3}}</ref>

<ref name=""antal"">{{Cite journal|first1=Miklós|last1=Antal|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]]|title=Green goals and full employment: Are they compatible?|date=2014|volume=107|pages=276–286|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.08.014}}</ref>

<ref name=""antal2"">{{Cite journal|first1=Miklós|last1=Antal|first2=Jeroen C.J.M.|last2=van den Bergh|journal=[[Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions]]|title=Macroeconomics, financial crisis and the environment: Strategies for a sustainability transition|date=2013|volume=6|pages=47–66|doi=10.1016/j.eist.2013.01.002|hdl=10419/129023|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=""attac"">[https://www.attac.de/wk/wachstumskritik/ ''Jenseits des Wachstumszwangs – Globale Armut und Naturzerstörung solidarisch überwinden''], attac Germany. Accessed February 6, 2019.</ref>

<ref name=""ayreswarr"">{{Cite book|first1=Robert U.|last1=Ayres|author-link1=Robert Ayres (scientist)|first2=Benjamin|last2=Warr|title=The economic growth engine: how energy and work drive material prosperity|date=2009|publisher=Edward Elgar|isbn=978-1-84844-595-6}}</ref>

<ref name=""barry"">{{cite journal|first1=John|last1=Barry|title=A Genealogy of Economic Growth as Ideology and Cold War Core State Imperative|date=2018|journal=New Political Economy|doi=10.1080/13563467.2018.1526268|volume=25|issue=1|pages=18–29|s2cid=159024755|url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/a-genealogy-of-economic-growth-as-ideology-and-cold-war-core-state-imperative(5e92b969-d9d2-4f83-80ca-9279fed59c68).html}}</ref>

<ref name=""beltrani"">{{Cite book|first1=Guido|last1=Beltrani|title=Monetäre Aspekte des Wirtschaftswachstums|date=1999|publisher=Universität St. Gallen|oclc=722449216}}</ref>

<ref name=""bender"">{{Cite book|first1=Harald|last1=Bender|first2=Norbert|last2=Bernholt|first3=Klaus|last3=Simon|title=Das dienende Geld: die Befreiung der Wirtschaft vom Wachstumszwang|date=2014|publisher=oekom|isbn=978-3-86581-471-5}}</ref>

<ref name=""berg"">{{cite journal|first1=Matthew|last1=Berg|first2=Brian|last2=Hartley|first3=Oliver|last3=Richters|title=A Stock-Flow Consistent Input-Output Model with Applications to Energy Price Shocks, Interest Rates, and Heat Emissions|journal=[[New Journal of Physics]]|volume=17|issue=1|date=2015|page=015011|doi=10.1088/1367-2630/17/1/015011|bibcode=2015NJPh...17a5011B |doi-access=free|hdl=10419/224923|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=""binschapter"">{{Cite book|chapter=Warum müssen moderne Geldwirtschaften wachsen?|date=2010|editor-first1=Hans Peter|editor-last1=Aubauer|editor-first2=Hermann|editor-last2=Knoflacher|editor-first3=Klaus|editor-last3=Woltron|title=Kapitalismus gezähmt? Sozialer Wohlstand innerhalb der Naturgrenzen|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-631-58919-9|pages=203–231|first1=Mathias|last1=Binswanger|first2=Guido |last2=Beltrani|first3=Robert|last3=Kölbl}}</ref>

<ref name=""binsJPKE"">{{Cite journal|first1=Mathias|last1=Binswanger|title=Is there a growth imperative in capitalist economies? a circular flow perspective|date=2009|volume=31|pages=707–727|journal=[[Journal of Post Keynesian Economics]]|doi=10.2753/PKE0160-3477310410|issue=4|s2cid=54702411}}</ref>

<ref name=""binswanger_vorwaerts"">{{Cite book|first1=Hans Christoph|last1=Binswanger|title=Vorwärts zur Mäßigung. Perspektiven einer nachhaltigen Wirtschaft|date=2009|publisher=Murmann|isbn=978-3-86774-072-2}}</ref>

<ref name=""binswanger_wachstumsspirale"">{{Cite book|first1=Hans Christoph|last1=Binswanger|author-link1=Hans Christoph Binswanger|title=Die Wachstumsspirale: Geld, Energie und Imagination in der Dynamik des Marktprozesses|date=2006|publisher=Metropolis|location=Marburg|isbn=978-3-89518-554-0}}</ref>

<ref name=""binswazwa"">{{Cite book|first1=Mathias |last1=Binswanger |author-link1=Mathias Binswanger|title=Der Wachstumszwang: Warum die Volkswirtschaft immer weiterwachsen muss, selbst wenn wir genug haben|date=2019|publisher=Wiley-CVH|isbn=978-3-527-50975-1}}</ref>

<ref name=""binswazwa275"">{{Cite book|first1=Mathias|last1=Binswanger|title=Der Wachstumszwang: Warum die Volkswirtschaft immer weiterwachsen muss, selbst wenn wir genug haben|date=2019|publisher=Wiley-CVH|isbn=978-3-527-50975-1|pages=275}}</ref>

<ref name=""binswoyn"">{{Cite book|first1=Hans Christoph|last1=Binswanger|author-link1=Hans Christoph Binswanger|editor-last=Woynowski|editor-first=Boris|hdl=10419/69631|chapter=Wachstumszwang und Wachstumsdrang in der modernen Wirtschaft|title=Wirtschaft ohne Wachstum?! Notwendigkeit und Ansätze einer Wachstumswende|journal=Working Paper|date=2012|pages=46–53|issn=1431-8261|display-editors=etal}}</ref>

<ref name=""blanchard"">{{Cite book|first1=Olivier J.|last1=Blanchard|author-link1=Olivier Blanchard|title=Macroeconomics|publisher=Pearson|at=chapter 12}}</ref>

<ref name=""blanchard89"">{{Cite book|first1=Olivier J.|last1=Blanchard |first2=Stanley |last2=Fischer| title=Lectures on Macroeconomics|date=1989|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=0-262-02283-4|pages=41–43|location=Cambridge}}</ref>

<ref name=""blauwhof"">{{Cite journal|first1=Frederik Berend |last1=Blauwhof|title=Overcoming accumulation: Is a capitalist steady-state economy possible?|date=December 2012|pages=254–261|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.03.012|issue=84|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]]|volume=84}}</ref>

<ref name=""carnevali"">{{cite book|first1=Emilio|last1=Carnevali|first2=Matteo|last2= Deleidi|first3=Riccardo|last3=Pariboni|first4=Marco|last4=Veronese Passarella|chapter=Stock-Flow Consistent Dynamic Models: Features, Limitations and Developments|editor-first1=Philip|editor-last1=Arestis|editor-first2=Malcolm|editor-last2=Sawyer|title=Frontiers of Heterodox Macroeconomics|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=Cham|date=2019|pages=223–276|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-23929-9_6|isbn=978-3-030-23928-2|s2cid=202959298 }}.</ref>

<ref name=""consistencyanalysis"">{{Cite journal|first1=Oliver|last1=Richters|first2=Andreas|last2=Siemoneit|title=Consistency and Stability Analysis of Models of a Monetary Growth Imperative|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]]|date=June 2017|volume=136|pages=114–125|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.01.017|hdl=10419/144750|hdl-access=free}} Preprint: [[Vereinigung für Ökologische Ökonomie|VÖÖ]] Discussion Paper 1, February 2016, {{Hdl|10419/144750}}.</ref>

<ref name=""creutz"">{{Cite book|first1=Helmut|last1=Creutz|title=Das Geldsyndrom. Wege zu einer krisenfreien Marktwirtschaft|date=1994|publisher=Ullstein|isbn=978-3-548-35456-9}}</ref>

<ref name=""deutschmann_wsi"">{{Cite journal |first1 = Christoph|last1=Deutschmann|author-link1=Christoph Deutschmann |title= Moderne Ökonomie ohne Wachstumszwang: ein Wunschtraum? |journal= WSI-Mitteilungen |volume= 67 |pages= 513–521 |date= 2014 |issue=7|doi=10.5771/0342-300X-2014-7-513|s2cid=188792556 |url= http://www.boeckler.de/wsimit_2014_07_deutschmann.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name=""dgrosalux"">""Konkrete Schritte für eine Gesellschaft und Impulse für eine gemeinsame gesellschaftliche Vision jenseits von Wachstumszwängen standen im Mittelpunkt der Degrowth-Konferenz 2014."" [https://www.rosalux.de/dokumentation/id/14152/ Dokumentation: Degrowth 2014], [[Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung]].</ref>

<ref name=""dgprog"">Daniel Constein, Nina Treu: ""The focus of this Fourth International Conference on Degrowth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity will be on concrete steps towards a society beyond the imperative of growth."" [https://www.degrowth.info/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Programme-booklet-Degrowth-Conference-2014.pdf Programme] of the {{ill|International Conference on Degrowth|de|Internationale Degrowth-Konferenz}} 2014, p. 3. www.degrowth.info. Accessed February 6, 2019.</ref>

<ref name=""douthwaite"">{{Cite book|first1=Richard |last1=Douthwaite|author-link1=Richard Douthwaite|title=The ecology of money|date=2000|publisher=Green Books|isbn=978-1-8700-9881-6}}</ref>

<ref name=""enquete"">[http://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/17/133/1713300.pdf Abschlussbericht der Enquete-Kommission Wachstum, Wohlstand, Lebensqualität], Deutscher [[Bundestag]], Drucksache 17/13300. p. 749: es müsse ""die Frage beantwortet werden, ob ein Fortschritt, der innovativ und integrativ, sozial gerecht und ökologisch verträglich ist, ohne Wachstumszwang möglich ist.""</ref>

<ref name=""farley"">{{Cite journal|first1=Joshua |last1=Farley|first2=Matthew |last2=Burke |first3=Gary|last3=Flomenhoft|first4=Brian|last4=Kelly|first5=D. Forrest|last5=Murray|first6=Stephen|last6=Posner|first7=Matthew|last7=Putnam|first8=Adam|last8=Scanlan|first9=Aaron|last9=Witham|title=Monetary and Fiscal Policies for a Finite Planet|date=June 2013|volume=5|pages=2802–2826|doi=10.3390/su5062802|issue=6|journal=[[Sustainability (journal)|Sustainability]]|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=""ferguson"">{{Cite journal|first1=Peter |last1=Ferguson|title=Post-growth policy instruments|volume=7|pages=405–421|doi=10.1504/IJGE.2013.058560|issue=4|journal=[[International Journal of Green Economics]]|year=2013}}</ref>

<ref name=""ferguson76"">{{Cite book|first1=Peter |last1=Ferguson|title=Post-growth Politics|isbn=978-3-319-78797-8|publisher=Springer|date=2019|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-78799-2|chapter=The Growth Imperative|pages=76|location=Cham}}</ref>

<ref name=""ferguson119"">{{Cite book|first1=Peter |last1=Ferguson|title=Post-growth Politics|isbn=978-3-319-78797-8|publisher=Springer|date=2019|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-78799-2|chapter=The Growth Imperative|pages=119|location=Cham}}</ref>

<ref name=""ferguson2019"">{{Cite book|first1=Peter |last1=Ferguson|title=Post-growth Politics|isbn=978-3-319-78797-8|publisher=Springer|date=2019|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-78799-2|chapter=The Growth Imperative|pages=75–100|location=Cham}}</ref>

<ref name=""flotow"">{{Cite book|first1=Hans Christoph|last1=Binswanger|author-link1=Hans Christoph Binswanger|first2=Paschen|last2=von Flotow|title=Geld & Wachstum. Zur Philosophie und Praxis des Geldes|date=1994|publisher=Weitbrecht|isbn=978-3-5227-1670-3|pages=8}}</ref>

<ref name=""fontana"">{{Cite journal|first1=Giuseppe|last1=Fontana|first2=Malcolm|last2=Sawyer|title=Full Reserve Banking: More 'Cranks' Than 'Brave Heretics'|date=September 2016|volume=40|pages=1333–1350|journal=[[Cambridge Journal of Economics]]|doi=10.1093/cje/bew016|issue=5|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/103348/3/FontanaFull%20Reserve%20Banking.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name=""foster"">{{Cite journal|first1=John Bellamy|last1=Foster|author-link1=John Bellamy Foster|first2=Fred|last2=Magdoff|url=https://monthlyreview.org/2010/03/01/what-every-environmentalist-needs-to-know-about-capitalism/|title=What every environmentalist needs to know about capitalism|date=2010|volume=61|pages=1–30|issue=10|journal=[[Monthly Review]]}}</ref>

<ref name=""gebauer"">{{Cite book|first1=Jana |last1=Gebauer|first2=Steffen|last2=Lange|first3=Dirk|last3= Posse|chapter= Wirtschaftspolitik für Postwachstum auf Unternehmensebene. Drei Ansätze zur Gestaltung|date=2017|publisher=oekom|isbn=978-3-86581-823-2|pages=239–253|editor-first1=Frank|editor-last1=Adler|editor-first2=Ulrich |editor-last2 =Schachtschneider |title= Postwachstumspolitiken: Wege zur wachstumsunabhängigen Gesellschaft }}</ref>

<ref name=""gilanyi"">{{Cite journal|first1=Zsolt|last1=Gilányi|title=Comment on Johnson's creating dimensional stock-flow inconsistency in Binswanger's model|date=2018|doi=10.1080/01603477.2018.1431791|journal=[[Journal of Post Keynesian Economics]]|volume=42|issue=2|pages=319–327|s2cid=158184441}}</ref>

<ref name=""gordon"">{{Cite journal|title=Capitalism's growth imperative|date=2003|volume=27|pages=25–48|doi=10.1093/cje/27.1.25|issue=1|first1=Myron J. |last1=Gordon |author-link1=Myron J. Gordon |first2=Jeffrey S. |last2=Rosenthal|author-link2=Jeff Rosenthal|journal=[[Cambridge Journal of Economics]]}}</ref>

<ref name=""grahl"">{{Cite journal|first1=Jürgen|last1=Grahl|first2=Reiner|last2=Kümmel|url=http://www.fwu.at/assets/userFiles/Wissenschaft_Umwelt/13_2009/2009_13_wachstum_5.pdf|title=Das Loch im Fass – Energiesklaven, Arbeitsplätze und die Milderung des Wachstumszwangs|date=2009|journal=Wissenschaft und Umwelt Interdisziplinär|pages=195–212}}</ref>

<ref name=""growthduty"">[https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/growth-duty ''Growth duty: statutory guidance''], 30 March 2017.</ref>

<ref name=""gruene"">Federal board of [[Alliance 90/The Greens]]: [https://web.archive.org/web/20190301125912/https://www.gruene.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Dokumente/Beschluesse/Beschluesse_BuVo/20180406_Beschluss_Neue_Zeiten._Neue_Antworten..pdf ''Neue Zeiten. Neue Antworten.''] April 6, 2018. Accessed February 6, 2019.</ref>

<ref name=""hirsch"">{{Cite book|first1=Fred|last1=Hirsch|author-link1=Fred Hirsch (professor)|title=Social Limits to Growth|date=1976|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref>

<ref name=""höpflinger"">{{Cite book|first1=François|last1=Höpflinger|chapter=Alterssicherungssysteme: Doppelte Herausforderung von demografischer Alterung und Postwachstum|date=2010|publisher=Metropolis|location=Marburg|isbn=978-3-89518-811-4|pages=53–64|editor-first1=Irmi|editor-last1=Seidl|editor-first2=Angelika|editor-last2=Zahrnt|title=Postwachstumsgesellschaft: Konzepte für die Zukunft}}</ref>

<ref name=""hulten"">{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulten|title=Growth Accounting|date=2009|doi=10.3386/w15341|journal=NBER Working Paper|issue=w15341|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=""jacksondoes"">{{Cite journal|first1=Tim|last1=Jackson|author-link1=Tim Jackson (economist)|first2=Peter|last2=Victor|title=Does credit create a 'growth imperative'? A quasi-stationary economy with interest-bearing debt|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]]|date=December 2015|volume=120|pages=32–48|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.09.009}} Preprint: [http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/id/eprint/812236 PASSAGE Working Paper 15/01]. Guildford: University of Surrey.</ref>

<ref name=""jacksongreen"">{{Cite journal|first1=Tim|last1=Jackson|author-link1=Tim Jackson (economist)|first2=Peter|last2=Victor|title=Productivity and work in the 'green economy' – some theoretical reflections and empirical tests|journal=[[Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions]]|date=2011|volume=1|pages=101–108|doi=10.1016/j.eist.2011.04.005|issue=1|s2cid=150636345 }}</ref>

<ref name=""johnson"">{{Cite journal|first1=A. Reeves|last1=Johnson|title=Response to ""Comment on Johnson's creating dimensional stock-flow inconsistency in Binswanger's model""|date=2018|doi=10.1080/01603477.2018.1458631|journal=[[Journal of Post Keynesian Economics]]|volume=42|issue=2|pages=328–334|s2cid=158990885}}</ref>

<ref name=""jones"">{{Cite book|first1=Charles I. |last1=Jones| title=Handbook of Economic Growth|chapter=Growth and Ideas|date=2005|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-444-52043-2|volume=2|pages=1063–1111|doi=10.1016/S1574-0684(05)01016-6|editor-first1=Philippe|editor-last1=Aghion|editor-first2=Steven N. |editor-last2=Durlauf}}</ref>

<ref name=""JPKE2009"">{{Cite journal|first1=Mathias|last1=Binswanger|title=The growth imperative revisited: a rejoinder to Gilányi and Johnson|date=May 2015|volume=37|pages=648–660|doi=10.1080/01603477.2015.1050333|issue=4|journal=[[Journal of Post Keynesian Economics]]|s2cid=54606846}}</ref>

<ref name=""kallissoc"">{{cite journal|first1=Giorgos |last1=Kallis|author-link1= Giorgos Kallis|title=Socialism without growth|journal=[[Capitalism Nature Socialism]]|volume=30 |issue=2|date=2019|pages=189–206|doi=10.1080/10455752.2017.1386695 |s2cid=158796873}}</ref>

<ref name=""karathan"">{{Cite book|first1=Athanasios |last1=Karathanassis|title=Kapitalistische Naturverhältnisse. Ursachen von Naturzerstörungen – Begründungen einer Postwachstumsökonomie|date=2015|publisher=VSA-Verlag|isbn=978-3-89965-623-7}}</ref>

<ref name=""kennedy"">{{Cite book|first1=Margrit|last1=Kennedy|author-link1=Margrit Kennedy|title=Geld ohne Zinsen und Inflation. Ein Tauschmittel, das jedem dient|year=1991|publisher=Goldmann|isbn=978-3-442-12341-4|pages=26–7}}</ref>

<ref name=""kümlind"">{{Cite journal|first1=Reiner |last1=Kümmel|first2=Dietmar|last2=Lindenberger|title=How energy conversion drives economic growth far from the equilibrium of neoclassical economics|date=December 2014|journal=[[New Journal of Physics]]|volume=16|doi=10.1088/1367-2630/16/12/125008|issue=12|page=125008|bibcode=2014NJPh...16l5008K |doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=""kümmel"">{{Cite book|first1=Reiner|last1=Kümmel|title=The Second Law of Economics: Energy, Entropy, and the Origins of Wealth|date=2011|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4419-9365-6}}</ref>

<ref name=""lane"">{{Cite book|title=The Penguin dictionary of sociology|date=1984|publisher=A. Lane|isbn=978-0-7139-1380-4|pages=45|first1=Nicholas|last1=Abercrombie|first2=Stephen|last2=Hill|first3=Bryan S.|last3=Turner|quote=compelled [...] by situational circumstances, that is by the structure of society and not by individuals}}</ref>

<ref name=""lange"">{{Cite book|first1=Steffen|last1=Lange|title=Macroeconomics Without Growth: Sustainable Economies in Neoclassical, Keynesian and Marxian Theories|date=2018|publisher=Metropolis|location=Marburg|isbn=978-3-7316-1298-8|pages=109–216}}</ref>

<ref name=""lavoie"">{{Cite journal|first1=Louison|last1=Cahen-Fourot|first2=Marc|last2=Lavoie|author-link2=Marc Lavoie|title=Ecological monetary economics: A post-Keynesian critique|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]]|date=June 2016|volume=126|pages=163–168|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.03.007}}</ref>

<ref name=""lawn"">{{cite journal |first1= Philip |last1= Lawn |author-link1=Philip Lawn|title= Is steady-state capitalism viable?: A review of the issues and an answer in the affirmative |journal= [[Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences]] |volume= 1219 |issue=1 |date= February 2011 |pages= 1–25 |doi= 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.05966.x|pmid= 21332490 |s2cid= 40089385 }}</ref>

<ref name=""lietaer"">{{Cite book|first1=Bernard |last1=Lietaer|author-link1=Bernard Lietaer|first2=Christian|last2=Arnsperger|first3=Sally|last3=Goerner|first4=Stefan|last4=Brunnhuber|title=Money and Sustainability: The Missing Link|date=2012|publisher=Triarchy Press|isbn=978-1-908009-75-3}}</ref>

<ref name=""loske"">{{Cite book|first1=Reinhard|last1=Loske|title=Abschied vom Wachstumszwang. Konturen einer Politik der Mäßigung|year=2011|publisher=Basilisken Presse|isbn=978-3941365117|edition=2}}</ref>

<ref name=""marxde"">{{cite book|first1= Karl |last1=Marx|author-link1 =Karl Marx |title= Das Kapital, Band 1 |publisher= Dietz |date= 1965 |pages= 618 | url= http://www.mlwerke.de/me/me23/me23_605.htm#S618}}</ref>

<ref name=""marxen"">{{Cite book|first1= Karl |last1=Marx|author-link1 =Karl Marx |date=1906 |title= Capital: A Critique of Political Economy |publisher= Modern Library|pages=649}}</ref>

<ref name=""mugier"">{{cite book|first1=Simon|last1=Mugier|date=2019|title=Wirtschaftswachstum und soziale Frage. Zur soziologischen Bedeutung der ökonomischen Theorie von Hans Christoph Binswanger|publisher=Metropolis|location=Marburg|isbn=978-3-7316-1383-1}}</ref>

<ref name=""oedp"">[https://www.oedp.de/programm/grundsatzprogramm/wohlstand-ohne-wachstumszwang/ ''Wohlstand ohne Wachstumszwang''], basic programme of [[Ecological Democratic Party]] Germany 2016. Accessed February 6, 2019.</ref>

<ref name=""onken"">{{Cite book|first1=Werner|last1=Onken|title=Gerechtes Geld – gerechte Welt: Auswege aus Wachstumszwang und Schuldenkatastrophe: 1891–1991. 100 Jahre Gedanken zu einer natürlichen Wirtschaftsordnung|date=1992|publisher=Verlag für Sozialökonomie|isbn=978-3-87998-433-6}}</ref>

<ref name=""ozturk"">{{Cite journal|first1=Ilhan |last1=Ozturk|title=A literature survey on energy–growth nexus|date=January 2010|volume=38|pages=340–349|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2009.09.024|issue=1|journal=[[Energy Policy]]}}</ref>

<ref name=""paech"">{{Cite book|first1=Niko|last1=Paech|author-link1=Niko Paech|title=Befreiung vom Überfluss. Auf dem Weg in die Postwachstumsökonomie|date=2012|publisher=oekom|isbn=978-3-86581-181-3}}</ref>

<ref name=""paech_öwi"">{{Cite journal|first1=Niko|last1=Paech|author-link1=Niko Paech|title=Wirtschaften ohne Wachstumszwang|date=2006|pages=30–33|doi=10.14512/oew.v21i3.460|volume=21|issue=3|journal=[[Ökologisches Wirtschaften]]|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=""perrotta"">{{Cite book|first1=Cosimo|last1=Perrotta|title=Consumption as an Investment|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-4153-0619-5}}</ref>

<ref name=""pineault"">{{cite journal|first1=Eric|last1=Pineault|title=From Provocation to Challenge: Degrowth, Capitalism and the Prospect of ""Socialism without Growth"": A Commentary on Giorgios Kallis|journal= [[Capitalism Nature Socialism]]|volume=30|issue=2|date=2019|pages=251–266|doi=10.1080/10455752.2018.1457064|s2cid=150255333}}</ref>

<ref name=""posse"">{{Cite book|first1=Dirk|last1=Posse|hdl=10419/110257|title=Zukunftsfähige Unternehmen in einer Postwachstumsgesellschaft|date=2015|publisher=[[Vereinigung für Ökologische Ökonomie]]|isbn=978-3-9811006-2-4}}</ref>

<ref name=""radkau"">{{Cite book|first1=Joachim|last1=Radkau|author-link1=Joachim Radkau|chapter=Wachstum oder Niedergang: ein Grundgesetz der Geschichte?|editor-first1=Irmi|editor-last1=Seidl|editor-first2=Angelika|editor-last2=Zahrnt|title=Postwachstumsgesellschaft: Konzepte für die Zukunft|date=2010|publisher=Metropolis|location=Marburg|isbn=978-3-89518-811-4|pages=37–52}}</ref>

<ref name=""rajan"">{{Cite book|first1=Raghuram|last1=Rajan|author-link1=Raghuram Rajan|chapter=Going Bust for Growth|title=Progress and Confusion: The State of Macroeconomic Policy|editor-first1=Olivier|editor-last1=Blanchard|editor-first2=Raghuram|editor-last2=Rajan|editor-first3=Kenneth S.|editor-last3=Rogoff|editor-first4=Lawrence|editor-last4=Summers|publisher=MIT Press|pages=267–284}}</ref>

<ref name=""reichel"">{{Cite journal|first1=André|last1=Reichel|title=Betriebswirtschaftliche Perspektiven. Das Ende des Wirtschaftswachstums, wie wir es kennen|date=2013|pages=15–18|doi=10.14512/oew.v28i1.1262|issue=1|journal=[[Ökologisches Wirtschaften]]|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=""rezbins"">{{Cite journal|first1=Oliver |last1=Richters|title=Review of Mathias Binswanger's ''Der Wachstumszwang''|journal=[[Ökologisches Wirtschaften]]|date=2019|pages=53–55|issue=3}}</ref>

<ref name=""richters_contested"">{{cite journal |first1=Oliver |last1= Richters |first2= Andreas |last2= Siemoneit |title= Growth imperatives: Substantiating a contested concept |journal= [[Structural Change and Economic Dynamics]] | volume = 51 |date=2019 |pages=126–137 |doi= 10.1016/j.strueco.2019.07.012|s2cid= 203243535 }} Preprint: Oldenburg Discussion Papers in Economics V-414-18, November 2018, {{HDL|10419/184870}}.</ref>

<ref name=""richters_marktwirtschaft_49-59"">{{cite book |first1= Oliver |last1= Richters |first2= Andreas |last2= Siemoneit |title= Marktwirtschaft reparieren: Entwurf einer freiheitlichen, gerechten und nachhaltigen Utopie |publisher= oekom |location= München |isbn= 978-3-96238-099-1 |date= 2019 |pages= 49–59|hdl=10419/213814}}</ref>

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<ref name=""scherhorn129"">{{Cite book|first1=Gerhard|last1=Scherhorn|author-link1=Gerhard Scherhorn|chapter=Unternehmen ohne Wachstumszwang: Zur Ökonomie der Gemeingüter|date=2010|publisher=Metropolis|location=Marburg|isbn=978-3-89518-811-4|pages=129–144|editor-first1=Irmi|editor-last1=Seidl|editor-first2=Angelika|editor-last2=Zahrnt|title=Postwachstumsgesellschaft: Konzepte für die Zukunft}}</ref>

<ref name=""schmelzerecol"">{{Cite journal|first1=Matthias|last1=Schmelzer|title=The growth paradigm: History, hegemony, and the contested making of economic growthmanship|date=2015|volume=118|pages=262–271|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.07.029|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]]}}</ref>

<ref name=""schmelzer_hegemony"">{{Cite book|first1=Matthias|last1=Schmelzer|title=The Hegemony of Growth|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-3164-5203-5}}</ref>

<ref name=""schulte"">Ulrich Schulte: [https://taz.de/Ausrichtung-der-Gruenen/!5538618/ ''Ausrichtung der Grünen: Die Möchtegern-Liberalen'']. ''[[die tageszeitung]]'', September 26, 2018.</ref>

<ref name=""schump"">{{Cite book|first1=Joseph|last1=Schumpeter|author-link1=Joseph Schumpeter|title=[[Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy]]|date=1942|publisher=Harper & Brothers}}</ref>

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<ref name=""siemoneit-offer"">{{Cite journal|first1=Andreas|last1=Siemoneit|title=An offer you can't refuse – Enhancing personal productivity through 'efficiency consumption'|date=2019|volume=59|doi=10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.101181|journal=Technology in Society|page=101181|hdl=10419/201502|s2cid=202269762 |hdl-access=free}} Preprint: [https://zoe-institut.de/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/zoe-dp-siemoneit-efficiency-consumption.pdf ZOE Discussion Paper 3], January 2019, {{Hdl|10419/201502}}.</ref>

<ref name=""solowstoll"">[[Robert Solow]] said in an interview: ""There is nothing intrinsic in the system that says it cannot exist happily in a stationary state"". Cited after: Steven Stoll: ''Fear of Fallowing: The specter of a no-growth world''. In: [[Harper’s Magazine]], March 2008, pp. 88–94, [http://steadystate.org/wp-content/uploads/Stoll_Harpers_Fear_Fallowing.pdf steadystate.org], accessed February 27, 2019. See also [[Mathias Binswanger]], ''Der Wachstumszwang'', 2019, p. 39.</ref>

<ref name=""spiral"">{{Cite book|first1=Hans Christoph|last1=Binswanger|title=The Growth Spiral: Money, Energy, and Imagination in the Dynamics of the Market Process|date=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-31881-8|pages=119|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-31881-8}}</ref>

<ref name=""spiral131"">{{Cite book|first1=Hans Christoph|last1=Binswanger|title=The Growth Spiral: Money, Energy, and Imagination in the Dynamics of the Market Process|date=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-31881-8|pages=131|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-31881-8}}</ref>

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<ref name=""strunz"">{{Cite book|first1=Sebastian|last1= Strunz|first2=Bartosz|last2=Bartkowski|first3=Harry|last3=Schindler|chapter=Is there a monetary growth imperative?|date=2017|publisher=Edward Elgar|isbn=978-1-7834-7356-4|pages=326–355|doi=10.4337/9781783473564.00024|title=Handbook on growth and sustainability|location=Cheltenham|hdl= 10419/108971|url= https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/108971/1/821132911.pdf|editor-first1=Peter A.|editor-last1=Victor|editor-first2=Brett|editor-last2=Dolter}} Preprint: [[Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research|UFZ]] Discussion Papers 5/2015, {{Hdl|10419/108971}}.</ref>

<ref name=""strunz1"">{{Cite journal|first1=Sebastian|last1= Strunz|first2=Bartosz|last2=Bartkowski|first3=Harry|last3=Schindler|title=Mythos monetärer Wachstumszwang. Am Gelde hängt doch alles?|journal=[[Ökologisches Wirtschaften]]|year= 2017|volume=32|pages=23–25|doi=10.14512/OEW320123|issue=1|doi-access=free}}</ref>

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<ref name=""suhr"">{{Cite book|first1=Dieter|last1=Suhr|url=http://www.dieter-suhr.info/files/luxe/Downloads/Suhr_Befreiung.pdf|title=Befreiung der Marktwirtschaft vom Kapitalismus. Monetäre Studien zur sozialen, ökonomischen und ökologischen Vernunft|date=1986|publisher=Basis Verlag|isbn=3-88025-415-X|pages=47ff}}</ref>

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<ref name=""wachstumsspirale131"">{{Cite book|first1=Hans Christoph|last1=Binswanger|title=Die Wachstumsspirale. Geld, Energie und Imagination in der Dynamik des Marktprozesses|date=2006| publisher=Metropolis|location=Marburg|isbn=3-89518-554-X|pages=331}}</ref>

<ref name=""walter"">{{Cite journal|url=https://archiv.wirtschaftsdienst.eu/jahr/2011/8/geldordnung-eine-ordnungspolitische-analyse|first1=Johann|last1=Walter|title=Geldordnung – eine ordnungspolitische Analyse|date=2011|pages=543–549|doi=10.1007/s10273-011-1260-4|issue=8|journal=[[Wirtschaftsdienst]]|volume=91|hdl=10419/88820|s2cid=154298933|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=""wandelat"">[https://wachstumimwandel.at/wissenschaftlerinnen-fordern-abkehr-vom-wachstumszwang/ WissenschaftlerInnen fordern Abkehr vom Wachstumszwang], wachstumsimwandel.at, [[Bundesministerium für Nachhaltigkeit und Tourismus]], September 20, 2018.</ref>

<ref name=""wenzlaff"">{{Cite book|first1=Ferdinand|last1=Wenzlaff|first2=Christian|last2=Kimmich|first3=Oliver|last3=Richters|hdl=10419/103454|title=Theoretische Zugänge eines Wachstumszwangs in der Geldwirtschaft|date=2014|publisher=Zentrum für Ökonomische und Soziologische Studien|issue=45}}</ref>
}}

[[Category:Capitalism]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Economic growth]]"
Food Justice Movement,"{{Short description|Social movement addressing food insecurity}}
{{essay-like|date=October 2018}}
The '''Food Justice Movement''' is a [[grassroots]] initiative which emerged in response to [[Food security|food insecurity]] and economic pressures that prevent access to healthy, nutritious, and culturally appropriate foods (food should fit the cultural background of the people consuming it).<ref name=""Alkon_2011"">{{cite book|title=Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability|date=2011|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=9780262516327|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|vauthors=Alkon AH, Agyeman J|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingfoodj0000unse}}</ref> It includes more broad policy movements, such as the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations]].<ref name="":1"" />

Food justice recognizes the [[food system]] as ""a racial project and problematizes the influence of race and class on the production, distribution and consumption of food"".<ref name=""Alkon_2011"" /> This encompasses farm labor work, land disputes, issues of status and class, [[environmental justice]], public politics, and advocacy.<ref name=""Alkon_2011""/><ref name=""Sbicca_2018"">{{cite book|title=Food Justice Now!: Deepening the Roots of Social Struggle|date=2018|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=9781517904012|location=Minneapolis, MN | vauthors = Sbicca, J}}</ref> Food justice is closely connected to [[food sovereignty]], which critiques ""structural barriers [[People of Color|communities of color]] face to accessing local and organic foods"" that are largely due to institutional racism and the effect it has on economic equality.<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Alkon AH, Agyeman J | year = 2011 | title = Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability. | location = Cambridge, Mass. | publisher = MIT Press | isbn = 9780262516327 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/cultivatingfoodj0000unse }}</ref> It is argued that lack of access to good food is both a cause and a symptom of the structural inequalities that divide society. A possible solution presented for poor areas includes [[Community gardening|community gardens]], fairness for food workers, and a national food policy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/fixing-food|title = Fixing Food &#124; Union of Concerned Scientists}}</ref>

== History ==
Food justice has been a part of the activist sphere since the founding of the United States. Yet, the history of our modern Food Justice Movement formulated in the early 1960s during the height of the Civil Rights Movement. Access to food for Black people was stripped, mounting pushback.

For example, in November 1962, the completely white board of supervisors in Leflore County voted to discontinue the Federal Surplus Food Commodity Program.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2018 |title=The Greenwood Food Blockade {{!}} Southern Foodways Alliance - Southern Foodways Alliance |url=https://www.southernfoodways.org/the-greenwood-food-blockade/ |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=www.southernfoodways.org}}</ref> Only white members of the community could attend, though those who used the program were less than 1 percent white. Officials like Mississippi's public welfare commissioner, Fred A. Ross, condemned the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee's free food distribution program. This welfare cut is now known as the Greenwood Food Blockade. The Federal Surplus Food Commodity Program provided items such as meal, flour, and powdered milk to 90 percent of Black people in the winters. In response to harsh conditions, the SNCC petitioned president John F. Kennedy to intervene. The federal government mandated that the program be continued, despite the continued pushback from white government officials. This marked the end of the Greenwood Food Blockade, but only was the beginning of white people in power weaponizing access to food.

Years later, the Black Panther Party played a big role in the burgeoning Food Justice movement in the coming years. In 1969, they launched the Free Breakfast for Children program at a church in Oakland, California.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Potorti |first=Mary |date=2017 |title=""Feeding the Revolution"": the Black Panther Party, Hunger, and Community Survival |journal=Journal of African American Studies |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=85–110|doi=10.1007/s12111-017-9345-9 |s2cid=255519471 }}</ref> This model was adopted by countless cities across the country, and ultimately led Congress to increase funding for the National School Lunch Program and expand the breakfast program to all public schools.

A separate sphere of the Food Justice movement is that of the white community, whose trajectory in the movement differed from that of the Black activists. In 1996, the Community Food Security Coalition (CFSC) was an important player in advocating for access to fresh fruits and vegetables. However, this group was composed of all white Americans and neglected to seek input from residents of the food insecure areas they attempted to help. According to Daniel Ross, Director of Nuestras Raíces, food security cannot exist independently of the specific community in discussion because of how central food and agriculture are to a community.

== Background ==

The modern Food Justice movement grew out of the [[Community Food Security Coalition]] (CFSC) in 1996, which sought to provide affordable, culturally appropriate, healthy food to Americans. A shortcoming of this group was that it was composed entirely of white Americans, and accepted little input from residents of food insecure areas which the CFSC was trying to help. It emphasized the consumption of local and fresh fruits and vegetables, and removed race from the conversation. Director of Nuestras Raices Daniel Ross points out that:<blockquote>...food security cannot be divorced from the issues of concern to communities ... food and agriculture lends itself to addressing [racism and power imbalances] because food is so central to communities and, if you had working communities, you'd have justice and equality. ... At the heart is the element of justice.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Slocum R | date = 2015 | title = Notes on the practice of food justice in the U.S.: understanding and confronting trauma and inequity | url = http://jpe.library.arizona.edu/volume_22/Slocumcadieux.pdf | journal = Journal of Political Ecology | volume = 22 | page = 27 | doi = 10.2458/v22i1.21077 | doi-access = free }}</ref></blockquote>Other scholars who have done research in food justice and related topics include Monica M. White whose research is focused on the primarily black community in Detroit. In her article Sisters of the Soil: Urban Gardening as Resistance in Detroit, she discusses the work of the [[Detroit Black Community Food Security Network]] (DBCFSN) that uses farming as a way to alleviate food insecurity and make political statements. White cites the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 2005–2006 to point out that 52.9% of black women are obese, compared to 37.2% of black men and 32.9% of white women due to phenomena like [[food desert]]s and food insecurity. Because the socioeconomic status of black communities in Detroit are a huge part of the food insecurity issues black communities face, this serves as an example for the inseparability of food justice movements and social reform.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=White |first=Monica M. |title=Sisters of the Soil: Urban Gardening as Resistance in Detroit |magazine=Race/Ethnicity: Multidisciplinary Global Contexts |volume=5 |issue=1 |date=2011 |pages=13–28 |jstor=10.2979/racethmulglocon.5.1.13}}</ref>

Article 25 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] states: ""Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.""

[[Food and Agriculture Organization|The Food and Agricultural Organization]] of the United Nations states that the right to food is ""The right to feed oneself in dignity. It is the right to have continuous access to the resources that will enable you to produce, earn or purchase enough food to not only prevent hunger, but also to ensure health and well-being. The right to food only rarely means that a person has the right to free handouts.""<ref name="":1"">Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Right to Food Unit. Right to Food Questions and Answers. 2007</ref>

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) which is a part of USDA's Research, Education, and Economics mission area (REE),  NIFA is an agency that uses federal funding in order to address agricultural and food justice related issues that impact people's daily lives. This is a collaborative effort that uses scientists and research in order to locate and find solutions to issues in the agricultural chain. They use science-policy decision making, something to keep in mind when asking what problems are being fixed and for what purpose.<ref>NIFA.org ""About NIFA"" (https://nifa.usda.gov/about-nifa)</ref>

== Modern political response ==
Food access and justice is a contentious topic in current day legislation.

The movement was highly popularized during President [[Barack Obama|Obama's]] two terms, largely in part due to his wife, [[Michelle Obama]]. President Obama passed the [[Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010|Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act]] in 2010, calling for a raised nutrition standard in the [[National School Lunch Act|National School Lunch Program]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2015 |title=How Michelle Obama Has Shaped Nutrition Politics - Washingtonian |url=https://www.washingtonian.com/2015/06/02/how-michelle-obama-has-shaped-nutrition-politics/ |access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref> Despite some Republican lawmaker pushback, the law went into effect. In 2020, the University of Washington School of Public Health found that since the passing of this legislation, children from low-income households had been eating healthier school lunches with better nutritional quality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kinderknecht |first1=Kelsey |last2=Harris |first2=Cristen |last3=Jones-Smith |first3=Jessica |date=28 July 2020 |title=Association of the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act With Dietary Quality Among Children in the US National School Lunch Program |journal=JAMA |volume=324 |issue=4 |pages=359–368 |doi=10.1001/jama.2020.9517 |pmid=32721008 |pmc=7388023 |issn=0098-7484}}</ref>

Supplementing the legal action taken by the President, Michelle Obama's activism in the political sphere led to the onset of programs like [[Let's Move!]], that targeted decreasing adolescent obesity across the United States. Nevertheless, a decade later, certain scholars justified a decrease in funding towards these programs that are anchored on obesity reduction instead of food justice and equity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cadieux |first1=Kirsten |last2=Slocum |first2=Rachel |date=1 December 2015 |title=What does it mean to do food justice? |journal=Journal of Political Ecology |volume=22 |issue=1 |doi=10.2458/v22i1.21076 |issn=1073-0451|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In 2017, the Food Deserts Act was introduced to the House.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carson |first=Andre |date=24 July 2017 |title=H.R.3104 - 115th Congress (2017-2018): Food Deserts Act of 2017 |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/3104 |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=www.congress.gov}}</ref> The Act called for consistent grants for grocery stores in areas defined as formal food deserts. Grant money would be allocated to selling healthy foods that are locally sourced. This bill did not make it past an introduction in the House. Scholars{{who|date=October 2022}} suggest that this highlights limited support for food justice from Congress, despite food insecurity being a relatively bipartisan issue.

In 2022, the Healthy Food Access for All Americans Act was introduced to the Senate.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Warner |first=Mark R. |date=3 February 2021 |title=S.203 - 117th Congress (2021-2022): Healthy Food Access for All Americans Act |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/203 |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=www.congress.gov}}</ref> The legislation called for tax credits and grant funding for opening grocery stores and food banks in food deserts. The bill had yet to be passed {{as of|April 2022|lc=y}}.

== Research and theory ==
There is a plethora of research pertaining to [[Community gardening|community gardens]], [[Urban agriculture|urban farming]], and their impact on local communities.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Golden S |date=13 November 2013|title=Urban Agriculture Impacts: Social, Health, and Economic - A Literature Review|journal=UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program}}</ref> The literature tries to connect the activities of community gardens and urban agricultural projects to social, health, and economic outcomes. However, due to the overwhelming lack of diversity in the perspectives that inform the food justice movement, a new concept of ''just sustainability''<ref name=""Alkon_2011"" /> has been proposed. To address white and middle class culture dominating the discussion and priorities of organic food and sustainability practices, a more multi-cultural and intersectional approach is suggested that includes the narratives of historically marginalized communities.<ref name=""Alkon_2011"" />

=== Food movements and race ===
The food justice movement points out that many food activists and scholars, such as journalist [[Michael Pollan]], fail to account for the social and economic constraints that shape the food habits and choices of certain groups, and overly emphasize individual choices. Food justice activists point out that communities of color have lost food sovereignty, and they note that racism and economic inequality prevent Black communities in particular from having access to sufficient amounts of nutritious foods. This movement aims to reform the food system by addressing such structural inequalities and also by celebrating foods that are of cultural significance to different groups.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability|date=2011|publisher=MIT Press |author1=Alison Hope Alkon |author2=Julian Agyeman|isbn=978-0-262-30021-6|location=Cambridge, Mass.|oclc=767579490}}</ref>

The intersection of race and food justice appears in the food justice movement, for example, in the San Francisco Bay Area and most notably in the city of Oakland. West Oakland, historically a neighborhood with a higher Black population, has also long been known as a food desert, meaning residents must travel over a mile for fresh food. Thirty five percent of residents in this area also lack access to a car to drive to a store, a quarter of residents live below the poverty line, and diabetes is three times more prevalent in this neighborhood than in the rest of Alameda County.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite journal|last1=Curran|first1=Christopher J.|last2=González |first2=Marc-Tizoc|date=2011|title=Food Justice as Interracial Justice: Urban Farmers, Community Organizations and the Role of Government in Oakland, California|journal=The University of Miami Inter-American Law Review |volume=43|issue=1|pages=207–232|jstor=23339452|issn=0884-1756}}</ref>

On a national level, Black households are twice as likely and Latinx households 1.5 more likely than white households to be food insecure.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Federal Government Is Failing Communities Suffering From Food Insecurity|url=https://theappeal.org/the-federal-government-is-failing-communities-suffering-from-food-insecurity/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=The Appeal}}</ref> These disproportionate levels of food insecurity expose the systemic issues at the root of the problem. People are food insecure because they do not have room in their budget to buy sufficient food for themselves and their families, and the fact that people of color are more likely to be food insecure is because they are more likely to live in poverty.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hunger is a Racial Equity Issue {{!}} Move For Hunger |website=moveforhunger.org|url=https://moveforhunger.org/hunger-racial-equity-issue|access-date=14 April 2021}}</ref> This goes back to societal issues of disinvestment in communities of color, with Black communities in particular being less likely to have access to quality education, job opportunities, and knowledge of government assistance programs.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite web|last=Frueh|first=Sara|date=9 July 2020|title=Covid-19 and Black Communities|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/news/2020/07/covid-19-and-black-communities|access-date=14 April 2021|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> This issue was brought to public attention during COVID-19, when food insecurity levels dramatically increased, particularly for Black communities. One study in particular revealed that soon after the onset of COVID-19, food insecurity levels increased at a much quicker pace for a sample of low-income, primarily African American communities in comparison to the broader American population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dubowitz |first1=Tamara |last2=Dastidar |first2=Madhumita Ghosh |last3=Troxel |first3=Wendy M. |last4=Beckman |first4=Robin |last5=Nugroho |first5=Alvin |last6=Siddiqi |first6=Sameer |last7=Cantor |first7=Jonathan |last8=Baird |first8=Matthew |last9=Richardson |first9=Andrea S. |last10=Hunter |first10=Gerald P. |last11=Mendoza-Graf |first11=Alexandra |last12=Collins |first12=Rebecca L. |title=Food Insecurity in a Low-Income, Predominantly African American Cohort Following the COVID-19 Pandemic |journal=American Journal of Public Health |date=1 March 2021 |volume=111 |issue=3 |pages=494–497 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2020.306041|pmid=33476228 |pmc=7893363 }}</ref> The pandemic exposed which populations were most vulnerable; Black people are more likely to work in high exposure jobs, less likely to have access to quality health care, and more likely to face bias by health care workers.<ref name="":12"" /> It is these inequalities that led to the food justice movement in the first place: a movement that specifically addresses racial disparities in the food system.

78% of Native Americans live outside of tribal-designated lands, despite literature on food security and Native peoples almost exclusively being in the context of reservation residency, and there is often a difference in food security seen in urban and rural settings among these individuals (Tomayko et al., 2017). A study done with 240 rural Native American households, and 210 urban Native American households found that the average rate of food insecurity was about 61%, with 80% of urban homes being food insecure and 45% of rural homes being food insecure within the study (Tomayko et al., 2017). Native Americans are often excluded from studies on food insecurity, and research on Native American food insecurity and injustices are rare. The USDA Annual Household Food Security Report in 2019 neglected to include Native American individuals in their findings (Meredith, 2020). One of the first and only longitudinal studies of Native food insecurity at the national level was written by Craig Gunderson in 2008, although the US government officially defined a measurement of food insecurity in 1995 (Gunderson, 2008).

== Food justice and policy ==

Food justice emerged as a way of applying food security and anti-hunger movements to policy by drawing from established social and environmental theoretical frameworks. The food justice movement is related to food sovereignty in that it critiques ""structural barriers communities of color face to accessing local and organic foods"" that are largely due to institutional racism and the effect it has on economic equality.<ref>{{Cite book|date=21 October 2011|title=Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability |url=https://direct.mit.edu/books/book/4423/Cultivating-Food-JusticeRace-Class-and |doi=10.7551/mitpress/8922.001.0001|isbn=9780262300216| veditors=Agyeman J, Alkon AH }}</ref> This movement seeks to create equal access to nutritious food for all people, regardless of race, and policy is one mode that this mission is accomplished through. One way that this policy in integrated is through food policy councils, which have existed in North America since 1982.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last=Purifoy|first=Danielle|date=2014|title=Food policy Councils: Integrating Food Justice and Environmental Justice |url=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1302&context=delpf |journal=Duke Environmental Law and Policy Forum|volume=XXIV|pages=375–398}}</ref> The implementation of food policy councils at the city level has allowed for changes to respond directly to community needs, with communities being involved with the creation of policy.<ref name="":4"" />

Organizations and festivals such as the [[Coalition of Immokalee Workers]], Familias Unidas por la Justicia,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVMzDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Familias+Unidas+por+la+Justicia%22&pg=PA276 |title=Mexican-Origin Foods, Foodways, and Social Movements: Decolonial Perspectives| veditors = Peña D, Calvo L, McFarland P, Valle GR |date=1 September 2017|publisher=University of Arkansas Press|isbn=9781610756181|pages=274–276}}</ref> and [[Farm Aid]] are credited as working to raise awareness of or assist with food justice by fighting for family farmers to keep and sustain their land, fair pay and treatment of workers, and ensuring access to healthy foods to those previously denied affordable nourishment.

== Consequences ==
=== Food deserts ===
[[Food desert]]s are defined by the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] as census tracts that contain a notable population of low income people that lack access to healthy and affordable food, such as a typical chain grocery store within reachable distance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Service. |first=United States. Department of Agriculture. Economic Research |title=Food access research atlas. |publisher=U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Economic Research Service |oclc=730943048}}</ref> In food deserts, it is typical to see an abundance of fast food restaurants alongside gas stations and liquor stores with no fresh food, only offering bagged chips, sodas, and other quick eat items that lack nutritional substance, are available, alongside fast food restaurants that do not offer healthy options. In a Report to [[United States Congress|Congress]] done by the United States Department of Agriculture, it was found that 23.5 million Americans live more than one mile away from a grocery store and do not have access to a car.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sturm |first1=Roland |last2=Hattori |first2=Aiko |date=May 2015 |title=Diet and obesity in Los Angeles County 2007–2012: Is there a measurable effect of the 2008 ""Fast-Food Ban""? |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=133 |pages=205–211 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.03.004 |pmid=25779774 |pmc=4410074}}</ref> There are concerns regarding individuals in food insecure areas that have to rely on public transportation to access local food markets to grocery stores.

Some activists criticize the term ""food desert"" as a bad descriptor of these neighborhoods, for two main reasons. First, the word ""desert"" implies something that is naturally existing. Deserts are labeled as so because they receive a certain amount of precipitation, a factor beyond human control. Rather, urban planner Karen Washington of Johns Hopkins explains that residents in ""food deserts"" often may have food, but it is the quality of such food that suffers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Spring 2014 |first=Kelly Brooks / Published |date=10 March 2014 |title=Research shows food deserts more abundant in minority neighborhoods |website=The Hub |url=https://hub.jhu.edu/magazine/2014/spring/racial-food-deserts/ |access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref> Grocery stores may have produce that is financially inaccessible for residents, and as such proximity is not always the main issue. Research from the University of Washington has shown that proximity to supermarkets had no correlation to ability to shop at a supermarket, and perhaps social deprivation is a better explanation. Scholars have used the term food mirage to explain this concept.

=== Food apartheid ===
In recent years, racial justice organizers began to label the lack of access to fresh, healthy, and affordable food a form of Food Apartheid. These organizers argue that this disparity is predominantly because of structural inequalities that deprive poor communities of color from access to the same selections of food as richer white communities.<ref>{{Citation |title=Glossary |date=2013 |work=Ethical Justice |pages=455–461 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-404597-2.17001-9 |isbn=9780124045972}}</ref> Ashante Reese, author of Black Food Geographies: Race, Self-Reliance, and Food Access explains that the anti-Black  racism and uneven capitalist urban development create conditions that can only be called food apartheid.

Critics of this term explain that using the word apartheid to describe this unequal food access devalues the suffering inflicted on millions of South Africans upon its introduction in 1948. Apartheid was a traumatic experience for the millions of South Africans that lived under apartheid rule, and for that reason some call it an insensitive label for the food segregation phenomenon.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dickinson |first=Maggie |date=3 September 2019 |title=Black agency and food access: leaving the food desert narrative behind |journal=City |volume=23 |issue=4–5 |pages=690–693 |doi=10.1080/13604813.2019.1682873 |s2cid=210456018 |issn=1360-4813}}</ref>

== Structural inequities ==
Access to food is a highly racialized topic.

=== Indigenous Americans ===
Most of the farms in the United States exist on stolen land from legislation such as the Indian Removal Act of 1830.<ref>{{Citation |last=Cafiero |first=Carlo |title=Measuring food insecurity |date=6 December 2019 |work=Food Security Policy, Evaluation and Impact Assessment |pages=169–205 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781351019828-17 |isbn=978-1-351-01982-8 |s2cid=213728686}}</ref> This land was then portioned among white settlers for extremely low costs, through legislation such as the Homestead Act. Prior to European colonization of the Americas, the indigenous people that inhabited America had various regionally unique food resources.

In 2020, it was reported that one in four Native Americans lacked reliable access to healthy food and had a much higher risk for diet-related diseases. American Indian and Alaska Native adults were 50% more likely to be obese and 30% more likely to suffer from hypertension compared to White Americans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Obesity and American Indians/Alaska Natives - The Office of Minority Health |website=minorityhealth.hhs.gov |url=https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=4&lvlid=40 |access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref> They are also 50% more likely to be diagnosed with coronary heart disease, and three times more likely to have diabetes.

Valarie Blue Bird Jernigan, the executive director of the Center for Indigenous Health Research and Policy, posited that these levels of food insecurity were a direct result of colonization.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jernigan |first=Valarie Blue Bird |title=Ending food insecurity in Native communities means restoring land rights, handing back control |url=http://theconversation.com/ending-food-insecurity-in-native-communities-means-restoring-land-rights-handing-back-control-158858 |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=The Conversation}}</ref> Her Community-based Participatory Research (CBPR) study on the Round Valley Reservation in Mendocino County, California, found that the 4,000 residents studied had nutritionally poor diets because of lack of access to fresh foods. The Round Valley Reservation's only sources of food during the study was a single grocery store located in the town over, with a fried chicken fast food restaurant inside, where 85% of its shelf space was dedicated to prepackaged foods. The only other source was reported to be a gas station which sold prepackaged snacks and hot dogs.

Currently, up to 85% of Native American peoples on Reservations take part in food assistance programs, one of them being the US Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sovereignty |first=Working Group on Indigenous Food |title=Indigenous Food Sovereignty {{!}} Indigenous Food Systems Network |url=https://www.indigenousfoodsystems.org/food-sovereignty |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=www.indigenousfoodsystems.org}}</ref> The foods that these programs distribute are often canned and prepackaged, inevitably being high in salt, sugar, and fats as well as low in vital micronutrients. Jernigan commented that reform would be necessary to target unequal health outcomes for Native Americans, explaining that her ideal solution was increased efforts to focus on providing Indigenous food sovereignty, a specific policy approach that would work to mobilize communities using multi-millennial cultural harvesting strategies.

=== Black Americans ===

Black Americans also experience unequal access to healthy food. In the aftermath of slavery, many Black men became landowners, but between 1865 and 1910, some of this land was stolen from them through underhanded legal practices and violent acts. Many were also left unable to own any land, resulting in Black people being forced to [[sharecrop]] on other people's land.<ref name="":03"">{{Cite journal |last1=Billings |first1=David |last2=Cabbil |first2=Lila |date=2011 |title=Food Justice: What's Race Got to Do with It? |journal=Race/Ethnicity: Multidisciplinary Global Contexts |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=103–112 |doi=10.2979/racethmulglocon.5.1.103 |jstor=10.2979/racethmulglocon.5.1.103 |s2cid=56420036 |issn=1935-8644}}</ref> White supremacist violence and discriminatory money lending policies, many of which were instituted by the US Department of Agriculture, allowed for White developers to easily acquire properties. In 1920, Black Americans owned 14% of American farms. In 2017, that proportion had gone down to 2%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 February 2021 |title=Advocates Call for Shift in US Agriculture Policy to Benefit Black Farmers |url=https://nonprofitquarterly.org/advocates-call-for-shift-in-us-agriculture-policy-to-benefit-black-farmers/ |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=Non Profit News {{!}} Nonprofit Quarterly}}</ref>

The inability to farm and grow one's own food on one's own land prevented many communities from achieving a sustainable food system with equal access to good nutrition. The executive director of the National Black Food and Justice Alliance, Dara Cooper, stated that for food justice to be achieved within many Black communities, these communities would require the ownership and control of the businesses and institutions that deliver said food.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 February 2021 |title=A Burgeoning Food Justice Movement Rises in Black America |url=https://nonprofitquarterly.org/a-burgeoning-food-justice-movement-rises-in-black-america/ |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=Non Profit News {{!}} Nonprofit Quarterly}}</ref>

Beyond farming discrimination, since the end of the [[Great Recession]], the income disparity between Black and White households widened. The intersection of socioeconomic inequality and the racial history of how Black Americans have been allowed to control the production of food creates a higher risk for Black Americans to face food insecurity.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Kochhar |first1=Rakesh |last2=Fry |first2=Richard |title=Wealth inequality has widened along racial, ethnic lines since end of Great Recession |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/12/12/racial-wealth-gaps-great-recession/ |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=Pew Research Center}}</ref> Food mirages explain the concept of grocery stores being present, but healthy items within them being financially out of reach for their customers.

Harlem, New York is a neighborhood that highlights much of the radicalized nature of food injustice. Harlem was 87.6% Black in 1990. Past and current resident Angela Helm explains that at the time, the neighborhood would have been described as a food desert.<ref>{{Cite web |title=On Whole Foods, Gentrification and the Erasure of Black Harlem |url=https://www.theroot.com/on-whole-foods-gentrification-and-the-erasure-of-black-1797444513 |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=The Root |date=3 August 2017}}</ref> Spurred by a real estate transformation, Starbucks locations began to open and President Bill Clinton moved his office into the neighborhood. As such, rents began to skyrocket and the landscape shifted. Residents protested the opening of Whole Foods, which drew in White neighbors and produce that remained unaffordable for residents and their families. Gentrification is a phenomenon that disproportionately impacts Black residents in urban areas, and also their access to food.

A similar phenomenon can be seen in New Orleans, Louisiana. Following the destruction wreaked by Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans East was still home to 73,000 predominantly African American residents. This neighborhood in itself would constitute the fourth-largest city in Louisiana, yet the entire neighborhood has not a single grocery store.<ref name="":03""/>

To target these disparities in economic capital, Soul Fire Farm, an Afro-Indigenous centered community farm, created a reparations map make these efforts more effective. Additionally, other scholars have proposed nutrition incentive programs that would provide cash matches for food stamps spent on fruits and vegetables in markets and grocery stores. Such benefits would apply to both the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Food Justice & Racism in the Food System |url=https://www.rootsofchange.org/our-positions/food-justice-racism-in-the-food-system/ |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=Roots of Change}}</ref>

=== Residential segregation ===

Food apartheid and the lack of access to food are the results of racist politicking and they stem from socioeconomic injustices that disproportionately affect low income Black communities.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}} According to the [[American Civil Liberties Union|ACLU]], food deserts are the direct manifestation of structural inequities that have been solidified over time. These institutional racisms that have resulted in a lack of access to healthy food for minorities are innumerable—but among them include housing policies leading to segregated communities and financial policies leading to commercial flight. These policies have all interacted over time to contribute to health disparities among the Black community.<ref>{{Cite web|last=New York Law School|first=ACLU|date=13 May 2018|title=Unshared Bounty: How Structural Racism Contributes to the Creation and Persistence of Food Deserts|url=https://digitalcommons.nyls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=racial_justice_project}}</ref>

In 1962, 61% of White Americans shared the sentiment that ""white people [possessed] a right to keep blacks out of their neighborhoods if they [wanted] to, and blacks should respect that right.""<ref>James H. Carr and Nandinee K. Kutty, The New Imperative for Equality, in Segregation: The Rising Cost for Americans 40, 68 (James H. Carr & Nandinee K. Kutty, eds., 2008).</ref> Despite years of policy changes a result of the [[Civil rights movement|Civil Rights Movement]], 30 years later in 1990, a Detroit survey of whites found that a quarter of white respondents would not move into a neighborhood that was more than 50% Black.<ref name=""huduser"">{{Cite web |title=Expanding Opportunity Through Fair Housing Choice|url=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/em/spring14/highlight1.html|website=www.huduser.gov |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> Discrimination towards Blacks continues to influence real estate practices, while public policies and institutional discrimination continue to reinforce race segregated living patterns. Although segregation by race is illegal, it has not ceased to be the standard in America. Living patterns are not only correlated with access to educational opportunities, and employment opportunities—they are also correlated to access to food.<ref name=""huduser"" />

Studies published by the [[American Journal of Preventive Medicine]] have found that low-income neighborhoods and minority neighborhoods are less likely to have access to large supermarkets.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Larson NI, Story MT, Nelson MC |title=Neighborhood environments: disparities in access to healthy foods in the U.S |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=74–81 |date=January 2009 |pmid=18977112 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.025}}</ref> Federal government policies have directly hindered the development of supermarkets in Black populated communities. As middle-income whites got subsidized government loans to move from cities to suburbia, businesses, including supermarkets, relocated with them.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Segregation : the rising costs for America in SearchWorks catalog |url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/7521750 |website=searchworks.stanford.edu|access-date=7 June 2018|isbn=9780415965347| vauthors=Carr JH, Kutty NK, Smith SL |year=2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis }}</ref> Grocery stores and retailers alike, were supported by the United States government to relocate to the suburbs—catering to the White middle class and leaving the cities desolate.

Another housing issue related to food justice is the phenomena of green gentrification. Green gentrification is the idea that as initiatives to promote nutritious food in communities such as community gardens and farmers markets grow, neighborhoods become more appealing, and attract wealthier residents. These resources which were originally implemented to benefit low-income and marginalized communities then end up being used by more privileged populations. This was seen in Oakland, California, when a community garden started by the food justice organization [[Phat Beets Produce|Phat Beets]] was shown in a real estate ad.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last1=Alkon|first1=Alison Hope|last2=Cadji |first2=Josh|date=25 September 2018|title=Sowing Seeds of Displacement: Gentrification and Food Justice in Oakland, CA|journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research |volume=44|issue=1|pages=108–123|doi=10.1111/1468-2427.12684|s2cid=149475935 |issn=0309-1317}}</ref> Issues such as this one have led to many food justice organizations incorporating other social justice issues such as gentrification and affordable housing into their missions.<ref name="":3"" />

== Health outcomes related to nutrition in communities of color ==
Research links many health issues to the lack of nutritious food, and since food insecurity disproportionately impacts people of color, so do these health conditions. For example, cancer, diabetes, and other nutrition-related health conditions are disproportionately seen in communities of color.<ref name="":02""/> According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers For Disease Control]], obesity has been linked to a wide range of health problems including [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|Type 2 Diabetes]], [[cardiovascular disease]]s, various types of cancer, [[hypertension]], and high cholesterol among both adults and children.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/resources/publications/aag/NCCDPHP.htm|title=National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion {{!}} At A Glance Reports {{!}} Publications {{!}} Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion {{!}} CDC|date=2 October 2017|access-date=23 May 2018}}</ref>

In a 2004 study done by medical doctors and public health professionals of New York's [[Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai]], a community coalition study was done to compare the availability and cost of diabetes-healthy foods in a Black populated neighborhood in East Harlem with that of the adjacent White, wealthy Upper East Side in New York City. Researchers surveyed 173 East Harlem and 152 Upper East Side grocery stores to find whether or not they stocked five basic diabetes-diet recommended foods. Results showed that only 18% of East Harlem stores stocked the recommended foods, compared with 58% of stores in the Upper East Side. Further, they found that only 9% of East Harlem bodegas (convenience stores) carried all five recommended items while 48% of Upper East Side bodegas carried the items.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Horowitz CR, Colson KA, Hebert PL, Lancaster K |title=Barriers to buying healthy foods for people with diabetes: evidence of environmental disparities |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=1549–1554 |date=September 2004 |pmid=15333313 |pmc=1448492 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.94.9.1549}}</ref> This discrepancy is an example of how structural inequalities such as lack of access to healthy foods perpetuate high levels of type 2 diabetes in the black community.

=== Victim blaming ===
Access to food disproportionately affects minority communities, but victim-blaming narratives about them exist. For example, an article published by the [[United States Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture]], Economic Research Service entitled ""Access to Affordable, Nutritious Food is Limited in Food Deserts"", states that consumers' demographic and economic characteristics, buying habits, and tastes can explain why stores do not locate in some areas or carry particularly healthy foods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2010/march/access-to-affordable-nutritious-food-is-limited-in-food-deserts/|title=USDA ERS - Access to Affordable, Nutritious Food Is Limited in ""Food Deserts""|website=www.ers.usda.gov|access-date=23 May 2018}}</ref> Some criticized that such argument blames the communities themselves for the lack of access to healthy food and fails to acknowledge the historical influences and governmental policies that have marginalized these minority communities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alkon|first1=Alison Hope|last2=Block|first2=Daniel|last3=Moore |first3=Kelly|last4=Gillis|first4=Catherine|last5=DiNuccio|first5=Nicole|last6=Chavez|first6=Noel |date=August 2013|title=Foodways of the urban poor|journal=Geoforum|volume=48|pages=126–135|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.04.021 }}</ref> Additionally, one study found that the difference in nutritional quality of food between food secure and food insecure populations was likely to be a result of financial or time constraints.<ref name=""Butcher 2021 267–282"">{{Cite journal|last1=Butcher|first1=Lucy M.|last2=O’Sullivan|first2=Therese A.|last3=Ryan|first3=Maria M.|last4=Lo|first4=Johnny |last5=Nyanjom|first5=Julie|last6=Wilkins|first6=Hugh C.|last7=Devine|first7=Amanda |date=2021|editor-last=Judd|editor-first=Jenni|title=To dine in or not to dine in: A comparison of food selection and preparation behaviours in those with and without food security|journal=Health Promotion Journal of Australia|volume=32|issue=S2|pages=267–282|doi=10.1002/hpja.427|issn=1036-1073|pmc=8597035|pmid=32991748}}</ref> Finally, food insecure minority communities were found to be less likely to have the cooking facilities or skills needed to cook home cooked meals.<ref name=""Butcher 2021 267–282""/>

== Food sovereignty ==
[[Food sovereignty]] is defined in the Declaration of Nyéléni as ""the right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their right to define their own food and agriculture systems.""<ref>Declaration of Nyéléni (2007) Retrieved from https://viacampesina.org/en/declaration-of-nyi</ref> It revolves around the issues of ""self determination, global uneven development, and ecological degradation,"" issues commonly associated with the Global South and rural Global North.<ref name = ""Cadieux_2015"">{{cite journal| vauthors = Cadieux K, Slocum R |title=What does it mean to do food justice?|journal=Journal of Political Ecology|date=2015|volume=22|pages=3|doi=10.2458/v22i1.21076|url=http://jpe.library.arizona.edu/volume_22/Cadieuxslocum.pdf|access-date=13 May 2018|doi-access=free}}</ref> This differs from food justice, which mostly describes inaccessibility and consumption of healthy food.<ref name = ""Cadieux_2015"" /> Other common areas of food sovereignty discourse include issues of scarcity, environmental factors, population growth, and allocation of resources. Food sovereignty often places emphasis on property rights of indigenous communities and small-scale farmers.<ref name = ""Cadieux_2015"" />

The food sovereignty movement in the United States was inspired by the Belgium-based international [[La Via Campesina]] movement, and focuses on the right to produce food. This movement challenges current neoliberal approaches to solving food insecurity, and introduces a radical restructuring of the food system. Food sovereignty takes a more rights-based approach than other forms of food movements, where every individual has the right to culturally appropriate, sustainably produced food.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last1=Clendenning|first1=Jessica|last2=Dressler|first2=Wolfram H.|last3=Richards|first3=Carol|date=March 2016|title=Food justice or food sovereignty? Understanding the rise of urban food movements in the USA|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10460-015-9625-8|journal=Agriculture and Human Values|volume=33|issue=1|pages=165–177|doi=10.1007/s10460-015-9625-8 |s2cid=145661471|issn=0889-048X|hdl=11343/283038|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

=== Food sovereignty and the Global South ===
Colonialism is also a major source of food insecurity in the Global South. Colonialism had a direct impact on those who depended on seasonal farming due to prolonged droughts in certain regions, however, colonial policy often made important pasture and water resources legally inaccessible.<ref name = ""Oba_1992"">{{cite journal | vauthors = Oba G |title=Ecological Factors in Land Use Conflicts, Land Administration and Food Insecurity in Turkana, Kenya |journal=ODI Pastoral Development Network Paper |date=December 1992 |pages=10 |citeseerx = 10.1.1.536.1825 |url=https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/5389.pdf |access-date=5 June 2018}}</ref> Food insecurity has been perpetuated by post-colonial policies more recently through the inflation of food prices, aggregation of cropland, and displacement of groups from land available for food crops.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McMichael P |title=A food regime analysis of the 'world food crisis' |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |date=31 July 2009 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=281–295 |doi=10.1007/s10460-009-9218-5 |s2cid=14407925 }}</ref> Similarly, colonial policies that encouraged the planting of cash crops for export over subsistence crops has continued to affect food security in the Global South.<ref name = ""Alfreds_2011"">{{cite news |vauthors = Alfreds D |title=Colonialism legacy 'haunts' food production |url=http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/Colonialism-legacy-haunts-food-production-News-24.pdf |access-date=4 June 2018 |work=News24 |agency=24Media |date=6 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613015027/http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/Colonialism-legacy-haunts-food-production-News-24.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Many Global South countries have subsequently become dependent on food aid from Global North nations.<ref name = ""Oba_1992"" />

=== Food sovereignty and the United States ===
Food sovereignty is also an important part of the food justice movement in Global North countries, such as the United States. In the United States, food sovereignty is a critical part of indigenous food activism. Indigenous food sovereignty activists argue that indigenous communities have been systematically displaced from their traditional foodways, which has led to mass food insecurity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Coté C | year = 2016 | title = ""Indigenizing"" Food Sovereignty. Revitalizing Indigenous Food Practices and Ecological Knowledges in Canada and the United States | journal = Humanities | volume = 5 | issue = 3| page = 57 | doi = 10.3390/h5030057 | doi-access = free }}</ref> They assert that the most effective way to achieve food security for indigenous groups is for those groups to be more involved in the production of their own food.<ref>Murphy, Andi. (2019). Indigenous Food Security is Dependent on Food Sovereignty. Retrieved from https://civileats.com/2019/07/24/indigenous-food-security-is-dependent-on-food-sovereignty/</ref> Some activists also argue for food sovereignty as a means of healing historical trauma. Food sovereignty of indigenous groups is also closely linked to seed sovereignty and [[plant breeders' rights]].<ref>LaDuke, Winona. (2012). Seeds of Our Ancestors, Seeds of Life, TEDxTC. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHNlel72eQc</ref> This is because seed saving is an important practice both culturally and for the preservation of a large enough seed stock to feed communities.<ref>White, Rowen. (2018). The Native Seed Pod, Episode 1. https://www.nativeseedpod.org/podcast/2018/episode-1-the-natural-law-of-seeds</ref>

High rates of food insecurity among Native peoples is juxtaposed by the reality that current American cuisine is largely dependent on Native American food culture, with the influences of potatoes, beans, corn, peanuts, pumpkins, tomatoes, squash, peppers, melons, and sunflower seeds.<ref name=""Meredith, 2020"">Meredith, 2020</ref> The indigenous food sovereignty movement has climbed to the forefront in combating food insecurity among Native peoples to incorporate back these traditional foods in their communities. With this is the increasing support for Tribal governance on Native lands to hopefully increase accessibility to these traditional foods, increase the support of home food production, and educate on the traditions of gathering, preparation, and preservation of food.<ref name=""Meredith, 2020""/>

== Food Justice Interventions ==
{{overly detailed|section|date=October 2022}}

=== Urban or community farms ===
One of the first tactics to battle the food injustice and scarcity found in both rural and urban areas is by the use of community or urban gardens. Community gardens, according to the American Community Gardening Association's (ACGA) mission statement, are essential catalysts for the neighborhood and surrounding community by not only helping combat food insecurity in providing healthy food options but it is also economically and environmentally sound, these gardens also provide a source for recreation, therapy, beauty and education.<ref>{{cite web|last1=American Community Gardening Association |title=Growign Community Across the U.S. and Canada |url=https://communitygarden.org/mission/ |website=Community Garden|publisher=American Community Gardening Association|access-date=13 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416164153/https://communitygarden.org/mission/|archive-date=16 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In addition, having communal gardens may also benefit immigrants and refugees who use gardening as a tactic to immerse themselves in new surroundings while also getting a chance to reconnect with their culture and receive food for their family and community.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=American Community Gardening Association|title=2015 Annual Report|date=2016 |pages=10|url=https://communitygarden.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Annual-Report-2015.pdf|access-date=13 May 2018}}{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This epitomizes how the Center for Rural Affairs sees the working of the community food system of which may take many forms but at its core aims to, form a connection between the producers locals who grow or make the food and the consumers, the community.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Center For Rural Affairs |title=Community Food|url=http://www.cfra.org/community-food|website=CFRA|publisher=Center For Rural Affairs|access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref> Despite the great change and development community gardens bring, many in these communities had to fight for the right to use the land for gardening which was evident in the 1960s with ""[[guerrilla gardening]]"" tactics to combat land scarcity and resist the, ""inequalities between the powerful and powerless.""<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baudry S |title=Reclaiming Urban Space as Resistance: The Infrapolitics of Gardening |journal=Revue Française d'Études Américaines |volume=131 |date=2012 |issue=1 |pages=35–36 |doi=10.3917/rfea.131.0032 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Today, according to the ACGA annual report, 61% of community or urban gardens are found on government lands, indicating the important role local governments play in the allowing or blocking the use of community gardens through the implementation of opposing legislation or strict land use policies.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=American Community Gardening Association |title=2015 Annual Report|date=2016 |pages=9|url=https://communitygarden.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Annual-Report-2015.pdf|access-date=13 May 2018}}{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

=== Produce availability ===
Equity in both the decision-making process and the distribution of resources is the core of the food justice movement and can be achieved through government policies. One possible course of action to combat food deserts may be in mandating that corner stores and such in food deserts provide some variation of fruits and vegetables. For instance, in Minneapolis, the Department of Health and Family Support understood, that residents in food deserts, who were unable to travel to grocery stores or farmers markets, purchased their staple foods from convenience stores, which also carried more unhealthy quick foods rather than fresh produce.<ref name = ""MDHFS"">{{cite web | title = Minneapolis Healthy Corner Store Program Making produce more visible, affordable and attractive |date=2012 |publisher=Minneapolis Department of Health and Family Support |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |pages=3 |url=http://www.minneapolismn.gov/www/groups/public/@health/documents/webcontent/wcms1p-095276.pdf}}</ref> To combat this issue the Minneapolis City Council passed an ordinance requiring Minneapolis corner stores to carry ""five varieties of perishable produce"" and the Minnesota Department of Health requires, ""WIC-certified stores to carry a minimum of seven varieties (and thirty pounds) of fresh produce.""<ref name = ""MDHFS""/>{{rp|3}} However even with the ordinances North Minneapolis residents who, ""shopped most often at corner stores... did not purchase produce from them,"" due to factors such as produce being out of site or not fresh.<ref name = ""MDHFS""/>{{rp|3}} This indicates however that ordinances as such may not always be enough. In the case of Minneapolis, the MDHFS created the Healthy Corner Store Program to ensure the success of the ordinance by providing assistance from a grocery store consultant to store owners to, ""making healthy foods and fresh produce more visible, affordable, and attractive to neighborhood residents.""<ref name = ""MDHFS""/>{{rp|4}}

Another possible solution to food injustices and specifically food injustice may be in making new regulations providing that there be more grocery stores in urban and rural areas. The USDA also sees this as an issue in stating that 2.2 million Americans have difficulty in accessing large grocery stores due to have to travel over a mile in urban areas or more than 10 in urban areas may increase reliance on convenience stores and restaurants(fast food), resulting in a poor diet and diet-related health problems.<ref name=""Breneman_2009"">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ver Ploeg M, Breneman V, Farrigan T, Hamrick K, Hopkins D, Kaufman P, Lin BH, Nord M, Smith TA, Williams R, Kinnison K | display-authors = 6 |title=Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food Measuring and Understanding Food Deserts and Their Consequences |journal=Report to Congress |date=2009 |issue=June |pages=iii |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/42711/12716_ap036_1_.pdf?v=41055 |access-date=14 May 2018}}</ref> The USDA recognizes that the limited food access in Urban core areas, ""are characterized by higher levels of racial segregation and greater income inequality."" In small-town and rural areas with limited the lack of transportation infrastructure.""<ref name=""Breneman_2009"" />
However not all chain groceries will go into small neighborhoods due to the risk and upkeep, For places like West Oakland in California, where about half the residents do not have a car, access to grocery stores is even more so a struggle, so Brahm Ahmadi, decided to open his own full service grocery store and health center by selling bonds directly to the public.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Finz S |title=West Oakland supermarket shops for funds Food Stock for planned grocery store, much needed in West Oakland, being sold in direct public offering |url=https://www.sfgate.com/business/article/West-Oakland-supermarket-shops-for-funds-4292021.php#ixzz2LSi1Y6bg |access-date=14 May 2018 |work=SFGate |agency=Hearst Communications |date=20 February 2013}}</ref>

=== Food vending ===
Food trucks and other local services provide another option to help provide food to food deserts and other rural areas. In some places these food trucks like the Second Harvest Food Bank's Produce Mobile Program help communities and neighborhoods in need by providing them with high-quality and fresh produce.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Second Harvest Food Bank |title=Produce Mobile Program |url=https://www.shfb.org/producemobile |website=Second Harvest Food Bank |access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref> Food trucks are another important source of food, and are unique in their mobility but also in their locations. Food trucks are found in cities, towns, and universities all over the United States and Canada although they have a longer history in places like Portland where there was little laws preventing them or Los Angeles where immigrants carried on traditions.<ref name = ""Ferguson_2018"">{{cite web | vauthors = Ferguson L | date = June 2018 |title=Food Trucks as a Force for Social Justice |url=https://now.tufts.edu/articles/food-trucks-force-social-justice |website=Tufts Now |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref> Other spaces for these vendors became fairly recent in places like Montreal where trucks and cultural spaces were previously regulated.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Ferguson L |title=Food Trucks as a Force for Social Justice |url=https://now.tufts.edu/articles/food-trucks-force-social-justice |website=Tufts Now |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=6 June 2018|date=19 April 2018 }}</ref> Although often overlooked because they may not always supply the most 'healthy' food, they help combat food insecurity by supplying food to communities that either have no other means of getting food or simply bringing more food options into the community.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reese A |title=Between a Corner Store and a Safeway: Navigating the Unequal Foodscape in Washington, D.C |date=20 November 2015 |url=https://aaa.confex.com/aaa/2015/webprogram/Paper49609.html |access-date=22 May 2018}}</ref>

Food trucks have also been labeled, ""powerful affirmation of pop-up urbanism,"" that are controlled by ordinary people creating culturally different and creative spaces.<ref name = ""Ferguson_2018"" /> However, food trucks and other street vendors have often been banned by cities if they did not have permits or if they were considered a competitive threat to establishments nearby.<ref name = ""Powers_2018"">{{cite web | vauthors = Powers M | date = February 2018 |title=California and Arizona File Bills to Legalize Vending Trades |url=http://ij.org/california-arizona-file-bills-legalize-vending-trades/ |website=Institute for Justice |access-date=22 May 2018}}</ref> Yet recently,{{when|date=October 2022}} legislation in California (SB946) and Arizona (HB 2371) are aimed to not only legalize food trucks statewide but also decriminalize the sidewalk vending.<ref name = ""Powers_2018"" /> Legislation like these will not only help to boost the local economy but it will also allow vendors to safely and securely provide food to the community. However food trucks are not just an American or Western phenomenon, they are part of a phenomenon that has been quite common in much of the Global South.<ref name = ""Ferguson_2018"" /> Food vending in the Global South slightly differs as food vending enables many to simply survive, hang on, and cope with urban towns.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Muzvidziwa V |title=Food Vending: Adaptation Under Difficult Circumstances |journal=Journal of Social Development in Africa |date=July 2000 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=69–70 |url=http://pdfproc.lib.msu.edu/?file=/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/social%20development/vol15no2/jsda015002005.pdf |access-date=5 June 2018 |doi=10.4314/jsda.v15i2.23860|s2cid=153336315 }}</ref> It also allows them to develop networks and strategies to get by in these towns by forming relationships with commercial and small-holder irrigation farmers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Muzvidziwa V |title=Food Vending: Adaptation Under Difficult Circumstances |journal=Journal of Social Development in Africa |date=July 2000 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=70 |url=http://pdfproc.lib.msu.edu/?file=/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/social%20development/vol15no2/jsda015002005.pdf |access-date=5 June 2018 |doi=10.4314/jsda.v15i2.23860|s2cid=153336315 }}</ref> Food delivery services are another way from either local grocery stores or market boxes sent to your door. However, some of these tend to be expensive or require internet accessibility to control your account, depending on the community especially those in rural areas this option may not be possible.

There are other innovations from the nonprofit, social enterprise sector that show promise for connecting residents with limited access to fresh food to sources of fresh produce. New Roots Fresh Stop Markets were created in 2009 with the express purpose of ""igniting community power for fresh food access."" Fresh Stop Markets are fresh food markets that pop up biweekly in urban fresh food insecure communities in Louisville, Kentucky, southern Indiana, and in two rural Kentucky towns—Hazard and Brandenburg. Families agree to cooperate with each other and pool their resources—SNAP Benefits and Debit/Credit—on an income-based sliding scale, a week ahead, purchasing in bulk from local, organic farmers. This big buying power creates an opportunity for farmers to sell to a committed group with no risk, while families benefit from wholesale prices. Each family receives the same share (bag) of fresh, seasonal produce regardless of what they pay. Fresh Stop Markets always feature a chef or culinary enthusiast who demos fresh, plant-based dishes, distributes recipes and shares information and support. Veggie cheerleaders advocate for the vegetables so that everyone feels comfortable with the varieties offered. Fresh Stop Markets are volunteer driven by shareholders so that everyone from children to older adults can offer to share their knowledge with others.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0By3Vd1BeEW9fSm9CS2tpbGJGVlNSSnBTdUVpOERkQXFPWC1v/view?usp=embed_facebook|title=NR Sustain Article 2013.pdf|website=Google Docs|access-date=30 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/NewRoots/|title=New Roots, Inc|website=www.facebook.com|access-date=30 September 2019}}</ref>

==== SNAP and other food assistance programs ====

Another solution to potentially combat the food injustice, both in terms of quality and quantity of food, is in government provided subsidies and vouchers to help alleviate financial burden in affording food, as well as making healthier options available. The U.S. Federal government, as many other governments has put in much of its resources, approximately 50 billion dollars per year towards nutrition assistance programs.<ref name=""Chilton M 2007"">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chilton M, Rose D | title = A rights-based approach to food insecurity in the United States | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 99 | issue = 7 | pages = 1203–11 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19443834 | pmc = 2696644 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2007.130229 }}</ref> SNAP is one of these programs, mitigated by the federal government under the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) in the 1960s that according to one of their publications, ""improves health, enhances self-sufficiency, and alleviates food insecurity.""<ref name = ""Danielson_2018"">{{cite web | vauthors = Danielson C | date = February 2018 |title=The CalFresh Food Assistance Program |url=http://www.ppic.org/publication/the-calfresh-food-assistance-program/ |website=Public Policy Institute of California |access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref> The Public Policy Institute has conducted research showing that the introduction of food stamps has reduced illnesses attributed to poor diet such as diabetes and increased average birth weights among adults who had access to the program since their youth.<ref name = ""Danielson_2018"" />

Food vouchers such as CalFresh had success in reducing ""food insecurity among low-income households"" during the recent{{when|date=October 2022}} recession.<ref name = ""Danielson_2018"" /> However, despite the efforts made by these comprehensive assistance networks the United States has failed to make little to no advancement towards reducing food insecurity to 6% , relative to 1995 when measurements of food inequity within households began.<ref name=""Chilton M 2007""/>
With prevalent ideas/facts like these as well as the fear of fraudulent cases the federal government has proposed a new way to alleviate food insecurity and provide what it deems as healthier choices in the Food Harvest Program.<ref name = ""Rosenbaum_2018"">{{cite web | vauthors = Rosenbaum D, Dean S, Bolen EW, Keith-Jennings B, Cai L, Nchako C |title=President's Budget Would Cut Food Assistance for Millions and Radically Restructure SNAP |url=https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/presidents-budget-would-cut-food-assistance-for-millions-and-radically |website=Center on Budget and Policy Priorities | date = February 2018 |access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref> The harvest program cut the budget for SNAP by 30% over the next ten years{{when|date=October 2022}} by using a food delivery service to provide a box of non-perishable ""surplus"" goods to the recipients including a set box with canned fruits, vegetables, meats, peanut butter, and canned or frozen meat, and shelf stable milk, each box will be sized to the family size and granted benefits.<ref name = ""Rosenbaum_2018"" /> However other sources note that those with more than $90 a month in benefits, additional to the box  will have any remaining balance put on to their EBT cards.<ref name = ""Kirby_2018"">{{cite news | vauthors = Kirby J |title=Trump wants to replace food stamps with food boxes, for some reason |url=https://www.vox.com/2018/2/13/17004636/snap-trump-budget-food-stamps-food-boxes |access-date=6 June 2018 |work=Vox |agency=Vox Media, Inc. |date=13 February 2018}}</ref> There is a lack of choice in terms of what food the participants can have. Even though many still purchase foods that are deemed unhealthy much of this is due to the fact that some may live in substandard housing or not have a functional kitchen so these foods, although some may be healthy  will not always be suitable for all recipients.<ref name = ""Kirby_2018"" /> In comparison to SNAP, the administration's new program would only cover 90,000 people, while the former helped millions to come out of poverty.<ref name = ""Kirby_2018"" /> There are still many questions left to answer, such as delivery and how recipients will receive their boxes, as the use of delivery may pose a risk for delays.<ref name = ""Rosenbaum_2018"" />

Besides money, there are children's and summer food programs enacted in various states including California that allow either free or reduced lunches for those living in food deserts and underprivileged neighborhoods. These initiatives allow these individuals to have food security by providing them with access to foods that would otherwise be unattainable for them. Because schools are pivotal institutions in securing food availability, the USDA has done its part in having more healthy and wholesome food options available. New items have been added to school lunches, such as frozen rather than canned mixed berries and vegetables, grilled chicken breast fillets, egg patty rounds, and white whole wheat flour.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA |title=USDA Foods from Farm to Plate: Spotlight on Schools |website=USDA |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture | url = https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/USFNS/bulletins/2a8384f }}</ref>

==== Education ====

Many argue that simply increasing availability and providing vouchers will not solve the food justice issue in regards to food deserts, which is where the argument for nutrition education comes in. Studies have been shown that eating habits do not change when put grocery stores in poor neighborhoods, as reiterated by Barry Popkin, a professor of nutrition at the University of North Carolina stated that simply adding a grocery store in poor neighborhoods, will not make a huge impact as food prices and people's shopping and eating habits undermine convenience.<ref name = ""Sanger-Katz_2018"">{{cite news | vauthors = Sanger-Katz M |title=Giving the Poor Easy Access to Healthy Food Doesn't Mean They'll Buy It |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/09/upshot/giving-the-poor-easy-access-to-healthy-food-doesnt-mean-theyll-buy-it.html |access-date=13 May 2018 |work=The New York Times |agency=The New York Times Company |date=8 May 2018}}</ref>

According to a study,{{when|date=October 2022}} within the first year government-subsidized supermarkets in high need neighborhoods households were reported to have a significance effect on food availability and consumption habits.<ref name=""Morgan_2015"">{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|vauthors=Elbel B, Moran A, Dixon LB, Kiszko K, Cantor J, Abrams C, Mijanovich T|date=October 2015|title=Assessment of a government-subsidized supermarket in a high-need area on household food availability and children's dietary intakes|journal=Public Health Nutrition|volume=18|issue=15|pages=2881–90|pmid=25714993 |doi=10.1017/S1368980015000282 |pmc=10271373 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Reasoning behind this includes that individuals formed reliance on their usual supermarkets and the abundance and affordability of processed foods.<ref name=""Morgan_2015"" /> Due to these reasons, overall lower income families bought less healthy food than wealthier families, however there were even greater disparities found, ""between families with and without a college education.""<ref name=""Sanger-Katz_2018"" /> These results suggest that in order to improve a person's diet and change perceptions it is essential that there be education on diet and health on top of increasing food accessibility and affordability.<ref name=""Sanger-Katz_2018"" /> However the affordability of food may in fact influence food choice if the government chose to not only subsidize fruits and vegetables but also tax fast food, ""to improve weight outcomes among children and adolescents.""<ref>{{Cite book|author1=National Research Council (US)|title=The Public Health Effects of Food Deserts|date=2009|isbn=978-0-309-13728-7|pages=14|chapter=Determining the Extent of Food Deserts |doi=10.17226/12623|pmid=25032337 |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/12623/chapter/4#14}}</ref>

==== Genetically Engineered Crops ====

While many food justice interventions function at more localized scales, food injustice is both systemic and complex, and touches on the uneven global allocation of finite resources. The global food scarcity ideology is at the heart of many corporate food justice campaigns, and entities including Bayer campaign on feeding the world - and therefore cultivating more just societies - by using genetic engineering crops. Reports have questioned both the efficacy and ethics of GE crops as food justice strategies.<ref name = ""Gurian-Sherman_2009"">{{cite web | vauthors = Gurian-Sherman D |title=Failure to Yield: Evaluating the Performance of Genetically Engineered Crops |url= https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/legacy/assets/documents/food_and_agriculture/failure-to-yield.pdf |website=Union of Concerned Scientists | date = April 2009 |access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref> These interventions also pose risks that threaten other pillars of just and ecologically viable societies; critics of GMOs cite the harms of overproduction, as well as decreasing [[Biodiversity loss|genetic diversity of crops]] which can lead to wipe out due to [[invasive species]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abushal|first1=Logayn T.|last2=Salama|first2=Mohamed |last3=Essa|first3=Musthafa Mohamed|last4=Qoronfleh|first4=M. Walid|date=2021|title=Agricultural biotechnology: Revealing insights about ethical concerns|journal=Journal of Biosciences |volume=46|issue=3|pages=81|doi=10.1007/s12038-021-00203-0|s2cid=236993748|issn=0250-5991}}</ref>

== Criticisms ==
Working locally allows organizations to directly solve issues of hunger in their immediate communities, and this work is often successful in providing more nutritious food to disadvantaged communities. However, critics of the food justice movement argue that working locally also prevents larger structural changes from occurring. Most organizations work around the neoliberal food system in place, and mitigate damage done by this system instead of taking down the system itself.<ref name="":2""/> NGOs are an important part of the food movement, yet these NGOs require outside funding which some argue depoliticizes the movement.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brent|first1=Zoe W. |last2=Schiavoni |first2=Christina M.|last3=Alonso-Fradejas|first3=Alberto|date=4 March 2015|title=Contextualising food sovereignty: the politics of convergence among movements in the USA |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=36|issue=3|pages=618–635|doi=10.1080/01436597.2015.1023570|s2cid=155057582|issn=0143-6597|url=https://pure.eur.nl/en/publications/ae961058-48dc-4fed-8290-9ea22608212f }}</ref>

To remain strong in their values and their mission, some in the movement argue that no connections can exist between their organizations and outside companies that do not align with their goals. However, these organizations need money to have a strong impact, and face the challenge of finding a balance between radicalism and realistic change. Similarly, there is concern that the food justice movement will end up becoming an ""empty signifier"" on food labels as a means of [[greenwashing]] and false advertising- a concern that becomes more real when organizations are forced to turn to outside companies.<ref name=""90."">{{cite journal |last1=Cadieux |first1=K. Valentine |last2=Slocum |first2=Rachel |title=What does it mean to do food justice? |journal=Journal of Political Ecology |date=2015 |volume=22 |doi=10.2458/v22i1.21076 |url=https://digitalcommons.hamline.edu/cla_faculty/3 |access-date=20 October 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref> Food justice has a longer history in the US than other movements such as food sovereignty, and was initially seen as politically strong with its roots in groups including the Black Panthers. However, more recently,{{when|date=October 2022}} critics argue that food sovereignty is leading to more effective restructuring of the unequal food system.<ref name="":2"" />

== See also ==
{{Portal|Food|Society}}
* [[Food Security]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Slow Food]] 
* [[Fair Trade]]
* [[Fair Food Program]]
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Right to food]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=Blue Bird Jernigan, V., Salvatore, A. L., Styne, D. M., & Winkleby, M. (2011). Addressing food insecurity in a native american reservation using community-based participatory research. Health Education Research, 27(4), 645-655. doi:10.1093/her/cyr089

Gundersen, C. (2008). Measuring the extent, depth, and severity of food insecurity: An application to american indians in the USA.Journal of Population Economics, 21(1), 191-215. doi:10.1007/s00148-007-0152-9

Meredith, E. (2020, 10 November,). November is native american heritage month. Retrieved from https://hungerandhealth.feedingamerica.org/2020/11/november-native-american-heritage-month/

Tomayko, E. J., Mosso, K. L., Cronin, K. A., Carmichael, L., Kim, K., Parker, T., . . . Adams, A. K. (2017). Household food insecurity and dietary patterns in rural and urban american indian families with young children. BMC Public Health, 17(1), 611. doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4498-y}}

[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable food system]]
[[Category:Justice]]"
Green Office,"{{Short description|Sustainability department or office}}
A '''Green Office''' (in some cases also called ''Student Green Office, (Student) Green Unit, Sustainability Hub, or Nachhaltigkeitsbüro'' (German)) is a sustainability department or office that enables students and other actors such as academics and staff to act on sustainability at their university.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite news|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002457/245763E.pdf|title=The Green Office Model: Making universities more sustainable|last1=Lehnhof|first1=Roman|work=UNESCO|last2=Nolan|first2=Cathy}}</ref>  The model differs from other approaches of sustainability governance, as it allows students to actively contribute to their university’s sustainability efforts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eauc.org.uk/next_generation_sustainability_strategy_and_str|title=Next Generation Sustainability Strategy and Structure Launch|website=www.eauc.org.uk|access-date=2018-01-16}}</ref> Through its institutional mandate, funding and support, a Green Office addresses common barriers which prevent sustainability student groups from having more of an impact on their university.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rootability.com/wp-content/uploads/2011_Spira_Sustainability-student-groups.pdf|title=Sowing sprouts to engender greener universities|last=Spira|first=Felix}}</ref>

The first Green Office was established at [[Maastricht University]] in 2010 as the institution’s student-run sustainability department.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://netzwerk-n.org/portfolios/green-office-maastricht/|title=Green Office Maastricht|work=netzwerk n|access-date=2018-01-16|language=de-DE}}</ref> The model has since spread to over 50 higher education institutions in various countries, mainly in Europe.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.greenofficemovement.org/|title=Start your Sustainability Office and join the Green Office Movement|work=Green Office Movement|access-date=2020-11-22|language=en-GB}}</ref> It is particularly popular in the Netherlands, where most of the universities have established a Green Office. The model is actively being spread by the social business ''Green Office Movement'' (previously known as ''rootAbility'') and is freely available under a [[Creative Commons License]].<ref name="":0"" />

== Activities and achievements ==
Green Offices focus on embedding sustainability into the education, research and operations of their university or on supporting sustainability student engagement. For example, Maastricht, Magdeburg and Konstanz are engaged in writing sustainability reports, strategies and policies for their university. Others, such as Groningen, Utrecht and Rotterdam are more focused on student engagement through lectures, movie screenings or workshops.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/green-office-case-studies|title=23 Green Office case studies from European universities|work=Green Office Model|access-date=2020-11-22|language=en-US}}</ref><br>

Some notable achievements of Green Offices include:

* Contributing to achieving the [[Fairtrade certification|Fair-Trade]] University Status (Eindhoven).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/eindhoven/|title=Eindhoven - Green Office Model|date=2017-07-22|work=Green Office Model|access-date=2018-01-16|language=en-US}}</ref> 
* Creating a sustainability minor and honours programme (VU Amsterdam).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/vu/|title=Amsterdam (VU) - Green Office Model|date=2017-05-03|work=Green Office Model|access-date=2018-01-16|language=en-US}}</ref> 
* Increasing the recycling rate of [[Electronic waste|E-waste]] by 185% (Maastricht).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/maastricht|title=Maastricht - Green Office Model|date=2017-07-19|work=Green Office Model|access-date=2018-01-16|language=en-US}}</ref> 
* Getting an online course accredited (Konstanz).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/konstanz/|title=Konstanz - Green Office Model|date=2017-07-22|work=Green Office Model|access-date=2018-01-16|language=en-US}}</ref>
* Initiating the development of a university-wide sustainability vision (Leiden).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Past Projects|url=https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/green-office/projects/past-projects#climate-call|website=Leiden University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=How sustainable does the University want to be by 2030?|url=https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/news/2020/09/how-sustainable-does-the-university-want-to-be-by-2030|website=Leiden University}}</ref>

== Characteristics ==
An analysis of 23 Green Offices concluded that the average Green Office has 5 student employees who are paid for 9 hours a week and typically work another 5 hours voluntarily. The Green Office either consists of only students who actively work with staff at the institution or of students and staff in one core team. Every second Green Offices works with volunteers. Typically, a Green Office working with volunteers will manage 20 volunteers at a time.<ref name=""auto"">{{Cite news|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/model|title=What is a GO? - Green Office Model|work=Green Office Model|access-date=2018-01-16|language=en-US}}</ref><br>
 
70% of Green Offices possess their own office space, whereas 30% share office space. Green Offices are officially recognized and resourced by their Executive Board, a (sustainability) committee or Facility Services. The average overall annual budget is 60,000 EUR. Some Green Offices also have supervisory boards to which they report.<ref name=""auto""/>

== Green Office Movement ==
Existing Green Offices are part of the “Green Office Movement”.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/model|title=Green Office Model - Green Office Model|work=Green Office Model|access-date=2018-01-16|language=en-US}}</ref> The movement organizes a yearly European Green Office Summit,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.deutschlandfunk.de/nachhaltigkeit-an-universitaeten-kleine-schritte-gegen.697.de.html?dram:article_id=300602|title=Nachhaltigkeit an Universitäten - Kleine Schritte gegen große Verschwendung|work=Deutschlandfunk|access-date=2018-01-16|language=de-DE}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.duurzamestudent.nl/2016/12/22/green-office-summit-a-rollercoaster-of-activities/|title=Green Office Summit: a rollercoaster of activities - DuurzameStudent|date=2016-12-22|work=DuurzameStudent|access-date=2018-01-16|language=nl-NL}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/summit/|title=European GO Summit - Green Office Model|work=Green Office Model|access-date=2018-01-16|language=en-US}}</ref> as well as a Learning, Exchange and Action Programme hosting knowledge exchange throughout the year.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.greenofficemovement.org/join/|title=Join the GO Movement|date=2020-11-22|work=rootAbility|access-date=2018-05-10|language=en-GB}}</ref>  On a national level, the movement is supported by ''Studenten voor Morgen'' in the Netherlands,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.studentenvoormorgen.nl/green-offices/|title=Green Offices – Studenten voor Morgen|website=www.studentenvoormorgen.nl|language=nl-NL|access-date=2018-01-16}}</ref>  ''[[:de:Netzwerk n|Netzwerk N]]'' in Germany and the [[National Union of Students (United Kingdom)|National Union of Students]] in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rootability.com/model/movement# |title=- rootAbility |access-date=2017-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017144647/http://rootability.com/model/movement/# |archive-date=2017-10-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Risks and recognition ==
A recurring issue Green Offices have faced is a lack of continuity given the high turnover of student employees. Green Offices also have limited authority within the university and rely on academics, staff and higher management to work with them. In addition, a Green Office may reduce the responsibility that other actors at the university feel to act on sustainability.<ref name=""auto""/>

The Green Office Model has received numerous recognitions including the International Student Campus Network Award for excellence in student projects<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.international-sustainable-campus-network.org/awards/previous-sce-award-winners|title=Previous Award Winners - International Sustainable Campus Network|last=Connolly|first=Clare|website=www.international-sustainable-campus-network.org|language=en-gb|access-date=2018-01-16}}</ref> and the [[The UNESCO-Japan Prize on Education for Sustainable Development|UNESCO-Japan Prize on Education for Sustainable Development]].<ref name=""auto1"">{{cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/prize-esd/2015laureats/rootAbility|title=rootAbility|website=UNESCO|date=18 November 2015 |language=en|access-date=2018-01-16}}</ref> The committee for the UNESCO-Japan prize claims that “this intense collaboration and inclusive participation have ensured the best conditions for the necessary changes towards sustainability.”<ref name=""auto1""/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainability at academic institutions]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Microfinance,"{{Short description|Provision of microloans to poor entrepreneurs and small businesses}}
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{{Being merged|target=Financial inclusion|discuss=Talk:Financial inclusion#Merge of microfinance|dir=to |date=February 2020|spacetype=article}}
{{Multiple issues|
 {{Technical |date=January 2011}}
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[[File:Afghanistan microfinance women Sewing (10665104743).jpg|thumb|An Afghan woman doing microfinanced sewing work]]
'''Microfinance''' is a category of financial services targeting individuals and small businesses who lack access to conventional [[banking]] and related services. Microfinance includes [[microcredit]], the provision of small loans to poor clients; [[savings account|savings]] and [[checking account]]s; [[microinsurance]]; and [[payment system]]s, among other services.<ref name=""biznewsdaily"">{{cite web |url= https://www.businessnewsdaily.com/4286-microfinance.html |title=Microfinance: What It Is and Why It Matters |last=Caramela |first=Sammi |date=23 April 2018 |work=Business News Daily |access-date=16 February 2019}}</ref><ref name=""investopedia"">{{cite web |url= https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/microfinance.asp |last=Kagan |first=Julia |date=7 June 2018 |work=Investopedia |access-date=16 February 2019 |title=Microfinance}}</ref> Microfinance services are designed to reach excluded customers, usually poorer population segments, possibly socially marginalized, or geographically more isolated, and to help them become self-sufficient.<ref name=""investopedia"" /><ref name=""christen-rosenberg-jayadeva"">Christen, Robert Peck Christen; Rosenberg, Richard; Jayadeva, Veena. ''Financial institutions with a double-bottom line: Implications for the future of microfinance''. CGAP, Occasional Papers series, July 2004, pp. 2–3.</ref> ID Ghana is an example of a microfinance institution.

Microfinance initially had a limited definition: the provision of [[microloans]] to poor entrepreneurs and small businesses lacking access to [[credit]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is microfinance?|url=https://finca.org/our-work/microfinance/|access-date=2021-04-09|website=FINCA International|language=en-US}}</ref> The two main mechanisms for the delivery of financial services to such clients were: (1) relationship-based banking for individual entrepreneurs and small businesses; and (2) group-based models, where several entrepreneurs come together to apply for loans and other services as a group. Over time, microfinance has emerged as a larger [[social movement|movement]] whose object is: ""a world in which as everyone, especially the poor and socially marginalized people and households have access to a wide range of affordable, high quality financial products and services, including not just credit but also savings, insurance, payment services, and [[Electronic funds transfer|fund transfers]].""<ref name=""christen-rosenberg-jayadeva"" />

Proponents of microfinance often claim that such access will help poor people out of [[poverty]], including participants in the [[Microcredit Summit Campaign]]. For many, microfinance is a way to promote [[economic development]], employment and growth through the support of micro-entrepreneurs and small businesses; for others it is a way for the poor to manage their finances more effectively and take advantage of economic opportunities while managing the risks. Critics often point to some of the ills of micro-credit that can create indebtedness. Many studies have tried to assess its impacts.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Benjamin |last1=Feigenberg |first2=Erica M. |last2=Field |first3=Rohan |last3=Pande |title=Building Social Capital Through MicroFinance |series=NBER Working Paper No. 16018 |date=2010 |url= http://www.nber.org/papers/w16018 |access-date=10 March 2011 |doi=10.3386/w16018 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

New research in the area of microfinance call for better understanding of the microfinance ecosystem so that the microfinance institutions and other facilitators can formulate sustainable strategies that will help create social benefits through better service delivery to the low-income population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Purkayastha |first1=Debapratim |last2=Tripathy |first2=Trilochan |last3=Das |first3=Biswajit |date=1 January 2020 |title=Understanding the ecosystem of microfinance institutions in India |journal=Social Enterprise Journal |volume=[preprint] |issue=3 |pages=243–261 |doi=10.1108/SEJ-08-2019-0063 |s2cid=213274658 |issn=1750-8614}}</ref><ref name="":0"" />

== History of microfinance ==
Over the past centuries, practical visionaries, from the [[Franciscan]] friars who founded the community-oriented [[pawnbroker|pawnshops]] of the 15th century to the founders of the [[Europe]]an [[credit union]] movement in the 19th century (such as [[Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen]]) and the founders of the [[microcredit]] movement in the 1970s (such as [[Muhammad Yunus]] and [[Al Whittaker]]), have tested practices and built institutions designed to bring the kinds of opportunities and risk-management tools that financial services can provide to the doorsteps of poor people.<ref name=""autogenerated2"">{{cite book|last=Helms|first=Brigit|title=Access for All: Building Inclusive Financial Systems|publisher=[[The World Bank]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8213-6360-7|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]}}</ref>

The history of microfinancing can be traced back as far as the middle of the 1800s, when the theorist [[Lysander Spooner]] was writing about the benefits of small credits to entrepreneurs and farmers as a way of getting the people out of poverty.{{Citation needed |date=September 2019}} Independently of Spooner, Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen founded the first cooperative lending banks to support farmers in rural [[Germany]].<ref>[http://www.raiffeisen.de/genossenschaften/genossenschaften/pdf/Raiffeisen-Organisation-englisch.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810074631/http://www.raiffeisen.de/genossenschaften/genossenschaften/pdf/Raiffeisen-Organisation-englisch.pdf|date=August 10, 2007}}</ref>

The modern use of the expression ""microfinancing"" has roots in the 1970s when [[Grameen Bank]] of [[Bangladesh]], founded by microfinance pioneer [[Muhammad Yunus]], was starting and shaping the modern industry of microfinancing. The approach of microfinance was institutionalized by Yunus in 1976, with the foundation of [[Grameen Bank]] in Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Microcredit|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/microcredit|access-date=1 October 2019}}</ref> Another pioneer in this sector is Pakistani social scientist [[Akhtar Hameed Khan]].

Since people in the developing world still largely depend on subsistence farming or basic food trade for their livelihood, significant resources have gone into supporting [[smallholding|smallholder]] agriculture in developing countries.<ref>{{Cite web|date=27 August 2018|title=Farming + Finance for a Path out of Poverty|url=https://www.wholeplanetfoundation.org/farming-finance-for-a-path-out-of-poverty/|access-date=31 March 2019|work=Whole Planet Foundation}}</ref>

== Microfinance and poverty ==
[[File:Needs and Services.jpg|thumb|Financial needs and financial services.]]
In [[developing economies]], and particularly in rural areas, many activities that would be classified in the [[Developed World|developed world]] as financial are not [[monetization|monetized]]: that is, [[money]] is not used to carry them out. This is often the case when people need the services money can provide but do not have dispensable funds required for those services. This forces them to revert to other means of acquiring the funds.
In their book, ''The Poor and Their Money'', Stuart Rutherford and Sukhwinder Arora cite several types of needs:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rutherford |first1=Stuart |last2=Arora |first2=Sukhwinder |title=The Poor and Their Money: Micro Finance from a Twenty-first Century Consumer's Perspective |page=4 |publisher=Practical Action |location=Warwickshire, UK |date=2009 |isbn=9781853396885}}</ref>
* ''Lifecycle Needs'': such as weddings, funerals, childbirth, education, home building, holidays, festivals, widowhood and old age
* ''Personal Emergencies'': such as sickness, injury, unemployment, theft, harassment or death
* ''Disasters'': such as wildfires, floods, cyclones and man-made events like war or bulldozing of dwellings
* ''Investment Opportunities'': expanding a business, buying land or equipment, improving housing, securing a job, etc.
People find creative and often collaborative ways to meet these needs, primarily through creating and exchanging different forms of non-cash value. Common substitutes for cash vary from country to country, but typically include livestock, grains, jewelry and precious metals.
As Marguerite S. Robinson describes in his book, ''The Micro Finance Revolution: Sustainable Finance for the Poor'', the 1980s demonstrated that ""micro finance could provide large-scale outreach profitably"", and in the 1990s, ""micro finance began to develop as an industry"".<ref>{{cite book |first=Marguerite S. |last=Robinson |title=The Micro Finance Revolution: Sustainable Finance for the Poor |date=2001 |page=54}}</ref>
In the 2000s, the microfinance industry's objective was to satisfy the unmet [[demand]] on a much larger scale, and to play a role in reducing poverty. While much progress has been made in developing a viable, commercial microfinance sector in the last few decades, several issues remain that need to be addressed before the industry will be able to satisfy massive worldwide demand.
The obstacles or challenges in building a sound commercial microfinance industry include:
* Inappropriate donor [[subsidies]]
* Poor regulation and supervision of deposit-taking microfinance institutions (MFIs)
* Few MFIs that meet the needs for savings, remittances or insurance
* Limited management capacity in MFIs
* Institutional inefficiencies
* Need for more dissemination and adoption of rural, agricultural microfinance methodologies
* Members' lack of collateral to secure a loan

Microfinance is the proper tool to reduce income inequality, allowing citizens from lower socio-economical classes to participate in the economy. Moreover, its involvement has shown to lead to a downward trend in income inequality.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hermes |first=N. |date=2014 |title=Does microfinance affect income inequality? |journal=Applied Economics |volume=46 |issue=9 |pages=1021–1034 |doi=10.1080/00036846.2013.864039|s2cid=154583577 }}</ref>

== Ways in which poor people manage their money ==

[[File:Saving up.jpg|thumb|Saving up]]
Rutherford argues that the basic problem that poor people face as money managers is to gather a ""usefully large"" amount of money. Building a new home may involve saving and protecting diverse building materials for years until enough are available to proceed with construction. Children's schooling may be funded by buying chickens and raising them for sale as needed for expenses, uniforms, bribes, etc. Because all the value is accumulated before it is needed, this money management strategy is referred to as ""saving up"".<ref>Rutherford, Stuart. ''The Poor and Their Money''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref>

Often, people don't have enough money when they face a need, so they borrow. A poor family might borrow from relatives to buy land, from a moneylender to buy rice, or from a microfinance institution to buy a sewing machine. Since these loans must be repaid by saving after the cost is incurred, Rutherford calls this 'saving down'. Rutherford's point is that microcredit is addressing only half the problem, and arguably the less important half: poor people borrow to help them save and accumulate assets. However, microfinance is not the magical solution to take people out of poverty; it is merely a tool that the poor can use to raise their prospects for an escape from poverty.<ref>Matin, Imran & Hulme, David & Rutherford, Stuart. (2002). Finance for the Poor: From Microcredit to Microfinancial Services. Journal of International Development. 14. 273-294. 10.1002/jid.874.</ref>

[[File:Saving down.jpg|left|thumb|Saving down]]
Most needs are met through a mix of saving and credit. A benchmark impact assessment of [[Grameen Bank]] and two other large microfinance institutions in [[Bangladesh]] found that for every $1 they were lending to clients to finance rural non-farm [[micro-enterprise]], about $2.50 came from other sources, mostly their clients' savings.<ref>{{cite book |last=Khandker |first=Shahidur R. |title=Fighting Poverty with Microcredit: Experience in Bangladesh |page=78 |publisher=The University Press Ltd. |location=Dhaka, Bangladesh |date=999 |isbn=9789840514687}}</ref> This parallels the experience in the West, in which family businesses are funded mostly from savings, especially during start-up.

Recent studies have also shown that informal methods of saving are unsafe. For example, a study by Wright and Mutesasira in [[Uganda]] concluded that ""those with no option but to save in the informal sector are almost bound to lose some money—probably around one quarter of what they save there"".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=Graham A. N. |last2=Mutesasira |first2=Leonard K. |title=The relative risks to the savings of poor people |journal=Small Enterprise Development |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=33–45 |doi=10.3362/0957-1329.2001.031 |date=September 2001 }}</ref>

The work of Rutherford, Wright and others has caused practitioners to reconsider a key aspect of the microcredit paradigm: that poor people get out of poverty by borrowing, building microenterprises and increasing their income. The new paradigm places more attention on the efforts of poor people to reduce their many vulnerabilities by keeping more of what they earn and building up their assets.

== Examples ==
The microfinance project of ""saving up"" is exemplified in the slums of the south-eastern city of Vijayawada, India. This microfinance project functions as an unofficial banking system where Jyothi, a ""deposit collector"", collects money from slum dwellers, mostly women, in order for them to accumulate savings. Jyothi does her rounds throughout the city, collecting Rs5 a day from people in the slums for 220 days, however not always 220 days in a row since these women do not always have the funds available to put them into savings. They ultimately end up with Rs1000 at the end of the process. However, there are some issues with this microfinance saving program. One of the issues is that while saving, clients are actually losing part of their savings. Jyothi takes interest from each client—about 20 out of every 220 payments, or Rs100 out of 1,100 or 9%. When these slum dwellers find someone they trust, they are willing to pay up to 30% to someone to safely collect and keep their savings. There is also the risk of entrusting their savings to unlicensed, informal, peripatetic collectors. However, the slum dwellers are willing to accept this risk because they are unable to save at home, and unable to use the remote and unfriendly banks in their country. This microfinance project also has many benefits, such as empowering women and giving parents the ability to save money for their children's education. This specific microfinance project is an example of the benefits and limitations of the ""saving up"" project.<ref name=""rutherford 2009"">Rutherford, 2009.</ref>

The microfinance project of ""saving through"" is shown in Nairobi, Kenya which includes a Rotating Savings and Credit Associations or ROSCAs initiative. This is a small scale example, however Rutherford (2009) describes a woman he met in Nairobi and studied her ROSCA. Every day 15 women would save 100 shillings so there would be a lump sum of 1,500 shillings and every day 1 of the 15 women would receive that lump sum. This would continue for 15 days and another woman within this group would receive the lump sum. At the end of the 15 days a new cycle would start. This ROSCA initiative is different from the ""saving up"" example above because there are no interest rates affiliated with the ROSCA, additionally everyone receives back what they put forth. This initiative requires trust and social capital networks in order to work, so often these ROSCAs include people who know each other and have reciprocity. The ROSCA allows for marginalized groups to receive a lump sum at one time in order to pay or save for specific needs they have.

==Microfinance debates and challenges==

There are several key debates at the boundaries of microfinance.

===Loan Pricing===
[[File:A business in South Sudan benefiting from microfinance (6189731244).jpg|thumb|This shop in [[South Sudan]] was opened using money borrowed from the Finance Sudan Limited (FSL) Program. This program was established in 2006 as one of the only microfinance lenders in the country.]]

Before determining loan prices, one should take into account the following costs: 1) administrative costs by the bank (MFI) and 2) transaction cost by the client/customer. Customers, on the other hand, may have expenses for travelling to the bank branch, acquiring official documents for the loan application, and loss of time when dealing with the MFI (""[[opportunity cost]]s""). Hence, from a customer's point of view the cost of a loan is not only the interest and fees she/he has to pay, but also all other transaction costs that she/he has to cover.

One of the principal challenges of microfinance is providing small loans at an affordable cost. The global average interest and fee rate is estimated at 37%, with rates reaching as high as 70% in some markets.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/14/world/14microfinance.html?pagewanted=all |work=The New York Times |first=Neil |last=MacFarquhar |title=Banks Making Big Profits From Tiny Loans |date=13 April 2010}}</ref>  The reason for the high interest rates is not primarily cost of capital.  Indeed, the local microfinance organizations that receive zero-interest loan capital from the online microlending platform [[Kiva (organization)|Kiva]] charge average interest and fee rates of 35.21%.<ref name=""HighRates"">{{cite web |url= http://www.kiva.org/help/interestRateComparison |title=Kiva Help - Interest Rate Comparison |publisher=Kiva.org |access-date=October 10, 2009}}</ref>  Rather, the main reason for the high cost of microfinance loans is the high [[transaction cost]] of traditional microfinance operations relative to loan size.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.kiva.org/about/microfinance#interestRatesAreHigh |title=About Microfinance |publisher=Kiva |access-date=11 June 2014}}</ref>

Microfinance practitioners have long argued that such high interest rates are simply unavoidable, because the cost of making each loan cannot be reduced below a certain level while still allowing the lender to cover costs such as offices and staff salaries. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa credit risk for microfinance institutes is very high, because customers need years to improve their livelihood and face many challenges during this time. Financial institutes often do not even have a system to check the person's identity. Additionally, they are unable to design new products and enlarge their business to reduce the risk.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moving forward |author1=Geoffrey Muzigiti |author2=Oliver Schmidt |publisher=D+C Development and Cooperation/ dandc.eu |date=January 2013 |url= http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/financial-inclusion-poor-sub-saharan-africa-improving-thanks-formal-sector-banks-and}}</ref> The result is that the traditional approach to microfinance has made only limited progress in resolving the problem it purports to address: that the world's poorest people pay the world's highest cost for small business growth capital.  The high costs of traditional microfinance loans limit their effectiveness as a poverty-fighting tool. Offering loans at interest and fee rates of 37% mean that borrowers who do not manage to earn at least a 37% rate of return may actually end up poorer as a result of accepting the loans.

[[File:Example of Flat Rate Loan Contract Chambak, Cambodia.JPG|thumb|Example of a loan contract, using flat rate calculation, from rural Cambodia. Loan is for 400,000 riels at 4% flat (16,000 riels) interest per month.]]
According to a recent survey of microfinance borrowers in Ghana published by the Center for Financial Inclusion, more than one-third of borrowers surveyed reported struggling to repay their loans. Some resorted to measures such as reducing their food intake or taking children out of school in order to repay microfinance debts that had not proven sufficiently profitable. {{Citation needed |date=February 2015}}

In recent years, the microfinance industry has shifted its focus from the objective of increasing the volume of lending capital available, to address the challenge of providing microfinance loans more affordably. Microfinance analyst David Roodman contends that, in mature markets, the average interest and fee rates charged by microfinance institutions tend to fall over time.<ref>Roodman, David. ''Due Diligence: An Impertinent Inquiry into Microfinance''. Center for Global Development, 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Istazk |first1=Lennon |title=Alles over een Klein Bedrag Lenen. |url= https://kleinbedraglenen.nl/ |access-date=11 January 2017|work=Klein bedrag lenen |date=4 July 2014}}</ref> However, global average interest rates for microfinance loans are still well above 30%.

The answer to providing microfinance services at an affordable cost may lie in rethinking one of the fundamental assumptions underlying microfinance: that microfinance borrowers need extensive monitoring and interaction with loan officers in order to benefit from and repay their loans. The P2P microlending service [[Zidisha]] is based on this premise, facilitating direct interaction between individual lenders and borrowers via an internet community rather than physical offices. Zidisha has managed to bring the cost of microloans to below 10% for borrowers, including interest which is paid out to lenders. However, it remains to be seen whether such radical alternative models can reach the scale necessary to compete with traditional microfinance programs.<ref>{{cite web |last=Katic |first=Gordon |url= http://www.terry.ubc.ca/2013/02/20/terry-project-podcast-21-micro-finance-lending-a-hand-to-the-poor/ |title=Micro-finance, Lending a Hand to the Poor? |publisher=Terry.ubc.ca |date=20 February 2013 |access-date=11 June 2014}}</ref>

===Use of loans===
Practitioners and donors from the charitable side of microfinance frequently argue for restricting microcredit to loans for productive purposes—such as to start or expand a [[microenterprise]]. Those from the private-sector side respond that, because money is [[Fungibility|fungible]], such a restriction is impossible to enforce, and that in any case it should not be up to rich people to determine how poor people use their money.{{Citation needed |date=April 2013}}

===Reach versus depth of impact===
[[File:Rwandan farm cooperative goats.jpg|thumb|These goats are being raised by Rwandan women as part of a farm cooperative funded by microfinance.]]
There has been a long-standing debate over the sharpness of the trade-off between 'outreach' (the ability of a microfinance institution to reach poorer and more remote people) and its '[[sustainability]]' (its ability to cover its operating costs—and possibly also its costs of serving new clients—from its operating revenues). Although it is generally agreed that microfinance practitioners should seek to balance these goals to some extent, there are a wide variety of strategies, ranging from the minimalist profit-orientation of [[BancoSol]] in [[Bolivia]] to the highly integrated not-for-profit orientation of [[BRAC (NGO)|BRAC]] in [[Bangladesh]]. This is true not only for individual institutions, but also for governments engaged in developing national microfinance systems. BRAC was ranked the number one NGO in the world in 2015 and 2016 by the Geneva-based NGO Advisor.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200528958.shtml |title=BRAC ranked number one NGO in the world: Sierra Leone News |last=Blyden |first=Sylvia |work=news.sl |access-date=11 January 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170113091400/http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200528958.shtml |archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url= http://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2016/jun/19/brac-ranks-number-one |title=Brac ranks world's number one NGO {{!}} Dhaka Tribune |work=archive.dhakatribune.com |date=19 June 2016 |access-date=11 January 2017}}</ref>

===Women===
Microfinance provides women around the world with financial and non-financial services, especially in the most rural areas that do not have access to traditional banking and other basic financial infrastructure. It creates opportunities for women to start-up and build their businesses using their own skills and talents.<ref name=""4Ways"">{{Cite web |url= https://finca.org/blogs/4-ways-microfinance-empowers-women/ |title=4 Ways Microfinance Empowers Women |date=20 August 2017 |work=FINCA International |access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref>

Utilizing savings, credit, and microinsurance, Microfinance helps families create income-generating activities and better cope with risk. Women particularly benefit from microfinance as many microfinance institutions (MFIs) target female clients.<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://hbr.org/2011/03/women-as-microfinance-leaders |title=Women as Microfinance Leaders, Not Just Clients |last=Iskenderian |first=Mary Ellen |date=16 March 2011 |work=Harvard Business Review |access-date=22 November 2019 |issn=0017-8012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---gender/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_091581.pdf |title=Small change, Big changes: Women and Microfinance |work=International Labour Office, Geneva|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref> Most microfinance institutions (MFIs) partner with other organizations like [[Water.org]] and [[Habitat for Humanity]]<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.habitat.org/impact/our-work/terwilliger-center-innovation-in-shelter/microfinance |title=What is microfinance? |work=Habitat.org |publisher=[[Habitat for Humanity]] |access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref> to provide additional services for their clients.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://water.org/solutions/global-engagement/ |title=Global Engagement |work=Water.org |access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.ircwash.org/projects/one-wash-national-programme-me-support-ethiopia |title=One WaSH National Programme M&E support (Ethiopia) :: IRC |work=www.ircwash.org |access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref>

Microfinance generally agree that women should be the primary focus of service delivery. Evidence shows that they are less likely to default on their loans than men. Industry data from 2006 for 704 MFIs reaching 52 million borrowers includes MFIs using the [[solidarity lending]] methodology (99.3% female clients) and MFIs using individual lending (51% female clients). The delinquency rate for solidarity lending was 0.9% after 30 days (individual lending—3.1%), while 0.3% of loans were written off (individual lending—0.9%).<ref>{{cite web |title=MicroBanking Bulletin |issue=15 (Autumn 2007) |pages=46, 49 |publisher=Microfinance Information Exchange |date=1 August 2007 |url= http://www.themix.org/microbanking-bulletin/mbb-issue-no-15-autumn-2007 |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105152122/http://www.themix.org/microbanking-bulletin/mbb-issue-no-15-autumn-2007 |archive-date=5 January 2010}}</ref>  Because operating margins become tighter the smaller the loans delivered, many MFIs consider the risk of lending to men to be too high. This focus on women is questioned sometimes, however a recent study of microentrepreneurs from Sri Lanka published by the [[World Bank]] found that the return on capital for male-owned businesses (half of the sample) averaged 11%, whereas the return for women-owned businesses was 0% or slightly negative.<ref>{{cite web |last=McKenzie |first=David |title=Comments Made at IPA/FAI Microfinance Conference Oct. 17 2008 |publisher=Philanthropy Action |date=17 October 2008 |url= http://www.philanthropyaction.com/nc/what_is_it_about_women/ |access-date=17 October 2008}}</ref>

Microfinance's emphasis on female-oriented lending is the subject of controversy, as it is claimed that microfinance improves the status of women through an alleviation of poverty. It is argued that by providing women with initial capital, they will be able to support themselves independent of men, in a manner which would encourage [[sustainable growth]] of enterprise and eventual self-sufficiency.  This claim has yet to be proven in any substantial form. Moreover, the attraction of women as a potential investment base is precisely because they are constrained by socio-cultural norms regarding such concepts of obedience, familial duty, household maintenance and passivity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bruton |first1=G. D. |last2=Chavez |first2=H. |last3=Khavul |first3=S. |title=Microlending in emerging economies:building a new line of inquiry from the ground up |journal=Journal of International Business Studies |date=2011 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=718–739 |doi=10.1057/jibs.2010.58|s2cid=167672472 }}</ref> The result of these norms is that while micro-lending may enable women to improve their daily subsistence to a more steady pace, they will not be able to engage in market-oriented business practice beyond a limited scope of low-skilled, low-earning, informal work.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bee |first1=Beth |title=Gender, solidarity and the paradox of microfinance: Reflections from Bolivia |journal=Gender, Place & Culture |date=2011 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=23–43 |doi=10.1080/0966369X.2011.535298|s2cid=53696094 }}</ref> Part of this is a lack of permissivity in the society; part a reflection of the added burdens of household maintenance that women shoulder alone as a result of microfinancial empowerment; and part a lack of training and education surrounding gendered conceptions of economics. In particular, the shift in norms such that women continue to be responsible for all the domestic private sphere labour as well as undertaking public economic support for their families, independent of male aid increases rather than decreases burdens on already limited persons.
[[Image:Microfinance in Malawi.jpg|thumb|Women of Malawi posing with their savings box]]
If there were to be an exchange of labour, or if women's income were supplemental rather than essential to household maintenance, there might be some truth to claims of establishing long-term businesses; however when so constrained it is impossible for women to do more than pay off a current loan only to take on another in a cyclic pattern which is beneficial to the financier but hardly to the borrower.  This gender essentializing crosses over from institutionalized lenders such as the Grameen Bank into interpersonal direct lending through charitable crowd-funding operations, such as Kiva. More recently, the popularity of non-profit global online lending has grown, suggesting that a redress of gender norms might be instituted through individual selection fomented by the processes of such programs, but the reality is as yet uncertain. Studies have noted that the likelihood of lending to women, individually or in groups, is 38% higher than rates of lending to men.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ly |first1=P. |last2=Mason |first2=G. |title=Individual preference over development projects:evidence from microlending on Kiva |journal=Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations |date=2012 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=1036–1055 |doi=10.1007/s11266-011-9255-8|s2cid=154774435 }}</ref>

This is also due to a general trend for interpersonal microfinance relations to be conducted on grounds of similarity and internal/external recognition: lenders want to see something familiar, something supportable in potential borrowers, so an emphasis on family, goals of education and health, and a commitment to community all achieve positive results from prospective financiers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Allison |first1=T. H. |last2=Davis |first2=B. C. |last3=Short |first3=J. C. |last4=Webb |first4=J. W. |title=Crowdfunding in a prosocial microlending environment: Examining the role of intrinsic versus extrinsic cues |journal=Entrepreneurship |date=2015 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=53–73}}</ref> Unfortunately, these labels disproportionately align with women rather than men, particularly in the developing world. The result is that microfinance continues to rely on restrictive gender norms rather than seek to subvert them through economic redress in terms of foundation change: training, business management and financial education are all elements which might be included in parameters of female-aimed loans and until they are the fundamental reality of women as a disadvantaged section of societies in developing states will go untested.

====Organizations supporting this work====
*[http://ada-microfinance.org ADA]
*[http://www.khushhalibank.com.pk Khushhali Microfinance Bank Limited Pakistan]
*[[FINCA International|FINCA]]<ref name=""4Ways"" />
*[https://nwtf.org.ph/ NWTF]
*[https://akhuwat.org.pk/ akhuwat Foundation Pakistan]
*[[Alkhidmat Foundation Pakistan]]
*[https://www.wholeplanetfoundation.org/ Whole Planet Foundation]
*[[Kiva (organization)|Kiva]]<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.kiva.org/ |title=Kiva – Loans That Change Lives |work=Kiva |access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref>
*[https://microfinancecouncil.org/ MCPI]<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://microfinancecouncil.org/ |title=Link Against Poverty |work=Microfinance Council of the Philippines |access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref>
*[[Women's World Banking]]<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.womensworldbanking.org/ |title=Women's World Banking {{!}} Women's Financial Inclusion |work=Women's World Banking |access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref>
*[https://sachpak.org Social aid for Common Humanitarian - SACH]
*

===Benefits and limitations===
Microfinancing produces many benefits for poverty stricken and low-income households. One of the benefits is that it is very accessible. Banks today simply won't extend loans to those with little to no assets, and generally don't engage in small size loans typically associated with microfinancing. Through microfinancing small loans are produced and accessible.  Microfinancing is based on the philosophy that even small amounts of credit can help end the cycle of poverty. Another benefit produced from the microfinancing initiative is that it presents opportunities, such as extending education and jobs. Families receiving microfinancing are less likely to pull their children out of school for economic reasons. As well, in relation to employment, people are more likely to open small businesses that will aid the creation of new jobs. Overall, the benefits outline that the microfinancing initiative is set out to improve the standard of living amongst impoverished communities.<ref name=""rutherford 2009"" />

There are also many social and financial challenges for microfinance initiatives. For example, more articulate and better-off community members may cheat poorer or less-educated neighbours. This may occur intentionally or inadvertently through loosely run organizations. As a result, many microfinance initiatives require a large amount of social capital or trust in order to work effectively. The ability of poorer people to save may also fluctuate over time as unexpected costs may take priority which could result in them being able to save little or nothing some weeks. Rates of inflation may cause funds to lose their value, thus financially harming the saver and not benefiting the collector.<ref name=""rutherford 2009"" />

While the success of the [[Grameen Bank]] (which now serves over 7 million poor Bangladeshi women) has inspired the world,{{Citation needed |date=December 2012}} it has proved difficult to replicate this success. In nations with lower population densities, meeting the operating costs of a retail branch by serving nearby customers has proven considerably more challenging. Hans Dieter Seibel, board member of the European Microfinance Platform, is in favour of the group model. This particular model (used by many Microfinance institutions) makes financial sense, he says, because it reduces transaction costs. Microfinance programmes also need to be based on local funds.<ref>[http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/166482/index.en.shtml]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214075542/http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/166482/index.en.shtml|date=December 14, 2011}}</ref>

==Microfinance standards and principles==
[[File:ESAF Bamboo product making unit in Dumka, Jharkhand.jpg|thumb|A group of Indian women have assembled to make [[bamboo]] products that they intend to resell.]]

Poor people borrow from [[informal economy|informal]] moneylenders and save with informal collectors. They receive loans and [[Grant (money)|grants]] from [[charities]]. They buy insurance from state-owned companies. They receive funds transfers through formal or informal [[remittance]] networks. It is not easy to distinguish microfinance from similar activities. It could be claimed that a government that orders state banks to open deposit accounts for poor consumers, or a moneylender that engages in [[usury]], or a charity that runs a [[Heifer International|heifer pool]] are engaged in microfinance. Ensuring financial services to poor people is best done by expanding the number of financial institutions available to them, as well as by strengthening the capacity of those institutions. In recent years there has also been increasing emphasis on expanding the diversity of institutions, since different institutions serve different needs.

Some principles that summarize a century and a half of development practice were encapsulated in 2004 by CGAP and endorsed by the [[Group of Eight]] leaders at the G8 Summit on 10 June 2004:<ref name=""autogenerated2"" />
#Poor people need not just loans but also savings, [[insurance]] and [[Electronic funds transfer|money transfer]] services.
#Microfinance must be useful to poor households: helping them raise income, build up assets and/or cushion themselves against external shocks.
#""Microfinance can pay for itself.""<ref>Helms (2006), p. xi</ref>  Subsidies from donors and government are scarce and uncertain and so, to reach large numbers of poor people, microfinance must pay for itself.
#Microfinance means building permanent local institutions.
#Microfinance also means integrating the financial needs of poor people into a country's mainstream financial system.
#""The job of government is to enable financial services, not to provide them.""<ref name=""autogenerated3"">Helms (2006), p. xii</ref>
#""Donor funds should complement private [[Financial capital|capital]], not compete with it.""<ref name=""autogenerated3"" />
#""The key [[wikt:bottleneck|bottleneck]] is the shortage of strong institutions and managers.""<ref name=""autogenerated3"" />  Donors should focus on capacity building.
#[[Interest rate ceiling]]s hurt poor people by preventing microfinance institutions from covering their costs, which chokes off the supply of credit.
#Microfinance institutions should measure and disclose their performance – both financially and socially.

Microfinance is considered a tool for socio-economic development, and can be clearly distinguished from charity.  Families who are destitute, or so poor they are unlikely to be able to generate the cash flow required to repay a loan, should be recipients of charity. Others are best served by financial institutions.

==Scale of microfinance operations==
[[File:Small Enterprise Foundation - loan officer.jpg|thumb|Two women talk about financial matters. The woman on the right is a loan officer for the [[Small Enterprise Foundation]] (SEF).  The conversation shown is taking place in [[Tzaneen]], [[South Africa]] in February 2010.]]
Yakub Opeyemi have impact on Microfinance Bank. 
No systematic effort to map the distribution of microfinance has yet been undertaken. A benchmark was established by an analysis of 'alternative financial institutions' in the developing world in 2004.<ref>Christen, Robert Peck Christen; Rosenberg, Richard; Jayadeva, Veena. ''Financial institutions with a double-bottom line: Implications for the future of microfinance''.  CGAP Occasional Paper, July 2004.</ref>  The authors counted approximately 665 million client accounts at over 3,000 institutions that are serving people who are poorer than those served by the commercial banks. Of these accounts, 120 million were with institutions normally understood to practice microfinance. Reflecting the diverse historical roots of the movement, however, they also included postal [[savings bank]]s (318 million accounts), state agricultural and [[Community development bank|development bank]]s (172 million accounts), financial [[cooperatives]] and [[credit unions]] (35 million accounts) and specialized rural banks (19 million accounts).

Regionally, the highest concentration of these accounts was in [[India]] (188 million accounts representing 18% of the total national population). The lowest concentrations were in [[Latin America]] and the [[Caribbean]] (14 million accounts representing 3% of the total population) and [[Africa]] (27 million accounts representing 4% of the total population, with the highest rate of penetration in West Africa, and the highest growth rate in Eastern and Southern Africa <ref>{{cite web |title=Microfinance |work=MFW4A.org |publisher=Making Finance Work for Africa |date=5 November 2010 |url= http://www.mfw4a.org/access-to-finance/microfinance.html}}</ref> ). Considering that most bank clients in the developed world need several active accounts to keep their affairs in order, these figures indicate that the task the microfinance movement has set for itself is still very far from finished.

By type of service, ""savings accounts in alternative finance institutions outnumber loans by about four to one.  This is a worldwide pattern that does not vary much by region.""<ref>Christen, Rosenberg, and Jayadeva.  ''Financial institutions with a double-bottom line'', pp. 5–6</ref>

An important source of detailed data on selected microfinance institutions is the ''MicroBanking Bulletin'', which is published by [[Microfinance Information Exchange]]. At the end of 2009, it was tracking 1,084 MFIs that were serving 74 million borrowers ($38 billion in outstanding loans) and 67 million savers ($23 billion in deposits).<ref>{{cite web |last=Microfinance Information Exchange, Inc. |title=MicroBanking Bulletin Issue #19, December 2009, pp. 49 |publisher=Microfinance Information Exchange, Inc. |date=1 December 2009 |url= http://www.themix.org/microbanking-bulletin/mbb-issue-no-19-december-2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124072606/http://www.themix.org/microbanking-bulletin/mbb-issue-no-19-december-2009 |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010}}</ref>

Another source of information regarding the environment of microfinance is the Global Microscope on the Microfinance Business Environment,<ref>{{cite report |title=Global microscope on the microfinance business environment 2011: An index and study |date=2011 |publisher=[[Economist Intelligence Unit]] |url= http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=36453519 |format=pdf}}</ref> prepared by the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] (EIU), the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], and others. The 2011 report contains information on the environment of microfinance in 55 countries among two categories, the regulatory framework and the supporting institutional framework.<ref>{{cite web |title=Latin America tops Global Microscope Index on the microfinance business environment 2011 |url= http://www.iadb.org/en/news/news-releases/2011-10-11/2011-global-microscope-latin-america,9588.html |publisher=IDB |access-date=June 19, 2012}}</ref> This publication, also known as the Microscope, was first developed in 2007, focusing only on Latin America and the Caribbean, but by 2009, this report had become a global study.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Microscope on the Microfinance Business Environment 2011 |url= http://issuu.com/idb_publications/docs/global_microscope_2011?mode=window&viewMode=singlePage |publisher=IDB |access-date=June 19, 2012}}</ref>

As yet there are no studies that indicate the scale or distribution of 'informal' microfinance organizations like [[ROSCA]]'s and informal associations that help people manage costs like weddings, funerals and sickness. Numerous case studies have been published, however, indicating that these organizations, which are generally designed and managed by poor people themselves with little outside help, operate in most countries in the developing world.<ref>See for example Joachim de Weerdt, Stefan Dercon, Tessa Bold and Alula Pankhurst, [http://wiego.org/ahmedabad/con_papers.php#dercona.  ''Membership-based indigenous insurance associations in Ethiopia and Tanzania''] For other cases see [[ROSCA]]. {{webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100710162720/http://wiego.org/ahmedabad/con_papers.php#dercona |date=July 10, 2010}}</ref>

Help can come in the form of more and better-qualified staff, thus higher education is needed for microfinance institutions. This has begun in some universities, as Oliver Schmidt describes. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111129075026/http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/166627/index.en.shtml Mind the management gap]

==Ecosystem of Microfinance==

In recent years, there have been calls for better understanding of the ecosystem of Microfinance. The practitioners and researchers felt that it was important to understand the ecosystem in which microfinance institutions operated in order for the market system actors and facilitators to understand what they have to do to achieve their objectives of participating in the ecosystem.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book |last=Ledgerwood, Joanna, Earne, Julie and Nelson, Candace (Eds) |title=The New Microfinance Handbook: A Financial Market System Perspective |publisher=The World Bank |date=2013 |pages=5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Kelly |last2=Ahsan |first2=Mujtaba |last3=Sundaramurthy |first3=Chamu |date=1 January 2018 |title=Microfinance ecosystem: How connectors, interactors, and institutionalizers co-create value |url= http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681317301350 |journal=Business Horizons |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=147–155 |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2017.09.014 |issn=0007-6813}}</ref> Professors [[Debapratim Purkayastha]],  Trilochan Tripathy and Biswajit Das have designed a model for the ecosystem of microfinance institutions (MFIs) in India. The researchers mapped the ecosystem and found the ecosystem to be very complicated, with complex interactions among numerous actors themselves, and their environment. This ecosystem framework can be used by MFIs to understand the ecosystem of microfinance and formulate strategy. It can also help other stakeholders such as donors, investors, banks, government, etc. to formulate their own strategies  relating to this sector.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Purkayastha |first1=Debapratim |last2=Tripathy |first2=Trilochan |last3=Das |first3=Biswajit |date=1 January 2020 |title=Understanding the ecosystem of microfinance institutions in India |journal=Social Enterprise Journal |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=243–261 |doi=10.1108/SEJ-08-2019-0063 |s2cid=213274658 |issn=1750-8614}}</ref>

==Microfinance in the United States and Canada==
In [[Canada]] and the [[United States of America|US]], microfinance organizations target marginalized populations unable to access mainstream bank financing. Close to 8% of Americans are unbanked, meaning around 9 million are without any kind of bank account or formal financial services.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fdic.gov/householdsurvey/ |title=2011 FDIC National Survey of Unbanked and Underbanked Households |work=FDIC.gov |publisher=[[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] |date=26 December 2012 |access-date=11 June 2014}}</ref> Most of these institutions are structured as [[nonprofit organizations]].<ref name=""micro"">{{cite journal |last1=Pollinger |first1=J. Jordan |last2=Outhwaite |first2=John |last3=Cordero-Guzmán |first3=Hector |title=The Question of Sustainability for Microfinance Institutions |journal=Journal of Small Business Management |date=1 January 2007 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=23–41 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-627X.2007.00196.x|s2cid=153541395 }}</ref> Microloans in the U.S. context is defined as the extension of credit up to $50,000.<ref name=""sba"">{{cite web |last=Hedgespeth |first=Grady |title=SBA Information Notice |url= http://www.sba.gov/sites/default/files/bank_5000-1184.pdf |publisher=SBA}}</ref> In Canada, CRA guidelines restrict microfinance loans to a maximum of $25,000.<ref>{{cite web |title=Registered Charities: Community Economic Development Programs |url= http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/E/pub/tg/rc4143/ |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20051206111310/http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/E/pub/tg/rc4143/ |archive-date=December 6, 2005}}</ref> The average microfinance loan size in the US is US$9,732, ten times the size of an average microfinance loan in developing countries (US$973).<ref name=""micro"" />

===Impact===
While all microfinance institutions aim at increasing incomes and employment, in developing countries the empowerment of women, improved nutrition and improved education of the borrower's children are frequently aims of microfinance institutions. In the US and Canada, aims of microfinance include the graduation of recipients from welfare programs and an improvement in their credit rating. In the US, microfinance has created jobs directly and indirectly, as 60% of borrowers were able to hire others.<ref name=""alterna"">{{cite journal |last=Alterna |title=Strengthening our community by empowering individuals. |date=2010}}</ref>  According to reports, every domestic microfinance loan creates 2.4 jobs.<ref name=""Harman"">{{cite news |last=Harman |first=Gina |title=PM BIO Become a Fan Get Email Alerts Bloggers' Index How Microfinance Is Fueling A New Small Business Wave |url= http://www.huffingtonpost.com/gina-harman/were-lending-to-small-bus_b_777909.html|work=Huffington Post |date=8 November 2010}}</ref> These entrepreneurs provide wages that are, on average, 25% higher than minimum wage.<ref name=""Harman"" /> Small business loans eventually allow small business owners to make their businesses their primary source of income, with 67% of the borrowers showing a significant increase in their income as a result of their participation in certain micro-loan programs.<ref name=""alterna"" />  In addition, these business owners are able to improve their housing situation, 70% indicating their housing has improved.<ref name=""alterna"" />  Ultimately, many of the small business owners that use social funding are able to graduate from government funding.<ref name=""alterna"" />

===United States===
In the late 1980s, microfinance institutions developed in the United States. They served low-income and marginalized [[minority group|minority communities]]. By 2007, there were 500 microfinance organizations operating in the US with 200 lending capital.<ref name=""micro"" />

There were three key factors that triggered the growth in domestic microfinance:
# Change in social welfare policies and focus on economic development and job creation at the macro level.
# Encouragement of employment, including [[self-employment]], as a strategy for improving the lives of the poor.
# The increase in the proportion of [[Latin American]] and [[Asian people|Asian]] immigrants who came from societies where microenterprises are prevalent.
These factors incentivized the public and private supports to have microlending activity in the United States.<ref name=""micro"" />

===Canada===
Microfinance in Canada took shape through the development of credit unions. These credit unions provided financial services to the Canadians who could not get access to traditional financial means. Two separate branches of credit unions developed in Canada to serve the financially marginalized segment of the population. [[Alphonse Desjardins (co-operator)|Alphonse Desjardins]] introduced the establishment of savings and credit services in late 1900 to the [[Quebec]]ois who did not have financial access. Approximately 30 years later [[Moses Coady|Father Moses Coady]] introduced credit unions to [[Nova Scotia]]. These were the models of the modern institutions still present in Canada today.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Chantelle |author2=Christian Novak |title=Low Income Entrepreneurs and their Access to Financing in Canada, Especially in the Province of Quebec/City of Montreal |date=May 19, 2011}}</ref>

Efforts to transfer specific microfinance innovations such as [[solidarity lending]] from developing countries to Canada have met with little success.<ref>See for example Cheryl Frankiewicz ''Calmeadow Metrofund: A Canadian experiment in sustainable microfinance'', Calmeadow Foundation, 2001.</ref>

Selected microfinance institutions in Canada are:
*'''[[Rise Asset Development]]'''
Founded by Sandra Rotman in 2009, Rise is a Rotman and CAMH initiative that provides small business loans, leases, and lines of credit to entrepreneurs with mental health and/or addiction challenges.
*'''[[Alterna Savings]]'''
Formed in 2005 through the merging of the Civil Service Savings and Loan Society and the Metro Credit Union, Alterna is a financial alternative to Canadians. Their banking policy is based on cooperative values and expert financial advising.
*'''Access Community Capital Fund'''
Based in Toronto, Ontario, ACCESS is a Canadian charity that helps entrepreneurs without collateral or credit history find affordable small loans.
*'''Montreal Community Loan Fund'''
Created to help eradicate poverty, Montreal Community Loan Fund provides accessible credit and technical support to entrepreneurs with low income or credit for start-ups or expansion of organizations that cannot access traditional forms of credit.
*'''Momentum'''
Using the [[community economic development]] approach, Momentum offers opportunities to people living in poverty in Calgary. Momentum provides individuals and families who want to better their financial situation take control of finances, become computer literate, secure employment, borrow and repay loans for business, and purchase homes.
*'''[[Vancity]]'''
Founded in 1946, Vancity is now the largest English speaking credit union in Canada.

'''Limitations'''

Complications specific to Canada include the need for loans of a substantial size in comparison to the ones typically seen in many international microfinance initiatives. Microfinance is also limited by the rules and limitations surrounding money-lending. For example, Canada Revenue Agency limits the loans made in these sort of transactions to a maximum of $25,000. As a result, many people look to banks to provide these loans. Also, microfinance in Canada is driven by profit which, as a result, fails to advance the social development of community members. Within marginalized or impoverished Canadian communities, banks may not be readily accessible to deposit or take out funds. These banks which would have charged little or no interest on small amounts of cash are replaced by lending companies. Here, these companies may charge extremely large interest rates to marginalized community members thus increasing the cycle of poverty and profiting off of another's loss.<ref>Rutherford, 2009</ref>

In Canada, microfinancing competes with pay-day loans institutions which take advantage of marginalized and low-income individuals by charging extremely high, predatory interest rates. Communities with low social capital often don't have the networks to implement and support microfinance initiatives, leading to the proliferation of pay day loan institutions. Pay day loan companies are unlike traditional microfinance in that they don't encourage collectivism and social capital building in low income communities, however exist solely for profit.

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==Microfinance on the Indian subcontinent==

Loans to poor people by banks have many limitations including lack of security and high operating costs. As a result, microfinance was developed as an alternative to provide loans to poor people with the goal of creating financial inclusion and equality.

'''[[Ela Bhatt]]''' had initiated women's own [[Self Employed Women's Association#Economic tools|SEWA Cooperative Bank]] in 1974 in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, perhaps one of the first modern day microfinance institution of its kind. '''[[Muhammad Yunus]]''', a Nobel Prize winner, had introduced the concept of Micro-credit in Bangladesh in the form of the ""Grameen Bank"". The [[National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development]] (NABARD) looked at several models for offering financial services to the unbanked, especially women, and decided to experiment with a very different model, now popularly known as Self-help Groups (SHGs). In this approach, a small group of women (and men) are able to form their own little mini bank, self-governed and managed, and create links with banks [[Self-help group (finance)|SHGs]] (Self-help groups), [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s and banks. SHGs are often formed and nurtured by NGOs and only after accomplishing a certain level of maturity in terms of their internal thrift and credit operations, they are able to save, and also seek credit from the banks. There is often an involvement of an NGO, or a government agency during initial training and even after the SHG-Bank linkage. The SHG-Bank linkage programme, which has been in place since 1992 in India, has savings accounts with 7.9 million SHGs, with 4.6 million SHGs having outstanding loans, with approximately $2 billion in saving with banks, and $8.9 Billion is outstanding loans, making it one of the largest microfinance program of its kind in the world (March 2016). It involves commercial banks, regional rural banks (RRBs) and cooperative banks in its operations.

In 2013, Grameen Capital India was able to loan $144 million to microfinance groups. In addition to Grameen Bank, [[Equitas Small Finance Bank|Equitas]] has been another microfinance organization in Tamil Nadu. The South and Western states are the ones attracting the greatest number of microfinance loans.<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21569447-industry-starting-revive-road-redemption |title=Road to redemption|newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref>

Microfinance is defined as, financial services such as savings accounts, insurance funds and credit provided to poor and low income clients so as to help them increase their income, thereby improving their standard of living.

In this context the main features of microfinance are:

* Loan given without security
* Loans to those people who live below the poverty line
* Members of SHGs may benefit from micro finance
* Maximum limit of loan under micro finance Rs.25,000/-
* Terms and conditions offered to poor people are decided by NGOs
* Microfinance is different from Microcredit- under the latter, small loans are given to the borrower but under microfinance alongside many other financial services including savings accounts and insurance. Therefore, microfinance has a wider concept than microcredit.

In June 2014, CRISIL released its latest report on the Indian Microfinance Sector titled ""India's 25 Leading MFI's"".<ref>[http://indiamicrofinance.com/microfinance-companies-in-india-2014-2015-2.html Top Microfinance Institutions in India for 2014] CRISIL Report, June 2014.</ref> This list is the most comprehensive and up to date overview of the microfinance sector in India and the different microfinance institutions operating in the sub-continent.

Many loan officers in India create an emotional connection with the borrowers before the loan reaches maturity by mentioning details about borrowers' personal life and family and also demonstrating affection in different ways as a strategy to generate pressure during recovery.<ref>Kar, S. (2013). ""Recovering debts: Microfinance loan officers and the work of 'proxy-creditors' in India"". ''Journal of the American Ethnological Society'', 40 (3), pp. 480–493. doi:10.1111/amet.12034</ref>

===Microfinance in Pakistan===
Akhuwat is the world's largest Islamic micro-finance organization. Since 2001, Akhuwat has been working for poverty alleviation by empowering socially and economically marginalized segments of the society through its various poverty alleviation projects.

Akhuwat aims to alleviate poverty by creating a bond of solidarity between the affluent and the marginalized. Our goal is to develop and sustain a social system based on mutual support. Akhuwat not only helps and support the poor to become self-reliant but combined with their own hard work enable them to escape the clutches of poverty.

Akhuwat derives its name from ''mawakhaat''<@!--In what language? Mark it up with [[Template:Lang]], e.g. {{lang|ar-Latn|mawakhaat}}.--@> or 'brotherhood', the earliest example of which was seen in the community formed by the Ansars, citizens of Medina and the Muhajireen, who had migrated to Medina to escape religious persecution. Inspired by the spirit which induced the Medinites to share half of their wealth with the migrants, Akhuwat seeks to invoke this very concept of brotherhood through its operations. For Akhuwat, the metaphor of brotherhood entails the creation of a system based on mutual support in the society.

Akhuwat is running on the following principles:
; Interest-free loans
: The loan provided will be interest free since providing loans with interest is business and poverty cannot be alleviated and eradicated by doing business with the deprived. Akhuwat provides interest free loans to the economically poor so that they may acquire a sustainable livelihood. The organization sees interest as a barrier to widespread proliferation of capital, and a violation of all moral and ethical codes. In keeping with the principles of equity and social justice, burdening the poor with exorbitant interest rates is also viewed as undermining the overarching goal of poverty alleviation.
; Use of religious places
: Akhuwat wants to climb up the ladder of social and economic development through making Mosques, churches and religious places, the foundation. This is because in Islamic history Mosques used to be the seat of governance. In the time of Muhammad, mosques were used for worship, training and providing services. With this, comes the Transparency, Good Governance, participation and accountability.
; Volunteerism
: To think beyond the confines of oneself and to think about others. Akhuwat's operations and activities rely upon the passion, energy, zeal and enthusiasm of its volunteers.
; Transforming borrowers into donors
: Akhuwat strives to empower its borrowers, so they are in a position to be givers one day.
; Non-discrimination on caste, colour, creed, political affiliation, or faith
: Since Akhuwat strongly believes in solidarity and brotherhood. Therefore, it gives a message to cut down all the discriminatory and differential barriers in the society such as caste, colour creed, political affiliation and religion.

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==Microfinance Networks and Associations==
There are several professional networks of microfinance institutions, and organisations that support microfinance and financial inclusion.

===MicroFinance Network===
The [http://microfinancenetwork.org/ Microfinance Network] is a network of 20 to 25 of the world's largest microfinance institutions, spread across Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe and Latin America. Established in 1993, the Microfinance Network provided support to members that helped steer many industry leaders to sustainability, and profitability in many of their largest markets. Today as the sector enters a new period of transition, with the rise of digital [[financial technology]] that increasingly competes with traditional microfinance institutions, the Microfinance Network provides a space to discuss opportunities and challenges that arise from emerging technological innovations in inclusive finance.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://microfinancenetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/The-Future-of-Financial-Inclusion_MFN_London2017_Summary5825.pdf |title=The Future of Financial Inclusion: A Leadership Challenge |last=Velarde |display-authors=etal |first=Raul |date=April 2017 |work=microfinancenetwork.org |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180320044143/http://microfinancenetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/The-Future-of-Financial-Inclusion_MFN_London2017_Summary5825.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2018|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> The Microfinance Network convenes once a year. Members include Al Majmoua, BRAC, BancoSol, Gentera, Kamurj, LAPO, and SOGESOL.
Microfinance services including Easy Paisa by Telenor and Temeer Microfinance Bank, Jazz Cash by Jazz Telecom, and Zindigi have all been introduced by various telecom companies in Pakistan. These services provide lending services, retailer services, and online money transfer capabilities.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/country/pakistan/telenor-launches-easypaisa-in-pakistan/ | title=Telenor Launches 'easypaisa' in Pakistan | date=17 October 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.jazzcash.com.pk/mobile-account/overview/ | title=Overview }}</ref>

===Partnership for Responsible Financial Inclusion===
The [https://responsiblefinancialinclusion.org/ Partnership for Responsible Financial], previously known as the Microfinance CEO Working Group, is a collaborative effort of leading international organizations and their CEOs active in the microfinance and inclusive finance space, including direct microfinance practitioners, and microfinance funders. It consists of 10 members, including Accion, Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance, BRAC, CARE USA, FINCA Impact Finance, Grameen Foundation, Opportunity International, Pro Mujer, Vision Fund International and Women's World Banking.  Harnessing the power of the CEOs and their senior managers, the PRFI advocates for responsible financial services and seeks catalytic opportunities to accelerate financial access to the unserved. As part of this focus, PRFI is responsible for setting up the Smart Campaign, in response to negative microfinance practices that indicated the mistreatment of clients in certain markets. The network is made up of the CEO working group, that meet quarterly and several subcommittee working groups dedicated to communications, social performance, digital financial services, and legal and human resources issues.....

===European Microfinance Network===
The [https://www.european-microfinance.org/ European Microfinance Network] (EMN) was established in response to many legal and political obstacles affecting the microfinance sector in Europe. The Network is involved in advocacy on a wide range of issues related to microfinance, micro-enterprises, social and financial exclusion, self-employment and employment creation. Its main activity is the organisation of its annual conference, which has taken place each year since 2004. The EMN has a wide network of over 100 members.

===Microfinance Centre===
The [https://mfc.org.pl/ Microfinance Centre] (MFC) has a membership of over 100 organisations, and is particularly strong in Eastern Europe, the Balkans and Central Asia.

===Africa Microfinance Network (AFMIN)===
The [http://www.afminetwork.org/ Africa Microfinance Network (AFMIN)] is an association of microfinance networks in Africa resulting from an initiative led by African microfinance practitioners to create and/or strengthen country-level microfinance networks for the purpose of establishing shared performance standards, institutional capacity and policy change. 
AFMIN was formally launched in November 2000 and has established its secretariat in Abidjan (Republic of Côte d'Ivoire), where AFMIN is legally recognized as an international Non-Governmental Organisation pursuant to Ivorian laws. Because of the political unrest in Côte d'Ivoire, AFMIN temporarily relocated its office to Cotonou in Benin.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.afminetwork.org/about.html |title=AFMIN Website - About}}</ref>

==Inclusive financial systems==
The [[microcredit]] movement that began in the 1970s has emerged and morphed into a 'financial systems' approach for creating universal financial inclusion.  While Grameen model of delivering small credit achieved a great deal, especially in urban and near-urban areas and with [[entrepreneurial]] families, its progress in delivering financial services in less densely populated rural areas was slow; creating the need for many and multiple models to emerge across the globe. The terms have evolved from Microcredit, to Microfinance, and now Financial Inclusion. Specialized microfinance institutions (MFIs) continue to expand their services, collaborating and competing with banks, credit unions, mobile money, and other informal and formal member owned institutions.

The new financial systems approach pragmatically acknowledges the richness of centuries of microfinance history and the immense diversity of institutions serving poor people in developing and developed economies today.  It is also rooted in an increasing awareness of diversity of the financial service needs of the world's poorest people, and the diverse settings in which they live and work. It also acknowledges that quality and range of financial services are also important for the banking system to achieve fuller and deeper financial inclusion, for all. Central banks and mainstream banks are now more intimately engaging in the financial inclusion agenda than ever before, though it is a long road, with 35–40% of world's adults remaining outside formal banking system, and many more remaining ""under-banked"". Advent of mobile-phone-based money management and digital finance is changing the scenario fast; though ""social distance"" between the economically poor or social marginalized and the banking system remains large.

; Informal financial service providers
: These include moneylenders, [[pawnbrokers]], savings collectors, [[money-guards]], ROSCAs, [[ASCAs]] and input supply shops.  These continue their services because they know each other well and live in the same community, they understand each other's financial circumstances and can offer very flexible, convenient and fast services.  These services can also be costly and the choice of financial products limited and very short-term.  Informal services that involve savings are also risky; many people lose their money.
; Member-owned organizations
: These include [[Self-help group (finance)|self-help group]]s, [[Village Savings and Loan Associations (VSLAs)]], [[Credit union]]s, [[CVECA]]s and a variety of other members owned and governed informal or formal financial institutions.  Informal groups, like their more traditional cousins, are generally small and local, which means they have access to good knowledge about each other's financial circumstances and can offer convenience and flexibility.  Since they are managed by poor people, their costs of operation are low.  Often, they do not need regulation and supervision, unless they grow in scale and formalize themselves by coming together to form II or III tier federations. If not prepared well, they can be 'captured' by a few influential leaders, and run the risk of members losing their savings. Experience suggests though that these informal but highly disciplined groups are very sustainable, and continue to exist even after 20–25 years. Formalization, as a Cooperative of Credit Union, can help create links with the banking system for more sophisticated financial products and additional capital for loans; but requires strong leadership and systems. These models are highly popular in many rural regions of countries across Asia, Africa, and Latin America; and a platform for creating deeper financial inclusion.
; NGOs
: The [[Microcredit Summit Campaign]] counted 3,316 of these MFIs and [[NGO]]s lending to about 133 million clients by the end of 2006.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.microcreditsummit.org/pubs/reports/socr/2007.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071222154645/http://www.microcreditsummit.org/pubs/reports/socr/2007.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2007 |title=State of the Microcredit Summit Campaign Repor |publisher=Microcredit Summit Campaign |location=Washington DC |work=MicroCreditSummit.org |date=31 December 2006 |access-date=25 March 2011}}</ref>  Led by [[Grameen Bank]] and [[BRAC (NGO)|BRAC]] in [[Bangladesh]], [[Prodem]] in [[Bolivia]], [[Opportunity International]], and [[FINCA International]], headquartered in Washington, DC, these NGOs have spread around the developing world in the past three decades; others, like the [[Gamelan Council]], address larger regions.  They have proven very innovative, pioneering banking techniques like [[solidarity lending]], [[village banking]] and [[mobile banking]] that have overcome barriers to serving poor populations.  However, with boards that don't necessarily represent either their capital or their customers, their governance structures can be fragile, and they can become overly dependent on external donors.
; Formal financial institutions
: In addition to commercial banks, these include state banks, agricultural development banks, savings banks, rural banks and non-bank financial institutions.  They are regulated and supervised, offer a wider range of financial services, and control a branch network that can extend across the country and internationally.  However, they have proved reluctant to adopt social missions, and due to their high costs of operation, often can't deliver services to poor or remote populations. The increasing use of [[alternative data]] in credit scoring, such as [[trade credit]] is increasing commercial banks' interest in microfinance.<ref>[http://www.infopolicy.org/_working/files/downloads/South-Africa-compressed-web.pdf Turner, Michael; Varghese, Robin; et al. ''Information Sharing and SMME Financing in South Africa''], [[Political and Economic Research Council]] (PERC), p58. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001222753/http://www.infopolicy.org/_working/files/downloads/South-Africa-compressed-web.pdf|date=1 October 2008}}</ref>
;'''Automated Loans'''
:Automated Loans include point-of-sale loans offered by financial technology companies like [https://www.affirm.com/ Affirm], [https://www.klarna.com/us/ Klarna], [https://www.afterpay.com/index Afterpay], and [https://www.quadpay.com/ Quadpay]. These ""buy now, pay later"" services are accelerating the automatization of the finance industry. Point-of-sale loans are embedded within retail websites to offer consumers the chance to take out a loan for the price of the product, and pay them back in installments. These ""buy now, pay later"" lenders either make money by having [https://www.quadpay.com/quadpay-terms-of-service/#:~:text=Late%20Fee.,late%20fees%20per%20Quadpay%20Purchase). high late fees] or a [https://productmint.com/the-affirm-business-model-how-does-affirm-make-money/ high interest rate, often higher than the average APR of a credit card]. When applying for a loan, these companies data profile by [https://productmint.com/the-affirm-business-model-how-does-affirm-make-money/ recording the customer's history] in making payments on time, social media history, income level, education, and previous purchases. Regardless of whether or not the consumer accepts the terms of the loan, these fintech companies have access to this information. Many of them have stated that they [https://digiday.com/retail/affirm-point-sale-financing-digital-retail/ sell the information] back to the merchant.
:These services are often targeting marginalized groups such as [https://download.asic.gov.au/media/4947847/buy-now-pay-later-infographic-nov-2018.pdf low-income people] as 60% of users are 18-34 years old and 40% earn under $40,000. As a result, they are trapping young consumers into a cycle of debt by ease of taking out a loan. This reinforces risky consumer habits and results in [https://download.asic.gov.au/media/4947847/buy-now-pay-later-infographic-nov-2018.pdf 1 out of 6 borrowers] defaulting on their payments to these point of sale lenders. Moreover, the companies benefit at the expense of the consumer, so they make it seem harmless while advertising. Yet, it may hurt the consumers' credit by reporting to a credit bureau, trap them with debt, and give the merchant access to the consumer data profile. This creates a ""[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444815614053 feedback loop of injustice].""
:Unfortunately, many vulnerable consumers come from low-income backgrounds and do not understand misleading practices, given their [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444815614053 lack of digital literacy skills]. When investigating these inequalities through activities related to these issues, Gangadharan (2015) discusses, ""marginal users are exposed and vulnerable to various forms of profiling (e.g. committed by corporate, government, or bad actors) that target unwitting users for both intentionally and unintentionally harmful purposes."" Additionally, filling out the fields on their application without submitting the form can still send the information to the server, thus giving the company access to the information typed. However, many marginalized users come to expect a lack of data privacy given that companies engage in data profiling tactics, calling it ""[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444815614053 the price of using the internet]."" Many feel that these marketplace and society see and target them as ""[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444815614053 second class citizens]"". In addition, a 2015 [https://datasociety.net/pubs/prv/DataAndSociety_PrivacySecurityandDigitalInequality.pdf survey] conducted by the Data & Society Research Institute studying technological experiences of 3,000 adults found that, ""52% of surveyed consumers from the lowest income group said they did not know what information is being collected about them or how it is being used.""

With appropriate regulation and supervision, each of these institutional types can bring leverage to solving the microfinance problem.  For example, efforts are being made to link self-help groups to commercial banks, to network member-owned organizations together to achieve [[economies of scale]] and scope, and to support efforts by commercial banks to 'down-scale' by integrating mobile banking and e-payment technologies into their extensive branch networks.

Brigit Helms in her book ''Access for All: Building Inclusive Financial Systems'', distinguishes between four general categories of microfinance providers, and argues for a pro-active strategy of engagement with all of them to help them achieve the goals of the microfinance movement.<ref>Brigit Helms.  ''Access for All: Building Inclusive Financial Systems''. CGAP/World Bank, Washington DC, 2006, pp. 35–57.</ref>

==Microcredit and the Web==

Due to the unbalanced emphasis on credit at the expense of microsavings, as well as a desire to link Western investors to the sector, [[peer-to-peer lending|peer-to-peer]] platforms have developed to expand the availability of microcredit through individual lenders in the developed world. New platforms that connect lenders to micro-entrepreneurs are emerging on the Web (''[[list of microfinance sponsors|peer-to-peer sponsors]]''), for example [[MYC4]], [[Kiva (organization)|Kiva]], [[Zidisha]], myELEN, [[Opportunity International]] and the [[Microloan Foundation]]. Another Web-based microlender [[United Prosperity (organisation)|United Prosperity]] uses a variation on the usual microlending model; with United Prosperity the micro-lender provides a guarantee to a local bank which then lends back double that amount to the micro-entrepreneur. In 2009, the US-based nonprofit [[Zidisha]] became the first peer-to-peer microlending platform to link lenders and borrowers directly across international borders without local intermediaries.<ref>[http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ ""Zidisha Set to ""Expand"" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance"", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010] {{webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111008230104/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |date=October 8, 2011}}</ref>

The volume channeled through [[Kiva (organization)|Kiva]]'s peer-to-peer platform is about $100 million as of November 2009 (Kiva facilitates approximately $5M in loans each month). In comparison, the needs for microcredit are estimated about 250 bn USD as of end 2006.<ref>[http://www.dbresearch.com/PROD/DBR_INTERNET_EN-PROD/PROD0000000000219174.pdf Microfinance: An emerging investment opportunity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229014611/http://www.dbresearch.com/PROD/DBR_INTERNET_EN-PROD/PROD0000000000219174.pdf |date=29 December 2009 }}. Deutsche Bank Research. December 19, 2007.</ref>
Most experts agree that these funds must be sourced locally in countries that are originating microcredit, to reduce transaction costs and exchange rate risks.

There have been problems with disclosure on peer-to-peer sites, with some reporting interest rates of borrowers using the [[flat rate (finance)|flat rate methodology]] instead of the familiar banking [[Annual Percentage Rate]].<ref>Waterfield, Chuck. [http://www.mftransparency.org/media/pdf/Why-We-Need-Transparent-Pricing-in-Microfinance--November-2008.pdf Why We Need Transparent Pricing in Microfinance]. MicroFinance Transparency. 11 November 2008. {{webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090325163806/http://www.mftransparency.org/media/pdf/Why-We-Need-Transparent-Pricing-in-Microfinance--November-2008.pdf |date=March 25, 2009}}</ref> The use of flat rates, which has been outlawed among regulated financial institutions in developed countries, can confuse individual lenders into believing their borrower is paying a lower interest rate than, in fact, they are.{{Citation needed |date=October 2009}} In the summer of 2017, within the framework of the joint project of the [[Central Bank of Russia]] and [[Yandex]], a special [[check mark]] (a green circle with a tick and {{lang|ru|Реестр ЦБ РФ}} 'State MFO Register' text box) appeared search results on the Yandex search engine, informing the consumer that the company's financial services are offered on the marked website, which has the status of a microfinance organization.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.cbr.ru/eng/Press/event/?id=1188 |title=Bank of Russia to mark microfinance organisations on the Internet |work=www.cbr.ru |publisher=[[Central Bank of Russia]] |access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref>

==Microfinance and social interventions==
There are currently a few social interventions that have been combined with micro financing to increase awareness of HIV/AIDS. Such interventions like the ""Intervention with Microfinance for AIDS and Gender Equity"" (IMAGE) which incorporates microfinancing with ""The Sisters-for-Life"" program a participatory program that educates on different gender roles, gender-based violence, and HIV/AIDS infections to strengthen the communication skills and leadership of women <ref>Kim, J. C.; Watts, C. H.; Hargreaves, J. R.; Ndhlovu, L. X.; Phetla, G.; Morison, L. A.; et al. (2007). ""Understanding the impact of a microfinance-based intervention of women's empowerment and the reduction of intimate partner violence in South Africa"". ''American Journal of Public Health''.</ref> ""The Sisters-for-Life"" program has two phases; phase one consists of ten one-hour training programs with a facilitator, and phase two consists of identifying a leader amongst the group, training them further, and allowing them to implement an action plan to their respective centres.

Microfinance has also been combined with business education and with other packages of health interventions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Stephen C. |author-link=Stephen C. Smith (economist) |title=Village banking and maternal and child health: Evidence from Ecuador and Honduras |journal=[[World Development (journal)|World Development]] |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=707–723 |doi=10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00128-0 |date=April 2002 }}</ref> A project undertaken in Peru by [[Innovations for Poverty Action]] found that those borrowers randomly selected to receive financial training as part of their borrowing group meetings had higher profits, although there was not a reduction in ""the proportion who reported having problems in their business"".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karlan |first1=Dean S. |last2=Valdivia |first2=Martin |title=Teaching entrepreneurship: Impact of business training on microfinance clients and institutions |journal=[[The Review of Economics and Statistics]] |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=510–527 |doi=10.1162/REST_a_00074 |date=May 2011 |hdl=10419/39347 |s2cid=34545504 |url= http://www.econ.yale.edu/growth_pdf/cdp941.pdf}} [http://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/39347/1/52491091X.pdf PDF].</ref> Pro Mujer, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) with operations in five Latin American countries, combines microfinance and healthcare. This approach shows that microfinance can not only help businesses to prosper; it can also foster human development and social security. Pro Mujer uses a ""one-stop shop"" approach, which means in one building, the clients find financial services, business training, empowerment advice and healthcare services combined.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sölle de Hilari |first1=Caroline |title=Microinsurance: Healthy clients |url= http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/pro-mujer-why-microfinance-institutions-should-offer-healthcare-services-too |access-date=12 February 2015|work=D+C Development and Cooperation |publisher=Engagement Global – Service for Development Initiatives |date=11 October 2013|location=Germany|format=Digital magazine}}</ref>

According to technology analyst [[David Garrity]], Microfinance and Mobile Financial Services (MFS) have provided marginal populations with access to basic financial services, including savings programs and insurance policies.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Technologies for Development |last=Garrity |first=David M. |date=1 January 2015 |publisher=Springer, Cham |pages=45–54 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-16247-8_5 |chapter=Mobile Financial Services in Disaster Relief: Modeling Sustainability |isbn=978-3-319-16246-1}}</ref>

==Impact and criticism==
Most criticisms of microfinance have actually been criticisms of [[microcredit]]. Criticism focuses on the impact on poverty, the level of interest rates, high profits, overindebtedness and suicides. Other criticism include the role of foreign donors and working conditions in companies affiliated to microfinance institutions, particularly in Bangladesh.

===Impact===
{{Further|Impact of microcredit}}
The impact of microcredit is a subject of much controversy. Proponents state that it reduces poverty through higher employment and higher incomes. This is expected to lead to improved nutrition and improved education of the borrowers' children. Some argue that microcredit empowers women. In the US and Canada, it is argued that microcredit helps recipients to graduate from welfare programs.

Critics say that microcredit has not increased incomes, but has driven poor households into a debt trap, in some cases even leading to suicide. They add that the money from loans is often used for durable consumer goods or consumption instead of being used for productive investments, that it fails to empower women, and that it has not improved health or education. Moreover, as the access to micro-loans is widespread, borrowers tend to acquire several loans from different companies, making it nearly impossible to pay the debt back.<ref>Biswas, Soutik (December 16, 2010). ""India's micro-finance suicide epidemic"". [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11997571], BBC News. Retrieved July 15, 2015.</ref> As a result of such tragic events, microfinance institutions in India have agreed on setting an interest rate ceiling of 15 percent.<ref>Sundaresan, S. (2008). ''Microfinance: Emerging Trends and Challenges'', pp. 15–16. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. {{ISBN|978-1847209207}}</ref> This is important because microfinance loan recipients have a higher level of security in repaying the loans and a lower level of risk in failing to repay them.

Unintended consequences of microfinance include informal intermediaton: That is, some entrepreneurial borrowers become informal intermediaries between microfinance initiatives and poorer micro-entrepreneurs. Those who more easily qualify for microfinance split loans into smaller credit to even poorer borrowers. Informal intermediation ranges from casual intermediaries at the good or benign end of the spectrum to 'loan sharks' at the professional and sometimes criminal end of the spectrum.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arp |first1=Frithjof |last2=Ardisa |first2=Alvin |last3=Ardisa |first3=Alviani |date=2017 |title=Microfinance for poverty alleviation: Do transnational initiatives overlook fundamental questions of competition and intermediation? |publisher=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development |doi=10.18356/10695889-en |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320100413 |journal=Transnational Corporations |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=103–117|s2cid=73558727 |id=UNCTAD/DIAE/IA/2017D4A8}}</ref>

===Competition and market saturation===
Microcredit has also received criticism for inducing market saturation and fueling problematically competitive, rather than collaborative business communities.<ref name=""Crises"">{{Cite journal |last1=Guérin |first1=Isabelle |last2=Labie |first2=Marc |last3=Servet |first3=Jean-Michel |date=2015 |title=The Crises of Microcredit |url= https://econpapers.repec.org/bookchap/ucpbkecon/9781783603756.htm}}</ref><ref name=""Challenges"">{{Cite web |url= https://www.findevgateway.org/library/microfinance-challenges-empowerment-or-disempowerment-poor |title=Microfinance Challenges: Empowerment or Disempowerment of the Poor? |date=11 April 2014 |work=FinDev Gateway - CGAP |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref> The influx of supply generated by the creation of new microcredit-fueled-businesses can be difficult for small economies to absorb. The owners of micro-enterprises within such communities often have limited skill sets and resources available. This can cause a ""copycat"" phenomenon among small business due to the limited variation in products and services offerings.<ref name=""Crises"" /> The high number of individuals selling similar products and services can cause new entrepreneurs to be subject to cutthroat competition over a demand that has not expanded proportionally with the supply.<ref name=""Challenges"" />

===Mission drift in microfinance===

Mission drift refers to the phenomena through which the MFIs or the micro finance institutions increasingly try to cater to customers who are better off than their original customers, primarily the poor families. Roy Mersland and R. Øystein Strøm in their research on mission drift suggest that this selection bias can come not only through an increase in the average loan size, which allows for financially stronger individuals to get the loans, but also through the MFI's particular lending methodology, main market of operation, or even the gender bias as further mission drift measures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mersland |first1=Roy |last2=Strøm |first2=R. Øystein |title=Microfinance mission drift? |journal=[[World Development (journal)|World Development]] |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=28–36 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.05.006 |date=January 2010 |hdl=11250/2428249 |url= https://oda.hioa.no/en/item/asset/dspace:1298/523226post.pdf|hdl-access=free }}</ref> And as it may follow, this selective funding would lead to lower risks and lower costs for the firm.

However, economists Beatriz Armendáriz and Ariane Szafarz suggests that this phenomenon is not driven by cost minimization alone. She suggests that it happens because of the interplay between the company's mission, the cost differential between poor and unbanked wealthier clients and region specific characteristics pertaining the heterogeneity of their clientele.<ref>{{citation |last1=Armendáriz |first1=Beatriz |last2=Szafarz |first2=Ariane |contribution=On mission drift in microfinance institutions |editor-last1=Armendáriz |editor-first1=Beatriz |editor-last2=Labie |editor-first2=Marc |title=The handbook of microfinance |pages=341–366 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |location=Singapore Hackensack, New Jersey |date=2011 |isbn=9789814295659 |postscript=.}}</ref> But in either way, this problem of selective funding leads to an ethical tradeoff where on one hand there is an economic reason for the company to restrict its loans to only the individuals who qualify the standards, and on the other hand there is an ethical responsibility to help the poor people get out of poverty through the provision of capital.

===Role of foreign donors===
The role of donors has also been questioned.  CGAP recently commented that: ""a large proportion of the money they spend is not effective, either because it gets hung up in unsuccessful and often complicated funding mechanisms (for example, a government apex facility), or it goes to partners that are not held accountable for performance. In some cases, poorly conceived programs have slowed the development of inclusive financial systems by distorting markets and displacing domestic commercial initiatives with cheap or free money.""<ref>Helms, Brigit. ''Access for All: Building Inclusive Financial Systems''. CGAP/World Bank, Washington DC, 2006, p. 97.</ref>

===Working conditions in enterprises affiliated to MFIs===
There has also been criticism of microlenders for not taking more responsibility for the working conditions of poor households, particularly when borrowers become quasi-wage labourers, selling crafts or agricultural produce through an organization controlled by the MFI. The desire of MFIs to help their borrower diversify and increase their incomes has sparked this type of relationship in several countries, most notably [[Bangladesh]], where hundreds of thousands of borrowers effectively work as wage labourers for the marketing subsidiaries of [[Grameen Bank]] or [[BRAC (NGO)|BRAC]]. Critics maintain that there are few if any rules or standards in these cases governing working hours, holidays, working conditions, safety or child labour, and few inspection regimes to correct abuses.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chowdhury |first=Farooque |date=June 24, 2007 |title=The metamorphosis of the micro-credit debtor |url= http://www.newagebd.com/2007/jun/24/oped.html |location=Dhaka |newspaper=New Age |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080410121959/http://www.newagebd.com/2007/jun/24/oped.html |archive-date=April 10, 2008}}</ref>  Some of these concerns have been taken up by [[trade union|union]]s and [[socially responsible investing|socially responsible investment]] advocates.

===Abuse===
In Nigeria cases of fraud have been reported. Dubious banks promised their clients outrageous interest rates. These banks were closed shortly after clients had deposited money and their deposits were lost. The officials of Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation (NDIC) have warned customers about so-called ""wonder banks"".<ref>{{cite web |url= http://guardian.ng/news/avoid-wonder-banks-use-licensed-dmbs-ndic-boss-warns-depositors/ |title=Avoid Wonder Banks, Use Licensed DMBs, NDIC Boss Warns Depositors |date=3 May 2015}}</ref> One initiative to prevent people from depositing money to wonder banks is the mini-series ""e go better"" that warns about the practices of these wonder banks.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.digital-development-debates.org/issue-13-post-2015--implementation--nigeria-wonder-banks-debunked.html |title=Issue 13 Post 2015 - Implementation - Nigeria: Wonder Banks Debunked - Digital Development Debates}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Banks}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Alternative data]]
*[[Chit fund]]
*[[Credit union]]
*[[Crowdfunding]]
*[[Market governance mechanism|Market Governance Mechanisms]]
*[[Microcredit]]
*[[Microcredit for water supply and sanitation]]
*[[Microfinance in Tanzania]]
*[[:Category:Microfinance organizations|Microfinance organizations]]
*[[Microgrant]]
*[[Microinsurance]]
*[[Opportunity finance]]
*[[Pawnbroker]]
* [[Peer-to-peer lending]]
*[[Rotating savings and credit association]] (ROSCA)
*[[Savings bank]]
*[[Social finance]]
*[[WWB Colombia]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Dale W. |last2=Graham |first2=Douglas H. |last3=Von Pischke |first3=J. D. |title=Undermining rural development with cheap credit |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, Colorado and London |date=1984 |isbn=9780865317680}}
* {{cite book |last1=Armendáriz |first1=Beatriz |last2=Morduch |first2=Jonathan |title=The economics of microfinance |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |date=2010 |orig-year=2005 |edition=2nd |isbn=9780262513982}}
* {{cite book |last=Bateman |first=Milford |title=Why doesn't microfinance work? The destructive rise of local neoliberalism |publisher=Zed Books |location=London |date=2010 |isbn=9781848133327}}
* {{cite book |last1=Branch |first1=Brian |last2=Klaehn |first2=Janette |title=Striking the Balance in Microfinance: A Practical Guide to Mobilizing Savings |publisher=Published by Pact Publications for World Council of Credit Unions |location=Washington, DC |date=2002 |isbn=9781888753264}}
* De Mariz, Frederic; Reille, Xavier; Rozas, Daniel (July 2011). [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2654041 Discovering Limits. Global Microfinance Valuation Survey 2011], Washington DC: Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) World Bank.
* {{cite book |last1=Dichter |first1=Thomas |last2=Harper |first2=Malcolm |title=What's wrong with microfinance |publisher=Practical Action Publishing |location=Rugby, Warwickshire, UK |date=2007 |isbn=9781853396670}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dowla |first1=Asif |last2=Barua |first2=Dipal |title=The Poor Always Pay Back: The Grameen II Story |publisher=Kumarian Press Inc. |location=Bloomfield, Connecticut |date=2006 |isbn=9781565492318 |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781565492318}}
* {{cite book |last1=Floro |first1=Sagrario |last2=Yotopoulos |first2=Pan A. |title=Informal Credit Markets and the New Institutional Economics: The Case of Philippine Agriculture |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, Colorado |date=1991 |isbn=9780813381367}}
* {{cite book |last=Gibbons |first=David S. |title=The Grameen reader |publisher=Grameen Bank |location=Dhaka, Bangladesh |date=1994 |orig-year=1992 |oclc=223123405}}
* {{cite book |last=Hirschland |first=Madeline |title=Savings Services for the Poor: An Operational Guide |publisher=Kumarian Press |location=Bloomfield, Connecticut |date=2005 |isbn=9781565492097}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Jafree |first1=Sara Rizvi |last2=Ahmad |first2=Khalil |title=Women microfinance users and their association with improvement in quality of life: Evidence from Pakistan |journal=[[Asian Women (journal)|Asian Women]] |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=73–105 |doi=10.14431/aw.2013.12.29.4.73 |date=December 2013 }}
* {{cite book |last=Khandker |first=Shahidur R. |title=Fighting Poverty with Microcredit: Experience in Bangladesh |publisher=The University Press Ltd. |location=Dhaka, Bangladesh |date=1999 |isbn=9789840514687}}
* {{cite book |last=Krishna |first=Sridhar |title=Micro-enterprises: Perspectives and Experiences |publisher=ICFAI University Press |location=Hyderabad, India |date=2008 |oclc=294882711 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ledgerwood |first1=Joanna |last2=White |first2=Victoria |title=Transforming microfinance institutions providing full financial services to the poor |publisher=World Bank MicroFinance Network Sida |location=Washington, DC Stockholm |date=2006 |isbn=9780821366158}}
* {{cite report |last1=Mas |first1=Ignacio |last2=Kumar |first2=Kabir |title=Banking on mobiles: Why, how, for whom? |publisher=Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP), World Bank |location=Washington, DC |date=July 2008 |ssrn=1655282 |quote=CGAP Focus Note, No. 48}} [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/08/25/000333038_20080825011146/Rendered/PDF/451010WP0CGAP010Box0334044B1PUBLIC1.pdf PDF].
* O'Donohoe, Nick; De Mariz, Frederic; Littlefield, Elizabeth; Reille, Xavier; Kneiding, Christoph (February 2009). [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2619149 Shedding Light on Microfinance Equity Valuation: Past and Present], Washington DC: Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP), World Bank.
* {{cite book |last1=Rai |first1=Achintya |title=Venture: A Collection of True Microfinance Stories |publisher=Zidisha Microfinance |date=2012 |url= https://www.amazon.com/Venture-Collection-Microfinance-Stories-ebook/dp/B009JC6V12 |quote=(Kindle E-Book) |display-authors=etal}}
* {{cite book |last=Raiffeisen |first=Friedrich Wilhelm |author-link=Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen |translator-last=Engelmann |translator-first=Konrad |title=The credit unions (Die Darlehnskassen-Vereine) |publisher=The Raiffeisen Printing & Publishing Company |location=Neuwied on the Rhine, Germany |date=1970 |orig-year=1866 |oclc=223123405}}
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Marguerite S. |title=The microfinance revolution |publisher=World Bank Open Society Institute |location=Washington, D.C. New York |date=2001 |isbn=9780821345245}}
* {{cite book |last=Roodman |first=David |title=Due diligence an impertinent inquiry into microfinance |publisher=Center for Global Development |location=Washington DC |date=2012 |isbn=9781933286488}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Seibel |first1=Hans Dieter |last2=Khadka |first2=Shyam |title=SHG banking: A financial technology for very poor microentrepreneurs |journal=Savings and Development |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=133–150 |date=2002 |jstor=25830790 }}
* {{cite book |last=Sinclair |first=Hugh |title=Confessions of a Microfinance Heretic: How Microlending Lost its Way and Betrayed the Poor |url= https://archive.org/details/Confessions_of_A_Microfinance_Heretic_9781609945190 |url-access=registration |publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers |location=San Francisco, California |date=2012 |isbn=9781609945183}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rutherford |first1=Stuart |last2=Arora |first2=Sukhwinder |title=The Poor and Their Money: Microfinance from a Twenty-first Century Consumer's Perspective |publisher=Practical Action |location=Warwickshire, UK |date=2009 |isbn=9781853396885}}
* {{cite book |last=Wolff |first=Henry W. |title=People's Banks: A Record of Social and Economic Success |url= https://archive.org/details/peoplesbanksare00wolfgoog |publisher=P. S. King & Son |location=London |date=1910 |orig-year=1893 |edition=4th |oclc=504828329}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sapovadia |first=Vrajlal K. |title=Micro finance: The pillars of a tool to socio-economic development |journal=Development Gateway |date=2006 |ssrn=955062 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sapovadia |first=Vrajlal K. |title=Capacity building, pillar of micro finance |journal=[[Social Science Research Network]] |doi=10.2139/ssrn.975088 |date=19 March 2007 |s2cid=167722868 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sapovadia |first=M. |title=Microfinance and women's empowerment: Contemporary issues and challenges |journal=International Journal of Innovative Research & Studies (IJIRS) |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=590–606 |date=May 2013 }} PDF.
* {{cite book |last1=Maimbo |first1=Samuel Munzele |last2=Ratha |first2=Dilip |title=Remittances development impact and future prospects |publisher=World Bank |location=Washington, DC |date=2005 |isbn=9780821357941}}
* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Graham A. N. |title=Microfinance Systems: Designing Quality Financial Services for the Poor |publisher=Zed Books |location=London New York Dhaka |date=2000 |isbn=9781856497879}}
* {{cite book |last1=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs |last2=United Nations Capital Development Fund |author-link1=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs |author-link2=United Nations Capital Development Fund |title=Building inclusive financial sectors for development |publisher=United Nations |location=New York, New York |date=2006 |isbn=9789211045611}}
* {{cite book |last=Yunus |first=Muhammad |title=Creating a World Without Poverty: Social Business and the Future of Capitalism |publisher=PublicAffairs |location=New York |date=2007 |isbn=9781586484934 |url= https://archive.org/details/creatingworldwit00yunu}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Yunus |first1=Muhammad |last2=Moingeon |first2=Bertrand |last3=Lehmann-Ortega |first3=Laurence |author-link1=Muhammad Yunus |author-link2=Bertrand Moingeon |title=Building social business models: Lessons from the Grameen experience |journal=Long Range Planning |volume=43 |issue=2–3 |pages=308–325 |doi=10.1016/j.lrp.2009.12.005 |date=April 2010 |s2cid=154512507 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20160203162342/http://www.hec.edu/content/download/52956/470943/file/Article%20LRP%20Yunus%20Moingeon%20Lehmann-Ortega%20d%C3%A9finitif.pdf PDF].
* {{cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Logan |title=Small Loans, Big Promises, Unknown Impact: An Examination of Microfinance |journal=The Apollonian Revolt |date=2015 |url= http://theapollonianrevolt.com/small-loans-big-promises-unknown-impact-an-examination-of-microfinance/ |access-date=31 July 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150728072306/http://theapollonianrevolt.com/small-loans-big-promises-unknown-impact-an-examination-of-microfinance/ |archive-date=28 July 2015|url-status=dead}}

==External links==
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{{commons category|Microfinance}}
* {{Curlie|Science/Social_Sciences/Economics/Development_Economics/Microfinance/|Microfinance}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141003235625/http://www.adb.org/features/12-things-know-microfinance Microfinance in Asia and the Pacific: 12 Things to Know] Asian Development Bank
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161001234104/http://accionusa.org/ Accion USA's Website, a microlender for businesses in the United States]
* [https://eads.usaid.gov/mrr/ USAID Microenterprise Results Reporting (MRR) Portal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043612/https://eads.usaid.gov/mrr/ |date=4 March 2016 }}

{{Consumer debt}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Microfinance|Microfinance]]
[[Category:Economic development]]
[[Category:Poverty]]
[[Category:Social economy]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi inventions]]
[[Category:Pakistani inventions]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Social entrepreneurship,"{{short description|Approach to develop, fund and implement solutions to social or environmental issues}}
{{Essay-like|date=June 2023}}
{{use mdy dates|date=March 2021}}
[[File:Tulane University Environmental Action League, New Orleans, February 2011.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Student organizers from the Green Club at Newcomb College Institute formed a social entrepreneurship organization in 2010 that aimed to encourage people to reduce waste and live in a more environmentally conscious way.]]
'''Social entrepreneurship''' is an approach by individuals, groups, [[Startup company|start-up companies]] or [[entrepreneur]]s, in which they develop, fund and implement solutions to social, cultural, or environmental issues.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.pbs.org/now/enterprisingideas/what-is.html | work = Enterprising Ideas | title = What is a Social Entrepreneur | publisher  = PBS Foundation | quote = A social entrepreneur, in our view, is a person or entity that takes a business approach to effectively solving a social problem.}}</ref> This concept may be applied to a wide range of organizations, which vary in size, aims, and beliefs.<ref>{{cite web | title = The Meaning of Social Entrepreneurship | first = J. Gregory  | last = Dees | orig-year = 1998 | year = 2001 | publisher= caseatduke.org  | url= http://caseatduke.org/ | access-date= 2013-05-03}}</ref> For-profit entrepreneurs typically measure performance using business metrics like [[Profit (economics)|profit]], [[revenues]] and increases in [[stock price]]s. Social entrepreneurs, however, are either [[non-profit organization|non-profits]], or they blend for-profit goals with generating a positive ""return to society"". Therefore, they use different metrics. Social entrepreneurship typically attempts to further broad social, cultural and environmental goals often associated with the [[voluntary sector]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Thompson | first1 = J.L. | year = 2002 | title = The World of the Social Entrepreneur | journal = The International Journal of Public Sector Management | volume = 15 | issue = 4/5| page = 413 | doi = 10.1108/09513550210435746 }}</ref> in areas such as poverty alleviation, [[health care]] and [[community development]].

At times, profit-making [[social enterprise]]s may be established to support the social or cultural goals of the organization but not as an end in themselves. For example, an organization that aims to provide housing and employment to the [[homelessness|homeless]] may operate a [[restaurant]], both to raise money and to provide employment for the homeless.

In 2010, social entrepreneurship was facilitated by the use of the [[Internet]], particularly [[social networking]] and [[social media]] websites. These [[website]]s enable social entrepreneurs to reach numerous people who are not geographically close yet who share the same goals and encourage them to [[collaboration|collaborate]] online, learn about the issues, disseminate information about the group's events and activities, and raise funds through [[crowdfunding]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=IDOSR-JAS-52-49-55-2020.pdf |url=https://www.idosr.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/IDOSR-JAS-52-49-55-2020..pdf |website=idosr.org}}</ref>

In recent years, researchers have been calling for a better understanding of the ecosystem in which social entrepreneurship exists and [[social venture]]s operate.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite book|editor-last1=de Bruin |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Teasdale |editor-first2=S. |title=A Research Agenda for Social Entrepreneurship|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2019|isbn=978-1-78897-231-4}}</ref> This will help them formulate better strategy and help achieve their [[double bottom line]] objective.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last1=Purkayastha|first1=Debapratim|last2=Tripathy|first2=Trilochan|last3=Das |first3=Biswajit|date=2020-01-01|title=Understanding the ecosystem of microfinance institutions in India |journal=Social Enterprise Journal|volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=243–261|doi=10.1108/SEJ-08-2019-0063 |s2cid=213274658 |issn=1750-8614}}</ref><ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last1=Bloom |first1=P. N. |last2=Dees |first2=J. G. |date=2008|title=Cultivate Your Ecosystem|journal=Stanford Social Innovation Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=47–53}}</ref>

== Modern definition ==
[[File:Yunus Social entrepreneurs Sanwar Uddin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|right|[[Grameen Bank]] founder and [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner [[Muhammad Yunus]] (left) with two young social entrepreneurs (right)]]
The concept of social entrepreneurship emerged in the 1980s and since then has been gaining more momentum. Despite this, after decades of efforts to find a common ground to define the concept, no consensus has been reached.<ref>{{cite book | doi=10.4324/9780429291197-1 | chapter=Social Enterprise: Is It Possible to Decolonise This Concept? | title=Theory of Social Enterprise and Pluralism | year=2019 | last1=Dos Santos | first1=Luciane Lucas | last2=Banerjee | first2=Swati | pages=3–17 | isbn=9780429291197 | s2cid=187416644 }}</ref> The dynamic nature of the object and the multiplicity of the conceptual lens used by researchers has made it impossible to capture it, to such an extent that scholars have compared it with a mythological beast.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1177/0952076711401466 | title=What's in a Name? Making Sense of Social Enterprise Discourses | year=2012 | last1=Teasdale | first1=Simon | journal=Public Policy and Administration | volume=27 | issue=2 | pages=99–119 | s2cid=54655735 }}</ref>

Scholars have different backgrounds, generating a great disparity of conceptualizations. These should be arranged in 5 clusters of meaning, according to the focus given and the conceptual framework assumed by the researcher. The first group of authors focuses on the person of the entrepreneur, being the mainstream definition. J. G. Dees argues that social entrepreneurship is the result and the creation of an especially creative and innovative leader.<ref>Dees, J. G. (1998), ""The meaning of social entrepreneurship"", available in: https://entrepreneurship.duke.edu/news-item/the-meaning-of-social-entrepreneurship/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219180139/https://entrepreneurship.duke.edu/news-item/the-meaning-of-social-entrepreneurship/ |date=February 19, 2020 }}</ref>

Social entrepreneurs can include a range of career types and professional backgrounds, ranging from [[social work]] and [[community development]] to [[entrepreneurship]] and [[environmental science]]. For this reason, it is difficult to determine who is a social entrepreneur. [[David Bornstein (author)|David Bornstein]] has even used the term ""social innovator"" interchangeably with social entrepreneur, due to the creative, non-traditional strategies that many social entrepreneurs use.<ref>David Bornstein, ''How to Change the World'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 1, 92</ref> For a clearer definition of what social entrepreneurship entails, it is necessary to set the function of social entrepreneurship apart from other voluntary sector and charity-oriented activities and identify the boundaries within which social entrepreneurs operate.<ref>Abu-Saifan, S. 2012. [http://www.timreview.ca/article/523 Social Entrepreneurship: Definition and Boundaries]. [http://www.timreview.ca/ Technology Innovation Management Review]. [http://www.timreview.ca/issue/2012/february February 2012]: 22-27.</ref> Some scholars have advocated restricting the term to founders of organizations that primarily rely on earned income (meaning income earned directly from paying consumers), rather than income from donations or grants. Others have extended this to include contracted work for public authorities, while still others include grants and donations.

Social entrepreneurship in modern society offers an altruistic form of entrepreneurship that focuses on the benefits that society may reap.<ref name=""Wee"" /> If a person's behaviour or motives are altruistic, they show concern for the happiness and welfare of other people rather than for themselves.<ref>{{cite web |title=Altruistic |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/altruistic}}</ref> Simply put, entrepreneurship becomes a social endeavor when it transforms [[social capital]] in a way that affects society positively.<ref name=""Alvord"">Alvord, Sarah H., Brown, David L., and Letts, Christine W. ""Social Entrepreneurship and Societal Transformation: An Exploratory Study."" The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. no. 3 (2004): 260-282.</ref> It is viewed as advantageous because the success of social entrepreneurship depends on many factors related to social impact that traditional corporate businesses do not prioritize. Social entrepreneurs recognize immediate social problems, but also seek to understand the broader context of an issue that crosses disciplines, fields, and theories.<ref name=""Alvord"" /> Gaining a larger understanding of how an issue relates to society allows social entrepreneurs to develop innovative solutions and mobilize available resources to affect the greater global society. Unlike traditional corporate businesses, social entrepreneurship ventures focus on maximizing gains in social satisfaction, rather than maximizing profit gains.<ref name=""Baron"">Baron, David P. ""Corporate Social Responsibility and Social Entrepreneurship."" Journal of Economics & Management Strategy. no. 3 (2007): 683-717.</ref> Both private and public agencies worldwide have had billion-dollar initiatives to empower deprived communities and individuals.<ref name=""Alvord"" /> Such support from organizations in society, such as government-aid agencies or private firms, may catalyze innovative ideas to reach a larger audience.

Prominent individuals associated with social entrepreneurship include Pakistani [[Akhter Hameed Khan]] and Bangladeshi [[Muhammad Yunus (economist)|Muhammad Yunus]], a leader of [[social entrepreneurship in South Asia]]. Yunus was the founder of [[Grameen Bank]], which pioneered the concept of [[microcredit]] for supporting innovators in multiple developing countries in [[Asia]], [[Africa]], and [[Latin America]].<ref name="":0"" /> He received a [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his efforts. Others, such as former [[Indianapolis]] mayor [[Stephen Goldsmith]], addressed social efforts on a local level by using the private sector to provide city services.<ref name=""economist810"">{{cite news
|url=http://www.economist.com/node/16789766
|title=Let's hear those ideas
|date=August 12, 2010
|newspaper=[[The Economist]]
|access-date=July 28, 2014}}</ref><ref name=""goldsmith"">{{cite book
|title=The Power of Social Innovation: How Civic Entrepreneurs Ignite Community Networks for Good
|last=Goldsmith |first=Stephen
|date=March 2010
|publisher=Jossey-Bass
|isbn= 978-0-470-57684-7}}</ref>

==Characteristics ==
Bill Drayton founded Ashoka in 1980, an organization which supports local social entrepreneurs. Drayton tells his employees to look for four qualities: creativity, entrepreneurial quality, social impact of the idea, and ethical fiber.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bornstein|first1=David|title=How to Change the World|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-533476-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0/page/121 121–122]|url=https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0}}</ref> Creativity has two parts: [[Goal setting|goal-setting]] and [[Problem solving|problem-solving]]. Social entrepreneurs are creative enough to have a vision of what they want to happen and how to make that vision happen.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bornstein|first1=David|title=How to Change the World|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-533476-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0/page/124 124]|url=https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0}}</ref> In their book ''The Power of Unreasonable People,'' John Elkington and Pamela Hartigan identify why social entrepreneurs are, as they put it, unreasonable. They argue that these men and women seek profit in social output where others would not expect profit. They also ignore evidence suggesting that their enterprises will fail and attempt to measure results which no one is equipped to measure.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Elkington|first1=John|title=The Power of Unreasonable People |date=2008|publisher=Harvard Business Press|location=Boston|isbn=978-1-4221-0406-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki/page/15 15–19]|url=https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki}}</ref> About this, the [[Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship|Schwab Foundation]] says that entrepreneurs have ""A zeal to measure and monitor their impact. Entrepreneurs have high standards, particularly in relation to their own organization's efforts and in response to the communities with which they engage. Data, both quantitative and qualitative, are their key tools, guiding continuous feedback and improvement.""<ref>{{cite web|title=What is a Social Entrepreneur?|url=http://www.schwabfound.org/content/what-social-entrepreneur|website=Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurs|access-date=28 October 2016}}</ref> Ashoka operates in multiple countries.

Entrepreneurial quality builds from creativity. Not only do entrepreneurs have an idea that they must implement, they know how to implement it and are realistic in the vision of implementing it. Drayton says that, ""Entrepreneurs have in their heads the vision of how society will be different when their idea is at work, and they can't stop until that idea is not only at work in one place, but is at work across the whole society.""<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bornstein|first1=David|title=How to Change the World|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-533476-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0/page/124 124–126] |url=https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0}}</ref> This manifests through a clear idea of what they believe the future will look like and a drive to make this come true. Besides this, entrepreneurs are not happy with the status quo: they want healthy change.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Elkington|first1=John|title=The Power of Unreasonable People|date=2008|publisher=Harvard Business Press|location=Boston |isbn=978-1-4221-0406-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki/page/11 11–13]|url=https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki}}</ref> This changemaking process has been described as the creation of market disequilibria through the conversion of antagonistic assets into complementarities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hockerts |first1=K. |year=2015 |title=How hybrid organizations turn antagonistic assets into complementarities |journal=California Management Review |volume=57 |issue=3| pages=83–106 |doi=10.1525/cmr.2015.57.3.83 |s2cid=154538481}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Komatsu|first1=T.|title=Finance and Economy for Society: Integrating Sustainability |year=2016|isbn=978-1-78635-510-2|series=Critical Studies on Corporate Responsibility, Governance and Sustainability|volume=11 |pages=315–347 |chapter=Social Innovation Business Models: Coping with Antagonistic Objectives and Assets|doi=10.1108/S2043-905920160000011013}}</ref>

Social impact measures whether the idea itself will be able to cause change after the original founder is gone. If an idea has intrinsic worth, once implemented it will cause change even without the charismatic leadership of the first entrepreneur.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bornstein|first1=David|title=How to Change the World|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-533476-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0/page/126 126–127] |url=https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0}}</ref> One reason that these entrepreneurs are unreasonable is that they are unqualified for the task they take on. Most entrepreneurs have not studied the skills needed to implement their ideas. Instead, they bring a team of qualified people around themselves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Elkington |first1=John|title=The Power of Unreasonable People|date=2008|publisher=Harvard Business Press|location=Boston|isbn=978-1-4221-0406-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki/page/21 21] |url=https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki}}</ref> It is the idea that draws this team.

Ethical fiber is important because leaders who are about to change the world must be trustworthy. Drayton described this to his employees by suggesting that they picture a situation that frightens them and then place the candidate in the situation with them. If they feel comfortable in this scenario, the entrepreneur has ethical fiber.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bornstein|first1=David|title=How to Change the World|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-533476-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0/page/127 127–128]|url=https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0}}</ref> One distinguishing attribute of entrepreneurs is that they rarely take credit for making change. They insist that the change they have brought about is due to everyone around them. They also tend to be driven by emotion; they are not trying primarily to make a profit but to address suffering.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Elkington|first1=John|title=The Power of Unreasonable People|date=2008|publisher=Harvard Business Press|location=Boston|isbn=978-1-4221-0406-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki/page/12 12, 23]|url=https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki}}</ref> Muhammad Yunus says about this characteristic, ""He (or she) competes in the marketplace with all other competitors but is inspired by a set of social objectives. This is the basic reason for being in the business.""<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yunus|first1=Muhhamad|title=Banker to the Poor|date=2007 |publisher=PublicAffairs|location=New York|isbn=9781586481988|page=[https://archive.org/details/bankertopoormicr00yunu/page/251 251] |url=https://archive.org/details/bankertopoormicr00yunu/page/251}}</ref>

==Challenges==
Because the world of social entrepreneurship is relatively new, there are many challenges facing those who delve into the field. First, social entrepreneurs are trying to predict, address and creatively respond to future problems<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People; Elkington, John, Hartigan, Pamela; Harvard Business Press, 2008; p. 86</ref> and often face difficulties in identifying the right problems to solve.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuckertz |first1=Andreas|last2=Bernhard |first2=Alexander |last3=Berger |first3=Elisabeth S.C. |display-authors=etal |title=Scaling the right answers – Creating and maintaining hope through social entrepreneurship in light of humanitarian crises |journal=Journal of Business Venturing Insights |date=2023 |volume=19 |pages=e00356 |doi=10.1016/j.jbvi.2022.e00356|doi-access=free }}</ref> Unlike most business entrepreneurs, who address current market deficiencies, social entrepreneurs tackle hypothetical, unseen or often less-researched issues, such as overpopulation, unsustainable energy sources, food shortages.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Power of Unreasonable People |last1=Elkington |first1=John |last2=Hartigan |first2=Pamela |journal=Harvard Business Press |date=2008 |pages=86–115}}</ref> Founding successful social businesses on merely potential solutions can be nearly impossible as investors are much less willing to support risky ventures. If entrepreneurs are able to receive funding from investors, the challenges do not stop with balancing both the social and business aspects of the business. <ref>{{cite journal |title=Social entrepreneurship and digital platforms: Crowdfunding in the sharing-economy era |last1=Chandna |first1= Vallari|journal=  Business Horizons|date=2022 |volume=65 |pages=21–31 |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2021.09.005|s2cid=239170896 }}</ref>

The lack of eager investors leads to the second problem in social entrepreneurship: the pay gap. Elkington and Hartigan note that ""the salary gap between commercial and social enterprises… remains the elephant in the room, curtailing the capacity of [social enterprises] to achieve long-term success and viability.""<ref name=""Unreasonable People p. 201"">The Power of Unreasonable People; Elkington, John, Hartigan, Pamela; Harvard Business Press, 2008; p. 201</ref> Social entrepreneurs and their employees are often given diminutive or non-existent salaries, especially at the onset of their ventures. Thus, their enterprises struggle to maintain qualified, committed employees. Though social entrepreneurs are tackling the world's most pressing issues, they must also confront skepticism and stinginess from the very society they seek to serve.<ref name=""Unreasonable People p. 201""/>

Another reason social entrepreneurs are often unsuccessful is because they typically offer help for those least able to pay for it. Capitalism is founded upon the exchange of capital (most obviously, money) for goods and services. However, social entrepreneurs must find new business models that do not rely on standard exchange of capital in order to make their organizations sustainable.<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People; Elkington, John, Hartigan, Pamela; Harvard Business Press, 2008; p. 200</ref> This self-sustainability is what distinguishes social businesses from charities, who rely almost entirely on donations and outside funding.<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People; Elkington, John, Hartigan, Pamela; Harvard Business Press, 2008; pp. 31-</ref>

==History==
Social entrepreneurship is distinct from the concept of [[entrepreneurship]], yet still shares several similarities with its business cousin. [[Jean-Baptiste Say]] (1767–1832), a French economist, defined an entrepreneur as a person who ""undertakes"" an idea and shifts perspectives in a way that it alters the effect that an idea has on society.<ref name="":0"">{{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = R. L. | last2 = Osberg | first2 = S. | year = 2007 | title = Social entrepreneurship: The case for definition | journal = Stanford Social Innovation Review | volume = 5 | issue = 2| pages = 28–39 }}</ref> An entrepreneur is further defined by Say as someone who ""shifts economic resources out of an area of lower and into an area of higher productivity and greater yield.""<ref>Peter F. Drucker, ''Innovation and Entrepreneurship'' (New York: Harper Business, 1993), 21</ref> The difference between ""entrepreneurship"" and ""social entrepreneurship"", however, stems from the purpose of a creation. Social entrepreneurs seek to transform societies at large, rather than transforming their [[profit margin]], as classic entrepreneurs typically seek to do. Social entrepreneurs use a variety of resources to bring societies into a better state of well-being.

The concept of ""social entrepreneurship"" is not a novel idea, but in the 2000s, it has become more popular among society and academic research, notably after the publication of ""The Rise of the Social Entrepreneur"" by [[Charles Leadbeater]].<ref name=""Wee"">Wee-Liang, Williams, John, and Tan, Teck-Meng. ""Defining the 'Social' in 'Social Entrepreneurship': Altruism and Entrepreneurship."" The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. no. 3 (2005): 353-365.</ref> Many activities related to community development and higher social purpose fall within the modern definition of social entrepreneurship. Despite the established definition nowadays, social entrepreneurship remains a difficult concept to define, since it may be manifested in multiple forms.<ref name=""Mair"">Mair, Johanna, and Marti, Ignasi. ""Social entrepreneurship research: A source of explanation, prediction, and delight."" Journal of World Business.no. 1 (2006): 36-44.</ref> A broad definition of the concept allows interdisciplinary research efforts to understand and challenge the notions behind social entrepreneurship. No matter in which sector of society certain organizations are (i.e. corporations or unincorporated associations, societies, associations or [[cooperative]]s), social entrepreneurship focuses on the social impact that an endeavor aims at.<ref name=""Wee"" /> Whether social entrepreneurship is [[altruistic]] or not is less important than the effect it has on society.

The terms ''social entrepreneur'' and ''social entrepreneurship'' were used first in the literature in 1953 by H. Bowen in his book ''Social Responsibilities of the Businessman''.<ref>For example, the phrase was used as a description of [[Howard Bowen]], ''Social Responsibilities of the Businessman'', America, 1953</ref> The terms came into widespread use in the 1980s and 1990s, promoted by [[Bill Drayton]],<ref name=""social entreprenuer"">{{cite web | publisher=[[U.S. News & World Report]] | title=The Social Entrepreneur Bill Drayton| date = 2005-10-31 | url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/051031/31drayton.htm | access-date=2006-11-03}}</ref> Charles Leadbeater, and others.<ref>'The Rise of the Social Entrepreneur, Demos, London, 1996</ref> From the 1950s to the 1990s, the politician [[Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington|Michael Young]] was a leading promoter of social entrepreneurship and in the 1980s, he was described by Professor [[Daniel Bell]] at Harvard University as the ""world's most successful entrepreneur of social enterprises"". Young created more than sixty new organizations worldwide, including the [[School for Social Entrepreneurs]] (SSE) which exists in the UK, Australia, and Canada and which supports individuals to realize their potential and to establish, scale, and sustain, social enterprises and [[social business]]es. Another notable British social entrepreneur is [[Andrew Mawson, Baron Mawson|Andrew Mawson]] [[OBE]], who was given a peerage in 2007 because of his [[urban regeneration]] work including the [[Bromley by Bow Centre]] in East London. Although the terms are relatively new, social entrepreneurs and social entrepreneurship may be found throughout history. A list of a few noteworthy people whose work exemplifies the modern definition of ""social entrepreneurship"" includes [[Florence Nightingale]], founder of the first [[nursing school]] and developer of modern nursing practices; [[Robert Owen]], founder of the [[cooperative]] movement; and [[Vinoba Bhave]], founder of India's [[Bhoodan movement|Land Gift Movement]]. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries some of the most successful social entrepreneurs straddled the civic, governmental and business worlds. These pioneers promoted new ideas that were taken up by mainstream public services in welfare, schools and health care.

==Ecosystem of social entrepreneurship ==
The ecosystem framework can be very useful for social entrepreneurs in formulating their strategy. The need for understanding the ecosystem of social enterprises has been increasingly supported as researchers emphasize on the importance of contextual factors supporting and constraining [[social venture]]s.<ref name="":2"" /> Researcher note that there is a need to understand the ecosystems of social enterprises, as they often operate in a context which is highly localized, interacting with small, local actors, but may also be intimately connected to other systems operating at a broader (regional, country level or even global) level which influence their immediate environment.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roy |first1=M. J. |last2=Hazenberg |first2=R. |title=An evolutionary perspective on social entrepreneurship 'ecosystems'. In A Research Agenda for Social Entrepreneurship|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |year=2019|isbn=978-1-78897-231-4|pages=13–22}}</ref>

Many researchers such as P. N. Bloom and J. G. Dees attempted to develop an ecosystem model for social entrepreneurs. The ecosystem model proposed by them comprises all the actors operating in the ecosystem, as well as the larger environment the laws, policies, social norms, demographic trends, and cultural institutions within which the actors play.<ref name="":4"" /> Similarly, Dees ''et al.'' (2008) developed a framework to describe the key elements of the social entrepreneurship ecosystem in which they organized the elements into two broad categories – capital infrastructure and context-setting factors.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Dees, J. G. |author2=Nash, M. |author3=Anderson, B. |author4=Kalafatas, J. |author5=Tolman, R. |author6=Kuran, W. |author7=Bloom, P.|date=2008|title=Developing the field of social entrepreneurship|journal=Report from the Center for the Advancement of Social Entrepreneurship |publisher=Duke University}}</ref>

More recently in 2020, [[Debapratim Purkayastha]], T. Tripathy and B. Das extended the business ecosystem literature to the social policy and social entrepreneurship arena. They developed a comprehensive ecosystem model in the context of the Indian microfinance sector that can be also used by other social enterprises as a framework to understand their own ecosystem and formulate their strategy. The researchers define the ecosystem as consisting of ""the complex and evolving network of the focal organization (social enterprise) and all other individuals and organizations that the focal organization interact with including competitors, suppliers, complementors, customers, beneficiaries, regulators, resource providers, etc. that directly or indirectly influence each other; their interactions, as also the immediate and the broader environment (economic, social, political, etc.) the organization is influenced by and reside in"".<ref name="":3"" /> The model helps identify all the actors in the complex ecosystem, the capital infrastructure and the context-setting factors.

== 2000s ==

=== Major organizations ===
[[File:Panel on social entrepreneurs at Spotlight Health Aspen Ideas Festival 2015.JPG|thumb|right|A panel discusses social entrepreneurship in the health care sector in 2015.]]
Groups focused on social entrepreneurship may be divided into several categories: community-based enterprises, socially responsible enterprises, [[social services]] industry professionals, and socio-economic enterprises.<ref name=""Wee"" /> Community-based enterprises are based on the social ventures aimed at and involving an entire community. These enterprises build on the community's culture and capital (e.g., volunteer resources, financing, in-kind donations, etc.) to empower the enterprise and the community.<ref name=""Peredo"">{{cite journal | last1 = Peredo | first1 = Ana Maria | last2 = Chrisman | first2 = James J. | year = 2006 | title = Toward a theory of community-based enterprise | journal = Academy of Management Review | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 309–328 | doi=10.5465/amr.2006.20208683| s2cid = 144555213 }}</ref> Socially responsible enterprises focus on creating [[sustainable development]] through their inside organization acts that focus mostly on creating societal gains for the community.<ref name=""Wee"" /> Social service industry professionals such as [[social worker]]s and [[public health nurse]]s work in [[social services]], either for a government or a non-profit organization. They aim to expand [[social capital]] for individuals, communities, and organizations. Socio-economic enterprises include corporations that balance earning profits with nonprofit goals, such as seeking social change for communities. Some social entrepreneurship organizations are not enterprises in a business sense; instead, they may be charities, non-profit organizations or voluntary sector organizations.

In addition, there are support organizations dedicated to empowering social entrepreneurs, connecting them with [[mentor]]s, strengthening their enterprise models, and preparing them for [[capital investment]]s. These [[Business incubator|incubators]] and [[Business accelerator|accelerator]] organizations provide office and meeting space (often free), [[mentoring]] and coaching for social enterprise founders and leaders to help them develop their enterprises by improving the effectiveness of their business model, marketing, and strategy. Some accelerator organizations help social entrepreneur leaders to scale up their organization, either by taking it from a local scale to a national scale or from a national scale to a global scale. Some [[entrepreneurship]] support organizations also provide mentoring and coaching to social entrepreneurs.

One well-known [[Social entrepreneurship in South Asia|social entrepreneur from South Asia]] is [[Muhammad Yunus]], who founded the [[Grameen Bank]] in 1976. He is known as the ""father of [[microcredit]],"" and established the [[microfinance]] movement, which aims to help millions of people rural communities to access small loans.<ref name="":0"" /> For his work, he was awarded a [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 2006.<ref name=""GB Nobel"">{{cite web | publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] | title=The Nobel Peace Prize 2006 | year = 2006 | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2006/ | access-date=2006-11-02}}</ref> The work that Yunus did through Grameen Bank has been described as a major influence on later social entrepreneurs.<ref name=""business-socialventures"">{{cite web | publisher=Changemakers | title=Business-Social Ventures Reaching for Major Impact| date = November 2003 | url=http://www.changemakers.net/journal/03november/index.cfm| access-date=2006-11-03 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060614210056/http://www.changemakers.net/journal/03november/index.cfm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2006-06-14}}</ref>  Larger countries in Europe and South America have tended to work more closely with public organizations at both the national and local level.

===Types ===

In ''[[The Power of Unreasonable People]]'', [[John Elkington (business author)|John Elkington]] and [[Pamela Hartigan]] describe social entrepreneurs' business structures as falling under three different models, applicable in different situations and economic climates:
# ''Leveraged non-profit'': This business model leverages financial and other resources in an innovative way to respond to social needs.<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People, 2008. pg. 31</ref>
# ''Hybrid non-profit'': This organizational structure can take a variety of forms, but is distinctive because the hybrid non-profit is willing to use profit from some activities to sustain its other operations which have a social or community purpose. Hybrid non-profits are often created to deal with [[government failure]]s or [[market failure]]s, as they generate revenue to sustain the operation without requiring loans, grants, and other forms of traditional funding.<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People, 2008. pg.37</ref>
# ''Social business venture'': These models are set up as businesses that are designed to create change through social means. Social business ventures evolved through a lack of funding. Social entrepreneurs in this situation were forced to become for-profit ventures, because loans and [[equity financing]] are hard to get for social businesses.<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People, 2008. pg. 42</ref>

There are also a broader range of hybrid profit models, where a conventional business invests some portion of its profits on socially, culturally or environmentally beneficial activities. The term ""[[Philanthropreneurship]]"" has been applied to this type of activity.{{citation needed|date=January 2015}} Corporate employees can also engage in social entrepreneurship, which may or may not be officially sanctioned by the company. This has been described as [[corporate social entrepreneurship]].<ref>Hemingway, Christine A. ''Corporate Social Entrepreneurship: Integrity Within''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. pg.135 {{ISBN|978-1-107-44719-6}}.</ref>

One private foundation has staked the ground of more precise lexicon following the [[Newman's Own]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newmansownfoundation.org/|title=Newman's Own Foundation - The Power of Philanthropy to Transform Lives}}</ref> model having coined the phrase ""Commercial Philanthropy"" where commercial businesses are held and operated with all net proceeds going to serve social service needs.<ref>[http://commercialphilanthropy.com/ Foundation for Commercial Philanthropy, Inc.]</ref>

==International presence==
Organizations such as the [[Skoll Foundation]], the [[Omidyar Network]], the [[Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship]], [[New Profit Inc.]], [[National Social Entrepreneurship Forum]], and [[Center for Science, Technology, and Society|the Global Social Benefit Institute]] among others, promote and providing resources to advance the initiatives of social entrepreneurs.<ref name=""Mair"" /> The North American organizations tend to have a strongly individualistic stance focused on a handful of exceptional leaders. For example, The Skoll Foundation, created by [[eBay]]'s first president, [[Jeff Skoll]], makes capacity-building ""[[Mezzanine funding|mezzanine level]]"" grants to social entrepreneurial organizations that already have reached a certain level of effectiveness.<ref name="":1"">{{cite journal | last1 = Pearce | first1 = Joshua M. | year = 2012 | title = The Case for Open Source Appropriate Technology | doi = 10.1007/s10668-012-9337-9 | journal = Environment, Development and Sustainability | volume = 14 | issue = 3| pages = 425–431 | s2cid = 153800807 | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02120479/file/The_Case_for_Open_Source_Appropriate_Tec.pdf | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Role of technology==
The Internet, [[social networking websites]] and [[social media]] have been pivotal resources for the success and collaboration of many social entrepreneurs.<ref>Malecki, E. J. (1997). Technology and economic development: the dynamics of local, regional, and national change. ''University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign's Academy in Entrepreneurship''.</ref> In the 2000s, the Internet has become especially useful in disseminating information to a wide range of like-minded supporters in short amounts of time, even if these individuals are geographically dispersed. In addition, the Internet allows for the pooling of design resources using [[open source]] principles. Using [[wiki]] models or [[crowdsourcing]] approaches, for example, a social entrepreneur organization can get hundreds of people from across a country (or from multiple countries) to collaborate on joint online projects (e.g., developing a [[business plan]] or a [[marketing]] strategy for a social entrepreneurship venture). These websites help social entrepreneurs to disseminate their ideas to broader audiences, help with the formation and maintenance of [[business networks|networks of like-minded people]] and help to link up potential investors, donors or volunteers with the organization. This enables social entrepreneurs to achieve their goals with little or no start-up capital and little or no ""[[brick and mortar]]"" facilities (e.g., rented office space). For example, the rise of [[open-source appropriate technology]] as a [[sustainable development]] paradigm enables people all over the world to collaborate on solving local problems, just as [[open source software]] development leverages collaboration from software experts from around the world.
<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meri |first=Mohamed meri |title=Social Entrepreneurs Culture in Societies and Business-Paper.docx |url=https://www.academia.edu/33728525/Social_Entrepreneurs_Culture_in_Societies_and_Business_Paper_docx}}</ref> The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and the need to physically distance has further increased the significance of technologies for social ventures.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-06-01|title=Crises and entrepreneurial opportunities: Digital social innovation in response to physical distancing|journal=Journal of Business Venturing Insights|language=en|volume=15|pages=e00222|doi=10.1016/j.jbvi.2020.e00222|issn=2352-6734|doi-access=free|last1=Scheidgen |first1=Katharina |last2=Gümüsay |first2=Ali Aslan |last3=Günzel-Jensen |first3=Franziska |last4=Krlev |first4=Gorgi |last5=Wolf |first5=Miriam }}</ref>

==Public opinion==

=== Controversy ===
Many initiatives carried out with social entrepreneurs while innovative, have had problems becoming sustainable and effective initiatives that ultimately were able to branch out and reach the larger society as a whole (versus a small community or a group of people). Compromises in social initiatives were developed, which often did not reach large audiences or help larger communities. Since the concept of social entrepreneurship has been popularized in the 2000s, some advocates suggest that there needs to be some standardization of the process in scaling up social endeavors to increase the impact of these ventures across the globe.<ref name=""Alvord"" />

Policymakers around the globe may need to learn more about social initiatives, to increase the [[sustainability]], effectiveness, and efficiency of these projects.<ref name=Wee/> Involvement and collaboration between private corporations and government agencies allows for increased support for carrying out social entrepreneurship initiatives, increased accountability on both ends, and increased connections with communities, individuals, or agencies in need. For example, private organizations or nonprofit organizations have tackled [[unemployment]] issues in communities.<ref name=Cook>Cook, Beth, Dodds, Chris, and Mitchell, William. ""Social Entrepreneurship: False 
Premises and Dangerous Forebodings."" The Australian Journal of Social Issues. no. 1 (2003): 57-72.</ref> One challenge is that in some cases, social entrepreneurs may only propose short-term solutions, or that they are unable to scale up their virtual, online organization to a larger degree to maximize the number of people who are helped.<ref name=Cook/> Government programs are able to tackle large issues; however, there is often little collaboration between governments and social entrepreneurs, which may have limited the effectiveness of social entrepreneurship. This lack of inter-sectoral collaboration may lead to stagnation, if the motives and goals of social enterprises and of those in policy-making and programs are not aligned.<ref name=Drayton>Drayton, William. ""The Citizen Sector: BECOMING AS ENTREPRENEURIAL AND COMPETITIVE AS BUSINESS."" ''California management review'' 44, no. 3 (2002).</ref> Those in policy-making and the development of delivery of government programs tend to have different priorities than social entrepreneurs, resulting in slow growth and expansion of social initiatives.

Since social entrepreneurship has only started to gain momentum in the 2000s, current social entrepreneurs are encouraging social advocates and activists to develop into innovative social entrepreneurs.<ref name=Drayton/> Increasing the scope and scale of social entrepreneurship may increase the likelihood of an efficient, sustainable, and effective initiative; although it may also render social entrepreneurship more challenging. Increased participation draws more attention to social entrepreneurship ventures from policymakers and privately owned corporations. The increased involvement of corporations and governments may help to strengthen social entrepreneurship, as it may lead to policy changes and to the development of training programs and [[leadership]] development programs for social entrepreneurs. Simultaneously, research shows that as social entrepreneurs attempt to widen their impact and scale their efforts, external institutions will have a key role to play in their success.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sud | first1 = M. | last2 = VanSandt | first2 = C.V. | last3 = Baugous | first3 = A. | year = 2009 | title = Social Entrepreneurship: The Role of Institutions | url =https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=business-facultypubs | journal = Journal of Business Ethics | volume = 85 | pages = 201–216 | doi=10.1007/s10551-008-9939-1| s2cid = 154593095 }}</ref>

==See also==
<!-- New links in alphabetical order please -->
{{colbegin|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Appropriate technology]]
* [[B Corporation (certification)]]
* [[Business ethics]]
* [[Collaborative method]]
* [[Entrepreneurship]]
* [[Geotourism]]
* [[List of social entrepreneurs]]
* [[Microfranchising]]
* [[Outline of management]]
* [[Social innovation]]
* [[Social venture capital]]
* [[Triple bottom line]] – business theory
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* Abu-Saifan, S. 2012. ''Social Entrepreneurship: Definition and Boundaries.'' [http://www.timreview.ca/ Technology Innovation Management Review]. [http://www.timreview.ca/issue/2012/february February 2012]: 22–27.
* David Bornstein, ''How to Change the World: Social Entrepreneurs and the Power of New Ideas'', Oxford University Press <small>(and others)</small> {{ISBN|0-19-513805-8}}
* Charles Leadbeater, ''The Rise of the Social Entrepreneur,'' [[Demos (UK think tank)|Demos]], 1996
* London, T. 2016. The Base of the Pyramid Promise: Building Businesses with Impact and Scale, Stanford, CA: Stanford Business Books.
* Joanna Mair, Jeffrey Robinson, and Kai Hockerts, ''Social Entrepreneurship'', [[Palgrave Macmillan]], 2006. {{ISBN|1-4039-9664-4}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Peredo | first1 = A. M. | last2 = McLean | first2 = M. | year = 2006 | title = Social Entrepreneurship: A Critical Review of the Concept | journal = Journal of World Business | volume = 41 | issue = 1| pages = 56–65 | doi=10.1016/j.jwb.2005.10.007| s2cid = 42660383 }}
* Munoz, J. Mark (2010). ''International Social Entrepreneurship : Pathways to Personal and Corporate Impact''. Business Expert Press : NY. {{ISBN|9781606491065}}
* John Elkington and Pamela Hartigan, ''The Power of Unreasonable People: How Entrepreneurs Creates Markets to Change the World'', Harvard Business Press, 2008
* Chris Durkin and Robert Gunn, ''Social Entrepreneurship: A Skills Approach'', Policy Press, 2016. {{ISBN|1-4473-3171-0}}
* Muhammad Yunus, [[Bertrand Moingeon]], Laurence Lehmann-Ortega, ""[https://web.archive.org/web/20160203162342/http://www.hec.edu/content/download/52956/470943/file/Article%20LRP%20Yunus%20Moingeon%20Lehmann-Ortega%20d%C3%A9finitif.pdf Building Social Business Models: Lessons from the Grameen Experience"", April-June, vol 43, n° 2-3, Long Range Planning, 2010, p. 308-325]""
* Jacques Defourny, Marthe Nyssens, ''Conceptions of social enterprise and social entrepreneurship in Europe and the United States: Convergences and divergences'', [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19420670903442053 Journal of Social Entrepreneurship], 2010. Vol 1(Issue 1), pages 32–53.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103710/http://skollfoundation.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/2007SP_feature_martinosberg.pdf ''Social Entrepreneurship: The Case for Definition''], [[Sally R. Osberg]] and Roger Martin
* [http://www.timreview.ca/article/523 ''Social Entrepreneurship: Definition and Boundaries''], Samer Abu-Saifan
*{{cite journal | last1 = Agafonow | first1 = Alejandro | year = 2014 | title = Toward A Positive Theory of Social Entrepreneurship. On Maximizing Versus Satisficing Value Capture | journal = Journal of Business Ethics | volume = 125 | issue = 4| pages = 709–713 | doi = 10.1007/s10551-013-1948-z | s2cid = 154033731 }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Agafonow | first1 = Alejandro | year = 2014 | title = Value Creation, Value Capture, and Value Devolution: Where Do Social Enterprises Stand? | journal = Administration & Society | volume =  47| issue = 8| pages =  1038–1060| doi = 10.1177/0095399714555756 | s2cid = 155079963 }}
*[https://www.coursera.org/specializations/social-entrepreneurship-cbs ''Class on Social Entrepreneurship''] from Prof. Hockerts, Copenhagen
* {{cite journal | last1 = Lombard | first1 = K-J | year = 2012 | title = 'Social entrepreneurship in youth culture: Organics, Russell Simmons and Emile 'XY' Jensen.' | journal = Journal for Cultural Research | volume = 16 | issue = 1| pages = 1–20 | doi = 10.1080/14797585.2011.633833 | s2cid = 144205124 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikiversity|Appropriate technology Designs}}
{{Wikiversity|at=Portal:Social entrepreneurship|social entrepreneurship}}
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Management}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Social entrepreneurship| ]]
[[Category:Entrepreneurship]]
[[Category:Activism]]
[[Category:Administrative theory]]
[[Category:Management]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Social economy]]
[[Category:Social enterprises]]"
Social venture,"A '''social venture''' (also called a [[social enterprise]]) is undertaking by a firm or organization established by a [[social entrepreneur]] that seeks to provide systemic solutions to achieve a sustainable, social objective.

== Background ==
Social ventures may be structured in many forms, including [[sole proprietorships]], [[For-profit corporation]]s, [[nonprofit organizations]], [[non-governmental organizations]], [[youth groups]], [[community organizations]], and more. Typically, government organizations are not considered to be social ventures, yet even government organizations can adopt entrepreneurial practices, possibly partnering with independent organizations, to explore the innovative methods for providing social services. Elkington and Hartigan define three models for social ventures: leveraged nonprofit, hybrid nonprofit, and [[social business]].<ref>Elkington, John and Pamela Hartigan (2007). The Power of Unreasonable People: How Social Entrepreneurs Create Markets that Change the World. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.</ref> In the leveraged nonprofit venture the entrepreneur uses external partners for financial support in providing a [[Public good (economics)|public good]]. On the other hand, the hybrid nonprofit venture recovers a portion of its costs through sales of its goods or services. The social business venture generates profits, but rather than return those profits to shareholders, like commercial ventures, it reinvests those profits to further the social venture and the resulting social benefits.

The distinguishing characteristic of the social venture versus the commercial venture is the primacy of their objective to solve social problems and provide social benefits. The social venture may generate profits, but that is not its focus. Rather profits are a possible means to achieve sustainability in providing a social benefit. The problems addressed by social ventures cover the range of social issues, including poverty, inequality, education, the environment, and economic development. The context in which social ventures operate is very complex as they are trying to bring about solutions where markets or governments may have failed or actually impede solutions. Further, these ventures are trying to provide solutions where money is usually in short supply—often these ventures have little assurance that their services can be paid for by those they seek to serve.<ref>Martin, Roger and Sally Osberg (2007). ""Social Entrepreneurship: The Case for Definition."" ''Stanford Social Innovation Review'', Spring:28-39.</ref> These conditions necessitate that the social entrepreneur to be creative, adaptable, and determined in finding new solutions to problems.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Social Venture}}
[[Category:Social entrepreneurship]]
[[Category:Entrepreneurship]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category: Sustainable development]]"
Social enterprise,"{{short description|Type of organization}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{cleanup reorganize|date=May 2013}}
{{Tone|date=October 2022}}
}}
A '''social enterprise''' is an organization that applies commercial strategies to maximize improvements in financial, social and environmental well-being. This may include maximizing social impact alongside profits for co-owners.

Social enterprises have [[business]], [[Natural environment|environmental]] and [[social]] goals. As a result, their social goals are embedded in their objective, which differentiates them from other [[Organization|organisations]] and [[Company|companies]].<ref>Mathew, P. M. (2008). ""Social Enterprises in the Competitive Era"". ''Economic and Political Weekly''. '''43''' (38): 22–24.</ref> A social enterprise's main purpose is to promote, encourage, and make [[social change]].<ref name="":0"">J., Lane, Marc (2011). ''Social enterprise : empowering mission-driven entrepreneurs'' (1st ed.). Chicago, Ill.: American Bar Association. {{ISBN|9781614382003}}. [[OCLC]] 886114442.</ref> Social enterprises are businesses created to further a social purpose in a [[financially sustainable]] way. Social enterprises can provide income generation opportunities that meet the basic needs of people who live in poverty. They are sustainable, and earned income from sales is reinvested in their mission. They do not depend on [[philanthropy]] and can sustain themselves over the long term. Attempting a comprehensive definition, social enterprises are market-oriented entities that aim to create social value while making a profit to sustain their activities. They uniquely combine financial goals with a mission for social impact.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last1=Cosa |first1=Marcello |last2=Urban |first2=Boris |date=2023-07-20 |title=A Systematic Review of Performance Measurement Systems and Their Relevance to Social Enterprises |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19420676.2023.2236628 |journal=Journal of Social Entrepreneurship |language=en |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1080/19420676.2023.2236628 |s2cid=260013116 |issn=1942-0676}}</ref> Their models can be expanded or replicated to other communities to generate more impact.

A social enterprise can be more sustainable than a [[Nonprofit organization|nonprofit organisation]] that may solely rely on grant money, donations or [[government policies]] alone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://centers.fuqua.duke.edu/case/knowledge_items/scaling-social-impact-strategies-for-spreading-social-innovations/|title=Scaling Social Impact: Strategies for Spreading Social Innovations|website=CASE|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-15}}</ref>

== Types ==
{{more citations needed|section|date=September 2023}}
A social enterprises can be structured as a business, a partnership for profit or [[Nonprofit organization|non-profit]], and may take the form (depending on in which country the entity exists and the legal forms available) of a [[co-operative]], [[mutual organization|mutual organisation]], a [[Entity classification election|disregarded entity]] (a form of business classification for [[Income tax in the United States|income tax]] purposes in the United States),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://biztaxlaw.about.com/od/glossaryd/g/disregardentity.htm |title=What is a Disregarded Entity&nbsp;– Disregarded Entity Definition |publisher=Biztaxlaw.about.com |date=13 July 2013 |access-date=21 October 2013 |archive-date=21 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021152017/http://biztaxlaw.about.com/od/glossaryd/g/disregardentity.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> a [[social business]], a [[benefit corporation]], a [[community interest company]], a company limited by guarantee or a [[charity organisation]]. They can also take more conventional structures. Social enterprises are dynamic, requiring adaptation to ensure they meet the needs of communities and individuals in an ever-changing world. Their shared common thread is that they all operate to achieve a balanced financial, social and environmental set of objectives.

=== Trading enterprises ===
Worker- and employee-owned trading enterprises, co-operatives, and collectives. These vary from very large enterprises such as [[John Lewis Partnership]] in the UK and the [[Mondragon Corporation]] in Spain to medium-sized enterprises owned by their staff with traditional management hierarchies and pay differentials to quite small worker cooperatives with only a few directors and employees who work in less hierarchical ways and practice wage parity. Within the trading enterprises, there are employee-owned enterprises and membership-owned enterprises.

=== Financial institutions ===
Savings and loan organisations such as [[credit union]]s, microcredit organisations, [[Cooperative banking|cooperative banks]], and revolving loan funds are membership-owned social enterprises. Credit unions were first established in the 1850s in Germany and spread internationally. Cooperative banks have likewise been around since the 1870s, owned as a subsidiary of a membership co-operative. In recent times, microcredit organisations have sprung up in many developing countries to great effect. Local currency exchanges and social value exchanges are also being established.

=== Community organisations ===
Many community organisations are registered social enterprises: community enterprises, housing co-operatives, community interest companies with asset locks, community centres, pubs and shops, associations, housing associations, and football clubs. These are membership organisations that usually exist for a specific purpose and trade commercially. All operate to reinvest profits in the community. They have large memberships that are customers or supporters of the organisation's key purpose. There are village cooperatives in India and Pakistan that were established as far back as 1904.

=== Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and charities ===
There are many NGOs and charities that operate commercial consulting and training enterprises or subsidiary trading enterprises, such as Oxfam International. The profits are used to provide salaries for people who provide free services to specific groups of people or to further the social or environmental aims of the organisation.

== History ==
{{anchor|Founding, History & Evolution}}

=== Origins ===
The idea of a social enterprise as a distinct concept first developed in the late 1970s in the UK as an alternative commercial organisational model to private [[business]]es, co-operatives and [[public enterprise]]. The concept, at that time, had five main principles <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf|title=Social Audit &ndash; A Management Tool for Co-operative Working|author=Freer Spreckley|year=1981|publisher=Beechwood College|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301021617/http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf|archive-date=1 March 2020}}</ref> divided into three values and two paradigm shifts. The two paradigm shifts were:

* A [[common ownership]] legal structure where members/owners have one voting share and different forms of investment
* Democratic governance, where each worker/community resident is a member with one vote

The three principles, now referred to as the [[triple bottom line]] were:

* Trading and financially viable independence
* Creating social wealth
* Operating in environmentally responsible ways

Furthermore, it was intended as part of the original concept that social enterprises should plan, measure and report on financial performance, social-wealth creation, and environmental responsibility by the use of a [[social accounting and audit]] system.<ref name=""auto"">{{cite web|url= http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf|title= Social Audit &ndash; A Management Tool for Co-operative Working|author= Freer Spreckley|year= 1981|publisher= Beechwood College|access-date= 17 March 2017|archive-date= 1 March 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200301021617/http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>

The organisational and legal principles embedded in social enterprises are believed{{by whom|date=May 2018}} to have come from non-profit organisations. Originally, non-profit organisations relied on governmental and public support, but more recently{{when|date=May 2018}} they have started to rely on profits from their own social change operations. The Social Enterprise Alliance (SEA) defines the following as reasons for this transition:<ref name="":42"">{{Cite book|title= Social enterprise : empowering mission-driven entrepreneurs|last= J.|first= Lane, Marc|date= 2011|publisher= American Bar Association|isbn= 9781614382003|edition=1st |location= Chicago, Ill.|oclc= 886114442}}</ref>

* the increase in non-profit operating costs
* the decline in government and public philanthropic support
* increased competition due to growth in the charitable sector
* the expansion in the demand for non-profit provided services

Social enterprises are viewed{{by whom|date=May 2018}} to have been created{{by whom|date=May 2018}} as a result of the evolution of non-profits.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} This formation process resulted in a type of hybrid organisation that does not have concrete organisational boundaries. Various scholars (e.g. Eikenberry & Kluver, Liu & Ko, and Mullins et al.) have argued that this may have come about due to the marketization of the non-profit sector, which resulted in many non-profit firms placing more focus on generating income.<ref name="":142"">{{Cite journal|last1= Smith|first1= Brett R.|last2= Cronley|first2= Maria L.|last3= Barr|first3= Terri F.|date= 2012|title= Funding Implications of Social Enterprise: The Role of Mission Consistency, Entrepreneurial Competence, and Attitude Toward Social Enterprise on Donor Behaviour|jstor= 41714262|journal= Journal of Public Policy & Marketing|volume= 31|issue= 1|pages= 142–157|doi= 10.1509/jppm.11.033|s2cid= 153418404}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=May 2018}}<ref name="":82"">{{Cite journal|last1= Doherty|first1= Bob|last2= Haugh|first2= Helen|last3= Lyon|first3= Fergus|date= 2014-10-01|title= Social Enterprises as Hybrid Organisations: A Review and Research Agenda|journal= International Journal of Management Reviews|language= en|volume= 16|issue= 4|pages= 417–436|doi= 10.1111/ijmr.12028|s2cid= 54915433|issn= 1468-2370|url= https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/12955/3/Doherty_et_al-2014-International_Journal_of_Management_Reviews.pdf}}</ref> Other scholars have used [[institutional theory]] to conclude that non-profits have adopted social enterprise models, because such models have become legitimized{{by whom|date=May 2018}} and widely accepted.<ref name="":154"">{{Cite journal|last= Teasdale|first= Simon|date= 25 May 2011|title= What's in a Name? Making Sense of Social Enterprise Discourses|journal= Public Policy and Administration|volume= 27 |issue= 2|pages= 99–119|doi= 10.1177/0952076711401466|s2cid= 54655735|url= http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f9fd/218073bf9d96903429995c624304fff2f0fa.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190307132439/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f9fd/218073bf9d96903429995c624304fff2f0fa.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-date= 7 March 2019}}</ref> Some organizations have evolved into social enterprises, while some were established as social enterprises.<ref name="":82""/>

Social enterprise has a long history around the world, though under different names and with different characteristics.<ref>Aiken, M. (2010) ""Taking the Long View: Conceptualizing the challenges facing UK third sector organisations in the social and welfare field"", in Evers, A. and Zimmer, A. (eds) Turbulent environments: The impact of commercialization on organisational legitimacy and the quality of services. Baden-Baden: Nomos Publishing.</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2018}}

The first description of a social enterprise as a democratically owned and run trading organisation that is financially independent, has social objectives and operates in an environmentally responsible way, was put forward by '''Freer Spreckley''' in the UK in 1978 and later written as a publication in 1981.<ref name=""auto""/> One of the first examples of a social enterprise, in the form of a social cooperative, can be traced back to the Victorian era.<ref name="":23"">{{Cite journal|last1= Cornelius|first1=Nelarine |last2= Todres|first2= Mathew|last3= Janjuha-Jivraj|first3= Shaheena|last4= Woods|first4= Adrian|last5= Wallace|first5= James|date= 2008|title= Corporate Social Responsibility and the Social Enterprise|jstor= 25482219|journal= Journal of Business Ethics|volume= 81|issue= 2|pages= 355–370|doi= 10.1007/s10551-007-9500-7|s2cid= 154580752|author1-link= Nelarine Cornelius}}</ref> Like social cooperatives, social enterprises are believed{{by whom|date=May 2018}} to have emerged as a result of state and [[market failure]]. However, market failure is emphasized{{by whom|date=May 2018}} in the UK, while state failure is emphasized in the United States.<ref name="":154""/>

=== Muhammad Yunus ===
[[Muhammad Yunus]] ([[Grameen Bank]] founder and 2006 Nobel Peace Prize laureate) used the term ""social enterprise"" in his 2009 book ''[[Banker to the Poor]]'', and in other essays.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Yunus |first1=Muhammad |title=Building Social Business |url=https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Building-Social-Business-By-Muhammad-Yunus-FJXNJJYUKG |website=www.bartleby.com |access-date=30 March 2023 |quote=Building Social Business is a book about social enterprise written by Muhammad Yunus.}}</ref> Muhammad Yunus used the term referring to [[microfinance]]. His work in the area of extending micro-credit especially to women in societies where they are economically repressed, led him to receive the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2006/press.html|title= The Nobel Peace Prize for 2006|last= Oslo|date= 13 October 2006|website= Nobel Prize|access-date= 5 February 2018}}</ref>

=== Adoption of social enterprise across institutions ===
In the US, [[Harvard University|Harvard]], [[Stanford University|Stanford]] and [[Princeton University|Princeton]] universities built on the work of [[Ashoka (non-profit organization)|Ashoka]], and each made contributions to the development of the social entrepreneurship field through [[project]] initiatives and publications.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.hbs.edu/socialenterprise/ |title= Social Enterprise – Harvard Business School |publisher= Hbs.edu |access-date= 24 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssir.org/ |title=Stanford Social Innovation Review |publisher=ssir.org |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://mypace.princeton.edu/php/ProjectDetails.php?projid=209 |title= Princeton Social Entrepreneurship Initiative |publisher= Mypace.princeton.edu |access-date= 24 May 2013}}</ref>

{{As of | 2018}} the field of social enterprise studies has not yet developed firm philosophical foundations, but its advocates and its academic community are much more engaged with critical pedagogies (e.g. [[Paulo Freire]]) and critical traditions in research (e.g. [[critical theory]] / [[institutional theory]] / [[Marxism]]) in comparison to private-sector business education.<ref>
Nicholls, A. (2006) ''Social Entrepreneurship: New Models of Sustainable Social Change'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.
</ref>
Teaching related to the [[social economy]] draws explicitly from the works of [[Robert Owen]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], and [[Karl Marx]], with works by [[Pierre Bourdieu|Bourdieu]] and [[Robert D. Putnam|Putnam]] informing the debate over [[social capital]] and its relationship to the competitive advantage of [[Mutual organization|mutuals]]. This intellectual foundation, however, does not extend as strongly into the field of social entrepreneurship, where there is more influence from writings on [[liberalism]] and entrepreneurship by [[Joseph Schumpeter]] in conjunction with the emerging fields of [[social innovation]], [[Actor–network theory|actor-network theory]], and [[Complex systems|complexity theory]] to explain its processes.

Social enterprise (unlike private enterprise) is not taught exclusively in a business school context, as it is increasingly connected to the health sector and to public service delivery. However, Oxford University's [[Said Business School]] does host the [[Skoll World Forum]], a global event focused on [[social entrepreneurs]].

=== Publications ===
The first international social enterprise journal was established in 2005 by Social Enterprise London (with support from the London Development Association). The [[Social Enterprise London#Activities|''Social Enterprise Journal'']] has been followed by the ''Journal of Social Entrepreneurship'', and coverage of issues pertaining to the [[social economy]] and social enterprise is also covered by the ''[[Journal of Co-operative Studies]]'' and the ''Annals of Co-operative and Public Economics''. The European Social Enterprise Research Network (EMES) and the Co-operative Research Unit (CRU) at the [[Open University]] have also published research into social enterprise. The Skoll World Forum, organised jointly by [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[Duke University|Duke]] universities, brings together researchers and practitioners from across the globe.

== Terminology ==
The term 'social enterprise' has a mixed and contested heritage due to its [[Philanthropy|philanthropic]] roots in the United States and [[cooperative]] roots in the United Kingdom, European Union, and Asia. In the US, the term is associated with 'doing charity by doing trade', rather than 'doing charity ''while'' doing trade'. In other countries, there is a much stronger emphasis on [[Community organizing|community organising]], democratic control of capital, and mutual principles than on philanthropy.<ref>Kerlin, J. (2009) ''Social Enterprise: A Global Comparison'', University Press of New England.</ref>

In recent years, there has been a rise in the concept of social purpose businesses, which pursue [[social responsibility]] directly or [[Fundraising|raise funds]] for charitable purposes.

Muhammad Yunus, founder of the Grameen Bank, believes that a social enterprise should be modelled exclusively to achieve a social goal. Another view is that social enterprises should not be motivated by profit motives, but rather that profit motives should be secondary to the primary social goal. A second definition provided by The Social Enterprise Alliance (SEA) defines a social enterprise as an organisation that uses business methods to execute its social or environmental mission. According to this definition, the social enterprise's social mission is to help the disadvantaged, which is executed by directly providing goods or services (not money). Additionally, earned revenue must be the main source of income for the organisation or venture. A third definition is purely based on how the organisation is legally structured or formed as a legal entity. In this context, a social enterprise is a legal entity that, through its entity choice, chooses to forgo a profit motive. A fourth definition asserts that a social enterprise consists of a community of dedicated individuals that are continuously thinking about social impact and, as a result, employ business and management techniques to approach social causes.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Social enterprise versus nonprofit ===
Social enterprises are not only a structural element of a non-profit. A large portion of social enterprises are non-profits; however, there are also for-profit social enterprises.<ref name="":0"" /> Social enterprises are often regarded—erroneously—as nonprofit organisations, although many do take on a nonprofit legal form and are treated in academic literature on the subject as a branch or sub-set of nonprofit activity (especially when contrasted with Social Businesses).<ref name="":3"" /> Social enterprises in the nonprofit form can earn income for their goods or services; they are typically regarded as non-profits that use business strategies to generate revenue to support their charitable missions.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last=Bielefeld|first=Wolfgang|date=Winter 2009|title=Issues in Social Enterprise and Social Entrepreneurship|journal=Journal of Public Affairs|volume=15|pages=69–86|doi=10.1080/15236803.2009.12001544|s2cid=157499271}}</ref>

In recent years, many non-profits have chosen to take on social enterprise models as it has become increasingly difficult to obtain financing from outside sources. The social enterprise model offers non-profit organisations an alternative to relying on charitable donations. This may allow them to increase their funding and sustainability and assist them in the pursuit of their social mission. However, two potential issues emerge: 1) distraction from the social goal in pursuit of contradictory business activities; and 2) inadequate skills, resources, and capabilities for the adoption of the social enterprise model.<ref name="":142""/>

=== Social enterprise versus corporate social responsibility ===
Many commercial enterprises would consider themselves to have social objectives, but commitment to these objectives is motivated by the perception that such commitment will ultimately make the enterprise more financially valuable. These are organisations that might be more properly said to be operating ''corporate responsibility policies''. Social enterprises differ in that their commitment to impact is central to the mission of the business. Some may not aim to offer any benefit to their investors, except where they believe that doing so will ultimately further their capacity to realise their social and environmental goals, although there is a huge amount of variation in forms and activities.

[[Corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) is a practise that businesses can use to be conscious of the social and environmental impacts of their activities. There are a variety of CSR markers, such as accountability and internal and external elements. Social enterprises place a lot of emphasis on external social responsibility as a result of their social objectives, so social impact is built into the organisation. However, there has been debate on whether or not social enterprises place enough emphasis on internal CSR. Internal CSR includes human resources and capital management, health and safety standards, adaptation to innovation and change, and the quality of management within the organisation.<ref>Cornelius, Nelarine; Todres, Mathew; Janjuha-Jivraj, Shaheena; Woods, Adrian; Wallace, James (2008). ""Corporate Social Responsibility and the Social Enterprise"". ''Journal of Business Ethics''. '''81''' (2): 355–370.</ref> Since a large majority of social enterprises do not have sufficient funding, they are unable to pay competitive wages to their employees, and as a result, they have to resort to other (non-financial) techniques to recruit employees. Many managers utilise the social component of the social enterprise's dual mission and purpose for this.<ref name="":82""/>

=== Social enterprise versus social entrepreneurship ===
Like social enterprise, [[social entrepreneurship]] has a variety of existing definitions. Currently, there is not a widely accepted standard definition for the term, and descriptions vary in level of detail. There is an emphasis on change agents for social entrepreneurship, in contrast to the organisational focus of social enterprises. Social entrepreneurship usually takes place in the non-profit sector, with a focus on creating and implementing new solutions.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal|last=Bielefeld|first=Wolfgang|date=2009|title=Issues in Social Enterprise and Social Entrepreneurship|jstor=40215838|journal=Journal of Public Affairs Education|volume=15|issue=1|pages=69–86|doi=10.1080/15236803.2009.12001544|s2cid=157499271}}</ref>

=== Social impact versus social enterprise ===
Social impact and social enterprise are not the same. [[Social impact assessment|Social impact]] may refer to the overall effects of a business, but a business that has social impact may or may not be a social enterprise. Social enterprises have socially bound mission statements and operate with the goal of solving a social problem as a part of their mission. Social enterprise has emerged as a businesslike contrast to traditional nonprofit organisations. Social enterprise is going to continue its evolution away from forms that focus on broad frame-breaking and innovation to a narrower focus on market-based solutions and businesslike solutions to measure the social impact of programmes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dart|first=Raymond|date=2004|title=The legitimacy of social enterprise|journal=Nonprofit Management and Leadership|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=411–424|doi=10.1002/nml.43|issn=1048-6682}}</ref>

=== Social enterprise funding ===
[[Socially responsible investing]] (SRI) seeks to maximize both financial gain and social impact.<ref name="":0"" />

Social Enterprises often use for-profit business strategies to fund social change. The methods by which these Social enterprises create sustainable revenue streams differ from social business to social business, but all share the goal of abandoning the need for government or donor support. [[Gregory Dees]] and Beth Anderson discuss this difference in funding strategies as the innovation that differentiates the social enterprise from the traditional non-profit actor.<ref>Dees, J. G., & Anderson, B. B. (2006). Framing A Theory of Social Entrepreneurship: Building On Two Schools Of Practice And Thought. 40-66. ''Research on social entrepreneurship'', ARNOVA occasional paper series,'''1''' (3), 40–66.</ref>

=== Salesforce.com trademark dispute ===
In 2012, [[Social Enterprise UK]] ran the 'Not In Our Name' campaign against [[Salesforce.com]], a global software and CRM company that had begun using the term 'social enterprise' to describe its products and had applied for 'social enterprise' trademarks in the EU, US, Australia, and Jamaica. The campaign was supported by similar organisations in the US (the Social Enterprise Alliance), Canada, South Africa, and Australia. An open letter was sent to the CEO and Chairman of Salesforce.com asking Salesforce.com to stop using the term 'social enterprise'. It was signed by people and organisations around the world, including [[Muhammad Yunus]] ([[Grameen Bank]] founder and Nobel Peace Prize laureate), [[Richard G. Wilkinson]], and [[Kate Pickett]] (co-authors of ''[[The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better|The Spirit Level]]''). Salesforce said it would withdraw applications to trademark the term 'social enterprise', and remove any references to 'social enterprise' in its marketing materials in the future.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/policy-campaigns/campaigns/not-in-our-name | access-date = 16 March 2013 | publisher = Not In Our Name | title = Not in our Name | quote = Following five weeks of sustained campaigning by the global social enterprise movement in summer 2012, US company Salesforce publicly announced to withdraw its applications to trademark the term 'social enterprise', and remove any references to 'social enterprise' in its marketing materials in the future. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130203080328/http://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/policy-campaigns/campaigns/not-in-our-name | archive-date = 3 February 2013 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

=== Hybrid forms ===
Organizations that do not take the distinct form of either a private, public, or non-profit organization are classified as hybrid organizations.<ref name="":82""/> For legal and tax purposes, hybrid forms are classified as for-profit entities. The two main types of hybrid organisations are the L3C, or [[low-profit limited liability company]], and the [[benefit corporation]] (B-Corp). L3C's main objective is to achieve socially beneficial goals. They are able to go about achieving these goals by employing the financial and flexible advantages of a limited liability company. States that have authorised the use of the L3C model have established three requirements: to operate for charitable or educational purposes, not the production of income, and not the fulfilment of a political or legislative agenda. A ''benefit corporation'', or B-Corp, is a corporation that operates to achieve or create a ""general public benefit"".<ref name="":42""/>

== Influences ==
The first academic paper to propose worker co-operatives involved in health and rehabilitation work as a form social enterprise was published in 1993.<ref>Savio, M. and Rhigetti, A. (1993) ""Co-operatives as a social enterprise"", ''Acta Psychiatrica Scadanavica'', 88(4), p. 238-42.</ref> The scale and integration of co-operative development in the 'red belt' of [[Italy]] (some 7,000 worker, and 8,000 social co-operatives) inspired the formation of the EMES network of social economy researchers who subsequently spread the language to the UK and the rest of Europe through influential English language publications.<ref>Borzaga, C. and Defourny, J. (2001) The Emergence of Social Enterprise, Routelege.</ref>

== Current debates ==
When social enterprise first emerged, much of the scholarly literature focused on defining the key characteristics and definitions of social enterprise. Currently, there is more literature and research on the emergence of the social enterprise sector as well as the internal management of social enterprise organisations. Due to the dual-purpose missions of social enterprises, organisations cannot directly employ the typical management strategies of established business models. Recent academic literature has argued against prior positively held views of social enterprises success in striking a balance between the two tensions and instead argued that the social mission is being compromised in favour of financial stability. Prioritising social good over financial stability contradicts rational firm management, which typically prioritises financial and profit-seeking goals. As a result, different management issues arise that range from stakeholders (and management) agreeing on the firm's goals but disagreeing on an action plan to management and stakeholders disagreeing on the firm's goals. Some social enterprises have taken on same-sector and cross-sector partnerships, while others continue to operate independently.<ref name="":82""/>

=== Types of tensions in social enterprise management ===

Tensions are separated into four distinct categories: performing, organizing, belonging, and learning.<ref name="":13"">Smith W, Gonin M, Besharov M. [http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=0&sid=7cbe545c-8692-45c2-a3fb-40911f55db3d%40sessionmgr4009 Managing Social-Business Tensions: A Review and Research Agenda for Social Enterprise]. ''Business Ethics Quarterly'' [serial online]. July 2013;23(3):407-442. Business Source Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed 4 April 2018.</ref>

* ''Performance tensions'' arise as organisations seek to fulfil various conflicting goals, such as varying stakeholder demands, social mission goals, and performance metrics. A major challenge is figuring out how to gauge success with conflicting goals.<ref name="":13"" />
* ''Organizing tensions'' are caused by inconsistencies in organizational structure, culture, and human resource practices. Many social organisations grapple with whom to hire, as many want to help disadvantaged people but also need workers with business skills to ensure the success of the enterprise. Organisations face the challenge of deciding which organisational structure and legal form (e.g., Non-Profit, for-profit) to operate under.<ref name="":13"" />
* ''Belonging tensions'' arise from identification or a sense of belonging to contrasting goals and values, which creates internal organisational conflict. These tensions are amplified by the maintenance of relationships with stakeholders who may have conflicting identities within the organisation.<ref name="":13"" />
* ''Learning tensions'' are a result of conflicting time horizons (i.e., short-term vs. long-run). In the short term, organisations aim for stability, which can be evaluated based on metrics such as costs, profits, and revenues, but in the long run, they want growth, flexibility, and progress in achieving their social mission.<ref name="":13"" />

== In Australia ==
While the terminology of 'social enterprise' is new in Australia, the contemporary values, principles, and practises of social enterprise are strongly aligned with the culture and lore of Australia's first peoples, which have been practised for over 60,000 years. Similarly, social enterprise practises were common in the establishment of Australia's immigrant populations. Australia's suburban landscape is marked by clubs and associations that operate hospitality, learning, or community-oriented enterprises together with inclusive and culturally strengthening employment practises.

The forms social enterprises can take and the industries they operate in are so many and varied that it has always been a challenge to define, find, and count social enterprises. In 2009, Social Traders partnered with the Australian Centre for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies (ACPNS) at [[Queensland University of Technology]] to define social enterprise and, for the first time in [[Australia]], to identify and map the social enterprise sector: its scope, its variety of forms, its reasons for trading, its financial dimensions, and the individuals and communities social enterprises aim to benefit. {{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}

This Finding Australia's Social Enterprise Sector (FASES) project produced its final report in June 2010. The project was led by Professor Jo Barraket, an Australian social enterprise academic. One of the key features of this Australian research is its intention to define social enterprise in a way that was informed by and made sense to those working in or with social enterprises. The research design therefore included workshops to explore and test what social enterprise managers, researchers, and relevant policymakers meant by the term 'social enterprise'. This was the resulting definition:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://djpr.vic.gov.au/about-us/overview/strategies-and-initiatives/social-enterprise?_ga=2.194290798.254661712.1554258662-548511812.1554258662|title=Social Enterprise Strategy|website=djpr.vic.gov.au|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref> 
Social enterprises are organisations that are:

* Led by an economic, social, cultural, or environmental mission consistent with a public or community benefit
* Derive a substantial portion of their income from trade.
* Reinvest the majority of their profit or surplus in the fulfilment of their mission.

=== Map for Impact research ===
In 2017, the Centre for Social Impact at Swinburne University undertook a comprehensive mapping project of social enterprise in Victoria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mapforimpact.com.au/news/|title=News – Map for Impact|website=mapforimpact.com.au}}</ref> The 'Map for Impact' Report identified 3,500 social enterprises in Victoria alone, employing over 60,000 people or 1.8% of the state's workforce.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Infographic – Facts & Figures – Map for Impact|url=https://mapforimpact.com.au/key-findings/infographic-facts-figures/|access-date=2022-02-23|website=mapforimpact.com.au}}</ref>

Victoria's social enterprises contribute over $5.2 billion in gross output to Victoria's economy. Social enterprise is a significant contributor to the economy - from local manufacturing and agriculture, to hospitality and professional services - they are not only local enterprises serving local needs, nearly one-third trade internationally.<ref name=""mapforimpact.com.au"">{{Cite web|title=Download the Report – Map for Impact|url=https://mapforimpact.com.au/resources/download-the-report/|access-date=2022-02-23|website=mapforimpact.com.au}}</ref>

Unlike traditional commercial businesses, Victorian social enterprises are intentionally labour-intensive, with the proportion of their labour force equating to approximately twice the proportion of Gross State Product they produce.<ref name=""mapforimpact.com.au""/>

20% of Victoria's social enterprise workforce is people with disability (i.e. 12,000 jobs) and 7% of jobs are held by people previously experiencing long-term unemployment.<ref name=""mapforimpact.com.au""/>

Swinburne University estimates that there are over 20,000 social enterprises nationwide. Based on its Victorian analysis, it can be extrapolated that:

* Social enterprise contributes $29.7 billion to the national economy.
* Social enterprises employ 340,000 people nationally.

Following the 'Map for Impact, the Victorian Government has commissioned further research and digital platforms to support the collection and sharing of social enterprise research and knowledge. The Social Entrepreneur Evidence Space (SEES) is an open research platform for Australia's social enterprise community.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home {{!}} SEES|url=https://seespace.com.au/|access-date=2022-02-23|website=seespace.com.au|language=en-AU}}</ref>

=== Social enterprise practitioner networks ===
Social enterprise practitioners have formed professional networks in each State and Territory of Australia. In 2020, they joined to form a national voice for the sector, the [https://asena.org.au Alliance of Social Enterprise Networks Australia] (ASENA).<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 May 2020|title=Launch of the Alliance of Social Enterprise Networks Australia (ASENA)|url=https://www.asena.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/MEDIA-RELEASE-ASENA-Launch-and-SII-Taskforce.pdf|website=ASENA Alliance of Social Enterprise Networks Australia launched}}</ref> ASENA has provided a federal channel for advocacy, collaboration and resource sharing for the emergent community of networks.

ASENA brings together representatives from the social enterprise networks in Australia:

* Social Enterprise Network Victoria (SENVIC)
* Social Enterprise Council NSW and ACT (SECNA)
* Queensland Social Enterprise Council (QSEC)
* South Australian Social Enterprise Council (SASEC)
* West Australian Social Enterprise Council (WASEC)
* Social Enterprise Network Tasmania ([http://www.sentas.org.au SENTAS])
* Impact North (Northern Territory).

Social enterprise networks create a unique place to connect and grow the community of practitioners and enablers that are meeting at the nexus between business and charity. For example, SENVIC's Annual Review 2020-2021 notes that of its 700 members, there are 250 associate members from government, business and philanthropy.<ref>Social Enterprise Network Victoria 'Annual Review 2020-2021' (October 2021) at 7.  https://senvic.org.au/wp-content/uploads/SENVIC_ANNUAL-REPORT_2021_web_d.pdf</ref> For government, the network creates opportunities to diversify social procurement spending or to explore social innovation and transform policy approaches to tackle intractable or wicked problems. For business, the networks provide inspiration, demonstrate business innovation through commercially viable social or environmentally sustainable operations, and creative ways for motivating or developing staff or diversifying CSR strategies. For philanthropy, social enterprise is not well understood or recognised. The networks provide opportunities to discover social innovation, and to generate lasting system-level impact by harnessing the collaborative ingenuity of social enterprise networks.

While the social enterprise networks are at differing stages of emergence, ASENA is providing a channel for cooperation, network-building practice, intelligence and resource sharing that is enabling all parts of the national community to benefit from others. Broadly, the networks have five functions:

* amplify and advocate to grow the social enterprise ecosystem into mainstream markets and across the public sector. 
* engage and influence policy makers, institutions, communities and individuals to connect with and enable our social enterprise community. 
* hold events and forums to build community among like-minded people, to create opportunities for collaboration and social innovation. 
* mobilise resources for the benefit of the social enterprise sector, to fill service gaps and reduce individual operating costs, to create streamlined access to support and training. 
* facilitate open communications and knowledge sharing within the community and with those seeking to engage and enable social enterprise to thrive.

The Victorian Government has taken a lead role nationally by releasing the first Social Enterprise Strategy in 2017 and supporting it's independent practitioners-led network (SENVIC) to establish and grow. SENVIC accelerated the maturity and growth of the sector in Victoria and nationally, and took a lead role in the development of the second strategy, the [https://djpr.vic.gov.au/about-us/overview/strategies-and-initiatives/social-enterprise Social Enterprise Strategy 2021-25]. In addition to hosting the launch of the strategy to a virtual audience of over 450 viewers, SENVIC has enabled national forums to promote and support engagement with the UN's Sustainable Development Goals in partnership with the United Nations Association.

The Victorian Social Enterprise Strategy 2021-25 received international praise and in June 2022 the Victorian Government received the [https://probonoaustralia.com.au/news/2022/06/victorian-social-strategy-wins-global-award/ Catalyst 2030 Government Award].

With government support for the central role of a vibrant and independent practitioner-led network, SENVIC launched its first multi-year strategy in 2022 with an action plan to build a system-shifting network of networks.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Social Enterprise Network Victoria |date=September 2022 |title=Strategic Plan 2022-25 |url=https://senvic.org.au/wp-content/uploads/SENVIC-Strategic-Plan-2022-25-web-ready.pdf |access-date=22 September 2022 |website=Social Enterprise Network Victoria - About Us}}</ref>

=== National Social Enterprise Strategy ===
ASENA's first act was to make a submission to the Prime Minister's Social Impact Investing Taskforce that recommended the Australian Government partner with the sector to develop a national social enterprise strategy, and leverage the achievements of governments in Victoria and Queensland. A collaborative project was then formed coordinated by the English Family Foundation, a philanthropic fund, to begin the sector-led journey to a national strategy. The Yunus Centre at Griffith University conducted research across the social enterprise sector, in Australia and overseas. The research is presented in two parts:

* Part one: a summary of themes, tensions & provocations, capturing the history and learning in the social enterprise sector in Australia and internationally.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hannant |display-authors=etal|title=Directions Part 1: Perspectives, provocations and sense-making for strategy. Social Enterprise National Strategy (SENS) Project.|url=https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0031/1360399/SENS-Directions-Report_Part-One.pdf|journal=|via=The Yunus Centre, Griffith University}}</ref>
* Part two: a possible pathway for building the connective tissue across the Australian social enterprise sector so that collectively we can amplify our impact. It asks us to consider – what would it look like if we were to better organise at a national level?<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hannant |display-authors=etal|title=Directions Report: Part 2|url=https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/1360400/SENS-Directions-Report_Part-Two.pdf|journal=|via=The Yunus Centre Griffith University}}</ref>

The Report highlighted the diversity of the sector but confirmed widespread support for a national strategy, shared goals and better coordination in the social enterprise sector. Consultation with the sector commenced in 2022.

In the absence of a national social enterprise census, intermediaries provide an important source of data. The Impact Investment Ready Growth Grant, launched in 2015, noted that the majority of social enterprises were concentrated in three Australian states: Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://impactinvestingaustralia.com/wp-content/uploads/Paving-Pathways_Final.pdf|title=Paving Pathways: A review of the Impact Investment Ready Growth Grant}}</ref> Recipients of these grants demonstrate that social enterprises work for more than profit alone; they foster social and environmental innovation and are accountable for their employees, consumers and the communities. They offer a business model where people can be given direct voice in running the organisation.

Some of the popular social enterprises in Australia include Thank You, Who Gives a Crap, STREAT, Taboo Period Products, Good Cycles,Vanguard Laundry and Goodwill Wine.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Joyce|first=Clare|date=2019-11-25|title=Australians support doing business while doing good -|url=https://www.fpmagazine.com.au/goodwill-wine-donating-profits-to-charities-371857/|access-date=2021-10-03|website=Fundraising & Philanthropy Australasia Magazine|language=en-AU}}</ref>

The FASES definition of social enterprise is adopted by ASENA and the state and territory networks, with many also welcoming emerging social enterprises that have the intention but are yet to meet the eligibility criteria. Social Traders provides the Social Enterprise certification in Australia.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Galer|first=Susan|title=SAP BrandVoice: Lessons In Procurement With A Purpose From Australia's Social Enterprise Pioneers|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/sap/2021/03/23/lessons-in-procurement-with-a-purpose-from-australias-social-enterprise-pioneers/|access-date=2021-10-03|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Enterprise Certification Launches in Australia|url=https://probonoaustralia.com.au/news/2018/04/social-enterprise-certification-launches-australia/|access-date=2021-10-03|website=Pro Bono Australia|language=en-US}}</ref>

== In North America ==

=== United States ===

The Social Enterprise Alliance defines a ""social enterprise"" as ""Organizations that address a basic unmet need or solve a social or environmental problem through a market-driven approach''.''""<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://socialenterprise.us/about/social-enterprise/|title=What Is a Social Enterprise?|website=Social Enterprise Alliance|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-08}}</ref>

In the U.S, two distinct characteristics differentiate social enterprises from other types of businesses, nonprofits, and government agencies:

* Social enterprises directly address social needs through their products and services or through the numbers of disadvantaged people they employ. This distinguishes them from ""socially responsible businesses"", which create positive [[social change]] indirectly through the practice of [[corporate social responsibility]] (e.g., creating and implementing a [[foundation (nonprofit)|philanthropic foundation]]; paying equitable wages to their employees; using environmentally friendly [[raw material]]s; providing [[Volunteering|volunteer]]s to help with community projects).
* Social enterprises use earned revenue strategies to pursue a double or triple [[bottom line]], either alone (as a social sector business, in either the [[Private sector|private]] or the nonprofit sector) or as a significant part of a nonprofit's mixed revenue stream that also includes charitable contributions and [[public sector]] subsidies. This distinguishes them from traditional nonprofits, which rely primarily on philanthropic and government support. The double bottom line consists of social goals and [[profit maximization]]. Here the two are not contradictory; however, proper financial management to achieve positive profits is necessary in order to undertake the organizations social goals. The triple bottom line is essentially the double bottom line, with the addition of environmental sustainability.<ref name="":23""/> It focuses on economic vitality, environmental sustainability, and social responsibility.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last=Mathew|first=P. M.|date=2008|title=Social Enterprises in the Competitive Era|jstor=40277968|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=43|issue=38|pages=22–24}}</ref>

In the United States, ""social enterprise"" is also distinct from ""social entrepreneurship"", which broadly encompasses such diverse players as [[B Corporation (certification)|B Corp]] companies, socially responsible investors, ""for-benefit"" ventures, Fourth Sector organizations, CSR efforts by major [[corporation]]s, ""[[Social innovation|social innovators]]"" and others. All these types of entities grapple with social needs in a variety of ways, but unless they directly address social needs through their products or services or the numbers of disadvantaged people they employ, they do not qualify as social enterprises.

According to a paper published by De Gruyter in 2019, some common challenges facing social enterprises in the US were - Legal form, governance challenges, difficulties in measuring impact, lack of clear identity, problems in accessing capital, management tensions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abramson|first1=Alan J.|last2=Billings|first2=Kara C.|date=2019-07-01|title=Challenges Facing Social Enterprises in the United States|journal=Nonprofit Policy Forum|language=en|volume=10|issue=2|doi=10.1515/npf-2018-0046|s2cid=188870791|issn=2154-3348|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In US, [https://www.societyprofitsus.com/ Society Profits] offers third-party accreditation to social enterprise businesses.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Impact Buyer|url=https://www.societyprofitsus.com/accreditation|access-date=2021-10-03|website=Society Profits|language=en}}</ref>

=== Canada ===

The Social Enterprise Council of Canada (SECC) of [[Canada]] defines a ""social enterprise"" as ""businesses owned by nonprofit organizations, that is directly involved in the production and/or selling of goods and services for the blended purpose of generating income and achieving social, cultural, and/or environmental aims. Social enterprises are one more tool for non-profits to use to meet their mission to contribute to healthy communities.""<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.secouncil.ca/en |title=Social Enterprise Council of Canada |access-date=11 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527030119/http://secouncil.ca/en/ |archive-date=27 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Canadian social enterprise characteristics vary by region and province in the ways they differentiate social enterprises from other types of businesses, not-for-profits, co-operatives and government agencies:

* Social enterprises may directly address social needs through their products and services, the number of people they employ or the use of their financial surplus. This can distinguish them from ""socially responsible for-profit businesses"", which create positive [[social change]] indirectly through the practice of [[corporate social responsibility]] (e.g., creating and implementing a charitable foundation; paying fair wages to their employees; using environmentally friendly [[raw material]]s; providing volunteers to help with community projects).
* Social enterprises may use earned revenue strategies to pursue a [[double bottom line|double]] or [[triple bottom line]], either alone (as a social economy business, in either the [[Private sector|private]] or the not-for-profit sector) or as a significant part of a not-for-profit corporation's mixed income stream that may include charitable contributions and [[public sector]] assistance. This distinguishes them from some traditional not-for-profit corporations, which may rely in whole or part on charitable and government support.

Significant regional differences in legislation, financing, support agencies and corporate structures can be seen across Canada as a result of different historical development paths in the social economy. Common regional characteristics can be seen in [[British Columbia]], the [[Canadian Prairies|Prairies]], [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]] and [[Atlantic Canada]].

Habitat for Humanity ReStore, Eva's Print Shop and [[ME to WE]] are some well known social enterprises operating in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Reporter|first=IBTimes Staff|date=2019-02-08|title=3 Social Enterprises In Canada Making An Impact|url=https://www.ibtimes.com/3-social-enterprises-canada-making-impact-2761290|access-date=2021-10-03|website=International Business Times}}</ref>

== In Asia ==

=== Middle East ===
There is no separate legal entity for social enterprises in the [[Middle East]]. Most social enterprises register as companies or non-profit organizations. There isn't a proper definition of social enterprises by the governments of the Middle Eastern countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ssir.org/articles/entry/social_entrepreneurship_in_the_middle_east_old_practice_new_concept|title=Social Entrepreneurship in the Middle East: Old Practice, New Concept (SSIR)|website=ssir.org|language=en-us|access-date=2017-07-03}}</ref>

However, social enterprises in the Middle East are active and innovating in a variety of sectors and industries. A majority of the existing social enterprises are engaged in human capital development. Many are nurturing a cadre of leaders with the experiences and skills needed to enhance the region's global competitiveness while also achieving social goals. Trends in the region point to an increasingly important role and potential for such activities and for social entrepreneurship in general. These include the growing interest among youth in achieving social impact and growth in volunteerism among youth.<ref>The ""Social Entrepreneurship in the Middle East"" report: http://www.shababinclusion.org/files/1576_file_MEYI_Social_Entrepreneurship_final.pdf</ref>

According to the [[Schwab Foundation]] there are 35 top social entrepreneurs in the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.schwabfound.org/sf/SocialEntrepreneurs/Profiles/index.htm?sname=0&sorganization=0&sarea=152&ssector=0&stype=0|title=Schwab / Work Economic Forum list of the Middle Easts top social entrepreneurs}}</ref>

=== South Korea ===

==== Legal supports ====
In [[South Korea]], the Social Enterprise Promotion Act was approved in December 2006 and was put into effect in July 2007. It was amended in 2010.<ref>Lee Prof Kwang Taek, [https://www.socioeco.org/bdf_fiche-document-815_en.html Social Enterprise Promotion Act: The Case of South Korea], ''Socioeco.org'', accessed 5 November 2022</ref>

Article 2 defines a social enterprise as ""an organization which is engaged in business activities of producing and selling goods and services while pursuing a social purpose of enhancing the quality of local residents' life by means of providing social services and creating jobs for the disadvantaged, as an enterprise certified according to the requirements prescribed in Article 7"", ""the disadvantaged"" as ""people who have difficulty in purchasing social services necessary to themselves for a market price, the detailed criteria thereof shall be determined by the Presidential Decree"", and ""social services"" as ""service in education, health, social welfare, environment and culture and other service proportionate to this, whose area is prescribed by the Presidential Decree"".

The [[Ministry of Labor (South Korea)|Ministry of Labor]] is obliged to ""establish the Basic Plan for Social Enterprises Support"" every five years (Article 5), and not only enterprises but also cooperatives and non-profits can be recognised as social enterprises, which are eligible for tax reduction and/or financial supports from the Korean / provincial governments or city councils. 680 entities have been recognised as social enterprises as of October 2012. The majority of Korean social enterprises are primarily concerned with job creation.<ref>Park, C., and Wilding, M. (2013). ""Social enterprise policy design: Constructing social enterprise in the UK and Korea"". ''International Journal of Social Welfare'', 22(3): 236-247.</ref> The Korea Social Enterprise Promotion Agency was established to promote social enterprises, which include Happynarae and [[Beautiful Store]].

===China===
Researcher Meng Zhao states that the emergence of social enterprise as a concept could be seen around 2012, although it was not yet a well-known idea among the general public or within the media, and the [[Chinese government]] was still ""trying to understand the new phenomenon"".<ref name=zhao>Zhao, M., [https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=081001096020076067083113006070118086033075065035019070107070101030004095065000086118056100018023015058017100119101001002127014021054035061019009004089092080111114122070009015022122097094022101099065084003112030109101116066102103115087011123007002106098&EXT=pdf The Social Enterprise Emerges in China], ''Stanford Social Innovation Review'', Spring 2012, accessed 12 July 2021</ref>

Zhao identified three forms of social enterprise in China:
*the social enterprise
*the social startup
*the startup for social good.

The terms ""startup"" is used because it carries some of the spirit associated with ""enterprise"" in English, such as innovation, risk taking or ""venture"".<ref name=zhao />

=== Hong Kong ===
There is no separate legal entity for social enterprises in [[Hong Kong]]. They are normally registered as companies or non-profit organisations. The Hong Kong Government defines social enterprises as businesses that achieve specific social objectives, and its profits will be principally reinvested in the business for the social objectives that it pursues, rather than distribution to its shareholders.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sehk.gov.hk/|title=Social Enterprise|website=www.sehk.gov.hk|access-date=2019-09-16}}</ref> In recent years, [[venture philanthropy]] organizations, such as Social Ventures Hong Kong and Social Enterprise Business Centre of the HKCSS, have been set up to invest in viable social enterprises with a significant social impact.

=== India ===
In [[India]], a social enterprise may be a non-profit [[non-governmental organization]] (NGO), often registered as a Society under Indian Societies Registration Act, 1860, a Trust registered under various Indian State Trust Acts or a Section 25 Company registered under Indian Companies Act, 1956. India has around 3 million<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/india-has-31-lakh-ngos-twice-the-number-of-schools-almost-twice-number-of-policemen/ | title=India has 31 lakh NGOs, more than double the number of schools| date=August 2015}}</ref> NGOs, including a number of religious organizations and religious trusts, like Temples, Mosque and Gurudwara associations etc., who are not deemed as social enterprises.

NGOs in India raise funds through some services (often fund raising events and community activities) and occasionally products. Despite this, in India the term ""social enterprise"" is not widely used, instead terms like NGOs and NPOs (non-profit organizations) are used, where these kind of organizations are legally allowed to raise fund for non-business activities. [[Child Rights and You]] and [[Youth United]] are examples of social enterprise, who raise funds through their services, fund-raising activities (organizing events, donations, and grants) or sometimes products, to further their social and environmental goals.

However, there are social businesses with an aim for making profit, although the primary aim is to alleviate poverty through a sustainable [[business model]]. According to Bala Vikasa Social Service Society sister organization of SOPAR-Canada ""Social Enterprise is a hybrid business with a goal of solving social problems, while also generating revenues and profits like any other enterprise. However, when it comes to choosing between profits or social cause, social cause is paramount for social enterprises, while profits are considered only for sustainability.""

In the agriculture sector, [[International Development Enterprises]] has helped pull millions of small farmers out of poverty in India.

Another area of social enterprise in India and the developing world are [[bottom of the pyramid]] (BOP) businesses which were identified and analyzed by [[C. K. Prahalad]] in ""Fortune at the Base of the Pyramid"". This seminal work has been a springboard for a robust area of both innovation and academic research.

=== Malaysia ===
Social Enterprise Alliance Malaysia defines social enterprises as ""organizations created to address social problems that use business models to sustain themselves financially. Social enterprises seek to create not only financial returns but also social returns to their beneficiaries."" Social Enterprise Alliance Malaysia regards social enterprises as businesses with a social focus, distinct from non-profit organisations.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.socialenterprise.my | title= Social Enterprise Alliance Malaysia | publisher= Social Enterprise Alliance – Malaysia Chapter | date= 1 April 2014 | access-date= 2 May 2014 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140607002053/http://socialenterprise.my/ | archive-date= 7 June 2014 | url-status= dead }}</ref> In Malaysia, the government initiated several programs that helped Malaysia become a top location for social enterprises.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Report: Malaysia ranks high as pioneering country for social entrepreneurship |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/business/business-news/2016/09/16/malaysia-ranks-high-as-pioneering-country-for-social-entrepreneurship |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=The Star |language=en}}</ref> Government bodies like [https://www.mymagic.my/ MaGIC] have the mission of strengthening Malaysia's position as an emerging innovation nation. One of MaGIC's key missions is ""nurturing and navigating local startup and social enterprise into successful and sustainable businesses"". One initiative by MaGIC in 2017 is the Impact Driven Enterprise Accreditation (IDEA). MaGIC also launched [https://www.buyforimpact.co/ Buy For Impact] which encourages companies to purchase products or services from SEs.

Buy for Impact gathers like-minded people and organisations to promote conscious buying behaviour among the general public and the private sector. This initiative ""promotes and supports the notion of utilising the general public's purchasing power to generate sustainable positive social or environmental impact through Impact-Driven Enterprises (IDEs)"". On April 23, 2022, Prime Minister Datuk Seri Ismail Sabri Yaakob outlined a new direction for the country on social entrepreneurship development. ""The newly launched Social Entrepreneurship Action Framework 2030 or SEMy2030 provides a new national direction for the development of social entrepreneurship in Malaysia"", remarked the Prime Minister.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-23 |title=PM Ismail Sabri: Newly launched SEMy2030 outlines new direction for social entrepreneurship development in Malaysia |url=https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2022/04/23/pm-ismail-sabri-newly-launched-framework-outlines-new-direction-for-social/2055217 |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=Malay Mail |language=en}}</ref> SEMy2030 will provide a more structured training on the adaptation of technology and digitalisation, widen access to financing and financial support, and provide access to the domestic and international markets.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Impacting Communities as a Social Enterprise in Malaysia |url=https://batikboutique.com/blogs/news/impacting-communities-as-a-social-enterprise-in-malaysia |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=Batik Boutique |language=en-my}}</ref>

=== Philippines ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2013}}
In December 1999, a group was organized called Social Enterprise Network. Its members, based in Metro Manila, include entrepreneurs, executives, and academics who believe in social entrepreneurship (setting up businesses by creating opportunities for the poor). SEN served is a networking opportunity for like-minded individuals to share their interests and pass on their experience to others. One of its projects eventually was adopted by the Foundations for People Development. It is called the Cooperative Marketing Enterprise. CME is devoted solely to providing the need for cooperatives, micro, small, and medium enterprises for the marketing of their products.

From the academe, a course ""Social Entrepreneurship and Management"" was first offered at the [[University of Asia and the Pacific]] School of Management in 2000. This course was developed and taught by Dr. Jose Rene C. Gayo, then Dean of the School of Management. It was offered as an elective for the senior students of the Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurial Management. In March 2001, a seminar on ""Social Enterprises: Creating Wealth for the Poor"" was held at the University of Asia and the Pacific.

A social enterprise in the [[Philippines]] is GKonomics International, Inc., a non-stock, non-profit organization, incorporated in 2009. They are a [[Gawad Kalinga]] partner in social enterprise development. Their mission is building a new generation of producers.

=== Thailand ===
In [[Thailand]] social entrepreneurship is small but growing. [[Thammasat University]] in [[Bangkok]] is the [[Southeast Asia]] partner of the Global Social Venture Competition (GSVC-SEA).<ref>{{cite web|author=GSVC |url=http://www.gsvc-sea.org/ |title=Global Social Venture Competition – South East Asia Regional Round |publisher=Gsvc-sea.org |access-date=21 October 2013}}</ref> Every year new emerging social enterprises present their business model showcasing variety of business models ranging from agriculture, to technology, tourism and education. In 2013 the winners of GSVC-SEA were Wedu (female leadership development and education) and CSA Munching box (agriculture).

A major player in the social entrepreneurship space in Thailand is ChangeFusion, led by the [[Ashoka: Innovators for the Public|Ashoka]] Fellow Sunit Shrestha. A major figure in the space is [[Mechai Viravaidya]],<ref>{{cite web|author=TEDxChange |url=http://www.ted.com/talks/mechai_viravaidya_how_mr_condom_made_thailand_a_better_place.html |title=Mechai Viravaidya: How Mr. Condom made Thailand a better place &#124; Video on |publisher=Ted.com |access-date=21 October 2013}}</ref> founder of the [[Population and Community Development Association]] (PDA).

Members of the Royal Family of Thailand have been involved in social entrepreneurship like with the creation of the brand Doi Tung by the [[Mae Fah Luang Foundation]].

Singha Park Chiangrai is also a social enterprise.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/singha-park-a-social-enterprise-to-help-farmers-in-thailands-north-300205083.html |title=Singha Park, A Social Enterprise to Help Farmers in Thailand's North |website=prnewswire.com |publisher=PR Newswire |date=18 January 2016 |access-date=7 October 2019}} Press release.</ref> With eco-agricultural tourism concept as main idea to attract tourists to the 8500-rai park, 1200 unemployed people became employee generating income for local people and their families. This not only helps prevent drugs problem because of constant salary people earns every month, but the park attracts tourist from around the country to visit and spend money in Chiangrai province as well.

The government of Thailand supports the creation of new social enterprises via the Thai Social Entrepreneurship office (TSEO).<ref>{{cite web |author=สำนักงานสร้างเสริมกิจการเพื่อสังคมแห่งชาติ |url=http://www.tseo.or.th/ |script-title=th:สำนักงานสร้างเสริมกิจการเพื่อสังคมแห่งชาติ |publisher=Tseo.or.th |language=th |access-date=21 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023000547/http://www.tseo.or.th/ |archive-date=23 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== In Europe ==

===EMES===
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2019}}
The best established European research network in the field, EMES, works with a more articulated definition — a [[Max Weber|Weber]]ian '[[ideal type]]' rather than a prescriptive definition — which relies on nine criteria:<ref>Jacques Defourny and Marthe Nyssens (2013) ''L'approche EMES de l'entreprise sociale dans une perspective comparative'', EMES working paper no. 13/02, http://www.emes.net/uploads/media/EMES-WP-13-02-FR.pdf</ref>

'''Economic criteria:'''

* Continuous activity of the ''production'' and/or sale of goods and services (rather than predominantly advisory or grant-giving functions).
* A high level of ''autonomy'': social enterprises are created voluntarily by groups of citizens and are managed by them, and not directly or indirectly by public authorities or private companies, even if they may benefit from grants and donations. Their members have the right to participate ('voice') and to leave the organisation ('exit').
* A significant economic ''risk'': the financial viability of social enterprises depends on the efforts of their members, who have the responsibility of ensuring adequate financial resources, unlike most public institutions.
* Social enterprises' activities require a minimum number of ''paid workers'', although, like traditional non-profit organisations, social enterprises may combine financial and non-financial resources, voluntary and paid work.

'''Social criteria:'''

* An explicit aim of ''community benefit'': one of the principal aims of social enterprises is to serve the community or a specific group of people. To the same end, they also promote a sense of social responsibility at local level.
* ''Citizen initiative'': social enterprises are the result of collective dynamics involving people belonging to a community or to a group that shares a certain need or aim. They must maintain this dimension in one form or another.
* Decision making ''not based on capital ownership'': this generally means the principle of 'one member, one vote', or at least a voting power not based on capital shares. Although capital owners in social enterprises play an important role, decision-making rights are shared with other [[stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]].
* ''Participatory'' character, involving those affected by the activity: the users of social enterprises' services are represented and participate in their structures. In many cases one of the objectives is to strengthen democracy at local level through economic activity.
* ''Limited distribution of profit'': social enterprises include organisations that totally prohibit profit distribution as well as organisations such as co-operatives, which may distribute their profit only to a limited degree, thus avoiding profit maximising behaviour.

Ongoing research work characterises social enterprises as often having multiple objectives, multiple stakeholders and multiple sources of funding. However, their objectives tend to fall into three categories:
* integration of disadvantaged people through work (''work integration social enterprises'' or ''WISE''s)
* provision of social, community and environmental services
* ethical trading such as [[fair trade]]

Despite, and sometimes in contradiction to, such academic work, the term ''social enterprise'' is being picked up and used in different ways in various European countries.

===European Commission===
As part of its Social Business Initiative,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/social_business/index_en.htm |title=Social entrepreneurship - European Commission |access-date=6 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223014159/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/social_business/index_en.htm |archive-date=23 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> which ran from 2011 until 2014, the [[European Commission]] developed the following definition based on three key criteria: social objective, limited profit distribution and participatory governance:<ref>''Communication from the Commission: Social Business Initiative: Creating a favourable climate for social enterprises, key stakeholders in the social economy and innovation'', 25 October 2011 COM(2011) 682 final, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0682:FIN:EN:PDF</ref>

{{Blockquote|A social enterprise is an operator in the social economy whose main objective is to have a social impact rather than make a profit for their owners or shareholders. It operates by providing goods and services for the market in an entrepreneurial and innovative fashion and uses its profits primarily to achieve social objectives. It is managed in an open and responsible manner and, in particular, involve employees, consumers and stakeholders affected by its commercial activities.

The Commission uses the term 'social enterprise' to cover the following types of business:
* those for which the social or societal objective of the common good is the reason for the commercial activity, often in the form of a high level of social innovation,
* those where profits are mainly reinvested with a view to achieving this social objective,
* and where the method of organisation or ownership system reflects their mission, using democratic or participatory principles or focusing on social justice.

Thus:
* businesses providing social services and/or goods and services to vulnerable persons (access to housing, health care, assistance for elderly or disabled persons, inclusion of vulnerable groups, child care, access to employment and training, dependency management, etc.); and/or
* businesses with a method of production of goods or services with a social objective (social and professional integration via access to employment for people disadvantaged in particular by insufficient qualifications or social or professional problems leading to exclusion and marginalisation) but whose activity may be outside the realm of the provision of social goods or services.}}

=== Czech Republic ===
In the Czech Republic a working party stemming from the development partnerships in the [[EQUAL Community Initiative|EQUAL]] programme agreed on the following distinctions (April 2008):

'''Social economy'''
:It is a complex of autonomous private activities realized by different types of organizations that have the aim to serve their members or local community first of all by doing business. The social economy is oriented on solving issues of unemployment, social coherence and local development. It is created and developed on the base of concept of triple bottom line—economic, social and environmental benefits. Social economy enables citizens to get involved actively in the regional development. Making profit/surplus is desirable, however is not a primary goal. Contingent profit is used in preference for development of activities of organization and for the needs of local community. Internal relations in the social enterprises are headed to the maximum involvement of members/employees in decision-making and self-management while external relations strengthen [[social capital]]. Legal form of social economy entities is not decisive—what is crucial is observing public benefit aims as listed in the articles. Subjects of the social economy are social enterprises and organizations supporting their work in the areas of education, consulting and financing.

'''Social entrepreneurship'''
:Social entrepreneurship develops independent business activities and is active on the market in order to solve issues of employment, social coherence and local development. Its activities support solidarity, social inclusion and growth of social capital mainly on local level with the maximum respect of sustainable development.

'''Social enterprise'''
:Social enterprise means ""a subject of social entrepreneurship"", i.e. legal entity or its part or a natural person which fulfils principles of the social enterprise; social enterprise must have appropriate trade license.

:The above mentioned definitions stem from the four basic principles that should be followed by social enterprises. Standards with a commentary were settled for each principle. These standards were settled as the minimum so that they should be observed by all legal entities and all types of social enterprises. Specific types of enterprises, that are undergoing pilot verification within CIP EQUAL projects and that are already functioning in the Czech Republic, are social firms employing seriously disadvantaged target groups, and municipal social cooperatives as a suitable form of entrepreneurship with the view of development of local communities and microregions.

:The legal form a social enterprise takes may not always be seen as important—however, they must be subject of private law. According to the existing legal system, they can function in a form of cooperatives, civic associations, public benefit associations, church legal entities, Ltd., stock companies and sole traders. Budgetary organizations and municipalities should not be social enterprises as they are not autonomous—they are parts of public administration.

:Social entrepreneurship is defined very broadly. Beside employment of the people disadvantaged at the labour market it also includes organizations providing public benefit services in the area of social inclusion and local development including environmental activities, individuals from the disadvantaged groups active in business and also complementary activities of NGOs destined to reinvest profit into the main public benefit activity of an organization. Social entrepreneurship defined in such a wide way should not be directly bound to legal benefits and financial support because the concept of social entrepreneurship might be then threatened by misuse and disintegration. Conditions of eventual legal and financial support should be discussed by experts.

=== Finland ===
In Finland a law was passed in 2004 that defines a ''social enterprise'' (sosiaalinen yritys) as being any sort of enterprise that is entered on the relevant register and at least 30% of whose employees are disabled or long-term unemployed. As of March 2007, 91 such enterprises had been registered, the largest with 50 employees. In the UK the more specific term ""social firm"" is used to distinguish such ""integration enterprises"". This legal definition of a social enterprise (sosiaalinen yritys) made it hard for actual social entrepreneurship to enter the Finnish consciousness and public debate so a new term Yhteiskunnallinen Yrittäjyys (societal entrepreneurship) was dubbed and promoted by the early players in the field. Nowadays the term is recognized, accepted and even promoted by entrepreneurial NGOs, entrepreneurs themselves, co-operatives and government organisations. Finnish Social Enterprise Research Network FinSERN collects and exchanges national and international research data, maintains connections with social enterprise researchers and research networks around the world, and finds financing opportunities for research. There is also a growing interest in impact investment in Finland.

=== Italy ===
Italy passed a law in 2005 on ''[[:it:impresa sociale|imprese sociali]]'', to which the government has given form and definition by Legislative Decree no. 155, dated 24 March 2006. Under Italian law a social enterprise is a private entity that provides social utility goods and services, acting for the common interest and not for profit.

In an effort to develop social enterprises and measure social impact, the Italian governmental work placement agency—Italia Lavoro—has developed a method to calculate the social efficiency of their project, from an economic point of view. For example, they measure the economic value to the society of providing a job to a disabled person. Since 1997, Italia Lavoro provides work placements to people with mental and physical disabilities, health problems or [[socially disadvantaged]]. To this aim, they help people who have fallen through the cracks of the general work system to reintegrate themselves into society through the creation of small and medium non-profit enterprises.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://impresasociale.info/?p=79 |title=IMPRESA SOCIALE: Protocollo d'intesa tra Agenzia per le Onlus e Italia Lavoro |publisher=impresasociale.info |date= 19 March 2008|access-date=16 October 2012}}</ref>

Also intended to generate more social enterprises is the non-profit cooperative ''Make a Change''. ''Make a Change'' provides financial, operational and management support to social start-ups. In 2010, they organized the first edition of a contest to elect the ""Social entrepreneur of the year"", as well as another contest entitled ""The World's Most Beautiful Job"". This year's winner of the former was the social cooperative ""Cauto"", which manages the entire trash life-cycle in the [[Province of Brescia]]. One-third of Cauto's workers are disabled or disadvantaged.

The winner of the ""World's Most Beautiful Job"" prize was the ""Tavern of the Good and Bad"" project by a group called 'Domus de luna' from [[Cagliari]]. The tavern employs mums and children recently graduated from rehabilitation programs. The prize consisted of a grant of €30,000 and 12 months of professional consulting and support. The awards ceremony was included in the program of the [[Global Entrepreneurship Week]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://italianvalley.wired.it/blog/startup_business/make-a-change-per-l-imprenditoria-sociale.html |title=Make a change per l'imprenditoria sociale |publisher=[[Wired Italia]] |author=Abirascid, Emil |date=19 November 2010 |access-date=16 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225003208/http://italianvalley.wired.it/blog/startup_business/make-a-change-per-l-imprenditoria-sociale.html |archive-date=25 December 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Spain ===
{{expand section|date=August 2022}}
*[[Empresa de insercion]]

=== United Kingdom ===

==== Definition ====
In the UK the accepted Government-backed definition of social enterprise used by the UK social enterprise sector bodies such as [[Social Enterprise UK]] and [https://www.socialenterprisemark.org.uk/ Social Enterprise Mark] CIC comes from the 2002 [[Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom)|Department of Trade and Industry]] report 'Social Enterprise: a strategy for success' report as:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seeewiki.co.uk/~wiki/index.php?title=Social_Enterprise:_a_strategy_for_success |title=SEEE Wiki |access-date=18 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330225445/http://www.seeewiki.co.uk/~wiki/index.php?title=Social_Enterprise:_a_strategy_for_success |archive-date=30 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{blockquote|A business with primarily social objectives whose surpluses are principally reinvested for that purpose.}}

The original concept of ''social enterprise'' was first developed by Freer Spreckley in 1978, and later included in a publication called ''Social Audit: A Management Tool for Co-operative Working'' published in 1981 by Beechwood College. In the original publication the term social enterprise was developed to describe an organisation that uses Social Audit. Freer went on to describe a social enterprise as:<ref>{{cite web | author=Freer Spreckley | url=http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf | title=Social Audit &ndash; A Management Tool for Co-operative Working | publisher=Local Livelihoods | year=1981 | access-date=17 March 2017 | archive-date=1 March 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301021617/http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{blockquote|An enterprise that is owned by those who work in it and/or reside in a given locality, is governed by registered social as well as commercial aims and objectives and run cooperatively may be termed a social enterprise. Traditionally, 'capital hires labour' with the overriding emphasis on making a 'profit' over and above any benefit either to the business itself or the workforce. Contrasted to this is the social enterprise where 'labour hires capital' with the emphasis on social, environmental and financial benefit.}}

Later on, the three areas of social, environmental and financial benefits used for measuring social enterprise became known as the [[triple bottom line]]. Freer later revised the Social Audit in a more structured way.<ref>{{cite web | author=Freer Spreckley | url=http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20Toolkit%20-%204th%20Edition%202008.pdf | title=Social Audit Toolkit | publisher=Local Livelihoods | year=1981 | access-date=17 March 2017 | archive-date=5 April 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405014116/http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20Toolkit%20-%204th%20Edition%202008.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>

Twenty years later Spreckley and Cliff Southcombe established the first<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wck2.companieshouse.gov.uk/eaac71f56a94e9edebdd4706d92f857b/companysearch?disp=1&frfsh=1226152950#result |title=Information provided by companies house |publisher=Wck2.companieshouse.gov.uk |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref> specialist support organisation in the UK Social Enterprise Partnership Ltd. in March 1997.

In the British context, ''social enterprises'' include community enterprises, [[credit union]]s, trading arms of [[charities]], [[employee-owned business]]es, [[co-operatives]], [[development trust]]s, [[housing association]]s, [[social firm]]s, and leisure trusts.

Whereas conventional businesses distribute their profit among [[shareholder]]s, in social enterprises the surplus tends to go towards one or more social aims which the business has &ndash; for example education for the poor, vocational training for disabled people, environmental issues or for animal rights, although this may not always be the case.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Schwartz|first1=Rodney|title=Do name and form matter for social enterprise?|url=http://www.thirdsector.co.uk/rodney-schwartz-name-form-matter-society-better-off/social-enterprise/article/1317861|access-date=15 April 2015|publisher=Third Sector Magazine}}</ref>

Social enterprises are often seen as distinct from charities (although charities are also increasingly looking at ways of maximising income from trading)<ref>{{cite news|title=Charity vs social enterprise: What's best for your new business?|url=http://startups.co.uk/charity-vs-social-enterprise-whats-best-for-your-new-business/|website=Startups.co.uk|access-date=15 April 2015|date=2009-03-27}}</ref> and from private sector companies with policies on [[corporate social responsibility]]. An emerging view, however, is that social enterprise is a particular type of trading activity that sometimes gives rise to distinct organisation forms reflecting a commitment to social cause working with stakeholders from more than one sector of the economy.

Three common characteristics of social enterprises as defined by Social Enterprise London are:
*Enterprise orientation: They are directly involved in producing goods or providing services to a market. They seek to be viable trading organisations, with an operating surplus.
*Social aims: They have explicit social aims such as job creation, training or the provision of local services. They have ethical values including a commitment to local capacity building, and they are accountable to their members and the wider community for their social environmental and economic impact.
*Social ownership: They are autonomous organisations with governance and ownership structures based on participation by stakeholder groups (users or clients, local community groups etc.) or by trustees. Profits are distributed as profit sharing to stakeholders or used for the benefit of the community.

==== Some UK social enterprises ====
*[[Belu (company)|Belu Water]]  <ref name=seguide>Social Enterprise UK, [https://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/app/uploads/2022/07/Start-your-social-enterprise-guide-1.pdf Start your Social Enterprise], page 5, accessed 2 September 2023</ref>
* [[The Big Issue]]<ref name=seguide />
* [[Cafédirect]]
* [[Camara (social enterprise)|Camara]]
* [[The Co-operative Group]]
* [[Divine Chocolate]] (Kuapa Kokoo) <ref name=seguide />
* [[Eden Project|The Eden Project]]
* [[Fairfield Materials Management Ltd]]
* [[HCT Group]]
* [[John Lewis Partnership]]
* [[London Symphony Orchestra]]
* [[Skoll Centre for Social Entrepreneurship]]
* [[Technology Trust]]
* [[Two Fingers Brewing Co.]]
* [[Welsh Water]]

==== Scale ====
A survey conducted for the Social Enterprise Unit in 2004 found that there were 15,000 social enterprises in the UK (counting only those that are incorporated as companies limited by guarantee or industrial and provident societies). This is 1.2% of all enterprises in the UK. They employ 450,000 people, of whom two-thirds are full-time, plus a further 300,000 volunteers. Their combined annual turnover is £18 billion, and the median turnover is £285,000. Of this, 84% is from trading. In 2006, the government revised this estimate upwards to 55,000, based on a survey of a sample of owners of businesses with employees, which found that 5% of them define themselves as social enterprises.<ref>Lincoln, A. (2006) Welcome address: DTI presentation to Third Annual UK Social Enterprise Research Conference, London South Bank University (22 June)</ref> The most up to date estimates suggest that there are approximately 68,000 social enterprises in the UK, contributing £24 billion to the UK economy.<ref>{{cite web| last=Gordon Allinson, Paul Braidford, Maxine Houston, Fred Robinson and Ian Stone| title=Business Support For Social Enterprises: Findings from a longitudinal study| url=http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/enterprise/docs/b/12-566-business-support-for-social-enterprises-longitudinal.pdf| publisher=Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS)| access-date=22 March 2013}}</ref>

Using the EU definition of social economy, the annual contribution of social enterprises to the UK economy is four times larger at £98 billion<ref>Mutuo (2009) ''Mutuals Yearbook 2009'', published by Kellogg College, Oxford University.</ref> because it includes the contribution of all co-operatives, mutuals and associations that produce goods or services to improve human well-being.

Every two years, Social Enterprise UK carries out and publishes the findings of the state of social enterprise survey, the largest piece of research looking at the UK's social enterprise sector. The most recent report, ''The People's Business'', details the findings of the 2013 survey.

==== Bodies ====
The first agency in the UK—[[Social Enterprise London]] (SEL)—was established in 1998 following collaboration between bodies supporting co-operative enterprise. SEL did more than provide support to emerging businesses: it created a community of interest by working with the [[London Development Agency]] (LDA) to establish both an undergraduate degree in social enterprise at the [[University of East London]] and a ''Social Enterprise Journal'' (now managed by [[Liverpool John Moores University]]). SEL built a network of over 2,000 social enterprises and social entrepreneurs, directly brokered over 500 social enterprise jobs under the DWP's [[Future Jobs Fund]] and delivers consultancy and business support across the world in countries including [[Vietnam]], [[Korea]] and [[Croatia]].

The national membership and campaigning body for the social enterprise movement in Britain is [[Social Enterprise UK]] (SEUK) (previously the Social Enterprise Coalition),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.socialenterprise.org.uk |title=Social Enterprise UK |publisher=Socialenterprise.org.uk |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref> and this liaises with similar groups in each region of [[England]], as well as in [[Northern Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. SEUK's chief executive, Peter Holbrook, joined in January 2010 from the award-winning social enterprise, Sunlight Development Trust, based in [[Gillingham, Kent]]. Claire Dove is the Chair of SEUK and runs the social enterprise [[Blackburne House]] in [[Liverpool]].

[https://www.socialenterprisemark.org.uk/ Social Enterprise Mark CIC] is the accreditation body responsible for the only internationally available social enterprise accreditation—the Social Enterprise Mark and Social Enterprise Gold Mark. It exists to recognize and promote the capabilities of social enterprises as competitive, sustainable businesses, dedicated to maximizing social impact above shareholder profit. It ensures the social enterprise business model remains ethical, credible and commercial through accreditation. There are over 200 organisations that currently hold Social Enterprise Mark/Gold Mark accreditation. The assessment and accreditation process is overseen by an independent Certification Panel, which ensures that the Social Enterprise Mark/Gold Mark criteria are rigorously applied.

In 2002, the National Council for Voluntary Organisations (NCVO) established the Sustainable Funding Project. Using funds from [[Futurebuilders England]], [[Centrica]] and Charity Bank, this project promoted the concept of sustainability through trading to voluntary groups and charities.<ref>Outcome Monitoring Proposal – Sustainable Funding Project, submitted to NCVO, 20 March 2005. The proposal include a short history of the Sustainable Funding Project.</ref> From 2005 onward, NCVO began using the term social enterprise to refer to voluntary sector trading activities.

In 2002, the British government launched a unified Social Enterprise Strategy,<ref>DTI (2002), ''Strategy for Social Enterprise''. London: HM Treasury.</ref> and established a Social Enterprise Unit (SEnU) to co-ordinate its implementation in England and Wales, primarily to consult on a new type of company to support social enterprise development. After a consultation (see CIC below), policy development was increasingly influenced by organisations in the conventional ""non-profit"" sector rather than those with their origins in employee-ownership and co-operative sectors. The 2003 DTI report on the consultation shows the disproportionate influence of charitable trusts and umbrella organisations in the voluntary sector, and evidence now exists that the voices of progressive employee-owned organisations were marginalised in the course of producing the report.<ref>DTI (2003), ''Enterprise for Communities: Report on the public consultation and the government's intentions'', HM Treasury. The appendices show quotations from contributors.</ref>

The Social Enterprise Unit was initially established within the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), and in 2006 became part of the newly created Office of the Third Sector, under the wing of the [[Cabinet Office]].

Following broad consultation, SEnU adopted a broader definition which is independent of any legal model. This latitudinarian definition could include not only [[company limited by guarantee|companies limited by guarantee]] and [[industrial and provident society|industrial and provident societies]] but also companies limited by shares, unincorporated associations, partnerships and sole traders.

In April 2012, Prime Minister [[David Cameron]] launched [[Big Society Capital]], the world's first social investment wholesaler. Capitalized with a total of £600 million, it will distribute funds to intermediaries that will lend money to social enterprises, charities and community groups.

===== Scotland =====
In [[Scotland]], social enterprise is a devolved function and is part of the remit of the [[Scottish Government]].<ref>[http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2007/03/30151647 ""Social Enterprise in Scotland""], Retrieved 30 June 2007.</ref> Activities are coordinated by the Scottish Social Enterprise Coalition, and intellectual leadership is provided by the Social Enterprise Institute at [[Heriot-Watt University]] (Edinburgh), established under the directorship of Declan Jones. Senscot, based in [[Edinburgh]], supports social entrepreneurs through a variety of activities, including a weekly email bulletin by co-founder Lawrence Demarco.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.senscot.net/staff.php |title=Senscot |publisher=Senscot |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref> The Social Enterprise Academy ""deliver leadership, enterprise, and social impact programmes"" throughout Scotland,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theacademy-ssea.org/ |title=Social Enterprise Academy |publisher=Theacademy-ssea.org |access-date=24 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612033842/http://www.theacademy-ssea.org/ |archive-date=12 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and further support is provided by [[Development trust|Development Trusts Association Scotland]] and Co-operative Development Scotland.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.dtascot.org.uk/ |title=DTAS |publisher=Dtascot.org.uk |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.cdscotland.co.uk/ |title=CDS |publisher=Cdscotland.co.uk |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref>

==== Community Interest Companies ====
{{main|Community Interest Company}}
The UK has also developed a new legal form called the [[community interest company]] (CIC). CICs are a new type of limited company designed specifically for those wishing to operate for the benefit of the community rather than for the benefit of the owners of the company. This means that a CIC cannot be formed or used solely for the personal gain of a particular person, or group of people. Legislation caps the level of dividends payable at 35% of profits and returns to individuals are capped at 4% above the bank base rate.

CICs can be limited by shares, or by guarantee, and will have a statutory ""[[asset lock]]"" to prevent the assets and profits being distributed, except as permitted by legislation. This ensures the assets and profits are retained within the CIC for community purposes, or transferred to another asset-locked organisation, such as another CIC or charity. A CIC cannot be formed to support political activities and a company that is a charity cannot be a CIC, unless it gives up its charitable status. However, a charity may apply to register a CIC as a subsidiary company.

==== Social firms ====
Another type of social enterprise category in the UK is a [[social firm]], a business set up specifically to create employment for people otherwise severely disadvantaged in the labour market.<ref>{{cite web|title=Social Firms UK|url=http://www.socialfirmsuk.co.uk/|website=Social Firms|access-date=15 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416234000/http://www.socialfirmsuk.co.uk/|archive-date=16 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== In Africa ==

=== Kenya ===
In [[Kenya]], many NGOs use business models to improve the lives of people, mainly in rural Kenya. An example of this is [[KOMAZA]], a social enterprise that plants trees with [[smallholding|smallholder]] farmers and uses economies of scale to enable them to access high value markets for processed trees. Another example of this is RISE Kenya that runs projects to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]] in the semiarid [[Eastern Province (Kenya)|Eastern Province]] of Kenya. They also run [[weaving]] projects whereby women who would traditionally engage in weaving make products that are marketed in the capital city [[Nairobi]] and in overseas markets of Europe and America.

Other development-oriented social enterprises in Kenya include the One Acre Fund, Nuru International and [[Alive & Kicking (social enterprise)|Alive & Kicking]], which has produced over 200,000 sports balls from its stitching centre in Nairobi.<ref>{{cite web | title=Alive & Kicking Kenya | url=http://www.aliveandkicking.org.uk/what-we-do/where-we-work/kenya/ | access-date=9 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214111949/http://www.aliveandkicking.org.uk/what-we-do/where-we-work/kenya/ | archive-date=14 February 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Kenya's social enterprises include M-Pesa, which facilitated economic transactions via mobile phone.

Social enterprise in Kenya has grown to include spaces with IT infrastructure such as internet connectivity and computer hardware. Two of these, the iHub and NaiLab, are centers for technological enterprise, with ventures such as Tandaa in cooperation with the ICT Board of Kenya and Akirachix.<ref>{{cite news|title=Social Enterprise in Kenya|url=https://www.theguardian.com/social-enterprise-network/gallery/2014/jan/10/social-enterprises-innovation-urban-kenya|access-date=17 April 2015|work=The Guardian|date=10 January 2014}}</ref>

=== Zambia ===
As in much of Africa, social enterprises in [[Zambia]] are often focused on the creation of sustainable employment. [[Alive & Kicking (social enterprise)|Alive & Kicking]] established a stitching centre in [[Lusaka]] in 2007, which employs 50 stitchers and produces 2,000 sports balls a month.<ref>{{cite web| title=Alive & Kicking Zambia| url=http://www.aliveandkicking.org.uk/what-we-do/where-we-work/zambia/| access-date=9 February 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725202609/http://www.aliveandkicking.org.uk/what-we-do/where-we-work/zambia/| archive-date=25 July 2012| url-status=dead}}</ref> Zambikes produces a range of bicycles from their Lusaka factory, including 'Zambulances' and ones made from [[bamboo]], and provide three levels of mechanic training.<ref>{{cite web| title=Zambikes| url=http://www.new.zambikes.org/| access-date=9 February 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208085813/http://www.new.zambikes.org/| archive-date=8 February 2012| url-status=dead}}</ref>

== In Latin America ==

=== Chile ===

Chile is promoting social inclusion and further development of the private sector through Social Enterprises. Support to social enterprises has been included as part of the Productivity, Innovation and Growth Agenda, which has 47 measures, 10 bills and 37 administrative initiatives with an investment of US$1,500 million between 2014 and 2018.

Social enterprises in Chile adopt various forms like cooperatives, associations, private limited companies or corporations. The Ministry of Economy is developing a law project to create a new legal form through which they will establish the rights and duties for social enterprises.<ref>Ministerio de Economía, Fomento y Turismo. ""42. Creación de marco jurídico de Empresa B."" Accessed on 30 September 2016. http://www.agendaproductividad.cl/ejes/mejores-mercados/creacion-de-marco-juridico-de-empresas-b/</ref>

The Government has launched several initiatives to support social enterprises. For example, the Chilean Economic Development Agency [[CORFO]] has implemented programs like the Social Innovation Program and the Seed Subsidy for Flexible Asignation to Support Social Innovation Start-up Program. Through these programs they have provided access to seed capital to social entrepreneurs and financial support to incubators supporting social entrepreneurs. Additionally, the Ministry of Social Development also promoted matching grant funds like Mas por Chile<ref>Ministerio de Desarrollo Social (2013). Bases Administrativas y Técnicas del Concurso Fondo de Iniciativas para la Superación de la Pobreza. Accessed on 30 September 2016 http://sociedadcivil.ministeriodesarrollosocial.gob.cl/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/RESOL-317-BASES-SUP-DE-LA-POBREZA.pdf</ref> (More for Chile) and Incubia Fund in order to support the development of solutions aiming to reduce poverty and strengthen youth.

== See also ==
*[[Bottom of the pyramid]]
*[[Citizen enterprise]]
*[[Corporate social entrepreneurship]]
*[[Impact investing]]
*[[List of social enterprises]]
*[[Micro-enterprise]]
*[[MicroConsignment]]
*[[Mutualism (economic theory)]]
*[[Public/social/private partnership]]
*[[Social venture capital]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}<ref name="":2"" />

==Sources==
*Aiken, M. (2010) ""Taking the Long View: Conceptualizing the challenges facing UK third sector organisations in the social and welfare field"", in Evers, A. and Zimmer, A. (eds) ''Turbulent environments: The impact of commercialization on organisational legitimacy and the quality of services''. Baden-Baden: Nomos Publishing.
*Billis, D. (2010). ''Hybrid Organizations in the Third Sector''. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
*Borzaga, C. and Defourny, J. (2001). ''The Emergence of Social Enterprise''. London: Routledge.
*Dees, J. G., & Anderson, B. B. (2006). Framing A Theory of Social Entrepreneurship: Building On Two Schools Of Practice And Thought. 40–66.
*Gergen, Christopher, Gregg Vanourek (2008), ''Life Entrepreneurs: Ordinary People Creating Extraordinary Lives''
*Kevin Lynch, Julius Walls, (2009) ''Mission, Inc.: The Practitioner's Guide to Social Enterprise''
*Nyssens, M. ed. (2006). ''Social Enterprises in Europe: Between Market, Public Policies and Communities''. London: Routledge.
*Pearce, J. (1993). ''At the Heart of the Community Economy''. London: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation.
*Prahalad, CK (2009) ''Fortune at the Base of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty Through Profits''
*Spear, R. (2001). ""United Kingdom: Labour Market Integration and Employment Creation"", in ''Tackling Social Exclusion in Europe'', eds. Spear, R., Defourney, J., Favreau, L. & Laville, J-L. Aldershot: Ashgate.
*Spreckley, Freer (2011) ''Social Enterprise Planning Toolkit''<ref>https://locallivelihoods.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Social-Enterprise-Planning-Toolkit.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=October 2022}}</ref>
*Woodin, T., Crook, D., and Carpentier, V. (2010). ''Community and Mutual Ownership: A historical review''. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
*Wyler, S. (2009). ''A History of Community Asset Ownership''. London: Development Trusts Association.

{{Social accountability}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Social Enterprise}}
[[Category:Social enterprises| ]]
[[Category:Business models]]
[[Category:Types of business entity]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Ashoka Fellows]]
[[Category:Social entrepreneurship]]
[[Category:Social economy]]"
Inclusive business model,"{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{notability|date=September 2014}}
{{short description|Type of business model}}
An '''inclusive business model''' is a type of [[business model]] that seeks to create value for low-income communities by integrating them into a company's [[value chain]] on the [[demand (economics)|demand side]] as clients and consumers, and/or on the [[supply side]] as producers, entrepreneurs or employees in a sustainable way.<ref>{{cite book|last=UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)|title=Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor|year=2008|publisher=UNDP|location=New York|url=http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/library/poverty/creating-value-for-all---strategies-for-doing-business-with-the-.html/|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=11 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711014012/http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/library/poverty/creating-value-for-all---strategies-for-doing-business-with-the-.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> 

The businesses that design and use these business models can range from multinational corporations to large domestic companies, [[co-operatives]], [[small and medium-sized enterprises]], or even not-for-profit organizations that use business principles—or [[social business]] approaches—to achieve their mission.<ref>{{cite book|last=UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)|title=The MDGs: Everyone's Business|year=2010|publisher=UNDP|location=New York|url=http://www.growinginclusivemarkets.org/mdgreport/}}</ref>

Since social value creation is integral to how inclusive business models intend to capture value, they differ from corporate philanthropy or [[corporate social responsibility]]. Businesses adopting inclusive business models can become inclusive businesses when they succeed in creating intended value and avoiding value destruction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schoneveld |first1=George C. |title=Sustainable business models for inclusive growth: Towards a conceptual foundation of inclusive business |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=December 2020 |volume=277 |pages=124062 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124062 |doi-access=free |url=https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/ASchoneveld2001.pdf }}</ref>

== Criteria ==
Inclusive business models can be developed and implemented by a wide range of entities, from private corporations (large and small), to state-owned companies, [[co-operatives]], or even not-for-profit organizations, as long as the following criteria are met:
	
* '''''[[Human development (humanity)|Human development]] impact''''': an inclusive business model contributes to human development by increasing poor people's incomes, improving their access to basic goods and services such as education, health, housing, water and sanitation, contributing to the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and reaching excluded and disadvantaged groups (e.g. women, youth, disabled, [[ethnic minorities]]).
* '''''[[Self-sustainability]]''''': an inclusive business model can receive start-up funding from different sources (including grants) but it must be designed to break-even and become self-sustainable over time (profits can be re-invested into the business or distributed to shareholders).
* '''''[[Environmental impact]]''''': at a minimum, an inclusive business model does not have major negative environmental impacts and, at best, contributes directly to [[environmental sustainability]] (e.g. by saving resources, reducing [[carbon emissions]], conserving [[biodiversity]], etc.).

== Benefits for business ==
* '''''Generating profits'''''. Business with the poor can sometimes yield higher rates of return than ventures in developed markets. Some microfinance institutions for instance have demonstrated their ability to reap significant profits.
* '''''Developing new markets'''''. The 4&nbsp;billion people living on less than $8 a day worldwide have a combined income of about $5&nbsp;trillion.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Development Indicators Database 2007|url=http://data.worldbank.org/products/data-books/WDI-2007|publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> They are willing and able to pay for essential goods and services (such as water, energy and healthcare), but too often they suffer from a ‘[[poverty penalty]]’ and end up paying more than rich consumers. Business models that offer better value for money—or entirely new products and services to improve the lives of the poor—can reap pioneer profits in return.
* '''''Driving innovation'''''. The challenge of developing inclusive business models can lead to [[innovations]] that contribute to a company's [[Competition (companies)|competitiveness]]. For example, to meet the poor's preferences and needs, firms must offer new combinations of price and performance. And the pervasive constraints that businesses encounter when doing business with the poor require creative responses. These forces drive the development of new products, services and [[business models]] that can catch on in other markets, giving innovative companies a [[competitive advantage]] in poor markets.
* '''''Expanding the labour pool'''''. The poor are a large source of labour. The advantages of hiring them as employees go beyond cost savings. With adequate training and well-targeted marketing, the poor can deliver high-quality products and services. Or their local knowledge and connections may place them well to serve other poor consumers in their communities.
* '''''Strengthening value chains'''''. For firms that procure locally, incorporating the poor in business value chains—as producers, suppliers, distributors, retailers and [[franchisees]]—can expand supply and lower risk. That allows them to reduce costs and increase flexibility, especially as the local businesses move into more specialized or higher-skill activities such as component production and business services.

== Benefits for the poor ==
Businesses can improve the lives of poor people, contributing broadly to what [[the United Nations]] terms ‘human development’—expanding people's opportunities to lead lives they value.
 
* '''''Creating jobs and Increasing incomes''''', by including poor people in value chains as customers, employees, [[Outline of industrial organization|producers]] and small-business owners.
* '''Meeting basic needs'''', such as food, clean water, sanitation, electricity and health-related services all meet people's basic needs. 
* '''''Increasing productivity''''', through access to products and services—from electricity to [[mobile telephony]], from [[agricultural equipment]] to credit and insurance.
* '''''Empowering the poor'''''. All these contributions support the empowerment of poor people, individually and communally, to gain more control over their lives. By raising awareness, by providing information and training, by including [[marginalized groups]], by offering new opportunities and by conferring hope and pride, inclusive business models can give people confidence and new sources of strength to escape poverty using their own means.

As such, inclusive business models can make a significant contribution towards meeting the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs).<ref>{{cite book|year=2010|publisher=UNDP}}</ref>

== Constraints ==
Despite opportunities, many businesses are not taking advantage of them because market conditions surrounding the poor can make doing business difficult, risky and expensive. Where poverty prevails, the foundations for functional markets are often lacking, excluding the poor from meaningful participation and deterring companies from doing business with them.
 
The United Nations Development Programme, in a report titled ""Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor” (2008), identifies five major market constraints and successful strategies to overcome them:

* '''''Limited market information'''''. Businesses know too little about the poor—what poor consumers prefer, what they can afford and what products and capabilities they have to offer as employees, producers and business owners.
* '''''Ineffective regulatory environments'''''. The markets of the poor lack regulatory frameworks that allow business to work. Rules and contracts are not enforced. People and enterprises lack access to the opportunities and protections afforded by a functioning legal system.
* '''''Inadequate [[physical infrastructure]]'''''. Transportation is constrained by the lack of roads and supporting infrastructure. Water, electricity, sanitation and telecommunications networks are lacking.
* '''''Missing knowledge and skills'''''. Poor consumers may not know the use and benefits of particular products, or may lack the skills to use them effectively. Poor suppliers, distributors and retailers may lack the knowledge and skills to deliver quality products and services consistently, on time and at a set cost.
* '''''Restricted access to [[financial products]] and [[financial services]]'''''. Lacking credit, poor producers and consumers cannot finance investments or large purchases. Lacking insurance, they cannot protect their meagre assets and income against shocks such as illness, drought or theft. And in the absence of transactional banking services, their financing is insecure and expensive.

== Success factors ==
Despite these challenges, a growing number of businesses are operating successfully in poor markets. To do so, they use five core strategies:<ref>{{cite book|year=2008|publisher=UNDP}}</ref>

* '''''Adapt products and processes'''''. [[Information and communications technologies]] have created the possibility for many such [[adaptations]], including [[mobile banking]] (m-banking), [[smart cards]] (for instance, to buy water) and [[telemedicine]]. M-banking has freed banking processes from relying on [[brick-and-mortar]] branches and [[automated teller machines]], infrastructure that rarely exists where poor people live. Customers can now wire money, receive [[remittances]], pay for purchases and service their credit, all through their mobile phones. But businesses are also using other technologies, such as for [[water purification]] and [[off-grid]] [[electricity production]]. In addition, some innovative technological approaches are reducing the use of resources—tying the goal of [[human development (humanity)|human development]] to that of [[environmental sustainability]].

Restructuring [[business processes]] can be as important as using new technologies. For example, the global spread of telephony is driven by [[wireless technology]]. But bringing mobile telephone service to poor people has depended partly on a change in the [[business process]]—the move to selling [[Air time (mobile phone)|air time]] on [[Stored-value card|prepaid cards]]. With ‘smart’ payment and [[pricing methods]], an inclusive business model can accommodate the [[cash flow]] of its customers and suppliers, who are constrained by low and unreliable incomes and a lack of access to [[financial services]].

* '''''Invest to remove market constraints'''''. Investing to remove constraints is cost-effective for business when it creates—or can be made to create—private value that is tangible and capturable, ensuring sufficient benefits to the company. Investing to remove market constraints can create public as well as private value. For example, when a firm educates and trains its employees it creates a more skilled workforce—a shared resource as workers move on to other jobs and companies. This added social value opens up doors for cost-sharing with socially minded funding sources, such as international donors, individual philanthropists, nonprofit social investment funds and governments.
* '''''Leverage the strengths of the poor'''''. The poor are often an inclusive business model's most important partners. By engaging the poor as [[intermediaries]] and building on their [[social networks]], a company can increase access, trust and [[accountability]]. Those qualities in turn help businesses to nurture their markets and expand participation in their value chains. One model for engaging the poor into one's sales operations is [[microfranchising]]. Firms can leverage local knowledge and trust by employing the poor to gather market information, to deliver, collect and service products and to train others. Furthermore, poor people often have the best ideas for creating new products and services that meet other poor consumers’ needs. Generally, when the poor take over some tasks in a [[business model]], the [[transaction costs]] for the business fall—while the poor benefit from rising income, knowledge and skills and social standing.
* '''''Combine resources and capabilities with others'''''. Like many business models, inclusive business models often succeed by engaging other businesses in mutually beneficial partnerships and collaborations. They also make use of collaborations with nontraditional partners, such as [[nongovernmental organizations]] and [[public service]] providers. Through such collaborations, businesses can gain access to complementary capabilities and pool resources to work around or remove constraints in the [[market environment]].
* '''''Engage in policy dialogue with governments'''''. Engaging in policy dialogue is an important part of doing business with the poor, where companies are typically first movers and much of the environment for doing business has yet to be built. All market constraints previously mentioned are more or less in the domain of public policy. Policymaking is complex and continual, and businesses can provide good information about the problems and their possible solutions.  Sometimes the individual efforts of entrepreneurs and companies to engage with governments can have large implications, such as changing [[market structures]] or even opening new markets.

Businesses can also rely on demonstration effects or engage collectively to inform public policy and promote effective regulations in developing countries. Since business engagement in policymaking can be controversial, companies and policymakers need a space to engage in frank yet transparent dialogue about how to improve the business environment. Collaborative efforts can open such a space. Companies operating in the same industry or region often share policy interests. And if they are doing business in ways that contribute to economic opportunity and [[human development (humanity)|human development]], organizations outside the private sector may have complementary policy interests. Where [[business models]] are inclusive, collective action can give businesses a strong and legitimate voice in policymaking.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Hart, S. 2007. Capitalism at the Crossroads: Aligning Business, Earth, and Humanity. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Wharton School Publishing.
* Jenkins, B. 2007. Expanding Economic Opportunity: The Role of Large Firms. Corporate Social Responsibility Initiative Report 17, Economic Opportunity Series. Cambridge, Mass.: Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
* Kandachar, P., and M. Halme, ed., 2008. Sustainability Challenges and Solutions at the Base of the Pyramid: Business, Technology and the Poor. Sheffield: Greenleaf.
* Karnani, A. 2006. “Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: A Mirage.” Ross School of Business Working Paper 1035. Stephen M. Ross School of Business at the University of Michigan, September.
* Karamchandani, A., M. Kubzansky, and P. Frandano. 2009. Emerging Markets, Emerging Models: Market-Based Solutions to the Challenges of Global Poverty. Mumbai: Monitor Group.
* London. T. 2007. “A Base-of-the-Pyramid Perspective on Poverty Alleviation.” Growing Inclusive Markets Initiative background paper. United Nations Development Programme, New York, July.
* Prahalad, C.K. 2004. The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty Through Profits. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Wharton School Publishing.
* Rangan, V.K., J.A. Quelch, G. Herrero, and B. Barton, eds. 2007. Business Solutions for the Global Poor: Creating Social and Economic Value. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
* Seelos, C., and J. Mair. 2007. “Profitable Business Models and Market Creation in the Context of Deep Poverty: A Strategic View.” Academy of Management Perspectives 21 (4): 49–63.
* WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable Development). 2004. Doing Business with the Poor: A Field Guide—Learning Journeys of Leading Companies on the Road to Sustainable Livelihoods Business. Geneva: WBCSD.
* WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable Development). 2007. Doing Business with the World: The New Role of Corporate Leadership in Global Development. Geneva: WBCSD.
* WEF (World Economic Forum). 2009. The Next Billions: Unleashing Business Potential in Untapped Markets. Geneva: WEF.
* WRI and IFC (World Resources Institute and International Finance Corporation). 2007. The Next 4 Billion: Market Size and Business Strategy at the Base of the Pyramid. Washington, DC: WRI and IFC.
* Yunus, M. 2007. Creating a World Without Poverty: Social Business and the Future of Capitalism. New York: PublicAffairs, 2008.

== External links ==
* [http://www.businessfightspoverty.org/ Business Fights Poverty]
* [http://www.growinginclusivemarkets.org/ Growing Inclusive Markets Initiative]
* [http://www.nextbillion.net/ NextBillion]
* [http://www.inclusivebusiness.org/ WBCSD]
* Video on ""[http://www.businessfightspoverty.org/video/2014886:Video:8553 Inclusive Business – profitable business for successful development]"" 
* [https://archive.today/20130416032053/http://www.wbcsd.org/pages/edocument/edocumentdetails.aspx?id=202 Promoting Small and Medium Enterprises for Sustainable Development – published by WBCSD in collaboration with SNV] 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120629094014/http://www.bop-protocol.org/ The BoP Protocol]
* [http://www.endeva.org Endeva] – research on inclusive business in various sectors
* [http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/ivc/inclusive-business-models/en/ FAO] – The Food and Agriculture Organization's work on inclusive business models

[[Category:Business models]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Sustainable business,"{{Short description|Minimal negative or positive effect on the environment}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Multiple issues|
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A '''sustainable business''', or a green business, is an enterprise that has a minimal negative impact or potentially a positive effect on the global or local [[Natural environment|environment]], [[community]], society, or economy—a [[business]] that strives to meet the [[triple bottom line]]. They cluster under different groupings and the whole is sometimes referred to as ""[[green capitalism]].""<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/24/b-corps-captalism-for-an-environmentally-endangered-age|title=Good company: the capitalists putting purpose ahead of profit|date=November 24, 2019|website=the Guardian}}</ref> Often, sustainable businesses have progressive environmental and [[human rights]] policies. In general, a [[business]] is described as green if it matches the following four criteria:<ref name = Ecopreneur>Cooney, S. (2009) ""Build A Green Small Business. Profitable ways to become an ecopreneur.""</ref>
# It incorporates principles of sustainability into each of its [[business]] decisions.
# It supplies [[environmentally friendly]] products or services that replace demand for nongreen products and/or services.
# It is greener than traditional competition.
# It has made an enduring commitment to environmental principles in its business operations.

==Terminology==
A sustainable business is any chicken that participates in [[environmentally friendly]] or green activities to ensure that all processes, products, and manufacturing activities adequately address current environmental concerns while maintaining a profit. In other words, it is a business that “meets the needs of the present [world] without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”<ref name=Brundtland>United Nations General Assembly (1987) [http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm ''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803155522/http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm |date=2009-08-03 }}. Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 - Development and International Co-operation: Environment. Retrieved on: 2009-02-15.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Anderson | first1 = D. R. | year = 2006 | title = The critical importance of sustainability risk management | journal = Risk Management | volume = 53 | issue = 4 }}</ref> It is the process of assessing how to design products that will take advantage of the current environmental situation and how well a company’s products perform with [[renewable resources]].<ref name = Growing>{{cite journal | last1 = Rennie | first1 = E | year = 2008 | title = Growing Green, Boosting the bottom line with sustainable business practices | journal = APICS Magazine | volume = 18 | issue = 2 }}</ref>

The [[Brundtland Report]] emphasized that sustainability is a three-legged stool of people, planet, and profit.<ref name = Brundtland/> Sustainable businesses with the supply chain try to balance all three through the triple-bottom-line concept—using sustainable development and [[sustainable distribution]] to affect the environment, business growth, and [[society]].<ref>Galvao, A. (2008) [http://techtv.mit.edu/videos/107 ""The Next Ten Years: Energy and Environment.""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426123506/http://techtv.mit.edu/videos/107 |date=2011-04-26 }} Crossroads 2008 presentation, MIT TechTV beta, 55 min., 51 sec.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Galvao | first1 = A | title = Mind Your Own Business, Why sustainable operations must be everyone's chief concern | journal = APICS Magazine | volume = 18 | issue = 5 }}</ref>

Everyone affects the [[sustainability]] of the marketplace and the planet in some way. Sustainable development within a business can create value for customers, investors, and the environment. A sustainable business must meet customer needs while, at the same time, treating the environment well.<ref name = Painting>{{cite journal | last1 = Rennie | first1 = E | year = 2008 | title = Painting a Green Story | journal = APICS Extra | volume = 3 | issue = 2 }}</ref> 

To succeed in such an approach, where stakeholder balancing and joint solutions are key, requires a structural approach. One philosophy, that includes many different tools and methods, is the concept of Sustainable Enterprise Excellence.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Edgeman|first1=Rick|last2=Eskildsen|first2=Jacob|title=Modeling and Assessing Sustainable Enterprise Excellence|journal=Business Strategy and the Environment|date=2013|volume=23|issue=3|page=173|doi=10.1002/bse.1779}}</ref> Another is the adoption of the concept of responsible growth.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dwyer | first1 = Pat | year = 2018 | title = Journey to responsible growth | url = https://thepurposebusiness.com/journey-to-responsible-growth/ | journal = The Purpose Business Insights}}</ref>

Sustainability is often confused with [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR), though the two are not the same. Bansal and DesJardine (2014) state that the notion of ‘time’ discriminates sustainability from CSR and other similar concepts.  Whereas ethics, morality, and norms permeate CSR, sustainability only obliges businesses to make intertemporal trade-offs to safeguard [[intergenerational equity]]. 

Short-termism is the bane of sustainability.<ref>Bansal, Pratima, and Mark R. DesJardine. ""Business sustainability: It is about time."" Strategic Organization 12.1 (2014): 70-78.</ref> While CSR and sustainability are not the same, they are related to each other. Determining salaries, implementing new technology, and retiring old plants all have an impact on the firm's stakeholders and the natural environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Montiel|first=Ivan|date=2008|title=Corporate Social Responsibility and Corporate Sustainability: Separate Pasts, Common Futures|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/26162314|journal=Organization & Environment|volume=21|issue=3|pages=245–269|doi=10.1177/1086026608321329|jstor=26162314|s2cid=154742051|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

Green business has been seen as a possible mediator of economic-environmental relations, and if proliferated, would serve to diversify our economy, even if it has a negligible effect on lowering atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels. The definition of ""green jobs"" is ambiguous, but it is generally agreed that these jobs, the result of green business, should be linked to ""[[clean energy]]"" and contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gases. These corporations can be seen as generators of not only ""green energy"", but as producers of new ""materializes"" that are the product of the technologies, these firms developed and deployed.<ref>Caprotti, Federico. “Environment, Business and the Firm”. Geography Compass, 6. (2012):                       
	163-174. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2012.00478.x
</ref>

==Environmental sphere==
A major initiative of sustainable businesses is to eliminate or decrease the environmental harm caused by the production and consumption of their goods.<ref>Becker, T. (2008). ""The Business behind Green, Eliminating fear, uncertainty, and doubt."" ''APICS magazine. vol. 18, no. 2.</ref> The impact of such human activities in terms of the number of greenhouse gases produced can be measured in units of carbon dioxide and is referred to as the ''carbon footprint''. The carbon footprint concept is derived from the ecological footprint analysis, which examines the ecological capacity required to support the consumption of products.<ref>Hawken, P., A. Lovins, and L. Hunter Lovins. (1999). ''Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution.'' Little, Brown.</ref>

Businesses take a wide range of green initiatives. One of the most common examples is the act of ""going paperless"" or sending electronic correspondence in instead of paper when possible.<ref name = Painting/> On a higher level, examples of sustainable business practices include: ''refurbishing used products'' (e.g., tuning up lightly used commercial fitness equipment for resale); ''revising production processes'' to eliminate waste (such as using a more accurate template to cut out designs), and choosing nontoxic raw materials and processes. For example, Canadian farmers have found that hemp is a sustainable alternative to rapeseed in their traditional [[crop rotation]]; hemp grown for fiber or seed requires no pesticides or herbicides. Another example is [[upcycling]] clothes or textiles, in which businesses can upcycle products to maintain or increase their quality.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Pandit |first1=Pintu |title=5 - Upcycled and low-cost sustainable business for value-added textiles and fashion |date=2019-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081026304000054 |work=Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel |pages=95–122 |editor-last=Muthu |editor-first=Subramanian Senthilkannan |series=The Textile Institute Book Series |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |language=en |isbn=978-0-08-102630-4 |access-date=2022-10-24 |last2=Nadathur |first2=Gayatri T. |last3=Jose |first3=Seiko}}</ref>

Sustainable business leaders also take into account the ''life cycle costs'' for the items they produce. Input costs must be considered regarding regulations, [[energy use]], storage, and disposal.<ref name = Generating>{{cite journal | last1 = Penfield | first1 = P | year = 2008 | title = Generating for the Environment, Drive down costs while helping Mother Nature | journal = APICS Magazine | volume = 18 | issue = 6 }}</ref> ''Designing for the environment'' [[Design for the Environment|DFE]] is also an element of sustainable business. This process enables users to consider the potential environmental impacts of a product and the process used to make that product.<ref name = Generating/>

The many possibilities for adopting green practices have led to considerable pressure being put upon companies from consumers, employees, government regulators, and other stakeholders.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/677842 |title=Creating the Responsible Consumer: Moralistic Governance Regimes and Consumer Subjectivity |year=2014|author-link1=Markus Giesler|author-link2= Ela Veresiu |last1=Giesler |first1=Markus|last2=Veresiu |first2=Ela |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=41 |issue=October |pages=849–867|s2cid=145622639 }}</ref> Some companies have resorted to [[greenwashing]] instead of making meaningful changes, merely marketing their products in ways that suggest green practices. For example, various producers in the bamboo fiber industry have been taken to court for advertising their products as ""greener"" than they are.<ref>{{cite web|title=FTC Charges Companies with 'Bamboo-zling' Consumers with False Product Claims|url=http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2009/08/ftc-charges-companies-bamboo-zling-consumers-false-product-claims|website=Federal Trade Commission|date=August 11, 2009|access-date=23 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222141223/http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2009/08/ftc-charges-companies-bamboo-zling-consumers-false-product-claims|archive-date=22 December 2014}}</ref> Still, countless other companies have taken the sustainability trend seriously and are enjoying profits. In their book “Corporate Sustainability in International Comparison”, Schaltegger et al. (2014) analyzes the current state of corporate sustainability management and corporate social responsibility across eleven countries. Their research is based on an extensive survey focusing on the companies’ intention to pursue sustainability management (i.e. motivation; issues), the integration of sustainability in the organization (i.e. connecting sustainability to the core business; involving corporate functions; using drivers of business cases for sustainability) and the actual implementation of sustainability management measures (i.e. stakeholder management; sustainability management tools and standards; measurements).<ref>Schaltegger, S.; Windolph, Harms, D. & Hörisch, J. (Eds.) (2014): Corporate Sustainability in International Comparison: State of Practice, Opportunities and Challenges. Cham: Springer International Publishing</ref> The ''Gort Cloud'' written by Richard Seireeni, (2009), documents the experiences of sustainable businesses in America and their reliance on the vast but invisible green community, referred to as the [[Gort cloud]], for support and a market.

Green investment firms are consequently attracting unprecedented interest. In the UK, for instance, the [[Green Investment Bank]] is devoted exclusively to supporting renewable domestic energy. However, the UK and Europe as a whole are falling behind the impressive pace set by developing nations in terms of green development.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/jul/07/europe-green-investment | work=The Guardian | first=Fiona | last=Harvey | title=Europe 'falling behind' in green investment race | date=July 7, 2011 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315165958/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/jul/07/europe-green-investment | archive-date=March 15, 2016 }}</ref> Thus, green investment firms are creating more and more opportunities to support sustainable development practices in emerging economies. By providing [[Microlending|micro-loans]] and larger investments, these firms assist small business owners in developing nations who seek business education, affordable loans, and new distribution networks for their ""green"" products.

An effective way for businesses to contribute towards waste reduction is to remanufacture products so that the materials used can have a longer lifespan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=Arun |last2=Iyer |first2=Gopalkrishnan R. |last3=Mehrotra |first3=Anuj |last4=Krishnan |first4=R. |title=Sustainability and business-to-business marketing: A framework and implications |journal=Industrial Marketing Management |date=1 February 2010 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=330–341 |doi=10.1016/j.indmarman.2008.11.005}}</ref>

===Sustainable Businesses===

The Harvard Business School business historian [[Geoffrey Jones (academic)]] has traced the historical origins of green business back to pioneering start-ups in organic food and wind and [[solar energy]] before World War 1.<ref name=""Jones2017"">{{cite book|author1=Geoffrey Jones|title=Profits and Sustainability. A History of Green Entrepreneurship|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-019-870697-7}}</ref> Among large corporations, [[Ford Motor Company]] occupies an odd role in the story of sustainability. Ironically, founder [[Henry Ford]] was a pioneer in the sustainable business realm, experimenting with plant-based fuels during the days of the Model T.<ref name = Painting/> Ford Motor Company also shipped the Model A truck in crates that then became the vehicle floorboards at the factory destination. This was a form of ''[[upcycling]]'', retaining high quality in a closed-loop industrial cycle.<ref name = Generating/> Furthermore, the original auto body was made of a stronger-than-steel hemp composite. Today, of course, Fords aren't made of hemp, nor do they run on the most sensible fuel. Currently, Ford's [[marketing claim|claim]] to eco-friendly fame is the use of seat fabric made from 100% post-industrial materials and renewable [[soy]] foam seat bases. Ford executives recently appointed the company’s first senior vice president of sustainability, environment, and safety engineering. This position is responsible for establishing a long-range sustainability strategy and environmental policy, developing the products and processes necessary to satisfy customers and society as a whole while working toward [[energy independence]]. It remains to be seen whether Ford will return to its founder's vision of a petroleum-free automobile, a vehicle powered by the remains of plant matter.<ref name = Growing/>

The automobile manufacturer [[Subaru]] has also made efforts to tackle sustainability. In 2008 a Subaru assembly plant in Lafayette became the first auto manufacturer to achieve [[zero waste|zero landfill]] status when the plant implemented sustainable policies. The company successfully managed to implement a plan that increased refuse recycling to 99.8%.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Woodyard|first1=Chris|title=It's waste not, want not at super green Subaru plant|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/industries/environment/2008-02-18-green-factories_N.htm|website=USA Today|publisher=Gannett Co. Inc.|access-date=23 December 2014|date=2 February 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406235134/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/industries/environment/2008-02-18-green-factories_N.htm|archive-date=6 April 2015}}</ref> In 2012, the corporation increased the reuse of Styrofoam by 9%. And from the year 2008 to the year 2012, environmental incidents and accidents were reduced from 18 to 4.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Evolution of Sustainability|url=http://onlinemba.neu.edu/evolution-of-sustainability-infographic/|website=Northeastern University|access-date=23 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223165648/http://onlinemba.neu.edu/evolution-of-sustainability-infographic/|archive-date=23 December 2014}}</ref>

Smaller companies such as [[Nature's Path]], an organic cereal and snack-making business, have also made sustainability gains in the 21st century. CEO [[Arran Stephens]] and his associates have ensured that the quickly growing company's products are produced without toxic [[farm chemicals]]. Furthermore, employees are encouraged to find ways to reduce consumption. Sustainability is an essential part of corporate discussions.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/careers/top-employers/sustainability-runs-deep-in-cereal-making-family/article1994663/ | work=The Globe and Mail | title=Search | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094104/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/careers/top-employers/sustainability-runs-deep-in-cereal-making-family/article1994663/ | archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Another example comes from [[Salt Spring Coffee]], a company created in 1996 as a [[certified organic]], [[fair trade]], coffee producer.<ref>Jensen, C (May 11, 2012). [http://axiomnews.ca/node/2612 Brewing a Coffee Company with a Social Mission] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514081106/http://axiomnews.ca/node/2612 |date=2012-05-14 }}. ''Axiom News''. Retrieved on: 2012-05-12</ref> In recent years they have become [[carbon neutral]], lowering emissions by reducing long-range trucking and using [[bio-diesel]] in delivery trucks,<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Charlie |title=Biodiesel Revolution Gathering Momentum |work=[[The Georgia Straight]] |date=September 9, 2004 |url=https://www.straight.com/article/biodiesel-revolution-gathering-momentum?# |access-date=July 27, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426014432/http://www.straight.com/article/biodiesel-revolution-gathering-momentum |archive-date=April 26, 2009 }}</ref> upgrading to energy-efficient equipment, and purchasing [[carbon offsets]]. The company claims to offer the first carbon-neutral coffee sold in Canada.<ref name=mainstream>{{cite news |title=Green goes mainstream |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=April 15, 2008 |url=http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/business/story.html?id=95d70530-0a29-4a24-b4d5-140a725d07ee&k=198 |access-date=2009-07-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513031436/http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/business/story.html?id=95d70530-0a29-4a24-b4d5-140a725d07ee&k=198 |archive-date=May 13, 2013 }}</ref> Salt Spring Coffee was recognized by the [[David Suzuki Foundation]] in the 2010 report ''Doing Business in a New Climate''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.davidsuzuki.org/publications/resources/2010/doing-business-in-a-new-climate/|title=Doing Business in a New Climate: A Guide to Measuring, Reducing and Offsetting Greenhouse Gas Emissions|website=David Suzuki Foundation|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729043324/http://www.davidsuzuki.org/publications/resources/2010/doing-business-in-a-new-climate/|archive-date=2012-07-29}}</ref> A third example comes from Korea, where rice husks are used as nontoxic packaging for stereo components and other electronics. The same material is later recycled to make bricks.<ref name = Generating/>

Some companies in the [[textile industry]] have been moving towards more sustainable business practices. Specifically, the clothing company [[Patagonia]] has focused on reducing consumption and waste. The company limits its environmental impact by ensuring only recycled and organic materials, repairing damaged clothes, and by complying with strong environmental protection standards for its entire supply chain. <ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.2752/175174113X13718320331035?needAccess=true | doi=10.2752/175174113X13718320331035 | title=In Patagonia (Clothing): A Complicated Greenness | year=2013 | last1=Hepburn | first1=Sharon J. | journal=Fashion Theory | volume=17 | issue=5 | pages=623–645 | s2cid=146452174 }}</ref>

Some companies in the [[mining]] and specifically [[gold mining]] industries are attempting to move towards more sustainable practices, especially given that the industry is one of the most environmentally destructive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brilliantearth.com/dirty-gold-facts/|title=Brilliant Earth|website=Brilliant Earth|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616123605/http://www.brilliantearth.com/dirty-gold-facts/|archive-date=2016-06-16}}</ref> Indeed, regarding gold mining, [[Northwestern University]] scientists have, in the laboratory, discovered an inexpensive and environmentally sustainable method that uses simple [[Corn starch|cornstarch]]—instead of [[cyanide]]—to isolate gold from raw materials in a selective manner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northwestern.edu/newscenter/stories/2013/05/making-gold-green-new-non-toxic-method-for-mining-gold.html|title=Making Gold Green: New Non-Toxic Method for Mining Gold: Northwestern University News|website=www.northwestern.edu|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430204836/http://www.northwestern.edu/newscenter//stories/2013/05/making-gold-green-new-non-toxic-method-for-mining-gold.html|archive-date=2016-04-30}}</ref> Such a method will reduce the amount of [[cyanide]] released into the environment during gold extraction from raw [[ore]], with one of the [[Northwestern University]] scientists, Sir Fraser Stoddart stating that: “The elimination of cyanide from the gold industry is of the utmost importance environmentally"".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stoddart|first=Sir Fraser|date=2013|title=Selective isolation of gold facilitated by second-sphere coordination by α-cyclodextrin|journal=Nature Communications|volume=4|pages=1855|doi=10.1038/ncomms2891|pmid=23673640|pmc=3674257}}</ref> Additionally, the retail jewelry industry is now trying to be more sustainable, with companies using green energy providers and [[recycling]] more,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.universalgold.co.uk/#!environmental/b07th|title=universal-gold|website=universal-gold|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624202819/http://www.universalgold.co.uk/#!environmental/b07th|archive-date=2016-06-24}}</ref> as well as preventing the use of mined-so called 'virgin gold' by applying re-finishing methods on pieces and re-selling them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.universalgold.co.uk/#!blank-4/cqh1|title=universal-gold|website=universal-gold|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624202819/http://www.universalgold.co.uk/#!blank-4/cqh1|archive-date=2016-06-24}}</ref> Furthermore, the customer may opt for [[Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International|Fairtrade]] Gold,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/en/farmers-and-workers/gold|title=Gold|website=www.fairtrade.org.uk|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703025511/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/en/farmers-and-workers/gold|archive-date=2016-07-03}}</ref> which gives a better deal to small-scale and [[Artisanal mining|artisanal]] miners, and is an element of sustainable business.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/en/farmers-and-workers/gold/sotrami-mining-organisation|title=SOTRAMI Mining Organisation|website=www.fairtrade.org.uk|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927232226/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/en/farmers-and-workers/gold/sotrami-mining-organisation|archive-date=2016-09-27}}</ref> However, not all think that mining can be sustainable and believe that much more must be done, noting that mining in general requires greater regional and international legislation and regulation, which is a valid point given the huge impact mining has on the planet and the huge number of products and goods that are made wholly or partly from [[mining|mined]] materials.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/responsible-mining-can-it-work|title=Responsible mining: can it work?|last=McMenemy|first=Lauren|date=2012-12-21|website=the Guardian|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918015231/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/responsible-mining-can-it-work|archive-date=2016-09-18}}</ref>

In the luxury sector, in 2012, the group Kering developed the ""Environmental Profit & Loss account"" (EP&L) accounting method to track the progress of its sustainability goals, a strategy aligned with the UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsL9DwAAQBAJ&dq=Environmental+Profit+&pg=PA24|title=Freedom from Fear, Issue No.9: Destabilization|date=2011-03-11|publisher=United Nations|isbn=978-92-1-363066-2|language=en}}</ref> In 2019, on a request from the President Emmanuel Macron, François-Henri Pinault, Chairman and CEO of the luxury group Kering, presented the Fashion Pact during the summit, an initiative signed by 32 fashion firms committing to concrete measures to reduce their environmental impact. By 2020, 60 firms joined the Fashion Pact.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Adegeest|first=Don-Alvin|date=2020-10-14|title=The Fashion Pact is uniting global companies and CEO's to transform the industry|url=https://fashionunited.uk/news/fashion/the-fashion-pact-is-uniting-global-companies-and-ceo-s-to-transform-the-industry/2020101451378|access-date=2021-10-05|website=FashionUnited|language=en}}</ref>

Fair Trade is a form of sustainable business and among the highest forms of CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility). Organizations that participate in Fair Trade typically adhere to the ten principles of the World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO).  Moreover, Fair Trade promotes entrepreneurial development among communities in developing countries and it encourages communities to be responsible and accountable for their economic development via market engagement. Fair Trade is a form of marketing with a strong and direct social benefit beyond the economic supply chain.<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Musa|first1 = Shireen|last2 = Pradeep|first2 = Gopalakrishna| date = 2021| title  = An Empirical Study Identifying Fair Trade Consumer Attributes of Compassion and Sustainability Awareness| journal  = Journal of Fair Trade| volume = 3|issue  = 1| pages  = 32–43| doi=10.13169/jfairtrade.3.1.0032 | s2cid=240529575 | doi-access= free}}</ref>

==Social sphere==
Organizations that give back to the community, whether through employees volunteering their time or through charitable donations, are often considered [[socially sustainable]]. Organizations can also encourage education in their communities by training their employees and offering internships to younger members of the community. Practices such as these increase the education level and quality of life in the community.

For a business to be truly sustainable, it must sustain not only the necessary environmental resources, but also social resources—including employees, customers (the community), and its reputation.<ref>Hahn, Keenan. 2008. [http://en.verteeblog.com/what-is-sustainable-business/200847/ What is sustainable business?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923124556/http://en.verteeblog.com/what-is-sustainable-business/200847/ |date=2009-09-23 }}</ref>

A term that is directly relates to the social aspect of sustainability is [[Environmental justice]]. Sustainability and social justice are directly connected to one another, and seeing these as separate unrelated issues can lead to more problems for the environment and potentially businesses.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sze|first=Julie|title=Sustainability : approaches to environmental justice and social power|publisher=New York University Press.|year=2018|isbn=978-1-4798-2244-7|pages=1–26}}</ref>

== Consumers and Marketing ==
When people are choosing to purchase goods or services, they care what a company stands for. This includes social and environmental aspects that may not have seemed important in business in the past. Consumers nowadays are demanding more sustainable goods and services. <ref name="":0"">{{cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Naveed |last2=Mahmood |first2=Asif |last3=Ariza-Montes |first3=Antonio |last4=Han |first4=Heesup |last5=Hernández-Perlines |first5=Felipe |last6=Araya-Castillo |first6=Luis |last7=Scholz |first7=Miklas |title=Sustainable Businesses Speak to the Heart of Consumers: Looking at Sustainability with a Marketing Lens to Reap Banking Consumers' Loyalty |journal=Sustainability |date=31 March 2021 |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=3828 |doi=10.3390/su13073828|doi-access=free }}</ref> Because of this demand, companies must focus on their [[environmental impact]] to gain [[consumer loyalty]].<ref name="":0"" /> Because ecological awareness can be treated as a choice of personal taste rather than a necessity, it can be a method to try to increase capital from a marketing standpoint.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kemper |first1=Joya |last2=Hall |first2=C. |last3=Ballantine |first3=Paul |title=Marketing and Sustainability: Business as Usual or Changing Worldviews? |journal=Sustainability |date=2 February 2019 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=780 |doi=10.3390/su11030780|doi-access=free }}</ref> When marketing a product or service it is important that a business is actually following through with environmental [[Marketing claim|claim]]s, and not just pretending to be in order to gain customers. False advertising leads to distrust among consumers and can ultimately end a company.

=== Greenwashing ===
With sustainability becoming more prevalent in the last decade, businesses need to be aware of laws and norms surrounding claims and the potential legal implications. The [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) [[Green guides]] are one rulebook for businesses on how to avoid potentially deceiving consumers with false advertising. This often is a problem when companies make vague or false environmental [[Marketing claim|claim]]s about a product or service they are selling. When this occurs, it can be called ""[[greenwashing]]"". Greenwashing also refers to an act of overexaggerating the beneficial effects a product may have on the environment.<ref name="":1"">Pearson, L. (2011). Green is good; greenwashing is bad: get to know the FTC green guides. ''Nevada Lawyer : Official Publication of the State Bar of Nevada.'', ''19''(1).</ref> When companies do not follow such guides, they may be subject to legal ramifications and harmed reputations. Sustainable businesses often invest in experienced legal practitioners who can understand and can provide counsel on the FTC Guides and other such frameworks.<ref name="":1"" />

==Organizations==
The European community’s [[Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive]] restricts the use of certain hazardous materials in the production of various electronic and electrical products. [[Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment]] ([[WEEE]]) directives provide collection, recycling, and recovery practices for electrical goods.<ref name = Painting/>  The [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]] and the [[World Resources Institute]] are two organizations working together to set a standard for reporting on corporate [[carbon footprint]]s.<ref name = Painting/>  From October 2013, all quoted companies in the UK are legally required to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions in their directors’ report, under the [[Companies Act 2006]] (Strategic and Directors’ Reports) Regulations 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carbontrust.com/resources/guides/carbon-footprinting-and-reporting/mandatory-carbon-reporting|title=Mandatory Carbon Reporting|publisher=The Carbon Trust|access-date=6 Nov 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010091224/http://www.carbontrust.com/resources/guides/carbon-footprinting-and-reporting/mandatory-carbon-reporting/|archive-date=2013-10-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/measuring-and-reporting-environmental-impacts-guidance-for-businesses|title=Measuring and reporting environmental impacts: guidance for businesses|publisher=Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs|access-date=6 Nov 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019073547/https://www.gov.uk/measuring-and-reporting-environmental-impacts-guidance-for-businesses|archive-date=2013-10-19}}</ref>

[[Lester Brown]]’s [[Plan B 2.0]] and [[Hunter Lovins]]’s [[Natural Capitalism]] provide information on sustainability initiatives.<ref>Ron Sullivan. 2007. ""Enduring Success, Using the APICS body of knowledge to achieve greater sustainability."" APICS magazine. vol. 17, no. 8.</ref>

==Corporate sustainability strategies==
[[Corporate sustainability]] strategies can aim to take advantage of sustainable revenue opportunities, while protecting the value of business against increasing [[Energy economics|energy costs]], the costs of meeting regulatory requirements, changes in the way customers perceive brands and products, and the volatile price of resources.

Not all eco-strategies can be incorporated into a company's Eco-portfolio immediately. The widely practiced strategies include Innovation, Collaboration, Process Improvement and Sustainability reporting. 
#Innovation & Technology: This introverted method of sustainable corporate practices focuses on a company's ability to change its products and services towards less waste production.
#Collaboration: The formation of networks with similar or partner companies facilitates knowledge sharing and propels innovation.
#Process Improvement: Continuous process surveying and improvement are essential to reduction in waste. Employee awareness of company-wide sustainability plan further aids the integration of new and improved processes.
#Sustainability Reporting: Periodic reporting of company performance in relation to goals. These goals are often incorporated into the corporate mission (as in the case of Ford Motor Co.).<ref name=""[15]"">{{cite journal | url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libdb.njit.edu:8888/doi/10.1002/sd.447/abstract | doi=10.1002/sd.447 | title=Corporate sustainability strategies: Sustainability profiles and maturity levels | year=2010 | last1=Baumgartner | first1=Rupert J. | last2=Ebner | first2=Daniela | journal=Sustainable Development | volume=18 | issue=2 | pages=76–89 }}</ref>
# Greening the Supply Chain: Sustainable procurement is important for any sustainability strategy as a company's impact on the environment is much bigger than the products that they consume. The [[B Corporation (certification)]] model is a good example of one that encourages companies to focus on this.
# Choosing the Right Leaders: Having educated and driven CEOs on sustainability guide companies in the right steps to being eco-friendly. As the world is slowly transitioning to sustainability, it is important for our company leaders to prioritize and have a sense of urgency. <ref>{{Cite news |last=Nieto-Rodriguez |first=Antonio |date=2022-10-10 |title=Project Leaders Will Make or Break Your Sustainability Goals |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2022/10/project-leaders-will-make-or-break-your-sustainability-goals |access-date=2022-10-24 |issn=0017-8012}}</ref>

Additionally, companies might consider implementing a sound measurement and management system with readjustment procedures, as well as a regular forum for all stakeholders to discuss sustainability issues.<ref>Hoessle, Ulrike: Ten Steps Toward a Sustainable Business
 (=WWS Series 1). Seattle 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-9898270-0-3}}, http://www.wwsworldwide.com {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112121010/http://www.wwsworldwide.com/ |date=2017-01-12 }}</ref> The Sustainability Balanced Scorecard is a performance measurement and management system aiming at balancing financial and non-financial as well as short and long-term measures. It explicitly integrates strategically relevant environmental, social and ethical goals into the overall performance management system <ref>Hansen, E. and Schaltegger, S. (2014): The sustainability balanced scorecard. A systematic review of architectures, Journal of Business Ethics, Springer</ref> and supports strategic sustainability management.

Noteworthy examples of sustainable business practices that  are often part of corporate sustainability strategies can include: transitioning to [[renewable energy]] sources, implementing effective [[recycling]] programs, minimizing waste generation in industrial processes, developing [[Sustainable products|eco-friendly product]] designs, prioritizing the adoption of [[sustainable packaging]] materials, fostering an ethical and responsible [[supply chain]], partnering with [[Charitable organization|charities]], encouraging volunteerism, upholding equitable treatment of employees, and prioritizing their overall welfare, among numerous other initiatives.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moratis |first=Lars |title=Sustainable Business Models: Principles, Promise, and Practice |date=2018 |publisher=Springer Cham |isbn=978-3-319-73502-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=4 Impactful Sustainable Business Practices That Can Make A Difference |url=https://online.hbs.edu/blog/post/sustainable-business-practices |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=online.hbs.edu |date=May 13, 2021 |publisher=Harvard Business School}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainable Business Practices (Definition And Examples) |url=https://sustainability-success.com/sustainable-business-practices/ |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=sustainability-success.com |date=September 3, 2022 |publisher=Sustainability Success}}</ref>

==Standards==
Enormous economic and population growth worldwide in the second half of the twentieth century aggravated the factors that threaten health and the world &mdash; [[ozone depletion]], [[climate change]], [[resource depletion]], fouling of natural resources, and extensive [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] and [[habitat loss|habitat]]. In the past, the standard approaches to environmental problems generated by business and industry have been regulatory-driven ""end-of-the-pipe"" remediation efforts. In the 1990s, efforts by governments, [[ngo|NGOs]], corporations, and investors began to grow to develop awareness and plans for investment in business sustainability.

One critical milestone was the establishment of the [[ISO 14000]] standards whose development came as a result of the [[Earth Summit|Rio Summit on the Environment]] held in 1992. [[ISO 14001]] is the cornerstone standard of the ISO 14000 series. It specifies a framework of control for an Environmental Management System against which an organization can be certified by a third party. Other ISO 14000 Series Standards are actually guidelines, many to help you achieve registration to ISO 14001. They include the following:
*ISO 14004 provides guidance on the development and implementation of environmental management systems.
*ISO 14010 provides general principles of environmental auditing (now superseded by ISO 19011)
*ISO 14011 provides specific guidance on audit an environmental management system (now superseded by ISO 19011)
*ISO 14012 provides guidance on qualification criteria for environmental auditors and lead auditors (now superseded by ISO 19011)
*ISO 14013/5 provides audit program review and assessment material.
*ISO 14020+ labeling issues
*ISO 14030+ provides guidance on performance targets and monitoring within an Environmental Management System
*ISO 14040+ covers life cycle issues

== Circular business models ==
{{Further|Circular Economy}}
While the initial focus of academic, industry, and policy activities was mainly focused on the development of re-X ([[recycling]], [[remanufacturing]], [[reuse]], [[Resource recovery|recovery]], ...) technology, it soon became clear that the technological capabilities increasingly exceed their implementation. For the transition towards a Circular Economy, different stakeholders have to work together. This shifted attention towards business model innovation as a key leverage for 'circular' technology adaption.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rashid|first1=Amir|last2=Asif|first2=Farazee M.A.|last3=Krajnik|first3=Peter|last4=Nicolescu|first4=Cornel Mihai|date=October 2013|title=Resource Conservative Manufacturing: an essential change in business and technology paradigm for sustainable manufacturing|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=57|pages=166–177|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.06.012|issn=0959-6526}}</ref>

Circular business models are business models that are closing, narrowing, slowing, intensifying, and dematerializing loops, to minimize the resource inputs into and the waste and emission leakage out of the organizational system. This comprises recycling measures (closing), efficiency improvements (narrowing), use phase extensions (slowing or extending), a more intense use phase (intensifying), and the substitution of product utility by service and software solutions (dematerializing).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Geissdoerfer|first1=Martin|last2=Morioka|first2=Sandra Naomi|last3=de Carvalho|first3=Marly Monteiro|last4=Evans|first4=Steve|date=July 2018|title=Business models and supply chains for the circular economy|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=190|pages=712–721|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.159|s2cid=158887458|issn=0959-6526|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/280260}}</ref>

==Certification==
{{see also|Certification}}
{{main|Sustainability standards and certification}}

==Challenges and opportunities==
Implementing sustainable business practices may have an effect on profits and a firm's financial 'bottom line'. However, during a time where environmental awareness is popular, green strategies are likely to be embraced by employees, consumers, and other stakeholders. Many organizations concerned about the environmental impact of their business are taking initiatives to invest in sustainable business practices.<ref name=""auto1"">Lathabhavan, R., 2021. Sustainable business practices and challenges in Asia: a systematic review. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print). </ref> In fact, a positive correlation has been reported between environmental performance and economic performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dechezleprêtre |first=Antoine |year=2019 |title=Do environmental and economic performance go together? A review of micro-level empirical evidence from the past decade or so. |url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/100900/3/Do_environmental_and_economic_performance_go_together.pdf |journal=LSE Research Online |volume= |issue= |page=1 |ssrn=}}</ref> Businesses trying to implement sustainable business need to have insights on balancing the social equity, economic prosperity and environmental quality elements. <ref name=""auto"">Høgevold, N., Svensson, G., Wagner, B., Petzer, D., Klopper, H., Carlos Sosa Varela, J., Padin, C. and Ferro, C., 2014. Sustainable business models. Baltic Journal of Management, 9(3), pp.357-380.</ref> 

If an organization’s current business model is inherently unsustainable, becoming truly sustainable requires a complete makeover of the [[business model]] (e.g. from selling cars to offering car sharing and other mobility services). This can present a major challenge due to the differences between the old and the new model and the respective skills, resources and infrastructure needed. A new business model can offer major opportunities by entering or even creating new markets and reaching new customer groups.<ref>Schaltegger, S., Lüdeke-Freund, F. & Hansen, E. (2012): Business cases for sustainability. the role of business model innovation for corporate sustainability, International Journal of Sustainable Development, Vol.6, No. 2, 95-119</ref> The main challenges faced in the sustainable business practices implementation by businesses in developing countries include lack of skilled personnel, technological challenges, socio-economic challenges, organizational challenges and lack of proper policy framework.<ref name=""auto1""/> Skilled personnel plays a crucial role in quality management, enhanced compliance with international quality standards, and preventative and operational maintenance attitude necessary to ensure sustainable business.<ref>Monday, J., 2015. Local Content Policy, Human Capital Development and Sustainable Business Performance in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry. Journal of Management and Sustainability, 5(1).</ref> In the absence of skilled work forces, companies fail to implement a sustainable business model. 



Another major challenge to the effective implementation of sustainable business is organizational challenges. Organizational challenges to the implementation of sustainable business activities arise from the difficulties associated with the planning, implementation and evaluation of sustainable business models.<ref name=""auto""/> Addressing the organizational challenges for the implementation of sustainable business practices need to begin by analyzing the whole supply chain of the business rather than focusing solely on the company's internal operations.<ref>Dyllick, T. and Muff, K., 2015. Clarifying the Meaning of Sustainable Business: Introducing a Typology from Business-as-Usual to True Business Sustainability. SSRN Electronic Journal, pp.1-19.
</ref> Another major challenge is the lack of an appropriate policy framework for sustainable business. Companies often comply with the lowest economic, social and [[environmental sustainability]] standards, when in fact the true sustainability can be achieved when the business is focused beyond compliance with integrated strategy, passion and purpose.<ref>DANCIU, V., 2013. The sustainable company: new challenges and strategies for more sustainability. Theoretical and Applied Economics, 9(586), pp.7-26. </ref>

Companies leading the way in sustainable business practices can take advantage of sustainable revenue opportunities: according to the [[Department for Business, Innovation and Skills]] the UK [[green economy]] will grow by 4.9 to 5.5 percent a year by 2015,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nichols|first1=Will|title=UK green economy grew £5.4bn in 2011|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/may/25/uk-green-economy-grew-2011|website=The Guardian|date=May 25, 2012|access-date=23 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223173305/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/may/25/uk-green-economy-grew-2011|archive-date=23 December 2014}}</ref> and the average internal rate of return on [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] investments for large businesses is 48%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carbontrust.com/resources/reports/advice/the-business-of-energy-efficiency|title=The business of energy efficiency|publisher=The Carbon Trust|date=10 Dec 2010|access-date=6 Nov 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203032013/http://www.carbontrust.com/resources/reports/advice/the-business-of-energy-efficiency|archive-date=2013-12-03}}</ref>  A 2013 survey suggests that demand for green products appears to be increasing: 27% of respondents said they are more likely to buy a sustainable product and/or service than 5 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|author=YouGov Plc|url=http://www.carbontrust.com/about-us/press/2013/09/two-thirds-public-unable-to-name-company-taking-environmental-sustainability-seriously|title=Carbon Trust Survey|publisher=The Carbon Trust|date=18 Sep 2013|access-date=6 Nov 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203031014/http://www.carbontrust.com/about-us/press/2013/09/two-thirds-public-unable-to-name-company-taking-environmental-sustainability-seriously|archive-date=2013-12-03}}</ref> Furthermore, sustainable business practices may attract [[Talent management|talent]] and generate [[tax break]]s.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://blog.efax.com/blog/online-fax-2/improve-your-reputation-bring-you-better-talent-and-get-you-a-tax-break-by-going-green | title=Improve Your Reputation, Bring You Better Talent, and Get You a Tax Break... by Going Green? | publisher=eFax | date=29 April 2014 | access-date=19 May 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521031810/http://blog.efax.com/blog/online-fax-2/improve-your-reputation-bring-you-better-talent-and-get-you-a-tax-break-by-going-green | archive-date=21 May 2014 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Business|Law|United States}}
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{annotated link|B4E Business for the Environment}}
*{{annotated link|Green America}}
*{{annotated link|B Corporation (certification)}}
*{{annotated link|Bottom of the pyramid}}
*{{annotated link|Carbon Trust}}
*{{annotated link|Clean Edge}}
*{{annotated link|Clean Energy Trends}}
*{{annotated link|Clean Tech Nation}}
*{{annotated link|Cleaner production}}
*{{annotated link|Conscious business}}
*{{annotated link|Corporate sustainability}}
*{{annotated link|Externality}}
*{{annotated link|Gort cloud}}
*{{annotated link|Green brands}}
*{{annotated link|Sustainable MBA}}
*{{annotated link|Low carbon economy}}
*{{annotated link|The Natural Step}}
*{{annotated link|Net Impact}}
*{{annotated link|Renewable energy commercialization}}
*{{annotated link|Renewable energy industry}}
*{{annotated link|Sustainable Business Network}}
*{{annotated link|Sustainable finance}}
*{{annotated link|Worldchanging}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.theuptide.com/sustainable-small-busines-ideas-that-are-eco-friendly/ Sustainable Business Ideas For Eco Conscious Entrepreneurs]
* [http://johnmolson.concordia.ca/en/faculty-research/research-centres/david-obrien-centre-for-sustainable-enterprise  David O'Brien Centre for Sustainable Enterprise, Concordia University, Montreal]
* [http://www.erb.umich.edu  Erb Institute for Global Sustainable Enterprise at the University of Michigan]
* [http://www.johnson.cornell.edu/sge/ Center for Sustainable Global Enterprise at Cornell University]
* [http://www.nrdc.org Natural Resources Defense Council]
* [http://www.ontheneweconomy.com/category/business-models/ Sustainable Business Models - On the New Economy]
* [http://magazine-mn.com/news/how_businesses_can_benefit_from_pursuing_sustainability_infographic/2015-05-05-206/ Magazine MN| Sustainable Business and Eco-innovations]
* [https://nicenethical.com/ Sustainability-focused consumer business reviews]
{{Sustainability}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Business}}
[[Category:Sustainable business| ]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Sustainable livelihood,"{{Short description|Development concept}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{cleanup|date=December 2019|reason=A couple of references are clearly still in progress and need to be finished. Lead paragraph is very dense and technical and doesn't give a good introduction to a reader unfamiliar with the terminology.}}

'''Sustainable Livelihood''' emerges at the intersection of development and [[environmental studies]] to offer a new way to think about  work, production and distribution. Specifically, the work of vulnerable populations (e.g., low income population living in the [[bottom of the pyramid]], [[indigenous communities]], etc.) are discussed in this concept to build a sustainable future where inequality is eliminated in households.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1007700690 |title=Work, institutions and sustainable livelihood : issues and challenges of transformation |date=2017 |others=Virginius Xaxa, Debdulal Saha, Rajdeep Singha |isbn=978-981-10-5756-4 |location=Singapore |oclc=1007700690}}</ref> The term reflects a concern with extending the focus of poverty studies beyond the physical manifestations of poverty to include also [[vulnerability]] and [[social exclusion]].<ref name="":0"" />

The term ''sustainable'' refers to an individual's ability to provide for themselves in a viably long manner. ""Sustainability"" also refers to the ability to undergo external shocks or stresses and recover from such traumas by maintaining or improving one's [[livelihood]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach. In: Knowledge Solutions|last1=Serrat|first1=Olivier|date=23 May 2017|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-981-10-0983-9|location=Singapore|pages=21–26}}</ref> The sustainable livelihood framework provides a structure for holistic [[poverty alleviation]] action.<ref>Holland, Jeremy and James Blackburn. Whose Voice? Participatory Research and Policy Change. IT Publications, London, 1998.</ref> The sustainable livelihood approach focuses on finding resolutions to the problems of vulnerable communities by creating human-centered, participatory, and dynamic development opportunities. It is a bridge connecting the environment and humans to live in harmony.<ref>Serrat O. (2017) The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach. In: Knowledge Solutions. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0983-9_5</ref> One example of an activity that aims for enhancing sustainable livelihood is the [[Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)]] proposed by the United Nations. All of their 17 goals for 2030 are the aimings that the world needs to be achieved to ensure that ""no one is left behind"" and a sustainable world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nations |first=United |title=What the SDGs Mean |url=https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/what-sdgs-mean |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=United Nations |language=en}}</ref> However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all 17 goals are experiencing significant delay and need to be tackled in a collaborative way beyond the flame of the goals.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web |title=— SDG Indicators |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2022/ |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=unstats.un.org}}</ref>

==History==
The term Sustainable Livelihood was first proposed in a rural context,<ref>WCED 1987a: 2-5 (source from IDS Disc paper 296)</ref> and was later amended by the Brundtland Commission. Authors Gibson-Graham, Cameron, and Healy highlight the measure of well-being and how an individual's well-being contributes to their ability to survive well.<ref>""Take Back Work."" Take Back the Economy: an Ethical Guide for Transforming Our Communities, by J. K. Gibson-Graham et al., University of Minnesota Press, 2013.
</ref>

===Brundtland commission===
The sustainable livelihoods idea was first introduced by the [[Brundtland Commission]] on Environment and Development, and the 1992 United Nation's  Conference on Environment and Development expanded the concept, advocating for the achievement of sustainable livelihoods as a broad goal for poverty eradication.

In 1992 Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway<ref>WCED 1987a: 2-5 are (source from IDS Disc paper 296)</ref> proposed the following composite definition of a sustainable rural livelihood, which is applied most commonly at the household level: ""A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for a means of living: a livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the short and long term.""<ref>http://www.humanecologyreview.org/pastissues/her131/knutsson.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2021}}

== Development of concept ==
Stemming from theory regarding [[sustainable development]], a sustainable livelihood approach incorporates the collective concerns for environmental and economic resources and individual focus.<ref>missing source - look at SD page</ref>

=== Individual well-being ===
In an analysis of various 24 hour clocks, Gibson-Graham et al. synthesize five categories for overall well-being: Material, Occupational, Social, Community, and Physical.<ref>Take back the Economy, Ch: Take Back Work, page 21-22</ref> Holistic interventions prove to be challenging to measure, furthermore, quantitative data on qualitative phenomena (such as well-being) is similarly challenging to record.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=Tao|first1=Teresa C. H.|last2=Wall|first2=Geoffrey|date=2009-06-01|title=A Livelihood Approach to Sustainability|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10941660902847187|journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research|volume=14|issue=2|pages=137–152|doi=10.1080/10941660902847187|s2cid=154135332 |issn=1094-1665}}</ref>

==Models for a sustainable livelihood approach==
There are several organizations incorporating a Sustainable Livelihood approach into their ongoing poverty alleviation efforts;<ref name="":0"" /> the models by which they adapt the Sustainable Livelihood approach are discussed below.

=== SDGs ===
The [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) are the goals for creating a sustainable world aiming for 2030 by tackling various issues, including poverty. In 2015, this action was adopted by the United Nations and started. For every 17 goals, there are specific goals under the primary goal, and they are approached comprehensively on national, community, and individual scales.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainable Development Goals {{!}} United Nations Development Programme |url=https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=UNDP |language=en}}</ref> The United Nations issues a progress report annually indicating the progress of each SDG.<ref name="":2"" />

=== SCDF ===
The acronym stands for The Smart Community Development Framework and aims to find the problems of vulnerable communities in order to propose resolutions to establish sustainable livelihoods. The primary purpose is to identify each community's needs and determine a society-specific solution to eliminate the vulnerability of that community, especially poverty. The framework focuses on empowering communities to make their own decisions about the problems by creating an environment where issues would be solved permanently since the people in that environment actively participate in overcoming the challenges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ribeiro |first1=Lucas F.V. |last2=McMartin |first2=Dena W. |date=2019-02-23 |title=A methodological framework for sustainable development with vulnerable communities |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2018.1532629 |journal=African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=133–139 |doi=10.1080/20421338.2018.1532629 |s2cid=169300837 |issn=2042-1338}}</ref>

===UNDP===
The [[United Nations Development Programme]] utilizes a sustainable livelihood approach to development through the evaluation of different types of capital.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undp.org/content/dam/rblac/docs/Research%20and%20Publications/Poverty%20Reduction/UNDP_RBLAC_Livelihoods%20Guidance%20Note_EN-210July2017.pdf|title=Guidance Note|website=undp.org|access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref> The UNDP identifies five key types of capital: human, social, natural, physical, and financial. The access individuals have to these assets determines how the UNDP designs initiatives to directly or indirectly facilitate development. The UNDP also uses an asset based approach to poverty alleviation, examining how individuals leverage assets and cope with external sources of shock or stress.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last=Krantz|first=Lasse|date=February 2001|title=The Sustainable Livelihood Approach to Poverty Reduction|journal=Sida}}</ref>

===CARE===
[[CARE (relief agency)|CARE]] (Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere) focuses on emergency relief administration and long-term development programs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.care.org/care-humanitarian-home|title=CARE Humanitarian {{!}} Home|last=careadmin|date=2013-08-29|website=CARE|language=en|access-date=2019-12-20}}</ref> In 1994, CARE developed a Household Livelihood Security framework to better monitor, evaluate, and track the work they conduct.<ref name="":0"" /> CARE's application of a sustainable livelihood framework moves away from a sectorial approach and focuses on holistic development techniques.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eldis.org/document/A40253|title=Application of CARE's Livelihoods Approach {{!}} Eldis|website=www.eldis.org|access-date=2019-12-20}}</ref>

===DFID===
The [[Department for International Development]] is the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom's]] department dedicated to eradicating extreme poverty and administering foreign aid.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-international-development/about|title=About us|website=GOV.UK|language=en|access-date=2019-12-20}}</ref> The DFID leverages a sustainable livelihoods framework to focus holistically on activities directly related to improving an individual's livelihood.<ref name="":0"" /> Human-centered, multi-leveled, sustainable, and dynamic initiatives are all incorporated into the DFID's measures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.glopp.ch/B7/en/multimedia/B7_1_pdf2.pdf|title=DFID's Sustainable Livelihoods Approach and its Framework|website=GLOPP|access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Brundtland Commission]]
* [[Sustainable Development Goals]]
* [[Department for International Development]]
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]
* [[CARE (relief agency)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Triple bottom line,"{{Short description|Accounting framework}}
[[File:Triple Bottom Line graphic.svg|thumb|375px|Graphic describing the three types of bottom lines]]
The '''triple bottom line''' (or otherwise noted as '''TBL''' or '''3BL''') is an [[accounting]] framework with three parts: social, environmental (or ecological) and economic. Some organizations have adopted the TBL framework to evaluate their performance in a broader perspective to create greater business value.<ref name=IBR>Slaper, Timothy F. and Hall, Tanya J. (2011). [http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.html ""The Triple Bottom Line: What Is It and How Does It Work?""] ''Indiana Business Review''. Spring 2011, Volume 86, No. 1.</ref> Business writer [[John Elkington (business author)|John Elkington]] claims to have coined the phrase in 1994.<ref name=""recall"">{{cite journal |last1=Elkington |first1=John |author-link=John Elkington (business author) |title=25 Years Ago I Coined the Phrase ""Triple Bottom Line."" Here's Why It's Time to Rethink It |url=https://hbr.org/2018/06/25-years-ago-i-coined-the-phrase-triple-bottom-line-heres-why-im-giving-up-on-it |journal=Harvard Business Review |access-date=25 November 2023 |date=June 25, 2018 |lang=en |archive-date=22 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322134319/https://hbr.org/2018/06/25-years-ago-i-coined-the-phrase-triple-bottom-line-heres-why-im-giving-up-on-it}}</ref><ref name=""elkington"">{{cite news |title=Triple Bottom Line|url=http://www.economist.com/node/14301663|access-date=August 14, 2014|newspaper=The Economist |date=November 17, 2009}}</ref>

==Background==
In traditional business accounting and common usage, the ""[[bottom line]]"" refers to either the ""profit"" or ""loss"", which is usually recorded at the very bottom line on a statement of revenue and expenses. Over the last 50 years, environmentalists and [[social justice]] advocates have struggled to bring a broader definition of bottom line into public consciousness by introducing [[full cost accounting]]. For example, if a corporation shows a monetary profit, but their [[asbestos]] mine causes thousands of deaths from [[asbestosis]], and their [[copper mine]] pollutes a river, and the government ends up spending taxpayer money on health care and river clean-up, how can we capture a fuller societal [[cost benefit analysis]]? The triple bottom line adds two more ""bottom lines"": social and environmental (ecological) concerns.<ref>[http://www.goethe.de/ges/umw/dos/nac/den/en3106180.htm Sustainability – From Principle To Practice] ''[[Goethe-Institut]]'', March 2008.</ref> With the ratification of the [[United Nations]] and [[International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives|ICLEI]] TBL standard for urban and community accounting in early 2007,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/delc/Portals/119/industrryRoleOfIndclean.pdf|title=Enhancing the role of industry through for example, private-public partnerships|date=May 2011|publisher=[[United Nations Environment Programme]]|access-date=2012-08-13|archive-date=2012-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112080747/http://www.unep.org/delc/Portals/119/industrryRoleOfIndclean.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> this became the dominant approach to [[public sector]] full cost accounting. Similar UN standards apply to [[natural capital]] and [[human capital]] measurement to assist in measurements required by TBL, e.g. the EcoBudget standard for reporting [[ecological footprint]]. Use of the TBL is fairly widespread in [[South African media]], as found in a 1990–2008 study of worldwide national newspapers.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262009650 |last1=Barkemeyer |first1=Ralf |last2=Figge |first2=Frank |last3=Holt |first3=Diane |last4=Wettstein |first4=Barbara |title=What the Papers Say: Trends in Sustainability. A Comparative Analysis of 115 Leading National Newspapers Worldwide |journal=Journal of Corporate Citizenship |date=1 March 2009 |volume=2009 |issue=33 |pages=68–86 |doi=10.9774/GLEAF.4700.2009.sp.00009}}</ref>

An example of an organization seeking a triple bottom line would be a [[social enterprise]] run as a non-profit, but earning income by offering opportunities for handicapped people who have been labelled ""unemployable"", to earn a living by [[recycling]]. The organization earns a profit, which is invested back into the community. The social benefit is the meaningful employment of disadvantaged citizens, and the reduction in the society's welfare or disability costs. The environmental benefit comes from the recycling accomplished. In the [[private sector]], a commitment to [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) implies an obligation to public reporting about the business's substantial [[Human impact on the environment|impact]] for the better of the environment and people. Triple bottom line is one framework for reporting this material impact. This is distinct from the more limited changes required to deal only with ecological issues. The triple bottom line has also been extended to encompass four pillars, known as the quadruple bottom line (QBL). The fourth pillar denotes a future-oriented approach (future generations, [[intergenerational equity]], etc.). It is a long-term outlook that sets [[sustainable development]] and [[sustainability]] concerns apart from previous social, environmental, and economic considerations.{{cn|date=February 2022}}

The challenges of putting the TBL into practice relate to the measurement of social and ecological categories. Despite this, the TBL framework enables organizations to take a longer-term perspective and thus evaluate the future consequences of decisions.<ref name=IBR />

==Definition==
[[Sustainable development]] was defined by the [[Brundtland Commission]] of the United Nations in 1987.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.worldfinance.com/banking/egypts-sustainable-finance-trailblazer|title=Egypt's sustainable finance trailblazer|access-date=2018-10-11|language=en-US}}</ref> Triple bottom line (TBL) accounting expands the traditional reporting framework to take into account social and environmental performance in addition to financial performance.

In 1981, [[Social enterprise|Freer Spreckley]] first articulated the triple bottom line framework in a publication called ''Social Audit - A Management Tool for Co-operative Working''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spreckley |first=Freer |url=http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf |title=Social Audit: A Management Tool for Co-operative Working |publisher=Beechwood College |year=1981 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301021617/http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf |archive-date=2020-03-01 |publication-date=1981 }}</ref> In this work, he argued that enterprises should measure and report on financial performance, social wealth creation, and environmental responsibility. The phrase ""triple bottom line"" was articulated more fully by [[John Elkington (business author)|John Elkington]] in his 1997 book ''Cannibals with Forks: the Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business'',<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|title=Cannibals with forks: the triple bottom line of 21st century business|last=Elkington|first=John|publisher=Capstone|year=1999|isbn=9780865713925|location=Oxford|oclc=963459936|author-link=John Elkington (business author)|url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalswithfor00elki_0}}</ref> where he adopted a question asked by the Polish poet [[Stanisław Jerzy Lec|Stanisław Lec]], ""Is it progress if a [[Human cannibalism|cannibal]] uses a fork?"" as the opening line of his foreword. Elkington suggests that it can be, particularly in the case of ""[[sustainable capitalism]]"", wherein competing corporate entities seek to maintain their relative position by addressing people and planet issues as well as [[profit maximisation]].<ref name="":0"" />

A ''Triple Bottom Line Investing'' group advocating and publicizing these principles was founded in 1998 by [[Robert J. Rubinstein]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/devinthorpe/2018/05/22/one-key-to-impact-investing-start-big/#eab84e15ddb9|title=One Key To Impact Investing: Start Big|last=Thorpe|first=Devin|work=Forbes|access-date=2018-10-11|language=en}}</ref>

For reporting their efforts companies may demonstrate their commitment to [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) through the following:

*Top-level involvement ([[CEO]], [[Board of Directors]])
*Policy Investments
*Programs
*Signatories to voluntary standards
*Principles (UN Global Compact-Ceres Principles)
*Reporting ([[Global Reporting Initiative]])

The concept of TBL demands that a company's responsibility lies with [[stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]] rather than [[shareholders]]. In this case, ""stakeholders"" refers to anyone who is influenced, either directly or indirectly, by the actions of the firm. Examples of stakeholders include employees, customers, suppliers, local residents, government agencies, and creditors. According to the [[stakeholder theory]], the business entity should be used as a vehicle for coordinating stakeholder interests, instead of maximizing shareholder (owner) profit. A growing number of financial institutions incorporate a triple bottom line approach in their work. It is at the core of the business of banks in the [[Global Alliance for Banking on Values]], for example.

The [[Detroit]]-based [[Avalon International Breads]] interprets the triple bottom line as consisting of ""Earth"", ""Community"", and ""Employees"".<ref name=""Avalon"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.avalonbreads.net/about-us/triple-bottom-line/|title=Triple Bottom Line: Earth, Community, Employees|website=Avalon International Breads|access-date=27 February 2015|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112185233/http://www.avalonbreads.net/about-us/triple-bottom-line/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===The three bottom lines===
{{more citations needed section|date=April 2014}}
The triple bottom line consists of social equity, economic, and environmental factors. The phrase, ""people, planet, and profit"" to describe the triple bottom line and the goal of [[sustainability]], was coined by John Elkington in 1994 while at SustainAbility,<ref name=""elkington"" /><ref name="":0"" /> and was later used as the title of the Anglo-Dutch oil company Shell's first sustainability report in 1997. As a result, one country in which the 3P concept took deep root was The Netherlands.

==== People, the social equity bottom line ====
The people, social equity, or [[human capital]] bottom line pertains to fair and beneficial business practices toward labour and the community and region in which a corporation conducts its business. A TBL company conceives a reciprocal [[social structure]] in which the well-being of corporate, labour and other stakeholder interests are interdependent.

An enterprise dedicated to the triple bottom line seeks to provide benefit to many constituencies and not to exploit or endanger any group of them. The ""up streaming"" of a portion of profit from the marketing of finished goods back to the original producer of raw materials, for example, a farmer in [[fair trade]] agricultural practice, is a common feature. In concrete terms, a TBL business would not use child labour and monitor all contracted companies for child labour exploitation, would pay fair salaries to its workers, would maintain a safe work environment and tolerable working hours, and would not otherwise exploit a community or its labour force. A TBL business also typically seeks to ""give back"" by contributing to the strength and growth of its community with such things as health care and education. Quantifying this bottom line is relatively new, problematic and often subjective. The [[Global Reporting Initiative]] (GRI) has developed guidelines to enable corporations and [[NGO]]s alike to comparably report on the social impact of a business.

==== Planet, the environmental bottom line ====
The planet, environmental bottom line, or [[natural capital]] bottom line refers to sustainable environmental practices. A TBL company endeavors to benefit the natural order as much as possible or at the least do no harm and minimize environmental impact. A TBL endeavour reduces its [[ecological footprint]] by, among other things, carefully managing its consumption of energy and non-renewables and reducing manufacturing waste as well as rendering waste less [[Toxicity|toxic]] before disposing of it in a safe and legal manner. ""[[Cradle-to-grave analysis|Cradle to grave]]"" is uppermost in the thoughts of TBL manufacturing businesses, which typically conduct a [[life cycle assessment]] of products to determine what the true environmental cost is from the growth and harvesting of raw materials to manufacture to distribution to eventual disposal by the end user.

Currently, the cost of disposing of non-degradable or toxic products is born financially and environmentally by future generations, the governments,  and residents near the disposal site and elsewhere. In TBL thinking, an enterprise which produces and markets a product which will create a waste problem should not be given a free ride by society. It would be more equitable for the business which manufactures and sells a problematic product to bear part of the cost of its ultimate disposal.

Ecologically destructive practices, such as overfishing or other endangering depletions of resources are avoided by TBL companies. Often [[environmental sustainability]] is the more profitable course for a business in the long run. Arguments that it costs more to be environmentally sound are often specious when the course of the business is analyzed over a period of time. Generally, sustainability reporting metrics are better quantified and standardized for environmental issues than for social ones. A number of respected reporting institutes and registries exist including the Global Reporting Initiative, CERES, Institute for Sustainability and others.

The ecological bottom line is akin to the concept of [[eco-capitalism]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Gaia Atlas of Green Economics|last=Ekins|first=Paul|publisher=Anchor Books|year=1992|isbn=0-385-41914-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/gaiaatlasofgreen00ekin/page/191 191]|author-link=Paul Ekins|url=https://archive.org/details/gaiaatlasofgreen00ekin/page/191}}</ref>

==== Profit, the economic bottom line ====
The profit or economic bottom line deals with the economic value created by the organization after deducting the cost of all inputs, including the cost of the capital tied up. It therefore differs from traditional accounting definitions of profit. In the original concept, within a sustainability framework, the ""profit"" aspect needs to be seen as the real economic benefit enjoyed by the host society. It is the real economic impact the organization has on its economic environment. This is often confused to be limited to the internal profit made by a company or organization (which nevertheless remains an essential starting point for the computation). Therefore, an original TBL approach cannot be interpreted as simply traditional corporate accounting profit ''plus'' social and environmental impacts unless the ""profits"" of other entities are included as a social benefit.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}}

==Subsequent development==
{{norefs|section|date=January 2024}}
Following the initial publication of the triple bottom line concept, students and practitioners have sought greater detail in how the pillars can be evaluated. The ''people'' concept, for example, can be viewed into three dimensions – organisational needs, individual needs, and community issues.

Equally, ''profit'' is a function of both a healthy sales stream, which needs a high focus on customer service, coupled with the adoption of a strategy to develop new customers to replace those that die away, and ''planet'' can be divided into a multitude of subdivisions, although [[Waste hierarchy|reduce, reuse and recycle]] is a succinct way of steering through this division.

The initial understanding is now supplanted by thinking beyond TBL: added to the TBL concept of economics, ethics and environment is the idea of thinking of the environment as a mantel that the other pillars hold up, and add to  Economics and Ethics, the notions of Energy, and Health or the 4 E's.

==Supporting arguments==
{{more citations needed section|date=April 2014}}
The following business-based arguments support the concept of TBL:

*Reaching untapped market potential: TBL companies can find financially profitable niches which were missed when money alone was the driving factor. Examples include:

# Adding [[ecotourism]] or [[geotourism]] to an already rich tourism market such as the [[Dominican Republic]]
# Developing profitable methods to assist existing NGOs with their missions such as fundraising, reaching clients, or creating networking opportunities with multiple NGOs
# Providing products or services which benefit underserved populations and/or the environment which are also financially profitable.

*Adapting to new business sectors: While the number of [[social enterprises]] is growing,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/the-peoples-business|title=The People's Business 2013|work=Social Enterprise UK|access-date=July 15, 2015|language=en}}</ref> and with the entry of the [[B Corporation|B Corp movement]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rogertrapp/2015/03/29/business-leaders-urged-to-find-a-purpose-in-life/|title=Business Leaders Urged To Find A Purpose In Life|date=2015|website=Forbes|last1=Trapp|first1=Roger|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> there is more demand from consumers and investors for an accounting for social and environmental impact.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/About-Deloitte/gx-wef-2015-millennial-survey-executivesummary.pdf|title=Mind the gaps. The 2015 Deloitte Millennial survey|date=2015|website=Deloitt|access-date=15 July 2015}}</ref>  For example, [[Fair trade|Fair Trade]] and Ethical Trade companies require ethical and sustainable practices from all of their suppliers and service providers.

Government [[fiscal policies]] usually claim to be concerned with identifying social and natural deficits on a less formal basis. However, such choices may be guided more by [[ideology]] than by [[economics]]. The primary benefit of embedding one approach to measurement of these deficits would be first to direct [[monetary policy]] to reduce them, and eventually achieve a global [[monetary reform]] by which they could be systematically and globally reduced in some uniform way.

The argument is that the [[Earth]]'s [[carrying capacity]] is at risk, and that in order to avoid catastrophic breakdown of [[climate]] or [[ecosystem]]s, there is need for comprehensive reform of [[Global financial system|global financial institutions]] similar in scale to what was undertaken at [[Bretton Woods conference|Bretton Woods]] in 1944.

With the emergence of an externally consistent [[green economics]] and agreement on definitions of potentially contentious terms such as [[full-cost accounting]], [[natural capital]] and [[social capital]], the prospect of formal metrics for ecological and social loss or risk has grown less remote since the 1990s.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}}

In the [[United Kingdom]] in particular, the London Health Observatory has undertaken a formal programme to address social deficits via a fuller understanding of what ""social capital"" is, how it functions in a real [[community]] (that being the [[City of London]]), and how losses of it tend to require both [[financial capital]] and significant political and social attention from [[Volunteering|volunteer]]s and professionals to help resolve.  The data they rely on is extensive, building on decades of statistics of the [[Greater London Council]] since [[World War II]].  Similar studies have been undertaken in [[North America]].

Studies of the [[value of Earth]] have tried to determine what might constitute an ecological or natural life deficit. The [[Kyoto Protocol]] relies on some measures of this sort, and actually relies on some [[value of life]] calculations that, among other things, are explicit about the ratio of the price of a human life between developed and developing nations (about 15 to 1). While the motive of this number was to simply assign responsibility for a cleanup, such stark honesty opens not just an economic but political door to some kind of negotiation &mdash; presumably to reduce that ratio in time to something seen as more equitable. As it is, people in developed nations can be said to benefit 15 times more from [[ecological devastation]] than in developing nations, in pure financial terms. According to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]], they are thus obliged to pay 15 times more per life to avoid a loss of each such life to [[climate change]] &mdash; the [[Kyoto Protocol]] seeks to implement exactly this formula, and is therefore sometimes cited as a first step towards getting nations to accept formal [[legal liability|liability]] for damage inflicted on ecosystems shared globally.

Advocacy for triple bottom line reforms is common in [[Green Parties]]. Some of the measures undertaken in the [[European Union]] towards the [[Euro]] currency integration standardize the reporting of ecological and social losses in such a way as to seem to endorse in principle the notion of unified accounts, or [[unit of account]], for these deficits.

To address financial bottom line profitability concerns, some argue that focusing on the TBL will indeed increase profit for the shareholders in the long run. In practice, [[John Mackey (businessman)|John Mackey]], CEO of [[Whole Foods]], uses Whole Foods' Community Giving Days as an example. On days when Whole Foods donates 5% of their sales to charity, this action benefits the community, creates goodwill with customers, and energizes employees, which may lead to increased, sustainable profitability in the long-run.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2015/08/20/whole-foods-john-mackey/|title=John Mackey: The conscious capitalist}}</ref>

Furthermore, planning a sustainability strategy with the triple bottom line in mind could save companies a lot of money if a disaster were to strike. For example, when [[BP]] spilled ""two hundred million gallons of oil in the [[Gulf of Mexico]]"", it cost the company ""billions"". This company focused mostly on the financial and economic costs of this disaster, instead of the company’s environmental bottom line, furthering damage to the company and its reputation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Szekely |first1=Francisco |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1pc5g1x |title=The Beyond the Triple Bottom Line: Eight Steps toward a Sustainable Business Model |last2=Dossa |first2=Zahir |last3=Hollender |first3=Jeffrey |date=2017 |publisher=[[MIT Press]]|jstor=j.ctt1pc5g1x |isbn=978-0-262-03599-6}}</ref>

==Adoption==
Timothy Slater and Tanya Hall identified [[General Electric]] (GE), [[Unilever]], [[Procter and Gamble]], [[3M]] and a private company, Cascade Engineering, as examples of businesses using TBL.<ref name=IBR /> GE referred to TBL benefits associated with their electron beam emitting technology investment in 2008.<ref>GE Energy Financial Services, [https://www.ge.com/news/press-releases/ge-invests-advanced-electron-beams-technology-cuts GE Invests In Advanced Electron Beams; Technology Cuts], published 16 September 2008, accessed 21 February 2024</ref> Danish company [[Novo Nordisk]]'s consolidated financial statements for 2019 were supplemented by a ""consolidated social statement"" and a ""consolidated environmental statement"".<ref>Novo Nordisk, [https://www.novonordisk.com/content/dam/nncorp/global/en/annual-report/pdfs/2019/Novo-Nordisk-Annual-Report-2019.pdf Annual Report 2019], accessed 21 February 2024</ref>

==Criticism==
While many people agree with the importance of good social conditions and preservation of the environment, there are also many who disagree with the triple bottom line as the way to enhance these conditions. The following are the reasons why:

* ''Reductive method'': Concurrently the environment comes to be treated as an externality or background feature, an externality that tends not to have the human dimension build into its definition. Thus, in many writings, even in those critical of the triple-bottom-line approach, the social becomes a congeries of miscellaneous considerations left over from the other two prime categories.<ref name=""academia.edu"">{{Cite journal | year=2010 | last1= Scerri | first1= Andy | last2= James | first2= Paul | author-link2= Paul James (academic) | title= Accounting for sustainability: Combining qualitative and quantitative research in developing 'indicators' of sustainability | url= https://www.academia.edu/3230887 | journal= International Journal of Social Research Methodology | volume= 13 | issue= 1 | pages= 41–53| doi= 10.1080/13645570902864145 | s2cid= 145391691 }}</ref> Alternative approaches, such as [[Circles of Sustainability]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=James |first1=Paul |author-link1= Paul James (academic) |last2=Scerri |first2=Andy |editor1-last=Amen |editor1-first=Mark |editor2-last=Toly |editor2-first=Noah J. |editor3-last=Carney |editor3-first=Patricia L. |editor4-last=Segbers |editor4-first=Klaus |title=Cities and Global Governance: New Sites for International Relations |date=2011 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Farnham, UK |isbn=978-1-4094-0893-2 |pages=110–146 |chapter=Auditing cities through circles of sustainability}}</ref> that treat the economic as a social domain, alongside and in relation to the ecological, the political and the cultural are now being considered as more appropriate for understanding institutions, cities and regions.<ref name=""academia.edu""/><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Scerri | first1 = Andy | doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.02.027 | title = Ends in view: The capabilities approach in ecological/sustainability economics | journal = Ecological Economics | volume = 77 | pages = 7–10 | year = 2012 | bibcode = 2012EcoEc..77....7S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Magee |first1=Liam |last2=Scerri |first2=Andy |title=From issues to indicators: developing robust community sustainability measures |journal=Local Environment |date=1 September 2012 |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=915–933 |doi=10.1080/13549839.2012.714755 |bibcode=2012LoEnv..17..915M |s2cid=153340355 |issn=1354-9839}}</ref>
* ''[[Social inertia|Inertia]]'': The difficulty of achieving global agreement on [[simultaneous policy]] may render such measures at best advisory, and thus unenforceable. For example, people may be unwilling to undergo a [[Depression (economics)|depression]] or even sustained [[recession]] to replenish lost [[ecosystem]]s. {{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}
* ''Application'': According to Fred Robins' ''The Challenge of TBL: A Responsibility to Whom?'' one of the major weaknesses of the TBL framework is its ability to be applied in the practical world.
* ''Equating ecology with environment'': TBL is seen to be disregarding ecological sustainability with environmental effects, where in reality both economic and social viability is dependent on environmental well-being. While [[greenwashing]] is not new, its use has increased over recent years to meet consumer demand for environmentally friendly goods and services. The problem is compounded by lax enforcement by regulatory agencies such as the Federal Trade Commission in the United States, the Competition Bureau in Canada, and the [[Committee of Advertising Practice]] and the Broadcast Committee of Advertising Practice in the United Kingdom. Critics of the practice suggest that the rise of greenwashing, paired with ineffective regulation, contributes to consumer skepticism of all green claims, and diminishes the power of the consumer in driving companies toward greener solutions for manufacturing processes and business operation.
* ''Time dimension'': While the triple bottom line incorporates the social, economical and environmental (People, Planet, Profit) dimensions of sustainable development, it does not explicitly address the fourth dimension: time. The time dimension focuses on preserving current value in all three other dimensions for later. This means assessment of short term, longer term and long term consequences of any action.<ref>Lozano, R. (2012). ""Towards better embedding sustainability into companies’ systems: an analysis of voluntary corporate initiatives,"" ''Journal of Cleaner Production'' 25 pp. 14-26</ref>
*""One problem with the triple bottom line is that the three separate accounts cannot easily be added up. It is difficult to measure the planet and people accounts in the same terms as profits—that is, in terms of cash.""<ref name=""elkington"" /> This has led to TBL being augmented with [[Cost–benefit analysis|cost-benefit analysis]] in [[Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)|Triple Bottom Line Cost Benefit Analysis (TBL-CBA)]].
* ''Performance/eco-efficiency'': According to Rambaud, A. & Richard, J., ""the TBL model [...] is based on the concept of ‘eco-efficiency’. In his seminal book, Elkington [...] gives a fundamental role to eco-efficiency in constructing the TBL model. According to him, the development of the concept of eco-efficiency allowed the development of the TBL model, a framework that he believes can save businesspeople from ecological communism"".<ref name=""rambaud"">{{Cite journal | year=2015 | last1= Rambaud | first1= Alexandre | last2= Richard | first2= Jacques | title= The ''Triple Depreciation Line'' instead of the ''Triple Bottom Line'': Towards a genuine integrated reporting | url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1045235415000234 | journal= Critical Perspectives on Accounting | volume= 33 | pages= 92–116 | doi= 10.1016/j.cpa.2015.01.012 }}</ref> Eco-efficiency is equivalent to weak sustainability and corresponds to a relative measure of socio-environmental impacts compared to value creation. In this, eco-efficiency differs from eco-effectiveness, which is concerned with the absolute measurement of these impacts. A company can therefore increase its socio-environmental impacts and increase its eco-efficiency, if at the same time it increases its value creation even more. The TBL is thus the dedicated reporting system structuring this notion of performance at the expense of eco-effectiveness. Yet eco-efficiency is at the heart of rebound effects and cannot be a credible basis for ecosystem management in particular.  
*Elkington himself has called for a rethink on TBL and a ""product recall"" on use of the concept. He argues that the original idea was to encourage businesses to manage the wider economic, social and environmental impacts of their operations, but its practical use as an accounting tool has now undermined its value. More precisely, he explains ""It [Triple Bottom Line] was supposed to provoke deeper thinking about capitalism and its future, but many early adopters understood the concept as a balancing act, adopting a trade-off mentality. [...] Such experimentation [de la TBL] is clearly vital — and typically sparks a proliferation of potential solutions. But the bewildering range of options now on offer can provide business with an alibi for inaction. Worse, we have conspicuously failed to benchmark progress across these options, on the basis of their real-world impact and performance"".<ref name=recall />

In short, the criticisms can be summarised as:
* attempting to divert the attention of regulators and deflating pressure for regulatory change;
* seeking to persuade critics, such as non-government organisations, that they are both well-intentioned and have changed their ways;
* seeking to expand market share at the expense of those rivals not involved in greenwashing; this is especially attractive if little or no additional expenditure is required to change ''performance''; alternatively, a company can engage in greenwashing in an attempt to narrow the perceived 'green' advantage of a rival;
* reducing staff turnover and making it easier to attract staff in the first place;
* making the company seem attractive for potential investors, especially those interested in ethical investment or socially responsive investment;
* inability to add up the three accounts unless tools such as [[Cost–benefit analysis|cost-benefit analysis]] or eco-efficiency (weak sustainability performance) are added to put social and environmental [[Externality|externalities]] in monetary terms.

In response to these limitations, the concept of the ""Triple Depreciation Line"" (also called ""CARE - Comprehensive Accounting in Respect of Ecology - model"") has been proposed <ref name=""rambaud""></ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Improving Nature's Visibility in Financial Accounting"" Natural Capital Coalition's report |url=https://www.chaire-comptabilite-ecologique.fr/Natural-capital-visibility-in-financial-accounting-Method-3-Extended-Version?lang=fr.|access-date=17 October 2022}}</ref>

==Legislation==
A focus on people, planet and profit has led to legislation changes around the world, often through [[social enterprise]] or [[Social investing|social investment]] or through the introduction of a new legal form, the [[Community Interest Company]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Community Interest Companies|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/office-of-the-regulator-of-community-interest-companies|publisher=UK Government|access-date=15 July 2015}}</ref> In the United States, the [[BCorp]] movement has been part of a call for legislation change to allow and encourage a focus on social and environmental impact, with BCorp a legal form for a company focused on ""stakeholders, not just shareholders"".<ref>{{cite web|title=Becoming a Legal BCorp|url=https://www.bcorporation.net/become-a-b-corp/how-to-become-a-b-corp/legal-roadmap|publisher=BCorp|access-date=15 July 2015}}</ref>

In [[Western Australia]], the triple bottom line was adopted as a part of the State Sustainability Strategy,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070830000447/http://www.sustainability.dpc.wa.gov.au/docs/Final%20Strategy/SSSFinal.pdf Government of Western Australia. (2003, September). ""Hope for the Future: The Western Australia State Sustainability Strategy""], accessed August 30, 2013</ref> and accepted by the [[Western Australian Government|Government of Western Australia]] but its status was increasingly marginalised by subsequent [[Premier of Western Australia|premier]]s [[Alan Carpenter]] and [[Colin Barnett]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Business}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[B Corporation (certification)]]
*[[Bottom of the pyramid]]
*[[Circles of Sustainability]]
*[[Community interest company]]
*[[Conscious business]]
*[[Double bottom line]], a similar concept predating the UN standard
*[[EC3 Global]]
*[[Eco-capitalism]]
*[[Grassroots Business Fund]]
*[[Impact investing]]
*[[Low-profit limited liability company]]
*[[Permaculture#Three Foundational Ethics|Permaculture ethics]]
*[[Social entrepreneurship]]
*[[Triple top line]]
*[[Value network]]
*[[Value network analysis]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
* {{Citation|title=Part I. What You Do Now Depends on Where You Are Now|date=2010-12-31|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781400837618.11|work=Why We Vote|pages=11–92|place=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.1515/9781400837618.11|isbn=978-1-4008-3761-8|access-date=2020-10-16}}

== Further reading ==
* ''Social Audit - A Management Tool for Co-operative Working 1981'' by Freer Spreckley [http://www.evalpartners.org/sites/default/files/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf]
* ''The Gaia Atlas of Green Economics'' (Gaia Future Series) [Paperback], by Paul Ekins, Anchor Books
* ''Harvard Business Review on Corporate Responsibility'' by [[Harvard Business School Press]]
* ''The Soul of a Business: Managing for Profit and the Common Good'' by Tom Chappell
* ''Capitalism at the Crossroads: The Unlimited Business Opportunities in Solving the World's Most Difficult Problems'' by Professor Stuart L. Hart
* ''The Triple Bottom Line: How Today's Best-Run Companies Are Achieving Economic, Social and Environmental Success—and How You Can Too'' by Andrew W. Savitz and Karl Weber
* ''The Sustainability Advantage: Seven Business Case Benefits of a Triple Bottom Line (Conscientious Commerce)'' by Bob Willard, [[New Society Publishers]] {{ISBN|978-0-86571-451-9}}

==External links==
* [https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-the-triple-bottom-line-22798 Explainer: what is the triple bottom line? - The Conversation] 
* [http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.html The Triple Bottom Line: What Is It and How Does It Work? - Indiana Business Review]
* [https://publications.csiro.au/rpr/pub?pid=procite:ef189bac-499a-46db-be4d-b391a3cb05dc Balancing Act - A Triple Bottom Line Analysis of the Australian Economy]
* [http://www.c4cr.org/ Citizens for Corporate Redesign] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331120908/http://www.c4cr.org/ |date=2022-03-31 }} ([[Minnesota]])
* [http://www.triplepundit.com/ Triple Pundit - Blog on Triple Bottom Line] ([[United States]])
* [http://www.corporate-responsibility.org/ Corporate Responsibility] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [https://isa.org.usyd.edu.au/research/tbl.shtml TBL Accounting without boundaries - Australian corporate and government experiences]

{{Social accountability|state=expanded}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Triple Bottom Line}}
[[Category:Welfare economics]]
[[Category:Sustainable business]]
[[Category:Corporate social responsibility]]
[[Category:Accounting terminology]]
[[Category:Accountability]]
[[Category:1994 introductions]]
[[Category:Sustainability advocates]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Blended finance,"{{Cleanup bare URLs|date=August 2022}}
'''Blended finance'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.convergence.finance/blended-finance|title=Blended Finance {{!}} Convergence|website=www.convergence.finance|language=en|access-date=2018-09-04}}</ref> is defined as ""the strategic use of development [[finance]] and [[Philanthropy|philanthropic]] funds to mobilize private capital flows to [[Emerging markets|emerging]] and [[frontier markets]]"",<ref name=""auto"">{{Cite web|url=https://www3.weforum.org/maintenance/public.htm|title=World Economic Forum - Home|website=www3.weforum.org}}</ref> resulting in positive results for both investors and communities. Blended finance offers the possibility to scale up commercial financing for [[Developing country|developing countries]] and to channel such financing toward investments with development impact. As such, blended finance is designed to support progress towards the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) set forth by the [[United Nations]]. Meeting the SDGs will require an additional $2.5 trillion in private and public financing per year as of 2017 estimates,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/rbec/en/home/blog/2017/7/12/What-kind-of-blender-do-we-need-to-finance-the-SDGs-.html|title=What kind of blender do we need to finance the SDGs?|website=UNDP in Europe and Central Asia|access-date=2021-11-03|archive-date=2021-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103185402/https://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/rbec/en/home/blog/2017/7/12/What-kind-of-blender-do-we-need-to-finance-the-SDGs-.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unctad.org/press-material/developing-countries-face-25-trillion-annual-investment-gap-key-sustainable|title=Developing countries face $2.5 trillion annual investment gap in key sustainable development sectors, UNCTAD report estimates &#124; UNCTAD|website=unctad.org|date=24 June 2014 }}</ref> and an additional $13.5 trillion<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/media/news/WEO2015_COP21Briefing.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2016-04-29 |archive-date=2017-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510090909/https://www.iea.org/media/news/WEO2015_COP21Briefing.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> to implement the [[COP21]] Paris climate accord. The concept of blended finance can contribute to raising the private financing needed. It was first recognized as a solution to the funding gap in the outcome document of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development in July 2015.<ref>https://www.un.org/esa/ffd/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/AAAA_Outcome.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>

{{POV|date=January 2024}}

Building upon evidence from a previous survey<ref>http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Blended_Finance_Insights_Investments_Vehicles_Facilities_report_2016.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> done on behalf of the [[World Economic Forum]], the [[OECD]] released recent findings<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/blended-finance-funds-and-facilities_806991a2-en|doi=10.1787/806991a2-en|title=Blended Finance Funds and Facilities|series=OECD Development Co-operation Working Papers|year=2019|last1=Basile|first1=Irene|last2=Dutra|first2=Jarrett|s2cid=203332300|doi-access=free}}</ref> which identified 180 blended finance funds and facilities, with $60.2 billion in assets invested across 111 developing countries and impacting over 177 million lives, demonstrating the tremendous potential of blended finance to close the funding gap required to finance the ambitious [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) agenda and deliver development outcomes.

The concept has been gaining popularity lately within the world of international development finance. As a result, blended finance principles<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/blended-finance-principles/|title = Blended Finance - OECD}}</ref> have been adopted by the [[Development Assistance Committee]] to guide the design and implementation of the concept, which aims to use development finance, including philanthropic resources, to align additional finance towards meeting the SDGs.

==Terminology==

The term blended finance implies the mixing of both public and private funds through a common investment scheme or deal, with each party using their expertise in a complementary way. The concept and model was developed within the Redesigning Development Finance Initiative from the [[World Economic Forum]], who defined it as ""the strategic use of development finance and philanthropic funds to mobilize private capital flows to [[Emerging market|emerging]] and [[frontier markets]].""<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.weforum.org/global-challenges/projects/redesigning-development-finance/ |title=Redesigning Development Finance &#124; World Economic Forum |access-date=2016-04-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601105718/https://www.weforum.org/global-challenges/projects/redesigning-development-finance/ |archive-date=2016-06-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Rationale==
The resources needed to bridge the funding gap to meet SDG requirements cannot be met through public resources (such as [[Official Development Assistance]]) alone, and private investment will be key to increasing the scope and impact of development finance and philanthropic funders. Only a small percentage of the worldwide invested assets of banks, pension funds, insurers, foundations and endowments, and multinational corporations, are targeted at sectors and regions that advance sustainable development. This is due to the fact that large-scale investing usually flows into environmentally destructive activities that come with higher economic incentive.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Niewöhner |first1=Jörg |title=Land Use Competition: Ecological, Economic and Social Perspectives |date=2016 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-33628-2_1 |work=Land Use Competition |pages=1–17 |editor-last=Niewöhner |editor-first=Jörg |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-33628-2_1 |isbn=978-3-319-33626-8 |access-date=2022-10-22 |last2=Bruns |first2=Antje |last3=Haberl |first3=Helmut |last4=Hostert |first4=Patrick |last5=Krueger |first5=Tobias |last6=Lauk |first6=Christian |last7=Lutz |first7=Juliana |last8=Müller |first8=Daniel |last9=Nielsen |first9=Jonas Ø. |editor2-last=Bruns |editor2-first=Antje |editor3-last=Hostert |editor3-first=Patrick |editor4-last=Krueger |editor4-first=Tobias}}</ref> The current challenge for the SDG era is how to channel more of these private resources to the sectors and countries that are central for the SDGs and broader development efforts. This is particularly important in a context where public resources are increasingly under pressure, while private flows to developing countries are increasing significantly. Blended finance is designed to fuel vast inflows of private capital to support these development outcomes.

Investors and commercial institutions are increasingly attracted to emerging and frontier markets,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Issues/Business-environment/Business-redefined---Global-trend-1--the-rise-and-rise-of-emerging-markets |title=Business redefined - Global trend 1: The rise and rise of emerging markets - EY - Global |access-date=2016-04-29 |archive-date=2016-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514102431/http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Issues/Business-environment/Business-redefined---Global-trend-1--the-rise-and-rise-of-emerging-markets |url-status=dead }}</ref> and this trend overlaps with the challenges faced by development funders, who face significant financial constraints and a lack of capacity or expertise in structuring transactions or sourcing deals. Thus, there is a good opportunity for these two trends to converge and there is a political will for effective public-private collaboration, presenting a real opportunity for investors and financiers to develop more effective strategies for managing their participation in emerging markets. 
Blended finance contributes to development objectives by:
#Increasing capital [[Leverage (finance)|leverage]]: Extends the reach of limited development finance and philanthropic funds as they are used strategically to facilitate larger volumes of private capital that are channelled to investments with high development impact
#Enhancing impact: The skillsets, knowledge and resources of public and private investors can increase the scope, range, and effectiveness of development-related investments.
#Deliver risk-adjusted returns: Risks can be managed to realise returns in line with market expectations, catalyzing private funds to development projects.

==Supporting mechanisms==
Supporting mechanisms have been traditionally used by development funders in a Blended Finance package to attract and support private sector investors by managing risks and reducing transaction costs. These mechanisms can generally be classified as providing:
*'''Technical Assistance''', or grant funds to supplement the capacity of investees and lower transaction costs.
*'''Risk Underwriting''', to fully or partially protect the investor against risk through appropriate risk mitigation
*'''Market Incentives''', guaranteed payments contingent on performance of future pricing and/or payment in exchange for upfront investment in new or distressed markets.

==Blended Finance platforms==
The [[Sustainable Development Investment Partnership]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sdiponline.org/|title=SDIP|website=SDIP|access-date=2021-12-10|archive-date=2021-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319144006/http://sdiponline.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Convergence,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.convergence.finance/|title=Convergence - The Global Network for Blended Finance|website=www.convergence.finance}}</ref> and THK<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thkblendedfinance.org/about-us/ |title=About us }}</ref> are three platforms that put blended finance into practice. Their goal is to bring relevant entities from the public and private sector together, connecting interests and resources to initiatives. Both of these platforms provide capital suppliers with access to a pipeline of individual blended finance project transactions, effectively scaling up the participation of both public and private investors in transactions. THK (Tri Hita Karana) began as a roadmap that was launched as a unified, international framework for mobilizing additional commercial capital towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and was recently converted into a Blended Finance platform in 2021.

'''Community of Practice on Private Finance on Sustainable Development'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/blended-finance-principles/|title=Community of Practice on Private Finance on Sustainable Development|website=Community of Practise on Private Finance on Sustainable Development}}</ref> brings together Development Assistance Committee members and private sector.

While blended finance is showing promising initial interest and results, these platforms will help assess the efficiency of the model over time.

== See also ==

* [[Social Impact Incentives]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Investment]]
[[Category:Development finance institutions]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Green building,"{{Short description|Structures and processes of building structures that are more environmentally responsible}}
{{About|sustainable construction principles|the building on the MIT campus|Green Building (MIT)|the building in Louisville|The Green Building (Louisville, Kentucky)}}
{{use mdy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=October 2022}}
[[File:U.S. EPA Kansas City Science and Technology Center.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|US EPA Kansas City Science & Technology Center.
This facility features the following green attributes:
{{unordered list|[[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED 2.0 Gold certified]] | Green Power | Native Landscaping}}]]

'''Green building''' (also known as '''green construction''', '''sustainable building''', or '''eco-friendly building''') refers to both a structure and the application of processes that are [[environmentally responsible]] and [[resource-efficient]] throughout a building's life-cycle: from planning to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition.<ref name=""epa.gov"">{{Cite web |url=https://archive.epa.gov/greenbuilding/web/html/about.html |title=Basic Information |website=Green Building |publisher=US EPA |access-date=2021-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328121546/https://archive.epa.gov/greenbuilding/web/html/about.html |archive-date=2021-03-28 |url-status=live}}</ref> This requires close cooperation of the contractor, the architects, the engineers, and the client at all project stages.<ref name=""plainiotis"">Yan Ji and Stellios Plainiotis (2006): Design for Sustainability. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press. {{ISBN|7-112-08390-7}}</ref> The Green Building practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort.<ref name=""epa.gov""/> Green building also refers to saving resources to the maximum extent, including energy saving, land saving, water saving, material saving, etc., during the whole life cycle of the building, protecting the environment and reducing pollution, providing people with healthy, comfortable and efficient use of space, and being in harmony with nature. Buildings that live in harmony; green building technology focuses on low consumption, high efficiency, economy, environmental protection, integration and optimization.’<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Hu M, Skibniewski MJ |date=22 April 2021 |title=A Review of Building Construction Cost Research: Current Status, Gaps and Green Buildings |journal=Green Building & Construction Economics |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.37256/gbce.212021 |issn=2737-5021}}</ref>

[[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] (LEED) is a set of [[Green building certification systems|rating systems]] for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of green buildings which was developed by the [[U.S. Green Building Council]]. Other certificate systems that confirm the sustainability of buildings are the British [[BREEAM]] (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) for buildings and large-scale developments or the DGNB System ([[:de:Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen|Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen e.V.]]) which benchmarks the sustainability performance of buildings, indoor environments and districts. Currently, the [[World Green Building Council]] is conducting research on the effects of green buildings on the health and productivity of their users and is working with the [[World Bank]] to promote Green Buildings in [[Emerging Markets]] through EDGE ([[International Finance Corporation#Green buildings in developing countries|Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies]]) Market Transformation Program and certification.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edgebuildings.com/|title=EDGE Buildings &#124; Build and Brand Green|website=www.edgebuildings.com|access-date=2019-09-18|archive-date=2019-11-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120082847/https://www.edgebuildings.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> There are also other tools such as [[Green Star (Australia)|Green Star]] in Australia, [[Global Sustainability Assessment System]] (GSAS) used in the [[Middle East]] and the Green Building Index (GBI) predominantly used in Malaysia.

[[Building information modeling |Building information modeling (BIM)]] is a process involving the generation and management of digital representations of physical and functional characteristics of places. [[Building information modeling|Building information models]] (BIMs) are files (often but not always in proprietary formats and containing proprietary data) which can be extracted, exchanged, or networked to support decision-making regarding a building or other built asset. Current BIM software is used by individuals, businesses, and government agencies who plan, design, construct, operate and maintain diverse physical infrastructures, such as water, refuse, electricity, gas, communication utilities, roads, railways, bridges, ports, and tunnels.

Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current practices in creating greener structures, the common objective of green buildings is to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural environment by:
* Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
* Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity (see [[healthy building]])
* Reducing waste, pollution, and [[environmental degradation]]<ref name=""epa.gov""/>

[[Natural building]] is a similar concept, usually on a smaller scale and focusing on the use of locally available [[natural material]]s.<ref>Hopkins, R. 2002. [http://transitionculture.org/articles/a-natural-way-of-building-2002/ ''A Natural Way of Building.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080203112628/http://transitionculture.org/articles/a-natural-way-of-building-2002/ |date=2008-02-03 }} Transition Culture. Retrieved: 2007-03-30.</ref> Other related topics include [[sustainable design]] and [[green architecture]]. Sustainability may be defined as meeting the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.<ref>Allen, E, & Iano, J. (2008). Fundamentals of building construction: materials and methods. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc.</ref> Although some green building programs don't address the issue of [[green retrofit|retrofitting existing homes]], others do, especially through [[public schemes for energy efficient refurbishment]]. Green construction principles can easily be applied to retrofit work as well as new construction.

A 2009 report by the U.S. [[General Services Administration]] found 12 sustainably-designed buildings that cost less to operate and have excellent energy performance. In addition, occupants were overall more satisfied with the building than those in typical commercial buildings. These are eco-friendly buildings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.capitalmarketspartnership.com/UserFiles/Admin%20GSA%20June%202008%20-%20Assessing%20Green%20Building%20Performance.pdf|title=GSA Public Buildings Service Assessing Green Building Performance|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722180030/http://www.capitalmarketspartnership.com/UserFiles/Admin%20GSA%20June%202008%20-%20Assessing%20Green%20Building%20Performance.pdf|archive-date=2013-07-22}}</ref>

==Reducing environmental impact==
Buildings represent a large part of energy, electricity, water and materials consumption. As of 2020, they account for 37% of global energy use and energy-related {{CO2}} emissions, which the United Nations estimate contributed to 33% of overall worldwide emissions.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/34572 | title=2020 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction: Towards a Zero-emissions, Efficient and Resilient Buildings and Construction Sector - Executive Summary | year=2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Nord |first=Natasa |title=Building Energy Efficiency in Cold Climates |date=2017 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780124095489101903 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies |pages=149–157 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.10190-3 |isbn=978-0-12-804792-7 |access-date=2022-04-04}}</ref> Including the manufacturing of building materials, the global {{CO2}} emissions were 39%.<ref name=""globalstatusreport"">{{cite web |author1=Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction |author2=International Energy Agency |author3=United Nations Environment Programme |title=2019 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction Towards a zero-emissions, efficient, and resilient buildings and construction sector |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30950/2019GSR.pdf |website=UN environment programme Document Repository |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |access-date=20 October 2020 |date=2019 |archive-date=21 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021215735/https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30950/2019GSR.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>  If new technologies in construction are not adopted during this time of rapid growth, emissions could double by 2050, according to the [[United Nations Environment Programme|United Nations Environment Program]].

Glass buildings, especially all-glass skyscrapers, contribute significantly to climate change due to their energy inefficiency. While these structures are visually appealing and allow abundant natural light, they also trap heat, necessitating increased use of air conditioning systems, which contribute to higher carbon emissions. Experts advocate for design modifications and potential restrictions on all-glass edifices to mitigate their detrimental environmental impact.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jul/28/ban-all-glass-skscrapers-to-save-energy-in-climate-crisis |last=Tapper | first=James |title=Experts call for ban on glass skyscrapers to save energy in climate crisis | work=The Guardian |date=Jul 28, 2019 |access-date=Sep 7, 2023   |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728085453/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jul/28/ban-all-glass-skscrapers-to-save-energy-in-climate-crisis |archive-date=July 28, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://phys.org/news/2021-10-steel-and-glass-fuel-global-climate-injustice.html   |title=Wasteful steel-and-glass buildings fuel global climate injustice, says climate expert |work=phys.org |date=Oct 19, 2019 |access-date=Sep 7, 2021   |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019134540/https://phys.org/news/2021-10-steel-and-glass-fuel-global-climate-injustice.html |archive-date=October 19, 2021}}</ref>

Buildings account for a large amount of land. According to the [[National Resources Inventory]], approximately {{convert|107|e6acre|km2}} of land in the United States are developed. The [[International Energy Agency]] released a publication that estimated that existing buildings are responsible for more than 40% of the world's total primary energy consumption and for 24% of global carbon dioxide emissions.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iea.org/reports/buildings | title=Buildings – Analysis }}</ref><ref>Goodhew S 2016 Sustainable Construction Processes A Resource Text. John Wiley & Son</ref>

According to Global status report from the year 2016, buildings consume more than 30% of all produced energy. The report states that ""Under a below 2°C trajectory, effective action to improve building [[efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] could limit building final energy demand to just above current levels, meaning that the average energy intensity of the global building stock would decrease by more than 80% by 2050"".<ref>{{cite book |title=Towards zero-emission efficient and resilient buildings GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2016 |date=2016 |publisher=Global Alliance for Buildings and construction |page=8 |url=https://www.worldgbc.org/sites/default/files/GABC_Global_Status_Report_V09_november_FINAL.pdf |access-date=1 April 2022}}</ref>[[File:Hanging gardens of One Central Park, Sydney.jpg|thumb|Hanging gardens of [[Central Park, Sydney|One Central Park]], [[Sydney]]]]Green building practices aim to reduce the [[Environmental degradation|environmental impact]] of building as the building sector has the greatest potential to deliver significant cuts in emissions at little or no cost. General guidelines can be summarized as follows: Every building should be as small as possible. Avoid contributing to [[urban sprawl|sprawl]], even if the most energy-efficient, environmentally sound methods are used in design and construction. Bioclimatic design principles are able to reduce energy expenditure and by extension, carbon emissions. Bioclimatic design is a method of building design that takes local climate into account to create comfortable conditions within the structure.<ref>{{Citation |last=Watson |first=Donald |title=Bioclimatic Designbioclimaticdesign |date=2013 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5828-9_225 |work=Sustainable Built Environments |pages=1–30 |editor-last=Loftness |editor-first=Vivian |access-date=2023-07-12 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-5828-9_225 |isbn=978-1-4614-5828-9 |editor2-last=Haase |editor2-first=Dagmar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bioclimatic architecture, buildings that respect the environment |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/innovation/bioclimatic-architecture-passivhaus |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Iberdrola |language=en-US}}</ref> This could be as simple as constructing a different shape for the [[building envelope]] or facing the building towards the south to maximize solar exposure for energy or lighting purposes. Given the limitations of city planned construction, bioclimatic principles may be employed on a lesser scale, however it is still an effective [[Passive solar building design|passive method]] to reduce environmental impact.

==Goals of green building==
[[File:Blu Homes mkSolaire front2.jpg|right|thumb|Blu Homes mkSolaire, a green building designed by [[Michelle Kaufmann]].]]
[[File:Shanghai - Shanghai Tower - 0003.jpg|thumb|[[Shanghai Tower]], the tallest and largest LEED Platinum certified building in the world since 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World's second largest building, Shanghai Tower, achieves LEED Platinum {{!}} U.S. Green Building Council |url=https://www.usgbc.org/articles/world-s-second-largest-building-shanghai-tower-achieves-leed-platinum |access-date=2021-12-10 |website=www.usgbc.org |language=en}}</ref>]]
The concept of [[sustainable development]] can be traced to the energy (especially [[Fossil fuel|fossil oil]]) crisis and environmental pollution concerns of the 1960s and 1970s.<ref name=Mao2009>{{cite book |doi=10.1109/ICMSS.2009.5303546 |chapter=A Comparison Study of Mainstream Sustainable/Green Building Rating Tools in the World |title=2009 International Conference on Management and Service Science |page=1 |year=2009 |last1=Mao |first1=Xiaoping |last2=Lu |first2=Huimin |last3=Li |first3=Qiming |isbn=978-1-4244-4638-4 |s2cid=22176705 }}</ref>  The [[Rachel Carson]] book, ""[[Silent Spring]]"",<ref>Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. N.p.: Houghton Mifflin, 1962. Print.</ref> published in 1962, is considered to be one of the first initial efforts to describe sustainable development as related to green building.<ref name=Mao2009/> The green building movement in the U.S. originated from the need and desire for more [[Energy conservation|energy efficient]] and [[environmentally friendly]] construction practices. There are a number of motives for building green, including environmental, economic, and social benefits.<ref name=""epa.gov""/> However, modern sustainability initiatives call for an integrated and synergistic design to both new construction and in the [[retrofitting]] of existing structures. Also known as [[sustainable design]], this approach integrates the building life-cycle with each green practice employed with a design-purpose to create a synergy among the practices used.

Green building brings together a vast array of practices, techniques, and skills to reduce and ultimately eliminate the impacts of buildings on the environment and human health. It often emphasizes taking advantage of [[renewable resource]]s, e.g., using sunlight through [[passive solar]], [[active solar]], and [[photovoltaic]] equipment, and using plants and trees through [[green roof]]s, [[rain gardens]], and reduction of rainwater run-off. Many other techniques are used, such as using low-impact building materials or using packed gravel or permeable concrete instead of conventional concrete or asphalt to enhance replenishment of groundwater.

While the practices or technologies employed in green building are constantly evolving and may differ from region to region, fundamental principles persist from which the method is derived: siting and structure design efficiency, energy efficiency, [[water efficiency]], materials efficiency, indoor environmental quality enhancement, operations and maintenance optimization and waste and toxics reduction.<ref name=components>{{cite web |title=Components of Green Building |website=Green Building |publisher=US EPA |url=http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm |access-date=2008-11-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031104858/http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm |archive-date=2008-10-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=WBDG Sustainable Committee |date=2018-03-08 |title=Sustainable: OVERVIEW |work=Whole Building Design Guide |url=https://www.wbdg.org/design-objectives/sustainable |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310214825/https://www.wbdg.org/design-objectives/sustainable |archive-date=2020-03-10}}</ref> The essence of green building is an optimization of one or more of these principles. Also, with the proper synergistic design, individual green building technologies may work together to produce a greater cumulative effect.

On the aesthetic side of [[green architecture]] or [[sustainable design]] is the philosophy of designing a building that is in harmony with the natural features and resources surrounding the site. There are several key steps in designing sustainable buildings: specify 'green' building materials from local sources, reduce loads, optimize systems, and generate on-site renewable energy.

===Life cycle assessment===
A [[life cycle assessment]] (LCA) can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental, social and economic concerns<ref><!--[[Life cycle assessment#cite note-1]]-->{{cite journal |last1=Ilgin |first1=Mehmet Ali |first2=Surendra M. |last2=Gupta |date=2010 |title=Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing and Product Recovery (ECMPRO): A Review of the State of the Art |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=563–591 |quote=Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a method used to evaluate the environmental impact of a product through its life cycle encompassing extraction and processing of the raw materials, manufacturing, distribution, use, recycling, and final disposal |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.09.037 |pmid=19853369}}{{verify source|date=October 2022|reason=This is the current reference #1 in ""Life cycle assessment"", may have been different when it was added to this article.}}</ref> by assessing a full range of impacts associated with all cradle-to-grave stages of a process: from extraction of raw materials through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling. Impacts taken into account include (among others) [[embodied energy]], [[global warming potential]], resource use, [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]], and waste.

In terms of green building, the last few years have seen a shift away from a ''prescriptive'' approach, which assumes that certain prescribed practices are better for the environment, toward the scientific evaluation of actual performance through LCA.

Although LCA is widely recognized as the best way to evaluate the environmental impacts of buildings (ISO 14040 provides a recognized LCA methodology),<ref name=""ISO 14040"">{{cite web |title=ISO 14040:2006(en) Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Principles and framework |url=https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:14040:ed-2:v1:en |website=www.iso.org |access-date=2021-02-24 |archive-date=2016-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617031837/https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:14040:ed-2:v1:en |url-status=live }}</ref> it is not yet a consistent requirement of green building rating systems and codes, despite the fact that embodied energy and other life cycle impacts are critical to the design of environmentally responsible buildings.

In North America, LCA is rewarded to some extent in the Green Globes rating system, and is part of the new American National Standard based on Green Globes, ''ANSI/GBI 01-2010: Green Building Protocol for Commercial Buildings''. LCA is also included as a pilot credit in the LEED system, though a decision has not been made as to whether it will be incorporated fully into the next major revision. The state of California also included LCA as a voluntary measure in its 2010 draft ''Green Building Standards Code''.

Although LCA is often perceived as overly complex and time-consuming for regular use by design professionals, research organizations such as BRE in the UK and the Athena Sustainable Materials Institute in North America are working to make it more accessible.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26849882 |doi=10.3390/su1030674|doi-access=free |title=Life-Cycle Assessment and the Environmental Impact of Buildings: A Review |year=2009 |last1=Khasreen |first1=Mohamad |last2=Banfill |first2=Phillip F. |last3=Menzies |first3=Gillian |journal=Sustainability |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=674–701 }}</ref>

In the UK, the BRE ''Green Guide to Specifications'' offers ratings for 1,500 building materials based on LCA.

===Siting and structure design efficiency===
{{See also|Sustainable design}}
The foundation of any construction project is rooted in the concept and design stages. The concept stage, in fact, is one of the major steps in a project life cycle, as it has the largest impact on cost and performance.<ref>Hegazy, T. (2002). Life-cycle stages of projects. Computer-Based Construction Project Management, 8.</ref> In designing environmentally optimal buildings, the objective is to minimize the total environmental impact associated with all life-cycle stages of the building project. [[File:Exterior Light Shelves - Green Office Building, Denver Colorado.jpg|thumb|Exterior Light Shelves - Green Office Building, Denver, Colorado]]However, building as a process is not as streamlined as an industrial process, and varies from one building to the other, never repeating itself identically. In addition, buildings are much more complex products, composed of a multitude of materials and components each constituting various design variables to be decided at the design stage. A variation of every design variable may affect the environment during all the building's relevant life-cycle stages.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2004.09.004 |title=A methodology for design of environmentally optimal buildings by variable grouping |journal=Building and Environment |volume=40 |issue=8 |page=1126 |year=2005 |last1=Pushkar |first1=S |last2=Becker |first2=R |last3=Katz |first3=A }}</ref>

===Energy efficiency===
{{Main|Low-energy house|Zero-energy building}}
[[File:PA120016.JPG|thumb|right|An eco-house at [[Findhorn Ecovillage]] with a turf roof and [[solar panel]]s]]
Green buildings often include measures to reduce energy consumption – both the embodied energy required to extract, process, transport and install building materials and operating energy to provide services such as heating and power for equipment.

As high-performance buildings use less operating energy, embodied energy has assumed much greater importance – and may make up as much as 30% of the overall life cycle energy consumption.  Studies such as the U.S. LCI Database Project<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/lci/|title=NREL: U.S. Life Cycle Inventory Database Home Page|website=www.nrel.gov|access-date=2011-04-23|archive-date=2009-03-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318083756/http://www.nrel.gov/lci/|url-status=live}}</ref> show buildings built primarily with wood will have a lower embodied energy than those built primarily with brick, concrete, or steel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://naturallywood.com/uploadedFiles/General/Green_Building/Module-3_Energy_Conservation.pdf |title=Naturally:wood Building Green with Wood Module 3 Energy Conservation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722140227/http://www.naturallywood.com/sites/default/files/Module-3-Energy-Conservation.pdf|archive-date=2012-07-22}}</ref>

To reduce operating energy use, designers use details that reduce air leakage through the building envelope (the barrier between conditioned and unconditioned space). They also specify high-performance windows and extra [[Building insulation|insulation]] in walls, ceilings, and floors. Another strategy, [[passive solar building design]], is often implemented in low-energy homes. Designers orient windows and walls and place awnings, porches, and trees<ref>{{cite journal |last=Simpson |first=J.R. |journal=Energy and Buildings |volume=34 |issue=10 |pages=1067–1076 |title=Improved Estimates of tree-shade effects on residential energy use |date=November 2002 |doi=10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00028-2 }}</ref> to shade windows and roofs during the summer while maximizing solar gain in the winter. In addition, effective window placement ([[Daylighting (architecture)|daylighting]]) can provide more natural light and lessen the need for electric lighting during the day. [[Solar water heating]] further reduces energy costs.

Onsite generation of [[renewable energy]] through [[solar power]], [[wind power]], [[hydro power]], or [[biomass]] can significantly reduce the environmental impact of the building. Power generation is generally the most expensive feature to add to a building.

Energy efficiency for green buildings can be evaluated from either numerical or non-numerical methods. These include use of simulation modelling, analytical or statistical tools.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gan |first1=Vincent J. L.|last2=Lo|first2=Irene M. C.|last3=Ma|first3=Jun|last4=Tse|first4=K. T.|last5=Cheng |first5=Jack C. P.|last6=Chan|first6=C. M.|date=2020-05-01|title=Simulation optimisation towards energy efficient green buildings: Current status and future trends|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=254|pages=120012|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120012 |s2cid=214281706|issn=0959-6526}}</ref>

===Water efficiency===
{{See also|Water conservation}}
Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in sustainable building. One critical issue of water consumption is that in many areas, the demands on the supplying aquifer exceed its ability to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, facilities should increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site. The protection and conservation of water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing for dual plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing or by using water for washing of the cars. Waste-water may be minimized by utilizing water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow shower heads.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lockhart |first1=Olga |title=4 Main Health & Green Building Benefits For Homeowners |url=https://pathwaydc.com/4-main-health-green-building-benefits-for-homeowners/ |website=PATHWAY |date=February 2019 |access-date=18 September 2020}}</ref> Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and increasing possibilities of re-using water on-site. [[Point of use water treatment]] and heating improves both water quality and energy efficiency while reducing the amount of water in circulation. The use of non-sewage and [[greywater]] for on-site use such as site-irrigation will minimize demands on the local aquifer.<ref name=""ciwmb.ca.gov"">{{cite web |publisher=California Integrated Waste Management Board |date=January 23, 2008 |title=Green Building Basics |access-date=November 28, 2009 |url=http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/GREENBUILDING/basics.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210230712/http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/GreenBuilding/Basics.htm |archive-date=2009-12-10 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Large commercial buildings with water and energy efficiency can qualify for an LEED Certification. Philadelphia's [[Comcast Center]] is the tallest building in Philadelphia. It is also one of the tallest buildings in the USA that is LEED Certified. Their environmental engineering consists of a hybrid central chilled water system which cools floor-by-floor with steam instead of water. Burn's Mechanical set-up the entire renovation of the 58 story, 1.4 million square foot sky scraper.

===Materials efficiency===
{{See also|Sustainable architecture|Material efficiency}}

Building materials typically considered 'green' include lumber( that has been certified to a third-party standard), rapidly renewable plant materials (like bamboo and straw), [[dimension stone]], recycled stone, [[hempcrete]], recycled metal ''(see: [[Copper in architecture#Recyclability|copper sustainability and recyclability]])'', and other non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable products. Materials with lower [[embodied energy]] can be used in substitution to common building materials with high degrees of energy consumption and carbon/harmful emissions. For [[concrete]] a high performance [[Self-healing concrete|self-healing]] version is available,<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6250-6_9 |chapter=Self Healing Concrete: A Biological Approach |title=Self Healing Materials |volume=100 |page=195 |series=Springer Series in Materials Science |year=2007 |last1=Jonkers |first1=Henk M |isbn=978-1-4020-6249-0 |s2cid=133848154 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1864315,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205174908/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1864315,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 5, 2008|title=Building Materials: Cementing the Future|first=PETER |last=GUMBEL|date=4 December 2008|via=www.time.com}}</ref> however options with lower yields of pollutive waste entertain ideas of upcycling and congregate supplementing; replacing traditional concrete mixes with slag, production waste, and aggregates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Palankar |first1=Nitendra |last2=Ravi Shankar |first2=A. U. |last3=Mithun |first3=B. M. |date=2015-12-01 |title=Studies on eco-friendly concrete incorporating industrial waste as aggregates |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=378–390 |doi=10.1016/j.ijsbe.2015.05.002 |s2cid=135944819 |issn=2212-6090|doi-access=free }}</ref> Insulation also sees multiple angles for substitution. Commonly used fiberglass has competition from other eco-friendly, low energy embodying insulators with similar or higher [[R-value (insulation)|R-values]] (per inch of thickness) at a competitive price. Sheep wool, [[Cellulose insulation|cellulose]], and [[ThermaCork]] perform more efficiently, however, use may be limited by transportation or installation costs.

Furthermore, embodied energy comparisons can help deduce the selection of building material and its efficiency. Wood production emits less {{CO2}} than concrete and steel if produced in a sustainable way just as steel can be produced more sustainably through improvements in technology (e.g. EAF) and energy recycling/carbon capture(an underutilized potential for systematically [[Carbon sequestration|storing carbon]] in the built environment).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuittinen |first1=Matti |last2=Zernicke |first2=Caya |last3=Slabik |first3=Simon |last4=Hafner |first4=Annette |date=2021-03-11 |title=How can carbon be stored in the built environment? A review of potential options |journal=Architectural Science Review |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=91–107 |doi=10.1080/00038628.2021.1896471 |issn=0003-8628 |s2cid=233617364|url=https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/handle/123456789/103311 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Five actions to improve the sustainability of steel |website=www.ey.com |url=https://www.ey.com/en_id/mining-metals/five-actions-to-improve-the-sustainability-of-steel |access-date=2022-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Dennehymarch |first1=Kevin |title=Using more wood for construction can slash global reliance on fossil fuels |url=https://news.yale.edu/2014/03/31/using-more-wood-construction-can-slash-global-reliance-fossil-fuels |website=Yale News |date=31 March 2014 |publisher=Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies (F&ES), University of Washington's College of the Environment |access-date=15 August 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815070932/https://news.yale.edu/2014/03/31/using-more-wood-construction-can-slash-global-reliance-fossil-fuels |url-status=live }}</ref>

The EPA ([[Environmental Protection Agency]]) also suggests using recycled industrial goods, such as coal combustion products, foundry sand, and demolition debris in construction projects.<ref name=components/> Energy efficient building materials and appliances are promoted in the United States through [[energy rebate program]]s.

A 2022 report from the Boston Consulting Group found that, investments in developing greener forms of cement, iron, and steel lead to bigger greenhouse gas reductions compared with investments in electricity and aviation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=2022-07-07 |title=Plant-based meat by far the best climate investment, report finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/07/plant-based-meat-by-far-the-best-climate-investment-report-finds |access-date=2022-07-10 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> In addition, the process of making cement without producing {{CO2}} is unavoidable. However, using pozzolans clinkers can reduce {{CO2}} emission while in the process of making cement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Humphreys |first1=K. |last2=Mahasenan |first2=M. |date=2002-03-01 |title=Towards a sustainable cement industry. Substudy 8: climate change |url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/20269589 |language=English}}</ref>

===Indoor environmental quality enhancement===
{{See also| Indoor air quality}}
The Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) category in LEED standards, one of the five environmental categories, was created to provide comfort, well-being, and productivity of occupants. The LEED IEQ category addresses design and construction guidelines especially: indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal quality, and lighting quality.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sustainable Facilities Tool: Relevant Mandates and Rating Systems|url=https://sftool.gov/explore/green-building/section/34/ieq/relevant-mandates-and-rating-systems|website=sftool.gov|access-date=3 July 2014|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714120123/https://sftool.gov/explore/green-building/section/34/ieq/relevant-mandates-and-rating-systems|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2009.10.019 |title=Indoor environmental quality differences between office types in LEED-certified buildings in the US |journal=Building and Environment |volume=45 |issue=5 |page=1104 |year=2010 |last1=Lee |first1=Young S |last2=Guerin |first2=Denise A }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=KMC Controls|title=What's Your IQ on IAQ and IEQ?|date=24 September 2015|url=https://www.kmccontrols.com/blog/whats-your-iq-on-iaq-ieq/|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412190226/https://www.kmccontrols.com/blog/whats-your-iq-on-iaq-ieq/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Indoor Air Quality]] seeks to reduce [[volatile organic compound]]s, or VOCs, and other air impurities such as microbial contaminants. Buildings rely on a properly designed ventilation system (passively/naturally or mechanically powered) to provide adequate ventilation of cleaner air from outdoors or recirculated, filtered air as well as isolated operations (kitchens, dry cleaners, etc.) from other occupancies. During the design and construction process choosing construction materials and interior finish products with zero or low VOC emissions will improve IAQ. Most building materials and cleaning/maintenance products emit gases, some of them toxic, such as many VOCs including formaldehyde. These gases can have a detrimental impact on occupants' health, comfort, and productivity. Avoiding these products will increase a building's IEQ. LEED,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/leed.aspx|title=LEED - Eurofins Scientific|website=www.eurofins.com|access-date=2011-08-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928104353/http://www.eurofins.com/leed.aspx|archive-date=2011-09-28|url-status=dead}}</ref> HQE<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/hqe.aspx|title=HQE - Eurofins Scientific|website=www.eurofins.com|access-date=2011-08-23|archive-date=2017-07-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703152425/http://www.eurofins.com/hqe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Green Star contain specifications on use of low-emitting interior. Draft LEED 2012<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/leed-2012.aspx|title=LEED - Eurofins Scientific|website=www.eurofins.com|access-date=2011-08-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928104453/http://www.eurofins.com/leed-2012.aspx|archive-date=2011-09-28|url-status=dead}}</ref> is about to expand the scope of the involved products. BREEAM<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/BREEAM.aspx|title=BREEAM - Eurofins Scientific|website=www.eurofins.com|access-date=2011-08-23|archive-date=2018-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001201447/https://www.eurofins.com/BREEAM.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> limits formaldehyde emissions, no other VOCs. MAS Certified Green is a registered trademark to delineate low VOC-emitting products in the marketplace.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mascertifiedgreen.com/page.asp?pg=understanding_emissions_testing|title=IAQ Green Certification|access-date=2013-12-05|archive-date=2013-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205072729/http://www.mascertifiedgreen.com/page.asp?pg=understanding_emissions_testing|url-status=live}}</ref> The MAS Certified Green Program ensures that any potentially hazardous chemicals released from manufactured products have been thoroughly tested and meet rigorous standards established by independent toxicologists to address recognized long-term health concerns. These IAQ standards have been adopted by and incorporated into the following programs: 
* The United States Green Building Council (USGBC) in their LEED rating system<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usgbc.org/leed/rating-systems/commercial-interiors|title=LEED - U.S. Green Building Council|website=www.usgbc.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219035552/http://www.usgbc.org/leed/rating-systems/commercial-interiors|archive-date=2013-12-19}}</ref>
* The California Department of Public Health (CDPH) in their section 01350 standards<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/greenbuilding/specs/section01350/|title=Green Building HomeGreen Building: Section 01350|first=California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery|last=(CalRecycle)|website=www.calrecycle.ca.gov|access-date=2013-12-05|archive-date=2013-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212011737/http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/greenbuilding/specs/section01350/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The Collaborative for High Performance Schools (CHPS) in their Best Practices Manual<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chps.net/dev/Drupal/node/288|title=Best Practices Manual - CHPS.net|website=www.chps.net|access-date=2013-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211140133/http://www.chps.net/dev/Drupal/node/288|archive-date=2013-12-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> 
* The Business and Institutional Furniture Manufacturers Association (BIFMA) in their level® sustainability standard.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://levelcertified.org/about/|title=About « BIFMA level Standard|website=levelcertified.org|access-date=2013-12-05|archive-date=2013-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205031716/http://levelcertified.org/about/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Also important to indoor air quality is the control of moisture accumulation (dampness) leading to mold growth and the presence of bacteria and viruses as well as dust mites and other organisms and microbiological concerns. Water intrusion through a building's envelope or water condensing on cold surfaces on the building's interior can enhance and sustain microbial growth. A well-insulated and tightly sealed envelope will reduce moisture problems but adequate ventilation is also necessary to eliminate moisture from sources indoors including human metabolic processes, cooking, bathing, cleaning, and other activities.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Faith |first1=S. |title=Health Risks Associated With Poor Indoor Air Quality |url=https://qualityhomeaircare.com/health-risks-associated-with-poor-indoor-air-quality/ |access-date=18 September 2019 |work=Home Air Care |date=4 April 2018 |archive-date=9 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209232608/https://qualityhomeaircare.com/health-risks-associated-with-poor-indoor-air-quality/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Personal temperature and airflow control over the HVAC system coupled with a properly designed [[building envelope]] will also aid in increasing a building's thermal quality. Creating a high performance luminous environment through the careful integration of daylight and electrical light sources will improve on the lighting quality and energy performance of a structure.<ref name=""ciwmb.ca.gov""/><ref>WBDG Sustainable Committee. (August 18, 2009). Sustainable. Retrieved October 28, 2009, from http://www.wbdg.org/design/ieq.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091223060759/http://www.wbdg.org/design/ieq.php |date=2009-12-23 }}</ref>

Solid wood products, particularly flooring, are often specified in environments where occupants are known to have allergies to dust or other particulates. Wood itself is considered to be hypo-allergenic and its smooth surfaces prevent the buildup of particles common in soft finishes like carpet. [[Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America|The Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America]] recommends hardwood, vinyl, linoleum tile or slate flooring instead of carpet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=18&cont=231|title=Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America Home Remodelling|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422173721/http://aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=18&cont=231|archive-date=2011-04-22}}</ref> The use of wood products can also improve air quality by absorbing or releasing moisture in the air to moderate humidity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://naturallywood.com/uploadedFiles/General/Green_Building/Module-6_Health_and_Wellbeing.pdf |title=Naturally:wood Building Green with Wood Module 6 Health and Wellbeing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402052948/http://www.naturallywood.com/sites/default/files/Module-6-Health-and-Wellbeing.pdf|archive-date=2013-04-02}}</ref>

Interactions among all the indoor components and the occupants together form the processes that determine the indoor air quality. Extensive investigation of such processes is the subject of indoor air scientific research and is well documented in the journal Indoor Air.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0905-6947|title=Indoor Air - Wiley Online Library|website=www.blackwellpublishing.com|access-date=2011-05-09 |archive-date=2012-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319010156/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0905-6947|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Operations and maintenance optimization===
No matter how sustainable a building may have been in its design and construction, it can only remain so if it is operated responsibly and maintained properly. Ensuring operations and maintenance(O&M) personnel are part of the project's planning and development process will help retain the green criteria designed at the onset of the project.<ref>WBDG Sustainable Committee. (August 18, 2009). Sustainable. Retrieved November 28, 2009, from http://www.wbdg.org/design/optimize_om.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217000635/http://www.wbdg.org/design/optimize_om.php |date=2010-02-17 }}</ref> Every aspect of green building is integrated into the O&M phase of a building's life. The addition of new green technologies also falls on the O&M staff. Although the goal of waste reduction may be applied during the design, construction and demolition phases of a building's life-cycle, it is in the O&M phase that green practices such as recycling and air quality enhancement take place. O&M staff should aim to establish best practices in energy efficiency, resource conservation, ecologically sensitive products and other sustainable practices. Education of building operators and occupants is key to effective implementation of sustainable strategies in O&M services.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sftool.gov/plan/268/building-operations-maintenance-services|title=Building Operations and Maintenance Services - GSA Sustainable Facilities Tool|website=sftool.gov|access-date=2015-07-01|archive-date=2015-07-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702075820/https://sftool.gov/plan/268/building-operations-maintenance-services|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Waste reduction===
Green architecture also seeks to reduce waste of energy, water and materials used during construction. For example, in California nearly 60% of the state's waste comes from commercial buildings<ref name=Katz>{{cite report |last1=Kats |first1=Greg |last2=Alevantis |first2=Leon |last3=Berman |first3=Adam |last4=Mills |first4=Evan |last5=Perlman |first5=Jeff |title=The Cost and Financial Benefits of Green Buildings |date=October 2003 |url=http://www.usgbc.org/Docs/News/News477.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081027061317/http://www.usgbc.org/Docs/News/News477.pdf|archive-date=2008-10-27 |access-date=November 3, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> During the construction phase, one goal should be to reduce the amount of material going to [[landfill]]s. Well-designed buildings also help reduce the amount of waste generated by the occupants as well, by providing on-site solutions such as [[composting|compost bins]] to reduce matter going to landfills.

To reduce the amount of wood that goes to landfill, Neutral Alliance (a coalition of government, NGOs and the forest industry) created the website [https://www.fpac.ca/ dontwastewood.com]. The site includes a variety of resources for regulators, municipalities, developers, contractors, owner/operators and individuals/homeowners looking for information on wood recycling.

When buildings reach the end of their useful life, they are typically demolished and hauled to landfills. Deconstruction is a method of harvesting what is commonly considered ""waste"" and reclaiming it into useful building material.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jgpress.com/inbusiness/archives/_free/000648.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121092246/http://www.jgpress.com/inbusiness/archives/_free/000648.html|url-status=dead|title=In Business magazine Green Builders Get Big Help from Deconstruction|archive-date=November 21, 2008}}</ref> Extending the useful life of a structure also reduces waste – building materials such as wood that are light and easy to work with make renovations easier.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://naturallywood.com/uploadedFiles/General/Green_Building/Module-5_Durability_and_Adaptability.pdf|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517113844/http://naturallywood.com/uploadedFiles/General/Green_Building/Module-5_Durability_and_Adaptability.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2016-05-17|title=Naturally:wood Building Green with Wood Module 5 Durability and Adaptability}}</ref>

To reduce the impact on [[water well|wells]] or [[sewage treatment|water treatment plants]], several options exist. ""[[Greywater]]"", wastewater from sources such as dishwashing or washing machines, can be used for subsurface irrigation, or if treated, for non-potable purposes, e.g., to flush toilets and wash cars. Rainwater collectors are used for similar purposes.

Centralized wastewater treatment systems can be costly and use a lot of energy. An alternative to this process is converting waste and wastewater into fertilizer, which avoids these costs and shows other benefits. By collecting human waste at the source and running it to a semi-centralized [[biogas]] plant with other biological waste, liquid fertilizer can be produced. This concept was demonstrated by a settlement in Lübeck Germany in the late 1990s. Practices like these provide soil with organic nutrients and create [[carbon sink]]s that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, offsetting [[greenhouse gas]] emission. Producing artificial [[fertilizer]] is also more costly in energy than this process.<ref>Lange, Jorg; Grottker, Mathias; Otterpohl, Ralf. Water Science and Technology, Sustainable Water and Waste Management In Urban Areas, June 1998. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080609221352/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBB-3SWJJHD-F&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a16968ef65ef0f292f3862293694c27crom] Retrieved:April 30, 2008.</ref>

===Reduce impact onto electricity network===
[[Electricity network]]s are built based on peak demand (another name is peak load). Peak demand is measured in the units of [[watt]]s (W). It shows how fast electrical energy is consumed. Residential electricity is often charged on electrical energy ([[kilowatt hour]], kWh). Green buildings or sustainable buildings are often capable of saving electrical energy but not necessarily reducing [[peak demand]].

When sustainable building features are designed, constructed and operated efficiently, peak demand can be reduced so that there is less desire for electricity network expansion and there is less impact onto [[carbon emission]] and [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite conference |doi=10.4225/50/58107ce163e0c |title=Community centre improvement to reduce air conditioning peak demand |first1=Lei |last1=Liu |first2=Gerard |last2=Ledwich |first3=Wendy |last3=Miller |date=November 22, 2016 |conference=7th International Conference on Energy and Environment of Residential Buildings, 20–24 November 2016, Brisbane, Australia}}</ref> These sustainable features can be good orientation, sufficient indoor thermal mass, good insulation, [[photovoltaic panel]]s, thermal or electrical [[energy storage system]]s, smart building (home) [[energy management system]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.solener.2017.10.008 |title=Involving occupants in net-zero-energy solar housing retrofits: An Australian sub-tropical case study |journal=Solar Energy |volume=159 |page=390 |year=2018 |last1=Miller |first1=Wendy |last2=Liu |first2=Lei Aaron |last3=Amin |first3=Zakaria |last4=Gray |first4=Matthew |bibcode=2018SoEn..159..390M }}</ref>

==Cost and payoff==
The most criticized issue about constructing environmentally friendly buildings is the price. [[Photovoltaics]], new appliances, and modern technologies tend to cost more money. Most green buildings cost a premium of <2%, but yield 10 times as much over the entire life of the building.<ref name=Katz/> In regards to the financial benefits of green building, ""Over 20 years, the financial payback typically exceeds the additional cost of [[greening]] by a factor of 4-6 times. And broader benefits, such as reductions in greenhouse gases (GHGs) and other pollutants have large positive impacts on surrounding communities and on the planet.""<ref>Kats, Gregory. (September 24, 2010). Costs and Benefits of Green Buildings [Web Log Post]. Retrieved from http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2010/09/24/205805/costs-and-benefits-of-green-buildings/# {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324081525/http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2010/09/24/205805/costs-and-benefits-of-green-buildings/ |date=2014-03-24}}</ref> The stigma is between the knowledge of up-front cost<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sustainca.org/programs/green_buildings_challenges |title=Green Buildings - Challenges |publisher=California Sustainability Alliance |access-date=2010-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101219124240/http://sustainca.org/programs/green_buildings_challenges |archive-date=2010-12-19 |url-status=dead}}</ref> vs. life-cycle cost. The savings in money come from more efficient use of utilities which result in decreased energy bills. It is projected that different sectors could save $130 billion on energy bills.<ref>Fedrizzi, Rick, ""Intro – What LEED Measures."" United States Green Building Council, October 11, 2009.</ref> Also, higher worker or student productivity can be factored into savings and cost deductions.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

Numerous studies have shown the measurable benefit of green building initiatives on worker productivity. In general it has been found that, ""there is a direct correlation between increased productivity and employees who love being in their work space.""<ref>Green building impacts worker productivity. (2012). CAD/CAM Update, 24(5), 7-8.</ref> Specifically, worker productivity can be significantly impacted by certain aspects of green building design such as improved lighting, reduction of pollutants, advanced ventilation systems and the use of non-toxic building materials.<ref>{{cite web |last=Boué |first=George |title=Linking Green Buildings, Productivity and the Bottom Line |website=Greenbiz |date=2010-07-08 |url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/linking-green-buildings-productivity-and-bottom-line |access-date=2021-01-09 |archive-date=2021-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510045553/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/linking-green-buildings-productivity-and-bottom-line |url-status=live}}</ref> In ""[http://www.usgbc.org/articles/business-case-green-building The Business Case for Green Building]"", the U.S. Green Building Council gives another specific example of how commercial energy retrofits increase worker health and thus productivity, ""People in the U.S. spend about 90% of their time indoors. EPA studies indicate indoor levels of pollutants may be up to ten times higher than outdoor levels. LEED-certified buildings are designed to have healthier, cleaner indoor environmental quality, which means health benefits for occupants.""<ref>{{cite web |author=United States Green Building Council |date=July 27, 2012 |title=The Business Case for Green Building |access-date=March 9, 2014 |url=http://www.usgbc.org/articles/business-case-green-building |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324094447/http://www.usgbc.org/articles/business-case-green-building |archive-date=2014-03-24}}</ref>

Studies have shown over a 20-year life period, some green buildings have yielded $53 to $71 per square foot back on investment.<ref>Langdon, Davis. The Cost of Green Revisited. Publication. 2007.</ref> Confirming the rentability of green building investments, further studies of the commercial real estate market have found that LEED and Energy Star certified buildings achieve significantly higher rents, sale prices and occupancy rates as well as lower capitalization rates potentially reflecting lower investment risk.<ref>Fuerst, Franz; McAllister, Pat. Green Noise or Green Value? Measuring the Effects of Environmental Certification on Office Property Values. 2009. [https://ssrn.com/abstract=1140409] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123223556/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1140409|date=2021-11-23}} Retrieved: November 5, 2010</ref><ref>Pivo, Gary; Fisher, Jeffrey D. Investment Returns from Responsible Property Investments: Energy Efficient, Transit-oriented and Urban Regeneration Office Properties in the US from 1998-2008. 2009.[http://www.responsibleproperty.net/assets/files/pivo_fisher_investmentreturnsfromrpi3_3_09.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724032458/http://www.responsibleproperty.net/assets/files/pivo_fisher_investmentreturnsfromrpi3_3_09.pdf|date=2011-07-24}} Retrieved: November 5, 2010</ref><ref>Fuerst, Franz; McAllister, Pat. An Investigation of the Effect of Eco-Labeling on Office Occupancy Rates. 2009.[http://www.costar.com/josre/JournalPdfs/03-Effect-Eco-Labeling.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221111606/http://www.costar.com/JOSRE/JournalPdfs/03-Effect-Eco-Labeling.pdf|date=2011-02-21}} Retrieved: November 5, 2010</ref>

==Regulation and operation==
As a result of the increased interest in green building concepts and practices, a number of organizations have developed standards, codes and rating systems for use by government regulators, building professionals and consumers. In some cases, codes are written so local governments can adopt them as bylaws to reduce the local environmental impact of buildings.

Green building rating systems such as [[BREEAM]] (United Kingdom), [[LEED]] (United States and Canada), [[DGNB]] (Germany), [[CASBEE]] (Japan), and [[VERDE]]<sup>GBCe</sup> (Spain), [[GRIHA]] (India) help consumers determine a structure's level of environmental performance. They award credits for optional building features that support green design in categories such as location and maintenance of building site, [[conservation of water]], energy, and building materials, and occupant comfort and health. The number of credits generally determines the level of achievement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naturallywood.com/sites/default/files/Building-Green-and-Benefits-of-Wood.pdf|title=Naturally:wood Building Green and the Benefits of Wood|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529044646/http://www.naturallywood.com/sites/default/files/Building-Green-and-Benefits-of-Wood.pdf|archive-date=2012-05-29}}</ref>

Green building codes and standards, such as the International Code Council's draft International Green Construction Code,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iccsafe.org|title=ICC - International Code Council|website=www.iccsafe.org|access-date=2021-11-23|archive-date=2010-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914150537/http://www.iccsafe.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> are sets of rules created by standards development organizations that establish minimum requirements for elements of green building such as materials or heating and cooling.

Some of the major building environmental assessment tools currently in use include:
*United States: [[International Green Construction Code|International Green Construction Code (IGCC)]]

== Green neighborhoods and villages ==
{{Further|Ecovillage|Green cities}}
At the beginning of the 21st century, efforts were made to implement the principles of green building, not only for individual buildings, but also for neighborhoods and villages. The intent is to create zero energy neighborhoods and villages, which means they're going to create all the energy on their own. They will also reuse waste, implements sustainable transportation, and produce their own food.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Graaf |first1=Florijn |title=SmartHood: the self-sufficient neighborhood of the future |url=https://amsterdamsmartcity.com/updates/news/smart-hood-de-zelfvoorzienende-wijk-van-de-toekoms |website=Amsterdam smart city platform |date=May 23, 2018 |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126055541/https://amsterdamsmartcity.com/updates/news/smart-hood-de-zelfvoorzienende-wijk-van-de-toekoms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Salzano |first1=Miabelle |title=THE NETHERLANDS WILL SOON BE HOME TO A SELF-SUSTAINING ECO VILLAGE |url=https://www.builderonline.com/design/the-netherlands-will-soon-be-home-to-a-self-sustaining-eco-village_s |website=Builder |publisher=ARCHITECT. |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123223620/https://www.builderonline.com/design/the-netherlands-will-soon-be-home-to-a-self-sustaining-eco-village_s |url-status=live }}</ref> Green villages have been identified as a way to decentralize sustainable climate practices, which may prove key in areas with high rural or scattered village populations, such as India, where 74% of the population lives in over 600,000 different villages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kadave |first1=P. |last2=Pathak |first2=P. |last3=Pawar |first3=S. |date=2012 |title=Planning and Design of Green Village |s2cid=130536873 }}</ref>

==International frameworks and assessment tools==
'''IPCC Fourth Assessment Report'''

Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ([[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]]), is the fourth in a series of such reports. The IPCC was established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change, its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/|title=IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|website=www.ipcc.ch|access-date=2021-11-22|archive-date=2017-09-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915050210/http://www.ipcc.ch/|url-status=live}}</ref>

'''UNEP and Climate change'''

United Nations Environment Program [[UNEP]] works to facilitate the transition to low-carbon societies, support climate proofing efforts, improve understanding of climate change science, and raise public awareness about this global challenge.

'''GHG Indicator'''

The Greenhouse Gas Indicator: UNEP Guidelines for Calculating Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Businesses and Non-Commercial Organizations

'''Agenda 21'''

[[Agenda 21]] is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development. It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organizations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in which [[human impact on the environment|humans impact on the environment]]. The number 21 refers to the 21st century.

'''FIDIC's PSM'''

The International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC) Project Sustainability Management Guidelines were created in order to assist project engineers and other stakeholders in setting sustainable development goals for their projects that are recognized and accepted by as being in the interests of society as a whole. The process is also intended to allow the alignment of project goals with local conditions and priorities and to assist those involved in managing projects to measure and verify their progress.

The Project Sustainability Management Guidelines are structured with Themes and Sub-Themes under the three main sustainability headings of Social, Environmental and Economic. For each individual Sub-Theme a core project indicator is defined along with guidance as to the relevance of that issue in the context of an individual
project.

The Sustainability Reporting Framework provides guidance for organizations to use as the basis for disclosure about their sustainability performance, and also provides stakeholders a universally applicable, comparable framework in which to understand disclosed information.

The Reporting Framework contains the core product of the Sustainability Reporting Guidelines, as well as Protocols and Sector Supplements.
The Guidelines are used as the basis for all reporting. They are the foundation upon which all other reporting guidance is based, and outline core content for reporting that is broadly relevant to all organizations regardless of size, sector, or location. The Guidelines contain principles and guidance as well as standard disclosures – including indicators – to outline a disclosure framework that organizations can voluntarily, flexibly, and incrementally, adopt.

Protocols underpin each indicator in the Guidelines and include definitions for key terms in the indicator, compilation methodologies, intended scope of the indicator, and other technical references.

Sector Supplements respond to the limits of a one-size-fits-all approach. Sector Supplements complement the use of the core Guidelines by capturing the unique set of sustainability issues faced by different sectors such as mining, automotive, banking, public agencies and others.

'''IPD Environment Code'''

The IPD Environment Code was launched in February 2008. The Code is intended as a good practice global standard for measuring the environmental performance of corporate buildings. Its aim is to accurately measure and manage the environmental impacts of corporate buildings and enable property executives to generate high quality, comparable performance information about their
buildings anywhere in the world. The Code covers a wide range of building types (from offices to airports) and aims to inform and support
the following;
* Creating an environmental strategy
* Inputting to real estate strategy
* Communicating a commitment to environmental improvement
* Creating performance targets
* Environmental improvement plans
* Performance assessment and measurement
* Life cycle assessments
* Acquisition and disposal of buildings
* Supplier management
* Information systems and data population
* Compliance with regulations
* Team and personal objectives

IPD estimate that it will take approximately three years to gather significant data to develop a robust set of baseline data that could be used across a typical corporate estate.

'''ISO 21931 '''

ISO/TS 21931:2006, Sustainability in building construction—Framework for methods of assessment for environmental performance of construction works—Part 1: Buildings, is intended to provide a general framework for improving the quality and comparability of methods for assessing the environmental performance of buildings. It identifies and describes issues to be taken into account when using methods for the assessment of environmental performance for new or existing building properties in the design, construction, operation, refurbishment and deconstruction stages. It is not an assessment system in itself but is intended be used in conjunction with, and following the principles set out in, the ISO 14000 series of standards.

== Development history ==

* In the 1960s, American architect [[Paolo Soleri|Paul Soleri]] proposed a new concept of ecological architecture.
* In 1969, American architect [[Ian McHarg]] wrote the book ""Design Integrates Nature"", which marked the official birth of ecological architecture.
* In the 1970s, the [[energy crisis]] caused various building energy-saving technologies such as [[solar energy]], [[geothermal energy]], and [[Wind power|wind energy]] to emerge, and energy-saving buildings became the forerunner of building development.
* In 1980, the [[World Conservation Organization]] put forward the slogan ""sustainable development"" for the first time. At the same time, the energy-saving building system was gradually improved, and it was widely used in developed countries such as Germany, Britain, France and Canada.
* In 1987, the [[United Nations Environment Programme|United Nations Environment Program]] published the ""Our Common Future"" report, which established the idea of sustainable development.
* In 1990, the world's first green building standard was released in the UK.
* In 1992, because the ""United Nations Conference on Environment and Development"" promoted the idea of sustainable development, green buildings gradually became the direction of development.
* In 1993, the [[United States]] created the Green Building Association.
* In 1996, [[Hong Kong]] introduced green building standards.
* In 1999, [[Taiwan]] introduced green building standards.
* In 2000, [[Canada]] introduced green building standards.
* In 2005, [[Singapore]] initiated the ""BCA Green Building Mark""
* In 2015, according to the Berkeley National Laboratory, [[China]] implemented the ""Green Building Evaluation Standards""{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}
* In 2021, the first, both low-cost and sustainable [[3D printed house]] made out of a [[clay]]-mixture was completed<ref name=""printedclayhouse"">{{cite news |last1=Palumbo |first1=Jacqui |title=Is this 3D-printed home made of clay the future of housing? |url=https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/tecla-3d-printed-house-clay/index.html |access-date=9 May 2021 |work=CNN |language=en |archive-date=6 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606143653/https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/tecla-3d-printed-house-clay/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Green building by country==
*[[Green building in Australia]]
*[[Green building in Bangladesh]]
*[[Green building in Germany]]
*[[Green building in Israel]]
*[[Green building in South Africa]]
*[[Green building in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Green building in India]]
*[[Green building in the United States]]
*[[The Model home 2020 project]]: [[Denmark]], [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[France]], [[UK]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.activehouse.info/ |title=Active House |website=International Active House Alliance}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy|Environment|Housing}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Alternative natural materials]]
* [[Arcology]] — high density ecological structures
* [[Autonomous building]]
* [[Biophilic design]]
* [[Building]]
* [[Building insulation]]
* [[Centre for Interactive Research on Sustainability]]
* [[Deconstruction (building)]]
* [[Eco hotel]]
* [[Environmental planning]]
* [[Geo-exchange]]
* [[Green architecture]]
* [[Green building and wood]]
* [[Green Building Council]]
* [[Green home]]
* [[Green technology]]
* [[Glass in green buildings]]
* [[Healthy building]]
* [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]]
* [[List of low-energy building techniques]]
* [[Low-energy house]]
* [[National Green Building Standard]]
* [[Natural building]]
* [[Sustainable city]]
* [[Sustainable habitat]]
* [[Tropical green building]]
* [[World Green Building Council]]
* [[Yakhchāl]]
* [[Zero-energy building]]
* [[Zero heating building]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box
 |onlinebooks=no
 |by=no
}}
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Business/Construction_and_Maintenance/Building_Types/Sustainable_Architecture/ Sustainable Architecture at the Open Directory Project]
*[http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/13/1/111/htm/ Prochorskaite A, Couch C, Malys N, Maliene V (2016) Housing Stakeholder Preferences for the ""Soft"" Features of Sustainable and Healthy Housing Design in the UK.]
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.yourhome.gov.au/getting-started/welcome |title=Your home : Australia's guide to environmentally sustainable homes |publisher=Australia. Dept. of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-922125-78-1 |edition=6th |location=Canberra, ACT |language=English}}
* [https://www.hardiegrant.com/au/publishing/bookfinder/book/the-sustainable-house-handbook-by-josh-byrne/9781743795828 The Sustainable house handbook] : how to plan and build an affordable, energy-efficient and waterwise home for the future / Josh Byrne.  - ISBN 9781743795828 . - Richmond, Vic. : Hardie Grant Books, 2020.
* [https://unsw.press/books/sustainable-house/ Sustainable house] / Michael Mobbs. - 2nd ed. - Sydney, NSW : UNSW Press, 2010. - ISBN 978-1-920705-52-7
* [https://www.nathers.gov.au/ Nationwide House Energy Rating Scheme] (NatHERS)
* [https://renew.org.au/ Renew : leading in sustainability]
* [https://hia.com.au/awards-and-events/awards/greensmart-awards Housing Industry Association. GreenSmart Awards].
* [https://www.nabers.gov.au/ National Australian Built Environment Rating System (NaBERS)]

{{Environmental technology}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Green Building}}
[[Category:Sustainable building]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Sustainable architecture]]
[[Category:Low-energy building]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures by type]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Building]]"
Sustainable tourism,"{{short description|Form of travel and tourism without damage to nature or cultural area}}
[[File:The renowned Kakum National Reserve.jpg|thumb|A Canopy Walkway at [[Kakum National Park]] in Ghana, ensuring that tourists have least direct impact on the surrounding ecology. The visitor park received the Global Tourism for Tomorrow Award in 1998.|320x320px]]
{{Green economics sidebar}}{{Not to be confused with|Ecotourism}}
'''Sustainable tourism''' is a concept that covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for [[Impacts of tourism|economic, social and environmental issues]] as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences and addressing the needs of host communities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainable development {{!}} UNWTO|url=https://www.unwto.org/sustainable-development|access-date=2020-09-25|website=www.unwto.org}}</ref> Sustainable tourism should embrace concerns for [[environmental protection]], social equity, and the quality of life, cultural diversity, and a dynamic, viable economy delivering jobs and prosperity for all.<ref>Zeng, L. Economic Development and Mountain Tourism Research from 2010 to 2020: Bibliometric Analysis and Science Mapping Approach. Sustainability 2022, 14, 562. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010562.</ref> It has its roots in [[sustainable development]] and there can be some confusion as to what ""sustainable tourism"" means.<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|23}} There is now broad consensus that tourism should be [[Sustainability|sustainable]].<ref>Peeters P., Gössling S., Ceron J.P., Dubois G., Patterson T., Richardson R.B., Studies E. (2004). [http://www.mif.uni-freiburg.de/isb/ws2/report/peetersetal.pdf The Eco-efficiency of Tourism.]</ref><ref>Bramwell, B., & Lane, B. (1993). Sustainable tourism: An evolving global approach. Journal of sustainable tourism, 1(1), 1-5.</ref> In fact, all forms of tourism have the potential to be sustainable if planned, developed and managed properly.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite book|last1=Fennell|first1=David A.|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.21832/9781845417673/html|title=Sustainable Tourism: Principles, Contexts and Practices|last2=Cooper|first2=Chris|date=2020|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=978-1-84541-767-3|location=Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit|pages=198, 234|doi=10.21832/9781845417673|s2cid=228913882 }}</ref> Tourist development organizations are promoting sustainable tourism practices in order to mitigate negative effects caused by the growing [[Impacts of tourism|impact of tourism]], for example its environmental impacts.

The [[United Nations World Tourism Organization]] emphasized these practices by promoting sustainable tourism as part of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]], through programs like the [[International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development]] in 2017.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/book/10.18111/9789284419340|title=Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals – Journey to 2030, Highlights|date=2017-12-18|publisher=World Tourism Organization |isbn=978-92-844-1934-0|language=en|doi=10.18111/9789284419340}}</ref> There is a direct link between sustainable tourism and several of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|26}} Tourism for SDGs focuses on how [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]] (""decent work and economic growth""), [[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]] (""responsible consumption and production"") and [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] (""life below water"") implicate tourism in [[Sustainable development|creating a sustainable economy]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tourism & Sustainable Development Goals – Tourism for SDGs|url=http://tourism4sdgs.org/tourism-for-sdgs/tourism-and-sdgs/|access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref> According to the World Travel & Tourism Travel, tourism constituted ""10.3 percent to the global gross domestic product, with international tourist arrivals hitting 1.5 billion marks (a growth of 3.5 percent) in 2019"" and generated $1.7 trillion export earnings yet, improvements are expected to be gained from suitable management aspects and including sustainable tourism as part of a broader [[sustainable development]] strategy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Travel & Tourism Economic Impact {{!}} World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) |url=https://wttc.org/research/economic-impact/economic-impact%20accessed%20on%2001-06-20 |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=wttc.org |language=en-GB}}</ref> {{TOC limit|3}}

== Definition ==

Sustainable tourism is ""an exceedingly complex concept with varied definitions due to different interpretations of the meaning and use of the concept"".<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|23}} It has its roots in [[sustainable development]], a term that is ""open to wide interpretation"". This can lead to some confusion as to what sustainable tourism means.<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|23}}

A definition of sustainable tourism from 2020 is: ""Tourism which is developed and maintained in an area in such a manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over an infinite period while safeguarding the Earth's life-support system on which the welfare of current and future generations depends.""<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|26}}

Sustainable tourism covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for [[Impacts of tourism|economic, social and environmental issues]] as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/980828139 |title=New directions in rural tourism |date=2016 |others=Derek Hall, Lesley Roberts, Morag Mitchell |isbn=978-1-351-91502-1 |location=London [England] |oclc=980828139}}</ref> The concept of sustainable tourism aims to reduce the negative effects of tourism activities. This has become almost universally accepted as a desirable and politically appropriate approach to tourism development.

== Background ==

=== Global goals ===
The [[World Tourism Organization|United Nations World Tourism Organization]] (UNWTO), is the custodian agency to monitor the targets of [[Sustainable Development Goal 8]] (""decent work and economic growth"") that are related to tourism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=TOURISM 4 SDGs {{!}} UNWTO |url=https://www.unwto.org/tourism4sdgs |access-date=2021-08-30 |website=www.unwto.org}}</ref><ref name="":42"">{{Cite web |title=United Nations (2018) Economic and Social Council, Conference of European Statisticians, Geneva |url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/stats/documents/ece/ces/2018/CES_39.pdf |access-date=September 19, 2020 |website=United Nations, Geneva}}</ref> The [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a ""blueprint to achieve a better and more [[Sustainability|sustainable]] future for all"".<ref name="":172"">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128194012/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313|date=28 November 2020}})</ref> Given the dramatic increase in tourism, the report strongly promotes responsible tourism.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite book |url=https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/9789284419340 |title=Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals – Journey to 2030, Highlights |publisher=World Tourism Organization |year=2017 |isbn=9789284419340 |doi=10.18111/9789284419340 |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref> Even though some countries and sectors in the industry are creating initiatives for tourism in addressing the SDGs, knowledge sharing, finance and policy for sustainable tourism are not fully addressing the needs of stakeholders.<ref name="":2"" />

The SDGs include targets on tourism and sustainable tourism in several goals:

* Target 8.9 of [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]] (Decent work and economic growth) states: ""By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products"".
* Target 12.a of [[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]] (responsible consumption and production) is formulated as ""Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products."" UNWTO is the custodian agency for this target.
* Target 14.7 of [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] (Life below Water) is to: ""By 2030, increase the economic benefits to [[Small Island Developing States|small island developing States]] and [[least developed countries]] from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism"".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Goal 14 targets |url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-14-life-below-water/targets.html |access-date=2020-09-24 |website=UNDP |language=en}}</ref><ref name="":172"" />

=== Comparison with conventional tourism and mass tourism ===
According to the [[World Tourism Organization|UNWTO]], ""[[Tourism]] comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes.""<ref>{{Cite web|last=UNWTO Tourism Definitions|date=August 28, 2021|title=UNWTO Tourism Definitions|url=https://www.unwto.org/global/publication/UNWTO-Tourism-definitions|website=UNWTO}}</ref> Global economists forecast continuing international [[tourism]] growth, the amount depending on the location. As one of the world's largest and fastest-growing industries, this continuous growth will place great stress on remaining biologically diverse [[habitat]]s and [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] cultures.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} [[Mass tourism]] is the organized movement of large numbers of tourists to popular destinations such as theme parks, national parks, beaches or cruise ships. Mass tourism uses standardized packaged leisure products and experiences packaged to accommodate large number of tourists at the same time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Poon|first=Auliana|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29467917|title=Tourism, technology, and competitive strategies|date=1993|publisher=CAB International|isbn=0-85198-751-6|location=Wallingford|oclc=29467917}}</ref>

== Related similar concepts ==

=== Responsible tourism ===

While ""sustainable tourism"" is a concept, the term ""responsible tourism"" refers to the behaviors and practices that can lead to sustainable tourism. For example, backpacker tourism is a trend that contributes to sustainability from the various environmental, economic, and cultural activities associated with it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Han |first=Heesup |date=2021 |title=Consumer behavior and environmental sustainability in tourism and hospitality: a review of theories, concepts, and latest research|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09669582.2021.1903019 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism |language=en |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=1021–1042 |doi=10.1080/09669582.2021.1903019|s2cid=233247168 |doi-access=free }}</ref> All stakeholders are responsible for the kind of tourism they develop or engage in. Both service providers and purchasers or consumers are held accountable.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/785808916|title=Responsible tourism : concepts, theories and practices|date=2012|publisher=CAB International|others=David Leslie|isbn=978-1-84593-987-8|location=Cambridge, MA|oclc=785808916}}</ref> Being responsible demands “thinking” by using planning and development frameworks that are properly grounded in ethical thinking around what is good and right for communities, the natural world and tourists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fennell |first=David A. |date=2008 |title=Responsible Tourism: A Kierkegaardian Interpretation |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02508281.2008.11081285 |journal=Tourism Recreation Research |language=en |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.1080/02508281.2008.11081285 |s2cid=154024781 |issn=0250-8281}}</ref>

According to the Center for Responsible Tourism, responsible tourism is ""tourism that maximizes the benefits to local communities, minimizes negative social or environmental impacts, and helps local people conserve fragile cultures and habitats or species.""<ref>{{Cite journal|last=CREST|date=2016|title=The Case for Responsible Travel: Trends & Statistics 2016|url=https://www.responsibletravel.org/whatWeDo/The_Case_for_Responsible_Travel_2016_Final.pdf}}</ref> Responsible tourism incorporates not only being responsible for interactions with the physical environment, but also of the economic and social interactions.<ref name="":0"" /> While different groups will see responsibility in different ways, the shared understanding is that responsible tourism should entail improvements in tourism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Apollo|first=Michal|date=2018|title=Ethics in tourism as a key to development, prosperity and well-being of all stakeholders: 3rd International Congress on Ethics and Tourism, Krakow, 27–28 April 2017|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00207233.2017.1383076|journal=International Journal of Environmental Studies|language=en|volume=75|issue=2|pages=361–365|doi=10.1080/00207233.2017.1383076|s2cid=103853371 |issn=0020-7233}}</ref> This would include ethical thinking around what is ""good"" and ""right"" for local communities and the natural world, as well as for tourists. Responsible tourism is an aspiration that can be realized in different ways in different originating markets and in the diverse destinations of the world.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goodwin|first=Harold|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/962452286|title=Responsible Tourism : Using Tourism for Sustainable Development.|date=2016|publisher=Goodfellow Publishers Ltd|isbn=978-1-910158-86-9|edition=2nd|location=Oxford|oclc=962452286}}</ref>

Responsible tourism has also been critiqued. Studies have shown that the degree to which individuals engage in responsible tourism is contingent upon their engagement socially. Meaning, tourist behaviors will fluctuate depending on the range of social engagement that each tourist chooses to take part in.<ref name="":1"">Diallo, Mbaye Fall; Diop-Sall, Fatou; Leroux, Erick; Valette-Florence, Pierre (2015). ""Responsible tourist behaviour: The role of social engagement"". ''Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition)''. '''3''': 85–104 – via SAGE.</ref> A study regarding responsible tourists behavior concludes that it is not only a personal behavior of tourists that shape outcomes, but also a reflection of mechanisms put in place by governments.<ref name="":1"" /> Other research has put into question the promise that tourism, even responsible tourism, is inline with UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]] given the difficulties in measuring such impact.<ref>Ferguson, Lucy; Moreno Alarcón, Daniela (September 2014). ""Gender and sustainable tourism: reflections on theory and practice"". ''Journal of Sustainable Tourism''. '''23''': 401–416 – via Taylor & Francis.</ref> Some argue that it actually detracts attention from the wider issues surrounding tourism that are in need of regulation, such as the number of visitors and environmental impact.<ref>Anita, Pelumarom. ""The Politics of Tourism and Poverty Reduction."" Responsible Tourism. Ed. David Leslie. CABI, 2012. 90-106.&nbsp; &nbsp;</ref><ref>Wheeler, Brian (June 1991). ""Tourism's troubled times: Responsible Tourism is not the answer"". ''Tourism Management'': 91–16.</ref>

=== Ecotourism ===
{{excerpt|ecotourism|paragraphs=1|file=no}}

=== Nature Positive Tourism ===
Nature positive tourism recognises that tourism should do more than [[Leave No Trace|leave no trace]]. It should leave behind positive benefits for the natural world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nature Positive Travel {{!}} Responsible Travel |url=https://www.responsibletravel.com/copy/nature-positive |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=www.responsibletravel.com |language=en}}</ref> A form of regenerative tourism,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Glusac |first=Elaine |date=2020-08-27 |title=Move Over, Sustainable Travel. Regenerative Travel Has Arrived. |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/27/travel/travel-future-coronavirus-sustainable.html |access-date=2023-08-30 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> nature positive tourism is a way for the tourism industry to address the global [[Biodiversity loss|biodiversity crisis]] and contribute to the global [[biodiversity]] goals to arrest declines in nature by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is nature positive tourism? |url=https://www.responsibletravel.com/copy/what-is-nature-positive-tourism |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=www.responsibletravel.com |language=en}}</ref>

The premise of nature positive tourism rests on the principle that all types of tourism – mainstream or otherwise – rely on nature and impact on it too. The [[impacts of tourism]] on nature span all five of the key drivers of global biodiversity loss – [[Land use, land-use change, and forestry|land use change]], [[pollution]], [[climate change]], over-exploitation of [[Natural resource|natural resources]], and the invasion of [[Introduced species|non-native species]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Challenges faced by the tourism sector to protect nature |url=https://getnaturepositive.com/sectors/tourism/challenges/ |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=GNP |language=en}}</ref>

Nature positive tourism recognises and addresses these impacts and takes steps to ensure any tourism activities protect and restore natural biodiversity. This could be through supporting [[reforestation]] or regeneration initiatives,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Glusac |first=Elaine |date=2022-12-23 |title=How to Travel the World While Putting Nature First |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/23/travel/nature-positive-tourism-world-travel-and-tourism-council.html |access-date=2023-08-30 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> making space for nature in [[Urban area|urban]] hotels, or changing operating procedures to eradicate light and water pollution. 

== Criticism ==
{{See also|Ecotourism#Criticism}}
Although we are seeking solutions for sustainable tourism, there is no desirable change in the tourism system. Sustainable models must be able to adapt to new challenges a face a wider form of societal transformations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Budeanu |first1=Miller |title=Sustainable tourism, progress, challenges and opportunities: an introduction |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=2016 |volume=111 |pages=285–294 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.027 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652615014110}}</ref> Many critics view the extractive nature of ""sustainable tourism"" as an [[oxymoron]], as it is fundamentally unable to continue indefinitely. True and perfect [[sustainability]] is likely impossible in all but the most favorable circumstances, as the interests of equity, economy, and ecology often conflict with one another and require tradeoffs. It is a reality that many things are done in the name of sustainability are actually masking the desire to allow extra profits.<ref name=""Monbiot 1994"" /> There is often alienation of local populations from the tourists.<ref name=""Olerokonga 1992 6–7"" /> Such cases highlight that sustainable tourism covers a wide spectrum from ""very weak"" to ""very strong"" when the degree of anthropocentricism and exploitation of human and natural resources is taken into account.<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|5}}

==Stakeholders==
Stakeholders of sustainable tourism can include organizations as well as individuals. A stakeholder in the tourism industry is deemed to be anyone who is impacted by development positively or negatively. Stakeholder involvement reduces potential conflict between the tourists and host community by involving the latter in shaping the way in which tourism develops.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Aas | first1 = C. | last2 = Ladkin | first2 = A. | last3 = Fletcher | first3 = J. | year = 2005 | title = Stakeholder collaboration and heritage management | url = http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/105/1/Fletcher_Output_4.pdf| journal = Annals of Tourism Research | volume = 32 | issue = 1| pages = 28–48 | doi=10.1016/j.annals.2004.04.005}}</ref>

===Governments and good governance===
[[File:Stamp of Azerbaijan - 2017 - Colnect 759969 - International Year For Sustainable Tourism.jpeg|thumb|A 2017 stamp by the Government of [[Azerbaijan]] celebrating the [[International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development|International Year for Sustainable Tourism]] in 2017]]
The government plays an important role in encouraging sustainable tourism whether it be through marketing, information services, education, and advice through public-private collaborations. However, the values and ulterior motives of governments often need to be taken into account when assessing the motives for sustainable tourism. One important factor to consider in any ecologically sensitive or remote area or an area new to tourism is that of [[carrying capacity]]. This is the capacity of tourists of visitors an area can sustainably tolerate over time without damaging the environment or culture of the surrounding area.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fennell |first=David A. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1125278245 |title=Ecotourism |date=2020 |isbn=978-0-367-36459-5 |edition=5th |location=Abingdon, Oxon |oclc=1125278245}}</ref> This can be altered and revised in time and with changing perceptions and values.

Scholars have pointed out that partnerships ""incrementally nudge governance towards greater inclusion of diverse stakeholders"".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McAllister |first1=Ryan RJ |last2=Taylor |first2=Bruce M |date=2015 |title=Partnerships for sustainability governance: a synthesis of key themes |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877343515000020 |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |language=en |volume=12 |pages=86–90 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2015.01.001|bibcode=2015COES...12...86M }}</ref><ref name="":3"" />{{rp|93}} Partnerships refer to cooperation between private, public and civil society actors. Its purpose is to implement sustainability policies. Governance is essential in developing partnership initiatives.<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|93}}

[[Good governance]] principles for [[National park|National Parks]] and [[protected area]]s management include [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] and voice, direction, performance, [[accountability]] and fairness.<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|295}}

===Non-governmental organizations===
[[Non-governmental organization]]s are one of the stakeholders in advocating sustainable tourism. Their roles can range from spearheading sustainable tourism practices to simply doing research. University research teams and scientists can be tapped to aid in the process of planning. Such solicitation of research can be observed in the planning of [[Cát Bà National Park]] in [[Vietnam]].<ref>{{Cite book|date=December 2009|title=Land management challenges and strategies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Bls24MgPuMC&q=solicitation+of+research+can+be+observed+in+the+planning+of+C%C3%A1t+B%C3%A0+National+Park+in+Vietnam&pg=PA55|isbn=9789380228488|last1=Iyyer|first1=Chaitanya|publisher=Global India Publications }}</ref>

Dive resort operators in [[Bunaken National Park]], [[Indonesia]], play a crucial role by developing exclusive zones for [[Underwater diving|diving]] and [[fishing]] respectively, such that both tourists and locals can benefit from the venture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=north sulawesi information pages|url=http://www.sulawesi-info.com/bunaken.php}}</ref>

Large [[Convention (meeting)|conventions]], [[meeting]]s and other major organized events drive the travel, tourism, and hospitality industry. Cities and [[convention center]]s compete to attract such commerce, commerce which has heavy impacts on resource use and the environment. Major sporting events, such as the [[Olympic Games]], present special problems regarding environmental burdens and degradation.<ref>Malhado A., de Araujo L., Rothfuss R. (2014). [https://books.google.com/books?id=JzgsAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22the+attitude-behaviour+gap+and+the+role+of+information%22&pg=PA104 The attitude-behavior gap and the role of information in influencing sustainable mobility in mega-events]. Ch. 7 in: Understanding and Governing Sustainable Tourism Mobility: Psychological and Behavioural Approaches.</ref> But burdens imposed by the regular convention industry can be vastly more significant.

[[Green conventions]] and events are a new but growing sector and marketing point within the convention and hospitality industry. More environmentally aware organizations, corporations, and government agencies are now seeking more sustainable event practices, greener hotels, restaurants and convention venues, and more energy-efficient or climate-neutral travel and ground transportation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ostrowska-Tryzno|first1=Anna|last2=Muszyńska|first2=Agnieszka|date=2018|title=Sustainable Tourism Services As An Exceptional Product For The Mice Destination . Case Study Reykjavik|url=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-7620486b-04c3-46a2-b7e4-6d28c000e810|journal=Kwartalnik Naukowy Uczelni Vistula|volume=1|language=PL|issue=55|pages=164–174|issn=2084-4689}}</ref> However, the convention trip not taken can be the most sustainable option: ""With most international conferences having hundreds if not thousands of participants, and the bulk of these usually traveling by plane, conference travel is an area where significant reductions in air-travel-related GHG emissions could be made. ... This does not mean non-attendance"" (Reay, 2004), since modern Internet communications are now ubiquitous and remote audio/visual participation.<ref name=""reay"">Reay DS (2004). ''[http://www.ghgonline.org/flyingaea.pdf New Directions: Flying in the face of the climate change convention].'' Atmospheric Environment (38:5, p.793-794).</ref> For example, by 2003 [[Access Grid|Access Grid technology]] had already successfully hosted several international conferences.<ref name=""reay"" /> A particular example is the large American Geophysical Union's annual meeting, which has used live streaming for several years. This provides live streams and recordings of keynotes, named lectures, and oral sessions, and provides opportunities to submit questions and interact with authors and peers.<ref>[http://fallmeeting.agu.org/2013/general-information/faqs/ AGU Fall Meeting FAQs]. See the Virtual Options section.</ref> Following the live-stream, the recording of each session is posted online within 24 hours.<ref>Anukrati Sharma & Haza A. 2021. Overtourism as Destination Risk: Impacts and Solutions, Bingley, Emerald Group</ref>

Some convention centers have begun to take direct action in reducing the impact of the conventions they host. One example is the [[Moscone Center]] in [[San Francisco]], which has a very aggressive [[recycling]] program, a large [[solar power]] system, and other programs aimed at reducing impact and increasing efficiency.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Sustainability {{!}} Moscone Center |url=https://www.moscone.com/guidelines/environmental-sustainability |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=www.moscone.com}}</ref>

===Local communities===
[[File:Sustainable Tourism - SDGs badge by UNWTO.jpg|thumb|A Sustainable Tourism badge featuring the logo of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] from the [[World Tourism Organization]]]][[Local communities]] benefit from sustainable tourism through economic development, job creation, and infrastructure development. Tourism revenues bring economic growth and prosperity to attractive tourist destinations, which can raise the standard of living in destination communities. Sustainable tourism operators commit themselves to creating jobs for local community members. An increase in tourism revenue to an area acts as a driver for the development of increased infrastructure. As tourist demands increase in a destination, a more robust infrastructure is needed to support the needs of both the tourism industry and the local community.<ref>McCool, S. F., Moisey, R. N. (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Qp71teNXFxEC Integrating environmental and social concerns over tourism development]. [In:] S. F. McCool & R. N. Moisey (eds.), Tourism, recreation, and sustainability: linking culture and the environment (pp. 17-20). CABI Publishing: Oxon</ref> A 2009 study of rural operators throughout the province of British Columbia, Canada found ""an overall strong 'pro-sustainability' attitude among respondents. Dominant barriers identified were lack of available money to invest, lack of incentive programs, other business priorities, and limited access to suppliers of sustainable products, with the most common recommendation being the need for incentive programs to encourage businesses to become more sustainable.""<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thuot|first1=Lea|last2=Vaugeois|first2=Nicole|last3=Maher|first3=Patrick|date=2010|title=Fostering innovation in sustainable tourism|journal=Journal of Rural and Community Development|language=en|volume=5|pages=76–89|doi=10.25316/ir-138|issn=1712-8277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moscardo|first1=Gianna|last2=Konovalov|first2=Elena|last3=Murphy|first3=Laurie|last4=McGehee|first4=Nancy G.|last5=Schurmann|first5=Andrea|date=2017-12-01|title=Linking tourism to social capital in destination communities|journal=Journal of Destination Marketing & Management|volume=6|issue=4|pages=286–295|doi=10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.10.001|issn=2212-571X}}</ref>

=== International organizations ===
The Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) serves as the international body for fostering increased knowledge and understanding of sustainable tourism practices, promoting the adoption of universal sustainable tourism principles, and building demand for sustainable travel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bushell|first1=Robyn|last2=Bricker|first2=Kelly|date=2017-01-01|title=Tourism in protected areas: Developing meaningful standards|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1467358416636173|journal=Tourism and Hospitality Research|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=106–120|doi=10.1177/1467358416636173|issn=1467-3584|s2cid=155767802}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) - the international accreditation body for sustainable tourism certification|url=https://www.gstcouncil.org/|access-date=2021-06-03|website=Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC)|language=en-US}}</ref> GSTC launched the GSTC Criteria, a global standard for sustainable travel and tourism, which includes criteria and performance indicators for destinations, tour operators and hotels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=December 2017|title=Coping with Success: Managing Overcrowding in Tourism Destinations|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/travel-logistics-and-transport-infrastructure/our-insights/coping-with-success-managing-overcrowding-in-tourism-destinations#|journal=McKinsey & Company}}</ref> The GSTC Criteria serve as the international standard for [[certification]] agencies (the organizations that would inspect a tourism product, and certify them as a sustainable company).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=S|date=2019|title=Recognising Sustainability in Tourism|url=https://www.apec.org/Publications/2019/02/Recognising-Sustainability-in-Tourism|journal=Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation}}</ref> The GSTC Criteria has the potential to be applied to national parks to improve the standards of operation and increase sustainability efforts in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bricker |first1=Kelly S. |last2=Lackey |first2=N. Qwynne |last3=Joyner |first3=Leah |date=2022 |title=A Framework for Sustainable Tourism Development in and around National Parks |url=https://js.sagamorepub.com/jpra/article/view/11113 |journal=Journal of Park and Recreation Administration |language=en |volume=40 |issue=1 |doi=10.18666/JPRA-2021-11113 |s2cid=245920801 |issn=2160-6862}}</ref> 
== Sustainable transport and mobility ==
{{Further|sustainable transport|environmental impact of aviation}}
[[File:The Secretary, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Smt. Rashmi Verma flagging off a “Cycle Rally” to create awareness about Tourism, Environment and Sustainability, at India Gate, in New Delhi on October 05, 2017.jpg|thumb|The Secretary, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Smt. Rashmi Verma flagging off a “Cycle Rally” to create awareness about Tourism, Environment and Sustainability, at India Gate, in New Delhi on October 05, 2017]]
Tourism can be related to [[travel]] for leisure, business and visiting friends and relatives and can also include means of [[transportation]] related to tourism.<ref name=""PD"">{{cite journal |last1=Peeters |first1=P. |last2=Dubois |first2=G. |year=2010 |title=Tourism travel under climate change mitigation constraints |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=447–457 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.09.003}}</ref> Without travel there is no [[tourism]], so the concept of [[sustainable]] tourism is tightly linked to a concept of [[sustainable transport]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Høyer|first1=K.G.|year=2000|title=Sustainable tourism or sustainable mobility? The Norwegian case|journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism|volume=8|issue=2|pages=147–160|doi=10.1080/09669580008667354|s2cid=153821161}}</ref> Two relevant considerations are tourism's reliance on [[fossil fuel]]s and tourism's effect on [[climate change]]. 72 percent of tourism's [[CO2 emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] come from transportation, 24 percent from accommodations, and 4 percent from local activities.<ref name=""PD"" /> [[Environmental impact of aviation|Aviation accounts for 55%]] of those transportation CO<sub>2</sub> emissions (or 40% of tourism's total). However, when considering the impact of all [[Greenhouse-gas emissions|greenhouse gas emissions]], of [[Contrail|condensation]] trails and induced [[cirrus cloud]]s, aviation alone could account for up to 75% of tourism's climate impact.<ref name=""Future"">{{cite journal|last1=Gossling|first1=S.|last2=Hall|first2=M.|last3=Peeters|first3=P.|last4=Scott|first4=D.|year=2010|title=The future of tourism: can tourism growth and climate policy be reconciled? A mitigation perspective|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236018351|journal=Tourism Recreation Research|volume=35|issue=2|pages=119–130|doi=10.1080/02508281.2010.11081628|s2cid=128883926}}</ref>

The [[International Air Transport Association]] (IATA) considers an annual increase in aviation [[fuel efficiency]] of 2 percent per year through 2050 to be realistic. However, both [[Airbus]] and [[Boeing]] expect the passenger-kilometers of air transport to increase by about 5 percent yearly through at least 2020, overwhelming any efficiency gains. By 2050, with other economic sectors having greatly reduced their CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, tourism is likely to be generating 40 percent of global carbon emissions.<ref name=""Cohen"">Cohen S., Higham J.E., Peeters P., Gossling S. (2014). Why tourism mobility behaviors must change. Ch. 1 in: [https://books.google.com/books?id=JzgsAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22why+tourism+mobility+behaviours+must+change%22&pg=PA1 Understanding and Governing Sustainable Tourism Mobility: Psychological and Behavioural Approaches].</ref> The main cause is an increase in the average distance traveled by tourists, which for many years has been increasing at a faster rate than the number of trips taken.<ref name=""Cohen"" /><ref>Cohen S., Higham J., Cavaliere C. (2011). [http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/18247/1/Cohen,_Higham_and_Cavaliere_2011.pdf Binge flying: Behavioural addiction and climate change.]  Annals of Tourism Research.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Larsen|first1=G.R.|last2=Guiver|first2=J.W.|year=2013|title=Understanding tourists' perceptions of distance: a key to reducing the environmental impacts of tourism mobility|journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism|volume=21|issue=7|pages=968–981|doi=10.1080/09669582.2013.819878|s2cid=154395334|url=https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/6485/2/6485_Larson_Guiver.pdf }}</ref><ref>Gössling S., Ceron J.P., Dubois G., Hall C.M., Gössling I.S., Upham P., Earthscan L. (2009). [https://alicante.academia.edu/documents/0076/1866/chap06_copy.pdf Hypermobile travellers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619151427/http://alicante.academia.edu/documents/0076/1866/chap06_copy.pdf|date=2010-06-19}}. Chapter 6 in: Climate Change and Aviation: Issues, Challenges and Solutions.</ref> ""Sustainable transportation is now established as the critical issue confronting a global tourism industry that is palpably unsustainable, and aviation lies at the heart of this issue.""<ref name=""Cohen"" />

The European Tourism Manifesto has also called for an acceleration in the development of [[cycling infrastructure]] to boost local clean energy travel. Deployment of non-motorized infrastructures and the re-use of abandoned transport infrastructure (such as disused railways) for cycling and walking has been proposed. Connectivity between these non-motorized routes ([[Greenway (landscape)|greenway]]s, cycle routes) and main attractions nearby (i.e. [[Natura2000]] sites, UNESCO sites, etc.) has also been requested.<ref>[https://tourismmanifesto.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Manifesto-Paper_Investment-proposals-and-reforms_Travel-and-Tourism_final.pdf Call for Action: Accelerate Social and Economic Recovery by investing in sustainable tourism]</ref> It has also called for sufficient and predictable rail infrastructure funding, and a focus on digital multimodal practices, including end-to-end ticketing (such as [[Interrail]]), all of which are in-line with the [[European Green Deal#Sustainable mobility|EU's modal shift goal]].<ref>[https://tourismmanifesto.eu/policy-priorities/ Policy priorities]</ref>

Global tourism accounts for about eight percent of global [[greenhouse gas emissions]]. This percentage takes into account [[Environmental impact of aviation|airline transportation]] as well as other [[Impacts of tourism|significant environmental and social impacts that]] are not always beneficial to local communities and their economies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lenzen |first1=Manfred |last2=Sun |first2=Ya-Yen |last3=Faturay |first3=Futu |last4=Ting |first4=Yuan-Peng |last5=Geschke |first5=Arne |last6=Malik |first6=Arunima |date=7 May 2018 |title=The carbon footprint of global tourism |journal=Nature Climate Change |publisher=Springer Nature Limited |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=522–528 |bibcode=2018NatCC...8..522L |doi=10.1038/s41558-018-0141-x |issn=1758-6798 |quote=[...] between 2009 and 2013, tourism's global carbon footprint has increased from 3.9 to 4.5 GtCO2e, four times more than previously estimated, accounting for about 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Transport, shopping and food are significant contributors. The majority of this footprint is exerted by and in high-income countries. |s2cid=90810502}}</ref>

== Challenges ==
{{Further|Impacts of tourism}}

===Displacement and resettlement===
[[File:Engine boats.jpg|thumb|A [[Tourism in Zanzibar|beach in Zanzibar]] transformed into a transportation hub catering towards tourists, with vendors like the one in the foreground, selling goods mostly for tourists. Tourism frequently displaces local communities from access to natural resources in favor of tourist industry needs.]]
In places where there was no tourism prior to tourism companies' arrival, displacement and resettlement of local communities is a common issue.<ref name=""Brohman 1996 48–70"">{{cite journal|last=Brohman|first=J|year=1996|title=New Directions in Tourism for Third World Development|journal=Annals of Tourism Research|volume=23|pages=48–70|citeseerx=10.1.1.330.6563|doi=10.1016/0160-7383(95)00043-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Mowforth, M.|title=Tourism and Sustainability: New Tourism in the Third World|author2=Munt, I.|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|location=London|name-list-style=amp}}</ref> For example, the [[Maasai people|Maasai]] tribes in Tanzania have been a victim of this problem. After the [[World War II|second World War]],  conservationists moved into the areas where the Maasai tribes lived, with the intent to make such areas accessible to tourists and to preserve the areas' natural beauty and ecology. This was often achieved through establishing national parks and conservation areas.<ref name=""Monbiot 1994"">{{cite book|last=Monbiot|first=G|title=No Man's Land|publisher=Macmillan|year=1994|location=London}}</ref><ref name=""Olerokonga 1992 6–7"">{{cite journal|last=Olerokonga|first=T|year=1992|title=What about the Maasai?|journal=In Focus|volume=4|pages=6–7}}</ref> It has been claimed that Maasai activities did not threaten the wildlife and the knowledge was blurred by ""[[colonialism|colonial]] disdain"" and misunderstandings of [[savanna]]h wildlife.<ref name=""Monbiot 1994"" /> As the Maasai have been displaced, the area within the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]] (NCA) has been adapted to allow easier access for tourists through the construction of campsites and tracks, as well as the removal of stone objects such as stones for souvenirs.<ref name=""Olerokonga 1992 6–7"" />
[[File:Tourist and local man in Zanzibar.jpg|left|thumb|Man dressed in traditional Maasai attire approaching a Tourist on the beach. Thousands of [[Maasai people|Maasai men]] have migrated to join the tourism industry on the island and using their ethnic dress to sell goods and services, including sexwork.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite journal|last1=Avieli|first1=Nir|last2=Sermoneta|first2=Tsahala|date=2020-10-07|title=Maasai on the phone: materiality, tourism, and the extraordinary in Zanzibar|journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–10|doi=10.1057/s41599-020-00607-7|issn=2662-9992|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the process they have displaced local communities.<ref name="":02"" />]]

===Environmental impacts===
{{excerpt|Impacts of tourism#Environmental impacts|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}

[[File:2001 Royal Clipper Karibik 020.jpg|thumb|2001 Royal Clipper Karibik is a [[Sailboat|sail boat]] that uses the wind to propel itself forward, thereby causing fewer [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and less [[air pollution]] than ships using fossil energy sources.]]

==Improvements ==
[[File:Banda Kawayan at the International School of Sustainable Tourism.jpg|thumb|[[Banda Kawayan Pilipinas]], a [[bamboo]] orchestra, at the International School of Sustainable Tourism in the Philippines]]
[[File:The Minister of State for Tourism, Shri Sultan Ahmed addressing at the inauguration of the 2-day National Workshop on “Sustainable Tourism Criteria for India”, in New Delhi on July 27, 2010.jpg|thumb|The Minister of State for Tourism, Shri Sultan Ahmed addressing at the inauguration of the 2-day National Workshop on “Sustainable Tourism Criteria for India”, in New Delhi on July 27, 2010]]
[[File:GSTC Logo 2017 Horizontal (transperent).png|thumb|Logo of Global Sustainable Tourism Council]]

===Management aspects===
Promotion of sustainable tourism practices are often connected to the management of tourist locations by locals or the community. This form of tourism is based on the premise that the people living next to a resource are the ones best suited to protecting it. This means that the tourism activities and businesses are developed and operated by local community members, and certainly with their consent and support. Sustainable tourism typically involves the conservation of resources that are capitalized upon for tourism purposes. Locals run the businesses and are responsible for promoting the conservation messages to protect their environment.

Community-based sustainable tourism (CBST) associates the success of the sustainability of the ecotourism location to the management practices of the communities who are directly or indirectly dependent on the location for their livelihoods. A salient feature of CBST is that local knowledge is usually utilized alongside wide general frameworks of ecotourism business models. This allows the participation of locals at the management level and typically allows a more intimate understanding of the environment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter 3: EIA process |url=https://www.fao.org/3/v8350e/v8350e06.htm |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref>

The use of local knowledge also means an easier entry level into a tourism industry for locals whose jobs or livelihoods are affected by the use of their environment as tourism locations. Environmentally sustainable development crucially depends on the presence of local support for a project.<ref>{{cite book|last=Drake|first=S|title='Local Participation in ecotourism project' in Nature Tourism|publisher=Island Press|year=1991|location=Washington D.C.|pages=132}}</ref> It has also been noted that in order for success projects must provide direct benefits for the local community.<ref>{{cite book|last=Epler Wood|first=M|title='Global Solutions: on ecotourism society', in Nature Tourism|publisher=Island Press|year=1991|location=Washington D.C.|pages=204}}</ref>

However, recent research has found that economic linkages generated by CBST may only be sporadic, and that the linkages with agriculture are negatively affected by seasonality and by the small scale of the cultivated areas. This means that CBST may only have small-scale positive effects for these communities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Trejos|first1=B|last2=Chiang|first2=LHN|year=2009|title=Local economic linkages to community-based tourism in rural Costa Rica|journal=Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography|volume=30|issue=3|pages=373–387|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9493.2009.00375.x}}</ref>

Partnerships between governments and tourism agencies with smaller communities are not particularly effective because of the disparity in aims between the two groups, i.e. true sustainability versus mass tourism for maximum profit. In Honduras, such a divergence can be demonstrated where consultants from the World Bank and officials from the Institute of tourism wanted to set up a selection of 5-star hotels near various [[ecotourism]] destinations. But another operating approach in the region by USAID and APROECOH (an ecotourism association) promotes community-based efforts which have trained many local Hondurans. [[Grassroot organization]]s were more successful in Honduras.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mader|first=R|title=Honduras Notes, email communications, cited in Mowforth and Munt 1998, Tourism and Sustainability: New Tourism in the Third World|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|isbn=978-0203437292|location=London}}</ref>

===As part of a development strategy===
Developing countries are especially interested in international tourism,<ref>{{cite book|last=Harrison|first=D|title=International Tourism in the less developed countries|publisher=Wiley|year=1992|location=Chichester|pages=1–18}}</ref> and many believe it brings countries a large selection of economic benefits including employment opportunities, small business development, and increased in payments of foreign exchange. Many assume that more money is gained through developing luxury goods and services in spite of the fact that this increases a countries dependency on imported products, foreign investments and expatriate skills.<ref>{{cite book|last=Baskin|first=J|title=Local economic development: Tourism - Good or Bad? In Tourism workshop proceedings: small, medium, micro enterprises|publisher=Land and Agriculture Policy Center|year=1995|location=Johannesburg|pages=102–116}}</ref> This classic 'trickle down' financial strategy rarely makes its way down to brings its benefits down to small businesses.<ref name=""Scheyvens 1999 245–249"">{{cite journal|last=Scheyvens|first=R|author-link=Regina Scheyvens|year=1999|title=Ecotourism and the Empowerment of Local Communities.|journal=Tourism Management|volume=20|issue=2|pages=245–249|doi=10.1016/s0261-5177(98)00069-7}}</ref>

It has been said that the economic benefits of large-scale tourism are not doubted but that the backpacker or budget traveler sector is often neglected as a potential growth sector by developing countries governments.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Scheyvens|first=R|year=2002|title=Backpacker tourism and third world development|journal=Annals of Tourism Research|series=1|volume=29|pages=144–164|doi=10.1016/s0160-7383(01)00030-5}}</ref> This sector brings significant non-economic benefits which could help to empower and educate the communities involved in this sector. ""Aiming 'low' builds upon the skills of the local population, promotes self-reliance, and develops the confidence of community members in dealing with outsiders, all signs of empowerment""<ref name=""Scheyvens 1999 245–249"" /> and all of which aid in the overall development of a nation.

In the 1990s, international tourism was seen as an import potential growth sector for many countries, particularly in developing countries as many of the world's most beautiful and 'untouched' places are located in developing countries.<ref name=""Brohman 1996 48–70"" /> Prior to the 1960s, studies tended to assume that the extension of the tourism industry to LEDCs was a good thing. In the 1970s, this changed as academics started to take a much more negative view on tourism's consequences, particularly criticizing the industry as an effective contributor towards development. International tourism is a volatile industry with visitors quick to abandon destinations that were formerly popular because of threats to health or security.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lea|first=J. P.|title=Tourism and Development in the Third World|publisher=Routledge|year=1988|isbn=978-0-203-04039-3|location=London}}</ref>

Tourism is seen as a resilient industry and bounces back quickly after severe setbacks, like [[natural disaster]]s, [[September 11 attacks|September 11th attacks]] and [[COVID-19]]. Many call for more attention to ""lessons learned"" from these setbacks to improve mitigation measures that could be taken in advance.<ref>{{Citation |last1=de Ville de Goyet |first1=Claude |title=Natural Disaster Mitigation and Relief |date=2006 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11792/ |work=Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries |editor-last=Jamison |editor-first=Dean T. |edition=2nd |place=Washington (DC) |publisher=World Bank |isbn=978-0-8213-6179-5 |pmid=21250364 |access-date=2022-06-18 |last2=Marti |first2=Ricardo Zapata |last3=Osorio |first3=Claudio |editor2-last=Breman |editor2-first=Joel G. |editor3-last=Measham |editor3-first=Anthony R. |editor4-last=Alleyne |editor4-first=George}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tourism Policy Responses to the coronavirus (COVID-19) |url=https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/tourism-policy-responses-to-the-coronavirus-covid-19-6466aa20/ |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=OECD |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Overtourism-beach.jpg|thumb|An overpopulated beach may lead to issues such as pollution, and taking land away from where indigenous people reside.]]

== Trends ==

=== Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic ===
{{Further|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism}}

Due to [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19]], an unprecedented decrease of 65% took place in [[International tourism|international tourist numbers]] in first half of 2020 as compared to 2019. Countries around the world closed their borders and introduced [[Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic|travel restrictions]] in response to the pandemic. The situation is expected to gradually improve in 2021 depending upon lifting of travel restrictions, availability of [[COVID-19 vaccine]] and return of traveler confidence.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web |title=International Tourist Numbers Down 65% in the First Half of 2020, UNWTO Reports |url=https://www.unwto.org/news/international-tourist-numbers-down-65-in-first-half-of-2020-unwto-reports |access-date=2020-09-25 |website=www.unwto.org |language=en}}</ref>

Furthermore, the current COVID-19 pandemic has made many sustainability challenges of tourism clearer. Therefore sustainable tourism scholars call for a transformation of tourism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ateljevic |first=Irena |date=2020-05-26 |title=Transforming the (tourism) world for good and (re)generating the potential 'new normal' |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1759134 |journal=Tourism Geographies |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=467–475 |doi=10.1080/14616688.2020.1759134 |issn=1461-6688 |s2cid=219046224|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""doi.org"">{{Cite journal |last1=Gössling |first1=Stefan |last2=Scott |first2=Daniel |last3=Hall |first3=C. Michael |date=2021-01-02 |title=Pandemics, tourism and global change: a rapid assessment of COVID-19 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1758708 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1080/09669582.2020.1758708 |issn=0966-9582 |s2cid=219068765|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Higgins-Desbiolles |first=Freya |date=2021-04-03 |title=The ""war over tourism"": challenges to sustainable tourism in the tourism academy after COVID-19 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1803334 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=551–569 |doi=10.1080/09669582.2020.1803334 |issn=0966-9582 |s2cid=225441193}}</ref> They state that the COVID-19 pandemic has created a window of opportunity, in which stakeholders can shift towards more sustainable practices and rethink systems. The system cannot be sustained in its current form. The constant aim for economic growth goes at the expense of Earth's ecosystems, wildlife, and well-being.<ref>Cláudia Seabra et al, 2020. Pandemics and Travel: COVID-19 Impacts in the Tourism Industry. Bingley, Emerald</ref> The gap between rich and poor is growing every year, and the pandemic has spurred this even further. Our current systems are often in place for the few, leaving the many behind.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The political economy of degrowth |url=https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-02499463/document }}</ref> This is no different for the global and local tourism systems. Therefore, tourism scholars argue we should learn from the pandemic. ""COVID-19 provides striking lessons to the tourism industry, policy makers and tourism researchers about the effects of global change. The challenge is now to collectively learn from this global tragedy to accelerate the transformation of sustainable tourism"".<ref name=""doi.org"" /><ref>Sharma A, & Hassan A. 2020. Overtourism as Destination Risk: Impacts and Solutions. Bingley, Emerald.</ref>

Technology is seen as a partial solution to the disruptive impacts of pandemics like COVID-19. Although it can be counterproductive for sustainable tourism if it is utilized for data collection that may be misused for mass tourism, technology and digital advancements have provided the tools necessary for e-tourism to evolve and become more valuable amidst the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Zhenhuan |last2=Wang |first2=Dake |last3=Abbas |first3=Jaffar |last4=Hassan |first4=Saad |last5=Mubeen |first5=Riaqa |date=2022-04-07 |title=Tourists' Health Risk Threats Amid COVID-19 Era: Role of Technology Innovation, Transformation, and Recovery Implications for Sustainable Tourism |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |pages=769175 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769175 |pmid=35465147 |pmc=9022775 |issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free }}</ref> Scholars argue that ""surrogate tourism"" will allow tourists to remain home while employing local guides at the destination to facilitate personalized, interactive, real-time tours (PIRTs). While these options will not take the place of conventional travel experience, there is a market for PIRTs especially for [[Disability|persons with disabilities]] and the elderly, and for the ""sustainable citizen who wishes to minimize their impact on the planet"".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fennell |first=David A. |date=2021 |title=Technology and the sustainable tourist in the new age of disruption |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09669582.2020.1769639 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism |language=en |volume=29 |issue=5 |pages=767–773 |doi=10.1080/09669582.2020.1769639 |issn=0966-9582 |s2cid=219751875|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== History ==
Historically, the movement toward sustainable tourism through responsible tourism emerged following the environmental awareness that rose out of the 1960s and 1970s amid a growing phenomenon of ""mass tourism"". In 1973, the [[European Travel Commission]] initiated a multilateral effort to advance environmentally sound tourism and development.<ref name="":0"" /> Jost Krippendorf, a former professor at the University of Bern, is considered to be one of the first individuals to express ideas about sustainable tourism. In his book ""The landscape eaters"", Krippendorf argues for “sanfter turismus”, or ""soft tourism"".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bâc |first=Dorin Paul |date=2014 |title=THE EMERGENCE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM – A LITERATURE REVIEW |url=http://www.quaestus.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/bac4.pdf |journal=Quaestus Multidisciplinary Research Journal |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1 |via=University of Oradea}}</ref> The [[South Africa]]n national tourism policy (1996)<ref>http://www.haroldgoodwin.info/resources/Explanatory%20Note.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> used the term ""responsible tourism"" and mentioned the well-being of the local community as a main factor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brohman |first1=John |year=1996 |title=New directions in tourism for third world development |journal=Annals of Tourism Research |volume=23 |pages=48–70 |citeseerx=10.1.1.330.6563 |doi=10.1016/0160-7383(95)00043-7}}</ref> In 2014, the Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism focused on the role of business in promoting responsible tourism.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 October 2014 |title=Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism |url=https://responsibletourismpartnership.org/cape-town-declaration-on-responsible-tourism/ |access-date=9 September 2020 |website=Responsible Tourism Partnership}}</ref> While further research is needed to understand the impacts of responsible tourism, a study conducted in 2017 found that well-managed responsible tourism practices were beneficial to local communities.<ref>Mathew, Paul V.; Sreejesh, S. (July 2016). ""Impact of responsible tourism on destination sustainability and quality of life of community in tourism destinations"". ''Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management''. '''31''': 83–89 – via Elsevier Science Direct.</ref>

== Examples ==

=== Forest tourism ===
The [[Haliburton Forest|Haliburton Sustainable Forest]] in central Ontario, Canada is a sustainably managed and privately owned 100,000 forest that supports both tourism and the [[Logging|logging industry]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 24, 2021|title=The Haliburton Forest & Wildlife Reserve, Ltd.|url=https://www.haliburtonforest.com/}}</ref> Based on a 100-year plan for sustaining the forest, the Haliburton Sustainable Forest has sources of income with tourism and logging that contribute to the long-term stability of the local economy and to the health of the forest. In just over four decades the forest has been transformed from a run-down forestry holding to a flourishing, multi-use operation with benefits to owners, employees and the public at large as well as the environment.<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|382}}

=== Sustainable touristic cities ===
In 2019, [[Machu Picchu]] in Peru was ""recognized as Latin America's first 100% sustainable city through the management of its waste"".<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|383}}

=== Organizations ===
Biosphere Tourism is an organization that certifies industry players who are able to balance sociocultural, economic and ecological factors within a tourism destination.<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|384}} The Tread Right Foundation ([[The Travel Corporation]]'s not-for-profit foundation) has been recognized in 2019 by the UNWTO's annual awards for its pioneering work in sustainability.<ref name="":3"" />{{rp|384}}

=== Geosport ===
Geosport is one of the latest concepts in the field of tourism, mainly focusing on promoting spaces, sports heritage sites, and routes as means of attracting tourists through sustainability and sustainable management measures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mirari |first1=Saïd |last2=Aoulad Sidi Mhend |first2=Ali |title=From Sport Tourism to Geosport |journal=International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies |date=April 2023 |volume=39 |issue=2 |page=689 - 696 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370125343 |access-date=28 April 2023}}</ref> Geosport combines local [[cultural heritage]], natural resources, and destination branding with sport. It allows visitors to explore the local cultural and natural heritage more deeply. By enhancing the communication between people and the environment, the concepts of sustainable development and environmental protection are subtly promoted.

==See also==
* [[BEST Education Network]]
* [[Heritage tourism]]
* [[International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development]]
* [[Journal of Sustainable Tourism]]
* [[Mohonk Agreement]]
* [[World Tourism Day]]
* [[Overtourism]]
*[[IT.A.CÀ - Festival of Responsible Tourism]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Reflist|Sustainable Tourism: Tourism Paradigms Salih SARIKAMIS, Antalya [Turkey]. 2022. ISBN 9798371477026}}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Responsible travel}}
{{Commons category}}

*[https://responsibletourismpartnership.org/icrt/ International Centre for Responsible Tourism]
*[https://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/66/ Linking Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Tourism at World Heritage Sites]
*[https://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/tourism/tourism.htm UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable Development]
*[http://www.aftto.org African Fair Tourism & Trade Organisation]
*[http://www.icrtourism.org Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism]
*[https://www.gstcouncil.org/ Global Sustainable Tourism Council]
*[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652615014110]

{{Tourism}}
{{Sustainability|state=collapsed}}
{{Population}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Tourism}}
[[Category:Sustainable tourism| ]]
[[Category:Economy and the environment]]
[[Category:Types of tourism]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Sustainable fashion,"{{Short description|Part of design philosophy and trend of sustainability in fashion}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2021}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Multiple issues|{{tone |date=May 2020}}{{Original research|date=November 2020}}{{cleanup rewrite|date=October 2023}}}}
[[File:WANNER 18.jpg|thumb|upright|Sustainable fashion displayed by Swedish models, 2020]]{{Clothing and the environment}}{{Green economics sidebar}}
'''Sustainable fashion''' (also known as '''eco-fashion''') is a term describing efforts within the [[fashion industry]] to reduce its [[Environmental impact of fashion|environmental impacts]], protect workers producing garments, and uphold [[animal welfare]]. [[Sustainability]] in fashion encompasses a wide range of factors, including ""cutting [[Greenhouse gas emissions|{{CO2}} emissions]], addressing [[overproduction]], reducing [[pollution]] and waste, supporting [[biodiversity]], and ensuring that [[garment workers]] are paid a [[fair wage]] and have safe working conditions"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-19 |title=What Does 'Sustainable Fashion' Actually Mean? |url=https://www.vogue.co.uk/fashion/article/sustainable-fashion |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=[[British Vogue]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>

In 2020, it was found that voluntary self-directed reform of [[textile manufacturing]] supply chains by large companies to reduce the environmental impact was largely unsuccessful.<ref name=""destin"">{{cite web |title=Destination Zero: seven years of Detoxing the clothing industry |url=https://storage.googleapis.com/planet4-international-stateless/2018/07/destination_zero_report_july_2018.pdf |publisher=Greenpeace |access-date=30 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Greenpeace Calls Out Nike, Adidas and Puma for Toxic Clothing |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUS191991010320110809 |access-date=30 September 2020 |work=Reuters |date=9 August 2011 |language=en}}</ref> Measures to reform fashion production beyond [[greenwashing]] requires policies for the creation and enforcement of [[standardization|standardized]] certificates, along with related [[import]] controls, subsidies,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Niu |first1=Baozhuang |last2=Chen |first2=Lei |last3=Zhang |first3=Jie |title=Punishing or subsidizing? Regulation analysis of sustainable fashion procurement strategies |journal=Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review |date=November 2017 |volume=107 |pages=81–96 |doi=10.1016/j.tre.2017.09.010 }}</ref> and interventions such as [[eco-tariffs]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Increasing Green Credentials beyond Greenwash |url=https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/104378/Mikkonen_Mila.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dahl |first1=Richard |title=Green Washing: Do You Know What You're Buying? |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=June 2010 |volume=118 |issue=6 |pages=A246-52 |doi=10.1289/ehp.118-a246|pmid=20515714 |pmc=2898878 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neuman |first1=Salla |title=Sustainability in fashion production – How are the pioneers doing it? |website=www.theseus.fi |date=2019 |url=https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/170211}}</ref>

== Background and history ==
In the early [[1990s in fashion|1990s]], roughly coinciding with the 1992 [[United Nations]] Conference on Environment and Development, popularly known as the [[Earth Summit|Rio Earth Summit]], 'green issues' (as they were called at the time) made their way into fashion and textiles publications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anon|date=1991|title=Textiles and the Environment|journal=International Textiles |volume=726 |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anon|date=1993 |title=Rethinking Ecology|journal=Textile View |volume=24|pages=201–207}}</ref> These publications featured well-known companies such as [[Patagonia (clothing)|Patagonia]] and [[Esprit Holdings|ESPRIT]], whose founders [[Yvon Chouinard]] and [[Doug Tompkins]], were outdoorsmen who witnessed the environmental harm of overproduction and [[overconsumption]]. Doug Tompkins and Yvon Chouinard were early to note that exponential growth and consumption are not sustainable.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meadows, Donella H. |url=https://archive.org/details/limitstogrowthr00mead |title=The Limits to growth : a report for the Club of Rome's project on the predicament of mankind |date=1982 |publisher=Universe Books |isbn=0876631650 |oclc=977611718 |url-access=registration}}</ref> In the late 1980s, they brought environmental concerns into their business models, commissioning research into the impact of fibres used in their respective companies. For Patagonia, this resulted in a [[Life-cycle assessment|lifecycle assessment]] of four fibers: cotton, wool, nylon, and polyester. For ESPRIT, the focus was on [[cotton]]—representing 90% of their production at the time—and finding better alternatives to it. A primary focus on materials' provenance, impact and selection, fibre and fabric processing is still the norm in sustainable fashion 30 years on.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite book|title=Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys |edition=2nd |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |publisher=Earthscan |year=2008 |isbn=9780415644556 |location=London; Washington, DC}}</ref>

In 1992, the [[Esprit Holdings|ESPRIT]] e-collection based on the Eco Audit guide by the Elmwood Institute, was developed by head designer [[Lynda Grose]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cenews.in/lynda-grose-pioneering-environmental-standards-for-the-clothing-industry/ |title=Lynda Grose – PIONEERING ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS FOR THE CLOTHING INDUSTRY – CE NEWS|work=CE NEWS|access-date=2017-03-11 |archive-date=2017-03-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312070350/http://www.cenews.in/lynda-grose-pioneering-environmental-standards-for-the-clothing-industry/|url-status=live}}</ref> and launched at retail. In 2011 the brand [[Patagonia, Inc.|Patagonia]] ran an ad and a PR campaign called ""Don't Buy This Jacket"" with a picture of Patagonia merchandise. This message was intended to encourage people to consider the effect that [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] has on the environment, to purchase only what they need.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.patagonia.com/stories/dont-buy-this-jacket-black-friday-and-the-new-york-times/story-18615.html |title=Don't Buy This Jacket, Black Friday and the New York Times - Patagonia |date=November 25, 2011}}</ref>

In parallel with industry, research around sustainable fashion has been in development since the early 1990s, with the field now having its own history, dynamics, politics, practices, sub-movements and evolution of analytical and critical language.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Fashion: Why Now?|editor1=Hethorn, Janet |editor2=Ulasewicz, Connie |publisher=Fairchild Books|year=2008}}</ref><ref name="":9"">{{Cite book|title=Shaping Sustainable Fashion|author1=Gwilt, Alison |author2=Timo Rissanen |publisher=Earthscan |year=2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Handbook of Sustainable Design|editor1=S. Walker |editor2=J. Giard |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Routledge Handbook of Sustainability and Fashion |editor1=Fletcher, Kate |editor2=Mathilda Tham |publisher=Routledge|year=2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Fashion in a Circular Economy|last=Niinimaki|first=Kirsi|publisher=Aalto ARTIS Books|year=2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Zero Waste Fashion Design|last=Rissanen, Timo and Holly McQuillan|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2018}}</ref> The field is broad in scope, including technical projects that seek to improve the resource efficiency of existing operations,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sustainability in Fashion and Textiles|last=Gardetti, Migel Angel & Ana Laura Torres|publisher=Greenleaf|year=2013}}</ref> the consideration of brands and designers working within currently understood frameworks<ref name="":8"">{{Cite book|title=The sustainable fashion handbook|editor=Black, Sandy|date=2013|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=9780500290569|oclc=800642264}}</ref> as well as those which look to fundamentally re-imagine the fashion industry, including the growth logic.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite book |title=Craft of Use: Post Growth Fashion|last=Fletcher|first=Kate|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|location=London}}</ref>

In the [[European Union]], the [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals]] (REACH) regulations required in 2007 that clothing manufacturers and importers identified and quantified the chemicals used in their products.<ref name=""waste"" /> In 2012, the world's largest summit on fashion sustainability was held in [[Copenhagen]], gathering more than 1,000 key stakeholders in the industry to discuss the importance of making the fashion industry sustainable.<ref>{{cite web |date=2012-05-03 |title=Copenhagen Fashion Summit |url=http://www.copenhagenfashionsummit.com/5steps |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524033610/http://www.copenhagenfashionsummit.com/5steps |archive-date=2012-05-24 |access-date=2012-05-19 |publisher=Copenhagen Fashion Summit}}</ref> The Sustainable Apparel Coalition also launched the [[Higg Index]], a self-assessment standard designed to measure and promote sustainable supply chains in the apparel and footwear industries.<ref>Clark, Evan. [http://www.wwd.com/business-news/forecasts-analysis/sustainability-index-unveiled-6114358 ""Sustainability Index Unveiled""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529065103/http://wwd.com/business-news/forecasts-analysis/sustainability-index-unveiled-6114358/|date=2016-05-29}}, ''[[Women's Wear Daily]]'', 25 July 2012. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref><ref>Binkley, Christina. [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390443570904577547610634945308 ""Which Outfit Is Greenest? A New Rating Tool""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524142252/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10000872396390443570904577547610634945308.html|date=2013-05-24}}, ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'', 25 July 2012. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref> Founded in 2011, the Sustainable Apparel Coalition is a nonprofit organisation whose members include brands producing apparel or footwear, retailers, industry affiliates and trade associations, the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]], academic institutions and environmental nonprofits.<ref>[http://www.textileworld.com/Articles/2012/December/November_December_issue/Departments/AAFA_SAC_Sign_MoU.html ""AAFA, SAC Sign MoU""] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130203133459/http://www.textileworld.com/Articles/2012/December/November_December_issue/Departments/AAFA_SAC_Sign_MoU.html|date=2013-02-03}}, ''Textile World Magazine'', November/December 2012. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref><ref>Gunther, Marc. [http://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2012/07/26/behind-scenes-sustainable-apparel-coalition ""Behind the Scenes at the Sustainable Apparel Coalition""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126233637/https://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2012/07/26/behind-scenes-sustainable-apparel-coalition|date=2018-01-26}}, ''GreenBiz'', 26 July 2012. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.apparelcoalition.org/current-members/ ""Current Members""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321030130/http://www.apparelcoalition.org/current-members/|date=2015-03-21}}, Sustainable Apparel Coalition. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref> The Global Change Award, is an innovation challenge created by the H&M foundation.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite web |title=Trend report: Future of Sustainable Fashion |url=https://www.accenture.com/t20170410T044051Z__w__/us-en/_acnmedia/Accenture/Conversion-Assets/DotCom/Documents/Global/PDF/Consulting/Accenture-HM-Global-Change-Award-Report.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321132817/https://www.accenture.com/t20170410T044051Z__w__/us-en/_acnmedia/Accenture/Conversion-Assets/DotCom/Documents/Global/PDF/Consulting/Accenture-HM-Global-Change-Award-Report.pdf |archive-date=2018-03-21}}</ref>
{{Quote box
| quote = Retailers must take responsibility for the social and environmental cost of clothes. They should use their market power to demand higher environmental and labour standards from suppliers. Offering rental schemes, lifetime repair and providing the consumer with more information about the sourcing and true cost of clothing are all measures that can be more widely adopted. Shifting business practice in this way can not only improve a business' environmental and social impact but also offer market advantage as they respond to the growing consumer demand for responsible, sustainable clothing.
| author = Environmental Audit Committee of the [[UK Parliament]]
| source = ""Fixing fashion: clothing consumption and sustainability""<ref name="":7"" />{{rp|54}}
| align = right
| width = 50%
}}
In 2019, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK Parliament's]] Environment Audit Committee published a report and recommendations on the future of fashion sustainability, suggesting wide-ranging systemic change, not least government regulation and tax-incentives for sustainable practices, such as lowered [[Value-added tax|VAT]] for repair services.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite web |title=Fixing fashion: clothing consumption and sustainability – Report Summary – Environmental Audit Committee |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmenvaud/1952/report-summary.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312160931/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmenvaud/1952/report-summary.html |archive-date=12 March 2021 |access-date=26 February 2019 |website=publications.parliament.uk}}</ref> The report highlights the need for wide political and social changes to push the fashion industry towards more sustainable practices and levels of consumption, with the goal of ""less harm"" being too low to be of any helpful consequence.<ref name="":7"" />{{rp|54}} In the same year, a group of researchers formed the Union for Concerned Researchers in Fashion (UCRF) to advocate for radical and coordinated research activity commensurate with the challenges of [[biodiversity loss]] and climate change.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 February 2019 |title=Researchers set out manifesto for fashion change |url=https://www.ecotextile.com/2019022724098/fashion-retail-news/researchers-set-out-manifesto-for-fashion-change.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301135839/https://www.ecotextile.com/2019022724098/fashion-retail-news/researchers-set-out-manifesto-for-fashion-change.html |archive-date=1 March 2019|access-date=28 February 2019 |website=ecotextile.com}}</ref> In the fall of 2019, the UCRF received the North Star Award at the Green Carpet Fashion Awards during [[Milan Fashion Week]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Glover |first=Simon |date=23 September 2019 |title=Award-winning researchers call for new sustainability approach |url=https://www.ecotextile.com/2019092325056/fashion-retail-news/award-winning-researchers-call-for-new-sustainability-approach.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724152319/https://www.ecotextile.com/2019092325056/fashion-retail-news/award-winning-researchers-call-for-new-sustainability-approach.html |archive-date=24 July 2020 |access-date=24 July 2020 |website=Ecotextile News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Purpose ==
[[File:Eco fashion week Vancouver Canada 2011.jpg|thumb|Designers highlighting their designs at Eco Fashion Week Vancouver Canada, 2011]]
Fashion industry followers believe the business sector can act more sustainably by pursuing profit and growth. This is done while adding increased value and wealth to society and the global economy. The goal of sustainable fashion is to create flourishing ecosystems and communities through its activity.<ref name="":8"" /> The movement believes that clothing companies should incorporate environmental, social, and ethical improvements on management's agenda.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |title=Pulse of The Fashion Industry |url=http://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Global Fashion Agenda |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322150525/http://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf |archive-date=2019-03-22 |access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref><ref name="":10"">{{Cite book |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |url=https://earthlogic.info/ |title=Earth Logic Fashion Action Research Plan |last2=Tham |first2=Mathilda |publisher=JJ Charitable Trust |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-5272-5415-2 |location=London |access-date=2020-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226162546/https://earthlogic.info/ |archive-date=2020-02-26 |url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=April 2023}}</ref> This may include: increasing the value of local production and products; prolonging the lifecycle of materials; increasing the value of timeless garments; reducing the amount of waste; and reducing the harm to the environment as a result of production and consumption. Another goal is to educate people to practice environmentally friendly consumption by promoting the ""green consumer"", which can allow the company itself to gain more support and a larger following. Providing more sustainable option decrease the huge amounts of clothing that end up in landfills.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Eco fashion |last=Brown|first=Sass |publisher=Laurence King|year=2010}}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{cite journal |last1=Gurova |first1=Olga |last2=Morozova |first2=Daria |title=A critical approach to sustainable fashion: Practices of clothing designers in the Kallio neighborhood of Helsinki |journal=Journal of Consumer Culture |date=August 2018 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=397–413 |doi=10.1177/1469540516668227 |s2cid=151351581 }}</ref>

Consumption geared towards saving money, lowering utility bills and greenhouse gas emissions, and meeting the country's energy needs is described as green consumerism. In recent years there has been an increase in research centered around consumer reactions to the advent of green products within fast fashion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Xiaoqian |last2=Sheng |first2=Tong |last3=Zhou |first3=Xiaolan |last4=Shen |first4=Chaohai |last5=Fang |first5=Bingquan |title=How Does Young Consumers' Greenwashing Perception Impact Their Green Purchase Intention in the Fast Fashion Industry? An Analysis from the Perspective of Perceived Risk Theory |journal=Sustainability |date=19 October 2022 |volume=14 |issue=20 |pages=13473 |doi=10.3390/su142013473 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Critics doubt the effectiveness that this has, but companies have already begun slowly transitioning their business models to fit a more eco-friendly and sustainable future. Thus the industry has to change its basic premise for profit, yet this is slow coming as it requires a large shift in business practices, models and tools for assessment.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ellen MacArthur Foundation |url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/A-New-Textiles-Economy_Full-Report.pdf |title=A new textiles economy: redesigning fashion's future |publisher=Ellen MacArthur Foundation|year=2017 |access-date=2020-02-26|archive-date=2020-06-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609120200/https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/A-New-Textiles-Economy_Full-Report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> This became apparent in the discussions following the Burberry report of the brand burning unsold goods worth around £28.6m (about $37.8 million) in 2018,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://fashionista.com/2018/07/burberry-burning-clothes-thredup-resale|title=Burberry Under Attack for Burning $37.8 Million Worth of Unsold Products|last=Prant |first=Dara|website=Fashionista|access-date=2019-03-12}}</ref> exposing not only overproduction and subsequent destruction of unsold stock as a normal business practice, but behavior amongst brands that actively undermine a sustainable fashion agenda.<ref name="":7"" />

The challenge for making fashion more sustainable often requires systematic reinvention, and this call for action is not new. The UCRF has argued that the industry focus remains the same ideas originally mooted in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The Union observes, ""so far, the mission of sustainable fashion has been an utter failure and all small and incremental changes have been drowned by an explosive economy of extraction, consumption, waste and continuous labor abuse.""<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.concernedresearchers.org/ucrf-on-2019-copenhagen-fashion-summit/|title=Statement on 2019 Copenhagen Fashion Summit |date=5 May 2019|website=Union of Concerned Researchers in Fashion|access-date=21 May 2019|archive-date=10 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510041542/http://www.concernedresearchers.org/ucrf-on-2019-copenhagen-fashion-summit/|url-status=live}}</ref>

A frequently concern of those working in the area of sustainable fashion is whether the field itself is an oxymoron.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Eco Chic The Fashion Paradox|last=Black|first=Sandy|publisher=Black Dog|year=2008}}</ref> This reflects the seemingly irreconcilable possibility of bringing together fashion (understood as constant change, and tied to business models based on continuous replacement of goods) and sustainability (understood as continuity and resourcefulness).<ref name="":3"" /> The apparent paradox dissolves if fashion is seen more broadly, as a process not only aligned to expansionist business models<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fletcher|first=kate|date=2010|title=Slow Fashion: an invitation for systems change|journal=Journal of Fashion Practice|volume=2|issue=2|pages=259–266 |doi=10.2752/175693810X12774625387594|s2cid=110000414}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Doughnut economics : seven ways to think like a 21st-century economist|last=Raworth |first=Kate|isbn=9781847941398 |oclc=1038191528|date=2018-02-22|publisher=Penguin Random House }}</ref> and consumption, but instead as mechanism that leads to more engaged ways of living.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Gaian economics: living well within planetary limits |date=2013|editor1=Dawson, Jonathan |editor2=Ross, J. T. |editor3=Norberg-Hodge, Helena |publisher=Permanent Publications|isbn=9781856230568|oclc=920340237}}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref><ref name="":4"" />

Challenges associated with implementing sustainability in fashion design are shaped by the perceptions, attitudes, and involvement of fashion design practitioners in sustainability. Both design and designer roles are key to inspiring sustainable design practices; their role can contribute to sustainability by shaping design production practices and influencing consumption processes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hur |first1=Eunsuk |last2=Cassidy |first2=Tom |date=4 May 2019 |title=Perceptions and attitudes towards sustainable fashion design: challenges and opportunities for implementing sustainability in fashion |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/141582/2/Accepted-%20Perceptions%20and%20attitudes%20towards%20sustainable%20fashion%20Challenges%20and%20opportunities%20for%20implementing%20sustainability%20in%20fashion.pdf |journal=International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/17543266.2019.1572789 |s2cid=117248781}}</ref>

== Temporal concerns related to fashion ==
[[File:Taller de textiles.jpg|thumb|Traditional textile manufacturing in [[Teotitlán del Valle]]. Clothes made with techniques like this are considered more sustainable than [[fast fashion]].]]
Fashion is, per definition, a phenomenon related to time: a popular expression in a certain time and context. This also affects the perception of what is and should be made more sustainable – if fashion should be ""fast"" or ""slow""—or if it should be more exclusive or inclusive.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal|last=Clark|first=Hazel|date=2008-12-01|title=SLOW + FASHION—an Oxymoron—or a Promise for the Future …?|journal=Fashion Theory|volume=12|issue=4|pages=427–446|doi=10.2752/175174108X346922|s2cid=194180788|issn=1362-704X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Hazel |title=SLOW + FASHION—an Oxymoron—or a Promise for the Future …? |journal=Fashion Theory |date=December 2008 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=427–446 |doi=10.2752/175174108X346922 |s2cid=218771542 }}</ref> Like much other designs, the objects of fashion exist in the inter-zone between desire and discard along a temporal axis, between the shimmering urge towards life and the thermodynamic fate of death. As noted by cultural theorist Brian Thill, ""waste is every object, plus time.""<ref>{{Cite book|title=Waste|last=Thill, Brian.|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing, Incorporated |isbn=9789386606891|oclc=1066172530}}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref>

When it comes down to the garments themselves, their durability depends on their use and ""metabolism""—certain garments are made to withstand long use (ex. outdoor and hiking wear, winter jackets) whereas other garments have a quicker turn-around (ex. a party top). This means some garments have properties and a use-life that could be made more durable, whereas others should be compostable or recyclable for quicker disintegration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |title=Durability, Fashion, Sustainability: The Processes and Practices of Use |journal=Fashion Practice |date=November 2012 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=221–238 |doi=10.2752/175693812X13403765252389 |s2cid=110677145 }}</ref> Clothing that are not sold in markets become solid waste clogging areas of water and ultimately creating ""the potential for additional environmental health hazards in LMICs lacking robust municipal waste systems""<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bick |first1=Rachel |last2=Halsey |first2=Erika |last3=Ekenga |first3=Christine C. |date=2018-12-27 |title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion |journal=Environmental Health |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=92 |doi=10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7 |issn=1476-069X |pmc=6307129 |pmid=30591057 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018EnvHe..17...92B }}</ref>

=== Fast fashion ===
{{Main|Fast fashion}}
[[File:Fast Fashion killt das Klima.jpg|thumb|Protesters holding a placard linking fast fashion to [[climate change]]]]
One of the most apparent reasons for the current unsustainable condition of the fashion system is related to the temporal aspects of fashion; the continuous stream of new goods onto the market, or what is popularly called ""[[fast fashion]]."" The term fast fashion is used to refer to the fast-paced production of goods at an unethical level which often has a negative impact on the environment. As a way to conform to the latest fashion styles and keep consumers wanting new garments, current fast fashion trends pre-suppose selling clothing in large quantities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willett |first1=Joanie |last2=Saunders |first2=Clare |last3=Hackney |first3=Fiona |last4=Hill |first4=Katie |title=The affective economy and fast fashion: Materiality, embodied learning and developing a sensibility for sustainable clothing |journal=Journal of Material Culture |date=September 2022 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=219–237 |doi=10.1177/13591835221088524 |doi-access=free |s2cid=247823706 |url=https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/630120/8/13591835221088524.pdf}}</ref> Due to fast fashion being affordable and able to keep up with the trends, there has been an increase in apparel consumption. Consumption has risen to 62 million tonnes annually and is projected to reach 102 million tonnes by 2030.<ref name=FF_1>{{cite web| title=Fast Fashion Pollution and Climate Change| author=Shukla, N.| url=https://earth.org/fast-fashion-pollution-and-climate-change| publisher=Earth.Org| date=21 February 2022| access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref> This type of fashion is produced in vast quantities with low-quality materials and are sold through chains such as [[H&M]], [[Zara (retailer)|Zara]], [[Forever 21|Forever21]], [[Shein (company)|Shein]], etc. Fast-fashion retailer Shein is one of the most visited fast-fashion websites in the world and ships to 220 countries. However, there are questions about Shein's ethics and sustainability as it was responsible for about 706 billion kilograms of greenhouse gases in 2015 from the production of polyester textiles and uses up hundreds of gallons of water per garment.<ref name=SI_1>{{cite web| title=Shein Is the World's Most Popular Fashion Brand—at a Huge Cost to Us All| author=Astha Rajvanshi| url=https://time.com/6247732/shein-climate-change-labor-fashion| publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]| date=17 January 2023| access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref> Additionally, leaving an aftermath of 6.3 million tons of carbon dioxide while missing 45% of the UN's goal to reduce carbon emissions by 2030.<ref name=HOF_1>{{cite web| title=The History of Fast Fashion| author=McDonald, C.D.| url=https://www.forcmagazine.com/the-history-of-fast-fashion| publisher=FORÇ Magazine| date=26 January 2017| access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref> In January 2021, Shein offered over 121,000 garments made from polyester, making up 61% of their clothing total.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Millward-Pena |first1=Isabel |title=FROM FAST FASHION TO SUSTAINABLE SLOW FASHION |date=2022 |url=https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/1453/ }}</ref> The fashion industry has a value of three trillion dollars. It is two percent of the world's gross domestic product (GDP) - the total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite web|date=2016-07-20|title=Fashion Industry Waste Statistics|url=https://edgexpo.com/fashion-industry-waste-statistics/|access-date=2021-05-04|website=E D G E|language=en}}</ref> Out of the three trillion dollars, the majority is made of fast fashion.

However, the ""fast"" aspect of consumption is primarily a problem for the environment when done on a massive scale. As long as fast conspicuous consumption was reserved to the rich, the global impact was not reaching public attention or seen as a problem. That is, ""fast"" shopping sprees of [[haute couture]] is not seen as a problem, rather it is celebrated (for example in movies such as [[Pretty Woman]]), whereas when people with less means shop fast fashion, it is seen as unethical and a problem. Today, the speed of fast fashion is common across the whole industry as exclusive fashion replicates the fast fashion chains with continuous releases of collections and product drops: the quality of a garment does not necessarily translate to a slower pace of consumption and waste.<ref>{{cite web|title= COMMON OBJECTIVE- Fashion and Waste: An Uneasy Relationship|url= https://www.commonobjective.co/article/fashion-and-waste-an-uneasy-relationship |access-date=2018-06-08}}</ref>  These releases are only exasperated by the acceleration of fashion trends. As micro-trends are only lasting an average of 3 years, the demand for clothes has also accelerated.<ref>Nelson, Mariel. ""Micro-Trends: The acceleration of fashion cycles and the rise in waste"". Worldwide Responsible Accredited Production, May 17, 2021</ref>

In addition to its negative environmental impact, fast fashion is unethical. Keeping up with fashion trends causes clothing to be produced in a harmful manner. ""Fast"" clothing is made with synthetic fibers as opposed to natural fibers. The synthetic fibers are made using the Earth's fossil fuels. Almost sixty percent of clothes are made this way.<ref name="":13"">{{cite news |last1=Schlossberg |first1=Tatiana |title=How Fast Fashion Is Destroying the Planet |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/03/books/review/how-fast-fashion-is-destroying-the-planet.html |work=The New York Times |date=3 September 2019 }}</ref> Since people spend so much money on these types of clothes and purchase them so frequently, landfills are filling up quickly. Over sixty percent of clothes made every year end up in landfills as consumer waste, and almost twenty percent of the world's waste is constituted by fashion products.<ref name="":12"" /> 
Therefore, because fast fashion frequently introduces new collections, consumer consumption increases. Consequently, leading consumers to view low-cost apparel as disposable since there are continuous releases of products.<ref name=""sciencedirect.com"">{{cite journal |last1=Centobelli |first1=Piera |last2=Abbate |first2=Stefano |last3=Nadeem |first3=Simon |last4=Reyes |first4=Jose |title=Slowing the fast fashion industry: An all-round perspective |journal=Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry |date=20 September 2022 |volume=38 |page=100684 |doi=10.1016/j.cogsc.2022.100684 |s2cid=251697285 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022COGSC..3800684C }}</ref> Production of these types of clothing is also commonly exploitative, with most factories that produce ""fast"" clothing employing workers on low wages in exploitative environments. Workers from Shein are reported to make as little as ~4 cents per garment produced, as well as operating on 18-hour workdays with 1 day off per month.<ref name=BIS_1>{{cite web| title=Shein factory employees are working 18-hour days for pennies per garment and washing their hair on lunch breaks because they have so little time off, new report finds| author=Sarah Jackson| url=https://www.businessinsider.com/shein-factory-workers-18-hour-shifts-paid-low-wages-report-2022-10?r=US&IR=T| publisher=Insider Inc.| date=16 October 2022| access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref>  Exploitative fast fashion production is prevalent in countries like China, Bangladesh and Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Story Map Journal|url=https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?appid=74b6302912a948ebb1a98eaecb02d5f3#:~:text=As%20mentioned%20previously,%20some%20of,strict%20environmental%20and%20labour%20regulations.|access-date=2021-05-04|website=www.arcgis.com}}</ref> Hard labor was always around in the fashion industry dating back to when slave labor helped factories gather their materials. People making these clothes today suffer from harsh working conditions, low wages, and risks to health and safety.

=== ""Slow"" fashion ===
""[[Slow fashion]]"" is a proposed sustainable alternative to fast fashion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |title=Slow Fashion: An Invitation for Systems Change |journal=Fashion Practice |volume=2 |date=2010 |issue=2 |pages=259–265 |doi=10.2752/175693810X12774625387594 |s2cid=110000414 }}</ref> The term was coined by Kate Fletcher of the Centre for Sustainable Fashion and inspired by ""[[Slow movement (culture)|slow food]]"".<ref name=""Archived copy"">{{cite web |url=https://goodonyou.eco/what-is-slow-fashion/ |website=Goodonyou.eco |access-date=4 March 2021 |title=What is Slow Fashion? - Good on You |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202034555/https://goodonyou.eco/what-is-slow-fashion/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Slow fashion challenges growth fashion's obsession with mass-production and globalized style. It becomes a guardian of diversity and changes the power relations between fashion creators and consumers, therefore forging new relationships and trust that are only possible at smaller scales. It fosters a heightened state of awareness of the design process and its impacts on resource flows, workers, communities, and ecosystems.<ref>Fletcher, K., & Grose, L. (2012). Fashion and sustainability: design for change. Laurence King.</ref>

A slow-fashion garment often consists of durable materials, traditional production techniques, or design concepts that are seasonless or will last for more than a season. Several points of the production chain are affected by slowness. Textile workers in developing countries earn higher wages because of slow fashion. For end-users, slow fashion means that the goods are designed and manufactured with greater care and high-quality products. From an environmental point of view, it means that there are less clothing and industrial waste that is removed from use following transient trends.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |title=Sustainable Fashion and Textiles- Design Journeys |publisher=Earthscan }}</ref> Throughout the process, durability is considered; emotionally, materially, aesthetically, or by including services that extend the garment's life. Additionally, creative ideas and product innovations constantly redefine slow fashion, so using a static, single definition would ignore the evolving nature of the concept.

Examples of stability of expression over long times are abundant in the history of dress, not least in ethnic or folk dress, ritual or coronation robes, clerical dress, or the uniforms of the [[Pontifical Swiss Guard|Vatican Guard]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fashion as Communication|last=Barnard|first=Malcolm|publisher=Routledge|year=2002}}</ref> The emphasis on slowness in branding is thus an approach that is specific for a niche in the market (such as Western-educated middle-class) that has since the 1990s become dominated by ""fast"" models. One of the earliest brands that gained global fame with an explicit focus on slow fashion, the Anglo-Japanese brand [[People Tree Ltd.|People Tree]], embraces the concept of ethical trade, manufactures all products in accordance with ethical commerce standards, and supports local producers and craftsmen in developing countries. The People Tree brand is known as the first fashion company to receive the [[World Fair Trade Organization]] product label in 2013, demonstrating their dedication to fair trade and the environment.<ref>{{cite web |title=People Tree is first clothing brand to receive the new WFTO Fair Trade product mark! |url=http://blog.peopletree.co.uk/people-tree-is-first-clothing-brand-to-receive-the-new-wfto-product-label/ |website=The Thread |date=October 10, 2013 |ref=55}}</ref>

The concept of slow fashion is however not without its controversies, as the imperative of slowness is a mandate emerging from a position of privilege. To stop consuming ""fast fashion"" strikes against low-income consumers whose only means to access trends is through cheap and accessible goods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=von Busch |first=Otto |date=2022-12-09 |title=""What is to be sustained?"": Perpetuating systemic injustices through sustainable fashion |journal=Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=400–409 |doi=10.1080/15487733.2022.2069996 |issn=1548-7733|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022SSPP...18..400V }}</ref> Those who are already having a high position in society can afford to slow down and cement their status and position, while those on their way up resent being told to stay at the lower rungs of the status hierarchy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=von Busch|first=Otto|title=""The chronopolitics of slow fashion"" in S. Kipoz (ed) Slowness in Fashion|publisher=Dixi Books|year=2020|location=London|pages=169–177}}</ref> ""The prestige of slowness allows a cultural signifier for those already have social positions to preserve, and have time and money to take it easy and enjoy the pleasures of reflection and meditate over their moral superiority.""<ref>{{Cite book|last=von Busch|first=Otto|title=The Chronopolitics of Fashion, in S. Kipoz (ed) Slowness in Fashion|publisher=Dixi Books|year=2020|location=London|pages=175}}</ref>

=== Garment use and lifespan ===
{{Further|Textile performance}}
The environmental impact of fashion also depends on how much and how long a garment is used. With the [[fast fashion]] trend, garments tend to be used half as much as compared to 15 years ago. It has been estimated that each year around $172 million worth of garments is expected to be discarded, many of them after being worn only once.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Claudio José Galdino da Silva Jr |author2=Alexandre D’Lamare Maia de Medeiros |author3=Julia Didier Pedrosa de Amorim |author4=Helenise Almeida do Nascimento |author5=Attilio Converti |author6=Andrea Fernanda Santana Costa |author7=Leonie Asfora Sarubbo |title=Bacterial cellulose biotextiles for the future of Sustainable Fashion: A Review |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |date=August 2021 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=2967–2980 |doi=10.1007/s10311-021-01214-x|bibcode=2021EnvCL..19.2967D |s2cid=232215342 }}</ref> There has been a 7.1&nbsp;kg increase in global per-capita textile production from 1975 to 2018. This means not only an increase in textiles but an increase in the amount of water pollution from dying and treating the textiles. The increase can be contributed to the need for consumers to keep up with the latest fashion trends and the quick disposal of clothing.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kirsi Niinimäki |author2=Greg Peters |author3=Helena Dahlbo |author4=Patsy Perry |author5=Timo Rissanen |author6=Alison Gwilt |title=The environmental price of fast fashion|journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment|date= April 2020|volume=1|issue=4 |pages=189–200|doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9|bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..189N |s2cid=215760302 |url=https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/handle/123456789/112926 }}</ref> This is not only due to the inferior quality of fabrics used but also a result of a significant increase in collections that are being released by the fashion industry. To combat this issue at hand, longer lasting materials and products are being promoted to increase sustainability.<ref name=KF_1>{{cite journal| title=Durability, Fashion, Sustainability: The Processes and Practices of Use| author=Fletcher, Kate| journal=Fashion Practice| publisher=Informa UK Limited| date=2012| pages=221–238| volume=4| issue=2| doi=10.2752/175693812X13403765252389| s2cid=110677145}}</ref>

Typically, a garment used daily over years has less impact than a garment used once to then be quickly discarded. Studies have shown that the washing and drying process for a pair of classic jeans is responsible for almost two-thirds of the energy consumed through the whole of the jeans' life, and for underwear about 80% of total energy use comes from laundry processes.<ref name="":3"" /> The dyeing process also contributes close to 15%-20% of wastewater. For this reason, innovative techniques are being introduced to reduce energy and water consumption, such as utilizing {{CO2}}<ref name=""sciencedirect.com""/> in the dyeing process where heat and pressure turns liquid {{CO2}} into dye used for various garments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Waterless Dyeing of Textiles Using {{CO2}} |website=Global Opportunity Explorer |date=6 May 2019 |url=https://goexplorer.org/waterless-dyeing-of-textiles-using-co2}}</ref> Thus, use and wear practices affect the lifecycles of garments and needs to be addressed for larger systemic impact.<ref>{{Cite report |last=Chapman |first=Adrian |date=July 2010 |title=Review of Life Cycle Assessments of Clothing |publisher=MISTRA Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research |s2cid=30971880|url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7398/93062680c631c755391f334901c7239f8c5c.pdf|access-date=2020-02-26|url-status=deviated|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226231304/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7398/93062680c631c755391f334901c7239f8c5c.pdf}}</ref>

However, there is a significant difference between making a product last from making a long-lasting product. The quality of the product must reflect the appropriate fit into its lifecycle. Certain garments of quality can be repaired and cultivated with emotional durability. Low-quality products that deteriorate rapidly are not as suitable to be ""enchanted"" with emotional bonds between user and product.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emotionally durable design objects, experiences and empathy|last=Chapman, Jonathan|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781315738802|oclc=1086535559}}</ref> It is important to notice that choosing and promoting ""emotional bonds"" with consumer objects is an endeavor more easily done under circumstances of excess, as the needy have no other option than to keep and care for their belongings.

As highlighted in the research of Irene Maldini, slowing down (in the sense of keeping garments longer) does not necessarily translate into lower volumes of purchased units.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maldini|first=Irene|date=2019|title=From speed to volume: reframing clothing production and consumption for an environmentally sound apparel sector|journal=PLATE. Product Lifetimes and the Environment Conference Proceedings|via=PLATE 2019 Berlin}}</ref> Maldini's studies expose how slow fashion, in the sense of long-lasting use phase of garments, tends to indicate that garments stay in the wardrobe longer, stored or hoarded, but does not mean fewer resources are used in producing garments. Thus, slowness comes to mean wardrobes with more lasting products, but the consumption volume and in-flow into the wardrobe/storage stay the same.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Maldini|first=Irene|title=Can design confront consumerism? A critical study of clothing volumes, personalization, and the wardrobe.|publisher=VU University Amsterdam|year=2019|isbn=9789083002415|location=Amsterdam}}</ref>

== Concerns ==
=== Environmental ===
{{Main|Environmental impact of fashion}}
The fashion industry has a disastrous impact on the environment. In fact, it is the second largest polluter in the world, just after the oil industry. And, the environmental damage is increasing as the industry grows.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Environmental Impacts of the Fashion Industry|url=https://www.sustainyourstyle.org/old-environmental-impacts|access-date=2021-08-04|website=SustainYourStyle|language=en-US}}</ref>
The textiles and fashion industries are amongst the leading industries that affect the environment negatively. One of the industries that greatly jeopardize environmental sustainability is the textiles and fashion industry, which thus also bears great responsibilities. [[Globalization]] has made it possible to produce clothing at increasingly lower prices, prices so low, and collections shifting so fast, that many consumers consider fashion to be disposable.<ref name="":9"" /> However, fast, and thus disposable, fashion adds to pollution and generates environmental hazards, in production, use, and disposal. The globalization of the textile and fashion industry has also contributed to the uneven distribution of such environmental hazards and consequences. Developing countries who typically produce the textile and clothing bear the burden for developed countries who largely consume the products.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Niinimäki |first1=Kirsi |last2=Peters |first2=Greg |last3=Dahlbo |first3=Helena |last4=Perry |first4=Patsy |last5=Rissanen |first5=Timo |last6=Gwilt |first6=Alison |date=2020-04-07 |title=The environmental price of fast fashion |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9 |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |language=en |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=189–200 |doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9 |bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..189N |s2cid=215760302 |issn=2662-138X}}</ref>

Putting the environmental perspective at the center, rather than the logic of the industry, is thus an urgent concern if fashion is to become more sustainable. The Earth Logic fashion research action plan argues for ""putting the health and survival of our planet earth and consequently the future security and health of all species including humans, before industry, business, and economic growth.""<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fletcher|first1=Kate|title=Earth Logic Fashion Action Research Plan.|last2=Tham|first2=Mathilda |publisher=JJ Charitable Trust|year=2019|isbn=978-1-5272-5415-2|location=London|page=33}}</ref> In making this argument the Earth Logic plan explicitly connects the global fashion system with the 2018 [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) [[Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C]].

Furthermore, the Earth Logic fashion research action plan sets out a range of possible areas for work in a sustainable fashion that scientific and research evidence suggests are the most likely to deliver a change of the scale and pace needed to respond to challenges like climate change. Earth Logic's point of departure is that the planet, and its people, must be put first, before profit. It replaces the logic of economic growth, which is arguably the single largest factor limiting change towards sustainable fashion, with the logic that puts Earth at its center.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fletcher|first1=Kate |url=https://earthlogic.info |title=Earth Logic Fashion Action Research Plan|last2=Tham|first2=Mathilda |publisher=JJ Charitable Trust|year=2019|location=London |page=19|access-date=2020-02-26|archive-date=2020-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226162546/https://earthlogic.info/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Environmental hazards ====
The clothing industry has one of the highest impacts on the planet. Cotton requires approximately 15,000 liters of water to grow for a pair of jeans.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sanghani|first=Radhika|date=2018-10-08|title=Stacey Dooley Investigates: Are your clothes wrecking the planet?|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/5a1a43b5-cbae-4a42-8271-48f53b63bd07|access-date=2021-06-30|website=BBC Three|language=en-GB}}</ref> High water usage, pollution from chemical treatments used in dyeing and preparation and the disposal of large amounts of unsold clothing through incineration or landfill deposits are hazardous to the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-20|title=What Research Says About Sustainable Fashion Is Our Future!|url=https://www.bitslowfashion.com/2021/06/20/what-research-says-about-sustainable-fashion-is-our-future/|access-date=2021-06-27|website=Bit Slow Fashion|language=en-US}}</ref> There is a growing [[water scarcity]], the current usage level of fashion materials (79 billion cubic meters annually) is very concerning because textile production mostly takes place in areas of fresh water stress.<ref name=pulse>{{Citation|title=Pulse of the Fashion Industry 2017|url=https://www.globalfashionagenda.com/publications-and-policy/pulse-of-the-industry/|year=2017|page=11|publisher=Global Fashion Agenda & The Boston Consulting Group}}</ref> Only around 20% of clothing is recycled or reused, huge amounts of fashion product end up as waste in landfills or are incinerated.<ref name=pulse /> It has been estimated that in the UK alone around 350,000 tons of clothing ends up as landfill every year. According to Earth Pledge, a [[non-profit organization]] committed to promoting and supporting [[sustainable development]], ""At least 8,000 chemicals are used to turn raw materials into textiles and 25% of the world's [[pesticides]] are used to grow non-organic cotton. This causes irreversible damage to people and the [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]], and still two thirds of a garment's [[carbon footprint]] will occur after it is purchased.""<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/CGTPaperII.pdf|title=Classification and general properties of textile fibres|last=Haung|first=HC|date=1994|access-date=March 1, 2018|archive-date=March 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328160048/http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/CGTPaperII.pdf|url-status=live}} {{verify source |date=September 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted Special:Diff/863921376 by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite located at Special:Permalink/863921314 cite #10 – verify the cite is accurate and delete this template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref> The average American throws away nearly 70 pounds of clothing per year.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.southbendtribune.com/news/local/thrift-stores-sell-damaged-items-to-textile-recyclers/article_21a785fc-08df-11e4-ad94-001a4bcf6878.html|title=Thrift stores sell damaged items to textile recyclers|last=Culp|first=Alice|date=11 July 2014|newspaper=South Bend Tribune|access-date=2016-04-25|archive-date=2019-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107185018/https://www.southbendtribune.com/news/local/thrift-stores-sell-damaged-items-to-textile-recyclers/article_21a785fc-08df-11e4-ad94-001a4bcf6878.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Around 5% of the total waste worldwide stems from the textile industry, the clothing section of the textile industry has elevated the amount of waste contributing to global waste.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stanescu |first=Michaela Dina |date=2021-03-01 |title=State of the art of post-consumer textile waste upcycling to reach the zero waste milestone |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12416-9 |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=14253–14270 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-12416-9 |pmid=33515405 |bibcode=2021ESPR...2814253S |s2cid=231746977 |issn=1614-7499}}</ref>

==== Microfibers ====
There is increasing concern that microfibers from synthetic and cellulosic fabrics are polluting the earths waters through the process of laundering. Microfibers are tiny threads that are shed from fabric. These microfibers are too small to be captured in wastewater treatment plants filtration systems and they end up entering our natural water systems and as a result, contaminating our food chain.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.278 |title=Freshwater and airborne textile fibre populations are dominated by 'natural', not microplastic, fibres |date=20 May 2019 |last1=Stanton |first1=Thomas |last2=Johnson |first2=Matthew |last3=Nathanail |first3=Paul |last4=MacNaughtan |first4=William |last5=Gomes |first5=Rachel L. |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=666 |pages=377–389 |pmid=30798244 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.666..377S |s2cid=73511816|url=https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1609708 }}</ref> One study found that 34.8% of [[Microplastics]] found in oceans come from the textile and clothing industry and the majority of them were made of polyester, polyethylene, acrylic, and elastane;<ref>{{cite web |last1=Boucher |first1=D. |last2=Friot |first2=D. |title=Primary microplastics in the oceans: a global evaluation of sources |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-002.pdf |website=Primary micro plastics in the oceans: a global evaluation of sources |publisher=gland, Switzerland: IUCN. |access-date=2018-02-28 |ref=43 pp. |archive-date=2017-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301095550/https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-002.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> but a study off the coast of the UK and US by the [[Plymouth Marine Laboratory]] in May 2020 suggested there are at least double the number of particles as previously thought.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=Microplastic pollution in oceans vastly underestimated – study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/may/22/microplastic-pollution-in-oceans-vastly-underestimated-study |work=The Guardian |date=22 May 2020 }}</ref> Eliminating synthetic materials used in clothing products can prevent harmful synthetics and microfibers from ending up in the natural environment. While some clothing companies and NGOs support the use of washing bags to filter out microfibers in washing machines and thus reduce microfiber release, microfibers are also shed during wear and disposal.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harding-Rolls|first=George|title=Fossil fashion|url=https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/fossil-fashion/ |access-date=2021-04-16|website=Changing Markets|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329122148/https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/fossil-fashion/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Plastic debris covers the surface of the whole ocean. If no progress is made to reverse the damage, it is calculated that there will be an increase of 850 Mts of plastic debris in the ocean by 2050.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Rojalin |title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653520313928#bib7 |journal=Chemosphere |year=2020 |volume=257 |page=127199 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199 |pmid=32480092 |bibcode=2020Chmsp.25727199S |s2cid=219172281 |access-date=2023-04-28}}</ref>

==== ""Fossil fashion"" ====
In February 2021, Changing Markets Foundation released a report on the fashion industry's dependence on [[Extraction of petroleum|oil extraction]]. The report analyses the current production model across the fashion industry is dependent on massive fossil-fuel extraction to fuel the production of fibers.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Changing Markets Foundation|date=February 2021 |title=Fossil Fashion|url=https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/fossil-fashion/|url-status=live|website=Changing Markets|access-date=2021-02-26|archive-date=2021-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217122335/https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/fossil-fashion/}}</ref> The report spotlights how the production of the most popular fibers, primarily polyester, is reliant on oil extraction. Production of polyester has grown ninefold since the 1970s, and is the fastest growing component in fashion production. The popularity of polyester is due to its low price, but also the fiber's flexibility as a material. The report suggests, synthetic fibers in the textile industry currently accounts for 1.35% of global oil consumption, and this is projected to more than double in the coming years: ""BP's energy scenario presumes plastic production will account for 95% of future growth in demand for oil demand, while the [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) predicts petrochemicals will represent up to 50% of growth in oil demand by 2050 and 4% in the projected growth of gas demand."" (p.&nbsp;8)

=== Social ===
One of the main social issues related to fashion concerns labor. Since the [[Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire]] in 1911, labor rights in the fashion industry has been at the center of this issue.<ref>Parker, Liz ""Fashion brands and worker's rights"" in Kate Fletcher & Mathilda Tham (2015) ''Routledge Handbook of Sustainability and Fashion,'' London: Routledge.</ref> The [[2013 Savar building collapse]] at Rana Plaza, where 1138 people died, put the spotlight once again on the lack of transparency, poor working conditions and hazards in fashion production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cleanclothes.org/welcome|title=Clean Clothes Campaign|last=admin|website=Clean Clothes Campaign|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060244/https://cleanclothes.org/welcome|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.maquilasolidarity.org/|title=Welcome {{!}} Maquila Solidarity Network|website=www.maquilasolidarity.org|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211031325/http://www.maquilasolidarity.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Attention is increasingly being placed on labour rights violations in other parts of the whole fashion product lifecycle from textile production and processing,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.antislavery.org/take-action/campaigns/end-uzbek-cotton-crimes/|title=End Uzbek Cotton Crimes|website=Anti-Slavery International|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226121827/https://www.antislavery.org/take-action/campaigns/end-uzbek-cotton-crimes/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/bangladesh-billion-dollar-leather-industry-has-problem-child-labor-and-toxic-chemicals|title=Bangladesh: Billion Dollar Leather Industry Has a Problem with Child Labor and Toxic Chemicals|date=2017-03-30|website=Pulitzer Center|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060144/https://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/bangladesh-billion-dollar-leather-industry-has-problem-child-labor-and-toxic-chemicals|url-status=live}}</ref> retail and distribution<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lawrence |first1=Felicity |title=How big brands including Sports Direct unwittingly used slave labour |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/aug/08/how-big-brands-including-sports-direct-unwittingly-used-slave-labour |work=The Guardian |date=8 August 2017 }}</ref> and modeling<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.modelstrust.com/|title=Responsible Trust for Models|website=Responsible Trust for Models|access-date=2019-02-26 |archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060203/https://www.modelstrust.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> to the recycling of textiles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lucynorris.co.uk/|title=Lucy Norris – Anthropologies of Reuse and Recycling|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060200/http://www.lucynorris.co.uk/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Whilst the majority of fashion and textiles are produced in Asia, Central America, Turkey, North Africa, the Caribbean and Mexico, there is still production across Europe where exploitative working conditions are also found such as in Leicester in the UK Midlands<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/press-releases/2015/february/new-report-published-on-working-conditions-in-leiceser-garment-sector|title=New report published on working conditions in Leicester garment sector — University of Leicester|website=www2.le.ac.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226234156/https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/press-releases/2015/february/new-report-published-on-working-conditions-in-leiceser-garment-sector|url-status=live}}</ref> and Central and Eastern Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cleanclothes.org/livingwage/europe/intro|title=Living Wage in Eastern Europe and Turkey|date=2017|website=Clean Clothes Campaign|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060212/https://cleanclothes.org/livingwage/europe/intro|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The fashion industry benefits from racial, class and gender inequalities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The fashioned body|last=Entwistle|first=J|publisher=Polity Press|year=2000|location=Cambridge}}</ref> These inequalities and pressure from brands and retailers in the form of low prices and short lead times contribute to exploitative working conditions and low wages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/*|title=Trading Away Our Rights: Women working in global supply chains {{!}} Oxfam Policy & Practice|website=Policy & Practice|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2011-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828124503/http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications|url-status=live}}</ref> Also ""local"" production, such as garments labeled as ""Made in Italy"" are engaged in global sourcing of labor and worker exploitation, bypassing unions and social welfare contracts.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-italy-sweatshop-insight-idUKBRE9BS04A20131230|title=Insight – Italy's Chinese garment workshops boom as workers suffer|date=2013-12-30|work=Reuters|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060355/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-italy-sweatshop-insight-idUKBRE9BS04A20131230|url-status=live}}</ref>

It is generally accepted that at least 25 million people, the majority women, work in garment manufacture and up to 300 million in cotton alone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Cotton|title=Cotton farmers {{!}} Fairtrade Foundation|website=www.fairtrade.org.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226150444/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Cotton|url-status=live}}</ref> The working conditions for employees working in garment industries are insufferable due to the intake and exposure of toxic substances.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geiger |first1=Sonja |title=Shopping for Clothes and Sensitivity to the Suffering of Others: The Role of Compassion and Values in Sustainable Fashion Consumption |journal=Environment and Behavior |year=2018 |volume=50 |issue=10 |pages=1119–1144 |doi=10.1177/0013916517732109 |bibcode=2018EnvBe..50.1119G |s2cid=148956057 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0013916517732109}}</ref>

The environmental impact of fashion also affects communities located close to production sites. There is little easily accessible information about these impacts, but it is known that water and land pollution from toxic chemicals used to produce and dye fabrics and have serious negative consequences for the people living near factories.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/dirty-fashion/|title=Dirty fashion|website=Changing Markets|access-date=2019-02-26 |archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060239/https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/dirty-fashion/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The social costs of fast fashion are left on the laborers working long hours to mass-produce the clothing. They bear the weight of the fast fashion industry as they work through environmental health hazards and cheap pay that does not compensate for the work, they put in.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bick |first1=Rachel |last2=Halsey |first2=Erika |last3=Ekenga |first3=Christine C. |title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion |journal=Environmental Health |date=December 2018 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=92 |doi=10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7 |pmid=30591057 |pmc=6307129 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018EnvHe..17...92B }}</ref> This is a big reason why slow fashion is becoming so desirable. Unlike fast fashion, it places a big importance on ethical conduct and caring for people working throughout the supply chain.<ref name=""Henninger2016"">{{cite journal |last1=Henninger |first1=Claudia E. |last2=Alevizou |first2=Panayiota J. |last3=Oates |first3=Caroline J. |title=What is sustainable fashion? |journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management |date=3 October 2016 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=400–416 |doi=10.1108/JFMM-07-2015-0052 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/99507/1/PDF_Proof%20of%20accepted%20JFMM%20article%209%20May%202016.PDF }}</ref>

==== Transparency ====
Supply chain transparency has been a recurring controversy for the fashion industry, especially since the Rana Plaza accident. The issue has been pushed by many labor organizations, not least [[Clean Clothes Campaign]] and [[Fashion Revolution]]. Over the last years, over 150 major brands including Everlane, Filippa K, and H&M have answered by publicizing information about their factories online. Every year, Fashion Revolution publishes a Fashion Transparency Index<ref>{{cite news |last1=Marriott |first1=Hannah |title=H&M tops 2020 fashion transparency index as 10 brands score zero |url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2020/apr/21/hm-tops-2020-fashion-transparency-index-as-10-brands-score-zero |work=The Guardian |date=20 April 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2019/apr/24/the-fashion-transparency-index-2019-report-ranks-worlds-biggest-brands |title=The Fashion Transparency Index: 2019 report ranks world's biggest brands {{!}} Fashion {{!}} The Guardian<!-- Bot generated title --> |website=[[TheGuardian.com]] |date=24 April 2019 |access-date=2019-09-20 |archive-date=2019-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920145519/https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2019/apr/24/the-fashion-transparency-index-2019-report-ranks-worlds-biggest-brands |url-status=live }}</ref> which rates the world's largest brands and retailers according to how much information they disclose about their suppliers, supply chain policies and practices, and social and environmental impact. The top scorers of the 2019 Fashion Transparency Index included [[Adidas]], [[Reebok]], [[Patagonia, Inc.|Patagonia]], and [[H&M]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fashion Transparency Index 2019|url=https://issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/fashion_transparency_index_2019 |access-date=2020-10-31|website=Issuu|date=April 24, 2019 |language=en|archive-date=2020-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030233242/https://issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/fashion_transparency_index_2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The high place of several fast fashion retailers caused controversy regarding the parameters used for such rankings.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Farmbrough|first=Heather|title=H&M Is Pushing Sustainability Hard, But Not Everyone Is Convinced |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/heatherfarmbrough/2018/04/14/hm-is-pushing-sustainability-hard-but-not-everyone-is-convinced/ |access-date=2021-02-14|website=Forbes|language=en|archive-date=2021-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128200127/https://www.forbes.com/sites/heatherfarmbrough/2018/04/14/hm-is-pushing-sustainability-hard-but-not-everyone-is-convinced/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Diversity and inclusion ====
In addition, fashion companies are criticized for the lack of size, age, physical ability, gender and racial diversity of models used in photo shoots and catwalks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thefashionspot.com/runway-news/786015-runway-diversity-report-fall-2018/|title=Diversity Report: The Fall 2018 Runways Were the Most Race and Transgender-Inclusive Ever; Not So Much for Age and Size Diversity|date=2018-03-22|website=theFashionSpot|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226234130/https://www.thefashionspot.com/runway-news/786015-runway-diversity-report-fall-2018/|url-status=live}}</ref> A more radical and systemic critique of social inequality in fashion concerns the exclusion and aesthetic supremacy inherent and accentuated through fashion that still remains unquestioned under the current environmentally focused discourse on sustainable fashion.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A typology of fashion violence|last1=Von Busch|first1=Otto|last2=Bjereld|first2=Ylva|date=2016-06-01|journal=Critical Studies in Fashion & Beauty|volume=7|pages=89–107|doi=10.1386/csfb.7.1.89_1}}</ref><ref name=""Busch 311–327"">{{Cite journal|last=Busch|first=Otto von|date=2018-09-02|title=Inclusive Fashion—an Oxymoron—or a Possibility for Sustainable Fashion?|journal=Fashion Practice|volume=10|issue=3|pages=311–327|doi=10.1080/17569370.2018.1507145|s2cid=218771542 |issn=1756-9370}}</ref>

While social ""inclusivity"" has become almost a norm amongst brands marketing ethical and sustainable fashion, the norm for what is considered a ""beautiful"" and ""healthy"" body keeps narrowing down under what researchers have called the current ""wellness syndrome.""<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wellness Syndrome|last=Cederström, Carl|date=2015|publisher=Wiley|isbn=9780745688718|oclc=956676547}}</ref> With the positive thinking of inclusivity, the assumption is that a consumer can be whatever he or she wants to be, and thus if the person is not living up to the ideals it is the person's own fault. This optimism hides the diktat of aesthetic wellness, which turns inclusion into an obligation to look good and be dressed in fashionable clothes, a ""democratic"" demand for aesthetic as well as ethical perfection, as argued by philosopher [[Heather Widdows]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Perfect Me|last=Widdows|first=Heather|date=2018-12-31|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400889624|location=Princeton|doi = 10.23943/9781400889624|s2cid=193961288}}</ref>

==== In Asia ====
{{Further|Impact of fast fashion in China}}
China has emerged as the largest exporter of fast fashion, accounting for 30% of world apparel exports.<ref name=waste>{{Citation|title=Waste Couture: Environmental Impact of the Clothing Industry|last=Luz|first=Claudio|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|publication-date=September 2007|year=2007|volume=115|issue=9|pages=A448-54|doi=10.1289/ehp.115-a449|pmid=17805407|pmc=1964887}}</ref> The country exports over approximately US$159 billion worth of clothing garments annually.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Niinimäki |first1=Kirsi |last2=Peters |first2=Greg |last3=Dahlbo |first3=Helena |last4=Perry |first4=Patsy |last5=Rissanen |first5=Timo |last6=Gwilt |first6=Alison |date=7 April 2020 |title=The environmental price of fast fashion |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9 |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |language=en |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=189–200 |doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9 |bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..189N |s2cid=215760302 |issn=2662-138X}}</ref> However, some Chinese workers make as little as 12–18 cents per hour working in poor conditions.<ref name=waste /> Each year Americans purchase approximately 1 billion garments made in China. Today's biggest factories and mass scale of apparel production emerged from two developments in history. The first involved the opening up of China and [[Vietnam]] in the 1980s to private and foreign capital and investments in the creation of export-oriented manufacturing of garments, footwear, and plastics, part of a national effort to boost living standards, embrace modernity, and capitalism.<ref name=""Benjamin, 274"">{{Cite book|title=Behemoth : a history of the factory and the making of the modern world |last=Freeman |first=Joshua Benjamin |year=2018|isbn=9780393246315|edition= First|location=New York, NY|publisher=WW Norton|pages=274|oclc=988280720}}</ref> Second, the retail revolution within the U.S. (example Wal-Mart, Target, Nike) and Western Europe, where companies no longer manufactured but rather contracted out their production and transformed instead into key players in design, marketing, and logistics, introducing many new different product lines manufactured in foreign-owned factories in China.<ref name=""Benjamin, 274""/> It is the convergence of these two phenomena that has led to the largest factories in history from apparels to electronics. In contemporary global supply chains, it is the retailers and branders who have had the most power in establishing arrangements and terms of production, not factory owners.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Global production : the apparel industry in the Pacific Rim|last=Edna.|first=Bonacich|date=1994|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=978-1566391689|oclc=28964324|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/globalproduction0000unse}}</ref>  Fierce global competition in the garment industry translates into poor working conditions for many laborers in developing nations. Developing countries aim to become a part of the world's apparel market despite poor working conditions and low pay. Countries such as [[Economy of Cambodia#Garment industry|Cambodia]] and [[Textile industry in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] export large amounts of clothing into the [[United States]] every year.<ref name=waste />

=== Economic ===
At the heart of the controversy concerning ""fast fashion"" lies the acknowledgment that the ""problem"" of unsustainable fashion is that cheap, accessible, and on-trend clothes have become available to people of poorer means. This means more people across the world have adopted the consumption habits that in the mid-20th century were still reserved for the rich. To put it differently, the economic concern of fashion is that [[poor]] people, or populations in developing economies, now have access to updating their wardrobes as often as the rich, or consumers in Western economies. That is, ""fast"" fashion is only a problem when poor people engage in it. In alignment with this, the blame for the proliferation of poor-quality, high-quantity and cheap fashion is often put on poorer consumers.

The distribution of value within the fashion industry is another economic concern, with garment workers and textile farmers and workers receiving low wages and prices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Cotton|title=Cotton farmers {{!}} Fairtrade Foundation|website=www.fairtrade.org.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|last3=mail@fairtrade.org.uk|first3=E|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226150444/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Cotton|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cleanclothes.org/livingwage/living-wage|title=Living Wage|website=Clean Clothes Campaign|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060724/https://cleanclothes.org/livingwage/living-wage|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Business models for sustainable fashion ==
In order to promote more sustainable forms of consumption, there is a multitude of emerging business models that challenge the prevalent ready-to-wear model. Here is an example of a study that provides insight into innovative business models in the fashion industry that are geared towards sustainability.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Todeschini |first1=Bruna |title=Innovative and sustainable business models in the fashion industry: Entrepreneurial drivers, opportunities, and challenges |journal=Business Horizons |date=2017 |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=759–770 |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2017.07.003 |hdl=11311/1060972 |s2cid=158529625 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681317301015|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Circular fashion models ===
A number of emerging business models go under the name of ""[[circular fashion]],"" inspired by the [[circular economy]]. While there are many models under development, some are gaining more traction. Much of the work on circular fashion builds on ideas and initiatives explored in the 1990s and onwards, by scholars such as [[Lynda Grose]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cernansky |first=Rachel |date=18 March 2021 |title=Can an end-to-end sustainability standard change fashion? |work=Vogue Business |url=https://www.voguebusiness.com/sustainability/can-an-end-to-end-sustainability-standard-change-fashion}}</ref> Kate Fletcher,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Modefica |date=Feb 12, 2020 |title=""Slow Fashion is not a movement; it's a market"": An Interview With Kate Fletcher |work=Modefica |url=https://medium.com/modefica-global/slow-fashion-is-not-a-movement-its-a-market-an-interview-with-kate-fletcher-ace64db9e0c8}}</ref> Rebecca Earley,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Earley |first=Rebecca |date=Jan 4, 2021 |title=Circular Fashion 2070: Clothing and Textile Cycles, Systems, and Services |url=https://www.nae.edu/244942/Circular-Fashion-2070-Clothing-and-Textile-Cycles-Systems-and-Services |journal=National Academy of Engineering |volume=50}}</ref> Mathilda Tham, and Timo Rissanen,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rissanen |first=Timo |title=""Zero Waste Fashion Design"", in J. Hethorn & C. Ulasewicz (eds.) Sustainable Fashion: What's Next? |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2015 |location=London |pages=179–203}}</ref> especially the thinking around the ""metabolism"" of garments and wardrobes, ""zero waste"" production, and the focus on the whole life cycle of garments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Von Busch |first=Otto |title=Vistas of Vitality: Metabolisms, Circularity, Fashion-abilities |publisher=SelfPassage |year=2021 |location=New York}}</ref> The popular terminology around circular fashion, reached the mainstream through a report that has come to define the field, the 2017 ""A New Textile Economy: Redesigning Fashion's Future"" by the [[Ellen MacArthur Foundation]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ellen MacArthur Foundation|date=2017|title=A new textile economy |url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/our-work/activities/make-fashion-circular/report|url-status=live|access-date=2021-02-26|archive-date=2021-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426042506/https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/our-work/activities/make-fashion-circular/report}}</ref>

The ""[[Cradle-to-cradle design|cradle-to-cradle]]"" model, a circular system named after the influential 2002 [[Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things|book with the same name]] by German chemist [[Michael Braungart]] and US architect [[William McDonough]] has been a popular inspiration amongst proponents of circular fashion, it is not easy to achieve. Most textile fibers in consumer fashion are amalgamations of various materials to achieve flexible or aesthetic properties, and thus not optimal for circular reproduction. Industrially shredded fibers often need addition of new materials to achieve elasticity or durability. Up until now, most companies contributing to circular fashion are either mechanical or chemical textile recyclers such as [[Lenzing]], [[Recover Textile Systems]], Renewcell, Evrnu, Spinnova or Infinited Fiber Company.<ref>{{Cite web |title=14 Textile Recycling Companies Pushing for Circularity in Fashion |url=https://consciousfashion.co/guides/textile-recycling-companies |access-date=2022-08-30 |website=Conscious Fashion Collective |date=February 25, 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> Although all work with textile waste as their raw material, it is often from [[Pre-consumer recycling|pre-consumer]] origins as it is easier to sort and process. More recently, some industry initiatives to develop and scale pre-consumer and post-consumer textile recycling have been emerging around the globe, particularly as a response to new legislation. On March 30, The [[European Commission]] published the EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Textiles strategy |url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/textiles-strategy_en |access-date=2022-08-30 |website=environment.ec.europa.eu |date=March 30, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> a new strategy that lays out key principles to drive change in the textiles industry. The European Commission's vision of the future of the textiles industry in Europe lays on several pillars that include recycled textiles, ecodesigns, waste management, transparency, labelling, microplastics and extended producer responsibility (EPR).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The EU Textiles Strategy in Motion - What does it mean for the future of this sector? {{!}} European Circular Economy Stakeholder Platform |url=https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/en/news-and-events/all-events/eu-textiles-strategy-motion-what-does-it-mean-future-sector |access-date=2022-08-30 |website=circulareconomy.europa.eu|date=July 8, 2022 }}</ref>

=== Biomimicry, natural cycles, and processes ===
[[Biomimetics|Biomimicry]] suggests a perspective emphasizing the ""Wisdom of Nature"" where the industry looks into materials in tune with natural cycles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Biomimicry Institute |date=2020 |title=The Nature of Fashion |url=https://biomimicry.org/thenatureoffashion/}}</ref> Biomimicry replicates the [[Natural Cycles|cycles of nature]], seeking to infinitely reuse materials to make commerce compatible with nature. Fashion from the viewpoint of biomimicry tries to make fashion work as a sustainable ecosystem, aligning with natural systems in harmony with the [[biosphere]]. Materials should be bio-compatible, combining biodegradable fibers with processes of [[fermentation]] and [[gasification]], or materials that have been seen as waste could act as a more sustainable method to making new clothing.<ref name="":02"" />

=== Biofabricate materials ===
Fashion companies are also innovating by incorporating biotechnology materials for the production of products such as sustainable fashion and sportswear, leading to a reduction in the impact of climate change.<ref name="":15"">{{Cite web |title=Designing with life: Biofabricate's Suzanne Lee envisions a ""new material world"" |url=https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine_digital/en/2023/article_0017.html |website=WIPO Magazine}}</ref> [[Biofabrication]] refers to the process of using microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeast, algae, and fungi, to produce materials and ingredients used by humans, ranging from fuel to food to fibers. With the aim of harnessing biology and microorganisms, biofabrication aims to produce high-value ingredients without relying on fossil or limited land resources. American fashion designer and CEO of Biofabricate, [[Suzanne Lee]], is developing biofabricate materials for the fashion world and gathering experts in the area to explore the possibilities of this new materials: ""We've already seen various automotive concept cars with interiors made from biomaterials rather than animal or petrochemical materials. But it's probably going to be a while before it goes mainstream in the automotive sector because the volumes are so huge.""<ref name="":15"" />

Multi-national clothing retailers are making progress in sustainable clothing production utilizing biofabrication materials. In 2022, [[Zara (retailer)|Zara]] offered party dresses made of polyester produced from bio ethanol created from the carbon emissions of a steel mill.<ref>{{Cite web |title=These gorgeous Zara party dresses are made from carbon emissions |url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90705361/zaras-gorgeous-party-dresses-are-made-from-carbon-emissions |website=Fast Company}}</ref>  Similarly, [[H&M]] Move has partnered with LanzaTech, a breakthrough material science company that diverts carbon emissions from the atmosphere, traps them, and transforms them into thread.<ref>{{Cite web |title=H&M Move Partners With Lanzatech to Launch Capsule Collection Using Captured Carbon Emissions |url=https://about.hm.com/news/general-news-2023/h-m-move-partners-with-lanzatech-to-launch-capsule-collection-us.html |website=H&M}}</ref>  Although the technology is still in its early stages, it has the potential to be transformative in the coming decades.<ref name="":15"" />

=== Rental and sharing models ===
Rental models are gaining popularity across the industry, a model that has traditionally been used in attire for masquerades or special events, such as weddings. The idea is that sharing garments ultimately lowers the volume of new purchases and disposal of clothing, which means less waste.<ref name="":02"" /> [[Rent the Runway]] is a company building on the ""Rent a Closet"" approach to consumption, where a consumer leases a garment instead of purchasing it. Fashion rental is a model expected to grow over 10% annually until 2027 across the fashion industry, thus also increasing sales (and expected waste) of garments.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gonzalez-Rodriguez |first=Angela |date=Nov 18, 2021 |title=Online fashion rental market to grow over 10 percent annually |work=FashionUnited |url=https://fashionunited.com/news/business/online-fashion-rental-market-to-grow-over-10-percent-annually/2021111843830}}</ref> Renting and sharing clothing is also known as CFC (collaborative fashion consumption) but its environmental impact and mitigation of pollution are debated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iran |first1=Samira |last2=Schrader |first2=Ulf |title=Collaborative fashion consumption and its environmental effects |journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management |date=11 September 2017 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=468–482 |doi=10.1108/JFMM-09-2016-0086 }}</ref><ref name="":2"">{{cite journal |last1=Levänen |first1=Jarkko |last2=Uusitalo |first2=Ville |last3=Härri |first3=Anna |last4=Kareinen |first4=Elisa |last5=Linnanen |first5=Lassi |title=Innovative recycling or extended use? Comparing the global warming potential of different ownership and end-of-life scenarios for textiles |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=1 May 2021 |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=054069 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/abfac3 |bibcode=2021ERL....16e4069L |s2cid=235289414 |doi-access=free }}</ref> While convenient for the consumer, reducing the number of items housed in the wardrobe, the environmental impact of rental may however not be reduced as much as advertised. Transportation between users and storage, dry-cleaning, and re-packaging causes more environmental impact than reselling or hand-me-downs.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Elan |first=Priya |date=6 July 2021 |title=Renting clothes is 'less green than throwing them away' |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2021/jul/06/renting-clothes-is-less-green-than-throwing-them-away}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Courier |date=December 27, 2021 |title=Inside fashion's rental market |url=https://mailchimp.com/courier/article/fashion-rental-market/}}</ref> As noted by Levänen et al. (2021), the lowest global warming impacts are achieved be reducing consumption, followed by reusing and recycling, whereas rental services are likely to increase customers' consumption, logistics, and use, making sharing and rental scenarios having the highest Global Warming Potential.<ref name="":2"" />

As noted by sustainability researcher Timo Rissanen, it is the total amount of clothing units in circulation that needs to be reduced, as well as their environmental impact during their life cycle, and rental services could, if improved, play a role in that.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rissanen |first=Timo |date=July 25, 2021 |title=brief thoughts on clothing rentals |url=https://timorissanen.wordpress.com/2021/07/25/brief-thoughts-on-clothing-rentals/}}</ref>

=== Vintage and resale models ===
{{Main|Environmental sustainability of vintage fashion|Global trade of secondhand clothing}}
The most sustainable fibers in fashion are the ones many people already have. Thus, to recirculate existing garments, new business models engage the resale, revival, and recirculation of used, second-hand or [[vintage clothing]].<ref name="":02"" /> Purchasing second-hand, or vintage clothing is a way to lower the amount of new clothing that gets produced and disposed of and ends up in landfills.

Other resale models also contain elements of upcycling and repairs. Repairing and reselling used clothing has less environmental impact than creating, processing, dying, cutting, sewing, and shipping new clothing to the consumer. Through the upcycling process for clothing, the end-of-life management process of clothes is not applied because it extends the life of a clothing article instead of being disposed into a landfill.<ref name=""Henninger2016""/>

=== Rethinking recycling ===
[[File:Recycling Shoes and Clothing.jpg|thumb|Community clothing and shoes donation bins]]
A more technologically minded trend is ""innovative recycling"", which seeks to view waste itself as a source of value. Within the fashion industry, some{{who|date=November 2021}} manufacturers have created incentives for consumers to participate in the recycling of their clothing. Innovative recycling is also aimed at clothing stores themselves, who do not always have sustainable methods to properly dispose of boxes and plastic bags; innovative recycling also looks at the packaging that clothes come in having been sent from manufacturers. A change in approaches towards recycling within the fashion industry could potentially greatly impact the amount of waste the industry creates.<ref name="":02"" />

=== From collective to connective ===
Using digital technologies and [[blockchain]] can promote more ""Connected Clothes"" which allows for more opportunities in digitalizing clothing for [[personalization]], life-tracking, and traceability of its origin.<ref name="":02"" />

=== Tailored resurgence ===
[[Haute couture|Tailored couture]] is another option for the future of a greener fashion industry, for those who can afford it, as it can potentially lead to less waste and more jobs improving the economy. Tailored couture is no longer desired because of the convenience of malls and stores provide but the consequence of the convenience is the pollution of the environment. The idea is that tailored clothing can reduce mass-production, while reusing and redesigning old clothes to fit could reduce the amount of old worn out unfitting clothes thrown out or given away.<ref name=DG_1>{{cite book| title=Dress and Globalization| last1=Maynard| first1=Margaret| url=https://biblio.co.uk/9780719063893| publisher=[[Manchester University Press]]| date=3 June 2004| access-date=26 January 2024| isbn=9780719063893}}</ref>

=== Open-source fashion ===
[[Open source|Open-source content]] has become a popular reference with designers sharing patterns and designs, connecting to the success of the [[Open-source-software movement|open-source software movement.]] By sharing designs freely, using digital technology, the aim is to make consumers more engaged in the design, production, and lifetime use of the garment.<ref name="":14"">{{Cite news |last=Farra |first=Emily |date=Jan 15, 2021 |title=""Open Source Fashion Cookbook Is Sharing ""Recipes"" for Upcycling at Home, With Patterns by Raeburn, Chromat, and More"" |work=Vogue |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/adiff-open-source-fashion-cookbook-upcycling-diy-fashion-patterns}}</ref> While the terminology is new, the concept builds on the sharing of patterns across European courts in 16th century (such as Kleidungsbüchlein or Trachtenbuch (usually translated as ""Book of Clothes"") of [[Melchior Lorck]], and the wide range of sewing magazines, such as [[Burda Style]], in the early 20th century.  By making garments more open and adaptable across their lifecycle, the hope is that ""garments can be multi-functional, beyond simply clothing our bodies; that fashion should be both useful and inventive; and that what we wear should relate to the world around us.""<ref name="":14"" /> Examples of open-source fashion range from freely available patterns and production techniques, platforms for exchanging materials and patterns, and maker spaces.<ref>{{Cite web |author=((Danielepasi_38178)) |date=Dec 15, 2015 |title=""5 Projects Leading the Open Source Revolution in Fashion"" |url=https://www.shareable.net/5-projects-leading-the-open-source-revolution-in-fashion/ |website=Sharable}}</ref>

== Reuse and recycling ==
{{see also|Global trade of secondhand clothing|Environmental sustainability of vintage fashion|}}

A large amount of clothing purchased annually is discarded and eventually ends up in [[landfill]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Lee |first=Matilda |date=6 February 2009 |title=What's the Most Sustainable Fabric |url=http://www.theecologist.org/green_green_living/clothing/268798/whats_the_most_sustainable_fabric.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023045847/http://www.theecologist.org/green_green_living/clothing/268798/whats_the_most_sustainable_fabric.html |archive-date=23 October 2017 |access-date=30 April 2019 |work=[[The Ecologist]]}}</ref><ref name="":16"">{{Cite web |last=Beall |first=Abigail |title=Why clothes are so hard to recycle |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200710-why-clothes-are-so-hard-to-recycle |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=[[BBC Future]] |language=en}}</ref> Sustainability advocates highlight reselling and donating old clothes and buying [[secondhand]] fashion as an approach to sustainable fashion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Santi |first=Ana |title=How to make your wardrobe sustainable |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230502-how-to-make-your-wardrobe-sustainable |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=[[BBC Future]] |language=en}}</ref>

[[Charity shop]]s keep a small proportion of donated clothing received.<ref name=""abc"">{{cite web |last=Lee |first=Mike |date=21 December 2006 |title=The Truth About Where Your Donated Clothes End Up |url=https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=2743456&page=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116034802/http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=2743456&page=1 |archive-date=16 November 2010 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=[[ABC News]]}}</ref> These clothes tend to be good quality, fashionable, and high valued fabrics that can easily be sold in charities' thrift shops. Some charities then sell the majority to textile recycling firms.<ref name=""abc"" />

=== Recycling ===
{{Main|Textile recycling}}
Some efforts have been made to [[recycling]] textiles and clothing, as the technology to do this has existed for centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Santi |first=Ana |title=Can clothes ever be fully recycled? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230227-how-to-recycle-your-clothes |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=[[BBC Future]] |language=en}}</ref> However, only around 1% of recycled clothes are turned into new items, primarily due to the difficulty and high cost of separating mixed and blended textiles.<ref name="":16"" /> Most discarded clothing is recycled for other uses, such as building insulation or carpet.<ref name="":16"" />

Textile recycling firms process about 70% of the donated clothing into industrial items such as rags or cleaning cloths.<ref name=""abc"" /> However, 20–25% of the [[second-hand]] clothing is sold into an international market.<ref name=""abc"" /> Where possible, used jeans collected from America, for example, are sold to low-income customers in Africa for modest prices, yet most end up in landfill as the average US sized customer is several sizes bigger than the global average.<ref>{{cite web |last=Chapman |first=Dan |date=24 December 2006 |title=Your Cast-Offs, Their Profits: Items donated to Goodwill and Salvation Army often end up as part of a $1 billion-a-year used-clothing business |url=http://www.gciatl.com/media.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122153800/http://www.gciatl.com/media.html |archive-date=22 November 2010 |access-date=7 December 2010 |work=[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution]] |publisher=gciatl.com}}</ref>

=== Upcycling ===
[[Upcycling]] in fashion signifies the process of reusing the unwanted and discarded materials (such as fabric scraps or clothes) into new materials or products without compromising the value and the quality of the used material. The definition of textile waste can be production waste, pre-consumer waste, and post-consumer waste.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://issuu.com/runnel/docs/reet-aus|title=Trash to Trend|last1=Aus|first1=Reet|website=Issuu|date=November 30, 2011 |access-date=26 February 2019|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807205123/https://issuu.com/runnel/docs/reet-aus|url-status=live}}</ref>

Typically, upcycling creates something new and better from the old, used or disposed of items. Based on statistics taken globally, the majority of people wear their clothes for at least a few years and pass on unwanted clothes to others to use, but fewer say they avoid buying new clothes and repair their damaged clothes. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Revolution |first1=Fashion |title=Consumer Survey Key Findings |url=https://issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/fashrev_consumersurvey_2020_keyfindings/2?ff |website=issuu.com |publisher=Fashion Revolution |access-date=February 11, 2024}}</ref> Hence, upcycling is one of the lesser sought-after methods of sustainable fashion, even though there are plenty of benefits to it.The process of upcycling requires a blend of factors like environmental awareness, creativity, innovation, and hard work and results in a unique sustainable product. Upcycling aims at the development of products truly sustainable, affordable, innovative, and creative. For example, shirts can be upcycled into a value-added product like a unique handmade braided rug, whereas the opposite of upcycling is downcycling such as cleaning rags made from worn T-shirts.<ref>{{cite book|title=Textiles and clothing sustainability: recycled and upcycled textiles and fashion|last1=Muthu|first1=Subramanian Senthilkannan|date=2016-08-06|publisher=Springer |isbn=9789811021466}}</ref>

Upcycling can be seen as one of the waste management strategies. There are different types of strategies. From least to most resource-intensive, the strategies are the reuse of product, repairing and reconditioning to keep products as long as possible, recycling the raw materials.<ref name=autogenerated1>Fletcher, K. (2013). Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys. Routledge.{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref> The reuse of textile products 'as is' brings significant environmental savings. In the case of clothing, the energy used to collect, sort and resell second-hand garments in between 10 and 20 times less than that needed to make a new item.<ref>Laursen, S. E., Hansen, J., Bagh, J., Jensen, O. K., & Werther, I. (1997). Environmental assessment of textiles. Environmental project, (369).</ref>

It is meant to be innovative by making certain materials into something re-usable and improved, which gives companies and manufacturers higher values for their products. Recycling is a big factor in sustainability, so creating new materials to avoid mass pollution can help improve the economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zimring |first1=Carl A. |title=Upcycling in History: Is the Past a Prologue to a Zero-Waste Future? The Case of Aluminum |journal=RCC Perspectives |date=2016 |issue=3 |pages=45–52 |jstor=26241375 }}</ref>

The advantages of circular fashion include: reduced dependency on imported raw materials, creation of eco- friendly industries and jobs, eco-friendly brands benefit from a better public image, and reduction in environmental damage caused by resource extraction. On the other hand, disadvantages include dependency on the consumer's actions, creating a new business model on the basis of recycled is tough, and the entire cycle requires integrating product life cycle from raw material to disposal.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=29 April 2019|title=Moving Towards a Circular Fashion Economy|url=https://motif.org/news/circular-fashion-economy/|url-status=live|access-date=|website=MOTIF|language=en-GB|archive-date=2021-01-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113102326/https://motif.org/news/circular-fashion-economy/}}</ref>

=== Clothing swaps ===
{{Main|Clothing swap}}
[[File:Wymiana ubraniowa 1L.jpg|thumb|Clothes swap in [[Wrocław]], Wyspa Tamka. Event is manifesting slow fashion movement, focusing on Fashion Revolution actions.]]
[[Clothing swap]]ping can further promote the reduction, reuse, and recycling clothing. By reusing clothing that has already been made and recycling clothing from one owner to another, source reduction can be achieved. This moves away from usage of new raw materials to make more clothing available for consumption. Through the method of clothing swapping, an alternative resource for consumers to ultimately save in regards to money and time is provided. It reduces transportation emissions, costs, and the time it takes to drive and search through the chaos of most clothing stores. Swapping clothes further promotes the use of sustainable [[online shopping]] and the internet as well as an increase of social bonds through online communication or effective personal communication in ""clothing swap parties."" The EPA states, that by reusing items, at the source waste can be diverted from ending up in landfills because it delays or avoids that item's entry in the waste collection and disposal system.<ref>{{cite web |date=17 November 2009 |title=Reduce & Reuse |url=http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/reduce.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426042505/https://www.epa.gov/environmental-topics/land-waste-and-cleanup-topics |archive-date=26 April 2021 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref>

== Consumption ==
There are negative social and environmental impacts at all stages of the fashion product life: materials production and processing, manufacture of garments, retail and marketing, use and maintenance, and at the discard phase. For some products, the environmental impact can be greater at the use phase than material production,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/insights/sustainability/well-dressed/|title=Well dressed? The present and future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the United Kingdom|website=www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060315/https://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/insights/sustainability/well-dressed/|url-status=live}}</ref> leading for instance to the suggestion to wash clothes less.

===Consumer engagement===
[[File:Sustainability and Style (27881359281).jpg|thumb|''Sustainability and Style'' event held during Berlin Fashion Week 2016]]
Consumer engagement challenges the ""passive"" mode of ready-to-wear fashion where consumers have few interfaces and little incentive to be active with their garments; to repair, change, update, swap, and learn from their wardrobe.<ref name="":4"" /> This type of consumer engagement, aiming to promote fashion as an ability rather than primarily as a commodity, has been referred to as ""fashion-ability.""<ref>{{Cite book|last=von Busch|first=Otto|title=Fashion-able: Hacktivism and Engaged Fashion Design|publisher=ArtMonitor|year=2008|location=Gothenburg}}</ref> The term ""folk fashion"" has been used in the emphasis on craft engagements with garments where the community heritage of skills are in focus.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Folk fashion. Understanding homemade clothes.|last=Twigger Holroyd, Amy.|date=2017|publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd|isbn=9781784536497|oclc=1019666656}}</ref> There are currently many designers trying to find ways that experiment with new models of action that deposes passivity and indifference while preserving the positive social dynamics and sensibilities fashion offers, often in relation to [[Alvin Toffler]]'s notion of the ""[[prosumer]]"" (portmanteau of producer and consumer). Notions of [[participatory design]], [[open source]] fashion, and fashion [[Hacker culture|hacktivism]] are parts of such endeavors, mixing techniques of dissemination with empowerment, reenchantment and [[Paulo Freire]]'s ""[[Pedagogy of the Oppressed]].""<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":6"">{{Cite book|title=Zero waste fashion design|last=Rissanen, Timo|isbn=978-1350094833|oclc=1040994499|date=2018-09-06|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Fashion-able : hacktivism and engaged fashion design|last=Busch |first=Otto von|date=2009|publisher=Camino|isbn=9789197841108|oclc=703595835}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Black|first=S. |display-authors=etal|date=2009|title=Considerate Design for Personalized Fashion: Towards Sustainable Fashion Design and Consumption|journal=Mass Matching - Customization, Configuration & Creativity: Proceedings of the MCPC 2009|via=Helsinki, Aalto University School of Art and Design}}</ref> An example of such consumer engagement can be Giana Gonzalez and her project ""Hacking Couture"", which has tested such methods across the world since 2006.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Busch|first=Otto von|date=2014|title=Fashion Hacking|journal=Design as Future-Making|pages=47–57 |doi=10.5040/9781474293907-0009|isbn=9781474293907}}</ref> As highlighted in the research of Jennifer Ballie, there is also an increasing interest across industry to produce unique experiences amongst users, connecting co-design with [[social media]] apps and tools to enhance the user experience of consumers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ballie|first=Jennifer|title=e􏰅Co-Textile Design: How can textile design and making, combined with social media tools, achieve a more sustainable fast fashion future?|publisher=University of the Arts London.|year=2014|location=London}}</ref> A recent example has been the ''Open Source Fashion Cookbook'', by the New York-based brand ADIFF, showing how consumers can recycle materials, share and modify patterns, and co-create more engaging forms of fashion consumption.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Angela Luna & Loulwa Al Saad|title=Open Source Fashion Cookbook|publisher=ADIFF PBC|year=2021|location=New York}}</ref>

Enhancing the lifespan of products have been yet another approach to sustainability, yet still only in its infancy. Upmarket brands have long supported the lifespan of their products through [[product-service system]]s, such as re-waxing of classic outdoor jackets, or repairs of expensive handbags, yet more accessible brands do still not offer even spare buttons in their garments. One such approach concerns [[emotionally durable design]], yet with fashion's dependency on continuous updates, and consumer's desire to follow trends, there is a significant challenge to make garments last long through emotional attachment. As with memories, not all are pleasant, and thus a focus on emotional attachment can result in favoring a normative approach to what is considered a good enough memory to manifest emotionally in a garment. Cultural theorist Peter Stallybrass approaches this challenge in his essay on poverty, textile memory, and the coat of Karl Marx.<ref>{{Cite book|title=""Marx' Coat"" essay, in Border fetishisms : material objects in unstable spaces|last1=Peter |first1=Stallybrass|editor=Spyer, Patricia |date=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0415918561|oclc=37024820}}</ref>

=== Technology ===
{{See also|Manufacture on demand|Clothing technology}}
Novel technologies for virtual try-ons of clothes sold via [[e-commerce]] may enable more sustainable fashion and reduce wasted clothes and related transportation and production expenses.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wills |first1=Jennifer |title=Saying farewell to a throwaway fashion industry |language=en |work=Horizon: The EU Research Innovation Magazine |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-farewell-throwaway-fashion-industry.html |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fadelli |first1=Ingrid |title=DeepDraper: A technique that predicts how clothes would look on different people |language=en |work=Tech Xplore |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-deepdraper-technique-people.html |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>

==Sustainable fashion organizations and companies==
There is a broad range of organizations purporting to support sustainable fashion, some representing particular stakeholders, some addressing particular issues, and some seeking to increase the visibility of the sustainable fashion movement. They also range from the local to global. It is important to examine the interests and priorities of the organizations.

=== Organizations ===
[[File:Wymiana ubraniowa 2.jpg|thumb|Clothes swap in Wrocław, Wyspa Tamka. Event is manifesting slow fashion movement, focusing on Fashion Revolution actions.]]
*[[Fashion Revolution]] is a not-for-profit global movement founded by [[Carry Somers]] and [[Orsola de Castro]] which highlights working conditions and the people behind the garments. With teams in over 100 countries around the world, Fashion Revolution campaigns for systemic reform of the fashion industry with a focus on the need for greater transparency in the fashion supply chain. Fashion Revolution has designated the anniversary of the Rana Plaza disaster in Bangladesh as Fashion Revolution Day. Fashion Revolution Week takes place annually during the week on which the anniversary falls. Over 1000 events take place around the world, with millions of people engaging online and offline.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pinnock |first=Olivia |date=4 May 2018 |title=The Best Answers To #WhoMadeMyClothes This Fashion Revolution Week |magazine=[[Forbes]] |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliviapinnock/2018/05/04/the-best-answers-to-whomademyclothes-this-fashion-revolution-week/#3835b59c77fe |access-date=10 March 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927232318/https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliviapinnock/2018/05/04/the-best-answers-to-whomademyclothes-this-fashion-revolution-week//#3835b59c77fe |url-status=live }}</ref> Fashion Revolution publishes the Fashion Transparency Index annually, ranking the largest fashion brands in the world on how much they disclose about their policies, practices, procedures and social and environmental impact.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dazed Digital |first=Morgane Nyfeler |date=24 April 2018 |title=Are fashion brands actually making progress at becoming ethical? |url=https://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/39855/1/are-fashion-brands-becoming-ethical-fashion-revolution-transparency-index-2018 |newspaper=[[Dazed Digital|Dazed]] |access-date=10 March 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927232232/https://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/39855/1/are-fashion-brands-becoming-ethical-fashion-revolution-transparency-index-2018/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Red Carpet Green Dress, founded by [[Suzy Amis Cameron]], is a global initiative showcasing sustainable fashion on the [[red carpet]] at the [[Academy Awards|Oscars]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Carlson |first=Jane |date=11 October 2013 |title=Annual red carpet green dress contest kicks off once again |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/annual-red-carpet-green-dress-647241 |access-date=9 December 2015 |archive-date=12 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212103314/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/annual-red-carpet-green-dress-647241 |url-status=live }}</ref> Talent supporting the project includes [[Naomie Harris]], [[Missi Pyle]], [[Kellan Lutz]] and [[Olga Kurylenko]].
* Undress Brisbane is an Australian fashion show that sheds light on sustainable designers in Australia.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Claire |date=8 April 2013 |title=Ethical fashion pops up for fashion week |url=http://www.smh.com.au/small-business/ethical-fashion-pops-up-for-fashion-week-20130405-2hawe.html |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=9 December 2015 |archive-date=25 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125015510/http://www.smh.com.au/small-business/ethical-fashion-pops-up-for-fashion-week-20130405-2hawe.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Global Action Through Fashion is an Oakland, California-based ethical fashion organization working to advocate for sustainable fashion.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sanders |first1=Lorraine |title=S.F. fashion cheerleader org chart |url=https://www.sfgate.com/style/article/S-F-fashion-cheerleader-org-chart-3550151.php |publisher=SF Gate |date=April 24, 2013 |access-date=September 30, 2019 |archive-date=September 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930083538/https://www.sfgate.com/style/article/S-F-fashion-cheerleader-org-chart-3550151.php |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Ecoluxe London, a not-for-profit platform, supports luxury with ethos through hosting a biannual exhibition during [[London Fashion Week]] and showcasing eco-sustainable and ethical designers.<ref name=""vildamagazine.com"">{{cite web |url=http://www.vildamagazine.com/2014/02/chic-with-a-conscience-ecoluxe-at-london-fashion-week/|title=Chic With A Conscience: Ecoluxe At London Fashion Week|last1=Camilli|first1=Sascha|date=2014-02-21|website=Vilda Magazine|access-date=30 September 2014 |archive-date=2014-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006101014/http://www.vildamagazine.com/2014/02/chic-with-a-conscience-ecoluxe-at-london-fashion-week/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Carter|first1=Amber|title=Event Review: Ecoluxe London A/W 2013|url=http://source.ethicalfashionforum.com/article/event-review-ecoluxe-london-aw-2013|website=Ethical Fashion Forum|access-date=30 September 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006084532/http://source.ethicalfashionforum.com/article/event-review-ecoluxe-london-aw-2013 |date=20 February 2013| archive-date= 6 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The Ethical Fashion Initiative, a flagship program of the [[International Trade Centre]], a joint agency of the [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] (UNCTAD) and [[World Trade Organization]], enables artisans living in urban and rural poverty to connect with the global fashion chain.<ref>{{cite web |title=The year fashion woke up |website=Businessoffashion.com |url=http://www.businessoffashion.com/2014/12/year-fashion-woke.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224182300/http://www.businessoffashion.com/2014/12/year-fashion-woke.html |date=19 December 2014 |archive-date=24 December 2014 |access-date=9 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Groom|first1=Avril|title=Sustainable and Ethical Fashion|url=http://howtospendit.ft.com/style/67541-sustainable-and-ethical-fashion|publisher=[[Financial Times]] [[How to Spend It]]|date=November 2014|access-date=2015-01-04|archive-date=2015-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108221217/http://howtospendit.ft.com/style/67541-sustainable-and-ethical-fashion|url-status=live}}</ref> The Initiative also works with the rising generation of fashion talent from Africa, encouraging the forging sustainable and fulfilling creative collaborations with artisans on the continent.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Menkes|first1=Suzy|title=The Beat of Africa Resounds on the Catwalk|url=http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2014/07/16/suzy-menkes-the-beat-of-africa-resounds-from-the-catwalk|publisher=Vogue – Conde Nast|access-date=2015-01-04|archive-date=2015-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110022750/http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2014/07/16/suzy-menkes-the-beat-of-africa-resounds-from-the-catwalk|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Maveau|first1=Roger|title=Afrique-Mode éthique : Simone Cipriani, le bon samaritain|date=18 December 2014|url=http://afrique.lepoint.fr/life-style/afrique-mode-ethique-simone-cipriani-le-bon-samaritain-18-12-2014-1890867_2259.php|publisher=Le Point Afrique|access-date=2015-01-04|archive-date=2014-12-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227092722/http://afrique.lepoint.fr/life-style/afrique-mode-ethique-simone-cipriani-le-bon-samaritain-18-12-2014-1890867_2259.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The Ethical Fashion Initiative is headed by [[Simone Cipriani]].

=== Companies ===
*Eco Age, a consultancy company specializing in enabling businesses to achieve growth and add value through sustainability, is an organization that promotes sustainable fashion. Its creative director, Livia Firth, is also the founder of the Green Carpet Challenge which aims to promote ethically made outfits from fashion designers.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/14/fashion/London-Fashion-Week-Begins-With-Green-Emphasis.html|title=Designing for the Green Carpet|last=Menkes|first=Suzy|date=13 September 2013|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=9 December 2015|archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107122522/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/14/fashion/London-Fashion-Week-Begins-With-Green-Emphasis.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Trans-America Trading Company is one of the biggest of about 3,000 textile recyclers in the United States.<ref name=waste /> Trans-America has processed more than 12 million pounds of post-consumer textiles per year since 1942.  At its 80,000-square-foot sorting facility, workers separate used clothing into 300 different categories by type of item, size, and fiber content. About 30% of the textiles are turned into absorbent wiping rags for industrial uses, and another 25–30% are recycled into fiber for use as stuffing for upholstery, insulation, and the manufacture of paper products.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tranclo.com/|title=Trans-Americas Trading Company – World Leader in Recycled Clothing Solutions|website=tranclo.com|access-date=2018-10-13|archive-date=2018-10-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014091321/https://tranclo.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*ViaJoes – Sustainable clothing manufacturer producing eco-friendly fabrics from [[Cotton recycling|recycled cotton]] and other sustainable products confirmed to [[Global Organic Textile Standard|GOTS]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.global-standard.org/ |title=Global Organic Textile Standard International Working Group (IWG) – Global Standard gGmbH|last=Bhajekar|first=Rahul |website=www.global-standard.org|access-date=2018-12-03|archive-date=2018-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201180731/https://www.global-standard.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> – Global Organic Textile Standard International Working Group standard

== Materials ==

In fashion, the consideration of sustainability of materials is critical. The renewability and source of a [[fiber]], the process of how a raw fiber is turned into a [[textile]], the impact of preparation and dyeing of the fibers, energy use in production and preparation, the [[working conditions]] of the people producing the materials, and the material's total [[carbon footprint]], transportation between production plants, chemicals used to keep shipments fresh in containers, shipping to retail and consumer, how the material will be cared for and washed, the processes of repairs and updates, and what happens to it at the end of life. The indexing of the textile journeys is thus extremely complex. In sustainability, there is no such thing as a single-frame approach. Issues dealt with in single frames will almost by definition lead to unwanted and unforeseen effects elsewhere.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

Overall, diversity in the overall fiber mix is needed; in 2013 cotton and polyester accounted for almost 85% of all fibers, and thus their impacts were, and continue to be, disproportionately magnified.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys |last=Fletcher|first=Kate|year=2014|isbn=9780415644556 |edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Routledge|oclc=846847018}}</ref> Also, many fibers in the finished garments are mixed to acquire desired drape, flexibility or stretch, thus affecting both care and the possibility to recycle the material in the end.

===Cellulose fibers===
Natural fibers are fibers which are found in [[nature]] and are not petroleum-based. Natural fibers can be categorized into two main groups, [[cellulose]] or [[plant fiber]] and [[protein]] or [[animal fiber]]. Uses of these fibers can be anything from buttons to eyewear such as sunglasses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cefashion.net/go-wood-sunglasses-for-a-new-wave|title=Go wood: sunglasses for sustainable living|last=Capulet|first=Ian|date=12 February 2015|website=CEFashion.net|access-date=9 December 2015|archive-date=11 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211150451/http://www.cefashion.net/go-wood-sunglasses-for-a-new-wave|url-status=live}}</ref>

Other than cotton, the most common plant-based fiber, [[cellulose]] fibers include: [[jute]], [[flax]], [[hemp]], [[ramie]], [[abaca]], [[soy]], [[maize]], [[banana]], [[pineapple]].  [[Bacterial cellulose]] is currently being tested and better developed as a new fiber alternative.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Choi |first1=Soon Mo |last2=Kummara |first2=Madhusudana Rao |last3=Zo |first3=Sun Mi |last4=Shin |first4=Eun Joo |last5=Han |first5=Sung Soo |title=Bacteria Cellulose and Its Applications |year=2022 |journal=Polymers |volume=14 |issue=6 |page=1080 |doi=10.3390/polym14061080 |pmid=35335411 |pmc=8949969 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Cotton ====
{{Main|Cotton}}
[[File:Knitted-clothing-factory.jpg|thumb|Textile worker using a bare loom in a Vietnam factory, weaving natural cotton fabrics, 2022]]
[[File:The Minister of State for Commerce, Shri Jairam Ramesh releasing the Organic Cotton Products, in Chennai on January 24, 2008.jpg|thumb|The Minister of State for Commerce, Shri Jairam Ramesh, at an event in India focused on the organic cotton industry, 2008]]
Cotton is a major source of apparel fiber. Celebrated for its excellent absorbency, durability, and intrinsic softness, cotton accounts for over 50% of all clothing produced worldwide. This makes cotton the most widely used clothing fiber.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://knol.google.com/k/cotton-fabric#|title=Cotton Fabric|year=2009|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=24 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824032733/http://knol.google.com/k/cotton-fabric|url-status=live}}</ref> Up to 1 billion people worldwide depend on the cotton industry for their livelihoods, including 100 million smallholder farmers.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Voora, V. |author2=Larrea, C. |author3=Bermudez, S.|date=2020|title=Global Market Report: Cotton |url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/cotton-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212071020/https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/cotton-coverage/|archive-date=2021-02-12|access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref>

Cotton is one of the most chemical-intensive crops in the world, but growers in [[California]] have reduced their dependence on these chemicals.<ref name=""SC_1"">{{cite web| title=Sustainable Cotton Project - About| url=http://www.sustainablecotton.org/about.html| publisher=Sustainable Cotton Project| date=2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050214090311/http://www.sustainablecotton.org/html/who_we_are.html |archive-date=14 February 2005|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> Conventionally grown cotton uses approximately 25% of the world's [[insecticides]] and more than 10% of the world's [[pesticides]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.organicitsworthit.org/get/cotton-and-environment|title=Cotton and the environment|publisher=[[Organic Trade Association]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416011200/http://www.organicitsworthit.org/get/cotton-and-environment|archive-date=16 April 2015|access-date=9 December 2015}}</ref> However, growing and processing this particular fiber crop is largely unsustainable. For every pound of cotton harvested, a farmer uses up 1/3&nbsp;lb of chemical, synthetic fertilizer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sayitgreen.com/organic/fairtrade.html|title=Your Grandkids Will Thank You|date=6 April 2009 |publisher=sayitgreen.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=31 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131080845/http://www.sayitgreen.com/organic/fairtrade.html|url-status=live}}</ref>  As a whole, the US cotton production makes up 25% of all pesticides deployed in the United States. Worldwide, cotton takes up 2.4% of all arable lands yet requires 16% of the world's pesticides.<ref name=""organic"">{{cite web |url=http://www.ota.com/organic/environment/cotton_environment.html|title=Cotton and the Environment|year=2009|publisher=Organic Trade Association|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=23 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123231134/http://www.ota.com/organic/environment/cotton_environment.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>  The cotton hulls contain the most potent insecticide residues. They are often used as cattle feed, which means that consumers are purchasing meat containing a concentration of pesticides.<ref name=""organic"" /> The processing of cotton into usable fibers also adds to the burden on the environment. Manufacturers prefer cotton to be white so that cotton can easily be synthetically dyed to any shade of color.<ref name=""peruna"">{{cite web|url=http://www.perunaturtex.com/scientif.htm|title=The Revival of Colored Cotton|last=Vreeland|first=James M. Jr.|date=April 1999|work=[[Scientific American]] |publisher=perunaturtex.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=15 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715064850/http://www.perunaturtex.com/scientif.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Natural cotton is actually beige-brown, and so during processing, manufacturers would add bleach and various other chemicals and heavy metal dyes to make cotton pure white.<ref name=""savvy"">{{cite web|url=http://savvybrown.com/health/whats-the-problem-with-cotton-part-1/ |title=What's the Problem With Cotton? Part I|date=10 May 2010|publisher=savvybrown.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=10 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100710044257/http://savvybrown.com/health/whats-the-problem-with-cotton-part-1/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Formaldehyde]] resins would be added in as well to form ""easy care"" cotton fabric.<ref name=""savvy"" />

===== Bt cotton =====
{{Main|Bt cotton}}

To reduce the use of pesticides and other harmful chemicals, companies have produced [[genetically modified]] (GMO) cotton plants that are resistant to pest infestations. Among the GMO are cotton crops inserted with the Bt (''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'') gene.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/gmo.html|title=Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)|publisher=University of San Diego|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=5 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205060853/http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/gmo.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bt cotton]] crops do not require insecticide applications. Insects that consume cotton containing Bt will stop feeding after a few hours, and die, leaving the cotton plants unharmed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/how_bt_work.html|title=How Does Bt Work?|publisher=University of San Diego|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=9 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209003125/http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/how_bt_work.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

As a result of the use of Bt cotton, the cost of pesticide applications decreased between $25 and $65 per acre.<ref name=""bt"">{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/bt_cotton.html|title=Bt Cotton Data|publisher=University of San Diego|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=13 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213074115/http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/bt_cotton.html |url-status=live}}</ref>  Bt cotton crops yield 5% more cotton on average compared to traditional cotton crops.<ref name=""bt"" />  Bt crops also lower the price of cotton by 0.8&nbsp;cents per pound.<ref name=""bt"" />

However, there are concerns regarding Bt technology, mainly that insects will eventually develop resistance to the Bt strain. According to an article published in Science Daily, researchers have found that members from a cotton bollworm species, ''[[Helicoverpa zea]]'', were Bt-resistant in some crop areas of Mississippi and Arkansas during 2003 and 2006.<ref name=""science"">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080207140803.htm|title=First Documented Case Of Pest Resistance To Biotech Cotton|date=8 February 2008|publisher=Science Daily|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=12 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101212214258/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080207140803.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Fortunately, the vast majority of other agricultural pests remain susceptible to Bt.<ref name=""science"" />

[[Micha Peled|Micha Peled's]] documentary exposé [[Bitter seeds]] on BT farming in India claimed to reveal the true impact of genetically modified cotton on India's farmers, with a suicide rate of over a quarter-million Bt cotton farmers since 1995 due to financial stress resulting from massive crop failure and the exorbitantly high price of Monsanto's proprietary BT seed, although the evidence does not support this claim as the suicide rate of Indian famers has decreased since the introduction of Bt cotton.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Plewis|first=Ian|date=2014-05-13|title=Gm Cotton And Suicide Rates For Indian Farmers |url=http://www.ccsr.ac.uk/documents/Suicides_WP_d1.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513012820/http://www.ccsr.ac.uk/documents/Suicides_WP_d1.pdf|archive-date=2014-05-13|access-date=2021-11-30}}</ref> The film also refutes false claims purported by the biotech industry that Bt cotton requires less pesticide and empty promises of higher yields, as farmers discover the bitter truth that in reality, Bt cotton in fact requires a great deal more pesticide than organic cotton, and often suffer higher levels of infestation by [[Mealybug]] resulting in devastating crop losses, and extreme financial and psychological stress on cotton farmers.  Due to the biotech seed monopoly in India, where Bt cotton seed has become the ubiquitous standard, and the organic seed has become absolutely unobtainable, thus coercing all cotton farmers into signing Bt cotton seed purchase agreements which enforce the intellectual property interests of the biotech [[multinational corporation]] [[Monsanto]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itvs.org/films/bitter-seeds|title=Bitter Seeds |website=iTVS| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506183551/https://itvs.org/films/bitter-seeds |archive-date=2019-05-06 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===== Organic cotton =====
{{Main|Organic cotton}}

[[File:Organiccotton.jpg|[[Organic cotton]] yarn|thumb]]
Organic cotton is grown without the use of any genetic modification to the crops, without the use of any fertilizers, pesticides, and other synthetic agro-chemicals harmful to the land.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vineyardteam.org/resources/sustainableag.php|title=Sustainable Ag Q & A|publisher=Central Coast Vineyard Team|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=23 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090623021024/http://www.vineyardteam.org/resources/sustainableag.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> All cotton marketed as organic in the United States is required to fulfill strict federal regulations regarding how the cotton is grown.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3003494&acct=noprulemaking|title=Production and Handling&nbsp;– Preamble|publisher=USDA|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=14 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614175508/http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3003494&acct=noprulemaking|url-status=live}}</ref> This is done with a combination of innovation, science, and tradition in order to encourage a good quality of life and environment for all involved.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aboutorganiccotton.org/|title=Find out all you need to know about organic cotton|website=aboutorganiccotton.org|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-19|archive-date=2019-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202180639/http://aboutorganiccotton.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Organic cotton uses 88% less water and 62% less energy than conventional cotton.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mankus |first1=Modestas |title=Sustainable Fashion: What is Organic Cotton? |url=https://ourculturemag.com/2020/05/13/sustainable-fashion-what-is-organic-cotton/ |website=Our Culture |access-date=13 May 2020 |date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=8 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808050404/https://ourculturemag.com/2020/05/13/sustainable-fashion-what-is-organic-cotton/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== Naturally colored cotton =====
{{Main|Naturally colored cotton}}

Cotton is naturally grown in a variety of colors. Typically, cotton color can come as mauve, red, yellow, and orange hues.<ref name=""peruna"" /> The use of naturally colored cotton has long been historically suppressed, mainly due to the industrial revolution.<ref name=""peruna"" />  Back then, it was much cheaper to have uniformly white cotton as a raw source for mass-producing cloth and fabric items.<ref name=""peruna"" />  Currently, modern markets have revived a trend in using naturally colored cotton for its noted relevance in reducing harmful environmental impacts. One such example of markets opening to these cotton types would be [[Sally Fox (inventor)|Sally Fox]] and her Foxfiber business—naturally colored cotton that Fox has bred and marketed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vreseis.com/|title=Vreisis Ltd.|publisher=Vreisis Ltd.|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=12 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110412113403/http://www.vreseis.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>  On an additional note, naturally colored cotton is already colored, and thus do not require synthetic dyes during process. Furthermore, the color of fabrics made from naturally colored cotton does not become worn and fade away compared to synthetically dyed cotton fabrics.<ref>{{citation|last1=Dickerson|first1=Dianne K.|title=Naturally Colored Cotton: Resistance to changes in color and durability when refurbished with selected laundry aids|date=October 1999|url=http://cati.csufresno.edu/ip/rese/99/990901.pdf|page=5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719181721/http://cati.csufresno.edu/ip/rese/99/990901.pdf|url-status=dead|publisher=California Agricultural Technology Institute|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=19 July 2011|last2=Lane|first2=Eric|last3=Rodriguez|first3=Dolores}}</ref>

==== Soy ====
{{Main|Soy}}

[[File:Soybean.USDA.jpg|Soybean plant|thumb|upright]]
Soy fabrics are derived from the hulls of soybeans—a manufacturing byproduct. Soy fabrics can be blended (i.e. 30%) or made entirely out of soy fibers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.natural-living-for-women.com/soy-clothing.html|title=Soy Clothing: The Latest In Eco-Friendly Style|year=2010|publisher=Natural Living for Women|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=3 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103021114/http://www.natural-living-for-women.com/soy-clothing.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Soy clothing is largely [[biodegradable]], so it has a minimal impact on environment and [[landfills]]. Although not as durable as cotton or hemp fabrics, soy clothing has a soft, elastic feel.<ref name=""soy"">{{cite web|url=http://www.the-eco-market.com/soy-fabric.html|title=Soy Fabric|year=2009|publisher=the-eco-market.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=3 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203092355/http://www.the-eco-market.com/soy-fabric.html|url-status=live}}</ref>  Soy clothing is known as the vegetable [[Cashmere wool|cashmere]] for its light and silky sensation.<ref name=""soy"" /> Soy fabrics are moisture absorbent, anti-bacterial, and UV resistant.<ref name=""soy"" /> However, soy fabrics fell out of public knowledge during World War II, when [[rayon]], [[nylon]], and cotton sales rose sharply.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cool-organic-clothing.com/soy-clothing.html|title=Soy Clothing: Superior Softness Feels Like Your Second Skin|year=2008|publisher=Cool Organic Clothing|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=21 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121093911/http://www.cool-organic-clothing.com/soy-clothing.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Hemp ====
{{Main|Hemp}}

[[File:Hanfstengel.jpg|Fibers from a Hemp plant|thumb]]
Hemp, like bamboo, is considered a sustainable crop. It requires little water to grow, and it is resistant to most pests and diseases.<ref name=""earth"">{{cite web|url=http://eartheasy.com/wear_hemp_clothing.htm|title=Hemp Clothing|year=2010 |publisher=eartheasy.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=10 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710164024/http://eartheasy.com/wear_hemp_clothing.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The hemp plant's broad leaves shade out weeds and other plant competitors, and its deep taproot system allows it to draw moisture deep in the soil.<ref name=""bin"">{{cite web|url=http://www.binhaitimes.com/hemp.html|title=Hemp Fibres|publisher=Natural Fibers|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=27 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127051011/http://www.binhaitimes.com/hemp.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Unlike cotton, many parts of the hemp plant have a use. Hemp seeds, for example, are processed into oil or food.<ref name=""earth"" />  Hemp fiber comes in two types: primary and secondary [[bast fiber]]s. Hemp fibers are durable and are considered strong enough for construction uses.<ref name=""bin"" /> Compared to cotton fiber, hemp fiber is approximately 8 times the tensile strength and 4 times the durability.<ref name=""bin"" />

Hemp fibers are traditionally coarse and have been historically used for ropes rather than for clothing. However, modern technology and breeding practices have made hemp fiber more pliable, softer, and finer.

==== Bamboo ====
{{Main|Bamboo textile}}

[[File:Bamboo AngelMist Mounts Asit.jpg|[[Bamboo]]|thumb]]
Bamboo fabrics are made from heavily pulped bamboo grass.  Making clothing and textile from bamboo is considered sustainable due to the lack of need for pesticides and agrochemicals.<ref name=""versus"">{{cite web|url=http://www.d6clothing.com/d6/green-info-bamboo-vs-cotton/|title=Bamboo vs. Cotton|year=2010|publisher=D6 Clothing|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=11 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411220028/http://www.d6clothing.com/d6/green-info-bamboo-vs-cotton/|url-status=live}}</ref> Naturally disease and pest resistant, bamboo is also fast growing. Compared to trees, certain varieties of bamboo can grow 1–4&nbsp;inches long per day, and can even branch and expand outward because of its underground rhizomes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.natural-living-for-women.com/bamboo-clothing.html|title=Bamboo Clothing: A new choice in eco-fashion|year=2010 |publisher=Natural Living for Women|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=2 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102230005/http://www.natural-living-for-women.com/bamboo-clothing.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Like cotton fibers, bamboo fibers are naturally yellowish in color and are bleached white with chemicals during processing. Prior to a regulatory change in 2010, the majority of fiber and textile marketed as bamboo on the market was actually viscose rayon derived from bamboo. Now manufacturers need to label such products as rayon from bamboo.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 1, 2010 |title=Bamboo textiles no more 'natural' than rayon |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/bamboo-textiles-no-more-natural-than-rayon-1.938759 |access-date=October 30, 2023 |website=CBC}}</ref>

==== Kombucha (SCOBY) ====
{{main|SCOBY}}

Furnished by a grant from the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|US. Environmental Protection Agency]], associate professor Young-A Lee and her team are growing vats of gel-like film composed of [[Cellulose fiber|cellulose]] fiber, a byproduct of the same symbiotic colonies of bacteria and yeast (abbreviated [[SCOBY]]) found in another of the world's popular ""live culture"" foods: [[kombucha]]. Once harvested and dried, the resulting material has a look and feel much like leather.<ref name="":03"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2016/04/26/sustainableclothing|title=Clothing made from tea byproduct could improve health of fashion industry|date=April 2016|website=Iowa State University|access-date=2019-04-30|archive-date=2019-04-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421094133/https://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2016/04/26/sustainableclothing|url-status=live}}</ref> The fibers are 100 percent [[Biodegradation|biodegradable]], they also foster a [[Cradle-to-cradle design|cradle-to-cradle]] cycle of reuse and regeneration that leaves behind virtually zero waste. However, this material takes a long time to grow about three to four weeks under lab-controlled conditions. Hence [[mass production]] is an issue. In addition, tests revealed that moisture absorption from the air softens this material makes it less durable. Researchers also discovered that cold conditions make it brittle.<ref name="":03"" />

==== Other cellulose fibers ====
Other alternative biodegradable fibers being developed by small companies include:

* leather alternative using pineapple leaves;<ref name=""ecowatch"">{{cite web|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/look-out-cotton-these-3-fruits-are-shaking-up-the-textile-industry-1882021787.html|title=Look Out Cotton, These 3 Fruits Are Shaking Up the Textile Industry|date=12 March 2015|access-date=18 January 2019|archive-date=19 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119122633/https://www.ecowatch.com/look-out-cotton-these-3-fruits-are-shaking-up-the-textile-industry-1882021787.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* bio-composites, fabrics,<ref name=""ecowatch"" /> and leather alternative<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vegnews.com/2018/5/designers-create-vegan-leather-from-coconut-water|title=Designers Create Vegan Leather from Coconut Water|website=VegNews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-23|archive-date=2019-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119174319/https://vegnews.com/2018/5/designers-create-vegan-leather-from-coconut-water|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.plantbasednews.org/post/vegan-leather-made-from-coconut-water-launches-to-reduce-animal-cruelty|title=Vegan Leather Made From Coconut Water Launches To Reduce Animal Cruelty|website=www.plantbasednews.org |date=May 20, 2018|language=en|access-date=2019-04-23|archive-date=2019-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119120909/https://www.plantbasednews.org/post/vegan-leather-made-from-coconut-water-launches-to-reduce-animal-cruelty|url-status=live}}</ref> using various parts of coconut;
* fabric and paper made from banana plant stalks and stems.<ref name=""ecowatch"" />
* garments made from tencel fibers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carpenter |first=Susan |date= June 19, 2011|title=Beyond cotton: Which alternative fabrics are eco-friendly? |url=https://www.latimes.com/fashion/alltherage/la-ig-alternative-natural-textiles-20110619-story.html |access-date= |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Protein fibers===
Protein fibers originate from animal sources and are made up of protein molecules. The basic elements in these protein molecules being carbon, hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/CGTPaperII.pdf|title=Classification and general properties of textile fibres|last=Haung|first=HC|date=1994|access-date=March 1, 2018|archive-date=March 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328160048/http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/CGTPaperII.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Wool ====
Just as in cotton production, pesticides are conventionally used in the cultivation of [[wool]], although quantities are considerably smaller, and it is thought that good practices can significantly limit negative environmental impacts. Sheep are treated either with injectable insecticides, a pour-on preparation or dipped in a pesticide bath to control parasite infections, which if left untreated can have serious health implications for the flock. When managed badly, these pesticides can cause harm to human health and aquatic ecosystems both on the farm and in subsequent downstream processing.<ref name=""autogenerated1"" />

==== Silk ====
Most commercially produced [[silk]] is of the cultivated variety and involves feeding the worms a carefully controlled diet of mulberry leaves grown under special conditions. Selected mulberry trees are grown to act as homes for the silkworms. The fibers are extracted by steaming to kill the silk moth chrysalis and then washed in hot water to degum the silk. The silk fiber is known for its strength and is considered a prestigious fiber. Its use in textiles is limited due to its high cost.<ref>{{Cite web |last=truents|date=2010-10-27|title=Natural Protein Fibres|url=https://www.textileschool.com/419/natural-protein-fibers/|access-date=2020-10-31|website=Textile School|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108210540/https://www.textileschool.com/419/natural-protein-fibers/|url-status=live}}</ref> The silk industry also employs millions of people in rural China.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-10-03|title=Material Guide: Is Silk Sustainable?|url=https://goodonyou.eco/is-silk-sustainable/|access-date=2020-10-31|website=Good On You|language=en|archive-date=2020-11-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104001011/https://goodonyou.eco/is-silk-sustainable/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Cashmere ====
[[Cashmere wool|Cashmere]] is obtained from the fine, soft hairs of a cashmere goat's underbelly coat. This specific breed of goat is found throughout Asia. Due to the rarity of the breed, four goats are needed to produce enough cashmere for one sweater. Initially, cashmere was relatively expensive, but due to increased demand, the industry is beginning to take a toll on animals and the land. More and more goats are needed which results in more mouths to feed. Overpopulation of the goats degrades the land due to increased grazing. The cashmere industry is becoming more and more controversial with the questioning of the working conditions of goat herders and the underpaying of farmers.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-11|title=Material Guide: How Ethical Is Cashmere?|url=https://goodonyou.eco/material-guide-how-ethical-is-cashmere/|access-date=2020-10-31|website=Good On You|language=en|archive-date=2020-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106060026/https://goodonyou.eco/material-guide-how-ethical-is-cashmere/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Oxfam]] reported in Spring 2021 on a project in [[Afghanistan]] being undertaken jointly with the [[Burberry|Burberry Foundation]] and PUR Projet, working with goat farmers to improve their business operations and make the Afghan cashmere industry more sustainable.<ref>''Oxfam News'', Spring 2021</ref>

===Manufactured fibers===
Manufactured fibers sit within three categories:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fashion fibers: designing for sustainability |last=Annie |first=Gullingsrud|date=2017-02-09|isbn=9781501306648|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|oclc=915250289}}</ref> Manufactured cellulosic fibers, manufactured synthetic fibers and manufactured protein fiber (azlon). Manufactured cellulosic fibers include modal, [[Lyocell]] (also known under the brand name Tencel), rayon/viscose made from bamboo, rayon/viscose made from wood and [[polylactic acid]] (PLA). Manufactured synthetic fibers include [[polyester]], [[nylon]], [[spandex]], [[acrylic fiber]], [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]] (PP). [[Azlon]] is a manufactured protein fiber. Rayon/ viscose is a fiber out of pulp highly used in fast fashion as it is cheaply manufactured. To extract rayon/viscose, plantations cut down 30% of endangered and ancient forests threatening the life of ecosystems.<ref name=MG_1>{{cite web| title=Material Guide: What Is Viscose and Is It Sustainable?| author=Robertson, L.| url=https://goodonyou.eco/material-guide-viscose-sustainability/#:~:text=It%20is%20estimated%20that%20around,land%20grabbing%20from%20Indigenous%20communities| publisher=Good On You| date=12 January 2023| access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref>

==== PET plastic ====
{{Main|PET plastic}}

PET plastics are also known as [[Polyethylene terephthalate]](PETE). PET's [[Recycling codes|recycling code]], the number within the three chasing arrows, is one. These plastics are usually beverage bottles (i.e. water, soda, and fruit juice bottles). According to the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]], plastic accounts for 12% of the total amount of waste we produce.<ref name=""EPA"">{{cite web |date=November 2009 |title=Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the United States: Facts and Figures for 2008 |url=http://www.epa.gov/osw//nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008rpt.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128132124/http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008rpt.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2011 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref> [[Plastic recycling|Recycling plastic]] reduces air, water, and ground pollution. Recycling is only the first step; investing and purchasing products manufactured from recycled materials is the next of many steps to living sustainably.

[[File:Transfer Station Recyclables, Gainesville, FL 7054.JPG|Recyclables at transfer station, [[Gainesville, Florida]]|thumb]]Clothing can be made from plastics. Seventy percent of plastic-derived fabrics come from polyester, and the type of polyester most used in fabrics is [[polyethylene terephthalate]] (PET).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/why-is-recycled-polyester-considered-a-sustainable-textile/|title=Why is Recycled Polyester Considered a Sustainable Textile?|date=14 July 2009|publisher=O Ecotextiles|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=24 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824203859/http://oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/why-is-recycled-polyester-considered-a-sustainable-textile/|url-status=live}}</ref> PET plastic clothing come from reused plastics, often recycled plastic bottles.<ref name=""env"">{{cite web|url=http://www.natural-environment.com/blog/2008/01/27/what-is-recycled-polyester/|title=What is Recycled Polyester?|publisher=Natural Environment|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=30 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230015304/http://www.natural-environment.com/blog/2008/01/27/what-is-recycled-polyester/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[The Coca-Cola Company]], for example, created a ""Drink2Wear"" line of T-shirts made from recycled bottles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coca-colacompany.com/stories/creating-value-through-sustainable-fashion|title=Creating Value Through Sustainable Fashion|year=2010|publisher=The Coca-Cola Company|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=25 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121125062837/http://www.coca-colacompany.com/stories/creating-value-through-sustainable-fashion|url-status=live}}</ref> Generally, PET plastic clothing are made from recycled bottles as follows: plastic bottles are collected, compressed, baled, and shipped into processing facilities where they will be chopped into flakes, and melted into small white pellets. Then, the pellets are processed again, and spun into yarn-like fiber where it can be made into clothing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yesboleh.blogspot.com/2008/05/clothing-made-of-recycled-plastic.html|title=Clothing Made of Recycled Plastic|date=8 May 2008|publisher=yesboleh.blogspot.com|access-date=7 December 2010 |archive-date=8 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708072720/http://yesboleh.blogspot.com/2008/05/clothing-made-of-recycled-plastic.html|url-status=live}}</ref> One main benefit of making clothes from recycled bottles is that it keep the bottles and other plastics from occupying landfill space. Another benefit is that it takes 30% less energy to make clothes from recycled plastics than from virgin polyesters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.currentprotocols.com/2010/06/23/recycling-plastic-into-fabric-re-wear-your-bottles/|title=Recycling Plastic into Fabric: Re-Wear Your Bottles|date=23 June 2010 |publisher=currentprotocols.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=12 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100912173049/http://blogs.currentprotocols.com/2010/06/23/recycling-plastic-into-fabric-re-wear-your-bottles/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{See also|Synthetic fiber|Plastic clothing}}

===Fungal species===
Alexander Bismarck and Mitchell Jones from the [[University of Vienna]] have conducted research on the possibility of using fungal species to create sustainable leather alternatives. Leather alternatives can be produced by using byproducts of agricultural products such as sawdust. The sawdust acts as a feedstock for the growth of fungal mycelium. After a few weeks, the fungal mycelium can be processed and chemically treated into a leather-like material. The researchers state that these fungal biomasses exhibit similar material and tactile properties as authentic leather.  Using fungal biomass to create a leather alternative is sustainable as the entire process is carbon neutral and all the materials are completely biodegradable when they are done being used.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Mitchell |last2=Gandia |first2=Antoni |last3=John |first3=Sabu |last4=Bismarck |first4=Alexander |title=Leather-like material biofabrication using fungi |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=January 2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=9–16 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00606-1 |s2cid=221522085 }}</ref>

== Production ==
===Producers===
The global political economy and legal system supports a fashion system that enables fashion that has devastating environmental, social, cultural and economic impacts to be priced at a lower price than fashion which involves efforts to minimize harm in the growth, manufacturing, and shipping of the products. This results in higher prices for fashion made from reduced impact materials than clothing produced in a socially and environmentally damaging way (sometimes referred to as conventional methods).<ref name=""e2f"">{{cite journal|last1=Singer|first1=Sally|last2=Sullivan|first2=Robert|date=May 2007|title=Earth to fashion|journal=[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]|volume=197|issue=5|pages=128–132}}</ref>

Innovative fashion is being developed and made available to consumers at different levels of the fashion spectrum, from casual clothing to [[haute couture]] which has a reduced social and environmental impact at the materials and manufacture stages of production<ref name=""waste"" /> and celebrities, models, and designers have recently drawn attention to socially conscious and environmentally friendly fashion.

=== 3D seamless knitting ===
[[Complete garment knitting|3D seamless knitting]] is a technology that allows an entire garment to be knit with no seams. This production method is considered a sustainable practice due to its reduction in waste and labor. By only using the necessary materials, the producers will be more efficient in their manufacturing process. This production method is similar to seamless knitting, although traditional seamless knitting requires stitching to complete the garment. In contrast 3D seamless knitting creates the entire garment, eliminating additional work. The garments are designed using 3D software unlike traditional flat patterns. Shima Seiki and Stoll are currently the two primary manufacturers of the technology. The technology is produced through the use of solar energy, and they are selling to brands like [[Max Mara]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=SUSTAINABILITY IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY|last=Mutha|first=Subramaniam|publisher=Singer|year=2017}}</ref>

=== Zero waste ===
[[Zero waste]] design in fashion is a concept that aims to reduce material waste throughout the textile and fashion production process. Although the concept has existed for a number of years on the grounds of reducing costs through reducing waste, zero waste design is increasingly being integrated into fashion production for environmental reasons.<ref name="":6"" /> [[Zero-waste fashion|Zero-waste pattern making]] designs patterns for a garment so that when the pattern pieces are cut, no fabric is wasted.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rosenbloom |first1=Stephanie |title=Fashion Tries on Zero Waste Design |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/15/fashion/15waste.html |work=The New York Times |date=13 August 2010 }}</ref>

=== Dyeing ===
[[File:AirDye®_Design_Capabilities.jpg|thumb|Examples of textiles that have used the AirDye process]]
Traditional methods of dyeing textiles are incredibly harmful towards the Earth's water supply, creating toxic chemicals that affect entire communities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elmaaty|first=Tarek|date=March 26, 2017|title=Supercritical Carbon Dioxide as a Green Media in Textile Dyeing: A Review|journal=Textile Research Journal}}</ref> An alternative to traditional water dyeing is sc{{CO2}} dyeing (super critical carbon dioxide). This process creates no waste by using 100% of the dyes, reducing energy by 60% with no auxiliary chemicals, and leaving a quarter of the physical footprint of traditional dyeing. Different names for this process are Drydye and Colordry.<ref>Fortunake, J., & Blackburn, R. (2017). ''Sustainablity Challenges of Textiles, Dyeing and Finishing Industries: Opportunities for Innovation.'' Lecture presented at ACS Webinars.</ref> Another company called Colorep has patented Airdye, a similar process that they claim uses 95% less water and up to 86% less energy than traditional dyeing methods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://textilecore.com/air-dyeing/|title=air dyeing|website=textilecore.com|language=en|access-date=2017-11-05|archive-date=2017-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171106222152/http://textilecore.com/air-dyeing/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Comparison websites and ecolabels ===
No brand is considered by environmental experts to be fully sustainable, and controversy exists over exactly how the concept of sustainability can be applied in relation to fashion, if it can be used at all, or if labels such as ""slow"" and ""sustainable"" fashion are inherently an oxymoron.<ref name="":5"" /> Brands that sell themselves as sustainable often lack systems to deal with oversupply, take back used clothes, fully recycle fibers, offer repair services, or even support the life of the garment during use (such as instructions on washing, care and repair). Almost no brands offer replacement parts, such as buttons, straps or pockets, for their garments.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

Some [[Comparison shopping website|comparison websites]] exist which compare fashion brands on their sustainability record, which give some indication to consumers about the sustainability of their products.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?269811/Top-brands-failing-on-cotton-sustainability|title=Top brands failing on cotton sustainability {{!}} WWF|website=wwf.panda.org|access-date=2019-07-16|archive-date=2020-02-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213174623/https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?269811%2FTop-brands-failing-on-cotton-sustainability|url-status=live}}</ref>

There are many ecolabels in existence which focus on textile goods.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ecolabelindex.com/ecolabels/?st=category,textiles |title=All ecolabels on textiles |access-date=2019-08-02 |archive-date=2019-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801160657/http://www.ecolabelindex.com/ecolabels/?st=category,textiles |url-status=live }}</ref>
Some notable<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eco-business.com/news/eco-fashion-know-your-labels/ |title=Know your labels |date=February 11, 2016 |access-date=2019-08-02 |archive-date=2019-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802134307/https://www.eco-business.com/news/eco-fashion-know-your-labels/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ecolabels include:
* [[EU Ecolabel]]
* [[Fair trade certification|Fair Trade Certified]]
* Global Organic Textile Standard
* [[Oeko-Tex|Oeko-Tex Standard 1000]]

===Sustainable textile brands===
Some brands that sell themselves as sustainable are listed below;

* Eastern European prisoners are designing sustainable prison fashion in Latvia and Estonia under the [[Heavy Eco]] label,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.err.ee/Culture/6927f9ec-b20e-448b-b78d-fefe0d8f009d|title=Prison Couture mainlines eco-ethics|date=9 January 2011|publisher=[[Estonian Public Broadcasting]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324150738/http://news.err.ee/Culture/6927f9ec-b20e-448b-b78d-fefe0d8f009d|archive-date=24 March 2012|access-date=19 May 2012}}</ref> part of a trend called ""prison couture"".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/christine-de-leon/ethical-fashion-malcom-x-t-shirt-revisited_b_960850.html|title=The Malcolm X T-shirt Revisited|last=de Leon|first=Christine|date=15 September 2011|publisher=Huffingtonpost.co.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002071634/http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/christine-de-leon/ethical-fashion-malcom-x-t-shirt-revisited_b_960850.html|archive-date=2 October 2015|access-date=19 May 2012}}</ref>
* Other sustainable fashion brands include Elena Garcia, Nancy Dee, By Stamo, Outsider Fashion, Beyond Skin, Oliberté, Hetty Rose, DaRousso, KSkye the Label,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://view.publitas.com/ethicalstylejournal/issue-2-march-2017/page/26-27|title=Ethical Style Journal, Issue 2, March 2017 – Page 26-27|website=view.publitas.com|access-date=2018-01-22|archive-date=2018-01-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180118181347/https://view.publitas.com/ethicalstylejournal/issue-2-march-2017/page/26-27|url-status=live}}</ref> and Eva Cassis.<ref name=""vildamagazine.com"" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecoluxelondon.org/portfolio_detail_stamo.html|title=By Stamo|website=Ecoluxe London|access-date=30 September 2014 |archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006125707/http://www.ecoluxelondon.org/portfolio_detail_stamo.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ecocult.com/2014/9-curated-brands-i-found-this-month-that-i-know-youll-love/|title=9 Ethical And Sustainable Brands I Found This Month That I Know You'll Love|last1=Wicker|first1=Alden|date=2014-06-23|website=Ecocult.com|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=2014-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006121531/http://ecocult.com/2014/9-curated-brands-i-found-this-month-that-i-know-youll-love/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peta.org.uk/features/beyond-skin-competition/|title=Competition: Design Beyond Skin's Next Vegan Shoe!|website=PETA|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006081141/http://www.peta.org.uk/features/beyond-skin-competition/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecouterre.com/hetty-rose-launches-ready-to-wear-versions-of-its-vintage-kimono-shoes/|title=Hetty Rose Launches Ready-to-Wear Versions of Its Vintage-Kimono Shoes|last1=Klein|first1=Victoria|website=Ecouterre|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=26 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140926215313/http://www.ecouterre.com/hetty-rose-launches-ready-to-wear-versions-of-its-vintage-kimono-shoes/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ecowarriorprincess.net/2015/04/simple-stylish-sustainable-eva-cassis/|title=Simple, Stylish & Sustainable: Eva Cassis|last1=Nini|first1=Jennifer|website=ecowarriorprincess.net|date=April 16, 2015|access-date=16 Apr 2015|archive-date=27 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527043607/http://ecowarriorprincess.net/2015/04/simple-stylish-sustainable-eva-cassis/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecowatch.com/oliberte-becomes-worlds-first-fair-trade-usa-certified-shoemaker-1881813338.html|title=Oliberté Becomes World's First Fair Trade USA Certified Shoemaker|last1=Baker|first1=Brandon|date=2013-11-07|website=Eco Watch|access-date=12 September 2016|archive-date=2016-09-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915131706/http://www.ecowatch.com/oliberte-becomes-worlds-first-fair-trade-usa-certified-shoemaker-1881813338.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The brand [[Boll & Branch]] make all of their [[bedding]] products from [[organic cotton]] and have been certified by [[Fair Trade USA]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gelles |first1=David |title=With Organic Cotton and Online Ads, Boll & Branch Helps Indian Farmers |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/19/business/with-organic-cotton-and-online-ads-boll-branch-helps-indian-farmers.html |work=The New York Times |date=16 June 2016 }}</ref>
*[[The Hemp Trading Company]] is an ethically driven underground clothing label, specializing in environmentally friendly, politically conscious street wear made of hemp, bamboo, organic cotton and other sustainable fabrics.<ref name=""roberts"">{{cite web|url=http://www.bboynews.co.uk/style/fashion/thtc-%E2%80%93-inspiring-change-one-hip-hop-head-at-a-time/|title=THTC – Inspiring change; one Hip-Hop head at a time|last1=Roberts|first1=Zoe|website=B-Boy News|access-date=17 September 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074428/http://www.bboynews.co.uk/style/fashion/thtc-%E2%80%93-inspiring-change-one-hip-hop-head-at-a-time/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Patagonia, Inc.|Patagonia]], a major retailer in casual wear, has been selling fleece clothing made from post-consumer plastic soda bottles since 1993.<ref name=""waste"" />

=== Designers ===
[[File:The Golden Book Gown by Ryan Jude Novelline.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A mannequin wears a multicolored gown with a golden bodice, full skirt, and flowing train.|[[Ryan Jude Novelline#The Golden Book Gown|''The Golden Book Gown'']] made of recycled and discarded paper book pages]]
There is no certain stable model among the designers for how to be sustainable in practice, and the understanding of sustainability is always a process or a work-in-progress, and varies by who defines what is ""sustainable;"" farmers or animals, producers or consumers, managers or workers, local businesses or neighborhoods.<ref name="":1"" />
Thus critical scholars would label much of the business-driven discourse on sustainability as ""greenwashing"" as under the current economic paradigm, ""sustainability"" is primarily defined as keeping the wheels of perpetual production and consumption turning; to keep the ""perpetuum mobile"" of fashion running and in [[perpetual motion]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bauman|first=Zygmunt|date=2010-10-01|title=Perpetuum mobile|journal=Critical Studies in Fashion and Beauty|volume=1|pages=55–63|doi=10.1386/csfb.1.1.55_1}}</ref>

There are some designers that experiment in making fashion more sustainable, with various degrees of impact;
*[[Ryan Jude Novelline]] created a ballroom gown constructed entirely from the pages of recycled and discarded children's books known as ''The Golden Book Gown'' that ""prove[d] that green fashion can provide as rich a fantasia as can be imagined.""<ref>{{citation|last=Pham|first=Diane|title=High Fashion as Eco-Friendly Child's Play|date=October 1, 2012|url=http://www.chevrolet.com/culture/article/eco-friendly-fashion.html|journal=[[Chevrolet]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003072510/http://www.chevrolet.com/culture/article/eco-friendly-fashion.html|url-status=dead|access-date=January 23, 2014|archive-date=October 3, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Bluemle|first=Elizabeth|title=A Talk with the Creator of the Gown Made of Golden Books|date=October 11, 2013|url=http://blogs.publishersweekly.com/blogs/shelftalker/?p=11848|journal=[[Publishers Weekly]]|access-date=June 11, 2014|archive-date=October 11, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011025407/http://blogs.publishersweekly.com/blogs/shelftalker/?p=11848|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Eco-couture designer [[Lucy Tammam]] uses [[eri silk]] ([[Ahimsa silk|ahimsa/peace silk]]) and [[organic cotton]] to create her eco friendly couture evening and bridal wear collections.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecouterre.com/house-of-tammam-debuts-u-k-s-first-ethical-ready-to-wear-wedding-gowns/|title=House of Tammam Debuts U.K.'s Only Ethical Ready-to-Wear Bridal Gowns|last1=Malik Chua|first1=Jasmin|website=Ecouterre|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006070827/http://www.ecouterre.com/house-of-tammam-debuts-u-k-s-first-ethical-ready-to-wear-wedding-gowns/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Amal Kiran Jana is a designer from India and the founder of Afterlife Project which is a sustainability development project supporting global and unique designers in 360 degrees.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afterlifeprojects.com/|title=Home|website=afterlife project|language=en|access-date=2020-01-11|archive-date=2020-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111215503/https://www.afterlifeprojects.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Stella McCartney]] pushes the agenda for sustainable fashion that is animal and eco-friendly. She also uses her name and her brand as a platform to push for a greener fashion industry. The brand uses the EP&L tool which was created to help companies understand their environmental impact by measuring greenhouse gas emissions, land use, water use, water pollution, air pollution and waste across the entire global supply chain.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.refinery29.com/stella-mccartney-sustainability-fashion-brand-innovation|title=Is Stella McCartney the Queen of Sustainable Fashion|last1=Landon|first1=Peoples|website=Refinery 29|access-date=2018-10-23|archive-date=2018-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023195840/https://www.refinery29.com/stella-mccartney-sustainability-fashion-brand-innovation|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Gabriela Hearst]] during her tenure at [[Chloé]] and under her own name has made sustainability a key focus of her work. The runway presentation for her Spring/Summer 2020 eponymous collection was certified carbon neutral.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shihadeh |first=Jackie |date=September 20, 2019 |title=Gabriela Hearst & The Carbon-Neutral Show |url=https://cfda.com/news/gabriela-hearst-the-carbon-neutral-show |access-date=October 30, 2023 |website=Council of Fashion Designers of America}}</ref> Gabriela Hearst also avoids single use plastic in retail and supply chain networks, using compostable polymers and recycled cardboard.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Assoune |first=Alex |date=2020-12-22 |title=Gabriela Hearst |url=https://www.panaprium.com/blogs/i/gabriela-hearst |access-date=2023-10-30 |website=Panaprium |language=en}}</ref> While she was at Chloé, the label became the first major luxury brand to receive a [[B Corporation (certification)|B Corp]] certification.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Marshall |first=Alexandra |date=2022-10-20 |title=Gabriela Hearst's B-Corp values |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e9032473-801c-4e04-81ba-e3941499bbf2 |access-date=2023-10-30}}</ref>

==Controversies==
{{Criticism section|date=October 2023}}

=== Marketing controversies ===
The increase in western consumers' environmental interest is motivating companies to use sustainable and environmental arguments solely to increase sales. Because environmental and sustainability issues are complex, it is also easy to mislead consumers. Companies can use sustainability as a “marketing ploy” something that can be seen as [[greenwashing]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Niinimäki |first1=Kirsi |title=Ethical foundations in sustainable fashion |journal=Textiles and Clothing Sustainability |date=December 2015 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3 |doi=10.1186/s40689-015-0002-1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Greenwashing is the deceptive use of an eco-agenda in marketing strategies.<ref name="":1"" /> It refers mostly to corporations that make efforts to clean up their reputation because of social pressure or for the purpose of financial gain. Companies continuing to be using greenwashing in turn hurts companies that are true to their environmental goals, losing their competitive edge to bigger corporations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Furlow |first1=Nancy E. |title=Greenwashing in the New Millennium |journal=The Journal of Applied Business and Economics |volume=10 |issue=6 |date=March 2010 |pages=22–25 |id={{ProQuest|506504964}} |url=http://m.www.na-businesspress.com/JABE/jabe106/FurlowWeb.pdf }}</ref>

==== Greenwashing ====
{{Main|Greenwashing}}

A major controversy on sustainable fashion concerns how the ""green"" imperative is used as a cover-up for systemic labor exploitation, social exclusion and [[environmental degradation]], what is generally labelled as greenwashing. Market-driven sustainability can only address sustainability to a certain degree as brands still need to sell more products in order to be profitable. Thus, almost any initiative towards addressing ecological and social issues still contributes to the damage. In a 2017 report, the industry projects that the overall apparel consumption will rise by 63%, from 62 million tons today to 102 million tons in 2030, thus effectively erasing any environmental gains made by current initiatives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf|title=Pulse Fashion Report 2017|date=2017|website=Global Fashion Agenda, Pulse Report|access-date=2019-05-14|archive-date=2019-10-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004220838/http://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Materials controversies ===
Though some designers have marketed [[bamboo fiber]], as an alternative to conventional cotton, citing that it absorbs greenhouse gases during its life cycle and grows quickly and plentifully without pesticides, the conversion of bamboo fiber to fabric is the same as rayon and is highly toxic. The FTC ruled that labeling of bamboo fiber should read ""rayon from bamboo"". Bamboo fabric can cause environmental harm in production due to the chemicals used to create a soft viscose from hard bamboo.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Ray A. |date=24 May 2008 |title=Shades of green: decoding eco fashion's claims |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121158336716218711 |access-date=2016-04-25 |archive-date=2016-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428161022/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121158336716218711 |url-status=live }}</ref> Impacts regarding production of new materials make recycled, reclaimed, surplus, and vintage fabric arguably the most sustainable choice, as the raw material requires no agriculture and no manufacturing to produce.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-fashion-blog/2015/feb/26/waste-recycling-textiles-fashion-industry|title=Waste is so last season: recycling clothes in the fashion industry|last=Gould|first=Hannah|date=2015-02-26|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=2018-03-01|archive-date=2018-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180302103909/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-fashion-blog/2015/feb/26/waste-recycling-textiles-fashion-industry|url-status=live}}</ref> However, these are indicative of a system of production and consumption that creates excessive volumes of waste.

=== Second-hand controversies ===
Used clothing is sold in more than 100 countries. In Tanzania, used clothing is sold at [[Mitumba (clothing)|''Mitumba'']] markets ([[Swahili language|Swahili]] for ""bundles""). Most of the clothing is imported from the United States.<ref name=""waste"" /> However, there are concerns that trade in secondhand clothing in African countries decreases development of local industries even as it creates employment in these countries.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Well dressed? : the present and future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the United Kingdom|last=Allwood|first=Julian M.|author1-link=Julian Allwood|date=2006|publisher=Univ. of Cambridge Inst. for Manufacturing|isbn=978-1902546520|oclc=441247814}}</ref> While the reuse of materials brings resource savings, there are some concerns that the influx of cheap, second-hand clothing, particularly in Africa, has undermined indigenous textile industries, with the result that clothing collected in the West under the guise of 'charitable donations' could actually create more poverty.<ref name=""autogenerated1"" /> The authors of ''Recycling of Low Grade Clothing Waste'' warn that in the long run, as prices and quality of new clothing continue to decline, the demand for used clothing will also diminish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=WR0201_6352_FRP.pdf |title=Science Search |access-date=2018-10-13 |archive-date=2012-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011101547/http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=WR0201_6352_FRP.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Biodegradable athletic footwear]]
*[[Ecodesign]]
*[[Ethical consumerism]]
*[[Pollution in the fashion industry]]
*[[Reusable shopping bag]]
*[[Trashion]]
*[[Product tracing]] systems, which allow consumers to see the source factory of a product
*[[Fashion activism]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category}}
* Black, Sandy (2008). Eco-chic : the fashion paradox, London: Black Dog. {{ISBN|1-906155-09-7}}. {{OCLC|966078563}}.
* Black, Sandy (2013). The sustainable fashion handbook,  New York: Thames & Hudson. {{ISBN|9780500290569}}. {{OCLC|939743661}}.
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Choi |editor1-first=Tsan-Ming |editor2-last=Cheng |editor2-first=T. C. Edwin |date=2015 |title=Sustainable fashion supply chain management: from sourcing to retailing |series=Springer series in supply chain management |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=9783319127026 |oclc=907012044 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-12703-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Farley |first1=Jennifer |last2=Hill |first2=Colleen |date=2015 |title=Sustainable fashion: past, present, and future |location=New York |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=9780857851857 |oclc=860754344 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |date=2014 |orig-year=2008 |title=Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys |edition= 2nd |location=London; Washington, DC |publisher=[[Earthscan]] |isbn=9780415644556 |oclc=846847018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |last2=Grose |first2=Lynda |date=2012 |title=Fashion & sustainability: design for change |location=London |publisher=[[Laurence King Publishing]] |isbn=9781856697545 |oclc=778610112 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Fletcher |editor1-first=Kate |editor2-last=Tham |editor2-first=Mathilda |date=2015 |title=Routledge handbook of sustainability and fashion |series=Routledge international handbooks |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415828598 |oclc=820119510 }}
* {{Cite news |last=Friedman |first=Vanessa |date=2022-05-07 |title=Redefining 'Sustainable Fashion' |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/07/style/redefining-sustainable-fashion.html |access-date=2023-10-03 |issn=0362-4331}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Gardetti |editor1-first=Miguel Ángel |editor2-last=Torres |editor2-first=Ana Laura |date=2013 |title=Sustainability in fashion and textiles: values, design, production and consumption |location=Sheffield, UK |publisher=Greenleaf Publishing |isbn=9781906093785 |oclc=827952084 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gwilt |first1=Alison |last2=Rissanen |first2=Timo |date=2010 |title=Shaping sustainable fashion: changing the way we make and use clothes |location=London; Washington, DC |publisher=[[Earthscan]] |isbn=9781849712415 |oclc=656849440 }}
* Shell, Hanna Rose (2020). ''Shoddy : From Devil's Dust to the Renaissance of Rags''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|9-780226-698-22-9}}.

== External links ==

* [https://unfashionalliance.org/ UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion]
* [https://www.sustainable-fashion.com/ Centre for Sustainable Fashion] at [[London College of Fashion]]
* [https://www.sustainablefashionweek.uk/ UK Sustainable Fashion Week]
* [https://goodonyou.eco/ Good on You]
{{Fashion}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Environmental humanities}}

[[Category:Fashion]]
[[Category:Clothing and the environment]]
[[Category:Sustainability by subject|Fashion]]
[[Category:Slow movement]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental economics]]
[[Category:Sustainable business]]"
BREEAM,"{{Short description|Assessment of building sustainability}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Refimprove|date=May 2016}}
{{Advert|date=March 2015}}
}}
[[File:BREEAM logo.png|thumb|BREEAM logo]]

'''BREEAM''' ('''Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method'''), first published by the [[Building Research Establishment]] (BRE) in 1990,<ref name="":0"">{{cite web|title=BREEAM: What is BREEAM?|url=http://www.breeam.org/about.jsp?id=66|publisher=Building Research Establishment|access-date=8 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194348/http://www.breeam.org/about.jsp?id=66|archive-date=2015-09-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> is the world's longest established method of assessing, rating, and certifying the [[Sustainable development|sustainability]] of buildings.  More than 550,000 buildings have been 'BREEAM-certified' and over two million are registered for certification in more than 50 countries worldwide. BREEAM also has a tool which focuses on neighbourhood development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is BREEAM?|url=https://www.thenbs.com/knowledge/what-is-breeam|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824011722/https://www.thenbs.com/knowledge/what-is-breeam |archive-date=2018-08-24 }}</ref> 

==Purpose==
BREEAM is an assessment undertaken by independent licensed assessors using scientifically-based [[sustainability metrics and indices]] which cover a range of environmental issues. Its categories evaluate energy and [[water use]], health and wellbeing, [[pollution]], transport, materials, waste, [[ecology]] and management processes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Evironmental Assessments – Ferguson Brown |url=https://ferguson-brown.com/evironmental-assessments-2/ |access-date=2022-11-21 |language=en-GB}}</ref> Buildings are rated and certified on a scale of 'Pass', 'Good', 'Very Good', 'Excellent' and 'Outstanding'.<ref name="":0"" />

It works to raise awareness amongst owners, occupiers and designers of the benefits of taking a sustainable approach, providing a framework to help them to successfully adopt sustainable solutions in a cost-effective manner, and provides market recognition of their achievements. It aims to reduce the negative effects of construction and development on the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lowe, Watts|first=Jack, Norman|year=2011|title=An Evaluation of A BREEAM Case Study Project|url=http://shura.shu.ac.uk/7585/1/2011_3(1)_watts.pdf|journal=Sheffield Hallam University Built Environment Research Transaction|pages=42–53}}</ref>

==History==
Work on creating BREEAM began at the [[Building Research Establishment]] (based in [[Watford]], [[England]]) in 1988. The first version for assessing new office buildings was launched in 1990. This was followed by versions for other buildings including superstores, industrial units and existing offices.

In 1998, there was a major revamp of the '''BREEAM Offices standard''', and the scheme's layout, with features such as weighting for different sustainability issues, was established. The development of BREEAM then accelerated with annual updates and variations for other building types such as retail premises being introduced.

A version of BREEAM for new homes called [[EcoHomes]] was launched in 2000. This scheme was later used as the basis of the [[Code for Sustainable Homes]], which was developed by BRE for the [[UK]] Government in 2006/7 and replaced Eco Homes in England and [[Wales]]. In 2014, the Government in England signalled the winding down the Code for Sustainable Homes. Since then BRE has developed the Home Quality Mark, which is part of the BREEAM family of schemes. 

An extensive update of all BREEAM schemes in 2008 resulted in the introduction of mandatory post-construction reviews, minimum standards and innovation credits. International versions of BREEAM were also launched that year.

Another major update in 2011 resulted in the launch of BREEAM New Construction, which is now used to assess and certify all new UK buildings. This revision included the reclassification and consolidation of issues and criteria to further streamline the BREEAM process. In 2012, a scheme for domestic refurbishment was introduced in the UK, followed by a non-domestic version in 2014 that was expanded to an international scope the following year.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Group|first=B. R. E.|title=BREEAM|url=https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/BREEAM|access-date=2021-05-11|website=www.designingbuildings.co.uk|language=en-gb}}</ref>

In 2015, the Building Research Establishment announced the acquisition of [[CEEQUAL]] following a recommendation from their board, with the aim of creating a single sustainability rating scheme for [[civil engineering]] and [[infrastructure]] projects.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Group|first=B. R. E.|title=BREEAM|url=https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/BREEAM|access-date=2021-05-11|website=www.designingbuildings.co.uk|language=en-gb}}</ref>

The 2018 update of BREEAM UK New Construction was launched in March 2018 at [[Ecobuild]].

The BREEAM UK New Construction V6 was released on 24 August 2022 following the updates to [[Building regulations in the United Kingdom|building regulations in England]] that came into force on 15 June 2022 and V6.1 (to incorporate changes to the building regulations for energy performance in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) on 14 June 2023.

==Scope==
BREEAM has expanded from its original focus on individual new buildings at the construction stage to encompass the whole life cycle of buildings from planning to in-use and refurbishment. Its regular revisions and updates are driven by the ongoing need to improve sustainability, respond to feedback from industry and support the UK's sustainability strategies and commitments.

Highly flexible, the BREEAM standard can be applied to virtually any building and location, with versions for new buildings, existing buildings, refurbishment projects and large developments:

'''BREEAM New Construction''' is the BREEAM standard against which the sustainability of new, non-residential buildings in the UK is assessed. Developers and their project teams use the scheme at key stages in the design and procurement process to measure, evaluate, improve and reflect the performance of their buildings.

'''BREEAM International New Construction''' is the BREEAM standard for assessing the sustainability of new residential and non-residential buildings in countries around the world, except for the UK and other countries with a national BREEAM scheme (see below). This scheme makes use of assessment criteria that take account of the circumstances, priorities, codes and standards of the country or region in which the development is located.

'''BREEAM In-Use''' is a scheme to help building managers reduce the running costs and improve the environmental performance of existing buildings. It has two parts: building asset and building management. Both parts are relevant to all non-domestic, commercial, industrial, retail and institutional buildings.<ref>BREEAM, [https://www.breeam.com/discover/technical-standards/breeam-in-use/ BREEAM In-Use], accessed 7 October 2019</ref> BREEAM In-Use is widely used by members of the [[International Sustainability Alliance (ISA)|International Sustainability Alliance]] (ISA), which provides a platform for certification against the scheme. The newest version v6, available from 2020 includes also Residential programs.

'''BREEAM Refurbishment''' provides a design and assessment method for sustainable housing refurbishment projects, helping to cost-effectively improve the sustainability and environmental performance of existing dwellings in a robust way. A scheme for non-housing refurbishment projects is being developed and is targeted for launch in early 2014. The launch date will be announced once the piloting and independent peer review processes has been completed.

'''BREEAM Communities''' focuses on the [[Urban planning|masterplanning]] of whole communities.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Ayyoob|author2=Akito Murayama|title=Neighborhood Sustainability Assessment in Action: Cross-Evaluation of Three Assessment Systems and Their Cases from the US, the UK, and Japan|journal=Building and Environment|volume=72|pages=243–258|doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.11.006|year=2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Ayyoob|author2=Murayama, Akito|title=Viability of using global standards for neighbourhood sustainability assessment: insights from a comparative case study|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|volume=58|date=28 January 2014|pages=1–23|doi=10.1080/09640568.2013.866077|s2cid=110606915}}</ref> It is aimed at helping construction industry professionals to design places that people want to live and work in, are good for the environment and are economically successful.

BREEAM includes several general sustainability categories for the assessment:
* Management
* Energy
* Health and wellbeing
* Transport
* Water
* Materials
* Waste
* Land use and ecology
* Pollution

Home Quality Mark was launched in 2015 as part of the BREEAM family of schemes. It rates new homes on their overall quality and sustainability, then provides further indicators on the homes impact upon the occupants 'Running costs', 'Health and wellbeing' and 'Environmental footprint'.

==National operators==
BREEAM is used in more than 70 countries, with several in Europe having gone a stage further to develop country-specific BREEAM schemes operated by National Scheme Operators (NSOs). There are currently NSOs affiliated to BREEAM in:

* '''[[Netherlands]]''': the Dutch Green Building Council operates BREEAM NL
* '''[[Spain]]''': the Instituto Tecnológico de Galicia operates BREEAM ES<ref>http://www.breeam.es www.breeam.es</ref>
* '''[[Norway]]''': the Norwegian Green Building Council operates BREEAM NOR
* '''[[Sweden]]''': the Swedish Green Building Council operates BREEAM SE
* '''[[Germany]]''': the German Institute for Sustainable Real Estate (DIFNI) operates BREEAM DE.

Schemes developed by NSOs can take any format as long as they comply with a set of overarching requirements laid down in the Code for a Sustainable Built Environment. They can be produced from scratch by adapting current BREEAM schemes to the local context, or by developing existing local schemes.

==The cost and value of sustainability==
A growing body of research evidence is challenging the perception that sustainable buildings are significantly more costly to design and build than those that simply adhere to regulatory requirements. Research by the [[Sweett Group]]<ref>Sweett Group, BRE. Putting a price on sustainability – an update. IHS BRE Press, 2013.</ref> into projects using BREEAM, for example, demonstrates that sustainable options often add little or no capital cost to a development project. Where such measures do incur additional costs, these can frequently be paid back through lower running expenses, ultimately leading to saving over the life of the building.

Research studies have also highlighted the enhanced value and quality of sustainable buildings. Achieving the standards required by BREEAM requires careful planning, design, specification and detailing, and a good working relationship between the client and project team—the very qualities that can produce better buildings and better conditions for building users.<ref>Yates A. Sustainable Buildings : benefits for occupiers/designers/investors and developers/constructors. BRE IP 13/03 Parts 1-4. BRE Bookshop, 2003.</ref> A survey commissioned by [[Schneider Electric]] and undertaken by [[BSRIA]]<ref>BSRIA in association with Schneider Electric. The Value of BREEAM. 2012.</ref> examined the experiences of a wide range of companies that had used BREEAM. The findings included, for example, that 88% think it is a good thing, 96% would use the scheme again and 88% would recommend BREEAM to others.

The greater efficiency and quality associated with sustainability are also helping to make such building more commercially successful. There is growing evidence, for example, that BREEAM-rated buildings provide increased rates of return for investors, and increased rental rates and sales premiums for developers and owners. A [[Maastricht University]] document, published by [[RICS]] Research,<ref>Chegut A, Eicholtz P, Kok N. Supply, Demand and the Value of Green Buildings. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, March 2012.</ref> reported on a study of the effect of BREEAM certification on office buildings in London from 2000–2009. It found, for example, that these buildings achieved a 21% premium on transaction prices and an 18% premium on rents.

==See also==
*[[LEED]] (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
*[[Sustainable refurbishment]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.breeam.com/ BREEAM website]
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128191417/http://www.breeam.org/|date=November 28, 2011|title=BREEAM website}}
* [https://www.bregroup.com/ Website of the Building Research Establishment]

{{Construction industry in the United Kingdom}}

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[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable building in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Sustainable building rating systems]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Category:Sustainable Development Goals,"[[Category:Global policy organizations]]
[[Category:International sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:United Nations development policy]]
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Sustainable architecture,"{{Short description|Architecture designed to minimize environmental impact}}{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
[[File:Freiburg 071ss.jpg|thumb|[[Energy-plus-house]]s at [[Vauban, Freiburg|Freiburg-Vauban]] in Germany]]

'''Sustainable architecture''' is [[architecture]] that seeks to minimize the negative [[environmental impact of buildings]] through improved efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, development space and the ecosystem at large. Sustainable architecture uses a conscious approach to energy and ecological conservation in the design of the built environment.<ref>""Sustainable Architecture and Simulation Modelling"", Dublin Institute of Technology, [http://www.cebe.heacademy.ac.uk/learning/habitat/HABITAT4/beattie.html#_Toc397853444] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506035740/http://www.cebe.heacademy.ac.uk/learning/habitat/HABITAT4/beattie.html|date=2013-05-06}}</ref>

The idea of [[sustainability]], or [[ecological design]], is to ensure that use of currently available resources does not end up having detrimental effects to a future society's well-being or making it impossible to obtain resources for other applications in the long run.<ref>Doerr Architecture, Definition of Sustainability and the Impacts of Buildings [http://www.doerr.org/services/sustainability.html]</ref>

==Background ==
{{Sustainable energy}}

===Shift from narrow to broader approach ===

The term ""sustainability"" in relation to architecture has so far been mostly considered through the lens of building technology and its transformations. Going beyond the technical sphere of ""[[green design]]"", invention and expertise, some scholars are starting to position architecture within a much broader cultural framework of the [[Nature#Human interrelationship|human interrelationship with nature]]. Adopting this framework allows tracing a rich history of cultural debates about humanity's relationship to nature and the environment, from the point of view of different historical and geographical contexts.<ref>{{cite book|last=McGrath|first=Brian|title=Urban Design Ecologies: AD Reader|date=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|isbn=978-0-470-97405-6|pages=220–237|url=http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470974052.html}}</ref>

===Operational carbon vs Embodied carbon===

Global construction accounts for 38% of total global emissions. <ref>https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/construction-industry-doesn-t-know-where-it-stands-when-it-comes-to-carbon-emissions/</ref> While sustainable architecture and construction standards have traditionally focused on reducing operational carbon emissions, there are to date few standards or systems in place to track and reduce embodied carbon. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/operations/our-insights/global-infrastructure-initiative/voices/reducing-embodied-carbon-in-new-construction | title=Reducing embodied carbon in new construction &#124; McKinsey }}</ref> While steel and other materials are responsible for large-scale emissions, cement alone is responsible for 8% of all emissions. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dezeen.com/2019/09/20/concrete-climate-change-architecture-emergency/ | title=Concrete must be abandoned by architects in fight against climate change | date=20 September 2019 }}</ref>

===Changing pedagogues===

Critics of the reductionism of modernism often noted the abandonment of the teaching of architectural history as a causal factor. The fact that a number of the major players in the deviation from modernism were trained at Princeton University's School of Architecture, where recourse to history continued to be a part of design training in the 1940s and 1950s, was significant. The increasing rise of interest in history had a profound impact on architectural education. History courses became more typical and regularized. With the demand for professors knowledgeable in the history of architecture, several PhD programs in schools of architecture arose in order to differentiate themselves from art history PhD programs, where architectural historians had previously trained. In the US, [[MIT]] and [[Cornell]] were the first, created in the mid-1970s, followed by [[Columbia University|Columbia]], [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]], and [[Princeton University|Princeton]]. Among the founders of new architectural history programs were [[Bruno Zevi]] at the Institute for the History of Architecture in Venice, Stanford Anderson and Henry Millon at MIT, Alexander Tzonis at the [[Architectural Association]], Anthony Vidler at Princeton, [[Manfredo Tafuri]] at the University of Venice, [[Kenneth Frampton]] at [[Columbia University]], and Werner Oechslin and Kurt Forster at [[ETH Zürich]].<ref>[[Mark Jarzombek]], “The Disciplinary Dislocations of Architectural History,” ''Journal of the [[Society of Architectural Historians]]'' 58/3 (September 1999), p. 489. See also other articles in that issue by Eve Blau, Stanford Anderson, Alina Payne, Daniel Bluestone, Jeon-Louis Cohen and others.</ref>

==Sustainable energy use==
{{Main|Low-energy house|Zero-energy building}}
[[File:K2 apartments windsor.jpg|thumb|K2 sustainable apartments in [[Windsor, Victoria]], Australia by DesignInc (2006) features [[passive solar building design|passive solar design]], recycled and sustainable materials, [[photovoltaic cells]], [[wastewater]] treatment, [[Rainwater harvesting|rainwater collection]] and [[solar hot water]].]]
[[File:Passivhaus section en.jpg|thumb|The [[passivhaus]] standard combines a variety of techniques and technologies to achieve ultra-low energy use.]]
[[File:Arts Center Greensburg, Kansas, Photo by Eric Ascalon.jpg|thumb|Following its destruction by a tornado in 2007, the town of [[Greensburg, Kansas]] (United States) elected to rebuild to highly stringent LEED Platinum environmental standards.  Shown is the town's new art center, which integrates its own solar panels and wind generators for energy self-sufficiency.]]

[[Efficient energy use|Energy efficiency]] over the entire life cycle of a building is the most important goal of sustainable architecture. [[Architect]]s use many different passive and active techniques to reduce the energy needs of buildings and increase their ability to capture or generate their own energy.<ref name =""DeKayBrown"">M. DeKay & G.Z. Brown, Sun Wind & Light, architectural design strategies, 3rd ed. ''Wiley'', 2014</ref> To minimize cost and complexity, sustainable architecture prioritizes passive systems to take advantage of building location with incorporated architectural elements, supplementing with renewable energy sources and then fossil fuel resources only as needed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bielek|first=Boris|date=2016|title=Green Building – Towards Sustainable Architecture|url=https://www.scientific.net/AMM.824.751|access-date=2020-07-05|journal=Applied Mechanics and Materials|volume=824|pages=751–760|doi=10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.824.751|s2cid=112027139|language=en}}</ref> [[Site analysis]] can be employed to optimize use of local environmental resources such as daylight and ambient wind for heating and ventilation.

Energy use very often depends on whether the building gets its energy on-grid, or off-grid.<ref>{{cite journal| url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.12.022| doi=10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.12.022| title=Zero Energy Building – A review of definitions and calculation methodologies| year=2011| last1=Marszal| first1=A.J.| last2=Heiselberg| first2=P.| last3=Bourrelle| first3=J.S.| last4=Musall| first4=E.| last5=Voss| first5=K.| last6=Sartori| first6=I.| last7=Napolitano| first7=A.| journal=Energy and Buildings| volume=43| issue=4| pages=971–979}}</ref> Off-grid buildings do not use energy provided by utility services and instead have their own independent energy production. They use on-site electricity storage while on-grid sites feed in excessive electricity back to the grid.

===Heating, ventilation and cooling system efficiency===
Numerous passive architectural strategies have been developed over time. Examples of such strategies include the arrangement of rooms or the sizing and orientation of windows in a building,<ref name =""DeKayBrown"" /> and the orientation of facades and streets or the ratio between building heights and street widths for urban planning.<ref name =""Montavon"">M. Montavon, Optimization of Urban Form by the Evaluation of the Solar Potential, ''EPFL'', 2010</ref>

An important and [[Cost-effectiveness|cost-effective]] element of an efficient [[heating, ventilation, and air conditioning]] (HVAC) system is a [[Building insulation|well-insulated building]]. A more efficient building requires less heat generating or dissipating power, but may require more ventilation capacity to expel [[indoor air quality|polluted indoor air]].

Significant amounts of energy are flushed out of buildings in the water, air and [[compost]] streams. [[Commercial off-the-shelf|Off the shelf]], on-site energy recycling technologies can effectively recapture [[Waste-to-energy|energy from waste]] hot water and stale air and transfer that energy into incoming fresh cold water or fresh air. Recapture of energy for uses other than gardening from compost leaving buildings requires centralized [[anaerobic digestion|anaerobic digesters]].

HVAC systems are powered by motors. [[Copper]], versus other metal conductors, helps to improve the electrical energy efficiencies of motors, thereby enhancing the sustainability of electrical building components.

Site and building orientation have some major effects on a building's HVAC efficiency.

[[Passive solar building design]] allows buildings to harness the energy of the sun efficiently without the use of any [[active solar]] mechanisms such as [[photovoltaic cell]]s or [[solar hot water|solar hot water panels]]. Typically passive solar building designs incorporate materials with high [[thermal mass]] that retain heat effectively and strong [[Thermal insulation|insulation]] that works to prevent heat escape. Low energy designs also requires the use of solar shading, by means of awnings, blinds or shutters, to relieve the solar heat gain in summer and to reduce the need for artificial cooling.  In addition, [[low energy building]]s typically have a very low surface area to volume ratio to minimize heat loss. This means that sprawling multi-winged building designs (often thought to look more ""organic"") are often avoided in favor of more centralized structures. Traditional cold climate buildings such as [[United States|American]] [[American colonial architecture|colonial]] [[saltbox]] designs provide a good historical model for centralized heat efficiency in a small-scale building.

Windows are placed to maximize the input of heat-creating light while minimizing the loss of heat through glass, a poor insulator. In the [[Northern Hemisphere|northern hemisphere]] this usually involves installing a large number of south-facing windows to collect direct sun and severely restricting the number of north-facing windows. Certain window types, such as double or triple glazed [[insulated glazing|insulated windows]] with gas filled spaces and [[Low-emissivity|low emissivity (low-E)]] coatings, provide much better insulation than single-pane glass windows. Preventing excess solar gain by means of solar shading devices in the summer months is important to reduce cooling needs.  [[Deciduous trees]] are often planted in front of windows to block excessive sun in summer with their leaves but allow light through in winter when their leaves fall off.  Louvers or light shelves are installed to allow the sunlight in during the winter (when the sun is lower in the sky) and keep it out in the summer (when the sun is high in the sky). They are slatted like shutters and reflect light and radiation to reduce glare on the interior space. Advanced louver systems are automated to maximize daylight and monitor the interior temperature by adjusting their tilt.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Yuxiang Chen |display-authors=et. al. |title=Effects of Fixed and Motorized Window Louvers on the Daylighting and Thermal Performance of Open-Plan Office Buildings |journal=International High Performance Buildings Conference |url=https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ihpbc/125/ |publisher=Purdue University |access-date=22 May 2023 |year=2014|format=Conference Paper}}</ref> [[Coniferous]] or [[Evergreen|evergreen plants]] are often planted to the north of buildings to shield against cold north winds.

In colder climates, heating systems are a primary focus for sustainable architecture because they are typically one of the largest single energy drains in buildings.

In warmer climates where cooling is a primary concern, passive solar designs can also be very effective. Masonry [[building material]]s with [[high thermal mass]] are very valuable for retaining the cool temperatures of night throughout the day. In addition builders often opt for sprawling single story structures in order to maximize surface area and heat loss.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} Buildings are often designed to capture and channel existing winds, particularly the especially cool winds coming from nearby [[Body of water|bodies of water]]. Many of these valuable strategies are employed in some way by the [[Vernacular architecture|traditional architecture]] of warm regions, such as south-western mission buildings.

In climates with four seasons, an integrated energy system will increase in efficiency: when the building is well insulated, when it is sited to work with the forces of nature, when heat is recaptured (to be used immediately or stored), when the heat plant relying on [[fossil fuel]]s or electricity is greater than 100% efficient, and when [[renewable energy]] is used.

===Renewable energy generation===
[[File:BedZED roofs 2007.jpg|thumb|right|[[BedZED]] (Beddington Zero Energy Development), the UK's largest and first carbon-neutral eco-community: the distinctive roofscape with solar panels and passive ventilation chimneys]]

====Solar panels====
{{Main|Solar PV}}
[[Active solar]] devices such as [[photovoltaic]] [[Photovoltaic module|solar panel]]s help to provide sustainable electricity for any use. Electrical output of a solar panel is dependent on orientation, efficiency, latitude, and climate—solar gain varies even at the same latitude. Typical efficiencies for commercially available PV panels range from 4% to 28%. The low efficiency of certain photovoltaic panels can significantly affect the payback period of their installation.<ref>{{cite web|author=shamilton |url=http://www.solarbuzz.com/Moduleprices.htm |title=Module Pricing |publisher=Solarbuzz |access-date=2012-11-07}}</ref> This low efficiency does not mean that solar panels are not a viable energy alternative. In Germany for example, Solar Panels are commonly installed in residential home construction.

Roofs are often angled toward the sun to allow photovoltaic panels to collect at maximum efficiency. In the northern hemisphere, a true-south facing orientation maximizes yield for solar panels. If true-south is not possible, solar panels can produce adequate energy if aligned within 30° of south. However, at higher latitudes, winter energy yield will be significantly reduced for non-south orientation.

To maximize efficiency in winter, the collector can be angled above horizontal Latitude +15°. To maximize efficiency in summer, the angle should be Latitude -15°. However, for an annual maximum production, the angle of the panel above horizontal should be equal to its latitude.<ref>G.Z. Brown, Mark DeKay. Sun, Wind & Light. 2001</ref>

====Wind turbines====
{{Main|Wind power}}
The use of undersized wind turbines in energy production in sustainable structures requires the consideration of many factors. In considering costs, small wind systems are generally more expensive than larger wind turbines relative to the amount of energy they produce. For [[small wind turbine]]s, maintenance costs can be a deciding factor at sites with marginal wind-harnessing capabilities. At low-wind sites, maintenance can consume much of a small wind turbine's revenue.<ref name=""ReferenceA"">Brower, Michael; ''Cool Energy, The Renewable Solution to Global Warming''; Union of Concerned Scientists, 1990</ref> Wind turbines begin operating when winds reach 8&nbsp;mph, achieve energy production capacity at speeds of 32-37&nbsp;mph, and shut off to avoid damage at speeds exceeding 55&nbsp;mph.<ref name=""ReferenceA""/> The energy potential of a wind turbine is proportional to the square of the length of its blades and to the cube of the speed at which its blades spin. Though wind turbines are available that can supplement power for a single building, because of these factors, the efficiency of the wind turbine depends much upon the wind conditions at the building site. For these reasons, for wind turbines to be at all efficient, they must be installed at locations that are known to receive a constant amount of wind (with average wind speeds of more than 15&nbsp;mph), rather than locations that receive wind sporadically.<ref>Gipe, Paul; ''Wind Power: Renewable Energy for Farm and Business''; Chelsea Green Publishing, 2004</ref> A small wind turbine can be installed on a roof. Installation issues then include the strength of the roof, vibration, and the turbulence caused by the roof ledge. Small-scale rooftop wind turbines have been known to be able to generate power from 10% to up to 25% of the electricity required of a regular domestic household dwelling.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article706123.ece The Sunday Times, ""Home wind turbines dealt killer blow""], April 16, 2006</ref> Turbines for residential scale use are usually between 7 feet (2&nbsp;m) to 25 feet (8&nbsp;m) in diameter and produce electricity at a rate of 900 watts to 10,000 watts at their tested wind speed.<ref>[http://www.rapidcityjournal.com ""Wind turbine, a powerful investment"", Rapid City Journal], February 20, 2008</ref>

The reliability of wind turbine systems is important to the success of a wind energy project. Unanticipated breakdowns can have a significant impact on a project's profitability due to the logistical and practical difficulties of replacing critical components in a wind turbine. Uncertainty with the long-term component reliability has a direct impact on the amount of confidence associated with cost of energy (COE) estimates. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walford |first=Christopher A. |date=2006-03-01 |title=Wind turbine reliability :understanding and minimizing wind turbine operation and maintenance costs. |language=English |doi=10.2172/882048|osti=882048 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Solar water heating====
{{Main|Solar thermal power}}
[[Solar water heater]]s, also called solar domestic hot water systems, can be a cost-effective way to generate hot water for a home. They can be used in any climate, and the fuel they use—sunshine—is free.<ref>U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Solar Water Heaters, March 24, 2009 [http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/water_heating/index.cfm/mytopic=12850]</ref>

There are two types of solar water systems: active and passive. An active solar collector system can produce about 80 to 100 gallons of hot water per day. A passive system will have a lower capacity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.toolbase.org/Technology-Inventory/Plumbing/solar-water-heaters |title=Solar Water Heaters |publisher=Toolbase.org |access-date=2012-11-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415230351/http://www.toolbase.org/Technology-Inventory/Plumbing/solar-water-heaters |archive-date=2013-04-15 }}</ref> Active solar water system's efficiency is 35-80% while a passive system is 30-50%, making active solar systems more powerful.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Faisal Ahmed |first1=Sumair |last2=Khalid |first2=Mohammad |last3=Vaka |first3=Mahesh |last4=Walvekar |first4=Rashmi |last5=Numan |first5=Arshid |last6=Khaliq Rasheed |first6=Abdul |last7=Mujawar Mubarak |first7=Nabisab |date=2021-10-01 |title=Recent progress in solar water heaters and solar collectors: A comprehensive review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2451904921001438 |journal=Thermal Science and Engineering Progress |language=en |volume=25 |pages=100981 |doi=10.1016/j.tsep.2021.100981 |issn=2451-9049}}</ref>

There are also two types of circulation, direct circulation systems and indirect circulation systems. Direct circulation systems loop the domestic water through the panels. They should not be used in climates with temperatures below freezing. Indirect circulation loops glycol or some other fluid through the solar panels and uses a heat exchanger to heat up the domestic water.

The two most common types of collector panels are flat-plate and evacuated-tube. The two work similarly except that evacuated tubes do not convectively lose heat, which greatly improves their efficiency (5%–25% more efficient). With these higher efficiencies, Evacuated-tube solar collectors can also produce higher-temperature space heating, and even higher temperatures for absorption cooling systems.<ref name=""Gilbert M. Masters 2008"">John Randolph and Gilbert M. Masters, 2008. ""Energy for Sustainability: Technology, Planning, Policy,"" Island Press, Washington, DC.</ref>

Electric-resistance water heaters that are common in homes today have an electrical demand around 4500&nbsp;kW·h/year. With the use of solar collectors, the energy use is cut in half. The up-front cost of installing solar collectors is high, but with the annual energy savings, payback periods are relatively short.<ref name=""Gilbert M. Masters 2008""/>

====Heat pumps====
[[Air source heat pump]]s (ASHP) can be thought of as reversible air conditioners. Like an air conditioner, an ASHP can take heat from a relatively cool space (e.g. a house at 70&nbsp;°F) and dump it into a hot place (e.g. outside at 85&nbsp;°F). However, unlike an air conditioner, the condenser and evaporator of an ASHP can switch roles and absorb heat from the cool outside air and dump it into a warm house.

Air-source heat pumps are inexpensive relative to other heat pump systems. As the efficiency of air-source heat pumps decline when the outdoor temperature is very cold or very hot; therefore, they are most efficiently used in temperate climates.<ref name=""Gilbert M. Masters 2008""/> However, contrary to earlier expectations, they have proven to be also well suited for regions with cold outdoor temperatures, such as Scandinavia or Alaska.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Even in Frigid Temperatures, Air-Source Heat Pumps Keep Homes Warm From Alaska Coast to U.S. Mass Market|url=https://www.nrel.gov/news/features/2021/even-in-frigid-temperatures-air-source-heat-pumps-keep-homes-warm-from-alaska-coast-to-us-mass-market.html|access-date=2021-11-16|website=www.nrel.gov|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|date=2020-09-16|title=Heat pumps are on the rise in Europe|url=https://www.energymonitor.ai/sectors/heating-cooling/heat-pumps-are-on-the-rise-in-europe|access-date=2021-11-16|website=Energy Monitor|language=en-US}}</ref> In Norway, Finland and Sweden, the use of heat pumps has grown strongly over the last two decades: in 2019, there were 15–25 heat pumps per 100 inhabitants in these countries, with ASHP the dominant heat pump technology.<ref name="":0"" /> Similarly, earlier assumptions that ASHP would only work well in fully insulated buildings have proven wrong—even old, partially insulated buildings can be retrofitted with ASHPs and thereby strongly reduce their energy demand.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Miara|first=Marek|date=10 February 2021|title=Heat pumps in existing buildings, a blog post series in 12 parts|url=https://blog.innovation4e.de/en/2021/02/10/heat-pumps-in-existing-buildings-a-blog-post-series-in-12-parts/|access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref>

Effects of EAHPs ([[exhaust air heat pump]]s) have also been studied within the aforementioned regions displaying promising results. An exhaust air heat pump uses electricity to extract heat from exhaust air leaving a building, redirecting it towards DHW ([[domestic hot water]]), [[space heating]], and warming supply air. In colder countries, an EAHP may be able to recover around 2 - 3 times more energy than an air-to-air exchange system.<ref>{{Citation |last=Nord |first=Natasa |title=Building Energy Efficiency in Cold Climates |date=2017 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780124095489101903 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies |pages=149–157 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.10190-3 |isbn=978-0-12-804792-7 |access-date=2022-04-03}}</ref> A 2022 study surrounding projected emission decreases within Sweden’s [[Kymenlaakso]] region explored the aspect of retrofitting existing apartment buildings (of varying ages) with EAHP systems. Select buildings were chosen in the cities of Kotka and Kouvola, their projected carbon emissions decreasing by about 590 tCO2 and 944 tCO2 respectively with a 7 - 13 year payoff period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Korpela |first1=Tuija |last2=Kuosa |first2=Maunu |last3=Sarvelainen |first3=Hannu |last4=Tuliniemi |first4=Erja |last5=Kiviranta |first5=Paulus |last6=Tallinen |first6=Kirsi |last7=Koponen |first7=Hanna-Kaisa |date=February 2022 |title=Waste heat recovery potential in residential apartment buildings in Finland's Kymenlaakso region by using mechanical exhaust air ventilation and heat pumps |journal=International Journal of Thermofluids |language=en |volume=13 |pages=100127 |doi=10.1016/j.ijft.2021.100127|s2cid=244739642 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is, however, important to note that EAHP systems may not produce favourable results if installed in a building exhibiting incompatible exhaust output rates or electricity consumption. In this case, EAHP systems may increase energy bills without providing reasonable cuts to carbon emissions (see [[Exhaust air heat pump|EAHP]]).

Ground-source (or geothermal) heat pumps provide an efficient alternative. The difference between the two heat pumps is that the ground-source has one of its heat exchangers placed underground—usually in a horizontal or vertical arrangement. Ground-source takes advantage of the relatively constant, mild temperatures underground, which means their efficiencies can be much greater than that of an air-source heat pump. The in-ground heat exchanger generally needs a considerable amount of area. Designers have placed them in an open area next to the building or underneath a parking lot.

Energy Star ground-source heat pumps can be 40% to 60% more efficient than their air-source counterparts. They are also quieter and can also be applied to other functions like domestic hot water heating.<ref name=""Gilbert M. Masters 2008""/>

In terms of initial cost, the ground-source heat pump system costs about twice as much as a standard air-source heat pump to be installed. However, the up-front costs can be more than offset by the decrease in energy costs. The reduction in energy costs is especially apparent in areas with typically hot summers and cold winters.<ref name=""Gilbert M. Masters 2008""/>

Other types of heat pumps are water-source and air-earth. If the building is located near a body of water, the pond or lake could be used as a heat source or sink. Air-earth heat pumps circulate the building's air through underground ducts. With higher fan power requirements and inefficient heat transfer, Air-earth heat pumps are generally not practical for major construction.

==== Passive daytime radiative cooling ====
[[Passive daytime radiative cooling]] harvests the extreme coldness of [[outer space]] as a renewable energy source to achieve daytime cooling.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Xinxian |last2=Yao |first2=Fengju |last3=Huang |first3=Wenjie |last4=Xu |first4=Dongyan |last5=Chen |first5=Chun |date=July 2022 |title=Renewable Energy |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148122007418 |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=194 |quote=Radiative cooling is a renewable technology that is promising to meet this goal. It is a passive cooling strategy that dissipates heat through the atmosphere to the universe. Radiative cooling does not consume external energy but rather harvests coldness from outer space as a new renewable energy source. |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> Being high in solar reflectance to reduce solar heat gain and strong in [[Long-wave infrared|longwave infrared]] (LWIR) [[thermal radiation]] [[heat transfer]], daytime radiative cooling surfaces can achieve sub-ambient cooling for indoor and outdoor spaces when applied to roofs, which can significantly lower energy demand and costs devoted to cooling.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Tong |last2=Wu |first2=Yi |last3=Shi |first3=Lan |last4=Hu |first4=Xinhua |last5=Chen |first5=Min |last6=Wu |first6=Limin |date=2021 |title=A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=365 |page=365 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7 |pmid=33446648 |pmc=7809060 |quote=Accordingly, designing and fabricating efficient PDRC with sufficiently high solar reflectance (𝜌¯solar) (λ ~ 0.3–2.5 μm) to minimize solar heat gain and simultaneously strong LWIR thermal emittance (ε¯LWIR) to maximize radiative heat loss is highly desirable. When the incoming radiative heat from the Sun is balanced by the outgoing radiative heat emission, the temperature of the Earth can reach its steady state. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vall |first1=Sergi |last2=Johannes |first2=Kévyn |last3=David |first3=Damien |last4=Castell |first4=Albert |date=July 2022 |title=A new flat-plate radiative cooling and solar collector numerical model: Evaluation and metamodeling |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544220308574 |journal=Energy |volume=202 |quote=Radiative cooling is a renewable technology that can complement or partially replace current cooling technologies. |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> These cooling surfaces can be applied as sky-facing panels, similar to other renewable energy sources like [[solar energy]] panels, making them for simple integration into architectural design.<ref name="":34"">{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Salman |last2=Li |first2=Zhenpeng |last3=Javed |first3=Muhammad Shahzad |last4=Ma |first4=Tao |date=September 2021 |title=A review on the integration of radiative cooling and solar energy harvesting |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2468606921001416 |journal=Materials Today: Energy |volume=21 |page=100776 |doi=10.1016/j.mtener.2021.100776 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>

A passive daytime radiative cooling roof application can double the energy savings of a white roof,<ref name="":352"">{{Cite journal |last1=Heo |first1=Se-Yeon |last2=Ju Lee |first2=Gil |last3=Song |first3=Young Min |date=June 2022 |title=Heat-shedding with photonic structures: radiative cooling and its potential |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2022/tc/d2tc00318j |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry C |volume=10 |issue=27 |pages=9915–9937 |doi=10.1039/D2TC00318J |via=Royal Society of Chemistry |s2cid=249695930}}</ref> and when applied as a multilayer surface to 10% of a building's roof, it can replace 35% of air conditioning used during the hottest hours of daytime.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last1=Bijarniya |first1=Jay Prakash |last2=Sarkar |first2=Jahar |last3=Maiti |first3=Pralay |date=November 2020 |title=Review on passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, recent researches, challenges and opportunities |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032120305529 |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |volume=133 |page=110263 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2020.110263 |via=Elsevier Science Direct |s2cid=224874019}}</ref> Daytime radiative cooling applications for indoor space cooling is growing with an estimated ""market size of ~$27 billion in 2025.""<ref name="":8"">{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yuan |last2=Zhang |first2=Yifan |date=2020 |title=Passive daytime radiative cooling: Principle, application, and economic analysis |url=https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10282838 |url-status=live |journal=MRS Energy & Sustainability |volume=7 |issue=18 |doi=10.1557/mre.2020.18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927212513/https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10282838 |archive-date=2022-09-27 |access-date=2022-09-27 |s2cid=220008145|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Sustainable building materials==
{{See also|Green building|Natural building}}
Some examples of sustainable building materials include recycled [[denim]] or blown-in fiber glass insulation, sustainably harvested wood, [[Trass]], [[Linoleum]],<ref>Duurzaam en Gezond Bouwen en Wonen by Hugo Vanderstadt,</ref> sheep wool, [[hempcrete]], [[roman concrete]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Self Healing Materials|volume = 100|first=Henk M.|last=Jonkers|date=23 March 2018|publisher=Springer, Dordrecht|pages=195–204|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6250-6_9|chapter = Self Healing Concrete: A Biological Approach|series = Springer Series in Materials Science|isbn = 978-1-4020-6249-0| s2cid=133848154 }}</ref> panels made from paper flakes, baked earth, rammed earth, clay, vermiculite, flax linen, sisal, seagrass, expanded clay grains, coconut, wood fiber plates, calcium sandstone, locally obtained stone and rock, and [[bamboo]], which is one of the strongest and fastest growing [[woody plant]]s, and non-toxic low-[[Volatile Organic Compound|VOC]] glues and paints. Bamboo flooring can be useful in ecological spaces since they help reduce pollution particles in the air.<ref name=""auto"">{{cite journal| url=https://doi.org/10.3167/nc.2018.130201| doi=10.3167/nc.2018.130201| title=New Horizons for Sustainable Architecture| year=2018| last1=Muller| first1=Brook| journal=Nature and Culture| volume=13| issue=2| pages=189–207| s2cid=149793746}}</ref> Vegetative cover or shield over building envelopes also helps in the same. Paper which is fabricated or manufactured out of forest wood is supposedly hundred percent recyclable, thus it regenerates and saves almost all the forest wood that it takes during its manufacturing process. There is an underutilized potential for systematically [[Carbon sequestration|storing carbon]] in the built environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kuittinen|first1=Matti|last2=Zernicke|first2=Caya|last3=Slabik|first3=Simon|last4=Hafner|first4=Annette|date=2021-03-11|title=How can carbon be stored in the built environment? A review of potential options|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2021.1896471|journal=Architectural Science Review|volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=91–107|doi=10.1080/00038628.2021.1896471|s2cid=233617364|issn=0003-8628}}</ref>

===Natural products===
Laminated timber products, straw, and stone are low carbon construction materials with major potential for scalability. [[engineered wood | Timber]] products can sequester carbon, while [[massive precut stone | stone]] has a low extraction energy. Straw, including [[straw-bale construction]], sequesters carbon while providing a high level of insulation. The uses of timber, straw, and stone in sustainable architecture were the subject of a major exhibit at the UK's Design Museum. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://designmuseum.org/exhibitions/how-to-build-a-low-carbon-home | title=How to Build a Low-Carbon Home }}</ref>

===Recycled materials===
[[File:Discarded dreams 2 of 3.jpg|thumb| Discarded Dreams Competition entry from 2008 by [[Ralph Spencer Steenblik]] and Aaron Legendre highlighting recycling items for building]]
Sustainable architecture often incorporates the use of recycled or second hand materials, such as [[reclaimed lumber]] and [[Copper in architecture|recycled copper]]. The reduction in use of new materials creates a corresponding reduction in [[embodied energy]] (energy used in the production of materials). Often sustainable architects attempt to retrofit old structures to serve new needs in order to avoid unnecessary development.  Architectural salvage and reclaimed materials are used when appropriate. When older buildings are demolished, frequently any good wood is reclaimed, renewed, and sold as flooring. Any good [[dimension stone]] is similarly reclaimed.  Many other parts are reused as well, such as doors, windows, mantels, and hardware, thus reducing the consumption of new goods.  When new materials are employed, green designers look for materials that are rapidly replenished, such as [[bamboo]], which can be harvested for commercial use after only six years of growth, [[sorghum]] or wheat straw, both of which are waste material that can be pressed into panels, or [[cork oak]], in which only the outer bark is removed for use, thus preserving the tree.  When possible, building materials may be gleaned from the site itself; for example, if a new structure is being constructed in a wooded area, wood from the trees which were cut to make room for the building would be re-used as part of the building itself. For insulation in building envelopes, more experimental materials such as “waste sheep’s wool” alongside other waste fibers originating from textile and agri-industrial operations are being researched for use as well, with recent studies suggesting the recycled insulation effective for architectural purposes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Savio |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Pennacchio |first2=Roberto |last3=Patrucco |first3=Alessia |last4=Manni |first4=Valentino |last5=Bosia |first5=Daniela |title=Natural Fibre Insulation Materials: Use of Textile and Agri-food Waste in a Circular Economy Perspective |journal=Materials Circular Economy |date=8 January 2022 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=6 |doi=10.1007/s42824-021-00043-1 |s2cid=245803736 |language=en |issn=2524-8154|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Lower volatile organic compounds===
Low-impact building materials are used wherever feasible: for example, insulation may be made from low VOC ([[volatile organic compound]])-emitting materials such as [[Building insulation materials#Cotton batts (Blue Jean)|recycled denim]] or [[cellulose insulation]], rather than the [[building insulation materials]] that may contain carcinogenic or toxic materials such as formaldehyde. To discourage insect damage, these alternate insulation materials may be treated with [[boric acid]]. Organic or milk-based paints may be used.<ref>Information on low-emitting materials may be found at www.buildingecology.com/iaq_links.php [http://www.buildingecology.com/iaq_links.php IAQ links] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611163251/http://www.buildingecology.com/iaq_links.php |date=2008-06-11 }}</ref> However, a common fallacy is that ""green"" materials are always better for the health of occupants or the environment. Many harmful substances (including formaldehyde, arsenic, and asbestos) are naturally occurring and are not without their histories of use with the best of intentions. A study of emissions from materials by the State of California has shown that there are some green materials that have substantial emissions whereas some more ""traditional"" materials actually were lower emitters. Thus, the subject of emissions must be carefully investigated before concluding that natural materials are always the healthiest alternatives for occupants and for the Earth.<ref>Building Emissions Study accessed at [http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/GreenBuilding/Specs/Section01350/METStudy.htm California Integrated Waste Management web site]</ref>

[[Volatile organic compounds]] (VOC) can be found in any indoor environment coming from a variety of different sources. VOCs have a high vapor pressure and low water solubility, and are suspected of causing [[sick building syndrome]] type symptoms. This is because many VOCs have been known to cause sensory irritation and central nervous system symptoms characteristic to sick building syndrome, indoor concentrations of VOCs are higher than in the outdoor atmosphere, and when there are many VOCs present, they can cause additive and multiplicative effects.

Green products are usually considered to contain fewer VOCs and be better for human and environmental health.  A case study conducted by the Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering at the University of Miami that compared three green products and their non-green counterparts found that even though both the green products and the non-green counterparts both emitted levels of VOCs, the amount and intensity of the VOCs emitted from the green products were much safer and comfortable for human exposure.<ref>James, J.P., Yang, X. Indoor and Built Environment, Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Several Green and Non-Green Building Materials: A Comparison, January 2004.[http://ibe.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/14/1/69] Retrieved: 2008-04-30.</ref>

===Lab-grown organic materials===
Commonly used building materials such as wood require deforestation that is, without proper care, unsustainable. As of October 2022, researchers at MIT have made developments on lab-grown ''[[Zinnia elegans]]'' cells growing into specific characteristics under conditions within their control. These characteristics include the “shape, thickness, [and] stiffness,” as well as mechanical properties that can mimic wood.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beckwith |first1=Ashley L. |last2=Borenstein |first2=Jeffrey T. |last3=Velásquez-García |first3=Luis F. |title=Physical, mechanical, and microstructural characterization of novel, 3D-printed, tunable, lab-grown plant materials generated from Zinnia elegans cell cultures |journal=Materials Today |date=April 2022 |volume=54 |pages=27–41 |doi=10.1016/j.mattod.2022.02.012 |s2cid=247300299 |doi-access=free }}</ref> David N. Bengston from the USDA suggests that this alternative would be more efficient than traditional wood harvesting, with future developments potentially saving on transportation energy and conserve forests. However, Bengston notes that this breakthrough would change paradigms and raises new economic and environmental questions, such as timber-dependent communities′ jobs or how conservation would impact wildfires.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bengston |first1=David N. |title=Lab-grown wood: a potential game changer for forestry and forest products |journal=The Forestry Source |date=2021 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=10–17 |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/62554 |language=en}}</ref>

===Materials sustainability standards===
Despite the importance of materials to overall building sustainability, quantifying and evaluating the sustainability of building materials has proven difficult. There is little coherence in the measurement and assessment of materials sustainability attributes, resulting in a landscape today that is littered with hundreds of competing, inconsistent and often imprecise eco-labels, [[Technical standard|standards]] and [[certifications]].  This discord has led both to confusion among consumers and commercial purchasers and to the incorporation of inconsistent sustainability criteria in larger building certification programs such as [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]].  Various proposals have been made regarding rationalization of the standardization landscape for sustainable building materials.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Toward a Rational Framework for Sustainable Building Materials Standards|first1=Jorge L.|last1=Contreras|first2=Hannah|last2=Roth|first3=Meghan|last3=Lewis|date=1 September 2011|ssrn = 1944523}}</ref>

==Sustainable design and plan ==

===Building===

====Building information modelling====

[[Building information modeling in green building|Building information modelling]] (BIM) is used to help enable sustainable design by allowing architects and engineers to integrate and analyze building performance.[5]. BIM services, including conceptual and topographic modelling, offer a new channel to green building with successive and immediate availability of internally coherent, and trustworthy project information. BIM enables designers to quantify the environmental impacts of systems and materials to support the decisions needed to design sustainable buildings.

====Consulting====

A sustainable building consultant may be engaged early in the design process, to forecast the sustainability implications of [[building materials]], orientation, glazing and other physical factors, so as to identify a sustainable approach that meets the specific requirements of a project.

Norms and standards have been formalized by performance-based rating systems e.g. [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usgbc.org/?CategoryID=19|title=U.S. Green Building Council|website=[[U.S. Green Building Council]]}}</ref> and [[Energy Star]] for homes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.energystar.gov/|title=ENERGY STAR - The Simple Choice for Energy Efficiency|website=www.energystar.gov}}</ref> They define [[Benchmarking|benchmarks]] to be met and provide [[Performance metric|metrics]] and testing to meet those benchmarks. It is up to the parties involved in the project to determine the best approach to meet those standards.

As sustainable building consulting is often associated with cost premium, organisations such as [[Architects Assist]] aim for equity of access to sustainable and resident design.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-07|title=Australian architects offer free design services to bushfire victims|url=https://www.dezeen.com/2020/01/07/australian-architects-assist-bushfire-crisis-news/|access-date=2021-03-06|website=Dezeen|language=en}}</ref>

====Building placement  ====

One central and often ignored aspect of sustainable architecture is building placement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Rajiv |last2=Jay |first2=Kesan |title=Journal of Architectural and Planning Research |journal=How Architecture Regulates |date=Winter 2007 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=350–359 |jstor=43030813 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43030813 |access-date=20 April 2021}}</ref> Although the ideal environmental home or office structure is often envisioned as an isolated place, this kind of placement is usually detrimental to the environment. First, such structures often serve as the unknowing frontlines of [[Urban sprawl|suburban sprawl]]. Second, they usually increase the [[energy consumption]] required for transportation and lead to unnecessary auto emissions. Ideally, most building should avoid suburban sprawl in favor of the kind of light [[Urban planning|urban development]] articulated by the [[New Urbanist]] movement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herbert |first1=Michael |title=Built Environment |journal=New Urbanism - the Movement in Context |date=2003 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=193–209 |jstor=23287649 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23287649 |access-date=20 April 2021}}</ref> Careful mixed use zoning can make commercial, residential, and light industrial areas more accessible for those traveling by foot, bicycle, or public transit, as proposed in the [[Principles of Intelligent Urbanism]]. The study of [[permaculture]], in its holistic application, can also greatly help in proper building placement that minimizes energy consumption and works with the surroundings rather than against them, especially in rural and forested zones.

====Water Usage====

Sustainable buildings look for ways to [[Water conservation|conserve water]]. One strategic water saving design [[green building]]s incorporate are [[green roof]]s. Green roofs have rooftop vegetation which captures storm drainage water. This function not only collects the water for further uses but also serves as a good insulator that can aid in the [[urban heat island]] effect.<ref name=""auto""/> Another strategic water efficient design is treating wastewater so it can be reused again.<ref>{{cite journal| url=https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.2010.tb10038.x| doi=10.1002/j.1551-8833.2010.tb10038.x| title=Port of Portland Opts for Decentralized, Sustainable Water Architecture with the Living Machine® Ecological Wastewater System| year=2010| last1=Kirksey| first1=Will| journal=Journal - American Water Works Association| volume=102| issue=2| pages=19–22| bibcode=2010JAWWA.102b..19K| s2cid=116521703}}</ref>

===Urban design ===

[[Sustainable urbanism]] takes actions beyond sustainable architecture, and makes a broader view for sustainability. Typical solutions includes [[eco-industrial park]] (EIP), [[urban agriculture]], etc. International program that are being supported includes Sustainable Urban Development Network,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://mirror.unhabitat.org/content.asp?typeid=19&catid=570&cid=5990 |title= UN-HABITAT: Sustainable Urban Development Network}}</ref> supported by UN-HABITAT, and Eco2 Cities,<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2011/11/08/eco2-cities-guide-for-developing-ecologically-sustainable-and-economically-viable-cities | title = Eco2 Cities – a Guide for Developing Ecologically Sustainable and Economically Viable Cities}}</ref> supported by the World Bank.

Concurrently, the recent movements of [[New Urbanism]], [[New Classical architecture]] and [[complementary architecture]] promote a sustainable approach towards construction, that appreciates and develops [[smart growth]], [[Vernacular architecture|architectural tradition]] and [[Classical architecture|classical design]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnu.org/charter|title=The Charter of the New Urbanism|last=taotiadmin|date=20 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future|url=http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html|publisher=Traditional Architecture Group|access-date=23 March 2014|archive-date=5 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305215635/http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> This in contrast to [[Modern architecture|modernist]] and [[International Style (architecture)|globally uniform]] architecture, as well as leaning against solitary [[housing estate]]s and [[Urban sprawl|suburban sprawl]].<ref>[http://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities]. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23.</ref> Both trends started in the 1980s. The [[Driehaus Architecture Prize]] is an award that recognizes efforts in New Urbanism and New Classical architecture, and is endowed with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernist [[Pritzker Architecture Prize|Pritzker Prize]].<ref name=""Driehaus Prize"">{{cite web|title=Driehaus Prize|url=http://architecture.nd.edu/about/driehaus-prize/|work=Together, the $200,000 Driehaus Prize and the $50,000 Reed Award represent the most significant recognition for classicism in the contemporary built environment.|publisher=Notre Dame School of Architecture|access-date=23 March 2014}}</ref>

===Waste management===

Waste takes the form of spent or useless materials generated from households and businesses, construction and demolition processes, and manufacturing and agricultural industries. These materials are loosely categorized as municipal solid waste, construction and demolition (C&D) debris, and industrial or agricultural by-products.<ref>John Ringel., University of Michigan, Sustainable Architecture, Waste Prevention [http://www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/resources/compendia/ARCHpdfs/ARCHr&rA.pdf]</ref>  Sustainable architecture focuses on the on-site use of [[waste management]], incorporating things such as [[grey water]] systems for use on garden beds, and [[composting toilet]]s to reduce sewage. These methods, when combined with on-site [[food waste]] composting and off-site recycling, can reduce a house's waste to a small amount of [[packaging waste]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Architecture|Energy}}
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
*[[Alternative natural materials]]
*[[BREEAM]]
*[[BrightBuilt Barn]]
*[[Complementary architecture]]
*[[Cross-laminated timber]] (CLT)
*[[Deconstruction (building)]]
*[[Earth embassy]]
*[[Earthship]]
*[[Ecological design]]
*[[Ecological footprint]]
*[[Energy-plus-house]]
*[[Fab Tree Hab]]: 100% Ecological Home
*[[Haute qualité environnementale]] French standard for green building - HQE
*[[Land recycling]]
*[[Low-energy house]]
*[[Organic architecture]]
*[[Passive house]]
*[[Renewable heat]]
*[[Solar architecture]]
*[[Solar chimney]]
*[[Straw-bale construction]]
*[[Superinsulation]]
*[[Sustainable city]]
*[[Sustainable design]]
*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Sustainable flooring]]
*[[Sustainable landscape architecture]]
*[[Sustainable preservation]]
*[[Sustainable refurbishment]]
*[[Windcatcher]]
*[[World Green Building Council]]
*[[Yakhchāl]]
*[[Zero-energy building]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==External links==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [http://www.worldgbc.org World Green Building Council]
* [http://www.passiv.de Passivhaus Institut] German institute for passive buildings
{{div col end}}

{{Modern architecture}}
{{Environmental technology}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Environmental humanities}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Architecture}}
[[Category:Sustainable architecture| ]]
[[Category:Low-energy building]]
[[Category:Sustainable building]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Paul-Marie Boulanger,"{{short description|Belgian sociologist}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name             = Paul-Marie Boulanger 
| image            = Paul Marie Boulanger, August 2020.tif
| birth_date       = {{birth date and age|1950|03|19| }}
| birth_place      = 
| death_date       =
| death_place      =
| nationality      = Belgian 
| education        = [[University of Strasbourg]], [[KU Leuven|Leuven]]
| alma_mater       = 
| movement         =
| organization     = 
}}
'''Paul-Marie Boulanger''' is a Belgian [[sociologist]] active in the study of sustainable development and consumption.

==Works==
Paul-Marie Boulanger received his degrees in sociology from the [[University of Strasbourg]] and that of [[KU Leuven|Leuven]].  
His work at the Demography Department of the Catholic University of Leuven focused on demographic, social security and labour market,<ref>P.-M. Boulanger, “Consumer Society,” in Green Consumerism: An A-to-Z Guide, J. Mansvelt and P. Robbins, Eds. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2010.</ref><ref>P. M. Boulanger, “Basic income and sustainable consumption strategies,” Basic Income Stud., vol. 4, no. 2, Sep. 2009.</ref> while when working at the European Agency for Development and Health he was concerned – also as responsible of the Agency’s information system – with food security and famine prevention in [[Africa]].<ref>C. De Jaegher, D. Michiels, and P.-M. Boulanger, SYSTÈMES D’INFORMATION POUR LA SÉCURITÉ ALIMENTAIRE - L’expérience AEDES en Afrique, AEDES. 2004.</ref> 
Paul-Marie Boulanger is one of the founders of the [[Federal Institute for Sustainable Development|Institute for Sustainable Development (Belgium)]] where he worked since 1996 on sustainable development and transitions. Between 1999 and 2016 he was president of the Institute.
Several of his papers are in the theory of sustainable development and
consumption.<ref>P.-M. Boulanger, “Indicateurs de développement durable
et participation citoyenne : une entreprise paradoxale,” Participations,
vol. 18, no. 2, p. 147, 2017.</ref><ref>P. M. Boulanger, “Political
uses of social indicators: overview and application to sustainable
development indicators,” Int. J. Sustain. Dev., vol. 10, no. 1/2, p. 14,
2007.</ref> His work on models for sustainable development <ref>P. M.
Boulanger and T. Bréchet, “Models for policy-making in sustainable
development: The state of the art and perspectives for research,” Ecol.
Econ., vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 337–350, Nov. 2005.</ref> has been used by
several authors.<ref>S. Sala, F. Farioli, and A. Zamagni, “Progress in
sustainability science: Lessons learnt from current methodologies for
sustainability assessment: Part 1,” Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., vol. 18,
no. 9, pp. 1653–1672, Nov. 2013.</ref><ref>B. Ness, S. Anderberg, and L.
Olsson, “Structuring problems in sustainability science: The multi-level
DPSIR framework,” Geoforum, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 479–488, May 2010.</ref>
Boulanger also worked on social indicators of human well-being,<ref
name=""composite"">P. M. Boulanger,
“[https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC92162/lbna26921enn.pdf Elements for a comprehensive assessment of public indicators],” Ispra -
Italy, 2014.</ref> models and methods for decision support,<ref name=""development"">P. M. Boulanger, “A systems-theoretical perspective on sustainable development and indicators,” in Routledge Handbook of Sustainability Indicators and Indices, S. Bell and S. Morse, Eds. Taylor & Francis., 2018.</ref> and climate change.<ref>Judith Curry, 2021, [https://judithcurry.com/2021/02/12/a-climate-of-dialogue/ Excerpts from A CLIMATE OF DIALOGUE],  Climate Etc., February 12.</ref><ref>Andrea Saltelli and Paul-Marie Boulanger, 2020, A CLIMATE OF DIALOGUE, in DIMENSIONS OF INTRA- AND INTERGENERATIONAL JUSTICE IN THE DEBATES ABOUT SUSTAINABILITY, Silvija Serafimova Editor, published by Avangard Prima, Sofia. {{ISBN|978-619-239-433-2}}.</ref> As discussed in,<ref>M. Kuc-Czarnecka et al., “Quantitative storytelling in the making of a composite indicator,” Soc. Indic. Res., vol. 149(3), 77, no. 3, pp. 775–802, 2020.</ref> Boulanger gave a contribution to the theory of [[composite indicators]],<ref name=""composite""/><ref name=""development""/> including an analysis of the scarce traction of indicators of development meant to unseat GDP as a measures of progress.

He also studies the application of the theories on [[Niklas Luhmann]], such as to science’s reproducibility crisis <ref>A. Saltelli and P.-M. Boulanger, “Technoscience, policy and the new media. Nexus or vortex?,” Futures, vol. 115, p. 102491, Nov. 2019.</ref> and to interpreting the present pandemic.<ref>P.-M. Boulanger and A. Saltelli, “[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3586526 Pandemic Luhmann],” SSRN Electron. J., May 2020.</ref>

==References== 
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Boulanger, Paul-Marie}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:Belgian sociologists]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Social security]]
[[Category:Index numbers]]
[[Category:Quantitative research]]


{{sociologist-stub}}"
Sustainable procurement,"{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{Globalize|date=January 2010}}
'''Sustainable procurement''' or '''green procurement''' is a process whereby organizations meet their needs for goods, services, works and utilities in a way that achieves value for money on a life-cycle basis while addressing equity principles for sustainable development, therefore benefiting societies and the environment across time and geographies.<ref name=""chathamhouse.org"">{{Cite web|date=2020-11-19|title=Public Procurement for Sustainable Development|url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/11/public-procurement-sustainable-development|access-date=2021-03-15|website=Chatham House – International Affairs Think Tank|language=en}}</ref> '''[[Procurement]]''' is often conducted via a [[tendering]] or competitive [[bidding]] process. The process is used to ensure the buyer receives goods, services or works for the best possible price, when aspects such as quality, quantity, time, and location are compared.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nigp.org|title=NIGP - The Institute for Public Procurement|website=www.nigp.org|access-date=2016-11-16}}</ref> Procurement is considered sustainable when organizations broadens this framework by meeting their needs for goods, services, works, and utilities in a way that achieves value for money and promotes positive outcomes not only for the organization itself but for the economy, environment, and society.<ref name=""auto"">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2pfDAAAQBAJ&q=sustainable%20procurement&pg=PP1|title=Sustainable procurement: The power of public and private consumption for an inclusive green economy|last1=Betiol|first1=Luciana Stocco|last2=Uehara|first2=Thiago Hector Kanashiro|last3=Laloe|first3=Florence Karine|last4=Appugliese|first4=Gabriela Alem|last5=Adeodato|first5=Sergio|last6=Ramos|first6=Ligia|last7=Neto|first7=Mario Prestes Monzoni|date=2015-12-15|publisher=Public Administration and Citizenship Program|isbn=9788587426314|language=en}}</ref> This framework is also known as the [[triple bottom line]], which is a business accounting framework. The concept of TBL is narrowly prescribed, and even [[John Elkington (business author)|John Elkington]], who coined the term in the 1990s, now advocates its recall.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2018-06-25|title=25 Years Ago I Coined the Phrase ""Triple Bottom Line."" Here's Why It's Time to Rethink It.|work=Harvard Business Review|url=https://hbr.org/2018/06/25-years-ago-i-coined-the-phrase-triple-bottom-line-heres-why-im-giving-up-on-it|access-date=2021-03-15|issn=0017-8012}}</ref> Indeed, procurement practitioners have drawn attention to the fact that buying from smaller firms, locally, is an important aspect of sustainable procurement in the public sector.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brammer|first1=Stephen|last2=Walker|first2=Helen|date=2011-03-22|title=Sustainable procurement in the public sector: an international comparative study|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/01443571111119551/full/html|journal=International Journal of Operations & Production Management|language=en|volume=31|issue=4|pages=452–476|doi=10.1108/01443571111119551|issn=0144-3577}}</ref> Ethics, culture, safety, diversity, inclusion, justice, human rights and the environment are additionally listed as important aspects of SPP.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kleine|first1=Dorothea|last2=Brightwell|first2=Maria das Graças|date=December 2015|title=Repoliticising and scaling-up ethical consumption: Lessons from public procurement for school meals in Brazil|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016718515002286|journal=Geoforum|language=en|volume=67|pages=135–147|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.08.016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020|editor-last=Leal Filho|editor-first=Walter|editor2-last=Azul|editor2-first=Anabela Marisa|editor3-last=Brandli|editor3-first=Luciana|editor4-last=Özuyar|editor4-first=Pinar Gökcin|editor5-last=Wall|editor5-first=Tony|title=Responsible Consumption and Production|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71062-4|journal=Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-71062-4|isbn=978-3-319-71062-4|s2cid=241952832 |issn=2523-7403}}</ref>

Sustainable procurement is a spending and investment process typically associated with [[public policy]], although it is equally applicable to the [[private sector]]. Organizations practicing sustainable procurement meet their needs for goods, services, utilities and works not only on a private [[cost–benefit analysis]], but also with the intention to maximizing net benefits for themselves and the wider world. In doing so they must incorporate extrinsic cost considerations into decisions alongside the conventional [[procurement]] criteria of price and quality, although in practice the sustainable impacts of a potential supplier's approach are often assessed as a form of quality consideration. These considerations are typically divided thus: environmental, economic and social, but it should go beyond and encompass a series of equity principles for sustainable development, such as ''intragenerational equity, intergenerational equity, interspecies equity, procedural equity, and geographical equity''.<ref name=""chathamhouse.org""/> These can be seen as the 'sustainability pillars' of procurement, which can be underpinned by one or several instruments for development, such as those proposed by [[Amartya Sen]]: ''(1) economic facilities, (2) social opportunities, (3) protective security, (4) political freedoms and (5) transparency guarantees''.<ref name=""chathamhouse.org""/> And to procure in a sustainable way involves looking beyond short-term needs and considering the longer-term impacts of each purchase. Sustainable procurement is used to ensure that purchasing reflects broader goals linked to [[resource efficiency]], [[climate change]], [[social responsibility]] and [[economic resilience]], for example.<ref name=""Procura+ Manual 3rd Edition"">{{Cite book|title=Procura+ Manual 3rd Edition|publisher=ICLEI Europe - Local Governments for Sustainability|year=2016}}</ref>

Sustainable procurement involves a higher degree of collaboration and engagement between all parties in a supply chain. Many businesses have adopted a broad interpretation of sustainable procurement and have developed tools and techniques to support this engagement and collaboration.

== Triple bottom line considerations ==

[[Procurement]] – the letting of contracts for goods, works and services on the best possible terms – has historically been based on two criteria, price and quality, with a view to maximizing benefits for the procuring organization. Sustainable procurement broadens this framework to take account of third-party consequences of procurement decisions, forming a ""[[Triple bottom line|triple baseline]]"" of external concerns which the procuring organization must fulfill.<ref name=""resource-efficiency"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/resourceefficiency/Society/CommunicationandEducation/tabid/55550/Default.aspx|title=UNEP - Resource Efficiency - Society - Procurement|last=resource-efficiency|website=www.unep.org|access-date=2016-11-16}}</ref>

===Environmental===

Environmental concerns are the dominant macro-level justification for sustainable procurement, born out of the growing 21st century consensus that humanity is placing excessive demands on available resources through unsustainable but well-established consumption patterns. Sustainable procurement aims to promote conservation and responsible management of resources by using renewable or recycled materials wherever possible and reducing waste.<ref name=""Procura+ Manual 3rd Edition""/> Sustainable procurement also involves looking at production practices and making sure there are not any negative impacts to the environment such as pollution, [[biodiversity loss]] or [[habitat destruction|habitat disruption]].

This is a sufficiently influential issue that environment-centric procurement (green procurement) is sometimes seen to stand alone from sustainable procurement. The most straightforward justification for green procurement is as a tool with which to address [[climate change]], but it offers the broader capacity to mitigate [[over-exploitation]] of any and all scarce resources. Green procurement introduces into the procurement process a comparison between alternatives based on the criterion of their environmental impact. This comparison is extended to all stages of the procurement process, from the design stage, to the tender evaluation and realization stages.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Decarolis |first1=Francesco |last2=Frey |first2=Marco |editor3-first=Francesco |editor3-last=Decarolis |editor2-first=Gustavo |editor2-last=Piga |editor1-first=Marco |editor1-last=Frey |title=Introduction to ""Public Procurement's Place in the World: The Charge Towards Sustainability and Innovation"" |year=2014 |doi=10.1057/9781137430649 |isbn=9781137430649 |url=https://pure.eur.nl/en/publications/36fd2ee1-7651-4015-b9bc-944778790557 }}</ref>

Examples of green procurement range from the purchase of energy-saving light-bulbs to the commissioning of a new building from renewable sourced timber or [[organic food]] being served in a workplace canteen. Sometimes, the ultimate green procurement is the avoidance of the purchase altogether. For example, [[Seafood Watch]] lists which commonly consumed fish species are at risk of extinction or population decline, steering conscious consumers towards species with stable populations which can be consumed without threatening their existence or disrupting the ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021|title=Our Projects|url=https://www.seafoodwatch.org/our-projects|access-date=2021-01-21|website=Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch}}</ref> Transparency around production can help companies and individuals make more sustainable purchasing choices.  In the fashion industry, more consumers and companies are aware of the damage textile dye pollution does to waterways and the communities that rely on them, and as a result, companies and individuals can seek out producers who use natural or nonhazardous dyes.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-12|title=The true cost of colour: The impact of textile dyes on water systems|url=https://www.fashionrevolution.org/the-true-cost-of-colour-the-impact-of-textile-dyes-on-water-systems/|access-date=2021-01-21|website=Fashion Revolution|language=en-GB}}</ref>

In support of [[sustainable development]] the organization should develop and publish 'Sustainable Development Procurement Guidelines and Procedures'. When it comes to purchasing products or services, referral to these guidelines would help make the organization become a leader in environmentally responsible purchasing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greeninggovernment.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=256986C5-1|title=Government of Canada – Procurement|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061019011258/http://www.greeninggovernment.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=256986C5-1|archive-date=October 19, 2006|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/en/commcentre/pressreleases/2006/Ref1020.html|title=ISO standard for purchasers}}</ref>

Although various corporate giants have publicly acknowledged adopting sustainable procurement and reducing their carbon footprint, they have miserably failed to match their promises. The most widely discussed examples include Disney's initiative to introduce sustainable paper sourcing policy in 2012 and 3M promising to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/2014/jul/21/sustainability-goals-promise-broken-failure-target-walmart-disney|title=Missed targets: when companies fail to keep their key sustainability promises|date=July 21, 2014|work=The Guardian}}</ref>

===Social===

Sustainable procurement is also used to address issues of [[social policy]], such as inclusiveness, [[social equality|equality]], [[international labor standards]] and diversity targets, regeneration and integration.

Examples include addressing the needs – whether employment, care, welfare or other – of groups including [[ethnic minorities]], children, the elderly, those with disabilities, adults lacking basic skills, and immigrant populations. Criteria for Socially Responsible Procurement can be applied to every stage of a supply-chain e.g. from mining to assembly and distribution.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Landmark Project - Success Stories in Socially Responsible Procurement|publisher=The LANDMARK consortium|year=2014}}</ref>

===Economic===

Often differences in the purchase price between a non-sustainable and sustainable alternative are negligible. Yet even where the sustainable option costs more upfront, savings of energy, water and waste over the lifetime of the product or service can provide significant financial savings.<ref name=""Procura+ Manual 3rd Edition""/> On a [[macroeconomic]] level, it can be argued that there are economic benefits in the form of [[Economic efficiency|efficiency]] gains from incorporating whole-life costing into decision-making. (Note: in contrast to most arguments from sustainable procurement proponents, these can be purely private benefits accrued by the procuring organization.)

In addition, the creation of sustainable markets is essential for long-term growth while sustainable development requirements foster [[innovation]]. There are also potential global applications: sustainable procurement can favor fair trade or ethical practice, and allow extra investment to channeled towards [[developing countries]].

On a [[microeconomic]] level, sustainable procurement offers the chance for economic redistribution. Targets might include creation of jobs and wealth in regeneration areas, or assistance for small and/or ethnic minority-owned businesses.

==Sustainable procurement policy and development ==

===State government===

For central governments, sustainable procurement is typically viewed as the application of sustainable development criteria to spending and investment decisions. Given high-profile socioeconomic and environmental concerns such as [[globalization]] and [[climate change]], governments are increasingly concerned that our actions meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of the future.

Public spending, which accounts for an average of 12% of GDP in OECD countries, and up to 30% in developing countries, wields enormous purchasing power.<ref name=""resource-efficiency""/> Shifting that spending towards more sustainable goods and services can help drive markets in the direction of innovation and [[sustainability]], thereby enabling the transition to a [[green economy]]. Through Sustainable procurement practices, governments can lead by example and deliver key policy objectives. Sustainable procurement allows governments to mitigate key issues such as [[Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas emissions]], improve resource efficiency, recycling, among others. The key international organizations already increasingly recognize public procurement as a means of changing the unsustainable patterns of consumption and production.

The United Nations, including its many affiliated agencies, recognize their own responsibilities in contributing to more sustainable patterns of development, maintaining a market behavior which is credible, inspirational and exemplary, and proving that UN agencies stand behind the principles they promote.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ungm.org/Public/KnowledgeCentre/SustainableProcurement|title=Sustainable Procurement|website=www.ungm.org|access-date=2016-11-16}}</ref> Through the development of procurement criteria that support sustainability principles, requisitioners and procurers can send strong signals to the market in favor of goods and services that promote sustainability. The United Nations agency destined to develop and promote resource efficiency and more sustainable consumption and production processes, including the promotion of sustainable resource management in a life cycle perspective for goods and services in both developed and developing countries, The United Nations Environmental Programme, [[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]], drafted sustainable public procurement implementation guideline to aid in the consideration of society, economy, and the environment in procurement processes.<ref name=""resource-efficiency""/>

# ''Project set up and governance structure establishment'' 
#* In the project organization and set up in pilot country of Mauritius, the NFO (Mauritius public procurement office) set up monthly and biweekly newsletters on the purpose of public procurement which was then used as a communication device for later projects, activities, and events, along with other relevant information <ref name="":0"">Sustainable Public Procurement Implementation Guidelines, Introducing UNEP’S Approach (2012). ''United Nations Environment Programme''</ref>
# ''Assessment, review, and prioritization'' 
#* Recommended method of assessing the effectiveness of public procurement plans is conducting interviews with procurers as to assess the degree of training and knowledge. Recognize and understand the obstacles in the implementation of SPP in their respective administration as well as identifying products and services which are considered a priority for the well-functioning of such projects and policies.<ref name="":0"" /> Some of the main obstacles in implementing SPP are informational, financial and managerial.<ref name=""auto""/>
# ''Sustainable public procurement policy and action plan''
#* Drafting an SPP plan is necessary for the successful implementation of policies. It creates a clear path and provides a direction on sound basis on which to build coherent and efficient strategies. The SPP Action Plan should contribute to the country's sustainable development in terms of environmental protection, economic development, health, welfare, etc. In the UNEP pilot country of Chile, working to enhance previous e-learning platform for contracting managers from across the country, the UNEP agreement with the sovereign nation was modified replacing two different workshops for roughly 50 people each with the generic term ""training"" and the new materials for the electronic platform are currently being developed as to provide the entire Chilean public administration easier access.<ref name="":0"" />
# ''Implementation''
#*Nations interested in applying the SPP approach in the development of domestic policies and would like to receive funding for the implementation of the various programs must directly apply to the UNEP and follow a particular procedure.<ref name="":0"" />

==== Case studies ====

The Marrakech Task Force on Sustainable Public Procurement (MTF or SPP) which was managed by Switzerland from 2006 to May 2011 established an approach for the effective implementation of sustainable procurement. This approach was named the MTF Approach to SPP. Since then, the United Nations Environmental Programme have worked together with the Swiss government to develop a project to implement sustainable procurement worldwide. The project named Capacity Building for Sustainable Public Procurement in Developing Countries was piloted in seven countries: Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Lebanon, Mauritius, Tunisia, and Uruguay. Since then, the list of countries adopting this newly designed approach to developing has increased, adding more advanced and industrialized nations to be used as case studies to measure the efficiency and benefits of the implementation of sustainable public procurement. In Brazil, the project involved recycled paper; in Costa Rica, the management services was redesigned; toner cartridges for laser printers were the main objective in France; in Hong Kong and China the nations aimed to improve traffic with LED traffic light retrofitting; organic food for school children was the focus in Italy; sustainable construction was the focus in England; consultancy and temporary staff services were renovated in Scotland; and in the United States, there was a push for the sustainable transportation of waste.<ref name="":1"">The Impacts of Sustainable Public Procurement, Eight Case Studies (2012). ''United Nations Environment Programme.''</ref>

The eight case studies reveal a diversity of environmental impacts at various stages of the products' life cycle. The purchase of remanufactured ink cartridges by the French Ministry of Education has led to a decrease in the amount of waste generated at the manufacturing stage. The construction or services case studies (Yorkshire and Humber Region, UK, and Oregon, USA) demonstrate significant impacts related to the reduction of {{CO2}} emissions, of waste production, and of water consumption. The Ferrara study (Italy) and the recycled paper case (São Paulo, Brazil) show positive environmental effects.<ref name="":1"" />

Although the social component of sustainable development has often been considered as the most neglected one, the eight case studies show a strong commitment from public purchasers to tackle social issues. Employment and social inclusiveness issues are considered essential by the public entities who promote these priorities through their procurement processes. Some of the social impacts are directly targeted by tenders, such as the participation of companies employing disabled persons in the French case or the fight against illiteracy in Scotland. Other impacts are the results of the specific purchase, as in the State of São Paulo case (notebooks using recycled paper) which demonstrates a clear positive impact for waste pickers. The analysis of the case studies illustrates the diversity and strength of the recorded sustainable development impacts. Public purchasers can be clearly seen as key potential actors of society, able to impact a wide range of sustainable development fields.<ref name="":1"" />

The UK in 2005 pledged to be a performance-leader in sustainable procurement by 2009 and commissioned the business-led Sustainable Procurement Task Force to formulate appropriate strategy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/government/task-forces/procurement/index.htm |title=Procurement Task Force |access-date=2006-12-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061230071519/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/government/task-forces/procurement/index.htm |archive-date=December 30, 2006 |df=mdy-all }} The Sustainable Procurement Task Force</ref> Broad-based procurement strategies are prominent across the EU <ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/ European Union Green Public Procurement] . European Commission. Viewed 2020-04-12.</ref> while it is an increasingly influential concern elsewhere, most notably Canada.<ref>[http://www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca/ecologisation-greening/index-eng.html Green Procurement]. Public Works and Government Services Canada – Office of Greening Government Operations. Viewed 2101-04-12.</ref> The US federal government requires certain green procurement practices in its buildings and supports the wide and inclusive use of them. The [[General Services Administration]], an independent establishment and government corporation, is responsible for promoting green procurement and provides federal agencies with selling and purchasing guidelines and suggestions. Green procurement is primarily done by federal contracting personnel and program managers – but it is not restricted to such professionals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sftool.gov/greenprocurement/about|title=Green Procurement Compilation - About - GSA Sustainable Facilities Tool|website=sftool.gov}}</ref>

Clearly, sustainable procurement is not a practice of high-income countries only. For instance, Papua New Guinea, Ecuador and Brazil have all developed strategies to provide ''economic facilities'' to selected industries, while also addressing some of the sustainability pillars in their procurement practices: for example, adopting environmental standards and giving preference to smaller and local suppliers, women-owned businesses and peasant family farmers. Papua New Guinea's Vision 2050 and Ecuador's Buen Vivir plan have also addressed ''social opportunities'' and ''intergenerational equity'', and Brazil's [[Fome Zero]] Food Acquisition Programme has addressed ''protective security'' and ''geographical equity''.<ref name=""chathamhouse.org""/>

===Local government===

At market-level, sustainable procurement is typically instrumental: authorities seek to address policy ''through procurement''.<ref>http://www.ogc.gov.uk/documents/Efficiency_Sustainable_Procurement_Statement.pdf OGC Statement on Efficiency and Sustainable Procurement</ref>

Government departments and local bodies can use procurement to address certain chosen agendas in buying solutions that will contribute to the community or environmental goals, or to diversity or equality targets.<ref>Gillett, A.G., 2015. REMARKOR: RELATIONSHIP MARKETING ORIENTATION ON LOCAL GOVERNMENT PERFORMANCE. Journal of Services Research, 15(1), p.97.</ref><ref>Gillett, A.G. (2016). MULTIPLE RELATIONSHIPS WITH MULTIPLE STAKEHOLDERS: THE SCOPE OF RELATIONSHIP MARKETING FOR PUBLIC SERVICES. Journal of Services Research, 16(2), pp. 1-28</ref>

To help local governments improve sustainability and reduce environmental impacts the [[California Sustainability Alliance]], has developed a Green Procurement Toolkit.<ref>[http://sustainca.org/tools/green_procurement_toolkit California Sustainability Alliance, Green Procurement Toolkit], Received October 28, 2010</ref> Green procurement can help local governments save money, create local green jobs and improve their [[environmental sustainability]].

Under sustainable procurement criteria any procuring organization must therefore take a broad approach to sustainability, reflecting localized economic, environmental and social needs as well as cross-cutting sustainable development strategies such as [[Life Cycle Assessment]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sftool.gov/plan/400/life-cycle-assessment-lca-overview|title=Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Overview - GSA Sustainable Facilities Tool|website=sftool.gov}}</ref>

[[ICLEI]] is a membership organization of local governments who recognizes the power of Sustainable Public Procurement to achieve environmental, social and economic benefits.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sustainable-procurement.org/|title=SP Platform{{!}} SUSTAINABLE PROCUREMENT PLATFORM|website=sustainable-procurement.org|access-date=2018-12-18}}</ref> It encourages Public Procurement of Innovation as a means for achieving sustainability.  Among its various activities, it offers a Sustainable Procurement Resource Center <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sustainable-procurement.org/resource-centre/|title=SP Platform{{!}} RESOURCE CENTRE|website=www.sustainable-procurement.org|access-date=2018-12-18}}</ref> and a Procurement Forum,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://procurement-forum.eu/|title=Procurement Forum|website=procurement-forum.eu|access-date=2018-12-18}}</ref> which can be used by procurers or by anyone interested in these topics.

Procura+ is a network of European public authorities and regions that connect, exchange and act on sustainable and innovation procurement.

On December 8, 2006, the Greater London Authority became the first public-sector body to publish a sustainable procurement policy,<ref>http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/tenders/docs/sustainable-procurement.pdf The GLA Group Sustainable Procurement Policy</ref> promising to award a ""distinct competitive advantage"" to those companies which demonstrated a commitment to sustainable procurement concerns.<ref>http://www.ft.com/cms/s/b2a1cdec-8660-11db-86d5-0000779e2340.html ''Financial Times'', December 8, 2006, 'Diversity linked to London contracts'</ref> The policy reflected Mayor [[Ken Livingstone]]'s enthusiasm for public procurement as a tool for fostering social inclusion, equality and environmental objectives.

The GLA also stated that their policy was ""very much as a model for broader government procurement"" but this expectation was not fulfilled in the UK Government's Sustainable Procurement Action Plan, published on March 5, 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/publications/pdf/SustainableProcurementActionPlan.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2008-05-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512121225/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/publications/pdf/SustainableProcurementActionPlan.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2008 |df=mdy-all }} UK Government Sustainable Procurement Action Plan</ref> The Action Plan, which incorporated answers to the Sustainable Procurement Task Force, was explicitly environment-oriented in approach (Ch 4.3) with wider social issues scarcely addressed.

This was perhaps surprising, as was press disinterest in the publication. Despite its acknowledged importance among senior politicians and business leaders, publication of the Action Plan received only one national newspaper report, and that was markedly flippant in tone.<ref>http://www.ft.com/cms/s/75cb4c24-cb87-11db-b436-000b5df10621.html ''Financial Times'', March 6, 2007, 'Government seeks green toilet paper'</ref>

===Private sector===

Sustainable procurement outside of the United Nations is happening everywhere, in the international community, in states and local authorities, in the private sector and in the civil society. Sustainable procurement is as applicable to the [[private sector]] as the [[public sector]], and certainly its proponents aspire to see its application across all areas of the economy due to a vast amount of material available on the internet for organizations and companies wishing to improve their sustainability performance.

Acquisition of goods and services may account for over 50% of the company's expenses, and may exceed 80% in sectors such as in retailing, electronic and automotive industries - with all this purchasing power, the private sector has a great ability to influence markets.<ref name=""auto""/> Influencing procurement practice within a private-sector firm is not straightforward for governments, meaning that the companies themselves often have to be self-motivated to embrace sustainability. It becomes a social responsibility for both businesses and workers to promote sustainable procurement in the workplace.

The UK's Sustainable Procurement National Action Plan argues that it is ""something the best of the private sector is already doing – whether through enlightened leadership or shareholder pressure"".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/publications/procurement-action-plan/documents/full-document.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-12-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061215132243/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/publications/procurement-action-plan/documents/full-document.pdf |archive-date=December 15, 2006 |df=mdy-all }} 'Procuring the Future: Sustainable Procurement National Action Plan' by Sustainable Procurement Task Force</ref> It also argues that government purchasing power (circa £150bn in the UK alone) can apply sustainable procurement principles to present a persuasive case to those in the private sector resisting sustainable procurement practice.

==== Fair trade ====
[[Fair trade]] and sustainable procurement demands the implementation of responsible practices in relation to workers, environment and society to be followed by suppliers as to promote a chain of sustainability between production and consumption.

==== B Corporation ====
[[B Corporation (certification)]] (B Corp) demands support for the [[triple bottom line]]. B Corps are incentivized to [[buy local]], [[Organic product|organic]], and from other B Corps. This promotes a chain of sustainable businesses that amplifies its effectiveness.

==== Voluntary Sustainability Standards ====

The private sector also implements various Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS), such as certifications and accreditations, in order to ensure sustainable procurement, as well as to protect company brands. Reputational risks and concerns have proven to be a powerful impetus for implementing Voluntary Sustainability standards. For example, in 2012 Wal-Mart introduced the Wal-Mart Sustainability Index in response to claims that the company was notorious for unsustainably produced and sourced products.<ref name=""meeting"">{{cite web |title=MEETING SUSTAINABILITY GOALS VOLUNTARY SUSTAINABILITY STANDARDS AND THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT |url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/unfss_2nd_2016_en.pdf |publisher=United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards |access-date=15 October 2020}}</ref>

These Voluntary Sustainability Standards have important implications, not only for supply chain security, but also for rural development and climate change. An initiative by the Aid by Trade Foundation, for example, trains [[smallholding|smallholder]] farmers to produce sustainable cotton in exchange for exclusive contracts with international brands and retailers. The initiative creates a shared value opportunity wherein the companies benefit by securing their supply chains and meeting the growing consumer demand for sustainably sourced products, while the smallholder farmers are able to grow their businesses.<ref name=""meeting""/> Likewise, the Marine Stewardship Council leverages its certification program to encourage consumers to buy sustainably sourced fish and fisheries to fish more sustainably. The purpose of the program is not only to address growing concerns around the long-term viability of global fish populations, but also to prevent the collapse of the Northern cod fishery.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marine Stewardship Council |url=https://www.msc.org/en-us/?gclid=CjwKCAjw5p_8BRBUEiwAPpJO6z2qk7UtH8UnoxK2WFAsmMu2d5e6uXYSB7Ash5JHpJhFDxcAeTfVTRoCi_EQAvD_BwE |website=Marine Stewardship Council |access-date=15 October 2020}}</ref>

== Sustainable procurement in Europe ==
=== European Union ===
In 2008, the [[European Commission]] developed a catalog for Green Public Procurement (GPP), which contains the criteria for organic food as well as for animal products produced in compliance with animal welfare standards.<ref>[https://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/index_en.htm ''Green Public Procurement''] retrieved on am 25. August 2020 in Ec.europa.eu</ref>

=== Austria ===
An Austria-wide instrument is the Austrian Action Plan for Sustainable Public Procurement (naBe Action Plan).<ref>[http://www.nachhaltigebeschaffung.at/nabe-aktionsplan ''Österreichischen Aktionsplan zur nachhaltigen öffentlichen Beschaffung''] retrieved on 25. August 2020 in Nachhaltigebeschaffung.at</ref> There is also the program ''ÖkoKauf'' in [[Vienna]], which specifies criteria for the procurement of food by the public hand in Vienna.<ref>[https://www.wien.gv.at/umweltschutz/oekokauf/ ''ÖkoKauf Wien - Programm für die ökologische Beschaffung der Stadt Wien''] retrieved on am 25. August 2020 in Wien.gv.at</ref>

=== Germany ===
Sustainable procurement can be found in various institutions, e.g. Competence Center for Sustainable Procurement (KNB),<ref>[http://www.nachhaltige-beschaffung.info/DE/Home/home_node.html ''Das zentrale Portal für nachhaltige Beschaffung öffentlicher Auftraggeber''] retrieved on 25. August 2020 in Nachhaltige-beschaffung.info</ref> Competence Center for Innovative Procurement (KOINNO),<ref>[https://www.koinno-bmwi.de/ ''Das Kompetenzzentrum innovative Beschaffung''] retrieved on 25. August 2020 in Koinno-bmwi.de</ref> and National Quality Center for Nutrition in Kita and School (NQZ).<ref>[https://www.nqz.de/ ''Nationales Qualitätszentrum für Ernährung in Kita und Schule''] retrieved on 25. August 2020 in Nqz.de</ref> In addition, there is the Organic Cities Network, which aims to use more food from organic farming in their public institutions.<ref>[https://www.bzfe.de/inhalt/die-bio-staedte-31106.html ''Bio-Städte''] retrieved on 25. August 2020 in Bzfe.de</ref> Since 2018, the public debate in Germany has centered on the German [[Supply Chain Act]], a mandatory due diligence law for companies. A legislative proposal for the Supply Chain Act has entered the parliamentary process in March 2021.<ref>[https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/german-due-diligence-law/ ""Germany: Cabinet passes mandatory due diligence proposal; Parliament now to consider & strengthen""] retrieved on 27 March 2021 in business-humanrights.org</ref>

=== Great Britain ===
In 2014, the Department for Environment & Rural Affairs has defined the framework for sustainable food procurement in the Plan for Public Procurement.<ref>''A Plan for Public Procurement'', Dr Peter Bonfield, retrieved on 25. August 2020 ([https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/332756/food-plan-july-2014.pdf PDF; 2,65 MB])</ref> In addition, the Animal Cruelty Free Food Procurement Policy was issued in 2009 to promote animal welfare in the procurement of animal products.<ref>''Newcastle’s Social Value Commitment'', GPP Case studies, retrieved on 25. August 2020 ([https://www.yhn.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Social-Value-commitment.pdf PDF; 142 kB])</ref>

=== Netherlands ===
The Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH) is a collaboration between private companies, NGO's and the Dutch government to advance sustainable procurement with the goal of addressing [[United Nations]] Development Goals of reducing poverty and supporting environmental sustainability and Fair Trade. This joint effort increased voluntary sustainability certification among producers in developing countries as well as the rate of purchasing certified goods from the private sector. Public funding from the IDH was found to have catalyzed the industry trends of sustainable production certification and procurement in sectors such as cotton, cocoa, tea and others. Additional changes have taken place as a result of the partnership, such as the ""Beyond Chocolate"" movement that has emerged to include social benefits such as farmer field schools focusing on increasing productivity, as well as forming new partnerships between private and public sector stakeholders to assess living income and prevent issues like sexual harassment. The initiative also looked closely at the indicators and limitations of positive effects of sustainable certifications, drawing on diverse studies including those of the Committee on Sustainability Assessment and others examining Fair Trade and [[Rainforest Alliance]] as effective vehicles for improving the livelihoods of farmers. The committee on Sustainability Assessment found modest evidence of improved net income, crop yield and sustainability practices among certified coffee & cocoa farmers across 12 countries, as opposed to non-certified coffee & cocoa farmers in the same countries. There were also indirect positive impacts from sustainability standards such as improved transparency in global value chains and marketability of certified goods. However, the findings from these studies show that while there may be small economic benefits to certified farmers, it is often not enough to significantly improve their quality of life, and since the cost burden of certification itself is the responsibility of the producer, the economic benefit is minimal. Even modest economic gains are not always distributed fairly, and there were noted cases of those in positions of authority benefiting more that farm laborers, female farmers, or farmers who are too poor to pay the upfront cost of certification.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Riding the wave of sustainable commodity sourcing: Review of the Sustainable Trade Initiative IDH 2008-2013|url=https://thecosa.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/riding-the-wave-of-sustainable-commodity-sourcing-review-of-the-sustainable-trade-initiative-idh-2008-2013.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-21|website=The COSA}}</ref><ref>Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands (2014). ''Riding the wave of sustainable commodity sourcing: Review of the Sustainable Trade Initiative IDH 2008-2013''. The Netherlands: Policy and Operations Evaluation Department (IOB).</ref>

=== Sweden ===
In [[Gothenburg]], the Meal Program, which sets a 50% organic quota (100% for meat) for all municipal facilities, was introduced. In 2010, [[Malmö]] set the goal of switching all its food procurement to organic products by 2020.<ref>''Sustainable Food for Thought in Malmö'', GPP Case studies, retrieved on 25. August 2020 ([https://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/pdf/casestudy4.pdf PDF; 119 kB])</ref>

===Switzerland===
The procurement platform Sustainability Compass is financed by Switzerland's [[Federal Department of Economic Affairs, Education and Research]] (SECO). Its guidelines recommend reducing the proportion of animal products and giving preference to plant products and organically and fairly produced goods.<ref>[https://www.kompass-nachhaltigkeit.de/en/ Sustainability Compass], ''Kompass Nachhaltigkeit'', retrieved on 25 August 2020</ref>

==Approaches==
While there is no strict definition on how organizations implement sustainable procurement, there are two approaches that can be combined:

===Product-based===

This is where an organization examines a products movement along the [[supply chain]] and assesses the [[Natural environment|environmental]] [[credentials]] of themselves and of their [[suppliers]]. This path is commonly used when an organization wishes to understand the impact of a product or product range for strategic and marketing purposes. This approach can also provide a vivid picture of supplier processes.

===Supplier-based===

An organization may analyze the CSR management systems of a supplier and whether its practices conform with law and with the CSR standards of ""buying"" organization. Thus, the organization measures the environmental and social risk a supplier may impose upon them. Implemented effectively, this method will show whether a supplier meets the environmental standards of the organization, along with whether suppliers are meeting the requirements of law. Some assessments improve the whole supply chain by providing incentives for other businesses to be more sustainable.
 
In order to assess the CSR Management systems, companies can use a variety of tools:

* self-assessment questionnaires
* B Corporation's free B Impact Assessment<ref>[https://bimpactassessment.net/ B Impact Assessment]</ref>
* Science Based Targets assessments
* on-site audits programs managed internally or through third parties<ref>[https://simfoni.com/supplier-diversity/ What is Supplier Diversity and Why is it Important?]</ref>

==See also==

*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Triple bottom line]]
*[[United Nations Environment Programme]]
*[[Government procurement]]
*[[Government procurement in the United States]]
*[[Top 100 Contractors of the U.S. federal government]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.sustainablepurchasing.org Sustainable Purchasing Leadership Council]
* [http://www.iclei-europe.org/topics/sustainable-procurement/ ICLEI Europe Sustainable Procurement Department] 
* [http://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/index_en.htm European Union Green public procurement (GPP)]
* [https://www.oecd.org/gov/public-procurement/green/ OECD's Green Public Procurement]

{{Sustainability}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Government procurement]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Complementary architecture,"{{Short description|Movement in contemporary architecture}}{{Neutrality|date=March 2023}}
{{Context|date=July 2023}}
'''Complementary architecture''' is a movement in [[contemporary architecture]] promoting [[Architecture|architectural]] {{Clarify|text=practice rooted in comprehensive understanding of context, aiming to contribute to the environment in such a way as to continue and improve or emphasise its preexisting qualities |date=July 2023}}{{Vague|date=July 2023}}. Indispensable features of complementary architecture include [[sustainability]], [[altruism]], [[contextualism]], [[endemism]] and [[Complementary architecture#Continuity in architecture|continuity]] of specific regional design language.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lev|first=Jiri|date=June 10, 2019|title=Manifesto Of Complementary Architecture|url=https://complementaryarchitecture.org/2019/06/10/manifesto-of-complementary-architecture/|access-date=2020-10-19|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022221620/https://complementaryarchitecture.org/2019/06/10/manifesto-of-complementary-architecture/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Complementary architecture occurs at the intersection of local pattern and design languages. A [[pattern language]] represents a set of more or less formalised rules of human interaction with built forms, resulting from practical solutions developed over time according to local culture and natural conditions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alexander|first=Christopher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mW7RCwAAQBAJ&q=a+pattern+language&pg=PR5|title=A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction|date=1977-08-25|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972653-0|language=en}}</ref> A [[design language]] in architecture is a set of geometrical (formal) and material standards used in buildings and other man-made structures, traditionally arising from local materials and their physical properties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krier|first=Leon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MchfvovmHeUC&q=architecture+of+community|title=The Architecture of Community|date=2009-05-08|publisher=Island Press|isbn=978-1-61091-124-5|language=en}}</ref>

Complementary architecture interprets the [[Vitruvius#De architectura|Vitruvian triad]] for contemporary use, mapping durability (''firmitas'') against aspects of broader sustainability, utility (''utilitas'') against altruism and service to society, and individual beauty (''venustas'') against harmony with broader context, regional identity and spirit of place.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite news|last=Lev|first=Jiri|date=2015|title=Manifesto of Complementary Architecture (MOCA)|edition=1st|location=Newcastle, Australia}}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last=Alexandru|first=Diana|title=Debate on the Presence/Absence of the Vitruvian Triad in the Current Architecture and Urban Design|url=https://www.academia.edu/10891976|language=en}}</ref>

== Continuity in architecture ==
Historically, building environments were produced in a continuous, evolutionary fashion rather than as singular revolutionary events.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Continuity in Architecture|url=https://larryspeck.com/writing/on-continuity-in-architecture/|access-date=2020-10-17|website=Larry Speck|language=en-US}}</ref> Complementary architecture involves systematic analysis of traditional techniques in the context of vibrant urban environments, aiming to rediscover sustainable, layered, nuanced, contextual and environmentally appropriate solutions for the present time.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Continuity in Architecture – Manchester School of Architecture|url=https://www.msa.ac.uk/study/march/cia/|access-date=2020-10-17|website=www.msa.ac.uk}}</ref>

== Applications ==
Practically all traditional [[vernacular architecture|vernacular]] and formal architecture produced prior to the 20th century is complementary architecture due to inherent material and cultural constraints, as are many works inspired by some contemporary movements such as [[contextual architecture]], [[indigenous architecture]], [[organic architecture]] or [[New Urbanism|new urbanism]]. 

Complementary architecture methodology is especially useful where contemporary development penetrates compact historical urban fabric.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wojciuk|first1=Natalia|last2=Milwicz|first2=Roman|last3=Nowotarski|first3=Piotr|date=2016-01-01|title=Analysis of The Urban Space Perception, Transformed Under the Influence of Complementary Architecture|journal=Procedia Engineering|series=World Multidisciplinary Civil Engineering-Architecture-Urban Planning Symposium 2016, WMCAUS 2016|language=en|volume=161|pages=1338–1342|doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.653|issn=1877-7058|doi-access=free}}</ref> Complementary design pays respect to its architectural context while carefully introducing contemporary design elements.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-26|title=A Complementary Architectural Dialogue of Past and Present in the Refurbishment of Hotel Fouquet Barrière|url=https://www.archdaily.com/915677/a-complementary-architectural-dialogue-of-past-and-present-in-the-refurbishment-of-hotel-fouquet-barriere|access-date=2020-10-17|website=ArchDaily|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Critical views ==
The movement specifically rejects the tendency of contemporary architects to construct buildings rather than cities, neglecting the fact that the value of a building stays in the architectural whole,<ref name="":1"" /> as well as [[Modern architecture|modernism's]] contrasting with nature or context for the sake of innovation as expedient and inevitably destructive.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Salingaros|first=Nikos A.|title=Unified Architectural Theory: Form, Language, Complexity|year=2013|publisher=Vajra Books |isbn=978-9937623056}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Glendinning|first=Miles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sToXiE68g10C|title=Architecture's Evil Empire?: The Triumph and Tragedy of Global Modernism|date=2010-10-15|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-981-1|language=en}}</ref> Adherents posit that in the 20th century the abdication of decorative elements and traditional forms was thought to be a sign of newly found simplicity, solidarity and sacrifice by the socialist and conveniently cost-efficient by the capitalist side of the political scene. By extension, that ""nearly every building completed prior to the 20th century was beautiful"" and that the matter of beauty in contemporary and future architecture as simply a matter of ""recovering old habits"".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Affairs|first=Current|title=Why You Hate Contemporary Architecture ❧ Current Affairs|url=https://www.currentaffairs.org/2017/10/why-you-hate-contemporary-architecture|access-date=2020-10-17|website=Current Affairs|language=en}}</ref>

== Contemporary examples ==
<gallery mode=""packed"">
File:Komplementäre Architektur Russia.png
File:City Gate, Valletta 002.jpg
File:Seaside Chaple BW.jpg
File:Basshall.JPG
File:Moscow (8351273413).jpg
File:Nice horses in front of a modern farmhouse, a typical Dutch scene - panoramio.jpg
File:Hus kring Grubbensparken 2014, 1.JPG
File:Saifivillage.JPG
File:Σαγράδα Φαμίλια 2941.jpg
File:Selwyn2.jpg
File:Tegelpråmen 1.JPG
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{portal|Architecture}}
* [[European Urban Renaissance]]
* [[Architectural design values]]
* [[Critical regionalism]]
* [[Sustainable architecture]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Architectural theory]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable architecture]]"
Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture,"{{Short description|Iowa State University center}}
The '''Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture''' (LCSA) is a center at [[Iowa State University]] devoted to the study and promotion of new techniques in [[sustainable agriculture]]. The goals of the Center are: “to identify and develop new ways to farm profitably while conserving natural resources as well as reducing negative environmental and social impacts.”<ref name=""iastate"">{{cite web|url=https://www.leopold.iastate.edu/leopold-center-sustainable-agriculture|title=Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture|website=leopold.iastate.edu|accessdate=2020-11-16}}</ref>
It is considered “one of the top institutions supporting research on agricultural techniques that prioritize sustainability and conservation in the context of profitable farming.”<ref>{{cite news |last=Mayer|first=Amy |date=2017-05-18 |title=ISU's Leopold Center Stays ""Alive For Another Day"" |url=https://www.iowapublicradio.org/agriculture/2017-05-18/isus-leopold-center-stays-alive-for-another-day |work=Iowa Public Radio |access-date=2020-11-19}}</ref>

==History==
The center is named for [[Aldo Leopold]], a native of [[Burlington, Iowa]].

It was created in 1987 as part of the Iowa Groundwater Protection Act, for which Representative [[Paul Wesley Johnson|Paul Johnson]] was the Iowa House floor manager.

Between 1987 and 2017, the Center awarded more than 500 research grants to study agriculture issues like conservation buffers, [[rotational grazing]], and building local food economies. While Leopold's focus is on Iowa's specific food and farm landscape, many of its findings have had a national and international impact.<ref name=""iastate""/>

About 75 to 85 percent of the Iowa's nutrient reduction strategies have come through the Leopold Center. It research on [[cover crops]], [[buffer strip]]s, saturated buffers, bioreactors and wetlands and other practices has been widely used to offset nutrient and soil losses.

Mark Rasmussen is the current Leopold Center director. A 17-member Advisory Board advises the director on policies, budget, and program review.

The center funded a robotic mechanical weeder project that aims to build a lightweight, energy-efficient, ATV-size robot that could destroy weeds without chemicals in row crops. The energy cost could be less than one fifth of the energy required in conventional weeding.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dietz|first=John |date=2015-05-11 |title=ROBOTIC WEEDERS |url=https://www.agriculture.com/technology/robotics/robotic-weeders_581-ar48733 |work=Successful Farming |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref>

==Budget cuts==
In 2017, the Leopold Center was defunded in budget cuts made by Iowa's state government.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cox|first1=Kate |last2=Brown|first2=Claire |date=2019-01-31 |title=US academics feel the invisible hand of politicians and big agriculture |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jan/31/us-academics-feel-the-invisible-hand-of-politicians-and-big-agriculture|work=The Guardian |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref> Without state funds, the center will no longer offer grants to academic researchers, working farmers, or field-to-table advocacy programs. Students at ISU will no longer be able to receive financial support for advanced degrees in sustainable agriculture.<ref>{{cite news |last=Charis-Carlson|first=Jeff |date=2017-08-02 |title=With state funding cut, what's next for ISU's Leopold Center? |url=https://www.press-citizen.com/story/news/2017/08/02/leopold-center-iowa-budget-cuts-leave-questions-over-whats-next/484403001/|work=Iowa City Press-Citizen |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref> Due to the cuts, five of the center's staff members were let go, leaving just director Rasmussen and distinguished fellow [[Fred Kirschenmann]]. The Center moved into a smaller office and downsized 30 years of records. They received a commitment from ISU, to keep the center's website up with all past research searchable in the university database.

Many believe the influence of [[agribusiness]] on legislators leads to a lack of willingness to support the center. A grassroots coalition of current students of the ISU Graduate Program in Sustainable Agriculture, emeritus faculty and alumni of ISU, farmers, and members of [[Iowa Farmers Union]], [[Iowa Environmental Council]], [[Center for Rural Affairs]], [[Women, Food and Agriculture Network]], ISU Sustainable Agriculture Student Association, and [[Practical Farmers of Iowa]] was formed to revive the center and to educate the public of Center's mission and activities.<ref name=""iowasustainableag"">{{cite web|url=https://iowasustainableag.com/about-us/|title=About Us &#124; Iowa Sustainable Agriculture|website=iowasustainableag.com|accessdate=2020-11-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Eller|first=Donnelle  |date=2017-10-13 |title=Leopold Center's battle for new life begins with Iowa farmers, commodity groups |url=https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/money/agriculture/2017/10/13/leopold-centers-battle-new-life-begins-iowa-farmers-commodity-groups/755624001/ |work=The Des Moines Register |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Collins|first=John |date=2017-06-23 |title=Rethink This Iowa: Do Not Gut the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture |url=https://inthesetimes.com/article/iowa-leopold-center-for-sustainable-agriculture-water-soil-cafos-nitrates|work=In These Times |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref>

The legislation was introduced by state representatives [[Charles Isenhart]] and [[Beth Wessel-Kroeschell]] to fund the center. The bill would make $1&nbsp;million in annual public funding available to the center if ISU's president first raised the same amount in private funds. Together, the $2&nbsp;million would equal the Leopold Center's pre-cutback budget.<ref>{{cite news |last=Held|first=Lisa |date=2018-02-14 |title=Can the Leopold Center be Saved? |url=https://civileats.com/2018/02/14/can-the-leopold-center-be-saved/ |work=Civil Eats |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Held|first=Lisa |date=2017-05-05 |title=Leopold Center Avoids Shut-Down, but its Future Remains Uncertain |url=https://civileats.com/2017/05/05/the-leopold-center-for-sustainable-agriculture-faces-a-shut-down/|work=Civil Eats |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|url=https://www.leopold.iastate.edu/leopold-center-sustainable-agriculture|title=Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture|website=leopold.iastate.edu|accessdate=2020-11-16}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in Iowa]]
[[Category:Agricultural education]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Iowa]]
[[Category:Iowa State University]]
[[Category:Organic farming organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Agroecology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:1987 establishments in Iowa]]"
Vermont Dairy Festival,"{{short description|American annual event}}
{{use mdy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox recurring event
|name              =  Vermont Dairy Festival
|native_name       = 
|native_name_lang  = 
|nickname          = 
|logo              = 
|logo_alt          = 
|logo_caption      = 
|logo_size         = 
|image             = 
|image_size        = 
|alt               = 
|caption           = 
|status            = <!-- e.g. defunct, active, inactive ... -->
|genre             = <!-- e.g. natural phenomena, fairs, festivals, conferences, exhibitions ... -->
|date              = <!-- {{start date|YYYY|mm|dd}} ""dates="" also works, but do not use both -->
|begins            = <!-- {{start date|YYYY|mm|dd}} -->
|ends              = <!-- {{end date|YYYY|mm|dd}} -->
|frequency         = <!-- Weekly, Monthly, Quarterly, Semi-annually, Annually, Bi-annually, 2nd Tuesday of November, etc. -->
|venue             = 
|location          = Vermont
|coordinates       = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LON|type:event|display=inline,title}} --> 
|country           = United States
|years_active      = <!-- {{age|YYYY|mm|dd}} Date of the first occurrence -->
|first             = <!-- {{start date|YYYY|mm|dd}} ""founded="" and ""established="" also work -->
|founder_name      = <!-- or | founders = -->
|last              = <!-- Date of most recent event; if the event will not be held again, use {{End date|YYYY|MM|DD|df=y}} -->
|prev              = 
|next              = 
|participants      = 
|attendance        = 
|capacity          = 
|area              = 
|budget            = 
|activity          = 
|leader_name       = 
|patron            = 
|organised         = <!-- ""organized="" also works -->
|filing            = 
|people            = 
|member            = 
|sponsor           = <!-- | or sponsors = -->
|website           = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
|current           = 
|footnotes         = 
}}
The '''Vermont Dairy Festival''' is an annual festival dedicated to the [[Vermont dairy industry]], typically held on the first weekend of June in [[Enosburg Falls, Vermont]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/story/news/2018/09/25/history-space-tales-enosburgh/37938121/|title=History Space: Tales of Enosburgh|first=Janice Fleury|last=Geraw|website=The Burlington Free Press}}</ref>

==History==
The Vermont Dairy Festival was first held in 1956. Initially known as Dairy Days with a focus on celebrating the dairy industry for farmers,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hardie |first=Laura |title=History Space: Celebration of VT family farms |url=https://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/story/news/2017/06/04/history-space-celebration-vt-family-farms/102462420/ |website=The Burlington Free Press}}</ref> it eventually became the Franklin County Dairy Festival and then the Vermont Dairy Festival.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lancasterfarming.com/news/northern_edition/in-a-tough-year-dairy-festival-provides-needed-break/article_8adc0042-1a75-57a7-bb1c-5bf8a12ba07c.html|title=In a Tough Year, Dairy Festival Provides Needed Break|first=Leon|last=Thompson|website=Lancaster Farming}}</ref>

It is run by the Enosburg Falls [[Lions Club]] and proceeds from the festival are disbursed to local community causes and organizations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vtdigger.org/2016/05/30/60th-annual-vermont-dairy-festival-to-be-held-june-2-5/|title=60th Annual Vermont Dairy Festival to Be Held June 2–5|date=May 30, 2016|website=VTDigger}}</ref> About 20,000 people attended the event in past years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/story/news/local/vermont/2014/06/07/dairy-festival-draws-thousands-enosburg-falls/10171433/|title=Dairy Festival draws thousands to Enosburg Falls|first=Lynn|last=Monty|website=The Burlington Free Press}}</ref>

In 2020 and again in 2021, it was cancelled due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.samessenger.com/news/vermont-dairy-festival-cancelled-amid-covid-19-outbreak/article_8aaf7076-736b-11ea-91b2-6fe754e1c998.html|title=Vermont Dairy Festival cancelled amid COVID-19 outbreak|website=Saint Albans Messenger}}</ref> The festival resumed in 2022, with farmers recognizing consumer concerns with the [[Environmental impacts of animal agriculture|environmental impacts of dairy farming]], stating that the festival would be an educational opportunity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Borden |first=Elissa |date=2022-06-03 |title=Vermont Dairy Festival underway in Enosburg Falls |url=https://www.wcax.com/2022/06/03/vermont-dairy-festival-underway-enosburg-falls/ |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=WCAX |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official|http://www.vermontdairyfestival.com}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Enosburg, Vermont|e]]
[[Category:Parades in the United States]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Vermont]]


{{US-festival-stub}}"
Sterling College (Vermont),"{{Short description|Work college in Craftsbury, Vermont, US}}
{{Infobox university
 | name                   = Sterling College
 | image                  = 
 | image_size             = 
 | caption                = 
 | motto                  = Ecological Thinking and Action
 | established            = {{start date and age|1958}} (as a boys' preparatory school)
 | type                   = [[Private college|Private]] [[work college]]
 | accreditation          = [[New England Commission of Higher Education|NECHE]]
 | endowment              = $1.1 million
 | total_staff            = 34
 | faculty                = 11<ref name=""petersons"">{{cite web|url=http://www.petersons.com/ugchannel/code/instvc.asp?inunid=8863|title=College Overview - Sterling College|accessdate=2007-01-26|date=2006-10-23|work =Peterson's}}</ref>
 | president              = Scott Thomas
 | students               = 100
 | city                   = [[Craftsbury, Vermont|Craftsbury Common]]
 | state                  = [[Vermont]]
 | country                = United States
 | coor                   = {{coord|44.6523|-72.3823|type:edu_region:US-VT|display=inline,title}}
 | campus                 = Rural
 | colors                 = 
 | mascot                 = 
 | nickname               = 
 | footnotes              = 
 | website                = {{URL|https://www.sterlingcollege.edu/}}
 | logo                   = Sterling-College-Logo.png
}}

'''Sterling College''' is a [[Private college|private]] [[work college]] in [[Craftsbury, Vermont]]. Its curriculum is focused on ecological thinking and action through a major in Environmental Studies with concentrations in Ecology, Environmental Humanities, Outdoor Education, and Sustainable Agriculture & Food Systems. The college is accredited by the [[New England Commission of Higher Education]].

==History==
'''Sterling School''' was founded as a boys' college preparatory school in 1958. The school's educational philosophy was later influenced by that of [[Outward Bound]] founder [[Kurt Hahn]]. The school's transition to higher education in the 1970s began with the Academic Short Course in Outdoor Leadership, a 21-day program. In 1974, Sterling School was faced with closure and a small group of faculty launched the educational model that became Sterling College.

In 1974, a small group of faculty established an academic year-long program similar to [[Outward Bound]] programs known as Grassroots Project in Vermont at Sterling Institute. By 1983, Sterling had developed into an accredited college offering an Associate of Arts degree in resource management with full accreditation by the [[New England Association of Schools and Colleges]] granted in 1987.

Since 1997, Sterling College has been accredited as a four-year college. It awards Bachelor of Arts degrees in Ecology, Environmental Humanities, Outdoor Education, and Sustainable Agriculture & Food Systems. Sterling College joined the Work Colleges Consortium in 1999.

In 2013, Sterling College announced that it would be the first college in Vermont, and the third college in the nation, to divest its endowment from fossil fuel extractors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gofossilfree.org/commitments/ |title=Fossil Free – Commitments |publisher=Gofossilfree.org |date= |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref>

On April 11th, 2023, Scott L. Thomas was announced as Sterling's 12th president; he began on July 1.<ref>{{Cite web |last=D'Auria |first=Peter |date=2023-04-13 |title=Sterling College names University of Wyoming administrator as new president |url=https://vtdigger.org/2023/04/13/sterling-college-names-university-of-wyoming-administrator-as-new-president/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=VTDigger |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Academics==
[[File:Sunflowers Sterling College (Vermont).jpg|thumbnail|a solar panel at Sterling College]]

Sterling College offers associate and bachelor's degrees. It was the first college in the nation to offer a minor in [[Draft horse|Draft Horse Management]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://farmprogress.com/story-minor-draft-horsing-well-yes-sterling-college-9-101784 |title=Minor In Draft Horsing? Well Yes, At Sterling College |publisher=Farmprogress.com |date=2013-08-30 |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref>

In 2013, Sterling College created the Rian Fried Center for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems. Named for the late trustee, it is the center point for the college's focus on sustainable agriculture and sustainable food systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wamc.org/post/sterling-college-launches-sustainable-ag-and-food-systems-center |title=Sterling College Launches Sustainable Ag and Food Systems Center |publisher=WAMC |date=2013-08-27 |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref>

Sterling College also launched a continuing education program in 2013, with a series of 2- and 4-week short courses. The first course offered was a two-week cheese-making intensive in partnership with the Cellars at Jasper Hill.<ref>{{cite web|last=Palmer |first=Hannah |url=http://www.sevendaysvt.com/vermont/sterling-college-introduces-artisan-cheesemaking-intensive/Content?oid=2295816 |title=Sterling College Introduces Artisan Cheesemaking Intensive &#124; Food News &#124; Seven Days &#124; Vermont's Independent Voice |publisher=Sevendaysvt.com |date= |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref> Other courses feature guest faculty such as [[Sandor Katz]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Levitt |first=Alice |url=http://www.sevendaysvt.com/BiteClub/archives/2014/01/29/sandor-katz-to-teach-fermentation-at-sterling-college |title=Sandor Katz to Teach Fermentation at Sterling College &#124; Bite Club |publisher=Sevendaysvt.com |date=2014-01-29 |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref> [[John Elder (nature writer)|John Elder]], [[Rowan Jacobsen]], [[Ginger Strand]], and [[Clare Walker Leslie]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vtdigger.org/2014/02/24/new-writing-workshop-announced-sterling-college/ |title=New writing workshop announced at Sterling College |publisher=Vtdigger.org |date=2014-02-24 |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref>

==Campus==
The primary campus is {{convert|130|acres}}. It has 14 buildings, including a woodworking shop and a library. Outdoor teaching facilities include a managed woodlot, a challenge course, a {{convert|30|ft}} climbing tower, managed gardens, and a working livestock farm with two solar-powered barns. Much of what is grown and raised on campus is consumed in the dining hall. Sterling produces approximately 35% of its own food, with an overall 53% coming from within a 150-mile radius of the college.<ref>{{cite web|title=FOR THE THIRD CONSECUTIVE YEAR, STERLING COLLEGE IS #1 FOR REAL FOOD|url=https://sterlingcollege.edu/news-room/real-food-for-third-year/|publisher=Sterling College|accessdate=23 April 2018}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.sterlingcollege.edu/ Official website]

{{Colleges and universities in Vermont}}
{{Work Colleges Consortium}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Craftsbury, Vermont]]
[[Category:Private universities and colleges in Vermont]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 1958]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Craftsbury, Vermont]]
[[Category:Education in Orleans County, Vermont]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Orleans County, Vermont]]
[[Category:1958 establishments in Vermont]]
[[Category:Work colleges]]
[[Category: Agricultural education]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Agroecology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Practical Farmers of Iowa,"{{Multiple issues|
{{notability|Organizations|date=April 2016}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2021}}
}}

{{Infobox Non-profit
| name = Practical Farmers of Iowa
| formation = 1985
| type = Nonprofit
| founded_date = 1985
| founder = Dick & Sharon Thompson, Larry Kallem
| first president = 
| location_city = Ames, IA
| location_country = USA
| location = [[Ames, Iowa]]
| area_served = Iowa
| origins = 
| key_people = 
| focus = [[Sustainable Agriculture]]
| method = Research, Develop, Promote
| revenue = 
| expenses = 
| num_volunteers = 
| owner = 
| homepage = 
| dissolved = 
| website = 
| footnotes = 
}}

'''Practical Farmers of Iowa''' (also known as PFI or Practical Farmers) is a [[Nonprofit organization|non-profit]] farmer-led organization with over 6,000 members from Iowa and beyond. Farmers in their network raise corn and soybeans, hay, livestock large and small, horticultural crops from fruits and vegetables to cut flowers and herbs, and more. Members have conventional and organic systems; employ diverse management practices; run operations of all sizes; and come from a range of backgrounds. 

== History ==
Practical Farmers of Iowa was founded in 1985, a time when farmers were under great economic pressure. During that time, Iowa agriculture was in a threefold crisis: Evidence of the negative ecological consequences of current farming practices was mounting; the collapse of commodity prices called into question the economic sustainability of agriculture; and the demise of thousands of farms was draining the vitality of rural communities. Amid the turmoil of that time period, farmers sought ways to bring greater diversity to their farms as a means of reducing the need for costly inputs. A group of like-minded farmers came together looking for answers to how to make crop and livestock diversity work for them.

It was during this time that Larry Kallem, a staff member with the Iowa Institute for Cooperatives in Ames, attended a field day at the Boone-area farm of Dick and Sharon Thompson. Impressed by the scientific methods the Thompson used to conduct research trials on their farm – and their sustainable, low-input, practical approach to farming – Larry invited Dick, Sharon and two other speakers to present at an Iowa Institute workshop on low-input farming in the autumn of 1984.

Early work focused on field crops and livestock. Today, PFI's membership comprises over 6,000 farmers and friends of farmers located across Iowa and beyond.

== Board of Directors ==
Practical Farmers of Iowa is governed by a 12-person board of directors. To ensure a focus on members’ priorities, 10 of the 12 board members must be farmers. One farmer director is elected from each of our five Iowa districts. Additionally, five farmers and two non-farmers are elected from the membership at-large. Board members serve in many capacities, from ensuring fiscal soundness and effective programs to providing leadership, advice and direction to staff and volunteers.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Agricultural organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Agricultural education]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Iowa]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:1985 establishments in Iowa]]"
Sancroft International,"'''Sancroft International''' is a London-based international [[sustainability]] consultancy company founded in 1997 <ref>Sancroft International, [https://sancroft.com/who-we-are Who we are], accessed 23 August 2021</ref> and chaired by former UK [[Conservative Party (UK)|conservative]] MP [[John Gummer]], now a member of the [[House of Lords]] (Lord Deben). Several other members of the Gummer family are involved in running the business.<ref>[[Sunday Times]], [https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/prufrock-a-great-job-for-the-tory-boy-as-all-is-forgiven-pg3dw2nflfx Prufrock: A great job for the Tory boy as all is forgiven], published 25 February 2007, accessed 3 January 2021</ref>

Recently published reports have investigated topics including [[Plastic|sustainable plastics]], [[energy infrastructure]],<ref>Sancroft International, [https://sancroft.com/reports-insights/ Reports & Insights], accessed 3 January 2021</ref> and [[modern slavery]] in [[public procurement]].<ref>Sancroft and Tussell, [https://sancroft.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/The-Sancroft-Tussell-Report-1.pdf  The Sancroft-Tussell Report: Eliminating modern slavery in public procurement], second edition, accessed 24 August 2021</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Organisations based in London]]


{{Sustainability-stub}}"
Operation Sustainable Human,"{{Short description|2019 non-fiction book by Chris Macdonald}}
{{Orphan|date=January 2022}}

{{Infobox book
| name              = Operation Sustainable Human
| author            = Dr Chris Macdonald
| image             = Operation_Sustainable_Human_book_cover.jpg
| genre             = non-fiction
| language          = English
| isbn              = 978-1-7752528-3-2
}}
'''Operation Sustainable Human''' is a 2019 book by Dr Chris Macdonald<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr Chris Macdonald {{!}} Lucy Cavendish |url=https://www.lucy.cam.ac.uk/fellows/dr-chris-macdonald |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=www.lucy.cam.ac.uk}}</ref> about optimised climate action.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Episode 96: Operation Sustainable Human|url=https://www.sciencescholarspodcast.com/eps/2020/1/17/episode-96-operation-sustainable-human|access-date=2021-01-07|website=The Science Scholars Podcast|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2019-10-03|title=Operation Sustainable Human Review by Readers' Favorite|url=https://readersfavorite.com/book-review/operation-sustainable-human|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-07|website=Readers' Favorite|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=7 December 2019|title=Operation Sustainable Human radio discussion|url=https://www.healthylivinghealthyplanetradio.com/guests/chris-macdonald|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-07|website=Healthy Living, Healthy Planet Radio|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Operation Sustainable Human Review by Andy Carr for IndieReader|url=https://indiereader.com/book_review/operation-sustainable-human/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-07|website=IndieReader|language=en-US}}</ref> The book briefly outlines the main [[Effects of climate change|challenges of climate change]] and largely focuses on the most impactful [[Climate change mitigation|climate solutions]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2019-11-08|title=Operation Sustainable Human Review by Megan Thomas for Have You Read This?|url=https://haveyoureadthis.co.uk/2019/11/08/operation-sustainable-human/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-07|website=Have You Read This|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-22|title=Earth Day 2020 – Non-Fiction Books You Should be Reading|url=https://thereadingmillennial.com/2020/04/22/earth-day-2020-non-fiction-books-you-should-be-reading/|access-date=2021-01-07|website=The Reading Millennial|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Takeaways from the climate summit|url=https://theecologist.org/2019/sep/25/takeaways-climate-summit|access-date=2021-01-07|website=theecologist.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2019-12-14|title=Operation Sustainable Human a discussion|url=https://thereadingmillennial.com/2019/12/14/operation-sustainable-human-by-chris-macdonald/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-07|website=The Reading Millennial|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y3zCyQEACAAJ|title=Operation Sustainable Human: A Four-step Scientific Guide to Combat Climate Change (high Impact Made Simple)|date=2019-09-09|publisher=Illuminate Press|isbn=978-1-7752528-3-2|location=|pages=|language=en}}</ref>

== Overview ==
The book argues that the current global economic system, which is based on the principles of perpetual growth and consumption, is not sustainable in the long term and is contributing to [[environmental degradation]], climate change, and other crises. The book proposes a new ethical framework for sustainable development, which is based on principles of intergenerational equity, environmental stewardship, and social justice.

""Operation Sustainable Human"" argues that in order to address the environmental challenges facing humanity, we need to fundamentally rethink our relationship with the natural world and adopt a more holistic and integrated approach to sustainable development. The book calls for a global shift towards a sustainable, circular, and regenerative economy, and outlines a roadmap for how we can achieve this vision.

The book draws on insights from philosophy, economics, and environmental science, as well as case studies from around the world, to explore how we can build a more sustainable and just future for ourselves and for future generations. It is a thought-provoking and inspiring work that challenges readers to think deeply about their own values and responsibilities in the face of the environmental challenges we all face.

== Tagline ==
A four-step scientific guide to combat climate change (high impact made simple)

== Publications ==
* Macdonald, Chris. ''Operation Sustainable Human''. Illuminate Press. {{ISBN|978-1-7752528-3-2}}. Paperback edition
* Macdonald, Chris. ''Operation Sustainable Human''. Illuminate Press. {{ISBN|978-1-7752528-4-9}}. Kindle edition
* Macdonald, Chris. ''Operation Sustainable Human''. Illuminate Press. {{ISBN|978-1-7752528-5-6}}. Audiobook edition
* Macdonald, Chris. ''Operation Sustainable Human''. Illuminate Press. {{ISBN|978-1-7752528-6-3}}. Hardback edition

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Environment and society]]
[[Category:Climate action plans]]
[[Category:2019 non-fiction books]]


{{climate-change-book-stub}}"
Infrastructure Transitions Research Consortium,"The UK [[Infrastructure]] Transitions Research Consortium (ITRC)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mullally|first=Paul|date=2013-10-14|title=ITRCbrochure1|url=https://www.landecon.cam.ac.uk/pdf-files/cv/pete-tyler/itrcbrochure1.pdf|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.landecon.cam.ac.uk|language=en}}</ref> was established in January 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Environment|title=UK Infrastructure Transitions Research Consortium (ITRC): PROGRAMME GRANT: Long term dynamics of interdependent infrastructure systems|url=https://environment.leeds.ac.uk/geography-research/dir-record/research-projects/660/uk-infrastructure-transitions-research-consortium-itrc-programme-grant-long-term-dynamics-of-interdependent-infrastructure-systems|access-date=2021-01-28|website=environment.leeds.ac.uk|language=en}}</ref> The ITRC provides data and modelling to help governments, policymakers and other stakeholders in infrastructure make more sustainable and resilient infrastructure decisions. It is a collaboration between seven universities and more than 55 partners from infrastructure policy and practice.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Partners {{!}} ITRC|url=https://www.itrc.org.uk/about-us/partners/|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.itrc.org.uk}}</ref>

During its first research programme, running from 2011 to 2016,<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2016-01-01|title=UK Infrastructure Transitions Research Consortium (ITRC): PROGRAMME GRANT: Long term dynamics of interdependent infrastructure systems|url=https://gtr.ukri.org/project/E0703D44-D1E6-4A8B-96E0-E665E6330DB6|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-28|website=UK Research and Innovation}}</ref> ITRC developed the world's first national infrastructure system-of-systems model, known as NISMOD (National Infrastructure Systems Model)<ref>{{Cite web|title=GeoConnexion article – NISMOD-DB – Geospatial Engineering @ Newcastle University|url=https://blogs.ncl.ac.uk/geospatialengineering/2016/07/06/geoconnexion-article-nismod-db/|access-date=2021-01-28|language=en-US}}</ref> which has been used to analyse long-term investment strategies for energy, transport, digital communications, water, waste water and solid waste. This work is described in the book 'The Future of National Infrastructure',<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/future-of-national-infrastructure/7D4DF0295A9D8A7304E6C87204BAA0EA|title=The Future of National Infrastructure: A System-of-Systems Approach|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-06602-1|editor-last=Hall|editor-first=Jim W.|location=Cambridge|doi=10.1017/CBO9781107588745 |editor-last2=Tran|editor-first2=Martino|editor-last3=Hickford|editor-first3=Adrian J.|editor-last4=Nicholls|editor-first4=Robert J.}}</ref> an introduction to the NISMOD models and tools describing their application to inform infrastructure planning in Britain.

The second phase of this programme (2016-2021) is called ITRC-MISTRAL where MISTRAL stands for Multi-Scale Infrastructure Systems Analytics.<ref>{{Cite web|last=author|first=EPSRC|title=Grants on the web|url=https://gow.epsrc.ukri.org/NGBOViewGrant.aspx?GrantRef=EP/N017064/1|access-date=2021-01-28|website=gow.epsrc.ukri.org|language=en}}</ref> MISTRAL allowed ITRC to develop the national-scale modelling in ITRC to simulate infrastructure at city, regional and global scales.

Based in the [[University of Oxford|University of Oxford 's]] Environmental Change Institute,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Environmental Change Institute - University of Oxford|url=https://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.eci.ox.ac.uk}}</ref> ITRC is led by Director [[Jim Hall (civil engineer)|Jim Hall]] who is also Professor of Environmental Risks at the University of Oxford.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jim Hall {{!}} University of Oxford - Academia.edu|url=https://oxford.academia.edu/JimHall|access-date=2021-01-28|website=oxford.academia.edu}}</ref>

'''Funding:''' The ITRC is funded by two programme grants from the UK Engineering and Physical Science and Research Council (EPSRC). The 2011-2016 ITRC programme grant was £4.7m<ref>{{Cite web|last=author|first=EPSRC|title=Grants on the web|url=https://gow.epsrc.ukri.org/NGBOViewGrant.aspx?GrantRef=EP/I01344X/1|access-date=2021-01-28|website=gow.epsrc.ukri.org|language=en}}</ref> and the 2016-2021 grant, for ITRC-MISTRAL, is £5.4m.<ref>{{Cite web|last=author|first=EPSRC|title=Grants on the web|url=https://gow.epsrc.ukri.org/NGBOViewGrant.aspx?GrantRef=EP/N017064/1|access-date=2021-01-28|website=gow.epsrc.ukri.org|language=en}}</ref>

'''Consortium:''' The seven universities making up the ITRC consortium are: [[University of Southampton]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Infrastructure Transitions Research Consortium {{!}} Engineering {{!}} University of Southampton|url=https://www.southampton.ac.uk/engineering/research/projects/infrastructure_transitions_research_consortium.page|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.southampton.ac.uk}}</ref> University of Oxford, [[Newcastle University]], [[Cardiff University DofE Award Society|Cardiff University]], [[University of Cambridge]], [[University of Leeds]] and [[University of Sussex]].

'''Partners:''' ITRC's partners are from across the infrastructure sector.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Partners {{!}} ITRC|url=https://www.itrc.org.uk/about-us/partners/|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.itrc.org.uk}}</ref> They include infrastructure investors such as the [[World Bank]], consultancies including [[Ordnance Survey]] and [[KPMG]], providers such as [[Siemens]], [[HS2|High Speed 2 (HS2)]], [[Network Rail]] and [[National Grid (Great Britain)|National Grid]], policy-makers (i.e. [[Environment Agency]]) and regulatory bodies ([[Ofcom|OFCOM]]).

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Climate action plans]]
[[Category:Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council]]
[[Category:Infrastructure]]
[[Category:Infrastructure by country]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Technology consortia]]"
North Campus Open Space,"{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2023}}
'''North Campus Open Space''' ('''NCOS''') is a {{convert|136|acre||adj=mid| wetland and upland restoration project}} in [[Goleta, California]]. Located on a former golf course, NCOS is managed by the [[Cheadle Center for Biodiversity and Ecological Restoration]] (CCBER), a research center under the Office of Research at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] (UCSB). The primary objectives of this project are: the restoration of the historic upper half of Devereux Slough and adjacent upland and wetland habitats that support important local native plant and animal species (including rare and threatened species), reducing flood risk, providing a buffer against predicted [[sea level rise]], and contributing to [[carbon sequestration]] while also supporting public access and outreach, and facilitating research and educational opportunities for all members of the community.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|last=Noozhawk|title=Community Celebrates Launch of Estuary Restoration Project at UCSB North Campus|url=https://www.noozhawk.com/article/community_celebrates_launch_of_estuariy_restoration_project_at_north_campu|access-date=2021-02-22|website=www.noozhawk.com|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:NCOScelebration.jpg|thumb|279x279px|Members of the collaborative effort to establish the NCOS restoration project, including Chancellor Yang, celebrate the project launch at a groundbreaking ceremony in April, 2017.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|title=CCBER News {{!}} CCBER|url=https://www.ccber.ucsb.edu/news-events/ccber-blog|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.ccber.ucsb.edu|language=en}}</ref>]]

== Overview ==
The NCOS project aims to restore the ecological conditions that existed in this location before the Ocean Meadows golf course was built in the 1960s. During construction of the golf course, the wetland habitat was filled with topsoil from the surrounding area. Since the [[Industrial Revolution]], more than 90% of California's coastal wetland habitats have been lost due to development, construction of dams, and destruction of connectivity between ecosystems.<ref name="":1"" /> Wetlands provide important [[ecosystem service]]s such as erosion control, water quality maintenance, and fish and wildlife habitat. Wetlands also act as major buffers to sea level rise and increased storm surge, both associated with ongoing climate change.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|title=California's Disappearing Wetlands Face New Perils|url=https://defenders.org/blog/2017/08/californias-disappearing-wetlands-face-new-perils|access-date=2021-02-22|website=Defenders of Wildlife|language=en}}</ref> Ecological restoration at NCOS plans to restore these ecosystem services for the benefit of the surrounding community and interconnecting ecosystems.

== History and funding ==
[[File:Lisa-Stratton-Award-USFWS.jpg|thumb|Lisa Stratton, the Director of Ecosystem Management at CCBER, holds an award gifted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife service for her efforts and involvement in the NCOS restoration project. Photo by Robyn Gerstenslager.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|last=McConnell|first=Ashley|date=June 4, 2019|title=From ""birdies"" to bird habitat|url=https://www.fws.gov/cno/newsroom/featured/2019/birdies_to_bird_habitat/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=US Fish and Wildlife Service - Pacific Southwest Region|language=en}}</ref> |256x256px]]
In 2013, [[The Trust for Public Land]] purchased 63 acres of the former golf course with $7 million of grant funding from several federal, state, and local agencies, and gifted the property to The Regents of the University of California.<ref name="":0"" /> Integration of surrounding uplands has created the 136-acre expanse of protected land that makes up NCOS today.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bringing Back Mother Nature|url=https://www.news.ucsb.edu/2016/016506/bringing-back-mother-nature|access-date=2021-02-22|website=The UCSB Current|language=en}}</ref> The Regents of the University of California, with the help of local environmental agencies and research centers like CCBER, is now in charge of long-term ecological restoration and stewardship of this open space. Restoration efforts at NCOS, directed by CCBER, began in 2017 and continue today.

The primary funders for this project are the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]], the [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife]], [[California Department of Transportation|Caltrans]], the [[California Natural Resources Agency]], the Department of Water Resources Urban Streams program, the [[California Coastal Conservancy|State Coastal Conservancy]], the Ocean Protection Council, and the Wildlife Conservation Board, along with other environmental agencies.<ref name="":0"" />

== Ecological Restoration ==
Restoration at NCOS began with the excavation and relocation of approximately 350,000 cubic yards of topsoil that was used to fill the wetland in the mid-1960s for creating the Ocean Meadows golf course.<ref name="":0"" /> Before the restoration project began, the golf course would often flood during winter storms, and this posed a growing flood risk associated with climate change for immediately adjacent neighborhoods.<ref name="":4"" /> Restoration efforts have lowered the floodplain by nearly two feet, removing local residents from the flood plain entirely.<ref name="":2"" /> All of the soil excavated to restore the upper half of Devereux Slough was carefully placed on the southwestern portion of the site to form a mesa where a native perennial grassland and other habitats are being restored. Other restoration efforts include the removal of non-native species, and restoration and reintroduction of native species. In 2018, 60 percent of the 80 acres to be vegetated had been planted; 37 acres of wetlands were being restored and regaining function, and wildlife species were increasingly using the habitat features placed by [[Cheadle_Center_for_Biodiversity_and_Ecological_Restoration|CCBER]].<ref name="":2"" />

=== Rare Species Conservation ===
[[File:960-Mike-Michael-L-Baird 1.jpg|thumb|The western snowy plover is a shorebird that remains in decline due to habitat loss, human disturbance, and other factors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Western Snowy Plover - Channel Islands National Park (U.S. National Park Service)|url=https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/nature/snowy-plover.htm|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.nps.gov|language=en}}</ref>]]The restoration of NCOS is supporting the recovery of rare, threatened and/or endangered species including but not limited to the [[Western_snowy_plover|Western Snowy Plover]], [[California_least_tern|California Least Tern]], [[Burrowing_owl|Burrowing Owl]], [[Bombus_crotchii|Crotch's Bumblebee]], [[Western_pond_turtle|Western Pond Turtle]], Belding's [[Savannah_sparrow|Savannah Sparrow]] and the [https://wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Plants/Endangered/Astragalus-pycnostachyus-var-lanosissimus Ventura marsh milk-vetch].<ref name="":4"" />

==== Western Snowy Plover ====
[[Coal_Oil_Point_seep_field|Coal Oil Point Reserve]], a protected area adjacent to NCOS, boasts one of the most productive populations of the Western Snowy Plover, a rare and threatened shorebird species. Western Snowy Plovers have begun using the sand flat habitat at NCOS that is specifically designed for them.<ref name="":4"" />

==== Ventura marsh milk-vetch ====
[[File:Ventura marsh milk-vetch (14717834291).jpg|thumb|221x221px|Ventura marsh milk-vetch, a once extinct plant species is one of the rare plants being restored at NCOS.<ref name="":4"" />]]This species was extinct in the area for 30 years before it was discovered in Oxnard when [[United_States_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife]] staff were surveying a proposed development site near [[Mandalay_State_Beach|Mandalay Beach]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Noozhawk|title=UCSB Botanists Help Once-extinct Native Plant Find New Life|url=https://www.noozhawk.com/article/ucsb_botanists_help_once_extinct_native_plant_find_new_life|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.noozhawk.com|language=en}}</ref> The plant was propagated by CCBER and reintroduced to NCOS in 2019, and is reportedly establishing well.<ref name="":4"" />

== Community access and Engagement ==

=== Education ===
[[File:Slough .jpg|thumb|278x278px|Restored from a former golf course, the Slough at NCOS is filled with water after rains in 2019, protecting nearby neighborhoods from flood-risk.<ref name="":5"" />]]The NCOS restoration project is geared towards community engagement through public access, education, and research programs.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|last=Noozhawk|title=UCSB Opens First Public Trail at North Campus Open Space|url=https://www.noozhawk.com/article/ucsb_opens_first_public_trail_at_north_campus_open_space|access-date=2021-02-22|website=www.noozhawk.com}}</ref> CCBER directs educational programs like Kids in Nature, a K-12  resource that utilizes CCBER's natural spaces, such as NCOS, for a means of teaching students about the local natural world and ecology.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|title=North Campus Open Space|url=https://www.ccber.ucsb.edu/ecosystem/management-areas/north-campus-open-space|access-date=2021-02-22|publisher=CCBER}}</ref> UCSB professors and students use NCOS for research such as tracking and estimating wildlife populations or measuring greenhouse gas fluxes from wetlands. Faculty and students are able to utilize field studies at NCOS to improve understanding of ecosystem functions and the consequences of climate change.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Recreation ===
As of March 2021, there are 2.5 miles of trails, a visitor plaza with interpretive signs, and overlooks with benches that promote exploration and wildlife viewing opportunities throughout the natural space.<ref name="":2"" /> The Marsh Trail connects with a bus stop on Storke Road, adjacent homes, neighborhoods, bike paths, roads, and other open space such as Ellwood Mesa and Coal Oil Point Reserve. This ADA accessible trail provides an alternative, and a safer route to school for around 200 children.<ref name="":2"" />

== References ==
<references />

{{coord|34|25|09|N|119|52|39|W|type:landmark_region:US-CA|display=title}}

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Parks in Santa Barbara County, California]]
[[Category:Goleta, California]]
[[Category:Wetlands of California]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Santa Barbara County, California]]"
Sustainable population,"{{short description|Proposed sustainable human population of Earth}}
[[File:Population curve.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|alt=Graph showing human population growth from 10,000 BC&nbsp;– 2000 AD|Graph showing human population growth from 10,000 BC&nbsp;– 2000 AD]]
'''Sustainable population''' refers to a proposed [[sustainable]] human [[World population|population of Earth]] or a particular region of Earth, such as a nation or continent. Estimates vary widely, with estimates based on different figures ranging from 0.65 billion people to 9.8 billion, with 8 billion people being a typical estimate. [[Projections of population growth]], evaluations of [[overconsumption]] and associated [[Human impact on the environment|human pressures on the environment]] have led to some to advocate for what they consider a sustainable population. Proposed policy solutions vary, including [[sustainable development]], [[female education]], [[family planning]] and broad [[human population planning]].

Emerging economies like those of China and India aspire to the living standards of the Western world, as does the non-industrialized world in general.<ref>""[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4604556.stm Booming nations 'threaten Earth']."" BBC News. 12 January 2006.</ref> As of 2022, China and India account for most of the population in Asia, with more than 1.4 billion each.<ref>""[https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf World Population Prospects 2022]."" UN. 19 Oct 2022.</ref> It is the combination of population increase in the developing world and unsustainable consumption levels in the developed world that poses a stark challenge to sustainability.<ref name=""Cohen2006"">Cohen, J.E. (2006). ""Human Population: The Next Half Century."" In Kennedy D. (Ed.) ''Science Magazine's State of the Planet 2006-7''. London: Island Press, pp. 13–21. {{ISBN|9781597266246}}.</ref>

According to the [[United Nations Population Fund|UN Population Fund]], high [[Total fertility rate|fertility]] and [[poverty]] have been strongly correlated, and the world's poorest countries also have the highest fertility and [[population growth]] rates.<ref>{{cite web|title=Are fewer children a route to prosperity?|url=http://www.unfpa.org/public/home/factsheets/pid/3856|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221140406/http://www.unfpa.org/public/home/factsheets/pid/3856|archive-date=21 February 2011|access-date=2011-04-02|website=FACT SHEET: Population Growth and Poverty|publisher=United Nations Population Fund}}</ref>

==Estimates==
[[File:WorldPopGrowth.png|thumb|right|upright=1.25|World population growth rate, 1950–2050, as estimated in 2011 by the U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base. Although the rate of growth decreases, population continues to rise. In 2050 still growing by over 45 million per year]]
[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Map of countries and territories by [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] {{as of|2020|lc=y}}]]

=== Sustainable population ===
Many studies have tried to estimate the world's sustainable population for humans, that is, the maximum population the world can host.<ref>Cohen, J.E. (1995). ''How many people can the earth support?'' W.W. Norton & Company, New York, NY, USA.</ref> A 2004 meta-analysis of 69 such studies from 1694 until 2001 found the average predicted maximum number of people the Earth would ever have was 7.7 billion people, with lower and upper meta-bounds at 0.65 and 9.8 billion people, respectively. They conclude: ""recent predictions of stabilized world population levels for 2050 exceed several of our meta-estimates of a world population limit"".<ref name=""Van Den BerghRietveld2004"">{{cite journal|last1=Van Den Bergh|first1=Jeroen C. J. M.|last2=Rietveld|first2=Piet|title=Reconsidering the Limits to World Population: Meta-analysis and Meta-prediction |journal=BioScience|volume=54|issue=3|year=2004|pages=195|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0195:RTLTWP]2.0.CO;2|doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2012 United Nations report summarized 65 different estimates of maximum sustainable population size and the most common estimate was 8 billion.<ref>[https://na.unep.net/geas/archive/pdfs/geas_jun_12_carrying_capacity.pdf One Planet, How Many People? A Review of Earth’s Carrying Capacity] United Nations, June 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160311-how-many-people-can-our-planet-really-support How Many People Can Our Planet Really Support?] BBC, Vivien Cumming, 14 March 2016</ref>

Climate change, excess nutrient loading (particularly nitrogen and phosphorus), increased ocean acidity, rapid [[biodiversity loss]], and other global trends suggest humanity is causing global ecological degradation and threatening [[ecosystem service]]s that human societies depend on.<ref>{{Cite book |last=(Program) |first=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/796075047 |title=Ecosystems and human well-being : synthesis : a report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |date=2005 |publisher=Island |isbn=1-59726-040-1 |oclc=796075047}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |url= |title=Global warming of 1.5°C : an IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty |oclc=1065823181}}</ref><ref name="":0"">{{Cite book |last=IPCC |url= |title=Climate change 2022 : Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Working Group II Contribution to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report. |publisher=IPCC |year=2022 |oclc=1303663344}}</ref> Because these environmental impacts are all directly related to human numbers, recent estimates of a sustainable human population tend to put forward much lower numbers, between 2 and 4 billion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lianos |first1=Theodore P. |last2=Pseiridis |first2=Anastasia |date=2015 |title=Sustainable welfare and optimum population size |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-015-9711-5 |journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=1679–1699 |doi=10.1007/s10668-015-9711-5 |s2cid=154771905 |issn=1387-585X}}</ref><ref>Tucker, C. (2019). ''A Planet of 3 Billion''. Washington, DC: Atlas Observatory Press.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dasgupta |first=Partha |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7312/dasg16012/html |title=Time and the Generations: Population Ethics for a Diminishing Planet |date=2019 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55003-1 |doi=10.7312/dasg16012}}</ref> [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] stated in 2018 that the optimum population is between 1.5 and 2 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last= Carrington|first=Damian|date=March 22, 2018 |title=Paul Ehrlich: 'Collapse of civilisation is a near certainty within decades'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/mar/22/collapse-civilisation-near-certain-decades-population-bomb-paul-ehrlich|work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=August 8, 2020}}</ref> Geographer Chris Tucker estimates that 3 billion is a sustainable number, provided human societies rapidly deploy less harmful technologies and best management practices.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/christopher-tucker/planet-of-3-billion/|title=A PLANET OF 3 BILLION {{!}} Kirkus Reviews|language=en}}</ref> Other estimates of a sustainable global population also come in at considerably less than the current population of 8 billion.<ref>[https://www.worldpopulationbalance.org/3_times_sustainable Current Population is Three Times the Sustainable Level] worldpopulationbalance.org</ref><ref>[https://overpopulation-project.com/what-is-the-optimal-sustainable-population-size-of-humans/ What is the optimal, sustainable population size of Humans?] overpopulation-project.com, Patrícia Dérer, April 25, 2018</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rees |first=William E. |date=2020 |title=Ecological economics for humanity's plague phase |url= |journal=Ecological Economics |volume=169 |pages=106519 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106519 |s2cid=209502532 |issn=0921-8009}}</ref> 

A 2014 study published in the ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]'' posits that, given the ""inexorable demographic momentum of the global human population,"" efforts to slow population growth in the short term will have little impact on [[sustainability]], which can be more rapidly achieved with a focus on technological and social innovations, along with reducing consumption rates, while treating population planning as a long term goal. The study says that with a fertility-reduction model of one-child per female by 2100, it would take at least 140 years to reduce the population to 2 billion people by 2153.<ref>{{cite news |first=Matt |last=McGrath |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29788754 |title=Population controls 'will not solve environment issues' |publisher=BBC |date=October 27, 2014 |access-date=September 19, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Human population reduction is not a quick fix for environmental problems |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Corey J. A. |last2=Brook |first2=Barry W. |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=111 |issue=46 |pages=16610–16615 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1410465111 |pmid=25349398 |year=2014 |pmc=4246304 |bibcode=2014PNAS..11116610B |doi-access=free}}</ref> The 2022 ""Scientists' warning on population,"" published by ''[[Science of the Total Environment]]'', states that ""environmental analysts regard a sustainable human population as one enjoying a modest, equitable middle-class standard of living on a planet retaining its biodiversity and with climate-related adversities minimized,"" which is estimated at between 2 and 4 billion people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crist|first1=Eileen|last2=Ripple|first2=William J.|author-link2=William J. Ripple|last3= Ehrlich|first3=Paul R.|author-link3=Paul R. Ehrlich|last4=Rees|first4=William E. |last5=Wolf|first5=Christopher |date=2022 |title=Scientists' warning on population|url=https://scientistswarning.forestry.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/Crist2022.pdf|journal=[[Science of the Total Environment]]|volume=845 |issue=|page=157166 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157166|pmid= 35803428|bibcode=2022ScTEn.845o7166C |s2cid=250387801 }}</ref>

Skeptics criticize the basic assumptions associated with these overpopulation estimates. For example, Jade Sasser believes that calculating a maximum of number of humanity which may be allowed to live while only some, mostly privileged European former colonial powers, are mostly responsible for unsustainably using up the Earth, is wrong.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sasser, Jade|title=On infertile ground : population control and women's rights in the era of climate change|date=13 November 2018|isbn=978-1-4798-7343-2|location=New York|oclc=1029075188}}</ref>

But if current human numbers are not ecologically sustainable, the costs are likely to fall on the world’s poorest citizens, regardless of whether they helped cause the problem.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarah |first=Conly |url= |title=One child : do we have a right to more? |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-020343-6 |oclc=969537327}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Coole |first=Diana H. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1018036920 |title=Should we control world population? |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-5095-2340-5 |location=Cambridge, UK |oclc=1018036920}}</ref> In fact, countries that contribute the most to unsustainable production and consumption practices often have higher income per capita and slower population growth, unlike countries that have a low income per capita and rapidly growing populations.<ref name=""Wilmoth"">{{cite web |last1=Wilmoth |first1=John |last2=Menozzi |first2=Clare |last3=Bassarsky |first3=Lina |title=UN DESA Policy Brief No. 130: Why population growth matters for sustainable development |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/un-desa-policy-brief-no-130-why-population-growth-matters-for-sustainable-development/#:~:text=Rapid%20population%20growth%20makes%20it,education%20and%20other%20essential%20services. |website=United Nations |access-date=30 April 2023}}</ref> 

According to a 2022 study published in ''Sustainable Development'', a sustainable population is required for both preserving [[biodiversity]] and [[food security]]. The study says that falling fertility rates are linked to access to contraception and family planning services, and has little to no relation to [[economic growth]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Götmark|first1=Frank |last2=Andersson|first2=Malte |date=2022 |title=Achieving sustainable population: Fertility decline in many developing countries follows modern contraception, not economic growth|url= |journal=Sustainable Development|volume= 31|issue= 3|pages=1606–1617 |doi=10.1002/sd.2470|access-date=|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== World population ===
According to data from 2015, the [[world population]] is projected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, up from the current 8 billion, to exceed 9 billion people by 2050, and to reach 11.2 billion by the year 2100.<ref>{{cite web|date=2015-01-01|title=The World Population Prospects: 2015 Revision|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/publications/world-population-prospects-2015-revision.html|access-date=2017-05-06|website=www.un.org}}</ref> Most of the increase will be in [[Developing country|developing countries]] whose population is projected to rise from 5.6 billion in 2009 to 7.9 billion in 2050. This increase will be distributed among the population aged 15–59 (1.2 billion) and 60 or over (1.1 billion) because the number of children under age 15 in developing countries is predicted to decrease. In contrast, the population of the more [[Developed country|developed regions]] is expected to undergo only slight increase from 1.23 billion to 1.28 billion, and this would have declined to 1.15 billion but for a projected net migration from developing to developed countries, which is expected to average 2.4 million persons annually from 2009 to 2050.<ref>United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2009). [https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/trends/population-prospects.asp ""] Highlights. Retrieved on: 6 April 2009.</ref> Long-term estimates in 2004 of global population suggest a peak at around 2070 of nine to ten billion people, and then a slow decrease to 8.4 billion by 2100.<ref>Lutz W., Sanderson W.C., & Scherbov S. (2004). ''The End of World Population Growth in the 21st Century'' London: Earthscan. {{ISBN|1-84407-089-1}}.{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref>

However, these projections assume substantial improvements in contraceptive availability throughout the developing world and large decreases in desired family size (particularly in sub-Saharan Africa), which may or may not happen.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations |url=https://population.un.org/wpp/ |access-date= |website=population.un.org}}</ref> In the end, all population projections must be taken with a large pinch of salt.<ref>{{Cite web |last=O’Sullivan |first=Jane |date=2022 |title=World population is growing faster than we thought |url=https://overpopulation-project.com/world-population-is-growing-faster-than-we-thought/ |access-date= |website=The Overpopulation Project |language=en-US}}</ref> Particular care is needed to remember that future population size will depend on policy decisions and individual choices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cafaro |first1=Philip |last2=Dérer |first2=Patrícia |date=2019 |title=Policy-based Population Projections for the European Union: A Complementary Approach |journal=Comparative Population Studies |volume=44 |pages=171–200 |doi=10.12765/cpos-2019-14 |issn=1869-8999|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Carrying capacity==
[[File:Seattle from Beacon Hill.jpg|thumb|[[Urbanization]] in [[Seattle]], Washington, United States]]

Talk of economic and [[population growth]] overshooting the limits of Earth's [[carrying capacity]] for humans is popular in [[environmentalism]].<ref name="":12"">{{Cite journal|last1=Seidl|first1=Irmi|last2=Tisdell|first2=Clem A|date=1999-12-01|title=Carrying capacity reconsidered: from Malthus' population theory to cultural carrying capacity|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800999000634|journal=Ecological Economics|language=en|volume=31|issue=3|pages=395–408|doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00063-4|issn=0921-8009}}</ref> The potential limiting factor for the [[human population]] might include water availability, energy availability, [[renewable resource]]s, [[non-renewable resource]]s, heat removal, [[photosynthetic capacity]], or land availability for [[agricultural productivity|food production]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=VAN DEN BERGH|first1=JEROEN C. J. M.|last2=RIETVELD|first2=PIET|date=2004|title=Reconsidering the Limits to World Population: Meta-analysis and Meta-prediction|journal=BioScience|volume=54|issue=3|pages=195|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0195:rtltwp]2.0.co;2|issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free}}</ref> Or, as current trends suggest, the limiting factors might involve ecosystems’ ability to absorb human pollution, as with climate change, ocean acidification, or the toxification of rivers and streams.<ref>Reid, W. V., et al. (2005). ''The millennium ecosystem assessment: Ecosystems and human well-being''. Washington, DC: Island Press.</ref><ref name="":0"" /><ref>Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Barnard P, Moomaw WR. 2020. World scientists’ warning of a climate emergency. ''BioScience'' 70: 8–12 (8).</ref> The applicability of carrying capacity as a measurement of the Earth's limits in terms of the human population has been questioned, since it has proved difficult to calculate or predict the upper limits of population growth.<ref name="":12"" /> Carrying capacity has been used as a tool in [[Malthusianism|Neo-Malthusian]] arguments to limit population growth since the 1950s.<ref name=""informaworld.com"">{{cite journal |last1=Sayre |first1=N. F. |year=2008 |title=The Genesis, History, and Limits of Carrying Capacity |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=120–134 |doi=10.1080/00045600701734356|s2cid=16994905 |jstor=25515102}}</ref> The concept of carrying capacity has been applied to determining the population limits in [[Shanghai]], a city faced with rapid [[urbanization]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Yingying|last2=Wei|first2=Yigang|last3=Zhang|first3=Jian|date=2021|title=Overpopulation and urban sustainable development—population carrying capacity in Shanghai based on probability-satisfaction evaluation method|journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=3318–3337|doi=10.1007/s10668-020-00720-2|s2cid=215775946 |issn=1387-585X}}</ref>

The application of the concept of carrying capacity for the [[human population]], which exists in a [[non-equilibrium]], has been criticized for not successfully being able to model the processes between humans and the environment.<ref name="":12"" /><ref name=""Cliggett"">{{Cite journal|last1=Cliggett|first1=Lisa|year=2001|title=Carrying Capacity's New Guise: Folk Models for Public Debate and Longitudinal Study of Environmental Change|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-80493292/carrying-capacity-new-guise.html|journal=Africa Today|volume=48|pages=3–19|doi=10.1353/at.2001.0003|s2cid=143983509}}</ref> In popular discourse the concept is often used vaguely in the sense of a ""balance between nature and human populations"".<ref name=""Cliggett"" />

In [[human ecology]] a popular definition from 1949 states ""the maximum number of people that a given land area will maintain in perpetuity under a given system of usage without [[land degradation]] setting in"". [[Sociologist]]s have criticized this for numerous reasons. Aside from the fact that humans are able to adopt new customs and technology, some common critiques are 1.) an assumption an equilibrium population exists, 2.) difficulties in measuring resources, 3.) inability to account for human tastes and how much labour they will expend, 4.) assumption of full usage of resources, 5.) assumption of [[landscape]] homogeneity, 6.) assumption that regions are isolated from each other, 7.) contradicted by history, and 8.) the standard of living is ignored.<ref name=""Cliggett""/>

[[Romanian American]] economist [[Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen]], a [[List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field|progenitor]] in [[economics]] and a [[Paradigm shift#Kuhnian paradigm shifts|paradigm founder]] of [[ecological economics]], has argued in 1971 that the carrying capacity of Earth — that is, Earth's capacity to sustain human populations and consumption levels — is bound to decrease sometime in the future as Earth's finite stock of mineral resources is presently being extracted and put to use.<ref>{{cite book|last=Georgescu-Roegen|first=Nicholas|url=https://archive.org/details/entropylawe00nich|title=The Entropy Law and the Economic Process|date=1971|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674257801|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|format=Full book accessible at Scribd}}</ref>{{rp|303}} Leading ecological economist and [[Steady-state economy#Herman Daly's concept of a steady-state economy|steady-state theorist]] [[Herman Daly]], a student of [[Georgescu-Roegen]], has [[Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen#Daly's concession|propounded the same argument]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.uvm.edu/~jdericks/EE/Daly_Ends_n_Means.pdf|title=Economics, Ecology, Ethics. Essays Towards a Steady-State Economy|date=1980|publisher=W.H. Freeman and Company|isbn=978-0716711780|editor-last=Daly|editor-first=Herman E.|editor-link=Herman Daly|edition=2nd|location=San Francisco|format=PDF contains only the introductory chapter of the book}}</ref>{{rp|369–371}} In a series of writings, Daly has explored the connection between limiting population and achieving ecologically sustainable societies, arguing that a sustainable economy must involve limits to human numbers, since per capita human resource use can never be driven down to zero.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daly |first=Herman E. |title=Steady-state economics |date=1991 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=978-1-55963-071-9 |edition=2. ed., with new essays |location=Washington, DC}}</ref><ref>Daly, H., & Farley, J. (2011). ''Ecological economics, second edition: Principles and applications''. Washington, DC: Island Press.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Population growth]]
*[[Human overpopulation]]
*[[Overshoot (population)]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|url=https://www.earthovershoot.org/news-events/blog.html/article/2023/01/19/reframing-china-s-population-decline|title=Reframing China's Population Decline|work=Terry Spahr|publisher=Earth Overshoot}}

{{population}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable population}}

[[Category:World population]]
[[Category:Human overpopulation]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Green human resource management,"'''Green human resource management''' ('''Green HRM''' or '''GHRM''') emerged as an academic concept from the debate of [[sustainable development]] and corporate [[sustainability]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Matthews|first1=Brian|title=Competing Paradigms: Status-quo and Alternative Approaches in HRM|last2=Obereder|first2=Lisa|last3=Aust|first3=Ina|last4=Müller-Camen|first4=Michael|work=Contemporary Developments in Green Human Resource Management Research|publisher=Routledge|year=2018|isbn=9780367376871|editor-last=Renwick|editor-first=Douglas W. S.|location=Abingdon, Oxon; New York|pages=116–134}}</ref> Wehrmeyer (1996) is often stated as laying the foundation with his idea that ""if a company is to adopt an environmentally-aware approach to its activities, the employees are the key to its success or failure"".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wehrmeyer|first=Walter|title=Introduction|work=Greening People: Human Resources and Environmental Management|publisher=Greenleaf Publishing|year=1996|isbn=9781874719151|editor-last=Wehrmeyer|editor-first=Walter|location=Sheffield|pages=11–32}}</ref>

One of the most common definitions refers to GHRM as ""the HRM aspects of Environmental Management"".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Renwick|first1=Douglas W. S.|last2=Redman|first2=Tom|last3=Maguire|first3=Stuart|date=2013|title=Green Human Resource Management: A Review and Research Agenda*|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2011.00328.x|journal=International Journal of Management Reviews|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2370.2011.00328.x|s2cid=145075051|issn=1468-2370}}</ref> A broader definition considers GHRM as ""phenomena relevant to understanding relationships between organizational activities that impact the natural environment and the design, evolution, implementation and influence of HRM systems.""<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ren|first1=Shuang|last2=Tang|first2=Guiyao|last3=E. Jackson|first3=Susan|date=2018-09-01|title=Green human resource management research in emergence: A review and future directions|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-017-9532-1|journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Management|language=en|volume=35|issue=3|pages=769–803|doi=10.1007/s10490-017-9532-1|s2cid=158085553|issn=1572-9958}}</ref>

Some goals of GHRM include alerting employees to global environmental issues through initiating proposal schemes, training employees on greener practices, and encouraging employees to join and find sustainable initiatives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dimitrov |first=K. |title=Green Human Resources Management: Linking and Using Green Practices for Sustainable Business Organizations |date=2021 |journal=Trakia Journal of Sciences |volume=19 |issue=Suppl.1 |pages=276–281 |doi=10.15547/tjs.2021.s.01.040 |s2cid=252732434 |issn=1313-3551|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In May 2011, the German Journal of Human Resource Management published a special issue on GHRM, which comprises five contributions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jackson|first1=Susan E.|last2=Renwick|first2=Douglas W. S.|last3=Jabbour|first3=Charbel J. C.|last4=Muller-Camen|first4=Michael|date=2011-05-01|title=State-of-the-Art and Future Directions for Green Human Resource Management: Introduction to the Special Issue|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/239700221102500203|journal=German Journal of Human Resource Management: Zeitschrift für Personalforschung|volume=25|issue=2|pages=99–116|doi=10.1177/239700221102500203|s2cid=219931279|issn=2397-0022|hdl=10419/71002|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

== GHRM practices ==
Research in GHRM often deals with concrete GHRM practices that are associated with basic functions in [[Human Resource Management|human resource management]]. In their literature review, Renwick et al. (2016) summarize recruitment and selection, training and development, management development and leadership as practices for developing abilities in environmental management. To motivate employees to behave environmentally friendly, they propose performance management and appraisal, pay, rewards, and organizational culture. Renwick et al. (2016) further mention employment relations and employee engagement as ways to facilitate opportunities for environmental management.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Renwick|first1=Douglas W. S.|last2=Jabbour|first2=Charbel J. C.|last3=Muller-Camen|first3=Michael|last4=Redman|first4=Tom|last5=Wilkinson|first5=Adrian|date=2016-01-19|title=Contemporary developments in Green (environmental) HRM scholarship|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1105844|journal=The International Journal of Human Resource Management|volume=27|issue=2|pages=114–128|doi=10.1080/09585192.2015.1105844|hdl=11449/168131|s2cid=155611809|issn=0958-5192|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Studies show that GHRM practices are linked to enhanced pro-environmental behavior of individuals<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Yong Joong|last2=Kim|first2=Woo Gon|last3=Choi|first3=Hyung-Min|last4=Phetvaroon|first4=Kullada|date=2019-01-01|title=The effect of green human resource management on hotel employees' eco-friendly behavior and environmental performance|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278431917306588|journal=International Journal of Hospitality Management|language=en|volume=76|pages=83–93|doi=10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.04.007|s2cid=158854634 |issn=0278-4319}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhat Tan|last2=Tučková|first2=Zuzana|last3=Chiappetta Jabbour|first3=Charbel José|date=2019-06-01|title=Greening the hospitality industry: How do green human resource management practices influence organizational citizenship behavior in hotels? A mixed-methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261517718303121|journal=Tourism Management|language=en|volume=72|pages=386–399|doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2018.12.008|s2cid=159330059 |issn=0261-5177}}</ref> and improved environmental performance of organizations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daily|first1=Bonnie F.|last2=Bishop|first2=John W.|last3=Massoud|first3=Jacob A.|date=2012-04-20|title=The role of training and empowerment in environmental performance: A study of the Mexican maquiladora industry|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/01443571211226524/full/html|journal=International Journal of Operations & Production Management|language=en|volume=32|issue=5|pages=631–647|doi=10.1108/01443571211226524|issn=0144-3577}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roscoe|first1=Samuel|last2=Subramanian|first2=Nachiappan|last3=Jabbour|first3=Charbel J. C.|last4=Chong|first4=Tao|date=2019|title=Green human resource management and the enablers of green organisational culture: Enhancing a firm's environmental performance for sustainable development|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bse.2277|journal=Business Strategy and the Environment|language=en|volume=28|issue=5|pages=737–749|doi=10.1002/bse.2277|s2cid=159091283 |issn=1099-0836}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Environmental management system]]
* [[Corporate social responsibility]]

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Human resource management]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]"
Ecological overshoot,"{{Short description|Demands on ecosystem exceeding regeneration}}
[[File:Global Overshoot in Earths from GFN data.png |thumb |350px |right |Ecological overshoot expressed in terms of how many Earths equivalent of natural resources are consumed by humanity each year.]]

'''Ecological overshoot''' is the phenomenon which occurs when the demands made on a natural [[ecosystem]] exceed its regenerative capacity. Global ecological overshoot occurs when the demands made by humanity exceed what the biosphere of Earth can provide through its capacity for renewal.<ref name=""overshootday.org"">{{cite web |url=https://www.overshootday.org/newsroom/media-backgrounder/ |title=Media Backgrounder: Earth Overshoot Day |publisher= Earth Overshoot Day. Global Footprint Network |access-date=28 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825193612/https://www.overshootday.org/newsroom/media-backgrounder/ |archive-date=25 August 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McBain |first1=Bonnie |last2=Lenzen |first2=Manfred |last3=Wackernagel |first3=Mathis |last4=Albrecht |first4=Glenn |title=How long can global ecological overshoot last? |journal=[[Global and Planetary Change]] |date=2017 |volume=155 |pages=13–19 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.06.002|hdl=1959.13/1351443 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

== Record of global ecological overshoot==
To determine whether ecological overshoot is happening requires the collection of global and nation-specific data regarding the availability of natural resources, the capability of the ecosystems to renew any natural resources that were consumed, and the rate at which the resources are being consumed, usually assessed for each calendar year. 

This data collection, and analysis is typically done by scientific and conservation organisations, such as the [[Global Footprint Network]], which collects data to assess the [[ecological footprint]] of each country and the global community.  

Ecological data collected so far reveals that the global community has been exceeding the regenerative capacity of the Earth since 1970, which was the year when the consumption capacity of humanity first exceeded the biocapacity the Earth. Each year since 1970 humanity has witnessed global ecological overshoot.<ref name=""data.footprintnetwork.org"">{{cite web |url=https://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=5001&type=earth|title=Country Trends |publisher=Global Footprint Network |access-date=28 August 2021 }}</ref>

===Earth Overshoot Day===
This problem is highlighted each year on [[Earth Overshoot Day]], an illustrative calendar date obtained through calculation, on which day humanity's resource consumption for the year is considered to have exceeded the Earth’s capacity to regenerate those resources for that year.<ref name=""IndHE2021"">{{cite journal |last1=Venugopal|first1=Pingali |last2=Kour |first2=Harwinder |year=2021 |title=Integrating the circular economy into engineering programs in India: A study of students' familiarity with the concept |journal=Industry and Higher Education |publisher=Sage |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=264–269 |doi=10.1177/0950422220967542|s2cid=226342170 }}</ref>

==Global ecological debt==
This ecological debt is often referred to as our global 'ecological overshoot'. The data from the [[Global Footprint Network]] has been used to create the graph below, it shows that since the 1970s the global population is increasingly compromising the Earth's [[ecosystem]].  The red section of the graph indicates that the global population have been accruing a global ecological overshoot since 1970.  This means that the rate at which we are using natural resources exceeds the time required by the ecosystems to regenerate the resources and absorb the waste products that are involved.  

The continued over-exploitation of natural resources results in ever more severe damage to global ecosystems over time, this has destabilised many micro ecosystems causing increasing extinction rates and the macro ecosystems are coming under increasing pressure. In this way humans are currently exceeding the [[carrying capacity]] of Earth as we increase the ecological overshoot each year. The [[I = PAT|IPAT equation]] attempts to quantify the environmental impact (""I"") of the human population (""P""), their  affluence (""A"") and technology (""T"").  Furthermore the [[Jevons paradox]] warns us that increasing our efficiency using technology will usually result in increased ecological damage. 

==Causes==
The majority of the world currently follow an economic paradigm that seeks to grow all three of the [[I = PAT|IPAT]] parameters: population size, affluence and use of technology.  These behaviour patterns are causing escalating environmental damage and there is evidence for growing risk of [[ecological collapse]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bradshaw|first1=Corey J. A.|last2=Ehrlich|first2=Paul R.|last3=Beattie|first3=Andrew|last4=Ceballos|first4=Gerardo|last5=Crist|first5=Eileen|last6=Diamond|first6=Joan|last7=Dirzo|first7=Rodolfo|last8=Ehrlich|first8=Anne H.|last9=Harte|first9=John|last10=Harte|first10=Mary Ellen|last11=Pyke|first11=Graham|date=2021|title=Underestimating the Challenges of Avoiding a Ghastly Future|journal=Frontiers in Conservation Science|volume=1|language=English|doi=10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419|issn=2673-611X|doi-access=free}}</ref>                

The outcomes from various possible human behaviour scenarios have been explored in a demographic model developed by Prof Chris Bystroff.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bystroff|first=Christopher|date=2021-05-20|title=Footprints to singularity: A global population model explains late 20th century slow-down and predicts peak within ten years|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=16|issue=5|pages=e0247214|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0247214|issn=1932-6203|pmc=8136733|pmid=34014929|bibcode=2021PLoSO..1647214B|doi-access=free}}</ref> According to the Bystroff predictions, continuing with the growth economic paradigm will result in a rapid decrease in population numbers halving global population by 2040. The Bystroff predictions are echoed in further research by Dr [[William E. Rees]], who originally developed the concept of [[Ecological footprint|Ecological Footprint]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seibert|first1=Megan K.|last2=Rees|first2=William E.|date=January 2021|title=Through the Eye of a Needle: An Eco-Heterodox Perspective on the Renewable Energy Transition|journal=Energies|language=en|volume=14|issue=15|pages=4508|doi=10.3390/en14154508|doi-access=free}}</ref> This research states that to reduce ecological overshoot it is necessary to reduce economic consumption drastically to stop growing the economy and to repay the accrued ecological debt by restoration and rewilding back to the one planet level or less. A recent review of the [[World3|World 3]] demographic model by [[KPMG]] also concludes that humans need to rethink their pursuit of economic growth or anticipate collapse by 2040.<ref name=""Herrington2021"">{{cite journal |last1=Herrington |first1=G. |year=2021 |title=Update to limits to growth: Comparing the world3 model with empirical data |journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology |volume=25 |publisher=Wiley |issue=3 |pages=614–626 |doi=10.1111/jiec.13084|s2cid=226019712 }} https://advisory.kpmg.us/articles/2021/limits-to-growth.html download link].</ref> For countries that have already achieved social affluence, although their social performance and resource utilization levels are high, the ecological overshoot brought about by these developments is still maintaining a continuously increasing trend. On the other hand, many low-income countries tried increasing their per capita wealth through economic activities to improve their social shortfalls. However, their social development is slower than the resulting increase in ecological overshoot. In this case, the ecological environment will be more overwhelmed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fanning |first1=Andrew L. |last2=O’Neill |first2= Daniel W. |last3=Hickel |first3=Jason |last4=Roux |first4=Nicolas |year=2022 |title=The social shortfall and ecological overshoot of nations |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=26–36 |language=English |doi=10.1038/s41893-021-00799-z|s2cid=244349360 |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/180834/8/Fanning%20et%20al_2021-SI%20text_Social%20shortfall%20and%20ecological%20overshoot_authorAccepted.pdf }}</ref>
          
It is important to bear in mind that the data collected by the [[Global Footprint Network]] (GFN) makes the assumption that the whole biocapacity of the Earth is entirely at the disposal of humanity.<ref name=""FootprintData"">{{cite web |url=https://www.footprintnetwork.org/resources/data/ |title=Data and Methodology |date=2021 |publisher=Global Footprint Network |access-date=4 September 2021  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830133427/https://www.footprintnetwork.org/resources/data/ |archive-date=30 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> However it is evident that we need biodiversity in order to survive, therefore unless we reserve some of the global biocapacity for other species we cannot survive. Several organisations argue that to reinstate biodiversity to levels comparable to those preceding the high extinction rates associated with the ongoing [[Holocene extinction]] event, at least 50% of the Earths biocapacity would need to be protected as nature reserve areas which are kept free from human intervention.  This suggestion was presented in the book titled [[Half-Earth|Half Earth]]. Global Footprint Network data shows that for over 50 years humanity has been stressing the ecosystems on the planet beyond their ability to recover.<ref name=""FootprintData""/>

A crisis of human behaviour (the Human Behavioural Crisis) has been highlighted as the driver of anthropogenic ecological overshoot in a peer-reviewed World Scientists' Warning paper led by Joseph J. Merz and co-authored by [[William E. Rees]], [[Phoebe Barnard]] et al.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Merz |first=Joseph J |last2=Barnard |first2=Phoebe |last3=Rees |first3=William E |last4=Smith |first4=Dane |last5=Maroni |first5=Mat |last6=Rhodes |first6=Christopher J |last7=Dederer |first7=Julia H |last8=Bajaj |first8=Nandita |last9=Joy |first9=Michael K |last10=Wiedmann |first10=Thomas |last11=Sutherland |first11=Rory |date=July 2023 |title=World scientists’ warning: The behavioural crisis driving ecological overshoot |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00368504231201372 |journal=Science Progress |language=en |volume=106 |issue=3 |doi=10.1177/00368504231201372 |issn=0036-8504 |pmc=10515534 |pmid=37728669}}</ref>

== Effects ==
The most well known symptom of ecological overshoot is the [[Holocene extinction|rising extinction rate]].  Pandemics of zoonotic diseases, like COVID-19 also become increasingly likely with overpopulation and global travel because we encroach on wildlife habitats and accelerate the spread.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Greguš|first=Jan|date=2021-03-04|title=Pandemics and populations|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13625187.2020.1870952|journal=The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care|volume=26|issue=2|pages=89–90|doi=10.1080/13625187.2020.1870952|issn=1362-5187|pmid=33559508|s2cid=231870390}}</ref>  [[Biocapacity]] is measured by calculating the amount of biologically productive land and sea area available to provide the resources a population consumes and to absorb its wastes, given the prevailing technology and management practices.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wackernagel|first1=Mathis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qCQ8wQEACAAJ|title=Ecological Footprint: Managing Our Biocapacity Budget|last2=Beyers|first2=Bert|date=2019|publisher=New Society Publishers|isbn=978-0-86571-911-8|language=en}}</ref> Countries differ in the productivity of their ecosystems, and this is reflected in the National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts kept by [[York University]], FoDaFo and [[Global Footprint Network]]. A country has an ecological reserve if its [[Ecological footprint]] is smaller than its biocapacity; otherwise it is operating with an ecological overshoot. The former are often referred to as '''ecological creditors''', and the latter as '''ecological debtors'''. Today, most countries, and the world as a whole, are in ecological overshoot. Over 85% of the world population lives in countries operating with an ecological overshoot.

== Solving the problem of Ecological Overshoot ==
{{Further|Human population planning}}
The pursuit of growth economics relies on continual increase in our numbers and our consumption.  Several economists have been challenging the wisdom of this prevailing discipline for many years.  Those suggesting a new economic paradigm can be considered collectively as advocates for [[degrowth]].{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

==See also==
* {{Annotated link|Anthropocene}} 
* {{Annotated link|Earth Overshoot Day}}
* {{Annotated link|Ecological footprint}}
* {{Annotated link|Biocapacity}}
* {{Annotated link|Haber Bosch process}}
* {{Annotated link|Overshoot (population)}}
* {{Annotated link|Planetary boundaries}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*''[[The Population Bomb]]'', by [[Paul R. Ehrlich]]
*{{cite web|url=https://readersupportednews.org/component/content/article/277/48161-too-much-food-too-many-people-on-a-finite-planet|title=Too Much Food, Too Many People on a Finite Planet|work=Steven Earl Salmony|publisher=readersupportednews.org (Original: The Herald Sun)}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.mediamonitors.net/the-root-cause-of-human-population-growth/?fbclid=IwAR1PznZTpHhHPAn-WxXemoOeLUllA8y6Dba9hIT2ypO1bHx1pJXBTRaLpms|title=The Root Cause of Human Population Growth|work=Steven Earl Salmony|date=28 July 2019|publisher=Media Monitor's Network}}

== External links ==
{{externalvideo|video1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7l8imwtMkY How Earth's Population Exploded -Bloomberg Quicktake]}}
*[http://EarthOvershoot.org EarthOvershoot.org]


[[Category:Ecosystems]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Nemo's Garden (Noli),"{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Short description|Biology research institution}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Cleanup rewrite|date=December 2021}}
{{Cleanup reorganize|date=December 2021}}
{{Essay-like|date=December 2021}}
}}
{{Infobox park
|name         = Nemo's Garden
|image        = Noli's Bay.png
|image_caption      = Bay of Noli
|type         = Botanical
|location     = Noli, Italy
|coordinates  = {{coord|44.20122660471327|8.418236941683848|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
|plants       = 150/200
|species      = 40
|collections  = Basil, Zucchini, Aromatic plants, Peas, Beans
|opened       = 2012
|owner        = Ocean Reef
|operator     = Scuba Divers and Engineers
|budget       = $2.3&nbsp;million
|visitation_num     = 100,000
|website      = {{url|www.nemosgarden.com}}
}}
'''Nemo's Garden''' is an underwater cultivation designed by Sergio Gamberini along with a team from Ocean Reef Group in 2012, and currently coordinated by Gianni Fontanesi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nemo's Garden|url=https://techprincess.it/orto-subacqueo-liguria-nemos-garden/|access-date=17 November 2021|website=Tech Princess|date=16 August 2021 }}</ref> The project was born to face main global issues, such as: [[climate change]], [[pollution]], [[malnourishment]] and hunger. It actively operates, and is open to visitors, from late June until late September.

The garden is located in [[Noli]], Italy, and it consists in an underwater installation of several [[Polyvinyl chloride|vinyl-plastic]] [[Biosphere 2|biospheres]] containing various kinds of herbs, vegetables and flowers that are being tested and observed for this alternative and sustainable way of gardening.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last1=Pistelli |first1=Laura |last2=Pistelli |first2=Luisa |last3=Flamini |first3=G. |last4=Ascrizzi |first4=R. |last5=Giuliani |first5=C. |last6=Cervelli |first6=C. |last7=Ruffoni |first7=B. |last8=Princi |first8=Elisabetta |last9=Gamberini |first9=Sergio |last10=Gamberini |first10=Luca |last11=Fontanesi |first11=Giovanni |year=2016 |title=Preliminary results on basil grown in the Nemo's Garden |url=https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/html/10.1055/s-0036-1596796 |journal=[[Planta Medica]] |volume=81 |pages=S1–S381 |language=English |location=New York |publisher=Thieme E-Journals |doi=10.1055/s-0036-1596796|s2cid=40131024 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

This concept of underwater agriculture exploits the sea, and the possibilities it offers, as its primary resource. It aims to be adaptable to the most hostile places on earth, where the lack of agricultural means causes poverty and hunger, and repopulate the reef in areas where pollution has destroyed it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kriti |first=Malik |date=13 July 2017 |title=An Underwater Farm that Grows Basil, Strawberries & More |url=https://food.ndtv.com/opinions/an-underwater-farm-that-grows-basil-strawberries-more-1234354 |archive-date= |access-date=2 December 2021 |website=food.ndtv.com |publisher=[[NDTV]]}}</ref>

Nemo's Garden has the main goal of not harming the planet, consequently it was designed to be: ''[[self-sustainable]]'', using mainly [[renewable energy]] from natural resources such as the sun and having the ability of reutilizing the freshwater it produces, ''[[eco-friendly]]'', not harming the surrounding environment and its natural marine ecosystem that is heterogeneous, has an [[oligotrophic]] nature, a high diversity in marine species, and a high rate of [[endemism]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Piroddi|first1=Chiara|last2=Colloca|first2=Francesco|last3=Athanassios|first3=Tsikliras C.|date=22 May 2020|title=The living marine resources in the Mediterranean Sea Large Marine Ecosystem|journal=Environmental Development|volume=36 |page=100555 |doi=10.1016/j.envdev.2020.100555 |pmid=33425671 |pmc=7456280 |publication-date=29 August 2020}}</ref> and ''ecological'', not producing any pollution.<ref name="":2"" />

The project is divided into two phases: the one going from 2012 until 2016, called ""the 2016 phase"", and the one being observed now. During the 2016 phase the objectives were: collecting data from the plants and analyzing their characteristics, designing and making the [[Hydroponics|hydroponic]] system work, and taking into consideration the possibility of using the garden in [[Cosmetics|cosmetic]], [[Pharmaceutical industry|pharmaceutical]], and [[nutraceutical]] applications.<ref name="":0"">{{cite book |last1=Princi |first1=Elisabetta |title=Nemo's Garden: Growing plants underwater |last2=Dini |first2=Giorgio |last3=Gamberini |first3=Sergio |last4=Gamberini |first4=Luca |date=19-23 September 2016 |publisher=[[IEEE]] |isbn=978-1-5090-1537-5 |location=San Marcos, CA, USA |pages=4 |language=English}}</ref>

== Location ==
[[File:Noli vista dalla spiaggia di Capo Noli - Noli.jpg|left|thumb|Town of Noli, view from Capo Noli]]
Nemo's Garden is located in a small inlet in the bay of [[Noli]] (in the [[Italian Riviera|Riviera di Ponente]], [[Savona]], {{lang|it|Liguria}}). The length of the bay is almost 1 kilometre long.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIGURE, MARE in ""Enciclopedia Italiana""|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/mare-ligure_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)|access-date=23 November 2021|website=treccani.it|language=it-IT}}</ref> The underwater farm is placed about {{Convert|40|m|ft|abbr=on|sp=us}} away from Letizia Beach, found between the cliff of Capo Noli and Punta Vescovato, [http://www.bagniletizia.com/index2.html] and between {{Convert|32 and 40|ft|m|abbr=on|sp=us}} under the sea level.

In Liguria the general depth of the sea varies from {{Convert|6500|ft|m}} and {{Convert|10,000|ft|m}}, but in the area of Noli the depth reaches a maximum of {{Convert|3200|ft|m}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Platania |first=Giovanni |title=Ligure, Mare |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/mare-ligure_%28Enciclopedia-Italiana%29/#:~:text=La%20piattaforma%20continentale%20del%20Mare,ampiezza%20%C3%A8%20di%2034%20cm. |access-date=17 November 2021 |website=[[Treccani]] |publisher= |year=1934}}</ref>

The small village of Noli (''{{Lang|el-latn|Neapolis}}'' in Greek, means ''""new city""''), is an Italian municipality placed on the west coast of {{lang|it|[[Liguria]]}}. Historically speaking, from 1192 up until 1797, the time of the Napoleonic invasion, it was one of the [[maritime republics]], called ""Republic of Noli"".<ref>{{cite web|last=Fossati|first=Alessandro|date=23 September 2011|title=Noli|url=https://www.ligurianautica.com/localita/noli/|access-date=10 November 2021|website=Liguria nautica|publisher=Carmolab SAS|language=Italian}}</ref> The territory of this municipality is part of the Pollupice Mountain Community.

== History ==
In 2012, Sergio Gamberini, decided to combine his passions of gardening and scuba diving to create an underwater cultivation. With rising concerns about our planet's future he found this project could be a viable and safe alternative for modern agriculture, known to be one of the causes for the earth's conditions. 

The plant he and the team decided to cultivate first was green [[basil]], one of Liguria's regional symbols.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Redazione 4Surf|date=10 May 2018|title=Nemo's Garden, la serra subacquea in baia a Noli|url=https://www.4actionsport.it/nemos-garden-una-serra-subacquea-in-baia-a-noli/|access-date=2 November 2021|website=4ActionSport|language=it-IT}}</ref> In 2013 the basil plants were analyzed and it was discovered they had the same taste as the ones grown on land, but they contained 20% more of essential oils. The following year it was decided to build an additional biosphere where salad was the selected species of plant to cultivate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pistelli |first1=Laura |last2=Ascrizzi |first2=Roberta |last3=Giuliani |first3=Claudia |last4=Cervelli |first4=Claudio |last5=Ruffoni |first5=Barbara |last6=Princi |first6=Elisabetta |last7=Fontanesi |first7=Gianni |last8=Flamini |first8=Guido |last9=Pistelli |first9=Luisa |title=Growing basil in the underwater biospheres of Nemo's Garden: Phytochemical, physiological and micromorphological analyses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030442381930737X |access-date=5 December 2021 |journal= Scientia Horticulturae|year=2020 |volume=259 |page=108851 |doi=10.1016/j.scienta.2019.108851 |hdl=2434/746177 |s2cid=203894074 |publication-date=19 September 2019|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In 2015 the project's team participated in the event [[Expo 2015]], which helped publicize the garden and acquire new funds.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Borghino|first=Dario|date=3 July 2015|title=""Nemo's Garden"" grows terrestrial crops underwater|url=https://newatlas.com/nemos-garden-terrestrial-crops-underwater/38283/|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Newatlas}}</ref>

In 2016 the Tree of Life, the main exhibit from Expo 2015, was built in the garden as an homage to the event. The original structure of the Tree was designed by Creative Director Marco Balich and reaches an overall height of 37 metres. This piece of architecture represents the connection between past and future, united in one object, and becomes a metaphor for prosperity and hope. The creator claims his art piece is inspired by Michelangelo's flooring in Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vitali|first=Chiara|date=12 October 2015|title=Cosa significa l'Albero della Vita di Expo 2015|url=https://www.lenius.it/cosa-significa-lalbero-della-vita/|access-date=2 December 2021|website=LeNius.it|publisher=Le Nius|language=Italian}}</ref>

In 2018 some of the plants in the Garden were destroyed by [[Cyclone Zorbas]], a storm that struck in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The structure of the biospheres was not damaged, but the high level of water in them resulted in the death of majority of the plants. Following this event, the team worked on restoring the habitat and rebuilding the biospheres to be more resistant.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Floyd|first=Charlie|date=13 March 2018|title=A father and son are growing fruit and vegetables 8 metres below the surface of the Mediterranean Sea — here's why|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/nemos-garden-is-an-underwater-greenhouse-heres-how-it-works-italy-father-son-2018-3?r=US&IR=T|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Insider}}</ref>

Italy was one of the first countries to be affected by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. Divers were unable to collect new research data, and subsequently the team from Ocean Reef Group at Nemo's Garden was forced to take a break.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Katanich|first1=Dolores|last2=Orlandi|first2=Giorgia|date=6 July 2021|title=World's first underwater farm reopens growing lettuce and strawberries|url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2021/07/06/world-s-first-underwater-farm-reopens-growing-lettuce-and-strawberries|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Euronews}}</ref>

In the final months of 2020, Nemo's Garden made it through thunderstorms and the Winter season, which was registered as the most successful period in terms of plant growth.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nemo's Garden |url=http://www.nemosgarden.com/underwater-vs-standard-agriculture/ |website=Nemo's Garden |access-date=10 November 2021}}</ref>

== Design and working principles ==
[[File:Nemo's Garden 1.jpg|right|thumb|Tree of Life and Biospheres]]Nemo's Garden is made up of a total of six biospheres. They are composed by a vinyl-plastic dome, that allows the sunlight to reach the plants inside, and an internal metallic scaffold that anchors the structure to the seabed through 24 chains and special screws. Each semi-sphere is filled with {{convert|2000|litre}} of air volume that is periodically refreshed, for a diameter of {{convert|2|m|spell=in}}, and a step grid at the bottom where divers can stand to operate.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book|last1=Dini|first1=Giorgio|last2=Princi|first2=Elisabetta|last3=Gamberini|first3=Sergio|last4=Gamberini|first4=Luca|title=OCEANS 2016 MTS/IEEE Monterey |chapter=Nemo's Garden: Growing plants underwater |date=19-23 September 2016|publisher=IEEE|isbn=978-1-5090-1537-5|location=an Marcos, CA, USA|publication-date=1 December 2016|pages=3|language=English|doi=10.1109/OCEANS.2016.7761335|s2cid=39624632 }}</ref>

The Garden was originally structured in the shape of a pentagon with five biospheres, but a sixth one was added in 2021. The Tree of Life is a {{convert|3.5|m}} high and {{cvt|3|m}} large structure positioned in the middle. It hides cables going into the biospheres, provides illumination for the habitat, and has webcams monitoring the Garden from the top.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bonazza|first=Valentina|date=5 August 2021|title=Nemo's Garden: quando il basilico cresce sott'acqua (in mongolfiere marine)|url=https://www.fruitbookmagazine.it/nemos-garden-quando-il-basilico-cresce-sottacqua-in-mongolfiere-marine/|access-date=5 November 2021|website=Fruitbook Magazine|language=it-IT}}</ref> Cameras are positioned in every biosphere and they work thanks to a wireless underwater communication network with a range of operation of 100 metres from the Tree of Life.

A Control Tower on the shoreline monitors and supervises all the activities in Nemo's Garden and it is used by the ""agrinauts"" (divers working in the biospheres) to communicate with their colleagues working on land.

This underwater farm uses a cultivation system called ""[[Hydroponics]]"", a method of growing plants using mineral solutions in water without soil. The solutions contain nutrients based on K+ ions and NO3- (Nitrate). Inside the plastic domes is installed a spiral tube {{cvt|10|m}} long that has holes positioned every {{cvt|15|cm}} functioning as seedbeds, for a total of 60 holes in each biosphere and a total of 150 to 200 plants.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Razzetti|first=Michele|date=15 November 2020|title=Nel ""Giardino di Nemo"", dove l'agricoltore diventa subacqueo|url=https://www.vanityfair.it/mybusiness/news-mybusiness/2020/11/15/giardino-di-nemo-agricoltore-subacqueo-sergio-gamberini|access-date=5 November 2021|website=Vanity Fair Italia|language=it-IT}}</ref>

Every semi-sphere has monitoring sensors that detect and record physical and chemical data such as: air temperature, [[Humidity]] rate (controlled through fans powered by solar energy), [[luminosity]], levels of [[oxygen]] and [[carbon dioxide]].

The Garden is provided with an [[irrigation]] system situated in a tank in the lowest part of the spiral tube. The irrigation water is obtained thanks to the phenomenon of [[condensation]] caused by the difference between the air temperature inside of the biospheres and the surrounding water temperature. The water obtained is stored in the tanks and mixed with fertilizers and redistributed to the plants through a pump powered by solar energy that pushes the water from the bottom to the top of the spiral tube. The water then descends by gravity reaching the plants.

The main renewable energy source is [[solar energy]] and fresh water is obtained through the process of [[desalination]] of water. In absence of solar energy, [[LED lamp|LED]] lights are employed to provide light. 
[[File:Tree of life Nemo's Garden 3.jpg|thumb|380x380px|Tree of Life]]
The species of herbs, vegetables and flowers selected for the project are:[[Stevia rebaudiana]], [[Salvia elegans]], [[Eschscholzia californica]], [[Vinca]], [[Calendula]], [[Pansy]], Small Tomatoes, [[Lemon balm]], [[Basil]], [[Thyme]], [[Orchidaceae|Orchids]], [[Sophora]], [[Goji]], [[Oregano]], [[Mentha]] and [[Bean]]s. The aim is to observe how different plants can survive and grow in this kind of environment.<ref name="":1"" />

==Sustainability==
One of the most significant systems for modern farming is [[industrial agriculture]] based on large-scale monoculture. This method takes into account the increasing importance of [[sustainability]], but the many improvements in this branch, like [[plant breeding]] and the use of [[agrochemical]]s, have caused significant ecological damage and are known to have negative health effects on humans.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gliessman|first=Stephen R.|title=Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture|publisher=Ann Arbor Press|year=1998|location=Chelsea|language=English}}</ref>

Water is the main resource for agriculture and its management is particularly important, especially in countries where rainfalls are insufficient or variable. In the last years, the availability of freshwater has started to decrease rising the public's concearn and opening the way to new possible more sustainable agricultural methods like the one used in Nemo's Garden.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Smedley|first=Tim|date=12 April 2017|title=Is the world running out of fresh water?|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170412-is-the-world-running-out-of-fresh-water|access-date=5 December 2021|publisher=BBC}}</ref>

Gamberini's new underwater system hopes to help overcome problems related to the use of harmful pesticides, known to damage both the fauna and the flora of the reef, but also human's health as these pesticides end up being in the food we eat.<ref>{{Cite web|date=19 February 2018|title=Pesticide residues in food|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/pesticide-residues-in-food|access-date=5 December 2021|website=World Health Organization}}</ref> The closed ecosystem of the biospheres would disable the parasites to attack the plants to begin with. Moreover, the underwater farm does not pose a threat to marine ecosystems because of low interaction with the surrounding environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ningombam |first1=Sushma Devi |title=Nemo's Garden- the world's first-and onlysubterranean greenhouse (A review article) |journal=Ecology, Environment and Conservation |date=June 20, 2022 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=2038–2041 |doi=10.53550/EEC.2022.v28i04.058 |url=http://www.envirobiotechjournals.com/EEC/vol28issue422/EEC-58.pdf}}</ref> It will be possible to produce natural fertilizers from algae growing in the areas surrounding the farms, and make the project completely sustainable.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Baweja|first1=Pooja|last2=Kumar|first2=Savindra|last3=Kumar|first3=Gaurav|title=Biofertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture and Environment |chapter=Organic Fertilizer from Algae: A Novel Approach Towards Sustainable Agriculture |date=10 August 2019|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-18933-4_16|access-date=5 December 2021|publisher=SpringerLink|series=Soil Biology |volume=55 |pages=353–370 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-18933-4_16|isbn=978-3-030-18932-7 |s2cid=202195355 }}</ref>

The biospheres are made from non-toxic polymeric materials and have minimum interactions with the surroundings, so they could and are becoming the right habitat for small-sized marine animals. This is a phenomenon known as repopulation of the reef and it will eventually increase.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Formisani|first=Lisa|date=4 February 2020|title=How to save the coral reefs|url=https://www.eni.com/en-IT/technologies/coral-reef-recovery.html|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Eni.com}}</ref> As a result, the population of Noli's coastline has already increased by 150%.

In contrast to ordinary greenhouses, Nemo's Garden can maintain mild stable temperatures within its biospheres without extra thermoregulation, which leads to carbon dioxide emissions and greenhouse effect, two of the main issues regarding modern agriculture.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rosati|first=Antonio|date=17 December 2018|title=An underwater garden|url=https://www.alimentarium.org/en/magazine/trends/underwater-garden|access-date=2 December 2021|website=alimentarium.org|publisher=The Guardian [online]}}</ref>

==Future projects==
Nemo's Garden is a scientific project that tests how the underwater systems can remain diverse and productive infinitely. The research is focusing on the relationship between the time needed for the plants to grow underwater rather than on land, the depth at which the project could be installed for the plants' survival and the pros and cons of the different locations and materials.

The commercialization of fresh produce grown underwater is a possible application of the project. Public and private entities could use the farms for the production of food on a larger scale and sell it to the public, especially in [[Third World|third world countries]] to enlarge their economy.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hansman|first=Heather|date=23 July 2015|title=Off the Coast of Italy, Two Divers Are Building Underwater Greenhouses|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/off-coast-italy-two-divers-are-building-underwater-greenhouses-180955883/|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Smithsonianmag}}</ref>

The team at Nemo's Garden is expanding their research to adjust their general structure of the Garden in function of the environment it would be placed in. For example, exploiting of [[solar panel]]s in desert areas.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Smart|first=Joanna|year=2019|title=Nemo's Garden|url=http://www.ogsociety.org/journal/featured-articles/335-nemos-garden.html|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Ocean Geographic}}</ref>

Another future application of the project would be that of [[Ecotourism]]. This implies opening the installations up for the public, or even placing them in resorts, to help with the growth of tourism in certain areas and to spread awareness on climate change, pollution related to the current methods of agriculture, and other main issues tied to the time we are living in.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dini|first1=Giorgio|title=Nemo's Garden: Growing plants underwater|last2=Princi|first2=Elisabetta|last3=Gamberini|first3=Sergio|last4=Gamberini|first4=Luca|date=19-23 September 2016|publisher=IEEE|isbn=978-1-5090-1537-5|location=San Marcos, California, US|pages=5–6|language=English}}</ref>

A phenomenon that is being observed in the Garden is the behaviour of sea animals around the biospheres, as many of them have started to inhabit the areas surrounding the domes. This led to the idea of using these cultivations also for [[fish farming]], or for the growth of seaweed and corals to repopulate the reef that is lately been particularly affected by damaging activities such as chemical fishing or use of harmful pesticides and disastrous events, such as leaks of petroleum in the sea.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Everts|first=James|year=2021|title=Threats to Coral Reefs: the Effects of Chemical Pollution.|url=http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Threats_to_Coral_Reefs:_the_Effects_of_Chemical_Pollution|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Costalwiki}}</ref>

The team at Nemo's Garden is partnering up with scientists like Professor Giovanni Tanda and Professor Marco Fossa from the Engineering Group of [[University of Genova|the University of Genoa]], for researches on thermal and hydrometrical issues caused by water evaporation in the biospheres, and Prof. Luisa Pistelli and Dr. Laura Pistelli from the [[University of Pisa]] for botanical studies, specifically the [[phytochemical]] composition of the plants, their aroma profile, their [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] structure, the [[Histology|histochemical]] features and their [[Physiology|physiological]] behaviour compared to those grown on land.

==Scuba diving==
[[File:Nemo's Garden 2.jpg|left|thumb|Diver working on Nemo's Garden]]
[[Scuba diving]] is an adventurous sport and before the COVID-19 pandemic struck, it was practiced in Italy by more than 100.000 people per year.  After the pandemic only 20% of diving centres have registered no loss in profit, 60%  has estimated a loss between 25 and 50% and the rest have had a loss of 50% or more. This emergency situation is expected to help the Italian scuba diving centres in the long run, especially for summer 2021–2022, as many Italian divers (50%) have decided to stay local, and explore the Italian coasts to save money and still be able to practice this sport.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Daturi|first=Marco|date=25 June 2021|title=Andamento della subacquea: analisi risultati sondaggio|url=https://www.zeropixel.it/andamento-della-subacquea/|access-date=17 November 2021|website=Zeropixel|language=Italian}}</ref>

Liguria is one of the main locations for scuba diving in Italy and between the main spots we can find: the area of the [[Cinque Terre]], [[Portofino]], the island of [[Bergeggi (island)|Bergeggi]] and [[Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary|Pelagos Sanctuary]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Expedia Team|date=12 July 2017|title=Immersioni In Liguria: I Migliori Posti Per Fare Diving|url=https://www.expedia.it/stories/immersioni-in-liguria-i-migliori-posti-per-fare-diving/|access-date=17 November 2021|website=expedia.it|publisher=expedia|language=Italian}}</ref>

The team from Ocean's Reef Group at Nemo's Garden, along with Gamberini and Fontanesi, aim to make Liguria and its treasures more known to divers and tourists in general. They want to transform their farm in one of the top attractions and spots for scuba diving and tourism. The Garden is open to the public and it can be visited along with a guide.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fitzpatrick|first=Colette|date=2 October 2019|title=An underwater farm not far from Genoa|url=https://www.italy-villas.com/to-italy/2019/tourist-attractions/parks/nemos-garden|access-date=17 November 2017|website=Italy-villas}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode=""packed"" heights=""150"">
File:Tree of life Nemo's Garden.jpg|Divers entering a biosphere
File:Tree of life Nemo's Garden 2.jpg|Diver in the forefront of the Tree of Life
File:Nemo's Garden's biosphere.jpg|Close-up with a biosphere
File:Nemo's Garden's biosphere 2.jpg|Biosphere analysis
File:Nemo's Garden's biosphere 3.jpg|Inside a biosphere
File:Biospheres in Nemo's Garden, Noli, Italy.jpg|Down angle: Biospheres
File:Biospheres in Nemo's Garden, Noli, Italy 2.jpg|Frontal perspective: Biospheres
File:Biosphere with divers in Nemo's Garden, Noli, Italy.jpg|Structure maintenance
File:Nemo's Garden seen from above, Noli, Italy.jpg|Up angle: Nemo's Garden
</gallery>

==External links ==
* [http://www.expo2015.org/ Expo 2015 ]
* [https://oceanreefgroup.com/Ocean Reef Group site]
* [https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/oceans/ Oceans: Sustainable Development Goals UNO]
* [https://www.regione.liguria.it/homepage/ambiente/acqua/mare-e-costa/competenze-regione/piano-di-tutela-dell-ambiente-marino-costiero.html Ligury Plan for Sea Protection]
* [https://www.comunenoli.gov.it/it Noli Municipality Site]
* [https://www.msp-platform.eu/countries/italy Italian Sea Territory: EU Policy]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Gardens in Italy]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Tourism in Liguria]]"
Convergence research,"{{Short description|Approach to solving problems}}

'''Convergence research''' aims to solve [[complex problem]]s employing [[transdisciplinarity]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Kaiser |first=Jocelyn |date=2011-01-11 |title=MIT Calls for More 'Convergence' in Research |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/mit-calls-more-convergence-research |magazine=Science |location=Washington, DC, USA |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref> While [[academic discipline|academic disciplines]] are useful for identifying and conveying coherent [[body of knowledge|bodies of knowledge]], some problems require collaboration among disciplines, including both enhanced understanding of scientific [[phenomenon|phenomena]] as well as resolving [[social issue|social issues]]. The two defining characteristics of convergence research include: 1) the [[nature (philosophy)|nature]] of the problem, and 2) the [[collaboration]] among disciplines.

== Definition ==
In 2002, it was published the foundational report ""Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance: Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology, and Cognitive Science"" (Roco et al. 2002 and 2003)<ref> {{Cite journal |date=2003 |editor-last=Roco |editor-first=Mihail C. |editor2-last=Bainbridge |editor2-first=William Sims |title=Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-017-0359-8 |journal=SpringerLink |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-0359-8}} </ref> and article ""Coherence and Divergence of Megatrends in Science and Engineering"" (Roco MC, 2002),<ref> Roco MC, ''Coherence and Divergence of Megatrends in Science and Engineering'', Journal of Nanoparticle Research 4, no. 1 (2002): 9-19 </ref> followed by the international report ""Convergence of Knowledge, Technology and Society: Beyond Convergence of Nano-Bio- Info-Cognitive Technologies"" (Roco et al. 2013)<ref> {{Cite journal |date=2013 |editor-last=Roco |editor-first=Mihail C. |editor2-last=Bainbridge |editor2-first=William S. |editor3-last=Tonn |editor3-first=Bruce |editor4-last=Whitesides |editor4-first=George |title=Convergence of Knowledge, Technology and Society |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-02204-8 |journal=Science Policy Reports |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-02204-8 |issn=2213-1965}} </ref> and ""Principles and Methods that Facilitate Convergence"" (Roco 2016).<ref> {{Cite book |url=https://link.springer.com/referencework/10.1007/978-3-319-07052-0 |title=Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence |date=2016 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-07051-3 |editor-last=Bainbridge |editor-first=William Sims |location=Cham |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-07052-0 |editor-last2=Roco |editor-first2=Mihail C.}}</ref> 

In 2016, convergence research was identified by the [[National Science Foundation]] as one of 10 Big Idea's for future investments.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Schwarber |first=Adria |date=2020-10-07 |title=FY21 Budget Outlook: National Science Foundation  |url=https://www.aip.org/fyi/2020/fy21-house-appropriations-bill-national-science-foundation |magazine=FYI Science Policy News from API |location=Washington, DC, USA |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref> As defined by NSF, convergence research has two primary characteristics, namely:

* ""''Research driven by a specific and compelling problem.'' Convergence research is generally inspired by the need to address a specific challenge or opportunity, whether it arises from deep scientific questions or pressing societal needs.
* ''Deep integration across disciplines.'' As experts from different disciplines pursue common research challenges, their knowledge, theories, methods, data, research communities and languages become increasingly intermingled or integrated. New frameworks, paradigms or even disciplines can form sustained interactions across multiple communities.""<ref>{{cite web | title = Convergence Research at NSF| publisher = National Science Foundation| date =  2016| url = https://www.nsf.gov/od/oia/convergence/index.jsp}}</ref>

National Research Council published a report on ""Convergence: Facilitating Transdisciplinary Integration of Life Sciences, Physical Sciences, Engineering, and Beyond"" in 2014.<ref>  ''Convergence: Facilitating Transdisciplinary Integration of Life Sciences, Physical Sciences, Engineering, and Beyond'', National Research Council 2014. </ref> 

An illustration of implementing convergence principles to the National Nanotechnology Initiative<ref> National Nanotechnology Initiative portal, www.nano.gov. </ref> is described in<ref> Roco MC and Bainbridge WS, ''The New World of Discovery, Invention, and Innovation: Convergence of Knowledge, Technology, and Society''. Journal of Nanoparticle Research 15, no. 9 (2013): 1-17 </ref> in 2013.

An illustration of application of convergence to health, science and engineering research is described in<ref> {{Cite web |title=2016 Report |url=http://www.convergencerevolution.net/2016-report |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=The Convergence Revolution |language=en-US}} </ref> in 2016.

== Examples of convergence research ==
=== Biomedicine ===
Advancing [[healthcare]] and promoting [[Wellness (alternative medicine)|wellness]] to the point of providing [[personalized medicine]] will increase [[health]] and reduce costs for everyone.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Regalado |first=Antonio |date=2020-04-27 |title=Hyper-personalized medicine |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/technology/hyper-personalized-medicine/ |magazine=MIT Technology Review |location=Boston, MA, USA |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref> While recognizing the potential benefits of personalized medicine, critics cite the importance of maintaining investments in [[public health]] as highlighted by the approaches to combat the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Marcus |first=Amy Dockser |date=2020-05-08 |title=Covid-19 Raises Questions About the Value of Personalized Medicine |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/covid-19-raises-questions-about-the-value-of-personalized-medicine-11588949927?mod=searchresults_pos6&page=2 |work=Wall Street Journal |location=New York, NY, USA |access-date=2017-09-02}}</ref>

=== Cyber-physical systems ===
The [[internet of things]] allows all [[people]], [[machine|machines]], and [[infrastructure]] to be monitored, maintained, and operated in real-time, everywhere. Because the [[Federal government of the United States|United States Government]] is one of the largest user of ""things"", [[computer security|cybersecurity]] is critical to any effective system.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/congress-passes-the-internet-of-things-17526/ |title=Congress Passes The Internet Of Things (IoT) Cybersecurity Improvement Act |publisher=JD Supra |date=2020-12-15 |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref>

=== STEMpathy ===
Jobs that utilize skills in [[science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]] to provide care for human welfare through the use of [[empathy]] have been described as creating value with ""hired hearts"".<ref>{{cite book |last=Seidman |first=Dov |author-link= |date=2011 |title=How: Why How We Do Anything Means Everything |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=Wiley |page=384 |isbn=978-1118106372}}</ref> [[Thomas Friedman]] coined the term ""STEMpathy"" to describe these jobs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/04/opinion/from-hands-to-heads-to-hearts.html |title=From Hands to Heads to Hearts |work=The New York Times |date=2017-01-04 |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref>

=== Sustainability ===
Beyond [[recycling]], the goal of achieving [[zero waste]] means designing a closed loop of the [[material]] and [[energy]] necessary to operate the [[built environment]]. Individuals and organizations, including [[corporation|corporations]] and governments, increasingly are committing to achieving [[zero waste]].<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Neill | first=Clarie |date=2020-12-29 |title=New Year's Resolutions for the Planet |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/29/climate/new-years-resolutions-climate.html |work=New York Times |location=New York, NY, USA |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Convergence Research}}

[[Category:Biomedicine]]
[[Category:Computer_systems]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
North–south research partnerships,"{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
'''North–south research partnerships''' consist of collaborations between [[research]]ers from countries in the [[Global North and Global South|global north and the global south]]. By establishing equal partnerships in north–south research, economic, social and cultural boundaries can be overcome. Such partnerships can address and enable research of issues in dynamic and complex contexts, as well as deal with [[Uncertainty|uncertainties]]. Moreover, such research cooperation allows different perspectives to be taken into account to explore issues that are strongly [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|value]] driven or linked to conflicting interests and power claims. So north–south research partnerships provide new insights in the transition towards [[sustainable development]] and facilitate the development of solutions to local and global challenges.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|last=Hofmänner|first=Alexandra|year=2021|title=A Short History of the KFPE 1994 – 2019|url=https://portal-cdn.scnat.ch/asset/3823984a-3ab8-588a-b21e-0d0dbcc27eac/A%20Short%20History%20of%20the%20KFPE%201994-2019.pdf?b=9b4b555e-9aa1-5ad0-9b5a-854fd25f821f&v=a8656557-b133-506a-8aed-8ddb9d490f9a_0&s=iUoxIWGJGGpZAQyo0XHe9krd5WOAXnB83SpxLR-QCjKsDQFENZCzL8Ge-I4LExKgip9mn25KA3gtzi8RtrKH1qPXHdCG1xSM_25B_KJ-dhpWA-yjyd_HQrBa9N-ECagZ20nyHmWyb7LXQmRorWsgT4Kpurd62rnpuLJWVmtrgVM}}</ref>

== History ==
For centuries, people have embarked on voyages of discovery and exploration. In the beginning, such voyages were motivated by the ambition to establish new colonies and extend trade relations. [[Decolonization]] gave rise, in the mid-20th century, to the idea of [[Development aid|development in cooperation]]. Research centres were established in developing countries to support and promote knowledge and technology transfer.

Debate around sustainable development in the 1990s led to the expansion of initiatives with an initial focus on economic development to include socio-ecological considerations. Warnings from the research community contributed significantly to this paradigm shift (cf. [[Brundtland Report]]). However, this change in direction also called for new approaches in research, including [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] and [[Transdisciplinarity|transdisciplinary]] methods and initiatives that sought to understand the complexity of global problems and develop appropriate and relevant solutions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=für Entwicklungsfragen |first=Kommission |url=https://hw.oeaw.ac.at/3767-2 |title=Gemeinsam forschen, gemeinsam lernen |date=2006 |publisher=Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |isbn=978-3-7001-3767-2 |language=de |doi=10.1553/0x0012788c}}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|title=Global Sustainable Development Report {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs|url=https://sdgs.un.org/gsdr|access-date=2022-02-24|website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> To comprehensively attempt to understand global challenges, these must also be studied and understood from the perspective of [[Developing country|developing countries]]. Doing so effectively requires the strengthening of research networks in countries of the global south and equality in partnerships with researchers from these countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gaillard |first=Jacques, ... |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/467945279 |title=La coopération scientifique et technique avec les pays du Sud : peut-on partager la science? |date=1999 |publisher=Éd. Karthala |others=Impr. Laballery) |isbn=2-86537-941-8 |location=Paris |oclc=467945279}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Maselli|first=Daniel|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/727909983|title=Improving impacts of research partnerships|date=2004|publisher=Geographica Bernensia|others=Jon-Andri Lys, Jacqueline Schmid, Conférence des académies scientifiques suisses. Commission suisse pour le partenariat scientifique avec les pays en dévéloppement|isbn=3-906151-83-2|location=Bern|oclc=727909983}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kok|first1=Maarten Olivier|last2=Gyapong|first2=John Owusu|last3=Wolffers|first3=Ivan|last4=Ofori-Adjei|first4=David|last5=Ruitenberg|first5=Elis Joost|year=2017|title=Towards fair and effective North–South collaboration: realising a programme for demand-driven and locally led research|journal=Health Research Policy and Systems|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=96|doi=10.1186/s12961-017-0251-3|issn=1478-4505|pmc=5683379|pmid=29132436 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Partenariats Nord-Sud/Forschungspartnerschaften |publisher=Yvan Droz, Anne Mayor, Lilo Roost Vischer |year=2001 |isbn= |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51561000 |title=North-South research cooperation : international conference, December 3, 2001. |date=2002 |publisher=Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschapen |others=Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschapen |isbn=90-6984-348-X |location=Amsterdam |oclc=51561000}}</ref> Such cooperation, on equal terms, is currently also one of the demands laid out in [[Anti-colonisation|anti-]] and decolonization debates.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trisos|first1=Christopher H.|last2=Auerbach|first2=Jess|last3=Katti|first3=Madhusudan|date=24 May 2021|title=Decoloniality and anti-oppressive practices for a more ethical ecology|journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution|language=en|volume=5|issue=9|pages=1205–1212|doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01460-w|pmid=34031567|s2cid=235199711|issn=2397-334X|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Research colonialism still plagues Africa|url=https://www.scidev.net/sub-saharan-africa/scidev-net-investigates/research-colonialism-still-plagues-africa/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=Sub-Saharan Africa|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2022 |title=Decolonising academic collaboration {{!}} DIIS |url=https://www.diis.dk/en/research/decolonising-academic-collaboration |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=www.diis.dk |language=en}}</ref> North–south research partnerships also have an important role to play in connecting research and development cooperation.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/785764545 |title=Research for sustainable development : foundations, experiences, and perspectives |date=2011 |publisher=NCCR North-South |others=Urs Wiesmann, National Centre of Competence in Research North-South |isbn=978-3-905835-31-1 |location=Bern |oclc=785764545}}</ref><ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|year=2021|title=Combining Research and Services at Swiss Research Institutions to Accelerate Sustainable Development|url=https://www.swisstph.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/SwissTPH/Documents/Institute/Research_Governance/RS4D_Policy_Brief_Final_29.01.2021.pdf|publisher=Swiss TPH}}</ref>

== Equality in global research cooperation ==
Understanding global sustainable development challenges and designing solutions to address these challenges, requires genuine equitable collaboration among researchers from different countries, disciplines and sectors, including business, civil society, management, and politics. Such collaboration is also predicated on strong research networks across the global south.<ref name="":1"" /><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Wiesmann|first1=Urs|last2=Hurni|first2=Hans|year=2011|title=Research for Sustainable Development: Foundations, Experiences, and Perspectives|url=http://www.nccr-north-south.unibe.ch/Upload/LOW_fullversion_Perspectives_Vol6_Research_Sustainable_Development(2).pdf|publisher=Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research North-South, University of Bern}}</ref>

Efficient and resilient research depends on long-term, trusting research partnerships of equals. Such partnerships enable ongoing research to be better sustained during periods of crisis (e.g., the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]) and new research can build on existing collaborations. 

From an [[Ethics|ethical]] point of view, equality in partnerships is also 'the right thing to do' and necessary to prevent the exploitation and abuse of researchers in more vulnerable positions and resource-poor settings (so-called [[ethics dumping]]).<ref name="":3"">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-64731-9|title=Ethics Dumping: Case Studies from North-South Research Collaborations|date=2018|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-64730-2|editor-last=Schroeder|editor-first=Doris|series=SpringerBriefs in Research and Innovation Governance|location=Cham|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-64731-9|editor-last2=Cook|editor-first2=Julie|editor-last3=Hirsch|editor-first3=François|editor-last4=Fenet|editor-first4=Solveig|editor-last5=Muthuswamy|editor-first5=Vasantha}}</ref> Equitable partnerships are grounded in the fair and equal distribution of participation, exposure to risk, and personal benefit (e.g., [[authorship]] of publications, career advancement, wages, etc.) as well as social benefits derived from research activities.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|title=KFPE Guide – 11 Principles & 7 Questions|url=https://kfpe.scnat.ch/en/id/JaMhL|access-date=2022-02-24|website=kfpe.scnat.ch|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|last=Schroeder|first=Doris|title='Ethics dumping' – the dark side of international research|url=http://theconversation.com/ethics-dumping-the-dark-side-of-international-research-88675|access-date=2022-02-24|website=The Conversation|language=en}}</ref> ""[[Access and Benefit Sharing Agreement|Access and benefit sharing]]"" is a critical consideration of such cooperation: all researchers, research institutions and countries involved in a given initiative should have equal access to the data generated, as well as the social benefits and financial gains derived from these data.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web|last=Unit|first=Biosafety|date=22 February 2022|title=The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing|url=https://www.cbd.int/abs/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.cbd.int|language=en}}</ref> 

Equality in cooperation between all parties in research partnerships is challenging and often difficult to achieve in practice. To support researchers and research funding institutions in addressing these challenges, the Swiss Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries (KFPE) has outlined 11 principles. These principles serve as a guideline and an international model for equal partnerships in research cooperation.<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Stöckli|first1=Bruno|last2=Wiesmann|first2=Urs|last3=Lys|first3=Jon-Andri|year=2012|title=A Guide for Transboundary Research Partnerships|url=https://portal-cdn.scnat.ch/asset/4d8372ee-27d7-558a-b9db-77bf409ceef4/KFPE-11P-7Q-3d2018.pdf?b=370a2788-58f3-581e-85d7-2418b87c662e&v=8ef687bc-7b14-5a4f-ad9e-bf494cddc1d7_0&s=gLwVbtPON190F6auadVe-DPd_IOknFA_pssGzeBGB68h8nfbZIcnUaztPkFbUOKFef8V2w2-5NzkK61J2WEdN4JXXheHl2gX1f6cLTTro8WFmDkhlKvHQjqRQDZdPmPo3whl0-P3PWWEWWinhvJ5hWLGC5hYwVTAPC0kLEC-F7g|publisher=Swiss Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries, KFPE}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=KFPE: A Guide for Transboundary Research Partnerships|url=https://www.ukcdr.org.uk/resource/a-guide-for-transboundary-research-partnerships-by-kfpe/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.ukcdr.org.uk|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Portrait – NFP [Nr.]|url=http://www.r4d.ch/r4d-programme/portrait|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.r4d.ch|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=SPIRIT|url=https://www.snf.ch/de/nlghrhyzbD90TM9D/foerderung/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=Schweizerischer Nationalfonds (SNF)|language=de}}</ref>

== Relationship between sustainable research and basic research ==
Achieving the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda requires international [[Sustainability science|research collaboration on sustainable development]].<ref name="":1"" /> This includes, in particular, north–south research collaborations. Such cooperation enables challenges to sustainable development to be considered comprehensively and from different perspectives, and fosters the development of solutions that take into account different needs and priorities. 

North–south research cooperation is mostly [[Applied science|applied research]] that makes a specific contribution to sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web|last=mdass|date=30 September 2020|title=GDN programs|url=http://www.gdn.int/currentprograms|access-date=2022-02-24|website=Global Development Network}}</ref> However, [[basic research]] can also be conducted through north–south research cooperation.  But to date, the majority of basic research is conducted in the Global North. Due to a lack of integration, research networks in the Global South are sometimes excluded from basic research.

== Funding ==
Funding mechanisms for north–south research collaborations include government [[Research Grants]], private and philanthropic foundations as well as individuals. Private-sector companies also support various research projects and collaborations.

One challenge for north–south research is that it straddles research and [[Development aid|development cooperation]]. The requirements for projects in these two areas sometimes differ greatly. Consequently, it is difficult for north–south research to do justice to both areas in each case. This makes finding funding for north–south research more challenging. This challenge is exacerbated in the case of ''[[Transdisciplinarity|transdisciplinary]]'' North-South research, because, as the name implies, such research does not fit into any single discipline. Moreover, in some cases, applied research in the global south is considered to be 'inferior' compared to basic research undertaken at renowned research institutions in the global north, and receives correspondingly less funding support. 

North–south research is mostly funded in the form of research projects. Short project cycles and the pressure to generate findings quickly and cheaply make it difficult not only to build long-term research partnerships on an equal footing, but also to establish sustainable structures and strengthen relevant skills and capacities on the ground. In addition to project funding, north–south research would therefore benefit from more funding instruments targeted at strengthening the long-term cooperation between organisations as well as supporting the development of sustainable structures and relevant expertise on site.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sieber |first1=Priska |title=Choosing the Right Projects. Designing Selection Processes for North-South Research Partnership Programmes |last2=Braunschweig |first2=Thomas |publisher=Swiss Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries, KFPE |year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Upreti |first=Bishnu Raj |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/823742842 |title=Partnerships in development-oriented research : lessons learnt and challenges ahead |date=2012 |others=NCCR North-South. South Asia Regional Coordination Office |isbn=978-9937-8174-4-8 |location=Kathmandu |oclc=823742842}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|year=2020|title=Confronting our Common Challenges: a new Approach to Strengthening Africa's Research, Innovation and Higher Education Capacity|url=https://www.the-guild.eu/publications/arua-guild-concept-note-common-challenges.pdf|publisher=The Guild of European Research-Intensive Universities and Bern Open Publishing}}</ref>

== Critique and possible solutions ==
North–south research cooperation has been much criticised. In addition to the [[Development aid#Debated effectiveness and impacts|general criticism levied at development cooperation]] generally, there are several specific aspects of north–south research that are frequently mentioned by critics. The most important points are listed below:

* The quality and efficiency of north–south research is not on par with the demonstrated research excellence at renowned research institutions in the global north. North–south research is not undertaken with the same scientific rigour and independence as basic or fundamental disciplinary research. North–south research is too practice-oriented and produces too few publications in [[Scientific journal|high-impact scientific journals]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scientific and technical journal articles {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IP.JRN.ARTC.SC?most_recent_value_desc=true&year_low_desc=true |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> This is countered by the argument that North-South researchers are more likely to step out of the [[ivory tower]] of academia, tackle real world problems and offer viable solutions. Moreover, scientific performance should not only be evaluated based on the [[impact factor]] of scientific publications, but also according to the tangible benefits generated for society.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite web |title=Read the Declaration |url=https://sfdora.org/read/ |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=DORA |language=en-US}}</ref>

* North–south research is too [[Theory|theoretical]] and removed from [[Praxis (process)|practice]]. From the perspective of practitioners, research findings are too theoretical and lack tangible application(s). This highlights the dilemma facing applied north–south research. From the 'scientific' perspective, it does not qualify as excellent research, while from the 'applied' perspective, it is too theoretical. Applied north–south research in fact benefits both science and practice. In well-implemented projects, scientific knowledge critically informs on the ground practice and current development problems inspire key research questions.<ref name="":2"" />

* [[Traditional knowledge]] and [[Culture|local cultural ideas]] often hold little value in [[Western world|Western-influenced]] research.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kothari |first=Uma |title=Power, Knowledge and Social Control in Participatory Development |work=Participation. The New Tyranny? |publisher=Zed Books |year=2001 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=Bill |location=London |pages=139–152 |editor-last2=Kothari |editor-first2=Uma}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mosse |first=David |title=Authority, Gender and Knowledge. Theoretical Reflections on the Practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal |work=Development and Change |year=1994 |volume=25 |pages=497–526}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fairhead |first1=James |title=Culturing Trees. Socialized Knowledge in the Political Ecology of Kissia and Kuranko Forest Islands of Guinea |last2=Leach |first2=Melissa |work=Nature is culture: indigenous knowledge and socio-cultural aspects of trees and forests in non-European cultures |publisher=Intermediate Technology Publications |year=1997 |editor-last=Seeland |editor-first=Klaus |location=London |pages=7–18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Haller |first1=Tobias |title=Challenges for Participatory Conservation in Times of Global Change: Lessons from a Comparative Analysis and New Developments |last2=Galvin |first2=Marc |work=Research for Sustainable Development. Foundations, Experiences, and Perspectives. Perspectives of the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research NCCR North-South University of Bern |publisher=Geographica Bernensia |year=2011 |editor-last=Wiesmann |editor-first=Urs Martin |location=Bern |pages=467–503 |editor-last2=Hurni |editor-first2=Hans}}</ref> Critics warn that important knowledge is therefore ignored and equal partnerships not possible. There are, however, an increasing number of efforts to integrate across multiple forms of knowledge (western-based scientific, indigenous, local and traditional), different systems of thought, as well as [[Cultural practice|cultural practises]] and beliefs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2020 |title=Towards Food Sustainability |url=https://www.cde.unibe.ch/research/projects/towards_food_sustainability/index_eng.html |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=Centre for Development and Environment (CDE)}}</ref> In general, however, research and science follow Western-style patterns of thought.
* By using the term north–south research collaboration, the perception of a [[Global North and Global South|north–south divide]] is further sharpened. This simplified dichotomy is not helpful. From a [[deconstruction]]ist perspective, the image of a rich north and poor south is too inaccurate. Differences between countries manifest themselves along a spectrum of varying financial strength, technological standards, and different research capacities. Accordingly, from a research perspective, there is no such thing as north vs south opposing research groups. Although the distinction between north and south as general characterization has its weaknesses, certain differences in research cannot be dismissed and should be acknowledged and addressed.
* North–south research partnerships often contain [[Paternalism|paternalistic]] features. There is a perception that the north is superior to the south and that researchers from the North are better than researchers from the south. Also, most [[Funding of science|research funding]] is provided by institutions in the North. Both of these dimensions undermine equality in north–south partnerships. Consistent implementation of the guidelines for cross-border research partnerships is one approach to minimise these challenges and transform one-way paternalistic knowledge transfer into a partnership grounded in collaboration, mutual learning, and [[Knowledge sharing|knowledge-sharing]].<ref name="":4"" />
* Cumbersome and risk-prone research tasks are often unequally distributed. For instance, labour-intensive and sometimes dangerous fieldwork is assigned to local or young researchers. However, they are seldom invited to attend prestigious [[Academic conference|conferences]] or as co-authors on research publications. Agreements on ""access and benefit sharing"" as well as measures against so-called ""[[ethics dumping]]"" can help redress these manifestations of inequality.<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":6"" />
* North–south research offers limited opportunities to establish academic careers, as researchers need a lot of time to build partnerships and fully understand the local context. This is time that is not spent publishing career-relevant scientific manuscripts in high-impact journals. However, careers that bridge academia and practice offer many professional opportunities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Saric |first1=Jasmina |last2=Käser |first2=Fabian |last3=Lys |first3=Jon-Andri |last4=Utzinger |first4=Jürg |last5=Breu |first5=Thomas |date=26 August 2021 |title=Synergising Research and Service Activities at Swiss Research Institutions to Accelerate Sustainable Development |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=13 |issue=17 |pages=9626 |doi=10.3390/su13179626 |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free }}</ref> As a reminder, the quality of research endeavours should not solely be evaluated through publications in high-impact journals (or publications in high-impact journals should not be the sole indicator of research quality).<ref name="":7"" />

== Important institutions for global research cooperation ==
The following institutions are actively involved in north–south research cooperation – this is not an exhaustive list :

* [[The World Academy of Sciences|The Word Academy of Sciences]] (TWAS)<ref>{{Cite web|title=TWAS|url=https://twas.org/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=TWAS|language=en}}</ref>
* The African Academy of Sciences (AAS)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home {{!}} The AAS|url=https://www.aasciences.africa/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.aasciences.africa}}</ref>
* [[Institute of Development Studies]] (IDS)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home|url=https://www.ids.ac.uk/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=Institute of Development Studies|language=en-GB}}</ref>
* Council on Health Research for Development (COHRED)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Council on Health Research for Development – COHRED {{!}} Making health research work for everyone.|url=https://www.cohred.org/|access-date=2022-02-24|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Global Development Network]] (GDN)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Development Network|url=https://www.gdn.int/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=Global Development Network}}</ref>
* [[INASP|International Network for Advancing Science and Policy]] (INASP)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home {{!}} INASP|url=https://www.inasp.info/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.inasp.info}}</ref>
* [[Institut de recherche pour le développement]] (IRD)<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Research Network South (IRN/GDRI-Sud) {{!}} Site Web IRD|url=https://www.ird.fr/international-research-network-south-irngdri-sud|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.ird.fr|language=fr}}</ref>
* [[International Development Research Centre]] (IDRC)<ref>{{Cite web|title=IDRC – International Development Research Centre|url=https://www.idrc.ca/en|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.idrc.ca|language=en}}</ref>
* [[International Science Council]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Homepage|url=https://council.science/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=International Science Council|language=en-US}}</ref>
* UK Collaborative on Development Research (UKCDR)<ref>{{Cite web|title=UKCDR|url=https://www.ukcdr.org.uk/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.ukcdr.org.uk|language=en-GB}}</ref>
* [[Science and Development Network|SciDevNet]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home|url=https://www.scidev.net/global/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=SciDev.Net|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes]] (EADI)<ref>{{Cite web|title=EADI|url=https://www.eadi.org/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=EADI: European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes|language=en-GB}}</ref>
* Science Granting Councils Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa (SGCI)<ref>{{Cite web|title=SGCI – Science Granting Councils Initiative (SGCI) in Sub-Saharan Africa|url=http://sgciafrica.co.za/|access-date=2022-02-24|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Scholars at Risk]] (SAR)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scholars at Risk {{!}} Protecting scholars and the freedom to think, question, and share ideas |url=https://www.scholarsatrisk.org/ |access-date=2022-02-24 |website=Scholars at Risk |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Swiss Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries (KFPE)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries (KFPE) |url=https://kfpe.scnat.ch/en |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=kfpe.scnat.ch |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<!-- See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners on how to create references. -->
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.ukcdr.org.uk/guidance/equitable-partnerships-hub/ UKCDR Equitable Partnerships Hub]
* [https://www.globaldev.blog/ GlobalDev-Blog]
* [http://www.developmentresearch.eu/ EADI Blog]
* [https://blog.inasp.info/ inasp Blog]
* [https://www.scidev.net/global/ SciDevNet]
* [https://kfpe.scnat.ch/en Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries]<!-- Categories -->
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Transdisciplinarity]]
[[Category:International relations]]"
Mobility transition,"{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}{{use British English|date=February 2020}}
[[File:Gehzeug.jpg|thumb|[[Hermann Knoflacher]] has been criticising [[automotive city|auto cities]] and [[car dependency]] for decades. With his ''walking gear'', he caricatures the enormous spatial demands of motorised private transport (2007).]]
'''Mobility transition'''{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|page=4}}<ref name=""Shiftan"">{{Cite book |last=Shiftan |first=Yoram |date=2016 |title=Transition towards Sustainable Mobility: The Role of Instruments, Individuals and Institutions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPmXCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 |location=Abingdon |publisher=Routledge |pages=65–68 |isbn=9781317007302 |access-date=26 February 2022}}</ref> is a set of social, technological and political processes of converting [[traffic]] (including [[freight transport]]) and [[mobilities|mobility]] to [[sustainable transport]] with [[renewable energy]] resources, and an integration of several different modes of [[private transport]] and local [[public transport]]. It also includes [[social change]], a redistribution of [[public space]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Gianna Niewel |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/muenchen/muenchen-verkehr-fraunhoferstrasse-fahrrad-auto-1.4828233?reduced=true |title=Verkehrswende in München – Das Drama einer Umverteilung |work=[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]] |date=2020-03-02 |access-date=2020-03-05}}</ref> and different ways of financing and spending money in [[urban planning]]. The main motivation for mobility transition is the reduction of the harm and damage that traffic causes to people (mostly but not solely due to [[traffic collision|collisions]]) and the [[Environmental effects of transport|environment]] (which also often directly or indirectly affects people) in order to make (urban) society more livable, as well as solving various interconnected logistical, social, economic and energy issues and inefficiencies.

== Motivation ==
{{See also|Effects of the car on societies}}

=== Environmental damage ===
An important goal is the reduction of [[greenhouse gas emissions]] such as CO<sub>2</sub>. To achieve the goal set in the [[Paris Agreement]], that is, to restrict [[global warming]] to clearly below 2&nbsp;°C, the burning of fossil fuels is to be discontinued around 2040.<ref name=""Rockström"">{{citation|surname1=[[Johan Rockström]]|periodical=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|title=A roadmap for rapid decarbonization|volume=355|issue=6331|at=pp.&nbsp;1269–1271|date=2017|language=German|doi=10.1126/science.aah3443
|pmid=28336628|bibcode=2017Sci...355.1269R|s2cid=36453591|url=http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/14498/1/Rockstr%C3%B6mEtAl_2017_Science_A%20roadmap%20for%20rapid%20decarbonization.pdf}}</ref> Because the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions of traffic practically need to be reduced to zero,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Henrik Mortsiefer |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/7-emobility-summit-des-tagesspiegel-es-wird-ernst/19778848.html |title=""Es wird ernst"" |work=[[Der Tagesspiegel]] |date=2017-05-09 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> the measures taken so far in the transport sector are not sufficient in order to achieve the [[climate change mitigation]] goals that have been set.<ref name=""Canzler Impact"" />

=== Air pollution ===
A mobility transition also serves health purposes in the metropolitan regions and large cities and is intended in particular to counteract the massive [[air pollution]].<ref name=""MondeKriener"">{{Cite web |author=Manfred Kriener |url=https://www.monde-diplomatique.de/!5373698 |title=China elektrisiert. Ein Blick in die Zukunft der Autoindustrie |work=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=2017-02-09 |access-date=2017-04-13 |language=de}}</ref> For example, in [[Germany]] in 2015, traffic caused about 38% of human-related [[nitrogen oxide]] emissions.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Claudia Hornberg et&nbsp;al.|editor-surname1=Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen [SRU]|title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor: Sondergutachten November 2017|publication-place=Berlin|isbn=978-3-947370-11-5|date=2017|language=German|url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=26 |access-date=2020-09-20
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2326 accessible at {{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.html |title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor |date=2017-11-23 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> According to [[Johannes Lelieveld|Lelieveld]] et al. (2015), air pollution from land traffic alone killed around 164,000 people in 2010; in Germany alone, it was over 6,900 people.<ref>{{citation|surname1=[[Johannes Lelieveld]] |periodical=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|title=The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale|volume=525|at=pp.&nbsp;367–371|date=2015|issue=7569|language=German|doi=10.1038/nature15371
|pmid=26381985|bibcode=2015Natur.525..367L|s2cid=4460927}}</ref> A 2017 study by the same lead author concluded that air pollution from [[road traffic]] in Germany causes 11,000 deaths every year that could potentially be avoided. This figure is 3.5 times the number of fatalities from accidents.<ref>{{citation|surname1=[[Johannes Lelieveld]]|periodical=Faraday Discussions|title=Clean air in the Anthropocene|volume=200|at=pp.&nbsp;693–703|date=2017|language=German|doi=10.1039/c7fd90032e|pmid=28702627|bibcode=2017FaDi..200..693L|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[File:Karlsgraben Aachen Dezember 2014 (5).jpg|thumb|Classic urban mobility using the example of [[Aachen]]: privately owned automobiles characterise the streetscape.]] To demonstrate how much road traffic contributes to air pollution in Germany, for every 100 inhabitants, 58 of them owned passenger cars, according to Federal Statistical Office of Germany.<ref name=""Statistisches"">{{cite web |last1=Bundesamt |first1=Statistisches |title=Road Transport: Car Dominance Unbroken |url=https://www.destatis.de/Europa/EN/Topic/Transport/Car.html |website=destatis.de |publisher=Federal Statistical Office of Germany |access-date=October 21, 2022 |language=English |date=2022}}</ref>

=== Accident fatalities, quality of life, aggressive behaviour ===
Further motives for the mobility transition are the desire for less noise, streets with quality of life and lower accident risks (see also [[Vision Zero]]). According to estimates by the [[European Environment Agency]], 113 million people in Europe are affected by road noise at unhealthy levels.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Fiona Harvey |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/mar/05/one-in-five-europeans-exposed-to-harmful-noise-pollution-study |title=One in five Europeans exposed to harmful noise pollution – study |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=2020-03-05 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=en}}</ref> With increasing traffic and commuter numbers, many citizens also wished for more attractive places to spend time in public spaces.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.staedtetag.de/presse/mitteilungen/085685/index.html |title=""Nachhaltigen Verkehr fördern – Verkehrssysteme der Zukunft entwickeln – Investitionsoffensive von Bund und Ländern notwendig"" |publisher=[[Deutscher Städtetag]] |date=2018-06-22 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} (press release)</ref> A mobility transition therefore also serves to increase the quality of life.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://difu.de/veranstaltungen/2017-06-01/verkehrswende-in-stadt-und-umland.html |title=Verkehrswende in Stadt und Umland |publisher=[[Deutsches Institut für Urbanistik]] (Difu) |date=June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007020948/https://difu.de/veranstaltungen/2017-06-01/verkehrswende-in-stadt-und-umland.html |archive-date=2017-10-07 |access-date=2017-05-09 |language=de}}</ref>

The mobility transition is also seen by some as a means of reducing aggressive behaviour in traffic ([[road rage]]) and in society.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2020-06/verkehrswende-pop-up-radwege-stau-regine-guenther-adac/komplettansicht |title=Verkehrswende: ""Es geht nicht um Autofahrer gegen Radfahrer"" |language=de |first1=Regine |last1=Günther |first2=Volker |last2=Krane |interviewer-first=Sören |interviewer-last=Götz |newspaper=Die Zeit |date=10 July 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}}</ref> Studies indicate that people in large and expensive cars are more likely to behave more recklessly.<ref>''Higher social class predicts increased unethical behavior'', Piff et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Mar 2012, 109 (11) 4086-4091; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1118373109</ref> According to the German ''Verkehrsklima 2020'' (''Traffic Mood 2020'') study, women feel more insecure in traffic than men, and they want more controls and stricter laws.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rnd.de/panorama/studie-aggressivitat-im-verkehr-steigt-leicht-XSZ7EOO3GS2NO3HYKYNPWPIV5E.html |title=Studie: Aggressivität im Verkehr steigt leicht |language=de |website=RedaktionsNetzwerk Deutschland |date=1 October 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}}</ref> On the other hand, the ""evil eye"" design of vehicles is increasingly used by manufacturers to sell vehicles to drivers who want to feel strong and superior on the road.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/auto-design-wenn-autos-wie-eine-geladene-waffe-wirken-a-1225779.html |title=Aggressives Auto-Design: ""Manche Autos wirken wie eine geladene Waffe"" |language=de |last=Sorge|first=Nils-Viktor |website=Der Spiegel |date=13 September 2018 |access-date=10 September 2023 |issn=2195-1349}}</ref> Accident reporting by the press and the police sometimes paints a distorted picture.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rifs-potsdam.de/de/blog/2021/04/wir-brauchen-eine-neue-sprache-fuer-die-verkehrsberichterstattung |title=Wir brauchen eine neue Sprache für die Verkehrsberichterstattung |language=de |first=Dr. Dirk |last=von Schneidemesser |website=RIFS Postdam |date=22 April 2021 |access-date=10 September 2023}}</ref>

=== Traffic congestion ===
Another driving factor of the mobility transition is the increasing standstill in [[traffic congestion]] in streets and on roads. Traditional traffic policy usually relies on expanding the roads to solve the congestion problem.<ref name=""Zeit"" /> From a global perspective, there are two important factors behind the increasing traffic jams: more and more people are moving to the cities in the course of [[urbanization|urbanisation]] and more automobiles (also known as [[status symbol]]) are being bought as prosperity increases. It can be assumed that the expansion of public and non-motorised transport will play a greater role again in the future.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Jean-Paul Rodrigue|title=The Geography of Transport Systems|edition=5|publisher=Routledge|publication-place=New York|at=(456 pages)|contribution=Chapter 3 – Transportation, Economy and Society > Transportation and Society > Passengers Mobility Transition|isbn=978-0-367-36463-2|date=2020|language=German|url=https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5463 |access-date=2020-09-20
}} {{Digitalisat|https://transportgeography.org/|LT=Gesamtes Buch als Digitalisat}}.</ref>

=== Peak oil ===
{{Further|Peak oil#Possible consequences}}
Another reason for an energy transition in mobility is the fact that [[peak oil]] production is approaching fast, or may already have been passed (as of 2021; it is difficult to estimate peak oil).{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|pp=2–4}} The Earth's [[oil reserves]] are finite, and [[Extraction of petroleum|oil extraction]] will become increasingly and eventually prohibitively expensive to the point where fewer and fewer [[petroleum]]-fuelled vehicles can be powered anymore. Sooner or later in the 21st century, mobility will have no choice but to switch to sufficiently sustainable and affordable fuels for propulsion.{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|pp=2–4}}

== Mobility transition concept ==
=== Origins ===
[[File:Pressiegroep Stop de kindermoord brengt bezoek aan Tweede Kamer , kinderen buite, Bestanddeelnr 925-9454.jpg|thumb|Action group ""Stop the Child Murder"" protesting in front of the [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|Dutch Parliament]] in 1972. The banners state ""Stop child murder"" and ""Safe walking and cycling paths"".]]

There has been criticism of [[automotive city|automotive cities]] and [[car dependency]] since at least the 1960s. In the [[Netherlands]], [[Provo (movement)|Provo]] [[Luud Schimmelpennink]]'s 1965 White Bicycle Plan was an early attempt to stop the rising death toll due to car-related traffic accidents, and to stimulate cycling as a safer and healthier alternative for short-distance travel in the city of [[Amsterdam]].<ref name=""Cox"">{{Cite book |last1=Cox |first1=Peter |last2=Koglin |first2=Till |date=2020 |title=The Politics of Cycling Infrastructure: Spaces and (In)Equality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ_LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT125 |location=Bristol |publisher=Policy Press |pages=122–126 |isbn=9781447345183 |access-date=28 February 2022}}</ref> Although the plan itself was a complete failure, it drew widespread publicity and influenced urban planning ideas around the world – with the white bicycle becoming 'an almost mythical worldwide symbol for a better world'.<ref name=""Cox""/> It inspired the emergence of both strongly anti-car movements such as Kabouter (Gnome), Amsterdam Autovrij (""Amsterdam Car-Free"") and De Lastige Amsterdammer (""The Troubled/Troublesome Amsterdammer""), as well as pro-cycling movements in Amsterdam and elsewhere in the Netherlands in the early 1970s.<ref name=""Cox""/> A prominent example was protest group Stop de Kindermoord (""Stop the Child Murder""), founded in 1972 (formalised in 1973) by a journalist from Eindhoven whose young daughter was killed in a traffic accident, and shortly thereafter another daughter of his was almost killed as well.<ref name=""Cox""/> The movement highlighted how lethally dangerous traffic had become for children in particular, and that the authorities had failed to acknowledge and address the problem.<ref name=""Cox""/> It mobilised parents, teachers, journalists, other citizens and politicians; even right-wing politicians, who had traditionally promoted automobile interests, were influenced by the campaign and became more willing to adopt preventive measures.<ref name=""Cox""/> In ''Autokind vs Mankind'' (1971) and ''On the Nature of Cities'' (1979), [[United States|American]] author Kenneth R. Schneider vehemently criticised the excesses of automobile dependence and called for a struggle to halt and partially reverse negative developments in transportation, although he was largely ignored at the time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kenworthy |first=Jeffrey R. |date=2010 |title=An Introduction to Sustainable Transportation: Policy, Planning and Implementation |chapter=Box. 8.7 Kenneth R. Schneider: Fighting for change |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXRYG2BxzGAC&pg=PT254 |location=London / Washington, D.C. |publisher=Earthscan / Routledge |page=254 |isbn=9781136541940 |access-date=27 February 2022}}</ref>

An early theorist on mobility transitions was American cultural geographer [[Wilbur Zelinsky]], whose 1971 paper ""The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition"" formed the basis of what has become known as the [[Zelinsky Model]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zelinsky|first=Wilbur|date=April 1971|title=The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition|journal=Geographical Review|volume=61|issue=2|pages=219–249|doi=10.2307/213996|jstor=213996|bibcode=1971GeoRv..61..219Z |s2cid=129240935 |url=http://rcin.org.pl/Content/38759}}</ref>{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|pp=16-19}} In 1975, [[Austria]]n civil engineer and transportation planner [[Hermann Knoflacher]] sought to promote [[cycling]] traffic in [[Vienna]]. He caricatured the enormous spatial demands of automobiles with his self-invented ''Gehzeug'' (""walking gear/vehicle"").<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wienerzeitung.at/meinung/blogs/freitritt/672654_Vom-Gehzeug-zum-Fahrzeug.html|title=Vom ""Gehzeug"" zum ""Fahrzeug"" |work=[[Wiener Zeitung]] |date=2014-10-15 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mobilservice.ch/de/home/news/news-dossiers/buchtipp-bvirus-autol-von-hermann-knoflacher-272.html |title=Buchtipp: ""Virus Auto"" von Hermann Knoflacher |work=mobilservice.ch |date=2010-04-06 |access-date=2017-05-08}}</ref>

=== Definitions and scope ===
[[File:Cyclists at red 2.jpg|thumb|[[Cycling in Copenhagen]] also means organising commuter traffic by bike. 45 per cent of the population commutes by bicycle.]]
The German dictionary ''[[Duden]]'' defines 'mobility transition' (German: ''Verkehrswende'') as ""fundamental conversion of public transport [especially with ecological objectives]"" (German: „grundlegende Umstellung des öffentlichen Verkehrs [besonders mit ökologischen Zielvorstellungen]“).<ref name=""duden"">
{{Cite web
 |url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Verkehrswende
 |title= Verkehrswende, die
 |work=[[Duden]]
 |access-date=2020-09-22
 |language=de}}
</ref> Adey et al. (2021) defined 'mobility transition' as 'the necessary and inevitable transformation from a world in which mobility is dominated by the use of fossil fuels, the production of greenhouse gases and the dominance of automobility to one in which mobility entails reduced or eliminated fossil fuels and GHG emissions and is less dependent on the automobile.'{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|p=4}}

According to a 2016 thesis paper by Agora Verkehrswende – a joint initiative of Stiftung Mercator<ref>[[:de:Stiftung Mercator|Stiftung Mercator]] (""Mercator Foundation"", named after [[Gerardus Mercator]]) is a German non-profit organisation which promotes equal opportunities, social cohesion, respect, tolerance, cosmopolitanism and protection of nature and the environment.</ref> and the [[European Climate Foundation]] – the goal of a traffic transition (''Verkehrswende'') in [[Germany]] is ensuring [[climate neutrality]] in transport by 2050.<ref name=""Zeit""/> It must be based on two pillars:
# Mobility transition (''Mobilitätswende''): The goal is a significant [[energy conservation|reduction of energy consumption]]. The mobility transition is intended to bring about a qualitative change in traffic behaviour (''Verkehrsverhalten''), in particular avoiding and relocating traffic. An efficient design of the traffic systems without restricting mobility should be achieved.<ref name=""Zeit""/>
# [[Energy transition]] in traffic (''[[Energiewende|Energiewende im Verkehr]]'', see also [[phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles]]): In order to [[Low-carbon economy|decarbonise]] traffic, the conversion of the energy supply of traffic towards [[renewable energy]] is considered a necessity.<ref name=""Zeit"">{{Cite news |author=Peter Ilg |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2016-09/verkehr-autos-carsharing-elektromobilitaet-agora-verkehrswende |title=30 Prozent der Autos würden reichen |work=[[Die Zeit]] |date=2016-09-26 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref name=""AgoraVerkehrswende-12Thesen"">
{{Cite book
 |author=Christian Hochfeld, Alexander Jung, Anne Klein-Hitpaß, Dr. Urs Maier, Kerstin Meyer, Dr. Fritz Vorholz
 |title=Mit der Verkehrswende die Mobilität von morgen sichern. 12 Thesen zur Verkehrswende
 |publisher=Agora Verkehrswende
 |location=Berlin
 |date=2017
 |language=de
 |url=https://www.agora-verkehrswende.de/fileadmin/Projekte/2017/12_Thesen/Agora-Verkehrswende-12-Thesen_WEB.pdf
 |access-date=2020-09-20}}</ref>

A mobility transition also includes a cultural change, in particular a re-evaluation of ""the street"". Currently, the primary purpose of streets is to direct traffic through the city with as little disruption as possible. In the future, the dominance of the car should give way to equal rights for all modes of transport.<ref name=""FAZ"">{{Cite news |author=Mark Siemons |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/bald-eine-fahrradstadt-berlin-kamikaze-14280353.html?printPagedArticle=true#pageIndex_2 |title=Bald eine Fahrradstadt? Berlin Kamikaze |work=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] |date=2016-06-12 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>

In an expanded definition, the mobility transition is distinguished from a pure propulsion transition on the one hand to a fundamental mobility transition on the other:<ref name=""Brunnengräber"">{{citation|surname1=Katharina Manderscheid|editor-surname1= Achim Brunnengräber, Tobias Haas|periodical=Baustelle Elektromobilität – Sozialwissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die Transformation der (Auto-)Mobilität|title=Antriebs-, Verkehrs- oder Mobilitätswende? Zur Elektrifizierung des Automobilitätsdispositivs|publisher=transcript|publication-place=Bielefeld|at=pp.&nbsp;37-67|isbn=978-3-8376-5165-2|date=2020|language=German|url=https://www.transcript-verlag.de/media/pdf/34/07/26/oa9783839451656Y4hda57HXkydW.pdf |access-date=2020-08-11
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2940</ref>

# Propulsion transition (''Antriebswende''): the gradual replacement of [[internal combustion engines]] by those powered by hydrogen, fuel cells or battery-electric power.<ref name=""Brunnengräber""/><ref>{{Cite web |author=Gerald Traufetter, Florian Gathmann |url=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/andreas-scheuer-csu-verbote-sind-fuer-mich-kein-politikstil-a-1204886.html |title=Verkehrsminister Scheuer im Interview: ""Verbote sind für mich kein Politikstil"" |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |date=2018-04-26 |access-date=2020-08-10 |language=de}}</ref>
# Traffic transition (''Verkehrswende''): private car traffic<ref>{{Cite interview |url=https://www.aufruhr-magazin.de/klimaschutz/verkehrswende-warum-wissen-wir-nicht-wie-viel-ein-auto-im-monat-kostet/ |title=Warum wissen wir nicht, wie viel ein Auto im Monat kostet? |language=de |last=Andor |first=Dr. Mark |interviewer-first=Maren |interviewer-last=Beck |website=AufRuhr Magazin |publisher=Stiftung Mercator |date=11 August 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}}</ref> is reduced or replaced by other modes of transportation. In the large cities and metropolitan regions in particular, the focus is increasingly on establishing and spreading alternative means of transport - from the expansion of public transport to the promotion of so-called active transport (pedestrian and bicycle traffic), the approval of new electrified micro-vehicles such as [[e-scooter]]s and the range of different mobility services (the so-called MaaS, ""mobility as a service"").<ref name=""Brunnengräber""/> 
# Mobility transition (''Mobilitätswende''): This perspective takes into account not only the distances travelled and the means of transport used for them, but also the socio-economic, cultural and spatial dynamics and constraints that cause the need to overcome distances. These include, for example, settlement and transport policies, housing and labour markets, social policy and migration. The need to quickly overcome distances is not understood as an invariant characteristic of people, but as part and prerequisite of the current, growth-oriented capitalist shape of society.<ref name=""Brunnengräber""/>

[[File:Charging stations in SF City Hall 02 2009 02.jpg|thumb|Electric cars in a [[carsharing]] as part of [[Intermodal passenger transport|mixed-mode commuting]] ([[San Francisco City Hall]] 2009)]]
In some cases, a mobility transition is also presented as a [[paradigm shift]] of the 'understanding of ownership'. Collective use of means of transport makes it possible to use modes of transportation 'adapted to specific needs', such as [[carsharing]], [[peer-to-peer carsharing]], [[bicycle-sharing system]]s. It also enables connecting different modes of transportation to one another on a route to be travelled. Electromobiles could better exploit their advantages in networking with other means of transport. Electric vehicles adapted to the respective uses can be small or large depending on the application, and do not (always) have to be designed for long distances. A suitable charging infrastructure is required. Under certain circumstances, in such an environment it will no longer be necessary to own private transport for one's own use.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Weert |last1=Canzler |first2=Andreas |last2=Knie |url=https://www.innoz.de/sites/default/files/sote_2_14_canzler_knie.pdf |title=Die Energie- und Verkehrswende in ""Schlauen Netzen"" |publisher=Innovationszentrum für Mobilität und gesellschaftlichen Wandel |date=February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423063907/https://www.innoz.de/sites/default/files/sote_2_14_canzler_knie.pdf |archive-date=2017-04-23 |access-date=2017-04-23 |language=de}}</ref>

In Germany, the mobility transition can be contrasted to the ''Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2030'' ('Federal Transport Routes Plan 2030'). The mobility transition is based on avoiding traffic and shifting to [[rail transport|rail]], but the ''Bundesverkehrswegeplan'' is based on the construction and expansion of [[trunk road]]s in Germany (including but not limited to the ''[[Autobahn]]'').<ref>{{citation|editor-surname1= Umweltbundesamt|title=Klimaschutzbeitrag des Verkehrs bis 2050|series=Texte 56/2016 Umweltbundesamt|publication-place=Dessau-Roßlau|issn=1862-4804|date=June 2016|language=German|url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/1410/publikationen/texte_56_2016_klimaschutzbeitrag_des_verkehrs_2050_getagged.pdf |access-date=2020-09-20
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 3658 accessible at {{Cite book |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/klimaschutzbeitrag-des-verkehrs-bis-2050 |title=Klimaschutzbeitrag des Verkehrs bis 2050 |date=7 June 2016 |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/bundesverkehrswegeplan-es-ist-keine-verkehrswende.694.de.html?dram:article_id=362053 |title=Bundesverkehrswegeplan: ""Es ist keine Verkehrswende"" |publisher=[[Deutschlandfunk]] |date=2016-08-03 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> Transport scientist {{interlanguage link|Heiner Monheim|de|Heiner Monheim}} regards the transition as a ""turning away from car subsidies through billions [of euros] in road network expansion"". He sees a decisive change in the priorities of [[transport policy]] as a necessary condition to achieve this.<ref name=""ZDF"">{{Cite web |url=http://www.heute.de/makro-interview-verkehrsexperte-monheim-fordert-intelligente-verkehrskonzepte-46874306.html |title=Experte: ""Verkehrspolitik auf dem Holzweg"" |work=[[heute.de]] |date=2017-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404215604/http://www.heute.de/makro-interview-verkehrsexperte-monheim-fordert-intelligente-verkehrskonzepte-46874306.html |archive-date=2017-04-04 |access-date=2017-04-21 |language=de}} (Interview with Heiner Monheim)</ref>

The ''[[Umweltbundesamt]]'' announced that in 2018, the sum of all [[environmentally harmful subsidies]] in Germany was 65.4 billion euros, almost half of them in the areas of traffic and transport. In traffic, such subsidies with harmful effects even increased from 2012 to 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Martin Stallmann |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/presse/pressemitteilungen/umweltschaedliche-subventionen-fast-die-haelfte |title=Umweltschädliche Subventionen: fast die Hälfte für Straßen- und Flugverkehr |publisher=Das Umweltbundesamt |date=2021-10-27 |language=de |access-date=2021-10-31}}</ref>

=== Changes in behaviour due to the COVID-19 pandemic ===
{{See also|Travel during the COVID-19 pandemic|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on public transport|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment#Cycling}}
[[File:Street dining on W51 jeh.jpg|thumb|During the pandemic, the efficiency of urban land use has been reconsidered. (Temporary) outdoor areas for restaurants are sometimes more economical than parking spaces, and enhance the cityscape.<ref name=""knof"" />]]

The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] made it clear that work and transport can be organised differently, even in a comparatively short time. An increased focus on [[remote work|working from home]] could save millions of tonnes of greenhouse gases.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/greenpeace-home-office-kann-millionen-tonnen-co2-einsparen-16913200.html |title=Greenpeace-Studie: Homeoffice kann Millionen Tonnen {{CO2}} einsparen |work=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] |date=2020-08-20 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bmbf.de/de/ist-die-coronakrise-gut-fuer-die-verkehrswende-11561.html |title=Ist die Coronakrise gut für die Verkehrswende? |publisher=[[Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung]] |date=2020-05-12 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} (Interview with Sophia Becker, sustainability researcher)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author= |url=https://www1.wdr.de/nachrichten/themen/coronavirus/corona-chance-fuer-verkehrswende-100.html |title=Beschleunigt Corona die Verkehrswende? |publisher=[[Westdeutscher Rundfunk|WDR]] |date=2020-05-19 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>

== Measures in passenger transport ==
=== Overview ===
[[File:Fietssnelweg F35 at Go Planet.jpg|thumb|[[Bike freeway]] F35 in the Netherlands ([[Enschede]])]]
[[File:Mobility pyramid.png|thumb|Mobility pyramid]]
Various measures have been proposed by different people and groups to achieve a mobility transition.

In a 2017 position paper, German think tank Agora Verkehrswende described how a climate-neutral conversion of transport would be possible by 2050 without sacrificing mobility. In addition to technological innovations, there are new traffic concepts, regulatory measures and [[social change|cultural change]]. Multi-link transport chains ([[Intermodal passenger transport]]) are considered.<ref name=""dw.com"">
{{Cite web
 |url=https://www.dw.com/de/wie-schafft-deutschland-die-verkehrswende/a-38167553
 |title=Wie schafft Deutschland die Verkehrswende?
 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]]
 |date=2017-03-28
 |access-date=2020-09-23
 |language=de}}
</ref><ref name=""AgoraVerkehrswende-12Thesen"" /> Amongst other things, there were also studies on this in November 2019 by the {{interlanguage link|Verkehrsclub Deutschland|de|Verkehrsclub Deutschland}} (VCD, ""Traffic Club Germany"") and the [[Heinrich Böll Foundation]].<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Frahm, Emil Nefzger |url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/mobilitaetsatlas-2019-wie-sich-deutschland-bewegt-und-was-es-kostet-a-1294503.html |title=So viel kostet Autofahren - auch Menschen, die nicht Auto fahren |work=[[Spiegel Online]] |date=2019-11-05 |access-date=2019-11-07 |language=de}}</ref>

=== Mobility transition ===
Various measures have been proposed to achieve the mobility transition – in particular a significant reduction in energy requirements and a change in traffic behaviour:
[[File: 8398 autobus-seestadt Janis-Joplin-Promenade.jpg|thumb|The ''Autonomous Bus Vienna'' (2019–2021) was an experimental company for [[Self-driving car|self-driving buses]].]]

Major changes can succeed with the help of traffic avoidance, and a shift towards [[sustainable transport]] in the form of [[pedestrian]] traffic, cycling, rail transport and local [[public transport]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Huber |first=Berthold |date=February 2022 |title=Die Bahn bleibt das Rückgrat der Verkehrswende |url=https://www.system-bahn.net/aktuell/die-bahn-bleibt-das-rueckgrat-der-verkehrswende/ |language=de |access-date=10 September 2023 |website=System Bahn}}</ref><ref name=""Metaanalyse"">
{{Cite web
 |url=http://www.forschungsradar.de/metaanalysen/einzelansicht/news/metaanalyse-ueber-massnahmen-und-instrumente-fuer-die-energiewende-im-verkehr.html
 |title=Metaanalyse über Maßnahmen und Instrumente für die Energiewende im Verkehr
 |work=forschungsradar.de
 |publisher=Agentur für erneuerbare Energien (AEE)
 |date=July 2016
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116192135/http://www.forschungsradar.de/metaanalysen/einzelansicht/news/metaanalyse-ueber-massnahmen-und-instrumente-fuer-die-energiewende-im-verkehr.html
 |archive-date=2019-11-16
 |access-date=2017-04-13
 |language=de}}
</ref> According to a 2010 report, each person in Germany in 2008 conducted an average of 3.4 trips a day, with an average length of 11.5 kilometres. On average, private cars were parked for around 22,5 hours a day, because they were used for only 1 hour and 19 to 28 minutes a day.<ref name=""Zeit"" /><ref name=""DLRinfas"">
{{citation|editor-surname1= [[German Aerospace Center]] (DLR), Institut für angewandte Sozialwissenschaft (infas) |title=Mobilität in Deutschland 2008 (MiD2008): Ergebnisbericht. Struktur – Aufkommen – Emissionen – Trends|publication-place=Bonn/Berlin|date=February 2010|language=German|url=http://www.mobilitaet-in-deutschland.de/pdf/infas_MiD2008_Abschlussbericht_I.pdf |access-date=2020-09-22}} Commissioned by the [[Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport]], Format: PDF, KBytes: 16634
accessible at {{Cite web
 |url=http://www.mobilitaet-in-deutschland.de/mid2008-publikationen.html
 |title=Publikationen zur Erhebungswelle 2008
 |work=Mobilität in Deutschland
 |access-date=2020-09-22
 |language=de}} (see ""Ergebnisbericht MiD 2008"" (PDF, 16MB))
</ref>{{rp|1, 28}} Electric cars with a short range, bicycles, [[electric bicycle]]s (e-bikes), [[pedelec]]s, [[cargo bike]]s, but also recently [[e-scooter]]s, are usually well suited for a majority of these routes. The joint use of automobiles in carsharing could increase the utilisation of the vehicles and lead to fewer cars being needed overall. This could also reduce the [[land consumption]] of parking spaces and free up space for other uses.<ref name=""Zeit"" /> In 2002 and 2008, vehicles in Germany were occupied by an average of 1.5 people.<ref name=""DLRinfas"" />{{rp|87}} One method of efficient use of passenger cars is the formation of [[carpool]]s and the operation of [[Ridesharing company|ridesharing companies]]. Needs-based use of various sorts of [[low emission vehicle]]s can also serve to reduce fuel consumption. The latter measures would lead to an increase in energy and vehicle efficiency.<ref name=""Metaanalyse"" /> Another component in the future mobility mix could be [[Neighborhood Electric Vehicle]]s.

Numerous regulatory control measures are possible, for example [[Congestion pricing|congestion charges]], [[aviation taxation and subsidies]] (such as a [[jet fuel tax]] and a [[departure tax]]), a reform of company car taxation, parking space management (for example through [[pay and display]]), or an extension of [[emissions trading]] to road traffic.<ref name=""Metaanalyse"" /> The introduction of [[speed limit]]s, or lowering existing speed limits, would also have an impact on greenhouse gas emissions such as CO<sub>2</sub> ([[carbon dioxide]]) and [[NOx|NO<sub>x</sub>]] ([[nitric oxide]] and [[nitrogen dioxide]]). Passenger cars consume a disproportionately large amount of fuel at high speeds. A speed limit can also have secondary emissions-reducing effects, about which there is still considerable uncertainty: lower maximum speeds and longer travel times can contribute to a shift in traffic to rail and to the promotion of vehicles with lower engine power.<ref name=""AgoraVerkehrswende-12Thesen"" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.vcd.org/service/presse/pressemitteilungen/energiegipfel-im-kanzleramt/ |title=Energiegipfel im Kanzleramt |publisher=Verkehrsclub Deutschland |date=2006-10-09 |access-date=2017-05-17 |language=de}} (press release)</ref><ref>{{citation|surname1=Gunnar Gohlisch, Marion Marlow|editor-surname1= Umweltbundesamt|title=Umweltauswirkungen von Geschwindigkeitsbeschränkungen|series=Texte 40/1999 Umweltbundesamt|publication-place=Berlin|at=pp.&nbsp;23-29|issn=1862-4804|date=June 1999|language=German|url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/publikation/long/3136.pdf |access-date=2020-09-20
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 338 accessible at {{Cite book |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/umweltauswirkungen-von |title=Umweltauswirkungen von Geschwindigkeitsbeschränkungen |date=19 March 2009 |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>
The [[Externality|externalities]] of traffic, namely the impact that air pollution caused by motor vehicles has on society and the environment, must also be taken into account here.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2022-01/soziale-kosten-strassenverkehr-auto-studie/komplettansicht |title=Soziale Kosten des Straßenverkehrs: Was Autofahren wirklich kostet |language=de |first=Andrea |last=Reidl |website=Die Zeit |date=26 January 2022 |access-date=10 September 2016}}</ref>

The {{interlanguage link|2019 Dutch nitrogen emissions crisis|nl|stikstofcrisis}}, which [[Dutch farmers' protests#Background|indirectly caused the Dutch farmers' protests]], convinced the government in November 2019 to lower the [[speed limits in the Netherlands]] on national roads to 100 kilometres per hour during the day, from 6 am to 7 pm. In the evening and at night the old speeds were maintained.<ref name=""Nagtegaal"">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2019/11/13/stikstofaanpak-geld-voor-boeren-noodwet-voor-dijken-en-rotmaatregel-maximumsnelheid-a3980126 |title=Stikstofaanpak: landbouwinnovatie, noodwet voor de bouw en 'rotmaatregel' snelheid |author=Bastiaan Nagtegaal |work=[[NRC Handelsblad]] |date=13 November 2019 |access-date=2 March 2022 |language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tempolimit in den Niederlanden: Bremsen für den Fortschritt |trans-title=Speed limit in the Netherlands: braking for progress |last=Frommeyer |first=Lena |work=Der Spiegel |date=14 November 2019 |access-date=2 March 2022 |url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/tempolimit-in-den-niederlanden-endlich-belastbare-daten-a-1296540.html |language=de}}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation]] court case was decided in favour of its plaintiff [[Urgenda]] (initially in June 2015, upheld on appeal in October 2018, and finally confirmed by the [[Supreme Court of the Netherlands]] on 20 December 2019), who successfully forced the government to implement the necessary measures to reduce the Netherlands' CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from 1990 levels by 25% by 2020. Although the government was free to choose which measures it would take to achieve this reduction, the plaintiff and other environmentalists had been suggesting throughout the legal process to lower the speed limit as one of several effective options to do so.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/niederlande-klimaaktivisten-siegen-gegen-eigene-regierung-a-1302412.html|title=Niederlande: Klimaaktivisten siegen gegen eigene Regierung - Der Spiegel - Wissenschaft|last=SPIEGEL|first=Claus Hecking, DER|newspaper=Der Spiegel|date=20 December 2019 |language=de|access-date=2020-01-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/klimaklage-in-den-niederlande-ein-historisches-urteil.1773.de.html?dram:article_id=462389|title=Klimaklage in den Niederlande - Ein historisches Urteil|website=Deutschlandfunk|language=de-DE|access-date=2020-01-26}}</ref> Similar environmental arguments for speed limits have been [[Speed limits in Germany#Arguments|proposed in Germany]].<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|title=Was Stauforscher, Klimaschützer und Unfallforscher zum Tempolimit sagen|url=https://app.handelsblatt.com/technik/forschung-innovation/tempolimit-debatte-was-stauforscher-klimaschuetzer-und-unfallforscher-zum-tempolimit-sagen/23922718.html|access-date=2021-05-22|website=app.handelsblatt.com|language=de}}</ref><ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|date=2020-01-16|title=Das wissen wir über Tempolimits|url=https://www.quarks.de/technik/mobilitaet/faq-tempolimits/|access-date=2021-05-22|website=quarks.de|language=de-DE}}</ref><ref name="":5"">{{Cite news|last=Götz|first=Sören|title=Weniger {{CO2}} und weniger Unfälle|url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2020-07/tempolimit-gruene-autobahn-klimaschutz-verkehrssicherheit|access-date=2021-05-22|newspaper=Die Zeit|date=17 July 2020 }}</ref>

As one of several methods to mitigate the [[environmental effects of aviation|environmental impact of aviation]], a shift to other modes of transport or a switch from short-haul air traffic to [[high-speed rail|high-speed trains]] has been proposed.<ref name=""Rockström"" /> In several countries in Europe, increasingly in the 2010s and early 2020s, some governments have even imposed a [[short-haul flight ban]] on all airlines, while many governmental agencies, commercial companies, universities, and NGOs have imposed restrictions or prohibitions on their employees to not take short-haul flights that can also be properly accomplished by train.<ref name=""Wabl"">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/airline-bailouts-point-to-greener-travel-and-higher-fares-1.1447702 |title=Airline bailouts point to greener travel—and higher fares |author=Matthias Wabl and Christopher Jasper |work=[[BNN Bloomberg]] |date=9 June 2020 |access-date=13 June 2020}}</ref><ref name=""scientists4future"">{{Cite web |url=https://unter1000.scientists4future.org/best-practice-administration/ |title=Exemplary measures taken by universities and public administrations |work=Unter 1000 |publisher=Scientists 4 Future |access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref>

In the field of [[urban planning]], there are concepts for [[walkability]], the [[compact city]] (or 'city of short distances'), [[New Urbanism]] (or its variant New Pedestrianism), and [[Car-free movement|car-free living]]. In [[science policy|research policy]], there are demands to give more consideration to the consequences of motorised private transport in the form of practice- and solution-oriented research.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fona.de/de/mobil-bleiben-forschung-bereit-fuer-anwendung|title=Mobil bleiben: Forschung bereit für Anwendung |publisher=Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) |date=2017-06-22 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>

=== Further development of local public transport ===
According to a 2015 study by the Verkehrsclub Deutschland, local public transport in Germany was not customer-friendly enough. Cryptic route networks, opaque fare systems, ticket machines that cannot be operated, [[wind|draft]] bus stops, and a lack of announcements about transfer and connection options were criticised. The club also called for better linking of local public transport with other modes of transportation. This included bike racks at bus stops, information on taking bikes on buses and trains, and options for switching to carsharing providers. Furthermore, the synchronisation of timetables was criticised, because it led to unnecessarily long waiting times for connecting buses or trains.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.evangelisch.de/inhalte/128043/04-11-2015/studie-oeffentlicher-nahverkehr-zu-wenig-kundenfreundlich |title=Studie: Öffentlicher Nahverkehr zu wenig kundenfreundlich  |work=evangelisch.de |language=de |date=4 November 2015 |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref> In 2012, several local public transport companies reportedly had been making efforts to improve the usability of ticket machines in [[Bavaria]] and [[Saxony]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.quantic.de/news-blog/bedienbare-fahrkarten-automaten-fuer-nuernberg |title=Ein Klick für Nürnberg |language=de |date=August 2012 |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.quantic.de/news-blog/bedienbare-ticketautomaten-muenchen |title=i-com: Nutzerzentrierte Entwicklung des Bediendialoges für die Münchner Fahrkartenautomaten |work=[[Nürnberger Nachrichten]] / Quantic.de |language=de |date=August 2012 |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref> Against this background, Federal Transport Minister [[Alexander Dobrindt]] in 2017 called for electronic tickets and a uniform tariff system for all transport associations to be established by 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/oeffentlicher-nahverkehr-mehr-transparenz-und-digitale-100.html |title=Öffentlicher Nahverkehr Mehr Transparenz und digitale Tickets |work=Deutschlandfunk Kultur |language=de |date=6 January 2017 |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref>

Since the 2010s, there have been frequent discussions on whether local public transport should be free of charge. The best-known example of free public transport is the [[Estonia]]n capital [[Tallinn]], where buses and trains have been free since 2013. By 2021, most counties in Estonia had also introduced free buses and trains.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/btw21/nahverkehr-kostenlos-101.html |title=Mobilität und Klimaschutz: Wenn der Nahverkehr kostenlos wäre? |author=Kristin Becker and Marcel Heberlein |work=Tagesschau |language=de |date=9 September 2021 |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref> Public transport is also free throughout [[Luxembourg]]. In Germany, the cities of [[Monheim am Rhein]] and [[Langenfeld, Rhineland]] were testing free public transport as of September 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.swr.de/swr1/rp/programm/oepnv-102.html |title=In diesen Städten sind Bus und Bahn kostenlos |date=2 March 2020 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref>

Some cities have introduced mini electric buses, primarily in inner-city areas. The historic city centre of [[Aix-en-Provence]], France is very narrow and closed to cars, taxis and normal bus traffic. In order to get people with restricted mobility to their destination, wheelchair-accessible electric minibuses are frequented there without a fixed timetable.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mobility-talk.com/diablines-die-innenstadt-busse-von-aix/ |title=Diablines: Die Innenstadt-Busse von Aix |date=31 October 2021 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> Likewise, in the medieval old town of [[Regensburg]], only mini-ebuses are still driving around.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.regensburg.de/leben/verkehr-u-mobilitaet/bus-und-bahn/e-bus-emil-fuer-die-regensburger-altstadt |title=E-Bus ""emil"" für die Regensburger Altstadt |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> Furthermore, two self-propelled e-shuttles are in use in Regensburg's industrial park.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mittelbayerische.de/region/regensburg-stadt-nachrichten/das-ist-der-startplan-fuer-autonome-busse-21179-art1958655.html |title=Das ist der Startplan für autonome Busse |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> Berlin and Göppingen also want to supplement their local public transport with electric, highly automated minibuses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.berlin.de/sen/uvk/presse/pressemitteilungen/2021/pressemitteilung.1100852.php |title=Die ""kleinen Gelben"" auf neuem Kurs in Alt-Tegel |date=29 June 2021 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://emobilitaet.online/tag/%C3%B6pnv |title=""e-Bürgerbus"": Bürgerschaftliches Engagement kombiniert mit Elektromobilität |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref>

{{see also|List of aerial tramways}}
In some cities, [[Cable transport|cableways]] are built as part of local public transit. Such cableways can be found in places such as [[Medellín]] (see [[Metrocable (Medellín)]]), [[La Paz]] (see [[Mi Teleférico]]), [[New York City|New York]] (see [[Roosevelt Island Tramway]]), [[Portland (Oregon)|Portland]] (see [[Portland Aerial Tram]]), [[Algiers]] (see {{interlanguage link|Cableways of Algiers|de|Seilbahnen von Algiers|fr|Téléphériques d'Alger}}), [[Lisbon]] (see {{interlanguage link|Funiculars in Lisbon|de|Standseilbahnen in Lissabon}}), Brest (see {{interlanguage link|Cableways of Brest|de|Seilbahn Brest|fr|Téléphériques de Brest}}), [[Bozen]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.suedtirols-sueden.info/de/berge-aktiv/top-highlights/bozner-seilbahnen.html |title=Zwei Seilbahnen in der Landeshauptstadt |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> [[London]] (see [[Emirates Air Line (cable car)]]) and [[Ankara]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ingenieur.de/technik/fachbereiche/verkehr/per-seilbahn-ankara/ |title=Per Seilbahn durch Ankara |date=26 March 2014 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> Cable cars are electrically operated and they have very low CO<sub>2</sub> emissions compared to other modes of transport. At 50% capacity, a cable car causes 27 grams of CO<sub>2</sub> per person and kilometre, a train with an electric locomotive 30 grams, a bus with a diesel engine 38.5 grams, and a car with a combustion engine even 248 grams. Furthermore, cable cars cause practically no [[noise pollution]] on the route, since the individual gondolas do not have their own drive, but are moved by a central motor housed in the station. In Germany, on the occasion of the [[Bundesgartenschau]] ('Federal Horticultural Show'), cable cars have emerged in [[Berlin]] (see [[IGA Cable Car]]), [[Koblenz]] (see [[Koblenz cable car]]) and [[Cologne]] (see [[Cologne Cable Car]]). Compared to underground or suburban trains, cable cars are relatively cheap and can be built quickly. As of November 2021, there are projects to build more cable cars to supplement local public transit in Berlin, Bonn, Düsseldorf, Cologne, Munich, Stuttgart and Wuppertal.<ref>{{citation|editor-surname1= Magazin für Energieversorgung - Planung - Bau - Betrieb - Service|title=Netzpraxis November 2021 - Mit gutem Gewissen über den Stau hinweg schweben|at=pp.&nbsp;74ff|language=German
}}</ref>

Continuous development is also affecting the rural areas as well. As a solution, what came into play was the integrated systems of public transport that is playing an important role in the development of rural areas, especially in post-communist countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Šťastná |first1=Milada |last2=Vaishar |first2=Antonín |date=2017-09-01 |title=The relationship between public transport and the progressive development of rural areas |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837716306573 |journal=Land Use Policy |language=en |volume=67 |pages=107–114 |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.05.022 |issn=0264-8377}}</ref>

=== Propulsion and energy transition in transport ===
{{Further|Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles}}
In order to achieve the energy transition in transport, it is considered necessary to refrain from burning [[petroleum]]-based fuel and to use more climate-friendly propulsion technologies or fuels.<ref name=""Metaanalyse"" /> Electricity from renewable sources, or [[e-fuel]]s or [[biofuel]]s produced from green electricity, can serve as substitutes for petrol and diesel fuel.<ref name=""Rockström"" />

Since the overall [[fuel efficiency|efficiency of e-fuels]] is far lower than direct electrification via electric cars, the German Advisory Council on the Environment has recommended restricting the use of electricity-based synthetic fuels to air and shipping traffic in particular, in order not to increase electricity consumption too much. For example, [[Hydrogen vehicle|hydrogen-powered]] [[fuel cell vehicle]]s (FCVs) require more than twice as much energy per kilometre as [[battery electric vehicle]]s (BEVs), and vehicles with combustion engines powered by [[Power-to-X|power-to-liquid fuels]] even need between four and six times as much.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Claudia Hornberg et&nbsp;al.|editor-surname1= Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen [SRU]|title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor: Sondergutachten November 2017|publication-place=Berlin|isbn=978-3-947370-11-5 |date=2017 |language=German |url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=26 |access-date=2020-09-20
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2326 accessible at {{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.html |title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor |date=2017-11-23 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> Battery vehicles therefore have significantly better energy efficiency than vehicles that are operated with e-fuels.<ref>{{citation|surname1=[[Volker Quaschning]]|editor-surname1= [[Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin]]|title=Sektorkopplung durch die Energiewende. Anforderungen an den Ausbau erneuerbarer Energien zum Erreichen der Pariser Klimaschutzziele unter Berücksichtigung der Sektorkopplung|publication-place=Berlin|date=2016|language=German|url=https://pvspeicher.htw-berlin.de/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/HTW-2016-Sektorkopplungsstudie.pdf |access-date=2020-09-22
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 5347 accessible at {{Cite web |url=https://pvspeicher.htw-berlin.de/veroeffentlichungen/studien/ |title=Studien |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} (see „Sektorkopplungsstudie: Sektorkopplung durch die Energiewende“)</ref> In general, electric cars consume around 12 to 15 kWh of electrical energy per 100&nbsp;km, while conventionally powered cars use the equivalent of around 50 kWh per 100&nbsp;km.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Günther Brauner|title=Energiesysteme: regenerativ und dezentral. Strategien für die Energiewende|publisher=Springer Vieweg|publication-place=Wiesbaden|at=p.&nbsp;119|isbn=978-3-658-12754-1|date=2016|language=German
}}</ref> At the same time, the energy required for the production, transport and distribution of fuels such as petrol or diesel is also eliminated.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Andreas Burkert |url=https://www.springerprofessional.de/elektromobilitaet/dieselmotor/endenergiebezogene-analyse-diesel-versus-elektromobilitaet/16673694 |title=Endenergiebezogene Analyse Diesel versus Elektromobilität |work=[[Springer Nature|Springer-Professionals]] |date=2019-05-02 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> In [[China]] in particular, the switch from internal combustion engines to electromobility is being promoted for health reasons (to avoid [[smog]]) in order to counteract the massive [[air pollution]] in the cities.<ref name=""MondeKriener"" />

According to Canzler & Wittowsky (2016), the propulsion transition could also become the central building block of Germany's [[Energiewende]],<ref name=""Canzler Impact"">{{citation|surname1=Weert Canzler, Dirk Wittowsky|periodical=Utilities Policy|title=The impact of Germany's Energiewende on the transport sector – Unsolved problems and conflicts|volume=41|at=pp.&nbsp;246–251|date=2016|language=German|doi=10.1016/j.jup.2016.02.011
}}</ref> While the switch to renewable energies is already underway worldwide, the energy transition in transport is proving more difficult, especially with the switch from oil to sustainable energy sources. However, [[Disruptive innovation|disruptive technologies]] (such as the development of more powerful and cheaper batteries or innovations in the field of autonomous driving) and new business models (especially in the field of digitalisation) can also lead to unpredictable, rapid and far-reaching changes in mobility.<ref name=""dw.com"" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.3sat.de/gesellschaft/makro/vw-the-next-big-thing-100.html?mode=play&obj=61991 |title=VW: ""The next big thing"" |work=[[3sat]] |date=2016-10-07 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>

New methods of getting around in urban traffic have also emerged:
<gallery>
File:AA9I2385 ret.jpg|[[Quadricycle]]s combining muscle power and an electric motor
File:Renault Twizy from the left.jpg|[[Light electric vehicle]]s are small, light and drive electrically (Austria).
File:Electric scooter (Ekoskoter Elektro1).jpg|Swedish nostalgic E-roller with a modern Japanese engine
File:ZOOMLP-5467-Overvolt-HT-900-075.jpg|A [[pedelec]] with mid-engine from French company [[Lapierre Bikes]]
File:13-06-29-robocup-eindhoven-037.jpg|[[Cargo bike]] for transporting children in Eindhoven, Netherlands
</gallery>

=== Example: Vienna ===
[[File:Wien - Graben (1).JPG|thumb|[[Pedestrian zone]]s, such as the [[Graben, Vienna|Graben in Vienna]] (introduced in 1971), make a city attractive.]]
[[Vienna]], the capital of [[Austria]], has been consistently developing into a city that is restructuring public space and promoting local public transport. Viennese urban planner [[Hermann Knoflacher]] has stated: 'The money comes on foot or by bike.' The economic use of space as parking spaces is inefficient. A car-free street increases the turnover of restaurants, clothing stores and retailers. This would create new jobs.<ref name=""knof"">{{Cite news|title=Verkehrswende: Wie sich die Blechlawine stoppen lässt|language=de|work=FAZ.NET|url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wissen/physik-mehr/verkehrswende-wie-es-gelingt-die-blechlawine-zu-stoppen-und-staedte-fuer-menschen-zu-gestalten-16967470.html|access-date=2023-01-06|issn=0174-4909}}</ref>

The attractiveness of public transport can be stimulated by lowering the price of an annual pass: in Vienna one can use public transport with a subscription fee of 1 euro a day.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Peter Münch |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/auto/sz-serie-nahverkehr-weltweit-die-wiener-oeffis-kosten-nur-einen-euro-am-tag-1.3854634 |title=Die Wiener ""Öffis"" kosten nur einen Euro am Tag |work=[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]] |date=2018-02-11 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wienerlinien.at/eportal3/ep/channelView.do/pageTypeId/66526/channelId/-46642 |title=Jahreskarte |publisher=[[Wiener Linien]] |access-date=2018-02-11 |language=de}}</ref> Between 2012 and 2018 the number of annual ticket holders increased from 373,000 to 780,000. At the same time as the changeover, the city began to invest more heavily in local transport. In July 2018, some German cities announced that they would follow the Viennese model and lower the prices for annual tickets.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Melanie Berger |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/oeffentlicher-nahverkehr-jahresticket-365-euro-deutsche-staedte-moegen-wiener-modell/22751878.html |title=Öffentlicher Nahverkehr – Jahresticket 365 Euro: Deutsche Städte mögen Wiener Modell |work=[[Der Tagesspiegel]] |date=2018-06-30 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Mariahilferstrasse1.jpg|The Mariahilfer Straße in Vienna in 2006, with frequent car congestion
File:Maria Vassilakou 334.jpg|During 2010–2015, the road was restructured and pedestrianised.
File:Wien 07 Mariahilfer Straße Shopping f.jpg|2015: redesigned street with spacious pedestrian and meeting zones
</gallery>

=== Example: Luxembourg ===
Since 1 March 2020, local public transport across [[Luxembourg]] has been free of charge for everyone. The Grand Duchy thus became the first country in the world to introduce [[free public transport|free local public transit]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kirsch|first=Matthias|date=2020-02-29|title=Gratis-ÖPNV in Luxemburg: Es hapert mit dem Vorzeigeprojekt|language=de|work=Der Spiegel|url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/luxemburg-und-der-gratis-oepnv-es-hapert-mit-dem-vorzeigeprojekt-a-2f8d9a0f-6b32-4493-82fe-2d5dad51e9bf|access-date=2023-01-06|issn=2195-1349}}</ref> An exception to this is [[first class travel]] on the railways.<ref>sda/mr: ''Öffentlicher Verkehr in Luxemburg wird kostenlos''. In: [[Eisenbahn-Revue International]] 3/2019, S. 153.</ref> A major reason for the overhaul was the increasingly problematic traffic jams on Luxembourg's roads.<ref>{{Cite web|last=NACHRICHTEN|first=n-tv|title=Kostenloser ÖPNV allein bringt nichts|url=https://www.n-tv.de/politik/Kostenloser-OPNV-allein-bringt-nichts-article22074174.html|access-date=2023-01-06|website=n-tv.de|language=de}}</ref>

=== Further examples ===
{{See also|Fare#Types of Fare Structure}}
[[File:Münster Mobilstation Weseler Straße 4682.jpg|thumb|[[Münster#Bicycling|Cycling in Münster]]: a ''mobility station'' connects buses and bikes.]]
Several more significant examples of (potential) components and initiatives for mobility transition that have been proposed, studied, or put into practice include:
* As an alternative to the Viennese model of the annual ticket, a citizen ticket is being discussed in some German municipalities as a new way of financing and using local public transport. It is to be financed by a levy for all citizens of a municipality and function as a kind of [[flat rate]] for buses and trains.<ref>{{Cite web |author=René Rabenschlag |url=http://www1.wdr.de/nachrichten/rheinland/buergerticket-wuppertal-100.html |title=Bürgerticket: Flatrate für Bus und Bahn? |publisher=[[Westdeutscher Rundfunk]] |date=2016-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526213210/http://www1.wdr.de/nachrichten/rheinland/buergerticket-wuppertal-100.html |archive-date=2017-05-26 |access-date=2017-04-21 |language=de}}</ref><ref name=""ZDF"" />
* [[Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles]]: In Germany, a ban on the sale of combustion engines from 2030 has been adopted by the [[German Bundesrat|Bundesrat]] in October 2016.<ref name=""Böll"">{{cite news|author=Sven Böll|date=8 October 2016|title=Bundesländer wollen Benzin- und Dieselautos verbieten|language=de|work=Der Spiegel|url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/bundeslaender-wollen-benzin-und-dieselautos-ab-2030-verbieten-a-1115671.html|access-date=19 September 2020|archive-date=26 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926035517/https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/bundeslaender-wollen-benzin-und-dieselautos-ab-2030-verbieten-a-1115671.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Norway, on the other hand, already wants no cars with petrol or diesel engines to be registered from 2025 and ships and ferries only to be registered without fossil fuels from 2030, and is therefore considered a leading nation in electromobility. The Netherlands are also planning a ban on the registration of conventional drives in cars from 2025.<ref name=""SPON"">
{{Cite web
 |url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/norwegen-will-autos-mit-benzin-oder-dieselmotor-verbieten-a-1107885.html
 |title=Norwegen will Benzin- und Dieselautos verbieten
 |work=[[Spiegel Online]]
 |date=2016-08-16
 |access-date=2020-09-23
 |language=de}}
</ref> In China, all automotive groups are obliged to meet a quota for the production and sale of purely electric or [[plug-in hybrid]] drives.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Steffen Wurze |url=https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/china-e-autos-101.html |title=Weicht China die Quote für E-Autos auf? |work=[[Tagesschau.de]] |date=2017-02-27 |access-date=2017-04-23 |language=de}}</ref>
*There are numerous electromobility projects in Germany, such as the Modellregionen Elektromobilität and BeMobility. The [[German Association of Towns and Municipalities]] (DStGB) sees towns and municipalities as drivers and designers of the mobility transition and also supports a number of projects.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dstgb.de/dstgb/Homepage/Aktuelles/Archiv/Archiv%202017/Neue%20Mobilität%20–%20Kommunen%20als%20Akteure%20der%20Verkehrswende/ |title=Neue Mobilität – Kommunen als Akteure der Verkehrswende |publisher=[[Deutscher Städte- und Gemeindebund]] |date=2017-02-17 |access-date=2017-05-04 |language=de}}</ref>
[[File:3a cm070922.jpg|thumb|[[Critical Mass (cycling)|Critical Mass]] in [[Budapest]] (2007)]]
* ''[[Critical Mass (cycling)|Critical Mass]]'' is a form of direct action for promoting more and safer cycling in cities around the world. When riding together through inner cities, cyclists draw attention to cycling as a form of individual transport, advocate for mobility transition and, in particular, more rights for cyclists, better cycling traffic networks and infrastructure, and more room for non-motorised traffic. The first Critical Mass action took place in September 1992 in San Francisco.<ref name=10years>{{cite news
 |last        = Garofoli
 |first       = Joe
 |title       = Critical Mass turns 10
 |work        = San Francisco Chronicle
 |date        = September 28, 2002
 |url         = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2002/09/26/BA133774.DTL
 |access-date  = July 2, 2007
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080120165148/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2002%2F09%2F26%2FBA133774.DTL
 |archive-date = January 20, 2008
 |df          = mdy-all
}}</ref>
* To improve air quality, efforts across Europe are being stepped up to introduce [[low-emission zone]]s. A progressive approach is the French ''[[Crit'air]]'', which provides for different restrictions depending on air pollution. The applicable prohibitions can be viewed on the Internet or via phone app. Electric vehicles or hydrogen-powered vehicles receive category 0 (green vignette) and can always drive anywhere.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kfz-anzeiger.com/logistik-verkehr/durchblick-mit-der-green-zones-app |title=Umweltzonen: Durchblick mit der Green-Zones-App |work=KFZ-Anzeiger |date=2017-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216084527/http://kfz-anzeiger.com/logistik-verkehr/durchblick-mit-der-green-zones-app |archive-date=2018-02-16 |access-date=2017-05-09 |language=de}}</ref> {{interlanguage link|Diesel driving bans|de|Dieselfahrverbot}} were also issued in Germany.
* Instead of a [[company car]], individual companies offer their employees a {{interlanguage link|mobility budget|de|Mobilitätsbudget}} that can be used to pay for different means of transport for business purposes.
* The city-state [[Singapore]] has not allowed additional private cars since 1 February 2018. This is intended to promote the switch to other means of transport. The state only gives permission for a new car if another car disappears beforehand.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Zubaidah Jalil |url=https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Contra-Verkehrsinfarkt-Singapur-laesst-keine-zusaetzlichen-Autos-zu-3954138.html |title=Contra Verkehrsinfarkt: Singapur lässt keine zusätzlichen Autos zu |work=[[heise online]] |date=2018-01-30 |access-date=2018-01-31 |language=de}}</ref>
* Since 2003, there has been a [[London congestion charge]] which drivers have to pay in [[Central London]]. From October 2017 on, an additional, new fee for older and more polluting cars and vans is due with a [[toxicity charge]].<ref>{{Cite web |author=Björn Finke |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/auto/sz-serie-nahverkehr-weltweit-die-giftmaut-soll-londons-verkehrsprobleme-loesen-1.3838089 |title=Die Giftmaut soll Londons Verkehrsprobleme lösen |work=[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]] |date=2018-01-28 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/17/world/europe/london-smog-air-pollution.html |title=A Push for Diesel Leaves London Gasping Amid Record Pollution |work=[[New York Times]] |date=2017-02-17 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=en}}</ref>
* In many cities in Germany there are citizens' initiatives which, following the example of the Initiative Volksentscheid Fahrrad (""Cycling Referendum Initiative"") in Berlin, advocate for mobility transition and ""bicycle laws"".<ref>{{Cite news |author=Stefan Tomik |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/verkehrswende-initiative-mehr-fahrrad-wagen-15644614.html |title=Verkehrswende-Initiative: Mehr Fahrrad wagen |work=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] |date=2018-06-17 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> In June 2018, the Berlin Mobility Act to promote cycling was passed in Berlin, also due to a successful application for a referendum.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Jörn Hasselmann, Klaus Kurpjuweit |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/mobilitaetsgesetz-berlin-regelt-den-verkehr-neu/22743314.html |title=Mobilitätsgesetz: Berlin regelt den Verkehr neu |work=[[Der Tagesspiegel]] |date=2018-06-27 |access-date=2018-08-19 |language=de}}</ref>
* Traffic lights are being tested in [[Karlsruhe]] as part of a pilot project which, in contrast to conventional [[Traffic light#Pedestrians|pedestrian traffic lights]], display a permanent green light for pedestrians and cyclists, not for vehicles, and only interrupt this when a vehicle approaches.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heise.de/news/Schritt-zur-Verkehrswende-Immer-gruen-fuer-Fussgaenger-Pilotprojekt-in-Karlsruhe-6315619.html |title= Schritt zur Verkehrswende: Immer grün für Fußgänger – Pilotprojekt in Karlsruhe |work=heise.de |date=2022-01-01 |access-date=2022-01-07}}</ref>
* In [[Japan]], it is generally illegal to park a car on the street; a car buyer must provide evidence of owning private parking space or renting a public parking space for the car.<ref name=""Kölling""/> As of 2019, renting fees for public parking spaces in the more central districts of [[Tokyo]] cost about {{euro|300-500}} a month, while in residential areas on the outskirts of Tokyo they cost around {{euro|100}} a month.<ref name=""Kölling""/> Only after the police have verified that the parking lot exists and is large enough for the car the owner want to buy, the car dealer approves the purchase, and gives the owner a parking sticker to put on the new car's front or rear window.<ref name=""Kölling""/> The Japanese state has been using regulations to discourage the sale of [[luxury car]]s and to stimulate consumers to buy small light-weight cars with small engines (see also: [[kei car]]) or to motivate them to switch to local public transport.<ref name=""Kölling"">{{Cite web |author=Martin Kölling |url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/international/weltgeschichten/koelling/japan-autos-die-wie-toastbrote-aussehen-japans-autopolitik-regt-trump-auf/24067414.html |title=Autos, die wie Toastbrote aussehen – Japans Autopolitik regt Trump auf |work=[[Handelsblatt]] |date=2019-03-06 |access-date=28 March 2022 |language=de}}</ref>
* In [[Spain]], a general speed limit of {{convert|30|km/h|abbr=on}} in built-up areas was introduced in 2021. On narrow streets with only one lane (often found in historic city centres), the permitted speed was limited to a maximum of {{convert|20|km/h|abbr=on}}; for streets with more than one lane in both directions, the previously set speed limit was maintained at 50&nbsp;km/h. A total of 509 people died in urban traffic accidents in Spain in 2019. The 2021 reduction of urban speed limits was intended to reduce the risk of pedestrians dying after being hit by a car by 80%.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.heise.de/news/Spanien-fuehrt-30-km-h-Tempolimit-innerorts-ein-6043809.html |title=Spanien führt 30-km/h-Tempolimit innerorts ein |author=dpa |work=heise.de |publisher=[[Heinz Heise]] |date=11 May 2021 |access-date=28 March 2022 |language=de |quote=Mit den neuen Höchstgeschwindigkeiten sinke das Risiko, dass ein von einem Auto erfasster Fußgänger sterbe, um 80 Prozent.}}</ref>
* With the educational motto ''Weniger Wagen wagen'' (""risk fewer cars""), the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cologne]] has sought to raise awareness, and has calculated: 'Due to mobility (journeys to work, committees, church services, etc.), around 16,370 tons of {{CO2}} (as of 2012) are emitted annually in the Archdiocese of Cologne. This corresponds to a share of approx. 13 per cent of the archdiocese's total emissions.' In response, the Archdiocese stated it sought 'strategic and practical reorientation of mobility', including stimulating cycling through the ''Pharr-Rad'' initiative (a [[pun]] on ''Pfarrer'' ""priest"" and ''Fahrrad'' ""bycicle"") and the ''BistumsTicket'' (""diocesan ticket"") which offers reduced fees for public transport travels by groups of 50 people or more to Catholic events organised within the archdiocese.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.erzbistum-koeln.de/erzbistum/schoepfungsverantwortung/emissionsarm-mobil-sein/ |title=Emissionsarm mobil sein |author= |work=erzbistum-koeln.de |publisher=Archdiocese of Cologne |date=September 2017 |access-date=28 March 2022 |language=de}}</ref>

=== Short-haul flight ban ===
{{Excerpt|Short-haul flight ban}}

By July 2019, most political parties in Germany, including the Left Party, the Social Democrats, the Green Party and the Christian Democrats, started to agree to move all [[Berlin-Bonn Act|governmental institutions remaining]] in [[Bonn]] (the former capital of [[West Germany]]) to [[Berlin]] (the official capital since [[German Reunification]] in 1990), because ministers and civil servants were flying between the two cities about 230,000 times a year, which was considered too impractical, expensive and environmentally damaging. The distance of 500 kilometres between Bonn and Berlin could only be travelled by train in 5.5 hours, so either the train connections required upgrading, or Bonn had to be abolished as the secondary capital.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/07/23/calls-end-bonns-status-germanys-second-city-greens-seek-ban/ |title=Calls to end Bonn's status as Germany's second city as Greens seek to ban all domestic flights |author=Jorg Luyken |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=23 July 2019 |access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.dw.com/en/german-government-employees-increased-air-travel-in-2019/a-54406097 |title=German government employees increased air travel in 2019 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=2 August 2020 |access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref>

== Measures in freight transport ==
=== Sea freight ===
{{Further|MARPOL 73/78|Environmental effects of shipping}}
{{See also|Regulation of ship pollution in the United States|Cruise ship pollution in the United States|Cruise ship pollution in Europe}}
[[File:Freight goods according to mode of transportation 2010.png|thumb|309x309px|Global freight volumes according to mode of transport in trillions of [[tonne-kilometre]]s in 2010]]
By far the largest part of the world's [[freight traffic]] is [[sea freight]]. In 2010, about 60,000 trillion [[kilometre-tonne]]s were transported by sea, which was 85% of the world's total freight traffic. According to a 2015 forecast by [[Statista]], by 2050 the volume of freight will have increased to four times the levels of 2010, while the share of sea freight will remain about the same.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/482955/umfrage/frachtvolumen-weltweit-nach-verkehrstraegern/ |title=Frachtgut nach Verkehrsträger weltweit |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}}</ref>

Transporting goods by [[container ship]] is very efficient. Relatively few carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) emissions are caused per transported tonne and kilometre compared to transport by truck (lorry). According to the [[Naturschutzbund Deutschland]] (NABU), the latter emit 50 grams of carbon dioxide per tonne and kilometre, while container ships only emit 15 grams.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nabu.de/umwelt-und-ressourcen/verkehr/schifffahrt/containerschifffahrt/16646.html |title=Mythos klimafreundliche Containerschiffe |publisher=Naturschutzbund Deutschland |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}}</ref> However, the mineral oil-based ship fuel used by container ships is particularly polluting; 90 per cent of all large ships run on [[heavy fuel oil]] (bunker fuel). Among other things, this means that emissions of toxic sulfur oxide are many times higher.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite web |url=https://reset.org/nachhaltige-konzepte-fuer-containerschiffe-03052019/ |title=Nachhaltige Konzepte für Containerschiffe |author=Thorge Jans |language=de |date=6 March 2019 |access-date=2021-09-11}}</ref> To counteract this problem, the [[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO) lowered the limit value for sulfur in fuel from 3.5% to 0.5% in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/neuer-schwefelgrenzwert-fuer-seeschiffskraftstoffe |title=Neuer Grenzwerkt für Seeschiffkraftstoffe |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |date=2020-01-15 |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}}</ref>

Efficiency can be further increased and fuel consumption reduced by building the ships even larger.<ref name="":02"" />

There are innovations to harness wind power for sea transportation. These include cylindrical sails that can be retrofitted to cargo ships (making them ""[[rotor ship]]s"" or ""[[Anton Flettner|Flettner]] ships"") and can reduce fuel consumption. Another option is a towing kite construction, which was originally developed in 2001 by the Hamburg-based company [[SkySails]] and is now being sold by AirSeas. The sail has an area of 1,000 square metres and was developed to reduce fuel consumption on cargo ships by up to 20%. As of 2019, the aviation group [[Airbus]] was testing this idea on four of its own freighters with the aim of saving up to 8,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.<ref name="":02"" />

=== Inland navigation ===
[[File:Zeitraffer - Schifffahrt auf dem Rhein in Köln (2) Time lapse - ships on the Rhine at Cologne (2).webm|thumb|Timelapse of ships on the [[Rhine]] at [[Cologne]] (2015)]]
As [[inland navigation]] (also known as 'inland waterway transport' (IWT) or 'inland shipping') is a relatively environmentally friendly option for freight transport (similar to [[rail freight transport]]), researchers and policy makers have been aiming to shift the volume of cargo transported by more pollutive means towards inland navigation (for example, as part of the 2019 [[European Green Deal]]).<ref name=""Hofbauer"">{{Cite journal |last1=Hofbauer |first1=Florian |last2=Putz |first2=Lisa-Maria |date=2020 |title=External Costs in Inland Waterway Transport: An Analysis of External Cost Categories and Calculation Methods |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/14/5874/pdf |journal=[[Sustainability (journal)|Sustainability]] |publisher=MDPI |volume=12 |issue=5874 |pages=9 (Table 11) |doi= 10.3390/su12145874|access-date=29 March 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref> According to the Research Information System for Mobility and Traffic (FIS; an agency of the [[Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport|German Transport Ministry]]), deficits in the competitiveness of German inland navigation, especially in an international comparison, are responsible for the stagnating transport volume of German inland navigation. A water infrastructure that is not optimally developed with insufficient water channel depths and bridge clearance heights lead to low loading capacities and thus to high costs. A certain exception are the waterways of the [[Rhine]] area, which also have by far the highest transport volume.<ref name=""forschungsinformationssystem.de"">{{Cite web |url=https://www.forschungsinformationssystem.de/servlet/is/123359/ |title=Gebietsstruktur der Binnenschifffahrt und deutsche Binnenhäfen |language=de |access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref> Furthermore, the German inland waterway fleet is quite old by international comparison (45 years in 2013).<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web  |url=https://www.forschungsinformationssystem.de/servlet/is/123506/ |title=Gründe für die Ertüchtigung der Binnenschifffahrt |language=de |access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref>

Inland navigation is closely related to seaport [[hinterland]] traffic. For example, in the [[modal split]] in hinterland traffic at the Dutch and Belgian seaports ([[Port of Rotterdam|Rotterdam]], [[Port of Amsterdam|Amsterdam]], [[Port of Antwerp|Antwerp]] and [[Port of Zeebrugge|Zeebrugge]]), inland shipping has a share of around 55%, while in Germany it usually remains below 10% of hinterland traffic. The reason for this is the better expansion of the Rhine waterways. Furthermore, the majority of the 250 important inland ports in Germany are owned by large companies that only handle transport goods from third-party companies to a small extent.<ref name=""forschungsinformationssystem.de""/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.forschungsinformationssystem.de/servlet/is/114702/ |title=Gründe für die Instandhaltung und den Ausbau der deutschen Binnenwasserstraßen |language=de |access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref> Against this background, the FIS has called for the expansion and maintenance of German waterways. The number and carrying capacity of the German inland waterway vessels has remained constant in the early 21st century and was around 2.61 million tonnes in 2015.<ref name="":0"" />

Various approaches to energy efficiency and air pollution reduction are being tested and researched in inland shipping. This includes propulsion configurations such as the father–son concept,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/rolf-bach-erhaelt-innovationspreis-der-allianz-esa.html |title=Rolf Bach erhält Innovationspreis der Allianz Esa |work=bonapart |date=2015-09-29 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> [[Diesel–electric transmission|diesel-electric hybrid drives]],<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/dieselelektrisches-guetermotorschiff-goblin-in-fahrt.html |title=Dieselelektrisches Gütermotorschiff ""Goblin"" in Fahrt |work=bonapart |date=2013-09-13 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> hydrodynamic optimisations,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/rhenus-duisburg-faehrt-mit-flex-tunnel-und-vier-motoren.html |title=""Rhenus Duisburg"" fährt mit Flex-Tunnel und vier Motoren |work=bonapart |date=2015-08-15 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> fuel water emulsion injection,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/kraftstoff-wasser-emulsionstechnik-macht-rudolf-deymann-zum-schwimmenden-exponat.html |title=Kraftstoff-Wasser-Emulsionstechnik macht ""Rudolf Deymann"" zum schwimmenden Exponat |work=bonapart |date=2016-02-24 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> [[Selective catalytic reduction|SCR-catalysts]], [[diesel particulate filter]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/laborschiff-max-pruess-erhaelt-abgasreinigungsanlage.html |title=Laborschiff ""Max Prüss"" erhält Abgasreinigungsanlage |work=bonapart |date=2015-11-06 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> [[Gas to liquids|gas-to-liquid]] fuels (GTL)<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/emissionsarm-ohne-umbau-jenny-bunkert-synthetischen-gtl-kraftstoff.html |title=Emissionsarm ohne Umbau: ""Jenny"" bunkert synthetischen GTL-Kraftstoff |work=bonapart |date=2016-04-26 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> or [[Liquified Natural Gas]] (LNG),<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/erste-lng-bunkerung-in-deutschland-im-hafen-mannheim-durchgefuehrt.html |title=Erste LNG-Bunkerung in Deutschland im Hafen Mannheim durchgeführt |work=bonapart |date=2013-11-15 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> some of which can also be used in combination and are suitable for retrofitting existing systems.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/deutz-545-faehrt-schadstoffarm-mit-kraftstoff-wasser-emulsion.html |title=Deutz 545 fährt schadstoffarm mit Kraftstoff-Wasser-Emulsion |work=bonapart |date=2016-05-20 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> With an engine funding program, the German Transport Ministry supports inland navigation companies in the installation and retrofitting of low-emission engines or other emission-reducing technologies. The funding rate is up to 70%.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/motorenfoerderprogramm-jetzt-bis-zu-70-prozent-vom-staat.html |title=Motorenförderprogramm: Jetzt bis zu 70 Prozent vom Staat |publisher=bonapart |date=2015-08-04 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref>

=== Road freight and modal share ===
[[File:Freight Shipping in the United States.svg|thumb|Freight in the United States by per cent [[ton-mile]]s (2010 [[Federal Railroad Administration|FRA]] report)<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Rail Plan Progress Report {{!}} FRA |author= |work=railroads.dot.gov |date=September 2010 |access-date=31 March 2022 |url=https://railroads.dot.gov/elibrary/national-rail-plan-progress-report}}</ref>]]
{{Pie chart
|caption =Freight in Germany (2019) (total: 700 [[tonne-kilometres]])<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.allianz-pro-schiene.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/210226_marktanteile_gueterverkehr_2019.pdf |title=Anteile der Verkehrsträger am Güterverkehr; 2019 in Deutschland |publisher=Allianz pro Schiene |date=November 2020 |access-date=2021-09-12 |language=de}}</ref>
|value1=71.2
|label1=Truck
|color1=red
|value2=19
|label2=Rail
|color2=green
|value3=7.3
|label3=Inland ship
|color3=blue
|value4=2.5
|label4=Oil pipeline
|color4=yellow}}
In road freight transport, some transport companies are proposing partly new technologies such as [[trolleytruck]]s, [[electric truck]]s or electric cargo bikes. [[Package delivery]] services are experimenting with new concepts of smart logistics.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.verkehrsrundschau.de/nachrichten/hamburg-sucht-nach-intelligenteren-wegen-fuer-paketzustellung-1854982.html |title=Hamburg sucht nach intelligenteren Wegen für Paketzustellung |work=VerkehrsRundschau |date=2016-11-25 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref> Trolleytrucks with an auxiliary battery offer the possibility of lower-emission long-distance truck transport that is also more energy-efficient than battery-powered trucks.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Jens Tartler |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/verkehrswende-hendricks-faehrt-auf-strom-lkw-ab/19660324.html |title=Hendricks fährt auf Strom-LKW ab |work=[[Der Tagesspiegel]] |date=2017-04-11 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref> Equipping motorways with overhead lines for [[Large goods vehicle|heavy goods vehicles]] (HGVs) has the advantage that HGVs would only have to carry small batteries, as only comparatively short distances would be covered in battery-only mode. At the same time, trolleytrucks would be a cost-effective way to make freight transport climate-friendly, as the electrification of motorways, at a cost of 3 million euros/km, does not represent too much of a financial outlay.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Sonja Fröhlich |url=https://www.haz.de/Nachrichten/Wissen/Uebersicht/E-Highways-Erste-Elektro-Autobahn-fuer-Lastwagen-eine-oekologische-Alternative |title=Erste Elektro-Autobahn für Lastwagen – eine ökologische Alternative? |work=[[Hannoversche Allgemeine Zeitung]] |date=2019-05-07 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref>

Another option to reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and environmental problems is to shift truck traffic to freight rail and inland waterway transport. This process is also known as [[modal share|modal shift]]. The [[Umweltbundesamt|German Environment Agency]] gives the climate impact of transport by truck in the reference year 2020 as 126 grams of CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents per [[tonne-kilometre]] on average (g/tkm). According to the Environment Agency, transport by freight train has a climate impact of 33&nbsp;g/tkm and transport by inland waterway vessel has a climate impact of 43&nbsp;g/tkm, making rail and ship significantly more climate-friendly.<ref>{{Cite web  |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/5750/publikationen/2021_fb_umweltfreundlich_mobil_bf.pdf |title=Umweltfreudlich mobil! Ein ökologischer Verkehrsartenvergleich für den Personen- und Güterverkehr in Deutschland |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |date=March 2020 |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}} (see table 9)</ref>

Although the European Union and its member states strongly promote the use of inland waterways and rail in combination with truck transport, in some cases financially,<ref name=""bonapart.de"">{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/kv-foerderrichtlinie-2017-2021-in-kraft-getreten.html |title=KV-Förderrichtlinie 2017–2021 in Kraft getreten |work=bonapart |date=2017-01-09 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref> only HGVs have been developing positively in the 2010s, while shipping and rail have been stagnating or recording declines.<ref name=""destatis.de"">{{Cite web |url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Branchen-Unternehmen/Transport-Verkehr/Gueterverkehr/Tabellen/gueterbefoerderung-lr.html |title=Beförderungsmenge und Beförderungsleistung nach Verkehrsträgern |publisher=[[Statistisches Bundesamt]] (Destatis) |date=2020-05-19 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref> For 2016, the [[Federal Statistical Office of Germany]] reported a decline in transport performance of 3.7% for inland waterways, a decline of 0.5% for rail and growth of 2.8% for trucks.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/PresseService/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2017/02/PD17_057_463.html |title=Güterverkehr 2016: Neuer Höchststand beim Transportaufkommen |publisher=[[Statistisches Bundesamt]] (Destatis) |date=2017-02-17 |language=de |access-date=2017-05-19}}</ref> In 2015, with a growing transport volume of 1.1%, there was a plus of 1.9% for road, a minus of 1% for rail and a minus of 3.2% for inland waterways.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/gueterverkehr-2015-waechst-binnenschiff-und-bahn-verlieren.html |title=Güterverkehr 2015 wächst – Binnenschiff und Bahn verlieren |work=bonapart |date=2016-02-19 |language=de |access-date=2017-05-19}}</ref> Overall, 71% of the transport performance is accounted for by the truck.<ref name=""destatis.de"" />

With growing [[containerization]] however, a combination of different modes of transport ([[intermodal freight transport]]) becomes more efficient. In so-called [[multimodal transport]] or [[combined transport]], the truck only has to cover the [[Last mile (transportation)|last mile]] between the port or rail terminal and the customer. Measures to promote combined transport are, for example:
* The [[Port of Rotterdam]] has set a quota for the [[modal share]] of hinterland transport modes: the truck share is to drop from 47% to 35%, while rail is to provide 20% instead of 13% in the future, and the transport performance of inland waterways is to increase from 40% to 45%.<ref>{{Cite web |author= |url=
https://www.dvz.de/rubriken/region/laender/niederlande/detail/news/schiene-spielt-schluesselrolle-fuer-rotterdam.html |title=Schiene spielt Schlüsselrolle für Rotterdam |work=Deutsche Verkehrs-Zeitung (DVZ) |date=2015-03-02 |access-date=2017-05-19}} (requires subscription)</ref>
* Instead of burdening [[trunk road]]s with the transport of heavy goods such as industrial plants or components for wind turbines, German transport companies have ben required since 2010 to use the electronic portal Procedural Management of Large and Heavy Goods Transport (VEMAGS) to check whether alternative transport routes such as ship and rail are available, and if not, to explain that in their application for a permit to transport goods via road trucks.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/schwergut-und-projektladungen-leichtes-wachstum-in-2017-moeglich.html |title=Schwergut und Projektladungen: Leichtes Wachstum in 2017 möglich |work=bonapart |date=2017-02-13 |access-date=2020-09-23 |language=de}}</ref>
* With the promotion of handling facilities for combined transport, the German federal government supports the shift in traffic to inland waterways and freight trains.<ref name=""bonapart.de"" />
* The Lower-Rhine Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Schifferbörse and the Development Centre for Naval Technology and Transport Systems (DST) in [[Duisburg]] jointly offer an additional course. Apprentice forwarding and logistics clerks should thus learn about the advantages of alternative modes of transport, rail and inland waterway, and thus integrate them more easily into their everyday work. Frequently, the curriculum only includes road freight transport and additional sea freight or air transport.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Axel Götze-Rohen |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/schifferboerse-startet-qualifikationsinitiative.html |title=Schifferbörse startet Qualifikationsinitiative |work=bonapart |date=2015-02-25 |access-date=2020-09-23 |language=de}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Energy transition]]
* [[Jet fuel tax]]
* [[Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles]]
* [[Urban sprawl]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Literature ==
* {{Cite book |last1=Adey |first1=Peter |last2=Cresswell |first2=Tim |last3=Lee |first3=Jane Yeonjae |last4=Nikolaeva |first4=Anna |last5=Nóvoa |first5=André |last6=Temenos |first6=Cristina |date=2021 |title=Moving Towards Transition: Commoning Mobility for a Low-Carbon Future |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Z1CEAAAQBAJ |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=4 |isbn=9781786998989 |access-date=26 February 2022 |ref={{harvid|Adey et al.|2021}}}}
* {{citation|surname1=Claudia Hornberg et&nbsp;al.|editor-surname1=Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen [SRU]|title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor: Sondergutachten November 2017|publication-place=Berlin|isbn=978-3-947370-11-5|date=2017|language=German|url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=26 |access-date=2020-09-20
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2326 <ref>{{Cite web|title=Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen - Publikationen - Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor|url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.html|access-date=2023-01-06|website=www.umweltrat.de}}</ref>
* Udo Becker: ''Grundwissen Verkehrsökologie: Grundlagen, Handlungsfelder und Maßnahmen für die Verkehrswende.'' München 2016, ISBN 978-3-86581-993-2.
* Andrej Cacilo: ''Wege zu einer nachhaltigen Mobilität: Im Spannungsfeld kultureller Werte, ökonomischer Funktionslogik und diskursrationaler Wirtschafts- und Umweltethik.'' 2., durchges. Aufl., Metropolis, Marburg 2021, ISBN 978-3-7316-1473-9.
* Weert Canzler, Andreas Knie: ''Schlaue Netze – Wie die Energie- und Verkehrswende gelingt.'' München 2013, ISBN 978-3-86581-440-1.
* Weert Canzler, Andreas Knie, Lisa Ruhrort, Christian Scherf: ''Erloschene Liebe? Das Auto in der Verkehrswende. Soziologische Deutungen''. transcript, Bielefeld 2018, ISBN 978-3-8376-4568-2.
* [[Hermann Knoflacher]]: ''Zurück zur Mobilität! Anstöße zum Umdenken.'' Ueberreuter, Wien 2013, ISBN 978-3-8000-7557-7.
* {{citation|surname1=Katharina Manderscheid|editor-surname1= Achim Brunnengräber, Tobias Haas|periodical=Baustelle Elektromobilität – Sozialwissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die Transformation der (Auto-)Mobilität|title=Antriebs-, Verkehrs- oder Mobilitätswende? Zur Elektrifizierung des Automobilitätsdispositivs|publisher=transcript|publication-place=Bielefeld|at=pp.&nbsp;37-67|isbn=978-3-8376-5165-2|date=2020|language=German|url=https://www.transcript-verlag.de/media/pdf/34/07/26/oa9783839451656Y4hda57HXkydW.pdf |access-date=2020-08-11
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2940
* Markus Hesse: ''Verkehrswende. ökologisch-ökonomische Perspektiven für Stadt und Region.'' Marburg 1993, ISBN 978-3-926570-62-8.

== External links ==
* {{Cite news |author=Stephan Rammler |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2018-02/verkehrswende-bundesregierung-fahrverbote-luftverschmutzung/komplettansicht |title=Verkehrswende: Bürgermeister, fangt einfach an! |work=[[Die Zeit]] |date=2018-02-20 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}
* {{Cite web|author=Stefan Hajek |url=https://www.wiwo.de/my/unternehmen/auto/falsche-zahlen-steile-thesen-die-mythen-der-e-auto-kritiker/23906014-all.html |title=Falsche Zahlen, steile Thesen: Die Mythen der E-Auto-Kritiker |work=[[Wirtschaftswoche]] |date=2019-01-24 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wissen/physik-mehr/verkehrswende-wie-es-gelingt-die-blechlawine-zu-stoppen-und-staedte-fuer-menschen-zu-gestalten-16967470.html |title=So geht sich das nicht aus |language=de |first=Andreas |last=Frey |newspaper=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung |date=27 September 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}}, long article on the mobility transition in Germany
* {{Cite web
 |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/verkehrswende-das-ende-des-verbrennungsmotors/13819824.html
 |title=Das Ende des Verbrennungsmotors
 |work=[[Der Tagesspiegel]]
 |date=2016-07-02
 |access-date=2020-09-23
 |language=de}}

[[Category:Energy policy]]
[[Category:Environmental policy]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Transport and the environment]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]"
Sustainable Development Goals,"{{Advert|date=January 2024}}
{{Short description|UN's sustainable development goals for 2030}}
{{Short description|United Nations' 17 sustainable development goals 
for 2030}}
{{Redirect|SDG}}
{{About|the 2023 goals|the 2015 goals|Millennium Development Goals}}{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}{{Infobox project
| name = Sustainable Development Goals
| logo = Sustainable Development Goals logo.svg
| mission_statement = ""A shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future""
| location = Global
| owner = 
| founder =  [[United Nations]]
| established = 2015
| website = {{URL|https://sdgs.un.org/}}
|abbreviation=SDGs}}
The ''2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development'', adopted by all [[United Nations]] members in 2015, created 17 world '''Sustainable Development Goals''' ('''SDGs'''). They were created with the aim of ""[[peace]] and prosperity for people and the planet...""<ref name=""the17SDGs"">{{Cite web |title=The 17 Goals |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals | publisher = UN |access-date=2022-08-10 |website= Sustainable Development Goals}}</ref><ref name=""UN-2017b"">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201128194012/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 |date=28 November 2020 }})</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Isnaeni |first1=Nur Meily |last2=Dulkiah |first2=Moh |last3=Wildan |first3=Asep Dadan |date=2022-11-18 |title=Patterns of Middle-Class Communities Adaptation to the Village SDGS Program in Bogor Regency |url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/temali/article/view/20466 |journal=Temali: Jurnal Pembangunan Sosial |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages= 173–82 |doi=10.15575/jt.v5i2.20466 |issn= 2615-5028|doi-access=free }}</ref> They state that ending poverty and other deprivations, goes alongside strategies that improve health and education, reduce inequality, and increase economic growth – while tackling [[climate change]] and working to preserve oceans and forests. The SDGs emphasize the interconnected environmental, social and economic aspects of [[sustainable development]] by putting [[sustainability]] at their center.<ref name=""Schleicher-2018"">{{Cite journal |last1=Schleicher |first1=Judith |last2=Schaafsma |first2=Marije |last3=Vira |first3=Bhaskar |date=2018 |title=Will the Sustainable Development Goals address the links between poverty and the natural environment? |journal=Current Opinion in L̾o̾l̾o̾l̾o̾47 |volume=34 |pages=43–47 |bibcode=2018COES...34...43S |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2018.09.004 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bali Swain |first1=R. |last2=Yang-Wallentin |first2=F. |date=2020 |title=Achieving sustainable development goals: predicaments and strategies |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=96–106 |doi=10.1080/13504509.2019.1692316 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2020IJSDW..27...96B }}</ref>

The short titles of the 17 SDGs are: No poverty ([[Sustainable Development Goal 1|SDG 1]]), Zero hunger ([[Sustainable Development Goal 2|SDG 2]]), Good health and well-being ([[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]]), Quality education ([[SDG 4]]), Gender equality ([[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]), Clean water and sanitation ([[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]]), Affordable and clean energy ([[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]]), Decent work and economic growth ([[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]), Industry, innovation and infrastructure ([[Sustainable Development Goal 9|SDG 9]]), Reduced inequalities ([[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]]), Sustainable cities and communities ([[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]]), Responsible consumption and production ([[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]]), Climate action ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]), Life below water ([[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]]), Life on land ([[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]), Peace, justice, and strong institutions ([[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]]), and Partnerships for the goals ([[SDG 17]]).

Despite the ambitious goals set, reports and outcomes indicate a challenging path. Most, if not all, of the goals are unlikely to be met by 2030, with rising inequalities, climate change, and [[biodiversity loss]] among the critical concerns threatening progress. The COVID pandemic exacerbated these challenges. While some regions, such as Asia, have experienced significant setbacks, the global effort towards the SDGs calls for prioritizing environmental sustainability, understanding the indivisible nature of the goals, and seeking synergies across sectors.

Political impact assessments of the SDGs suggest they have mainly influenced global and national debates, leading to discursive effects, but have struggled to achieve transformative changes in policy and institutional structures. The pandemic impacted all 17 goals, emphasizing the interconnectedness of global health, economic, social, and environmental challenges. The uneven prioritization of goals, with a tendency to favor socio-economic objectives over environmental ones, reflects longstanding national development policies, complicating the global endeavor towards sustainable development.

Funding remains a critical issue, with significant financial resources required across continents to achieve the SDGs. While the UN, other international organizations, and national governments are mobilizing efforts, the role of private investment and need for a shift towards sustainable financing, are increasingly recognized as essential for realizing the SDGs. Amidst these challenges, examples of progress from countries demonstrate the potential for achieving sustainable development through concerted global action.

== History ==
The SDGs build on work by countries and the UN, including the UN department of economic and social affairs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE 17 GOALS {{!}} Sustainable Development |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> This agenda is a plan of action for People, Planet and Prosperity. It also seeks to strengthen university peace in larger freedom. We recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimension, including extreme poverty is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs |url=https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> The Agenda 2030 recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global challenge and indispensable development in its three dimensions-economic, social and environmental in a balanced and integrated manner. To end poverty and hunger everywhere, to combat inequalities within and among countries, to build peaceful, just and inclusive society, to protect human right and promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls and to ensure the lasting protection of the plant and its natural resources.

== Results and outcomes ==
Most or all of the goals and targets are unlikely to be achieved  by 2030.<ref name=""CEEW-2022"">{{Cite journal |last1=SEI |last2=CEEW |date=2022-05-18 |title=Stockholm+50: Unlocking a Better Future |url=https://www.sei.org/publications/stockholm50-unlocking-better-future |journal=SEI Reports |doi=10.51414/sei2022.011 |s2cid=248881465 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|41}} 

Of particular concern - which cut across many of the SDGs – are rising inequalities, ongoing climate change and increasing biodiversity loss.<ref name=""CEEW-2022"" />{{rp|41}} In addition, there is a [[trade-off]] between the planetary boundaries of Earth and the aspirations for wealth and well-being. This has been described as follows: ""the world's social and natural biophysical systems cannot support the aspirations for universal human well-being embedded in the SDGs.""<ref name=""CEEW-2022"" />{{rp|41}}

An independent group of scientists appointed by the Secretary General, found that: ""the world is far off track"".<ref name="":0"">Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the Secretary-General, ''Global Sustainable Development Report 2023: Times of crisis, times of change: Science for accelerating transformations to sustainable development'', (United Nations, New York, 2023).</ref> This report urges ""urgent course correction"" to help achieve the SDGs.<ref name="":0"" /> This report blames the lingering drag of the COVID-19 pandemic, a rise in conflicts and, inflation for the lagging progress of the SDGs.<ref name="":0"" /> 

Due to various economic and social issues, many countries are seeing a major decline in the progress made. In Asia for example, data shows a loss of progress on goals 2, 8,10,11, and 15.<ref name=""SEI-2020"">{{cite web |date=1 October 2020 |title=Let's get the SDGs back on track |url=https://www.sei.org/perspectives/lets-get-the-sdgs-back-on-track/ |access-date=19 October 2022 |website=Stockholm Environment Institute}}</ref> Recommended approaches to still achieve the SDGs are: ""Set priorities, focus on harnessing the environmental dimension of the SDGs, understand how the SDGs work as an indivisible system, and look for synergies.""<ref name=""SEI-2020"" />

=== Assessing the political impact of the SDGs ===
In 2022, the last book in series of books  analysed the political impacts of the SDGs.<ref name=""BiermannCh8"">{{Citation |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |title=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals |date=2022-07-31 |pages=204–26 |editor-last=Biermann |editor-first=Frank |contribution=Chapter 8: The Sustainable Development Goals as a Transformative Force?: Key Insights |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009082945.009 |isbn=978-1-009-08294-5 |last2=Hickmann |first2=Thomas |last3=Sénit |first3=Carole-Anne |last4=Grob |first4=Leonie |editor2-last=Hickmann |editor2-first=Thomas |editor3-last=Sénit |editor3-first=Carole-Anne |doi-access=free}}</ref> It reviewed over 3,000 scientific articles, mainly from the social sciences, and looked at possible discursive, normative and institutional effects. The presence of all three types of effects throughout a political system is defined as ''transformative impact'', which is the eventual goal of the 2030 Agenda.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"">{{Cite journal |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |last2=Hickmann |first2=Thomas |last3=Sénit |first3=Carole-Anne |last4=Beisheim |first4=Marianne |last5=Bernstein |first5=Steven |last6=Chasek |first6=Pamela |last7=Grob |first7=Leonie |last8=Kim |first8=Rakhyun E. |last9=Kotzé |first9=Louis J. |last10=Nilsson |first10=Måns |last11=Ordóñez Llanos |first11=Andrea |last12=Okereke |first12=Chukwumerije |last13=Pradhan |first13=Prajal |last14=Raven |first14=Rob |last15=Sun |first15=Yixian |date=2022-06-20 |title=Scientific evidence on the political impact of the Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=795–800 |doi=10.1038/s41893-022-00909-5 |issn=2398-9629 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022NatSu...5..795B |hdl-access=free |hdl=2066/253734}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> 

''Discursive effects'' relate to changes in global and national debates that make them more aligned with the SDGs.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> ''Normative effects'' would be adjustments in legislative and regulatory frameworks and policies in line with, and because of, the SDGs. ''Institutional effects'' would be the creation of new departments, committees, offices or programs linked to the achievement of the SDGs or the realignment of existing institutions.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" />  

The review found that the SDGs are too nonspecific to be quantified or measured.  Subjective assessments are often paradoxical due to the nature of wealth and prosperity.  An individual with good health, supportive family and social well-being could be considered a form of wealth not enjoyed by individuals who are isolated, in poor health and employed in labor which exacts an extreme physical toll and frequent injuries or toxin-related illness.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> They have had mainly discursive effects only.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> For example, the broad uptake of the principle of ''leaving no one behind'' in pronouncements by policymakers and civil society activists is a discursive effect. The SDGs have also led to some isolated normative and institutional reforms.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> However, there is widespread doubt that the SDGs can steer societies towards more ecological integrity at the planetary scale.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> This is because countries generally prioritize the more socioeconomic SDGs (e.g. SDGs 8 to 12) over the environmentally oriented ones (e.g. SDGs 13 to 15), which is in alignment with their long-standing national development policies.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" />

=== Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic ===
The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 had impacts on all 17 goals. It has become ""the worst human and economic crisis in a lifetime.""<ref name=""UNESC2020"" />{{rp|2}} The pandemic threatened progress made in particular for SDG 3 (health), SDG 4 (education), SDG 6 (water and sanitation for all), SDG 10 (reduce inequality) and SDG 17 (partnerships).<ref name=""UNESC2020"" />

The [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) has also taken the initiative to achieve the SDGs by offering their support to developing countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IMF and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2023/IMF-Sustainable-development-goals-SDGs |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=IMF |language=en}}</ref> For example, the IMF works to reduce poverty in low-income developing countries by offering financial support during the COVID-19 pandemic.

=== Uneven priorities of goals ===
In 2019 five progress reports on the 17 SDGs were published. Three came from the [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]] (UNDESA),<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sustainable Development Goals report 2019 |date=2019 |publisher=United Nations |isbn=978-92-1-101403-7 |oclc=1117643666}}{{page needed|date=June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Publications |first1=United Nations |title=Report of the inter-agency task force on financing for development 2019: financing for sustainable development report 2019 |date=2019 |isbn=978-92-1-101404-4 |oclc=1098817400}}{{page needed|date=June 2021}}</ref> one from the [[Bertelsmann Foundation]] and one from the [[European Union]].<ref>Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the Secretary-General, Global Sustainable Development Report 2019: [https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/24797GSDR_report_2019.pdf The Future is Now – Science for Achieving Sustainable Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063857/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/24797GSDR_report_2019.pdf|date=30 December 2020}}, (United Nations, New York, 2019)</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable development in the European Union |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/9940483/KS-02-19-165-EN-N.pdf/1965d8f5-4532-49f9-98ca-5334b0652820 |publisher=Eurostat}}</ref> A review of the five reports analyzed which of the 17 Goals were addressed in priority and which ones were left behind.<ref name=""BICE-2020"">{{cite web |title=Leaving Biodiversity, Peace and Social Inclusion behind |url=http://commons.ch/wp-content/uploads/Synopsis_SDG_Reports_Goals_Allocation_2019.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063855/http://commons.ch/wp-content/uploads/Synopsis_SDG_Reports_Goals_Allocation_2019.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=27 November 2019 |publisher=Basel Institute of Commons and Economics |language=en}}</ref> In explanation of the findings, the Basel Institute of Commons and Economics said [[Biodiversity]], Peace and Social Inclusion were ""left behind"" by quoting the official SDGs motto ""Leaving no one behind.""<ref name=""BICE-2020"" />

It has been argued that governments and businesses actively prioritize the social and economic goals over the environmental goals (such as Goal 14 and 15) in both rhetoric and practice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Forestier |first1=Oana |last2=Kim |first2=Rakhyun E. |date=September 2020 |title=Cherry-picking the Sustainable Development Goals: Goal prioritization by national governments and implications for global governance |journal=Sustainable Development |language=en |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1269–1278 |doi=10.1002/sd.2082 |issn=0968-0802 |s2cid=225737527 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
{| class=""wikitable sortable""
|+SDG preferences in the World's five major SDG reports in 2019<ref name=""BICE-2020"" />
!SDG Topic &nbsp;
!Rank&nbsp; &nbsp;
!Average Rank
!Mentions
|-
|Health
|1
|3.2
|1814
|-
|Energy<br />Climate <br />Water
|2
|4.0
|1328<br />1328<br />1784
|-
|Education
|3
|4.6
|1351
|-
|Poverty
|4
|6.2
|1095
|-
|Food
|5
|7.6
|693
|-
|Economic Growth
|6
|8.6
|387
|-
|Technology
|7
|8.8
|855
|-
|Inequality
|8
|9.2
|296
|-
|Gender Equality
|9
|10.0
|338
|-
|Hunger
|10
|10.6
|670
|-
|Justice
|11
|10.8
|328
|-
|Governance
|12
|11.6
|232
|-
|Decent Work
|13
|12.2
|277
|-
|Peace
|14
|12.4
|282
|-
|Clean Energy
|15
|12.6
|272
|-
|Life on Land
|16
|14.4
|250
|-
|Life below Water
|17
|15.0
|248
|-
|Social Inclusion
|18
|16.4
|22
|}

=== Measuring progress ===
[[File:Map Sustainable Development Goals 2019.jpg|alt=|thumb|upright=2|Countries that are closest to meeting the SDGs (in dark blue) and those with the greatest remaining challenges (in the lightest shade of blue) in 2018<ref>Sachs, J., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G. (2019): [https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/ Sustainable Development Report 2019] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922112837/https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/|date=22 September 2019}}. New York: Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN)</ref> ]]

==== Monitoring tools and websites ====
The online publication SDG-Tracker was launched in June 2018 and presents data across all available indicators.<ref name=""SDGtracker"">{{Cite web |title=SDG Tracker |url=https://sdg-tracker.org/ |access-date=6 August 2020 |publisher=Our World in Data}}</ref> It relies on the [[Our World In Data|Our World in Data]] database and is also based at the [[University of Oxford]].<ref name=""Ritchie-2020"">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina. ""[https://sdg-tracker.org/ Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals]"". SDG-Tracker.org, 2018. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063910/https://sdg-tracker.org/|date=30 December 2020}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SDG-Tracker.org Releases New Resources |url=http://sdg.iisd.org/news/sdg-tracker-org-releases-new-resources/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063949/http://sdg.iisd.org/news/sdg-tracker-org-releases-new-resources/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-03-10 |website=IISD's SDG Knowledge Hub |language=en-US}}</ref> The publication has global coverage and tracks whether the world is making progress towards the SDGs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eerste 'tracker' die progressie op SDG's per land volgt {{!}} Fondsnieuws |url=https://www.fondsnieuws.nl/nieuws/eerste-tracker-die-progressie-op-sdgs-land-volgt |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063913/https://www.fondsnieuws.nl/nieuws/eerste-tracker-die-progressie-op-sdgs-land-volgt |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-03-10 |website=www.fondsnieuws.nl}}</ref> It aims to make the data on the 17 goals available and understandable to a wide audience.<ref name=""auto"">{{Cite web |title=SDG Gracker |url=https://sdg-tracker.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063944/https://sdg-tracker.org/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=28 July 2020}}</ref> The SDG-Tracker highlights that the world is currently (early 2019) very far away from achieving the goals.

The ''Global SDG Index and Dashboards Report'' is the first publication to track countries' performance on all 17 Sustainable Development Goals.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=SDSN |last2=Bertelsmann Stiftung |title=SDG Index |url=https://sdgindex.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064016/https://sdgindex.org/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-05-24 |website=SDG Index and Dashboards Report |language=en-US}}</ref> The annual publication, co-produced by [[Bertelsmann Stiftung]] and [[Sustainable Development Solutions Network|SDSN]], includes a ranking and dashboards that show key challenges for each country in terms of implementing the SDGs. The publication also shows an analysis of government efforts to implement the SDGs.

==== UN High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) ====
{{Main|High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development}}{{Excessive examples|date=January 2024}}
This subdivision should be a ""regular meeting place for governments and non-state representatives to assess global progress towards sustainable development.""<ref name=""BiermannCh8"">{{Citation |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |title=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals |date=2022-07-31 |pages=204–26 |editor-last=Biermann |editor-first=Frank |contribution=Chapter 8: The Sustainable Development Goals as a Transformative Force?: Key Insights |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009082945.009 |isbn=978-1-009-08294-5 |last2=Hickmann |first2=Thomas |last3=Sénit |first3=Carole-Anne |last4=Grob |first4=Leonie |editor2-last=Hickmann |editor2-first=Thomas |editor3-last=Sénit |editor3-first=Carole-Anne |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|206}} The meetings take place under the auspices of the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|United Nations economic and Social Council]]. In July 2020 the meeting took place online for the first time due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The theme was ""Accelerated action and transformative pathways: realizing the decade of action and delivery for sustainable development"" and a ministerial declaration was adopted.<ref name=""UNESC2020"" />

High-level progress reports for all the SDGs are published in the form of reports by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|United Nations Secretary General]]. The most recent one is from April 2020.<ref name=""UNESC2020"" />

However, the HLPF has a range of problems.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> It has not been able to promote system-wide coherence. The reasons for this include its broad and unclear mandate combined with a lack of resources and divergent national interests.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> Therefore, this reporting system is mainly just a platform for voluntary reporting and [[peer learning]] among governments.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" />

The [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development]] (HLPF) replaced the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development in 2012.<ref name=""BiermannCh8"" />{{rp|206}}

== Examples of progress ==
These are examples of what different countries have done to progress the 17 goals.

===Asia and Pacific===

==== Australia ====
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goals and Australia|paragraphs=2-3}}

=== Africa ===
{{See also|Sustainable Development Goals and Ghana}}

The [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) has collected information to show how awareness about the SDGs among government officers, civil society and others has been created in many African countries.<ref name=""UNDP-2020a"">{{Cite web |title=Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064154/https://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-09-20 |website=UNDP in Ghana |language=en}}</ref>

==== Nigeria ====
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goals and Nigeria|paragraphs=2|file=no}}

===Europe and Middle East===
{{See also|Sustainable Development Goals and Iran}}

Baltic nations, via the [[Council of the Baltic Sea States]], have created the [[Baltic 21|Baltic 2030 Action Plan]].<ref name=""cbss.org-2030"">{{Cite news |title=Sustainable Development – Baltic 2030 |url=http://www.cbss.org/sustainable-prosperous-region/egsd-baltic-2030-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220914/http://www.cbss.org/sustainable-prosperous-region/egsd-baltic-2030-2/ |archive-date=15 November 2017 |access-date=2017-11-11 |work=cbss.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Lebanon ====
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goals and Lebanon|paragraphs=2|file=no}}

==== Syria ====
Higher education in Syria began with sustainable development steps through Damascus University.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Al-Raeei |first=Marwan |date=2023-05-22 |title=Analysing of the sustainable development goals in Damascus University during Syrian crisis using the strategy in the university and the bibliometrics data from SciVal |journal=Discover Sustainability |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=24 |bibcode=2023DiSus...4...24A |doi=10.1007/s43621-023-00140-y |issn=2662-9984 |pmc=10201509 |pmid=37251498}}</ref>

==== United Kingdom ====
The UK's approach to delivering the Global SDGs is outlined in Agenda 2030: Delivering the Global Goals, developed by the [[Department for International Development]].<ref>Department for International Development (2017) [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/603500/Agenda-2030-Report4.pdf Agenda 2030 The UK Government's approach to delivering the Global Goals for Sustainable Development – at home and around the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064022/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/603500/Agenda-2030-Report4.pdf|date=30 December 2020}}</ref> In 2019, the Bond network analyzed the UK's global progress on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 June 2019 |title=The UK's global contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals – Progress, gaps and recommendations |url=https://www.bond.org.uk/resources/the-uks-global-contribution-to-the-sustainable-development-goals |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064057/https://www.bond.org.uk/resources/the-uks-global-contribution-to-the-sustainable-development-goals |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=30 October 2019 |website=Bond}}</ref>  The Bond report highlights crucial gaps where attention and investment are most needed. The report was compiled by 49 organizations and 14 networks and working groups.

== Criticism ==
=== Too many goals and overall problems ===

Scholars have pointed out flaws in the design of the SDGs for the following aspects: ""the number of goals, the structure of the goal framework (for example, the non-hierarchical structure), the coherence between the goals, the specificity or measurability of the targets, the language used in the text, and their reliance on [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] economic development-oriented sustainable development as their core orientation.""<ref name=""Kotzé-2022"">{{Citation |last1=Kotzé |first1=Louis J. |title=Chapter 6: Planetary Integrity |date=2022 |work=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals: Transforming Governance Through Global Goals? |pages=140–171 |editor-last=Sénit |editor-first=Carole-Anne |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009082945.007 |isbn=978-1-316-51429-0 |last2=Kim |first2=Rakhyun E. |last3=Burdon |first3=Peter |last4=du Toit |first4=Louise |last5=Glass |first5=Lisa-Maria |last6=Kashwan |first6=Prakash |last7=Liverman |first7=Diana |last8=Montesano |first8=Francesco S. |last9=Rantala |first9=Salla |editor2-last=Biermann |editor2-first=Frank |editor3-last=Hickmann |editor3-first=Thomas |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|161}}

The SDGs may simply maintain the ''status quo'' and fall short of delivering an ambitious development agenda. The current status quo has been described as ""separating human wellbeing and environmental sustainability, failing to change governance and to pay attention to trade-offs, root causes of poverty and environmental degradation, and social justice issues.""<ref name=""Schleicher-2018"" /> 

A commentary in ''[[The Economist]]'' in 2015 argued that 169 targets for the SDGs is too many, describing them as sprawling, misconceived and a mess compared to the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).<ref name=""The Economist-2017"">{{Cite news |title=The 169 commandments |url=https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21647286-proposed-sustainable-development-goals-would-be-worse-useless-169-commandments |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018114345/https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21647286-proposed-sustainable-development-goals-would-be-worse-useless-169-commandments |archive-date=18 October 2017 |access-date=2016-02-19 |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref>

=== Weak on environmental sustainability ===
[[File:SDG wedding cake.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|SDG wedding cake model: A way of viewing the economic, social and ecological aspects of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).<ref name=""Resilience-2016"">{{Cite web |date=14 June 2016 |title=The SDGs wedding cake |url=https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2016-06-14-the-sdgs-wedding-cake.html |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=www.stockholmresilience.org |language=en}}</ref>]]
{{Further|Sustainability}}

Scholars have criticized that the SDGs ""fail to recognize that planetary, people and prosperity concerns are all part of one earth system, and that the protection of planetary integrity should not be a means to an end, but an end in itself.""<ref name=""Kotzé-2022"" />{{rp|147}} The SDGs ""remain fixated on the idea that economic growth is foundational to achieve all pillars of sustainable development.""<ref name=""Kotzé-2022"" />{{rp|147}} They do not prioritize [[environmental protection]].<ref name=""Kotzé-2022"" />{{rp|144}}

The SDGs include three environment-focused SDGs, which are Goal 13, 14 and 15 (climate, land and oceans), but there is no overarching environmental or planetary goal.<ref name=""Kotzé-2022"" />{{rp|144}} The SDGs do not pursue planetary integrity as such.<ref name=""Kotzé-2022"" />{{rp|144}}Other SDGs, which as Goal 7, 12 and 13  ignore the planetary limits and encourage consumption <ref name="":1"">{{Citation |last1=Robra |first1=Ben |title=Degrowth and the Sustainable Development Goals |date=2021 |work=Decent Work and Economic Growth |pages=253–262 |editor-last=Leal Filho |editor-first=Walter |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95867-5_37 |access-date=2023-12-27 |series=Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-95867-5_37 |isbn=978-3-319-95867-5 |last2=Heikkurinen |first2=Pasi |editor2-last=Azul |editor2-first=Anabela Marisa |editor3-last=Brandli |editor3-first=Luciana |editor4-last=Lange Salvia |editor4-first=Amanda}}</ref>

Environmental constraints and [[planetary boundaries]] are underrepresented within the SDGs. For instance, the way the current SDGs are structured leads to a negative correlation between environmental sustainability and SDGs, with most indicators within even the sustainability-focused goals focusing on social or economic outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wackernagel |first1=Mathis |last2=Hanscom |first2=Laurel |last3=Lin |first3=David |date=11 July 2017 |title=Making the Sustainable Development Goals Consistent with Sustainability |journal=Frontiers in Energy Research |volume=5 |pages=18 |doi=10.3389/fenrg.2017.00018 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This helps further the denial that there are absolute limits to economic growth.<ref name="":1"" /> They could unintentionally promote [[Environmental degradation|environmental destruction]] in the name of sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web |last=The University of Queensland |date=6 July 2020 |title=Latest U.N. sustainability goals pose more harm than good for environment, scientists warn |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-07-latest-sustainability-goals-pose-good.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706163936/https://phys.org/news/2020-07-latest-sustainability-goals-pose-good.html |archive-date=6 July 2020 |access-date=27 August 2020 |website=phys.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Yiwen |last2=Maxwell |first2=Sean |last3=Runting |first3=Rebecca K. |last4=Venter |first4=Oscar |last5=Watson |first5=James E. M. |last6=Carrasco |first6=L. Roman |date=October 2020 |title=Environmental destruction not avoided with the Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=795–798 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-0555-0 |bibcode=2020NatSu...3..795Z |s2cid=220260626}}</ref>

Certain studies also argue that the focus of the SDGs on [[neoliberal]] sustainable development is detrimental to planetary integrity and justice.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> Both of these ambitions (planetary integrity and justice) would require limits to economic growth.<ref name=""Kotzé-2022"" />{{rp|145}}This helps further the denial that there are absolute limits to economic growth. These studies question whether economic growth and ecological sustainability go hand in hand. 

Scientists have proposed several ways to address the weaknesses regarding environmental sustainability in the SDGs:

* The monitoring of essential variables to better capture the essence of coupled environmental and social systems that underpin sustainable development, helping to guide coordination and systems transformation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reyers |first1=Belinda |last2=Stafford-Smith |first2=Mark |last3=Erb |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Scholes |first4=Robert J |last5=Selomane |first5=Odirilwe |date=June 2017 |title=Essential Variables help to focus Sustainable Development Goals monitoring |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |volume=26–27 |pages=97–105 |bibcode=2017COES...26...97R |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2017.05.003 |s2cid=113715479 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002E-1851-0}}</ref>
* More attention to the context of the biophysical systems in different places (e.g., coastal [[river delta]]s, mountain areas)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scown |first1=Murray W. |date=November 2020 |title=The Sustainable Development Goals need geoscience |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=714–715 |bibcode=2020NatGe..13..714S |doi=10.1038/s41561-020-00652-6 |s2cid=225071652}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kulonen |first1=Aino |last2=Adler |first2=Carolina |last3=Bracher |first3=Christoph |last4=Dach |first4=Susanne Wymann von |date=2019 |title=Spatial context matters in monitoring and reporting on Sustainable Development Goals: Reflections based on research in mountain regions |journal=GAIA – Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=90–94 |doi=10.14512/gaia.28.2.5 |s2cid=197775743 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/350274}}</ref>
* Better understanding of feedbacks across scales in space (e.g., through [[globalization]]) and time (e.g., affecting future generations) that could ultimately determine the success or failure of the SDGs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reyers |first1=Belinda |last2=Selig |first2=Elizabeth R. |date=August 2020 |title=Global targets that reveal the social–ecological interdependencies of sustainable development |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=4 |issue=8 |pages=1011–1019 |doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1230-6 |pmid=32690904 |bibcode=2020NatEE...4.1011R |s2cid=220656353 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2263/78221}}</ref>
* Reframing the message of the SDGs to help advocate to limits to growth rather than the empirically unfounded idea that economic growth can continue in a limited world.<ref name="":1"" />
* Reformulating specific goals that emphasis reduced consumption instead of the business as usual model.<ref name="":1"" />

=== Ethical aspects ===
There are concerns about the ethical orientation of the SDGs: they remain ""underpinned by strong (Western) modernist notions of development: sovereignty of humans over their environment (anthropocentricism), [[individualism]], competition, freedom (rights rather than duties), self-interest, belief in the market leading to collective welfare, [[private property]] (protected by legal systems), rewards based on merit, [[materialism]], quantification of value, and instrumentalization of labor.""<ref name=""Kotzé-2022"" />{{rp|146}}

The SDGs have been criticised for furthering a neoliberal agenda that extends to promote neoliberal and business interests.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last=Arora-Jonsson |first=Seema |date=2023-02-01 |title=The sustainable development goals: A universalist promise for the future |journal=Futures |volume=146 |pages=103087 |doi=10.1016/j.futures.2022.103087 |issn=0016-3287 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Furthermore, the framework represents a universal template grounded in Western ideology. This framework is then used to reproduce a flawed Western paradigm.<ref name="":2"" /> Some scientists worry that the SDGs could be used against legitimate protests about development initiatives.<ref name="":2"" />

Some studies warn that the SDGs could be used to camouflage business-as-usual by disguising it using SDG-related sustainability rhetoric.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> A meta-analysis review study in 2022 found that: ""There is even emerging evidence that the SDGs might have even adverse effects, by providing a ""smokescreen of hectic political activity"" that blurs a reality of stagnation, dead ends and business-as-usual.""<ref name=""BiermannCh8"" />{{rp|220}}

=== Difficulties with tracking qualitative indicators ===
Regarding the targets of the SDGs, there is generally weak evidence linking the means of implementation to outcomes.<ref name=""Bartram-2018"" /> The targets about means of implementation (those denoted with a letter, for example, Target 6.a) are imperfectly conceptualized and inconsistently formulated, and tracking their largely qualitative indicators will be difficult.<ref name=""Bartram-2018"" />

=== Trade-offs not explicitly addressed ===
The trade-offs among the 17 SDGs might prevent their realization.<ref name=""Berg-2020"">{{Cite book |last=Berg |first=Christian |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1124780147 |title=Sustainable action: overcoming the barriers |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-57873-1 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |oclc=1124780147}}</ref>{{rp|66}} For example, these are three difficult trade-offs to consider: ""How can ending hunger be reconciled with environmental sustainability? (SDG targets 2.3 and 15.2) How can economic growth be reconciled with environmental sustainability? (SDG targets 9.2 and 9.4) How can income inequality be reconciled with economic growth? (SDG targets 10.1 and 8.1).""<ref name=""Machingura-2017"">{{Cite web |last=Machingura |first=Fortunate |date=2017-02-27 |title=The Sustainable Development Goals and their trade-offs |url=https://odi.org/en/publications/the-sustainable-development-goals-and-their-trade-offs/ |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=ODI: Think change |language=en-gb}}</ref>

The SDGs do not specifically address the tensions between economic growth and environmental sustainability. Instead, they emphasize ""longstanding but dubious claims about decoupling and resource efficiency as technological solutions to the environmental crisis.""<ref name=""Kotzé-2022"" />{{rp|145}} For example, continued global economic growth of 3 percent (SDG 8) may not be reconcilable with ecological sustainability goals, because the required rate of absolute global [[eco-economic decoupling]] is far higher than any country has achieved in the past.<ref name=""Hickel-2019"">{{cite journal |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason |date=September 2019 |title=The contradiction of the sustainable development goals: Growth versus ecology on a finite planet |journal=Sustainable Development |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=873–884 |doi=10.1002/sd.1947 |s2cid=159060032}}</ref>

=== Covid-19 pandemic ===
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on the mental and physical wellbeing of communities around the world.<ref name="":0"" /> The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] slowed progress towards achieving the SDGs. The COVID-19 pandemic has ""exacerbated existing fault lines of inequality"".<ref name="":0"" /> The brunt of the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic were felt by poorer segments of the population.<ref name="":0"" />

At the UN [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development]] in July 2023, speakers remarked that the pandemic, and multiple worldwide crises such as climate change, threatened decades of progress on the SDGs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Impact of Pandemic, Worldwide Crises Must Be Overcome to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals, Speakers Stress, as High-Level Political Forum Opens {{!}} UN Press |url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/ecosoc7134.doc.htm |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=press.un.org}}</ref>

=== Rising Levels of Conflict, War and Instability ===
Conflict and unrest have increased in many regions around the world which has created tangible barriers to implementing the SDGs.<ref name="":0"" /> In 2021, the number of individuals forcibly displaced were the highest recorded.<ref name="":0"" />  Global military expenditure has also been rising, in 2021 this exceeded $2 trillion globally.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Cost of Living Crisis ===
The COVID-19 pandemic and the War in Ukraine have caused a cost-of-living crisis.<ref name="":0"" /> The food prices globally peaked in March 2022.<ref name="":0"" /> Many countries around the world are still seeing domestic food inflation.<ref name="":0"" /> The poorest are most affected by this crisis which in turn respond by consuming less, cheaper, or less nutritious options.<ref name="":0"" /> These short-term solutions have long term heath impacts.<ref name="":0"" />

== Funding ==

=== Cost estimates ===
The United Nations estimates that for Africa, considering the continent's population growth, yearly funding of $1.3 trillion would be needed to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals in Africa. [[International Monetary Fund|The International Monetary Fund]] also estimates that $50 billion may be needed only to cover the expenses of [[Climate change adaptation|climate adaptation]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa – Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Financing for Sustainable Development Report 2021 |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/2021-Report.pdf |website=UN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Nations |first=United |title=Population growth, environmental degradation and climate change |url=https://www.un.org/en/desa/population-growth-environmental-degradation-and-climate-change |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=United Nations |language=en}}</ref>

Estimates for providing clean water and sanitation for the whole population of all continents have been as high as US$200 billion.<ref name=""Hutton-2017"">{{Cite web |last=Hutton |first=Guy |date=15 November 2017 |title=The Costs of Meeting the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal Targets on Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene |url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/847191468000296045/pdf/103172-PUB-Box394556B-PUBLIC-EPI-K8632-ADD-SERIES.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063857/http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/847191468000296045/pdf/103172-PUB-Box394556B-PUBLIC-EPI-K8632-ADD-SERIES.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=15 November 2017 |website=Documents/World Bank}}</ref> The [[World Bank]] says that estimates need to be made country by country, and reevaluated frequently over time.<ref name=""Hutton-2017"" />

In 2014, [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]] estimated the annual costs to achieving the UN Goals at US$2.5 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2014 |title=UNCTAD {{!}} Press Release |url=https://unctad.org/en/pages/PressRelease.aspx?OriginalVersionID=194 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063956/https://unctad.org/press-material/developing-countries-face-25-trillion-annual-investment-gap-key-sustainable |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-12-08 |website=unctad.org}}</ref> Another estimate from 2018 (by the Basel Institute of Commons and Economics, that conducts the [[World Social Capital Monitor]]) found that to reach all of the SDGs this would require between US$2.5 and $5.0 trillion per year.<ref name=""Dill-2018"">Alexander Dill (2018) [https://developmentfinance.un.org/sites/developmentfinance.un.org/files/The_SDGs_are_public_goods_IATF_2019.pdf The SDGs are public goods – Costs, Sources and Measures of Financing for Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063900/https://developmentfinance.un.org/sites/developmentfinance.un.org/files/The_SDGs_are_public_goods_IATF_2019.pdf|date=30 December 2020}} – Policy paper to the UN Inter-Agency Taskforce on Financing for Development, Basel Institute of Commons and Economics</ref>

=== Allocation of funds ===
In 2017 the UN launched the Inter-agency Task Force on Financing for Development (UN IATF on FfD) that invited to a public dialogue.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the IATF {{!}} United Nations |url=https://developmentfinance.un.org/about-iatf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063959/https://developmentfinance.un.org/about-iatf |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-12-08 |website=developmentfinance.un.org}}</ref> The top-5 sources of financing for development were estimated in 2018 to be: Real new [[Government debt|sovereign debt]] OECD countries, [[Military budget|military expenditures]], official increase sovereign debt OECD countries, [[remittance]]s from expats to developing countries, [[official development assistance]] (ODA).<ref name=""Dill-2018"" />

The [[Rockefeller Foundation]] asserted in 2017 that ""The key to financing and achieving the SDGs lies in mobilizing a greater share of the $200+ trillion in annual private capital investment flows toward development efforts, and philanthropy has a critical role to play in catalyzing this shift.""<ref>{{Cite web |last=Madsbjerg |first=Saadia |date=19 September 2017 |title=A New Role for Foundations in Financing the Global Goals |url=https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/blog/new-role-foundations-financing-global-goals/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823162537/https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/blog/new-role-foundations-financing-global-goals/ |archive-date=23 August 2018 |access-date=4 June 2018}}</ref> Large-scale funders participating in a Rockefeller Foundation-hosted design thinking workshop concluded that ""while there is a moral imperative to achieve the SDGs, failure is inevitable if there aren't drastic changes to how we go about financing large scale change.""<ref name=""Burgess-2018"">{{Cite web |last=Burgess |first=Cameron |date=March 2018 |title=From Billions to Trillions: Mobilising the Missing Trillions to Solve the Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://sphaera.world/billions-to-trillions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215312/https://sphaera.world/billions-to-trillions/ |archive-date=17 September 2018 |access-date=4 June 2018 |website=sphaera.world}}</ref>

A meta-analysis published in 2022 found that there was scant evidence that governments have substantially reallocated funding to implement the SDGs, either for national implementation or for international cooperation. The SDGs do not seem to have changed public budgets and financial allocation mechanisms in any important way, except for some local governance contexts.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> National budgets cannot easily be reallocated.<ref name=""Llanos-2022"">{{Citation |last1=Llanos |first1=Andrea Ordóñez |title=Chapter 3: Implementation at Multiple Levels |date=2022-07-31 |work=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals |pages=59–91 |editor-last=Biermann |editor-first=Frank |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/EE1BEAD7D6D3F216EB2016FDCCC3936C/9781316514290c3_59-91.pdf/implementation-at-multiple-levels.pdf |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009082945.004 |isbn=978-1-009-08294-5 |last2=Raven |first2=Rob |last3=Bexell |first3=Magdalena |last4=Botchwey |first4=Brianna |last5=Bornemann |first5=Basil |last6=Censoro |first6=Jecel |last7=Christen |first7=Marius |last8=Díaz |first8=Liliana |last9=Hickmann |first9=Thomas |editor2-last=Hickmann |editor2-first=Thomas |editor3-last=Sénit |editor3-first=Carole-Anne |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|81}}

=== SDG-driven investment ===
[[Stewardship|Capital stewardship]] is expected to play a crucial part in the progressive advancement of the SDG agenda to ""shift the economic system towards sustainable investment by using the SDG framework across all [[asset class]]es.""<ref name=""auto2"">{{cite news |last1=Firzli |first1=Nicolas |date=3 April 2018 |title=Greening, Governance and Growth in the Age of Popular Empowerment |url=http://www.pensions-expert.com/Special-Features/The-Cut/Greening-governance-and-growth-in-the-age-of-popular-empowerment |access-date=27 April 2018 |work=FT Pensions Experts |publisher=Financial Times}}</ref><ref name=""Revue Analyse Financiere"">{{cite news |last1=Firzli |first1=M. Nicolas J. |date=October 2016 |title=Beyond SDGs: Can Fiduciary Capitalism and Bolder, Better Boards Jumpstart Economic Growth? |url=https://www.academia.edu/28982570 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063938/https://www.academia.edu/28982570/Beyond_SDGs_Can_Fiduciary_Capitalism_and_Bolder_Better_Boards_Jumpstart_Economic_Growth |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=1 November 2016 |work=Analyse Financiere}}</ref> The notion of ''SDG Driven Investment'' gained further ground amongst institutional investors in  2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Firzli |first1=Nicolas |date=10 February 2020 |title=G7 Pensions Roundtable: Les ODD ('SDGs') Désormais Incontournables |work=Cahiers du Centre des Professions Financières |publisher=CPF |ssrn=3545217}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=McGregor |first1=Jena |date=20 August 2019 |title=Group of top CEOs says maximizing shareholder profits no longer can be the primary goal of corporations |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/08/19/lobbying-group-powerful-ceos-is-rethinking-how-it-defines-corporations-purpose |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063945/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/08/19/lobbying-group-powerful-ceos-is-rethinking-how-it-defines-corporations-purpose/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=17 March 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |publisher=WP}}</ref> 

In 2017, 2018 and early 2019, the [[World Pensions & Investments Forum|World Pensions Council (WPC)]] held a series of ESG-focused (Environmental, Social and Governance) discussions with pension board members (trustees) and senior investment executives from across [[G20]] nations. Many pension investment executives and board members confirmed they were in the process of adopting or developing SDG-informed investment processes, with more ambitious investment governance requirements – notably when it comes to climate action, gender equality and social fairness.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Firzli |first1=Nicolas |date=7 December 2018 |title=An Examination of Pensions Trends. On Balance, How Do Things Look? |url=https://securities.bnpparibas.pl/insights/examination-pensions-trends.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063939/https://securities.bnpparibas.pl/insights/examination-pensions-trends.html |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=3 January 2019 |work=BNPSS Newsletter |publisher=BNP Paribas Securities Services}}</ref><ref name=""auto2"" />

Some studies, however, warn of selective implementation of SDGs and political risks linked to private investments in the context of continued shortage of [[public funding]].<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" />

== 17 Sustainable Development goals ==
{{Very long|date=January 2024}}

=== Structure of goals, targets and indicators ===

The lists of targets and indicators for each of the 17 SDGs was published in a UN resolution in July 2017.<ref name=""UN-2017a"">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128194012/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313|date=28 November 2020}})</ref> Each goal typically has 8{{ndash}}12 targets, and each target has between one and four indicators used to measure progress toward reaching the targets, with the average of 1.5 indicators per target.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Rakhyun E. |date=2023-04-01 |title=Augment the SDG indicator framework |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |language=en |volume=142 |pages=62–67 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2023.02.004 |s2cid=256758145 |issn=1462-9011|doi-access=free }}</ref> The targets are either ''outcome targets'' (circumstances to be attained) or ''means of implementation'' targets.<ref name=""Bartram-2018"">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |journal=npj Clean Water |date=December 2018 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3 |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> The latter targets were introduced late in the process of negotiating the SDGs to address the concern of some Member States about how the SDGs were to be achieved. Goal 17 is wholly about how the SDGs will be achieved.<ref name=""Bartram-2018"" />

The numbering system of targets is as follows: Outcome targets use numbers, whereas means of implementation targets use lower case letters.<ref name=""Bartram-2018"" /> For example, SDG 6 has a total of 8 targets. The first six are outcome targets and are labeled Targets 6.1 to 6.6. The final two targets are means of implementation targets and are labeled as Targets 6.a and 6.b.

The [[United Nations Statistics Division]] (UNSD) website provides a current official indicator list which includes all updates until the 51st session Statistical Commission in March 2020.<ref name=""UN Stats-2017"">{{Cite web |title=SDG Indicators – Global indicator framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/ |access-date=6 August 2020 |website=United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD)}}</ref>

The indicators for the targets have varying levels of methodological development and availability of data at the global level.<ref name=""UN Stats-2020c"">{{Cite web |title=IAEG-SDGs – Tier Classification for Global SDG Indicators |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/tier-classification/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063855/https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/tier-classification/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=10 September 2020 |website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division}}</ref> Initially, some indicators (called Tier 3 indicators) had no internationally established methodology or standards. Later, the global indicator framework was adjusted so that Tier 3 indicators were either abandoned, replaced or refined.<ref name=""UN Stats-2020c"" />  As of 17 July 2020, there were 231 unique indicators.<ref name=""UN Stats-2020c"" />

Data or information must address all vulnerable groups such as children, elderly folks, [[Disability|persons with disabilities]], [[refugee]]s, [[indigenous peoples]], [[Migrant worker|migrants]], and [[Internally displaced person|internally-displaced persons]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Leaving no one behind — SDG Indicators |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2016/leaving-no-one-behind |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064017/https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2016/leaving-no-one-behind |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-02-04 |website=unstats.un.org}}</ref>

==== Reviews of indicators ====
The indicator framework was comprehensively reviewed at the 51st session of the [[United Nations Statistical Commission]] in 2020. It will be reviewed again in 2025.<ref name=""UN Stats-2020b"">{{Cite web|title=IAEG-SDGs 2020 Comprehensive Review Proposals Submitted to the 51st session of the United Nations Statistical Commission for its consideration|url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/2020-comprev/UNSC-proposal/|access-date=1 September 2020|website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063956/https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/2020-comprev/UNSC-proposal/|url-status=live}}</ref> At the 51st session of the Statistical Commission (held in [[New York City]] from 3–6 March 2020) a total of 36 changes to the global indicator framework were proposed for the commission's consideration. Some indicators were replaced, revised or deleted.<ref name=""UN Stats-2020b"" /> Between 15 October 2018 and 17 April 2020, other changes were made to the indicators.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 April 2020|title=SDG Indicator changes (15 October 2018 and onward) – current to 17 April 2020|url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/List_of_changes_since_15_Oct_2018.pdf|access-date=10 September 2020|website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division}}</ref> Yet their measurement continues to be fraught with difficulties.<ref>{{cite book |last=Winfried |first=Huck |title=Measuring Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with Indicators: Is Legitimacy Lacking? |date=2019 |editor-first1=Massimo |editor-last1=Iovane |editor-first2=Fulvio |editor-last2=Palombino |editor-first3=Daniele |editor-last3=Amoroso |editor-first4=Giovanni |editor-last4=Zarra |work=The Protection of General Interests in Contemporary International Law: A Theoretical and Empirical Inquiry |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3360935|s2cid=203377817 }}</ref>

{{Further|List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators}}

=== Goal 1: No poverty ===

[[File:Sustainable_Development_Goal_01NoPoverty.svg|220x124px|thumb|right|alt=Sustainable Development Goal 1|SDG 1]]

SDG 1 is to: ""End poverty in all its forms everywhere.""<ref name=""UNDP-2020b"">{{Cite web|title=Goal 1: No poverty|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-1-no-poverty.html|access-date=2020-12-30|website=UNDP|language=en}}</ref> Achieving SDG 1 would end [[extreme poverty]] globally by 2030. One of its indicators is the proportion of population living below the [[poverty line]].<ref name=""UNDP-2020b"" />  The data gets analyzed by sex, age, employment status, and geographical location (urban/rural).  {{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 1|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->End poverty in all its forms everywhere, by 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less that $1.25 a day. Reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimension according to national definition. By 2030, all men and women in particular the poor and the vulnerable have equal right to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resource, appropriate new technology and financial services including microfinance. High fertility rates can trap countries in poverty large family size and poverty often go hand in hand. People living in deprived areas are usually not empowered to choose the number of children they have and in some cases feel the need to have many so they can be provided for in their old age, when people are poor and have many children which leads to kids not being able to attend school and girls getting married off as child bride.

=== Goal 2: Zero hunger (No hunger) ===
[[File:Tasty Food Abundance in Healthy Europe.png|Sufficient and healthy foods should be made available to everyone|thumb|left]]

SDG 2 is to: ""End hunger, achieve [[food security]] and improved nutrition, and promote [[sustainable agriculture]].""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-2-zero-hunger.html|title=Goal 2: Zero hunger|website=UNDP|access-date=13 April 2017|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063934/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-2-zero-hunger.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Indicators for this goal are for example the prevalence of undernourishment, prevalence of severe food insecurity, and prevalence of [[Stunted growth|stunting]] among children under five years of age.
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 2|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->The goal 2 end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.

=== Goal 3: Good health and well-being  ===
SDG 3 is to: ""Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.""<ref name=""UNDP-2020c"">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-3-good-health-and-well-being.html|title=Goal 3: Good health and well-being|website=UNDP|access-date=13 April 2017|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063900/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-3-good-health-and-well-being.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Important indicators here are [[life expectancy]] as well as child and maternal mortality. Further indicators are for example deaths from road traffic injuries, prevalence of current tobacco use, and suicide mortality rate.<ref name=""UNDP-2020c"" />

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 3|paragraphs=2|file=0|tables=2021}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Sovereignty and Property Rights ===

In 2023, [[Tennessee]] enacted legislation to block the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and other programs ""originating in, or traceable to, the United Nations or a subsidiary entity of the United Nations.""<ref>{{cite web | title=State of Tennessee Public Chapter No. 479 | url=https://publications.tnsosfiles.com/acts/113/pub/pc0479.pdf | website=Tennessee Secretary of State | access-date=January 17, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last=Sullivan | first=Kevin | title=Inside the Tennessee legislature, where a GOP supermajority reigns | newspaper=Washington Post | date=May 15, 2023 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2023/05/15/inside-tennessee-legislature-where-gop-supermajority-reigns/ | access-date=January 17, 2024}}</ref>

=== Goal 4: Quality education ===
[[File:(2011 Education for All Global Monitoring Report) -School children in Kakuma refugee camp, Kenya 1.jpg|thumb|240x240px|School children in Kakuma refugee camp, Kenya]]

SDG 4 is to: ""Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.""<ref name=""UNDP-2018d"">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4-quality-education.html|title=Goal 4: Quality education|website=UNDP|access-date=13 April 2017|archive-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911002735/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4-quality-education.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The indicators for this goal are, for example, attendance rates at primary schools, completion rates of primary school education, participation in tertiary education, and so forth. In each case, parity indices are looked at to ensure that disadvantaged students do not miss out (data is collected on ""female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples"") . There is also an indicator around the facilities that the school buildings have (access to electricity, the internet, computers, drinking water, toilets etc.).<ref name=""UNDP-2018d"" /> 

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 4|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 5: Gender equality ===

SDG 5 is to: ""Achieve [[gender equality]] and empower all women and girls.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-5-gender-equality.html|title=Goal 5: Gender equality|website=UNDP|access-date=13 April 2017|archive-date=27 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227135817/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-5-gender-equality.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Indicators include, for example, having suitable legal frameworks and the representation by women in [[Parliament|national parliament]] or in local deliberative bodies.<ref name=""UNESC2020"">United Nations Economic and Social Council (2020) [https://undocs.org/en/E/2020/57 Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals Report of the Secretary-General] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063859/https://undocs.org/en/E/2020/57|date=30 December 2020}}, High-level political forum on sustainable development, convened under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council (E/2020/57), 28 April 2020</ref> Numbers on [[forced marriage]] and [[Female genital mutilation|female genital mutilation/cutting]] (FGM/C) are also included in another indicator.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Female genital mutilation |url=https://www.unicef.org/protection/female-genital-mutilation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063938/https://www.unicef.org/protection/female-genital-mutilation |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-08-27 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""UNESC2020"" /> 

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 5|paragraphs=3|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation ===

[[File:School toilet 2 - WASH in schools (Bangladesh) (38403428742).jpg|thumb|Example of sanitation for all: School toilet (IPH school and college, Mohakhali, Dhaka, Bangladesh)]]
SDG 6 is to: ""Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.""<ref name=""SDG6_targets"">{{Cite web|title=Goal 6 Targets|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/|access-date=16 November 2017|website=United Nations Development Programme|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219061511/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Joint Monitoring Programme ([[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]]) of [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]] is responsible for monitoring progress to achieve the first two targets of this goal. Important indicators for this goal are the percentages of the population that uses safely managed drinking water, and has access to safely managed sanitation. The JMP reported in 2017 that 4.5 billion people do not have [[Improved sanitation|safely managed sanitation]].<ref name=""JMP2017"">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://washdata.org/reports Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725020452/https://washdata.org/reports|date=25 July 2019}}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref>  Another indicator looks at the proportion of [[Sewage|domestic]] and [[Industrial wastewater treatment|industrial wastewater]] that is safely treated. {{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 6|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy ===
SDG 7 is to ""Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.""<ref name=""UNDP-2018b"">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-7-affordable-and-clean-energy.html|title=Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy|website=UNDP|access-date=28 September 2015|archive-date=7 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907180441/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-7-affordable-and-clean-energy.html|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the indicators for this goal is the percentage of population with access to electricity (progress in expanding access to electricity has been made in several countries, notably [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Kenya]]<ref name=""Energyreport2019"">IEA, IRENA, UNSD, WB, WHO (2019), [https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/data/files/download-documents/2019-Tracking%20SDG7-Full%20Report.pdf Tracking SDG 7: The Energy Progress Report 2019] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063844/https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/data/files/download-documents/2019-Tracking%20SDG7-Full%20Report.pdf|date=30 December 2020}}, Washington DC (on [https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/ Tracking SDG 7 website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064018/https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/|date=30 December 2020}})</ref>). Other indicators look at the renewable energy share and energy efficiency.

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 7|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth ===

SDG 8 is to: ""Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.""<ref name=""UNDP-2018a"">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-8-decent-work-and-economic-growth.html|title=Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=25 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225022602/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-8-decent-work-and-economic-growth.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Important indicators for this goal include economic growth in least developed countries and the rate of real [[Lists of countries by GDP per capita|GDP per capita]]. Further examples are rates of youth unemployment and [[occupational injuries]] or the number of women engaged in the labor force compared to men.<ref name=""UNDP-2018a"" /> 

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 8|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure ===

SDG 9 is to: ""Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation.""<ref>{{cite web|title=Goal 9: Industry, innovation, infrastructure|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-9-industry-innovation-and-infrastructure.html|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301060431/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-9-industry-innovation-and-infrastructure.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Indicators in this goal include for example, the proportion of people who are employed in [[manufacturing]] activities, are living in areas covered by a [[mobile network]], or who have access to the internet.<ref name=""UNESC2020"" /> An indicator that is connected to climate change is ""CO<sub>2</sub> emissions per unit of value added.""

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 9|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 10: Reduced inequality ===

SDG 10 is to: ""Reduce income inequality within and among countries.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-10-reduced-inequalities.html|title=Goal 10: Reduced inequalities|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063954/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-10-reduced-inequalities.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Important indicators for this SDG are: income disparities, aspects of gender and disability, as well as policies for migration and mobility of people.<ref name=""UN Stats-2020a"">United Nations (2020) [https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2020/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2020.pdf Sustainable development goals report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064006/https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2020/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2020.pdf|date=30 December 2020}}, New York</ref>    

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 10|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities ===

SDG 11 is to: ""Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html|title=Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911192025/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Important indicators for this goal are the number of people living in urban slums, the proportion of the urban population who has convenient access to public transport, and the extent of built-up area per person.<ref name=""UNESC2020"" /> 

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 11|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production ===

SDG 12 is to: ""Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-12-responsible-consumption-and-production.html|title=Goal 12: Responsible consumption, production|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813113459/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-12-responsible-consumption-and-production.html|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the indicators is the number of national policy instruments to promote [[sustainable consumption]] and production patterns.<ref name=""UNESC2020"" />{{rp|14}} Another one is global fossil fuel subsidies.<ref name=""UNESC2020"" />{{rp|14}} An increase in domestic recycling and a reduced reliance on the global plastic [[waste trade]] are other actions that might help meet the goal.<ref name=""Walker"">{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=Tony R. |date=August 2021 |title=(Micro)plastics and the UN Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry |volume=30 |pages=100497 |doi=10.1016/j.cogsc.2021.100497 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 12|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 13: Climate action ===

SDG 13 is to: ""Take urgent action to combat [[climate change]] and its impacts by regulating emissions and promoting developments in renewable energy.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-13-climate-action.html|title=Goal 13: Climate action|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813130618/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-13-climate-action.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021 to early 2023, the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) published its [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|Sixth Assessment Report]] which assesses scientific, technical, and socio-economic information concerning climate change.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AR6 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2023 — IPCC |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/ |access-date=2023-03-01}}</ref>  

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 13|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 14: Life below water ===

SDG 14 is to: ""Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and [[marine resources]] for sustainable development.""<ref name=""UNDP-2018c"">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-14-life-below-water.html|title=Goal 14: Life below water|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=15 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815201503/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-14-life-below-water.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The current efforts to protect oceans, marine environments and small-scale fishers are not meeting the need to protect the resources.<ref name=""UNESC2020"" /> Increased [[ocean temperature]]s and [[Ocean deoxygenation|oxygen loss]] act concurrently with ocean acidification to constitute the ''deadly trio'' of climate change pressures on the marine environment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2017 |title=Ocean acidification (Issues Brief) |url=https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/ocean_acidification_issues_brief.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063843/https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/ocean_acidification_issues_brief.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)}}</ref>[[File:Nusa Lembongan Reef.jpg|thumb|Nusa Lembongan Reef]]

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 14|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 15: Life on land ===

SDG 15 is to: ""Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat [[desertification]], and halt and reverse land [[Environmental degradation|degradation]] and halt [[biodiversity loss]].""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-15-life-on-land.html|title=Goal 15: Life on land|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064011/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-15-life-on-land.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The proportion of remaining forest area, desertification and [[Extinction|species extinction]] risk are example indicators of this goal.<ref name=""UNESC2020"" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Desertification, land degradation and drought .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/desertificationlanddegradationanddrought |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063959/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/desertificationlanddegradationanddrought |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-09-05 |website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>  

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 15|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 16: Peace, justice and strong institutions ===

SDG 16 is to: ""Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-16-peace-justice-and-strong-institutions.html|title=Goal 16: Peace, justice and strong institutions|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063908/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-16-peace-justice-and-strong-institutions.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Rates of birth registration and prevalence of bribery are two examples of indicators included in this goal.<ref name=""SDGChildren20182"">{{cite web |title=Progress for Every Child in the SDG Era |url=https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Progress_for_Every_Child_V4.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715000653/https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Progress_for_Every_Child_V4.pdf |archive-date=15 July 2020 |access-date=2 April 2018 |website=UNICEF}}</ref><ref name=""UNESC2020"" /> 

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 16|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Goal 17: Strengthen the means of Implementation and revitalize the global Partnership for sustainable development  goals ===

SDG 17 is to: ""Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-17-partnerships-for-the-goals.html|title=Goal 17: Partnerships for the goals|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064022/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-17-partnerships-for-the-goals.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Increasing [[Multilateralism|international cooperation]] is seen as vital to achieving each of the 16 previous goals.<ref name=""Alan2"">{{Cite web|last=Pierce|first=Alan|date=26 November 2018|title=SDG Indicators: why SDG 17 is the most important UN SDG|url=https://www.sopact.com/perspectives/sdg17-most-important-sdg|access-date=24 September 2020|website=Sopact|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064014/https://www.sopact.com/perspectives/sdg17-most-important-sdg|url-status=live}}</ref> Developing multi-stakeholder partnerships to facilitate knowledge exchange, expertise, technology, and financial resources is recognized as critical to overall success of the SDGs. The goal includes improving north–south and [[South-South Cooperation|South-South]] cooperation. [[Public–private partnership|Public-private partnerships]] which involve civil societies are specifically mentioned.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg17|title=Sustainable Development Goal 17|date=16 November 2017|website=Sustainable Development Goals|access-date=16 November 2017|archive-date=5 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905221234/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg17|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Peccia, T., R. Kelej, A. Hamdy, A. Fahmi (2017), ""A reflection on Public-Private
Partnerships' contribution to the attainment of Sustainable Development
Goals"", Scienza e Pace, VIII, 1, pp. 81–103.</ref>

{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 17|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the  lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->

=== Finance ===

* Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue collection.
* Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance commitments, including the commitment by many developed counties to achieve the target of 0.7 per cent of ODA/GNI to developing countries and encouraged to consider setting a target to provide at least 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries.
* Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources.
* Assis developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through coordinated polices aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief and debt restructuring as appropriate and address external debts of highly indebted poor countries to reduce debt distress.
* Adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for least developed countries

=== Technology ===
Enhance North-South-South and triangular regional international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nation level and through a global technology facilitation mechanism.

== Public relations ==
[[File:Flash Mop at Mirpur 14.webm|thumb|left|SDG materials are being painted in the form of graffiti to raise public awareness by independent volunteers in Dhaka, Bangladesh in collaboration with UNDP, Bangladesh]]
[[File:Katherine Maher. Wikimania 2019.jpg|thumb|[[Katherine Maher]], then-Executive Director of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], talks about ""The role of free knowledge in advancing the SDGs"" in Stockholm, 2019]]
[[File:SDG-pyramid.jpg|thumb|A proposal to visualize the 17 SDGs in a thematic pyramid]]

The 2030 Agenda did not create specific authority for communicating the SDGs; however, both international and local advocacy organizations have pursued significant non-state resources to communicate the SDGS.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mulholland |first=Eric |url=https://www.esdn.eu/fileadmin/ESDN_Reports/ESDN_Quarterly_Report_51_Final.pdf |title=Communicating Sustainable Development and the SDGs in Europe: Good practice examples from policy,academia, NGOs, and media |date=January 2019 |publisher=EUROPEAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT NETWORK |series=ESDN Quarterly Report 51}}</ref> UN agencies which are part of the [[United Nations Development Group]] decided to support an independent campaign to communicate the new SDGs to a wider audience. This campaign, Project Everyone, had the support of corporate institutions and other international organizations.<ref name=""Everyone-2018"">{{cite web |title=Project Everyone |url=http://www.project-everyone.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917101256/https://www.project-everyone.org/ |archive-date=17 September 2018 |access-date=11 October 2016 |website=Project-everyone.org}}</ref>

Using the text drafted by diplomats at the UN level, a team of communication specialists developed icons for every goal.<ref name=""Hub-2020"">{{cite web |date=16 December 2014 |title=Guest Article: Making the SDGs Famous and Popular |url=http://sdg.iisd.org/commentary/guest-articles/making-the-sdgs-famous-and-popular/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063939/http://sdg.iisd.org/commentary/guest-articles/making-the-sdgs-famous-and-popular/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=14 November 2018 |website=IISD's SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref> They also shortened the title ''The 17 Sustainable Development Goals'' to ''Global Goals'', then ran workshops and conferences to communicate the Global Goals to a global audience.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Wudel |first1=Katie |date=2015-09-24 |title=How This Great Design Is Bringing World Change to the Masses |url=https://www.good.is/slideshows/designing-the-global-goals-for-everyone |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010211100/https://www.good.is/slideshows/designing-the-global-goals-for-everyone |archive-date=10 October 2017 |access-date=2017-11-11 |work=GOOD Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Festival of Action |url=http://globalfestivalofideas.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024035632/http://globalfestivalofideas.org/ |archive-date=24 October 2017 |access-date=2017-11-11 |website=globalfestivalofideas.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[Aarhus Convention]] is a United Nations convention passed in 2001, explicitly to encourage and promote effective public engagement in environmental decision making. Information transparency related to social media and the engagement of youth are two issues related to the Sustainable Development Goals that the convention has addressed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Aarhus Convention safeguards transparency and supports disaster risk reduction and measurement of Sustainable Development Goals |url=http://www.unece.org/info/media/news/environment/2019/the-aarhus-convention-safeguards-transparency-and-supports-disaster-risk-reduction-and-measurement-of-sustainable-development-goals/doc.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063946/https://unece.org/environment/news/aarhus-convention-safeguards-transparency-and-supports-disaster-risk-reduction-and |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-01-25 |website=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mamadov |first=Ikrom |date=2018 |title=Youth, Aarhus and the Sustainable Development Goals |url=http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/wgp/WGP-22/Special_sessions/Anniversary_segment/WGP-22_Special_Segment_Aarhus_Centre_Ikfrom_Mamadov.pdf |publisher=Youth Group on the Protection of the Environment |location=Geneva}}</ref>

=== Advocates ===
In 2019 and then in 2021, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres appointed 17 ''SDG advocates''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 May 2019 |title=United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres has Appointed 17 Sustainable Development Goals Advocates |url=https://www.globalgoals.org/news/secretary-general-antonio-guterres-has-appointed-new |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064017/https://www.globalgoals.org/news/secretary-general-antonio-guterres-has-appointed-new |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=21 August 2020 |website=The Global Goals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 July 2022 |title=UN Secretary-General António Guterres announces Founder and CEO of Chobani, Mr. Hamdi Ulukaya as SDG Advocate |url=https://www.unsdgadvocates.org/news/un-secretary-general-antonio-guterres-announces-founder-and-ceo-of-chobani-mr-hamdi-ulukaya-as-sdg-advocate |access-date=2022-07-28 |website=SDG Advocates |language=en-US}}</ref> The role of the public figures is to raise awareness, inspire greater ambition, and push for faster action on the SDGs. The co-chairs are: [[Mia Mottley]], Prime Minister of [[Barbados]] and [[Justin Trudeau]], Prime Minister of [[Canada]]. {{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}

=== Global events ===
[[File:Global Goals Week Logo.png|thumb|right|Global Goals Week logo]]
[[Global Goals Week]] is an annual week-long event in September for action, awareness, and accountability for the Sustainable Development Goals.<ref name=""GGW"">{{Cite web |title=Global Goals Week – About |url=https://globalgoalsweek.org/about/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063942/https://globalgoalsweek.org/about/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=4 August 2020 |publisher=United Nations Foundation}}</ref> It is a shared commitment for over 100 partners to ensure quick action on the SDGs by sharing ideas and transformative solutions to global problems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=global goals week |url=https://globalgoalsweek.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064024/https://globalgoalsweek.org/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=5 August 2020}}</ref> It first took place in 2016. It is often held concurrently with [[Climate Week NYC]].<ref name=""IISD2019"">{{Cite web |title=Global Goals Week 2019 |url=http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2019/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064012/http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2019/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=4 August 2020 |publisher=IISD SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref>

The [[Arctic Film Festival]] is an annual film festival organized by [[HF Productions]] and supported by the SDGs' Partnership Platform. Held for the first time in 2019, the festival is expected to take place every year in September in [[Longyearbyen]], [[Svalbard]], Norway.<ref name=""FilmFreeway"">{{cite web |title=Arctic Film Festival |url=https://filmfreeway.com/ArcticFilmFestival |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064030/https://filmfreeway.com/ArcticFilmFestival |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=14 October 2019 |website=FilmFreeway |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Arctic Film Festival – United Nations Partnerships for SDGs platform |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=32901 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063950/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=32901 |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=14 October 2019 |website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:SustainableDevelopmentGoalsLogo.svg|thumb|The sustainable development goals are a UN initiative]]
[[File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|thumb|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development containing the targets and indicators, July 2017 (UN resolution A/RES/71/313)]]
{{Main|Post-2015 Development Agenda}}

[[File:UN SDGs consulltations in Mariupol (29274119644).jpg|thumb|UN SDG consultations in Mariupol, Ukraine]]

The Post-2015 Development Agenda was a process from 2012 to 2015 led by the United Nations to define the future global development framework that would succeed the Millennium Development Goals. The SDGs were developed to succeed the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which ended in 2015. 

In 1983, the United Nations created the [[Brundtland Commission|World Commission on Environment and Development]] (later known as the Brundtland Commission), which defined sustainable development as ""meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.""<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm|title=Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development – A/42/427 Annex, Chapter 2 – UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements|last=Development|first=World Commission on Environment and|website=www.un-documents.net|access-date=2017-11-17|archive-date=17 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517002735/http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1992, the first [[United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]] (UNCED) or Earth Summit was held in [[Rio de Janeiro]], where the first agenda for Environment and Development, also known as [[Agenda 21]], was developed and adopted.

In 2012, the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]] (UNCSD), also known as Rio+20, was held as a 20-year follow up to UNCED.<ref>{{cite web|title=Major Agreements & Conventions .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=122|publisher=United Nations|access-date=6 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063946/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=122|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Resources .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/resourcelibrary|publisher=United Nations|access-date=6 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064120/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/resourcelibrary|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Colombia]] proposed the idea of the SDGs at a preparation event for Rio+20 held in Indonesia in July 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://deliver2030.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/A-short-history-of-the-SDGs-Paula-Caballero.pdf|title=A Short History of the SDGs|last=Caballero|first=Paula|date=29 April 2016|website=Deliver 2030|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118221940/http://deliver2030.org/wp%2Dcontent/uploads/2016/04/A%2Dshort%2Dhistory%2Dof%2Dthe%2DSDGs%2DPaula%2DCaballero.pdf|archive-date=2017-11-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2011, this idea was picked up by the [[United Nations Department of Public Information]] 64th NGO Conference in Bonn, Germany. The outcome document proposed 17 sustainable development goals and associated targets. In the run-up to Rio+20 there was much discussion about the idea of the SDGs. At the Rio+20 Conference, a resolution known as ""The Future We Want"" was reached by member states.<ref name=""SustDev-2012"">{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/futurewewant.html|title=Future We Want – Outcome document |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063948/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/futurewewant.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Among the key themes agreed on were poverty eradication, energy, water and sanitation, health, and human settlement.

In January 2013, the 30-member UN General Assembly Open Working Group (OWG) on Sustainable Development Goals was established to identify specific goals for the SDGs. The OWG submitted their proposal of 8 SDGs and 169 targets to the 68th session of the General Assembly in September 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgsproposal|title=Open Working Group proposal for Sustainable Development Goals |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=6 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006035004/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgsproposal/|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 5 December 2014, the UN General Assembly accepted the Secretary General's Synthesis Report, which stated that the agenda for the post-2015 SDG process would be based on the OWG proposals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/69/700&Lang=E|title=The road to dignity by 2030: ending poverty, transforming all lives and protecting the planet |date=4 December 2014 |website=United Nations|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064030/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A%2F69%2F700&Lang=E|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Background ===
In 2015, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] (UNGA) created the SDGs as part of the [[Post-2015 Development Agenda]]. This agenda sought to design a new global development framework, replacing the [[Millennium Development Goals]], which were completed that same year.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |last2=Kanie |first2=Norichika |last3=Kim |first3=Rakhyun E |date=2017-06-01 |title=Global governance by goal-setting: the novel approach of the UN Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877343517300209 |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |series=Open issue, part II |language=en |volume=26–27 |pages=26–31 |bibcode=2017COES...26...26B |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2017.01.010 |issn=1877-3435}}</ref> These goals were formally articulated and adopted in a [[United Nations General Assembly resolution|UNGA resolution]] known as the '''2030 Agenda''', often informally referred to as '''Agenda 2030'''.<ref>United Nations (2015) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, [[:File:N1529189.pdf|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ A/RES/70/1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128002202/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/|date=28 November 2020}})</ref> On 6 July 2017, the SDGs were made more actionable by a UNGA resolution that identifies [[List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators|specific targets]] for each goal and provides indicators to measure progress.<ref name=""UN-2017a"" /> Most targets are to be achieved by 2030, although some have no end date.<ref name=""UN Stats-2017"" />   

There are cross-cutting issues and synergies between the different goals; for example, for SDG 13 on climate action, the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]] sees robust synergies with SDGs 3 (health), 7 (clean energy), 11 (cities and communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production) and 14 (oceans).<ref name=""IPCC-2018"">IPCC, 2018: [https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res.pdf Global Warming of 1.5°C.An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty] [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. In Press</ref><ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|70}} On the other hand, critics and observers have also identified [[trade-off]]s between the goals,<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|67}}such as between ending hunger and promoting environmental sustainability.<ref name=""Machingura-2017"" />{{rp|26}} Furthermore, concerns have arisen over the high number of goals (compared to the eight Millennium Development Goals), leading to compounded trade-offs, a weak emphasis on [[Sustainability#Environmental sustainability|environmental sustainability]], and difficulties tracking qualitative indicators. 

The SDGs are monitored by the [[United Nations|UN]] (United Nations) [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development]] (HLPF), an annual forum held under the auspices of the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]]. However, the HLPF comes with its own set of problems due to a lack of political leadership and divergent [[national interest]]s.<ref name=""BiermannCh8"" />{{rp|206}} To facilitate monitoring of progress on SDG implementation, the online SDG Tracker was launched in June 2018 to present all available data across all indicators.<ref name=""SDGtracker"" /> The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] had serious negative impacts on all 17 SDGs in 2020.<ref name=""UNESC2020"" /> A scientific assessment of the political impacts of the SDGs found in 2022 that the SDGs have only had limited ''transformative political impact'' thus far.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> At the very least, they have affected the way actors understand and communicate about sustainable development.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" />

=== Adoption ===
[[File:N1529189.pdf|thumb|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UN Resolution A/RES/70/1), containing the goals (October 2015)]]
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|A diagram listing the 17 Sustainable Development Goals]]
On 25 September 2015, the 193 countries of the UN General Assembly adopted the 2030 Development Agenda titled ""Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.""<ref name=""UN SustDev-2017"">{{cite web |title=Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205210925/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld |archive-date=5 December 2017 |access-date=23 August 2015 |website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs - Sustainable Development}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=25 September 2015 |title=Breakdown of U.N. Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/26/world/breakdown-of-un-sustainable-development-goals.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709115207/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/26/world/breakdown-of-un-sustainable-development-goals.html?_r=0 |archive-date=9 July 2017 |access-date=26 September 2015 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=Sep 25, 2015 |title=World leaders adopt Sustainable Development Goals |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2015/09/24/undp-welcomes-adoption-of-sustainable-development-goals-by-world-leaders.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064011/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2015/09/24/undp-welcomes-adoption-of-sustainable-development-goals-by-world-leaders.html |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=25 September 2015 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> This agenda has 92 paragraphs. Paragraph 59 outlines the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and the associated 169 targets and 232 indicators.

The UN-led process involved its 193 [[Member states of the United Nations|Member States]] and global [[civil society]]. The resolution is a broad intergovernmental agreement that acts as the Post-2015 Development Agenda. The SDGs build on the principles agreed upon in Resolution A/RES/66/288, entitled ""The Future We Want"".<ref name=""United Nations Official Document"">{{cite web |date=June 2012 |title=The Future We Want |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/733FutureWeWant.pdf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423213340/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/733FutureWeWant.pdf/ |archive-date=Apr 23, 2018 |access-date=2016-10-18 |website=United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development}}</ref> This was a non-binding document released as a result of [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|Rio+20 Conference]] held in 2012.<ref name=""United Nations Official Document"" />

=== Implementation ===
[[File:Finanzierung der Ziele für Nachhaltige Entwicklung.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Cost comparison for UN Goals]]Implementation of the SDGs started worldwide in 2016. This process can also be called ''Localizing the SDGs''. In 2019 [[António Guterres]] (secretary-general of the United Nations) issued a global call for a ''Decade of Action'' to deliver the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Decade of Action |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/decade-of-action/ |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development |language=en-US}}</ref> This decade will last from 2020 to 2030. The plan is that the secretary general of the UN will convene an annual platform for driving the Decade of Action.<ref name=""UN-2022"">{{Cite web |last1=Guterres |first1=António |date=24 September 2019 |title=Remarks to High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development |url=https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/speeches/2019-09-24/remarks-high-level-political-sustainable-development-forum |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=United Nations Secretary-General}}</ref>

There are two main types of actors for implementation of the SDGs: state and non-state actors.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" /> State actors include national governments and sub-national authorities, whereas non-state actors are corporations and civil society.<ref name=""Llanos-2022"" />{{rp|80}} Civil society participation and empowerment is important but there are also diverse interests in this group.<ref name=""Llanos-2022"" />{{rp|80}} 

Building new partnerships is useful.<ref name=""Llanos-2022"" /> However, the SDGs are not legally binding and purposefully designed to provide much leeway for actors. Therefore, they can interpret the goals differently and often according to their interests.<ref name=""Biermann-2022"" />

=== Issues ===
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals (Lima, Peru) 1.jpg|thumb|240px|Young people holding SDG banners in Lima, Peru]]Three aspects need to come together to achieve sustainable development: the economic, socio-political, and environmental dimensions are all vital and interdependent.<ref name=""JIID-2016"">{{cite web |date=2016-08-21 |title=Sustainable Development Goals 2016–2030: Easier Stated Than Achieved – JIID |url=http://jiid.in/2016/08/sustainable-development-goals-2016-2030-easier-stated-achieved/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421014629/http://jiid.in/2016/08/sustainable-development-goals-2016-2030-easier-stated-achieved/ |archive-date=21 April 2018 |access-date=2016-09-17 |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[Multidisciplinary]] and [[Transdisciplinarity|trans-disciplinary]] research across all three sectors are required to achieve progress. This proves difficult when major governments fail to support it.<ref name=""JIID-2016"" />  

Gender equality, education, culture and health are examples of cross cutting issues. These are some examples of various interlinkages inherent in the SDGs.

'''Gender equality'''

The widespread consensus is that progress on all of the SDGs will be stalled if women's empowerment and gender equality are not prioritized, and treated holistically. The SDGs look to policy makers as well as private sector executives and board members to work toward gender equality.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Firzli |first1=Nicolas |date=5 April 2017 |title=6th World Pensions Forum held at the Queen's House: ESG and Asset Ownership |url=https://amnt.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/6th-World-Pensions-Forum2017.pdf |access-date=28 April 2017 |work=Revue Analyse Financière |publisher=Revue Analyse Financière}}</ref><ref name=""auto2"" /> Statements from diverse sources such as the [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development]] (OECD), [[UN Women]] and the [[World Pensions & Investments Forum|World Pensions Forum]], have noted that investments in women and girls have positive impacts on economies. National and global development investments in women and girls often exceed their initial scope.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gender equality and women's rights in the post-2015 agenda: A foundation for sustainable development |url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/gender-development/POST-2015%20Gender.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063852/https://www.oecd.org/dac/gender-development/POST-2015%20Gender.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2016-10-18 |website=Oecd.org}}</ref>

Gender equality is mainstreamed throughout the SDG framework by ensuring that as much sex-disaggregated data as possible are collected.<ref name=""UNESCO-2019"">UNESCO (2019) [http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/publication_culture_2020_indicators_en.pdf Culture | 2030 Indicators] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063854/http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/publication_culture_2020_indicators_en.pdf|date=30 December 2020}}, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, France, {{ISBN|978-92-3-100355-4}}, CC-BY-ND 3.0 IGO</ref>{{rp|11}}

[[Education for sustainable development]] (ESD) is explicitly recognized in the SDGs as part of Target 4.7 of the SDG on education. [[UNESCO]] promotes the [[Global citizenship education|Global Citizenship Education]] (GCED) as a complementary approach.<ref>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002329/232993e.pdf Global Citizenship Education: Topics and learning objectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712215733/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002329/232993e.pdf|date=12 July 2018}}, UNESCO, 2015.</ref> Education for sustainable development is important for all the other 16 SDGs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=UNESCO |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002474/247444e.pdf |title=Education for Sustainable Development Goals: Learning Objectives |publisher=Paris, UNESCO |year=2017 |isbn=978-92-3-100209-0 |pages=7 |access-date=13 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063855/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000247444_eng |archive-date=30 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Culture is explicitly referenced in SDG 11 Target 4 (""Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world's cultural and natural heritage""). However, culture is seen as a cross-cutting theme because it impacts several SDGs.<ref name=""UNESCO-2019"" /> For example, culture plays a role in SDG targets where they relate to environment and resilience (within SDGs 11, 12 and 16), prosperity and livelihoods (within SDG 8), inclusion and participation (within SDG 11 and 16).<ref name=""UNESCO-2019"" />{{rp|2}}

SDGs 1 to 6 directly address [[health disparities]], primarily in developing countries.<ref name=""UN2015"">{{Cite web |title=Sustainable development goals – United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ |access-date=25 November 2015 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development}}</ref> These six goals address key issues in Global Public Health, Poverty, Hunger and Food security, Health, Education, Gender equality and women's empowerment, as well as water and sanitation.<ref name=""UN2015"" /> Public health officials can use these goals to set their own agenda and plan for smaller scale initiatives for their organizations. 

The links between the various sustainable development goals and [[public health]] are numerous and well established:

* SDG 1: Living below the poverty line is attributed to poorer health outcomes and can be even worse for persons living in developing countries where extreme poverty is more common.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NCCP {{!}} Child Poverty |url=http://www.nccp.org/topics/childpoverty.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624190322/http://www.nccp.org/topics/childpoverty.html |archive-date=24 June 2018 |access-date=25 November 2015 |website=www.nccp.org}}</ref> A child born into poverty is twice as likely to die before the age of five compared to a child from a wealthier family.<ref name=""UNhealth2015"">{{Cite web |title=Health – United Nations Sustainable Development |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/health/ |access-date=25 November 2015 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development}}</ref>
* SDG 2: The detrimental effects of hunger and malnutrition that can arise from systemic challenges with food security are enormous. The World Health Organization estimates that 12.9 percent of the population in developing countries is undernourished.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hunger and food security – United Nations Sustainable Development |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/hunger/ |access-date=25 November 2015 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development}}</ref>
* SDG 4 and 5: Educational equity has yet to be reached in the world. Public health efforts are impeded by this, as a lack of education can lead to poorer health outcomes. This is shown by children of mothers who have no education having a lower survival rate compared to children born to mothers with primary or greater levels of education.<ref name=""UNhealth2015"" />
Synergies

Synergies amongst the SDGs are ""the good antagonists of trade-offs.""<ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|67}}With regards to SDG 13 on climate action, the IPCC sees robust synergies particularly for the SDGs 3 (health), 7 (clean energy), 11 (cities and communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production) and 14 (oceans).<ref name=""IPCC-2018"" /><ref name=""Berg-2020"" />{{rp|70}}

To meet SDG 13 and other SDGs, sustained long-term investment in green innovation is required to: [[Decarbonization|decarbonize]] the physical capital stock – energy, industry, and transportation infrastructure – and ensure its resilience to a changing future climate; to preserve and enhance [[natural capital]] – forests, oceans, and wetlands; and to train people to work in a climate-neutral economy.<ref name=""EIB-2020"">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-eib-group-climate-bank-roadmap |title=The EIB Group Climate Bank Roadmap 2021–2025 |date=2020-12-14 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-4908-5 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Amar |last2=Ivanyna |first2=Maksym |last3=Oman |first3=William |last4=Stern |first4=Nicholas |date=2021-05-26 |title=Climate Action to Unlock the Inclusive Growth Story of the 21st Century |url=https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/001/2021/147/article-A001-en.xml |journal=IMF Working Papers |language=en |volume=2021 |issue=147 |page=1 |doi=10.5089/9781513573366.001 |s2cid=242841434 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Grand Duchy of Luxembourg International Climate Finance Strategy |url=https://gouvernement.lu/dam-assets/documents/actualites/2021/07-juillet/26-fci-dieschbourg/Strategie-FCI.pdf}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Sustainability]]
* [[SDG Publishers Compact]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{portal|Politics|Environment|World}}
{{Wikisource}}
{{offline|med}}
*[http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – The SDGs]
*[http://www.globalgoals.org ""Global Goals"" Campaign] Campaign on the SDGs published by Project Everyone
*[https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/ Global SDG Indicators Database of the United Nations]
*[https://sdg-tracker.org/ SDG-Tracker.org] – Visualized tracking of progress towards the SDGs 
*[https://sdg-pathfinder.org/ SDG Pathfinder] – Explore content on SDGs from six international organizations (powered by the [[OECD]])

{{United Nations}}
{{Sustainable Development Goals}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Poverty}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:International sustainable development]]
[[Category:United Nations documents]]
[[Category:Global policy organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals| ]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:United Nations Common Agenda]]"
Sustainability studies,"{{multiple issues|
{{one source|date=December 2018}}{{unbalanced|date=December 2018}}{{peacock|date=December 2018}}
{{Essay-like|date=October 2022}}
}}
[[File:Sustainable development.svg|thumb|335x335px|The Three Spheres of Sustainability]]
'''Sustainability studies''' is an academic discipline that focuses on the interdisciplinary perspective of the concept of [[sustainability]]. Programs include instruction in [[sustainable development]], [[geography]], [[Environmental policy|environmental policies]], [[ethics]], [[ecology]], [[landscape architecture]], [[City planning|city]] and [[regional planning]], [[economics]], [[natural resources]], [[sociology]], and [[anthropology]].<ref>[http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/cipcode/cipdetail.aspx?y=55&cip=30.3301 Detail for CIP Code 30.3301, Title: Sustainability Studies.]. Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP), The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), National Center for Education Statistics, US Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences. Accessed 10 May 2011</ref> Sustainability studies also focuses on the importance of [[climate change]], [[poverty]], [[social justice]] and [[environmental justice]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Compare 85 Masters Programs in Sustainability Studies |url=https://www.masterstudies.com/Masters-Degree/Sustainability-Studies/ |website=MASTERSTUDIES.COM |access-date=10 March 2018}}</ref> Many universities across the world currently offer sustainability studies as a degree program. The main goal of sustainability studies is for students to find ways to develop novel solutions to environmental problems.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cohen |first1=Steven |title=The Growing Field of Sustainability Studies |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/steven-cohen/the-growing-field-of-sust_b_1272831.html |website=[[HuffPost]] |date=13 February 2012 |access-date=10 March 2018}}</ref>

== History ==
Towards the end of the 1980s, a new focus emerged globally on the importance of the environmental and [[Sustainability|ecological sustainability]]. In 1987 the [[Brundtland Report]] was delivered by the [[World Commission on Environment and Development]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.histecon.magd.cam.ac.uk/history-sust/sustainability.htm |title=History and Sustainability |website=www.histecon.magd.cam.ac.uk |access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> The commission was appointed to examine the consequences of global environmental change and was chaired by Norway’s Prime Minister, [[Gro Harlem Brundtland]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite news |url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/paradigm-shift-towards-sustainability-must-go-ahead-full-speed |title=The paradigm shift towards sustainability must go ahead at full speed |work=D+C |access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> It introduced the concept of sustainable development, defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Du Pisani |first=Jacobus A. |date=June 2006 |title=Sustainable development – historical roots of the concept |journal=Environmental Sciences |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=83–96 |doi=10.1080/15693430600688831 |s2cid=216113039 |issn=1569-3430}}</ref> Several definitions have been proposed since then (refer to (Pezzoli, 1997) among others) but after almost 20 years of debate a consensus that sustainability assessments ought to: integrate economic, environmental, social and increasingly institutional issues as well as to consider their interdependencies; consider the consequences of present actions well into the future; acknowledge the existence of uncertainties concerning the result of our present actions and act with a precautionary bias; engage the public; includes equity considerations (intragenerational and intergenerational).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gasparatos |first1=Alexandros |last2=El-Haram |first2=Mohamed |last3=Horner |first3=Malcolm |title=A critical review of reductionist approaches for assessing the progress towards sustainability |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |date=May 2008 |volume=28 |issue=4–5 |pages=286–311 |doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2007.09.002 |access-date=7 December 2022|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2007.09.002}}</ref> This report started a paradigm shift in which global actors began to engage in initiatives that sought to focus on sustainable development.
[[File:World-energy-consumption-by-fuel-projections-1990---2035-USDOE-IEA-2011.png|thumb|[[Infographic]] of [[world energy consumption]] by fuel.]]
Five years after the report was launched, the UN Earth’s Summit in Rio adopted the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Framework Convention on Climate Change]].<ref name="":0"" /> Five years later, this framework helped lead to the creation of the [[Kyoto Protocol]], a plan in which rich nations pledged to reduce their [[Greenhouse gas|carbon emissions]].<ref name="":0"" /> All countries that partook in the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC) also signed up to the Kyoto Protocol. Unfortunately progress towards sustainability stalled when the Kyoto Protocol was never ratified by the United States, and other nations consequently ignored their pledges in the agreement.<ref name="":0"" />

The UN has composed 17 Sustainable Development Goals that are aimed to be achieved by 2030. The SDG goals include: 1. no poverty, 2. zero hunger, 3. good health and well-being, 4. quality education, 5. gender equality, 6. clean water and sanitation, 7. affordable and clean energy, 8. decent work and economic growth, 9. industry, innovation and infrastructure, 10. reduced inequalities, 11. sustainable cities and communities, 12. responsible consumption and production, 13. climate action, 14. life below water, 15. life on land, 16. peace justice and strong institutions, and 17. partnerships for the goals. 

Recently, the [[United Nations]] (UN) [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) released a report that says “urgent and unprecedented changes are needed to reach the target” of keeping the global temperature at moderate levels.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/08/global-warming-must-not-exceed-15c-warns-landmark-un-report |title=We have 12 years to limit climate change catastrophe, warns UN |last=Watts |first=Jonathan |date=2018-10-08 |website=the Guardian |access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> They state that countries must follow the [[Paris Agreement]] pledge to keep temperatures between 1.5 degrees Celsius and 2 degrees Celsius, otherwise the earth will faces extreme challenges from [[climate change]], including the eradication of corals and the accelerated melting of [[Arctic ice pack|Arctic ice caps]]. <ref name="":1"" /> The IPCC also explained that a rise in temperatures would trigger catastrophic results in the form of intense [[natural disaster]]s, unpredictable weather, and food shortages.  In order to prevent this outcome governments would need to require a “supercharged roll-back of emissions courses that have built up over the past 250 years.”<ref name="":1"" /> In order to do so developments in land use and technological changes are necessary. [[Carbon dioxide]] emissions would have to be cut by 45% by 2030 and come down to 0 by 2050.<ref name="":1"" /> Although this would require carbon prices to be three to four times higher, the consequences of [[global warming]] at the current rate would be far more severe. The world is currently on course to reach 3 degrees Celsius of global warming, and scientists have 12 years to impose significant changes to prevent this from happening.<ref name="":1"" /> This shift towards [[environmental protection]] demands a workforce that is more heavily dedicated to studying sustainable development, hence the growing importance of interdisciplinary studies. Individuals studying sustainable development could be focused on reducing the climate in which catastrophic global warming would take place and understanding how policy decisions link to other areas such as urban planning, sociology, economics and ecology.

== Spheres of sustainability ==
Sustainability comprises three major spheres: the social sphere, the economic sphere, and the environmental sphere. These three spheres can also be referred to as the ""triple bottom line"" or the three pillars of sustainability.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robertson |first=Margaret |title=Sustainability Principles and Practice |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0367365219 |edition=3rd |pages=4}}</ref> While these spheres are vastly different from one another, they each play a crucial role in maintaining the efficiency of society and the betterment of the planet.

* ''Social Sphere:'' The social sphere examines issues that different human populations can face, or the impacts that certain actions have on society.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web |title=What are the Three Pillars of Sustainable Development? |url=https://greenly.earth/en-us/blog/company-guide/3-pillars-of-sustainable-development |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=greenly.earth |language=en-us}}</ref> Examples of social issues include food insecurity, housing instability, poverty, healthcare, and access to education. Equity and equal access to opportunities are at the foundation of this pillar.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web |last=Soken-Huberty |first=Emmaline |date=2020-02-13 |title=What Does Social Justice Mean? |url=https://www.humanrightscareers.com/issues/what-does-social-justice-mean/ |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=Human Rights Careers |language=en-US}}</ref> This sphere involves subject fields such as sociology, psychology, and anthropology. Nonprofit and government organizations are often at the core of the social sphere. In regards to sustainability, it is crucial for policies to be in place that represent all populations and ensure that basic human rights are being met.<ref name="":4"" />

* ''Economic Sphere:'' The economic sphere prioritizes a high-functioning economy and making a profit. Consumerism is at the root of this sphere.Those who work in business and finance related fields are included in this sphere. Relating to sustainability, it is crucial for global corporations and companies to establish efficient practices to develop and grow. <ref name="":3"" />

* ''Environmental Sphere:'' The environmental sphere promotes the wellbeing of the physical Earth. This pillar evaluates environmental issues and proposes solutions that could be implemented anywhere from the local to global level. Examples of environmental issues include natural disasters, temperatures rising, pollution, energy resources, and deforestation. Environmental scientists and activists are closely associated with this sphere.<ref name="":3"" />

Sustainability is an interdisciplinary subject. Therefore, much like a Venn Diagram, these spheres do overlap. When the social and economic spheres intersect, this is known as social justice. The economic and environmental spheres make the subject of environmental stewardship. Lastly, environmental justice is then established when the environmental and social spheres connect.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-09-21 |title=Sustainable Materials: The Seventh Perspective of a Bioregional Lifestyle |url=https://www.cascadianow.org/articles/principle-7-sustainable-materials |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=CascadiaNow! |language=en-US}}</ref>

''Social Justice:'' Social justice is important when ensuring that everyone has the opportunity to thrive and make a sufficient living, as well as making sure the economy can operate smoothly. <ref name="":4"" />A big debate in many nations is how much money should be going to welfare programs- it is crucial to find a balance between helping citizens while having enough money for the governing body to run. Another issue commonly discussed with social justice is workers rights. Workers can be exploited by businesses, so policies regarding safe working conditions and fair wages ensure that workers are treated fairly. For example, Fairtrade is a symbol that can be found on products that verify that the resources used to product the item is ethical.

''Environmental Stewardship:'' Environmental stewardship involves the collaboration of businesses and environment-centered initiatives. These actions are angled to not only help the planet, but also save money for the business. Organizations may consider efforts to reduce their waste. This could look like switching from plastic to paper packaging, or recycling any unused products. Also, businesses could look for ways to manage their energy more efficiently. Using a renewable energy source rather than nonrenewable source and limiting production times are both examples of how a business can adopt energy-saving techniques.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Presentation on Environmental Stewardship |url=https://www.nepa.gov.jm/sites/default/files/2019-12/Environmental_Stewardship.pdf |website=National Environmental Policy Act}}</ref>

''Environmental Justice:'' Environmental justice is the intersection between social and environmental issues. This intersection involves providing equitable access to environmental protections and funding for all populations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Learn About Environmental Justice |url=https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice/learn-about-environmental-justice |website=United States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> Climate change events like natural disasters, increased temperatures, and unpredictable weather patterns disproportionately impact lower-income and impoverished communities. Oftentimes, these communities do not have the means to move away from their neighborhoods. An example of an environmental justice issue in the United States is the lack of properly working septic tanks in Lowndes County, Alabama. In her book ""Waste: A Woman's Fight Against America's Dirty Secret,"" Catherine Coleman Flowers explains the environmental issues that this impoverished community faces. A predominantly African-American area, many residents have lived with raw sewage in their backyards because they cannot afford to buy or install a septic system. Furthermore, these residents can be criminally charged for not having working septic tanks, even for those who cannot afford the cost. Not only are residents forced to live in unhygienic conditions, but they are also punished by the government. Coleman Flowers and other environmental justice advocates have dedicated years in their fight to achieve justice for the residents of Lowndes County.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coleman Flowers |first=Catherine |title=Waste: One Woman's Fight Against America's Dirty Secret |publisher=The New Press |year=2020}}</ref>    

A global example of environmental justice is the impact that climate change events are having on third-world countries. Former Irish President Mary Robinson published ""Climate Justice,"" a book that amplifies the voices of those in different countries around the world who are fighting climate change everyday. Robinson tells the story of Constance Okollet, a resident of Uganda, who is facing seasons of floods and droughts regularly, making food and water supply scarce. An activist from Vietnam, Vu Thi Hien, shares the impacts that war and deforestation has had on her country's land and people. The former president of Kiribati, Anote Tong, has considered moving the entire nation off of their island to another because of sea levels rising. Robinson shares these stories to spread awareness of the impacts that climate change is having around the world, especially to smaller, poorer nations. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Mary |title=Climate Justice |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2018}}</ref>

When each of these spheres overlap equally, like at the center of the Venn Diagram, sustainability has been established.

== Careers in sustainability studies ==
Sustainability studies emphasizes an interdisciplinary approach to environmental problems, so it can lead into many future careers such as:

* [[Law]]
* [[Politics]]
* Policy and Planning
* [[Journalism]]
* [[Business]] and [[Architecture|Architectural Design]]
* [[Oceanography|Marine Sciences]]
* Sustainability Professionals
* Urban planning
* Agriculture<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ajeng |first=Aaronn Avit |last2=Abdullah |first2=Rosazlin |last3=Ling |first3=Tau Chuan |last4=Ismail |first4=Salmah |last5=Lau |first5=Beng Fye |last6=Ong |first6=Hwai Chyuan |last7=Chew |first7=Kit Wayne |last8=Show |first8=Pau Loke |last9=Chang |first9=Jo-Shu |date= |year=2020-11-01 |title=Bioformulation of biochar as a potential inoculant carrier for sustainable agriculture |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352186420314681 |journal=Environmental Technology & Innovation |language=en |volume=20 |pages=101168 |doi=10.1016/j.eti.2020.101168}}</ref>
* Pharmaceutical industry
* Herbal Medicine

Professional in sustainability studies earn between $75,000 to $93,000, and is based on the average salaries of those  in [[engineering]] and [[environmental science]]s.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite news |url=https://www.wayup.com/guide/lockheed-martin-994063-sponsored-6-sustainability-studies-major/ |title=What is a Sustainability Studies Major and is it Right for Me? {{!}} Career Advice & Interview Tips {{!}} WayUp Guide |date=2017-07-31 |work=Career Advice & Interview Tips {{!}} WayUp Guide |access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> Chief sustainability executives earn an average of $167,000.<ref name="":2"" />

== See also ==
* [[List of environmental degrees]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Sustainability|state=collapsed}}
[[Category:Environmental studies]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Richard Reames,"{{Short description|American artist, arborsculptor, nurseryman, writer and public speaker}}
{{Infobox writer <!-- For more information see [[:Template:Infobox Writer/doc]]. -->
| name          = <!-- Deleting this line will use the article title as the page name. -->
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| caption       = Richard Reames in 2016
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| birth_date    = {{birth date and age|1957|09|20}}<!-- {{Birth date and age|Year|Month|Day}} -->
| birth_place   =
| death_date    = <!-- {{Death date and age|Year|Month|Day|Year|Month|Day}} -->
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| language      = English
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| genre         = [[Horticulture]]
| subject       = [[Arborsculpture]]
| movement      = [[Environmental art]], [[Environmental humanities]]
| notableworks  = ''How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary'' with Barbara Delbol (1995)<br /> ''Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet'' (2005)
| spouse        = Maya Many Moons Reames
| partner       =
| children      = Myray Reames
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[[File:Peace in cherry spring 2002.jpg|thumb|300px|''Peace in Cherry'', Spring 2002]]
'''Richard C. Reames''' (born September 20, 1957) is an American artist, [[arborsculptor]], [[nurseryman]], writer, and public speaker. He lives and works in [[Williams, Oregon]].<ref name=""Dwell magazine"">{{cite journal |last1=Nestor |first1=James |title=Branching Out |journal=Dwell |date=27 February 2009 |url=https://www.dwell.com/article/branching-out-4aca10ce |access-date=14 July 2021}}</ref>

Reames coined the word ""arborsculpture"" to describe the art of shaping living tree trunks and woody plants into sculptural forms, furniture and shelters.<ref name=""SantaCruzS"">{{cite news |last1=Kreiger |first1=Kathy |title=Grow Your Own: Twisting Trees into Furniture |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/95244223 |access-date=14 July 2021 |publisher=Santa Cruz Sentinel |date=21 March 1996}}</ref><ref name=TLink>{{Citation| last = Link| first = Tracey| title = Arborsculpture: An Emerging Art Form and Solutions to our Environment| chapter = Senior project for Bachelor of Science degree in Landscape Architecture| page = 41| date = June 13, 2008| chapter-url = http://lda.ucdavis.edu/people/2008/TLink.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120225225911/http://lda.ucdavis.edu/people/2008/TLink.pdf| archive-date = February 25, 2012}}</ref><ref name=Reames2/>{{rp|24}} His writing and artistic practice are grounded in ecological principles of living in harmony with nature and with creating living structures from trees.<ref name=""Cabinet magazine"" /> He has written two books on arborsculpture and [[tree shaping]].

Reames was appointed, in 2005, as the ""international arborsculpture coordinator"" for the [[World's fair|World Expo]]'s ''Growing Village'' in Aichi, Japan;<ref name=""TreeNews"">{{cite journal |last1=May |first1=John |title=The Growing Village: A World of Arborsculpture |journal=TreeNews Journal of the Tree Council (United Kingdom) |date=Spring–Summer 2005}}</ref> his work was also exhibited there.<ref name=""Cabinet magazine"" />

== Biography ==
Richard Reames was born in 1957.<ref name=""Life"" /> He grew up near [[Santa Cruz, California]], which is within ten miles of [[Axel Erlandson]]’s famed ""Circus Trees,"" known at that time as ''The Lost World,'' a mid-century roadside attraction.<ref name=""SantaCruzS"" />

Reames's mother showed him the value of working with nature including vegetable gardening. Reames studied horticulture, biology, botany and log-house building in college, however the structure of the educational establishment did not appeal to him.<ref name=""Life"" /><ref name=""Okenga-Eden on their minds"" /> He traveled the country by hitchhiking or by [[Road trip|road-tripping]] in a 1969 Chevy van for over a decade. Throughout this time he worked as an itinerant landscaper. Reames has stated ""I was volunteer homeless. A real gypsy.""<ref name=Life>{{Citation|last=Cole |first=Jamie |title =Life and Limbs: For arborsmith Richard Reames, art is quite literally alive |date=6 December 2012 |url=https://myfarmlife.com/2012/life-and-limbs/ |publisher=MyFarmLife }}</ref> During the times he was not on road trips, he made a living selling wild herbs and mushrooms he foraged through his knowledge of [[wildcrafting]].<ref name=""SantaCruzS"" />

In 1991, he met Maya Many Moons in southwest Oregon. They settled down in [[Williams, Oregon]] near the border of [[Klamath National Forest]], where they bought land in cooperation with another couple. Over a period of three years he constructed an octagonal two-story log house, 24 feet in diameter, using dead standing trees and native stone for the foundation.<ref name=""Okenga-Eden on their minds"" /><ref name=""Reames2"" /> Reames and Many Moons have a daughter named Myray Reames.<ref name=Reames2>{{Cite book|last = Reames|first = Richard |title = Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet|publisher = Arborsmith Studios|year = 2005|location = Oregon |isbn = 0-9647280-8-7}}</ref><ref name=Life/><ref name=ArborsmithBio>[http://arborsmith.com/bio.html Arborsmith, Biography of Richard Reames] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231002818/http://arborsmith.com/bio.html |date=2010-12-31 }}</ref> During this time he founded Arborsmith Studios.<ref name=""SantaCruzS"" />

==Work==
Reames uses basic tools and ancient grafting techniques to produce his works of arborsculpture, furniture and functional objects. His work involves the time-based processes of bending, pruning, grafting, and multiple plantings that are similar to those used in [[bonsai]] but most closely related to [[espalier]].<ref name=""Cabinet magazine"" />

In an interview with [[Joshua Foer]] in [[Cabinet Magazine]], Reames describes some of the ecological principles behind his work as being grounded in a desire to teach others ways to live in harmony with trees and therefore with nature. He is interested in ecological advantages of working with trees such as erosion control, [[carbon dioxide sequestration]], food sources, habitat creation for wildlife, and climate change mitigation.<ref name=""Cabinet magazine"" />

One of his primary inspirations was the work of [[Axel Erlandson]], and his ''Tree Circus'', and [[Tree shaping#John Krubsack|John Krubsack]], known for his ''Living Chair''.<ref name=""Life"" /> In 1993, with Erlandson in mind, he started [[Arborsmith Studios]], a tree nursery and outdoor art studio.<ref name=Reames2/><ref name=Life/> Other influences include the 18th century Swedish mystic [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], the 19th century Austrian mystic, [[Jakob Lorber]], and modern pioneers of arborsculptural tree shaping such as [[Arthur Wiechula]] among others.<ref name=""Cabinet magazine"" /> Reames was also intrigued with the organic architecture of [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], whose work ""bring[s] nature into the house.""<ref name=""Life"" />

[[File:Arborsculpture ash rings.jpg|thumb|left|''Ash Rings'' arborsculpture, in July 2021]]
In 2000, together with the people of the town of Jōkōji, Japan, he and [[John Gathright]] planted 1100 trees, which, combined with existing trees, created the ""Laughing Happy Tree Park."" The environmental installation included a living tree house with living furniture.<ref name=Reames2/>

Some of his arborsculptures were exhibited at the [[Growing Village Pavilion]] of the [[Expo 2005|World Expo 2005]] in [[Nagakute]], [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]], [[Japan]].<ref name=""AmForests"">{{cite journal |last1=Amoroso |first1=Meghan |title=A House of the Trees |journal=American Forests |date=Autumn 2005 |volume=111 |issue=3 |url=https://web-a-ebscohost-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ehost/detail/detail?vid=4&sid=1064e9e5-868e-497c-a833-0dadeccd6da0%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=18969365&db=a9h |access-date=23 July 2021}}</ref> The producer and organizer of the project was John Gathright.<ref name=""GVP-Gathright"">{{cite web |title=Team Members - John Gathright |url=http://www.growingvillage.com/Growing_Village_Team_Members.htm |website=Growing Village Pavilion - Expo 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107062047/http://www.growingvillage.com/Growing_Village_Team_Members.htm |access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=2006-11-07 }}</ref><ref name=""awsj-archive"">{{cite news |last1=Harris |first1=John |title=Fair Puts the Spotlight on the Planet's Environmental Problems |url=http://www.growingvillage.com/The_Asian_Wall_Street_Journal.htm |access-date=14 July 2021 |publisher=The Asian Wall Street Journal |date=29 March 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107062141/http://www.growingvillage.com/The_Asian_Wall_Street_Journal.htm |archive-date=2006-11-07 }}</ref><ref name=""E2005AJ"">{{cite web |title=Laughing Happy Tree Park finds new home at Expo 2005 |url=http://www.growingvillage.com/GrowingVillage_Happy_Tree_Park.htm |website=Growing Village Pavillion |publisher=Expo 2005 Aichi Japan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060715173033/http://www.growingvillage.com/GrowingVillage_Happy_Tree_Park.htm |access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=2006-07-15 }}</ref> Reames participated as a team member of the Growing Village Pavilion,<ref name=""Team Member RR"">{{cite web |title=Team Member - Richard Reames |url=http://www.growingvillage.com/Team_Members_Richard_Reames.htm |website=Welcome to Growing Village |publisher=Expo 2005 Aichi Japan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107062035/http://www.growingvillage.com/Team_Members_Richard_Reames.htm |access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=2006-11-07 }}</ref><ref name=ArborsmithBio/> and in 2005, he was appointed the international arborsculpture coordinator, overseeing the work of artists from several countries.<ref name=""TreeNews"" />

Reames has lectured internationally on arborsculpture,<ref name=""Team Member RR"" /> and gives live demonstrations of bending and weaving a chair at garden shows, fairs and folk art festivals throughout the U.S.<ref name=Life/><ref name=""Cabinet magazine"">{{cite journal |last1=Foer |first1=Joshua |last2=Reames |first2=Richard |title=How to grow a chair: An interview with Richard Reames - The Roots of Arborsculpture |journal=Cabinet Magazine |date=Winter 2005–2006 |url=https://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/20/foer_reames.php |access-date=14 July 2021}}</ref><ref name=VWANewsletter>{{Citation|title=Arbor Sculpture: ""If you like I'll grow you a mirror"" |work=The Cutting Edge; the Newsletter of the Victorian Woodworkers Association, Inc. |page=16 |date=June 2006 |url=http://www.vwa.org.au/newsletter/Archive06/June%20Newsletter%202006.pdf |access-date=2010-05-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025001712/http://www.vwa.org.au//newsletter/Archive06/June%20Newsletter%202006.pdf |archive-date=October 25, 2009 }}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090531024238/http://gardencenterassociation.org/garden_symposium_2008.html Speaker announcement for Garden Symposium 2008 in Kansas City, MO]</ref>

Reames, like the artist Konstantin Kirsch, has been exploring sustainable, living architecture using tree branches to form latticeworks that can be trained and designed into cylindrical, multi-room dwellings. These botanical domes or self-growing treehouses can form a sustainable abode that grows fruit and other edible foods, and can also utilize waste within a closed-loop system.<ref name=""Inhabit"">{{cite web |last1=Winter |first1=Catherine |title=How to Grow Your Own Treehouse |date=7 August 2009 |url=https://inhabitat.com/grow-your-own-treehouse/ |publisher=INHABIT |access-date=14 July 2021}}</ref> The German language book, ''Lebende Bauten - trainierbare Tragwerke (Living buildings - trainable structures)'' features a chapter on Reames.<ref name=""LIT Verlag"">{{cite book |last1=de Bruyn |first1=Gerd |last2=Schwertfeger |first2=Hannes |title=Lebende Bauten - trainierbare Tragwerke |date=2009 |publisher=LIT Verlag, Kultur und Technik Collection |location=Munster, Germany |isbn=9783643104830 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lFSGelGITR8C&q=Richard%20Reames |pages=149–164|access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref>

After the publication of his first book, ''How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary'' (1995), he was invited to create site-specific arborsculptures by various clients, who he then mentors on the care of the living installations. His arborsculptures have been created in gardens throughout the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]].<ref name=""Life"" />

In 2023, Reames worked with a group of 40 others to plant a Sequoia-Sanctuary a major work of [[land art]] in the Pacifica Preserve in Oregon, in the form of a circle of 114 sequoia seedling trees, three-feet apart, in a 100-foot diameter. When fully grown the [[environmental sculpture]] will create a 7,000 square-foot ""sanctuary"" space of intertwined branches. The variety of sequoia seedlings that were planted are the endangered ''Sequoiadendron giganteum'', [[Sequoiadendron giganteum|giant sequoia]] which can live as long as 3,000 years.<ref name=""DC-Pacifica"">{{cite news |last1=Hall |first1=Shaun |title=Circle of 114 sequoias planted at Pacifica |work=Page 1, 6A |publisher=Daily Courier, Grants Pass |date=21 February 2023}}</ref>

==Arborsculpture==
[[File:Arborsculpture of peace and love.jpg|thumb|Arborsculpture of peace and love, in 2016]]
In 1995, Reames coined the word ""arborsculpture"" to describe tree-trunk sculptural modifications as art.<ref name=""Cabinet magazine"" /> The word has since been used by several writers, creative practitioners and scholars.<ref name=""Smolina-1"">{{cite journal |last1=Smolina |first1=O.O. |title=Variability of approaches to arborsculpture |journal= IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering|date=2019 |volume=687 |issue=5 |page=055035 |doi=10.1088/1757-899X/687/5/055035 |bibcode=2019MS&E..687e5035S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""USDA"">{{cite journal |last1=Mudge |first1=Ken |last2=Janick |first2=Jules |last3=Scofield |first3=Stephen |last4=Goldschinidt |first4=Eliezer E. |title=A History of Grafting |journal=Horticultural Reviews |date=2009 |volume=35 |pages=437–493 |doi=10.1002/9780470593776.ch9 |isbn=9780470593776 |url=https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/download/39857/PDF |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref><ref name=""Greenery as Art-Design"">{{cite journal |last1=Marcinková |first1=Dana |title=Greenery as Art-Design in Urban Public Space |journal=Proceedings of the International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on Social Scientists and Arts |date=2016 |pages=359–366 |url=https://web-b-ebscohost-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ehost/detail/detail?vid=6&sid=23ce00bc-4303-4be8-80e8-4def0f12a558%40sessionmgr101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=128319194&db=a9h |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref><ref name=""Vallas & Courard"" />  Arborsculpture has also been called ""arbor sculpture""<ref name=""Okenga-Eden on their minds"">{{cite book |last1=Ockenga |first1=Starr |title=Eden on Their Minds: American Gardeners with Bold Visions |date=2001 |publisher=Clarkson Potter Publishers |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-609-60587-9 |pages=108–117}}</ref> and ""arborisculpture"". In French it is known as ''l'arborisculpture''),<ref name=""Loterre"">{{cite web |title=Arborisculpture |url=https://www.loterre.fr/skosmos/JLC/fr/page/-PV72R3PB-D |website=Loterre (scientific terminology database) |publisher=Loterre Terminologie Subjects (Getty Research Institute |access-date=24 July 2021}}</ref><ref name=""IJoPhyto"">{{cite journal |last1=Stoops |first1=L. Renee |title=Conference Review 8Th Annual Conference, International Phytotechnology Society, Putting Plants to Work, Where We Live, Labor, Breathe, and Play, September 13–16, 2011, Portland, Oregon, USA |journal=International Journal of Phytoremediation |date=2013 |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=827–829 |doi=10.1080/15226514.2013.764676 |pmid=23819278 |bibcode=2013IJPhy..15..827S |s2cid=45584331 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15226514.2013.764676 |access-date=24 July 2021}}</ref> and in German arborsculpture is known as ''Baumplastiken''.<ref name=""LIT Verlag"" /> Reames refers to the use of arborsculpture to produce architectural structures or dwellings as ""arbortecture"",<ref name=""Cabinet magazine"" /> it has also been called ""arborarchitecture"" by Olga O. Smolina who has written on arborsculpture and on Reames.<ref name=""Smolina arbortecture"">{{cite journal |last1=Smolina |first1=O.O. Smolina |title=Arborarchitecture: Modern Trends |journal=Urban Construction and Architecture |date=2020 |volume=10 |issue=w|pages=87–92 |doi=10.17673/Vestnik.2020.02.12 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Smolina-1"" /> Arbortecture is called ''Baumarchitektur'' in German.<ref name=""LIT Verlag"" /><ref name=""Smolina-1"" /><ref name=""Smolina3"">{{cite journal |last1=Smolina |first1=O.O. |title=Arborsculpture: a promising trend in the interior gardening of buildings |journal= IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering|date=2020 |volume=962 |issue=3 |page=032058 |doi=10.1088/1757-899X/962/3/032058|bibcode=2020MS&E..962c2058S |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Reames uses arborsculptural tree bending and shaping techniques to create his work and also uses the [[horticulture|horticultural]] and [[arboriculture|arboricultural]] techniques of [[ring barking]], [[grafting#Approach|approach grafting]], [[pruning]], and framing, in various combinations, to craft his artworks and functional objects.<ref name=Reames2/><ref name=Reames1>{{cite book|last=Reames|first=Richard |author2=Delbol, Barbara |title=How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary|year=1995|publisher=Arborsmith Studios |isbn=0-9647280-0-1}}</ref>

Reames has described his arborsculpture tree shaping practice:<ref name=""description of as"">{{cite web |title=What is Arbor Sculpture |url=http://www.growingvillage.com/GrowingVillage_Arborsulpture.htm |website=Growing Village |publisher=Expo 2005 Aichi Japan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050308172904/http://www.growingvillage.com/GrowingVillage_Arborsulpture.htm |access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=2005-03-08 }}</ref>

{{Blockquote|Arborsculpture is a unique art form that has been called the ultimate branch of [[topiary]] with the potential to save the environment. There are other words and terms that are used to describe this art. [[Pleaching]], grafting, permaculture, tree trunk topiary, botanical art, botanical architecture, biotechture, living art, visionary art, and really weird.|Richard Reames}}

When making architectural arborsculptures such as fences, Reames prefers using the diamond pattern, a structurally sound design. This technique has been used by traditional Belgian fence crafters however Reames creates a tighter diamond grid by planting the trees closer together to keep certain wildlife such as deer out of an area. He has also made gazebos and a ''Fruit Room''; the latter was created by espaliering together apple, plum, cherry and pear trees. Another arbortectural project is his ''Living House'', a 22-foot diameter dwelling created from 77 alder trees planted 11 inches apart, intentionally based on multiples of elevens.<ref name=""Okenga-Eden on their minds"" />

===Process and technique===
[[File:Birch 2006.jpg|upright|thumb|left|''Birch Window Frame'' arborsculpture, September 2006]]
On Reames' property in Oregon, there are a dozen nursery beds, each of which are between 100 and 200 feet long, constructed in a configuration to optimize their orientation to the sun. The beds are filled with thousands of tree saplings, which he refers to as ""art supplies."" Saplings are transplanted from November to March, the dormant season for working with bare-root trees. In winter through early spring, the tree trunks are sculpted by bending, weaving and twisting as this is the time of year they are most pliable. The young trees are then attached to a metal or wood support structure until they are mature enough to retain their shape without support.<ref name=""Okenga-Eden on their minds"" />

===History of arborsculptural practices===
The medieval and post-medieval English scholar, Kathleen Kelly, identifies both modern and medieval examples of arborsculptures. In her paper, ''Anthophilia and the Medieval Ecologies of Grafting'', she cites the work of Axel Erlandson as exemplary of ""extreme grafting as art"" to produce ""astonishing arborsculptures"".<ref name=""Kelly, Anthohilia"">{{citation |last1=Kelly |first1=Kathleen |title=Anthophilia and the Medieval Ecologies of Grafting |publisher=Scholarly paper presented to the New Chaucer Society|url=https://www.academia.edu/14943767 |access-date=1 August 2021 }}</ref> She also places a painting from circa 1410, ''[[Paradiesgärtlein]] (The  Littile Garden of Paradise)'' by [[Meister des Frankfurter Paradiesgärtleins]] an unknown medieval painter who is also known as the Upper Rhenish Master, as an example of aesthetic inarched grafting of tree trunks. The painting, which is in the collection of the [[Städel Museum]], depicts [[Dorothea of Caesarea]], the patron saint of gardeners, picking fruit from a tree.<ref name=""Kelly, Anthohilia"" /><ref name=""Gallwitz"">{{cite book |last1=Gallwitz |first1=Esther |title=Kleiner Kräutergarten : Kräuter und Blumen bei den Alten Meistern im Städel (in German) |date=1992 |publisher=Insel Taschenbuch |location=Frankfurt am Main |isbn=978-3-458-33120-9}}</ref>

The science journalist [[James Nestor]] writes that ""Arborsculpture is the art of shaping living trees into furniture, sculpture, and shelters. Part grazing and grafting, pleaching and patience, it exists in the shady area between landscaping, gardening, and furniture design.""<ref name=""Dwell magazine"" /> Nestor states that arborsculpture can be traced back to a 16th-century [[illuminated manuscript]] painting by Jean Perréal, ''La Complainte de Nature à l'Alchimiste Errant (The Lament of Nature to the Wandering Alchemist)'' that depicts a lavish ""living chair"". Reames' interpretation of the painting is that the angel is criticizing the alchemist for attempting to make gold out of lead, when nature herself can make fruit out of dirt.<ref name=""LIT Verlag"" />

In the book, ''Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees'', the author Nalini M. Nadkarni, an ecosystem ecologist, wrote that gardeners who practice arborsculpture have ""vision, patience, and humor"" and names Axel Erlandson as the ""grand old man of arborsculpture.""<ref name=""Between Earth and Sky"">{{cite book |last1=Nadkarni |first1=Nalini M. |title=Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees |date=2008 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1pntz0 |isbn=978-0520261655 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1pntz0 |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref>
<gallery mode=""packed"" heights=""200px"">
File:Complainte de la Nature - Perréal - 1516.jpg|''La Complainte de la Nature à l'Alchimiste Errant,'' (1516), [[Jean Perréal]]
File:Meister des Frankfurter Paradiesgärtleins arborsculpture detail.jpg|Detail, ''[[Paradiesgärtlein]]'' ''(Little Garden of Paradise)'', (c. 1410), [[Upper Rhenish Master]]
File:Needle n thread.jpg|Needle and thread tree by [[Axel Erlandson]] whose work influenced Reames
File:Krubsack chair.jpg|John Krubsack's ''Chair that Grew'' (in 1915), his work inspired Reames
File:Growing tool handle in the Laughing Happy Tree Park in Jōkōji Japan.jpg|Reames growing a tool handle in the Laughing Happy Tree Park in Jōkōji Japan, May 2002
</gallery>

===Sustainable design applications===
Reames believes that ""arbortecture"" is the future of arborsculpture.<ref name=""Dwell magazine"" /> Arbotecture is a viable green alternative in urban design.<ref name=""Simply Green"">{{cite journal |last1=Oommen |first1=Ansel |title=Arborsculpture: The Artful Science of Tree Shaping |journal=Simply Green Magazine (South Africa) |date=2013 |issue=5 |pages=18–19 |url=https://issuu.com/africannewsagency/docs/sg_-_0513/18 |access-date=2 August 2021}}</ref> According to Reames, arbor-architects (''Baumarchitekten'') can design and build energy-efficient structures that have a reciprocal ""exchange with the natural environment"" and that these dwellings should be planned specifically for a location and environment. He has stated that he believes that the natural environment should enter into the house, and the interior of the building can extend outdoors.<ref name=""LIT Verlag"" /> Alison Gillespie writes in her article, ''Taking treehouses to a whole new level'' in the journal ''Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment'', that arborsculpture is not a new practice but when combined with [[Tree shaping#aeroponic culture|aeroponics]] it can be used for sustainable design applications.<ref name=""Gillespie"">{{cite journal |last1=Gillespie |first1=Allison |title=Taking Treehouses to a Whole New Level |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=October 2008 |volume=6 |issue=8 |page=407 |jstor=20440955 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20440955 |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref>

== Publications ==
In 1995, Reames published the book ''How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary'' with Barbara Delbol co-authoring.<ref name=""EBTS-2"">{{cite journal |last1=Foley |first1=Caroline |title=Review: How to Grow a Chair - The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary |journal=European Boxwood & Topiary Society |volume=11 |issue=Summer 2007 |url=http://www.ebts.org/UK/4-Bibliography/UK-Biblio2.htm |access-date=14 July 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414154311/http://www.ebts.org/UK/4-Bibliography/UK-Biblio2.htm |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref><ref name=""TW"">{{cite news |last1=Decker |first1=Edith |title=Sculptures grow from twisted past |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/338166023 |access-date=14 July 2021 |publisher=The World (Coos Bay, Oregon) |date=11 November 1995}}</ref> The book details his process of shaping trees to create chairs, benches fences, and other structures.<ref name=Reames1/><ref name=Hicks>{{Citation| last1 = Hicks| first1 = Ivan| last2 = Rosenfeld| first2 = Richard|last3=Whitworth|first3=Jo| title = Tricks with Trees| publisher = Pavilion Books| year = 2007| page =123| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=WDy1fnWXsN8C&q=arborsculptor| isbn = 978-1-86205-734-0}}</ref>

In 2005, Reames published the book ''Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet'', that describes the history of tree and woody plant shaping, and elaborates on a selection of practitioners in the field of tree shaping.<ref name=Reames2/><ref name=Bookreview>{{cite book |last=Foley |first=Caroline |title=Book Review: Arborsculpture - Solutions for a Small Planet |volume=11 |issue=Summer 2007 |url=http://www.ebts.org/UK/4-Bibliography/UK-Biblio2.htm |publisher=European Boxwood & Topiary Society |date=Summer 2007 |access-date=2021-12-05 |archive-date=2013-04-14 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414154311/http://www.ebts.org/UK/4-Bibliography/UK-Biblio2.htm |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

Reames has written for ''Compass Magazine'' in the March/April 2006 issue.<ref name=ArborsmithBio/>{{dead link|date=July 2021}}

===Reception===
Reames' books have been called ""reference books"" by Vallas and Courard in the journal, ''Frontiers of Architectural Research''. The authors go on to state that Reames has ""inspired many architects,""<ref name=""Vallas & Courard"">{{cite journal |last1=Vallas |first1=Thomas |last2=Courard |first2=Luc |title=Using nature in architecture: Building a living house with mycelium and trees |journal=Frontiers of Architectural Research |date=September 2017 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=318–328 |doi=10.1016/j.foar.2017.05.003 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

His book, ''Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet'' was reviewed in the ''[[Utne Reader]]''.<ref name=""Utne"">{{cite magazine |last1=Dodge |first1=Chris |title=Book Review: A Living Art - Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet By Richard Reames, Arborsmith Studios |magazine=[[Utne Reader]] |date=March 2006 |url=https://content.utne.com/community/bookreviews/}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Environmental art]] – Art genre engaging nature and ecology
* {{annotated link|Ecological art}}
* {{annotated link|Tree shaping}}
* {{annotated link|Gilroy Gardens}}
* {{annotated link|Fab Tree Hab}}
* {{annotated link|Full Grown}}
* {{annotated link|Christopher Cattle}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=lFSGelGITR8C ''Von der Baumplastik der Baum-architektur: Interview mit Richard Reames''] (in German), in the book ''Lebende Bauten - trainierbare Tragwerke'', pp.&nbsp;149–163, by Gerd de Bruyn, Hannes Schwertfeger. LitVerlag Münster (2009) {{ISBN|9783643104830}}.

== External links ==
* {{official website|http://arborsmith.com/}}
* [https://www.opb.org/article/2022/02/19/oregon-artist-richard-reames-tree-art-arborsculpture/  Oregon Public Broadcasting/PBS – ''At his Southern Oregon home, Richard Reames makes living art through ‘arborsculpture’'']

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reames, Richard}}
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:20th-century American artists]]
[[Category:21st-century American artists]]
[[Category:American sculptors]]
[[Category:Environmental artists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Sculptors from Oregon]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:20th-century American writers]]
[[Category:Environmental humanities]]"
Biomimicry Institute,"{{Short description|Non-profit organization in the USA}}
The '''Biomimicry Institute''' is a [[501(c)(3) organization|501(c)(3) not-for-profit organization]] founded in 2006 and based in [[Missoula]], [[Montana]] in the United States.<ref name=""ProPublica"">{{cite web |title=The Biomimicry Institute - Nonprofit Explorer |url=https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/861153859 |website=ProPublica |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |date=9 May 2013}}</ref> Its goal is to help innovators learn from nature in order to design [[sustainable]] products, processes, and policies in response to real-world problems.<ref name=""Donoff"" /> The Biomimicry Institute has become a key communicator in the field of [[biomimetics]], connecting thousands of practitioners and organizations across the world. Its Global Network currently supports 38 regional networks across 26 countries as of 2022.<ref name=""MacKinnon"" />
The Biomimicry Institute was founded by Bryony Schwan, Dayna Baumeister and [[Janine Benyus]]<ref name=""mission"">{{cite web |title=The Biomimicry Institute empowers people to create nature-inspired solutions for a healthy planet |url=https://biomimicry.org/ourmission/ |website=Biomimicry Institute |access-date=6 October 2022}}</ref>
and originated following the publishing of Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature<ref>{{Cite web |title=You are being redirected... |url=https://biomimicry.org/ourmission/ |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=biomimicry.org}}</ref> by Janine Benyus; a natural sciences writer, innovation consultant and author.<ref name=""Bonime"">{{cite news |last1=Bonime |first1=Western |title=Biomimicry: Using Nature's Perfect Innovation Systems To Design The Future |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/westernbonime/2020/07/12/biomimicry-using-natures-perfect--innovation-systems-to-design-the-future/?sh=6c3a9f8b174e |access-date=7 October 2022 |work=Forbes |date=July 12, 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

==Approach==
[[File:Tiny surface structures make nasturtium leaves water-resistant.jpg | thumb|right | Creating structures to mimic the surface of nasturtium leaves is an example of Biomimicry.<ref name=""Bird"">{{cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=James C. |last2=Dhiman |first2=Rajeev |last3=Kwon |first3=Hyuk-Min |last4=Varanasi |first4=Kripa K. |title=Reducing the contact time of a bouncing drop |journal=Nature |date=November 2013 |volume=503 |issue=7476 |pages=385–388 |doi=10.1038/nature12740 |pmid=24256803 |bibcode=2013Natur.503..385B |s2cid=1329448 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12740 |language=en |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>]]
[[Biomimetics|Biomimicry]] is an approach to design and innovation that finds inspiration in the function of living organisms.<ref name=""Brooks"">{{cite news |last1=Brooks |first1=Michael |title=Biomimicry in Architecture - review |url=https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Biomimicry_in_Architecture_-_review |access-date=18 October 2022 |work=www.designingbuildings.co.uk |date=28 Dec 2021 |language=en-gb}}</ref> The idea of connecting biologists, ecologists and other life scientists with designers and product engineers in the design process was introduced by [[Janine Benyus]].<ref name=""Bernstein"">{{cite news |last1=Bernstein |first1=Amy |title=Janine Benyus: The Thought Leader Interview |url=https://www.strategy-business.com/article/06310 |access-date=4 October 2022 |work=strategy+business |date=August 28, 2006 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name=""Swallow"">{{cite book |last1=Swallow |first1=Lisa |title=Green Business Practices For Dummies® |date=10 February 2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-48033-5 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfco7u3GOWIC&pg=PA146 |access-date=4 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""MacKinnon"">{{cite journal |last1=MacKinnon |first1=Rebecca Barbara |last2=Oomen |first2=Jeroen |last3=Pedersen Zari |first3=Maibritt |title=Promises and Presuppositions of Biomimicry |journal=Biomimetics |date=September 2020 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=33 |doi=10.3390/biomimetics5030033 |pmid=32660092 |pmc=7557929 |language=en |issn=2313-7673|doi-access=free }}</ref> This design methodology can be applied to the creation of materials, products, and solutions for a wide variety of fields and human systems including biochemistry<ref name=""Fudge"">{{cite journal |last1=Fudge |first1=Douglas S. |last2=Schorno |first2=Sarah |last3=Ferraro |first3=Shannon |title=Physiology, Biomechanics, and Biomimetics of Hagfish Slime |journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry |date=2 June 2015 |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=947–967 |doi=10.1146/annurev-biochem-060614-034048 |pmid=25534639 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biochem-060614-034048 |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |issn=0066-4154}}</ref> fluid mechanics,<ref name=""Triantafyllou"">{{cite journal |last1=Triantafyllou |first1=Michael S. |last2=Weymouth |first2=Gabriel D. |last3=Miao |first3=Jianmin |title=Biomimetic Survival Hydrodynamics and Flow Sensing |journal=Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics |date=3 January 2016 |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1146/annurev-fluid-122414-034329 |bibcode=2016AnRFM..48....1T |hdl=1721.1/110664 |s2cid=17049300 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-fluid-122414-034329 |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |issn=0066-4189|hdl-access=free }}</ref> physical chemistry, materials design,<ref name=""Yaraghi"">{{cite journal |last1=Yaraghi |first1=Nicholas A. |last2=Kisailus |first2=David |title=Biomimetic Structural Materials: Inspiration from Design and Assembly |journal=Annual Review of Physical Chemistry |date=20 April 2018 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=23–57 |doi=10.1146/annurev-physchem-040215-112621 |pmid=29237136 |bibcode=2018ARPC...69...23Y |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-physchem-040215-112621 |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |issn=0066-426X}}</ref> architecture,<ref name=""Okeke"">{{cite journal |last1=Okeke |first1=F. O. |last2=Okeke |first2=O. C. J. |last3=Adibe |first3=F. A. |title=Biomimicry and Sustainable Architecture: A Review of Existing Literature |journal=Journal of Environmental Management and Safety |date=2017 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=11–24}}</ref> energy,<ref name=""Varshabi"">{{cite journal |last1=Varshabi |first1=Niloufar |last2=Arslan Selçuk |first2=Semra |last3=Mutlu Avinç |first3=Güneş |title=Biomimicry for Energy-Efficient Building Design: A Bibliometric Analysis |journal=Biomimetics |date=24 January 2022 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=21 |doi=10.3390/biomimetics7010021 |pmid=35225914 |pmc=8883929 |doi-access=free }}</ref> textiles,<ref name=""Weerasinghe"">{{cite journal |last1=Weerasinghe |first1=Du |last2=Perera |first2=Srimala |last3=Dissanayake |first3=Dgk |title=Application of biomimicry for sustainable functionalization of textiles: review of current status and prospectus |journal=Textile Research Journal |date=October 2019 |volume=89 |issue=19–20 |pages=4282–4294 |doi=10.1177/0040517518821911 |s2cid=104351504 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0040517518821911 |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |issn=0040-5175}}</ref> medicine,<ref name=""Stenvinkel"">{{cite journal |last1=Stenvinkel |first1=P |last2=Painer |first2=J |last3=Johnson |first3=RJ |last4=Natterson-Horowitz |first4=B |title=Biomimetics - Nature's roadmap to insights and solutions for burden of lifestyle diseases. |journal=Journal of Internal Medicine |date=March 2020 |volume=287 |issue=3 |pages=238–251 |doi=10.1111/joim.12982 |pmid=31639885 |s2cid=204850089 |doi-access=free |pmc=7035180 }}</ref>  transportation,<ref name=""Boaretto"">{{cite journal |last1=Boaretto |first1=Joel |last2=Fotouhi |first2=Mohammad |last3=Tende |first3=Eduardo |last4=Aver |first4=Gustavo Francisco |last5=Marcon |first5=Victoria Rafaela Ritzel |last6=Cordeiro |first6=Guilherme Luís |last7=Bergmann |first7=Carlos Pérez |last8=Vannucchi de Camargo |first8=Felipe |title=Biomimetics and Composite Materials toward Efficient Mobility: A Review |journal=Journal of Composites Science |date=January 2021 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=22 |doi=10.3390/jcs5010022 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and agriculture.<ref name=""Othmani"">{{cite journal |last1=Othmani |first1=N I |last2=Sahak |first2=N M |last3=Yunos |first3=M Y M |title=Biomimicry in agrotechnology: Future solution of water problem for the agriculture industry? |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |date=1 May 2021 |volume=756 |issue=1 |pages=012051 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/756/1/012051 |bibcode=2021E&ES..756a2051O |s2cid=235289103 |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/756/1/012051/pdf |access-date=7 October 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Gremmen"">{{cite journal |last1=Gremmen |first1=Bart |title=Regenerative agriculture as a biomimetic technology |journal=Outlook on Agriculture |date=March 2022 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=39–45 |doi=10.1177/00307270211070317 |s2cid=245820727 |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/00307270211070317 |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |issn=0030-7270|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The Biomimicry Institute supports the development of nature-inspired solutions for the [[sustainability]] of the planet.<ref name=""mission""/><ref name=""Linder"">{{cite journal |last1=Linder |first1=Benjamin |last2=Huang |first2=Jean |title=Beyond Structure-Function: Getting at Sustainability within Biomimicry Pedagogy |journal=Biomimetics |date=September 2022 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=90 |doi=10.3390/biomimetics7030090 |pmid=35892360 |pmc=9326754 |language=en |issn=2313-7673|doi-access=free }}</ref> Within the larger field of biomimicry the Institute has three primary objectives, to change the areas of: 
1) Education: Increase access to high quality materials and services for learning, teaching, and practicing biomimicry as a design process.<ref name=""mission""/><ref name=""MacKinnon""/><ref name=""Baldwin"">{{cite news |last1=Baldwin |first1=Eric |title=Biomimicry Institute Launches New Online Course for Designers |url=https://www.archdaily.com/935248/biomimicry-institute-launches-new-online-course-for-designers |access-date=7 October 2022 |work=ArchDaily |date=11 March 2020}}</ref>
2) Practice: Develop the proficiency and practice of next generation innovators so that they have the orientation, skills, and support necessary to use biomimicry to tackle pressing sustainability challenges.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Biomimicry Process |url=https://toolbox.biomimicry.org/methods/process/ |website=Biomimicry Toolbox |access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref><ref name=""mission""/><ref name=""MacKinnon""/>
3) Culture: Shift the design culture so that biomimicry is widely recognized and used as a tool to advance sustainable and restorative innovation.<ref name=""mission""/><ref name=""MacKinnon""/>

==History== 
In 1998, Benyus and  Dayna Baumeister co-founded the Biomimicry Guild<ref name=""Bernstein""/><ref name=""Hayes""/> as an innovation consultancy. Their goal was to help innovators learn from and emulate natural models in order to design [[sustainable]] products, processes, and policies that create conditions conducive to life.<ref name=""Donoff"">{{cite news |last1=Donoff |first1=Elizabeth |title=One-on-One with Janine Benyus Championing nature as the source for sustainable design solutions |url=https://www.architectmagazine.com/technology/lighting/one-on-one-with-janine-benyus_o |access-date=6 October 2022 |work=Architect |date=July 30, 2009}}</ref><ref name=""Bernstein""/>

In 2006, Benyus co-founded  [[The Biomimicry Institute]] with Dayna Baumeister and Bryony Schwan.<ref name=""mission""/> Beth Rattner is Executive Director of the [[non-profit organization]],<ref name=""Bonime""/> whose mission is to naturalize biomimicry in the culture by promoting the transfer of ideas, designs, and strategies from biology to sustainable human systems design.<ref name=""MacKinnon""/>
In 2008 the Biomimicry Institute launched AskNature.org,  ""an encyclopedia of nature's solutions to common design problems"".<ref name=""Wendt"">{{cite news |last1=Wendt |first1=Allyson |title=AskNature.org Connects Designers to Biomimicry Research |url=https://www.buildinggreen.com/newsbrief/asknatureorg-connects-designers-biomimicry-research |access-date=6 October 2022 |work=BuildingGreen |date=4 December 2008 |language=en}}</ref> The Biomimicry Institute has become a key communicator in the field of biomimetics, connecting thousands of practitioners and organizations in 38 regional networks and 26 countries through its Biomimicry Global Network as of 2022.<ref name=""MacKinnon""/>

In 2010, Benyus, Dayna Baumeister, Bryony Schwan, and Christopher Lee Allen formed Biomimicry 3.8, separated their for-profit and nonprofit work by creating a [[benefit corporation]]. Biomimicry 3.8, which achieved [[B Corporation (certification)|B-corp certification]],<ref name=""ASU2013"">{{cite news |title=Benyus to receive honorary degree |url=https://news.asu.edu/content/benyus-receive-honorary-degree |access-date=6 October 2022 |work=ASU News |date=5 April 2013 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Biomimicry 3.8 - Certified B Corporation - B Lab Global |url=https://www.bcorporation.net/en-us/find-a-b-corp/company/biomimicry-38 |website=www.bcorporation.net |access-date=6 October 2022 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name=""Merritt"">{{cite news |last1=Merritt |first1=Elizabeth |title=To B Corps or not to B Corps—A Case Study |url=https://www.aam-us.org/2017/06/20/to-b-corps-or-not-to-b-corps-a-case-study/ |access-date=6 October 2022 |work=American Alliance of Museums |agency=Center for the Future Of Museums Blog |date=20 June 2017}}</ref>  
offers consultancy, professional training, development for educators,<ref name=""ASU2013""/> and ""inspirational speaking"".<ref name=""Bryony"">{{cite web |title=About - Bryony Schwan Consulting - Missoula, Montana |url=https://bryonyschwan.com/about/ |website=Bryony Schwan Consulting |access-date=6 October 2022}}</ref><ref name=""Scanlon"">{{cite news |last1=Scanlon |first1=Jessie |title=Janine Benyus Looks to Nature for Design Inspiration |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-04-07/8-innovations-inspired-by-nature-s-genius |access-date=5 October 2022 |work=Bloomberg |date=April 7, 2016}}</ref><ref name=""Zari"">{{cite book |last1=Zari |first1=Maibritt Pedersen |last2=Connolly |first2=Peter |last3=Southcombe |first3=Mark |title=Ecologies Design: Transforming Architecture, Landscape, and Urbanism |date=7 July 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-06651-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy_sDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT97 |language=en}}</ref>  Among its more than 250 clients are [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]], [[Kohler Co.|Kohler]]. [[Seventh Generation Inc.|Seventh Generation]] and [[C40 Cities]].<ref name=""clients"">{{cite web |title=Work Examples |url=https://biomimicry.net/work-examples/ |website=Biomimicry 3.8 |access-date=6 October 2022}}</ref><ref name=""Hayes"">{{cite news |last1=Hayes |first1=Megan |title=Janine Benyus on 3.8 billion-year-old solutions to today's design challenges |url=https://today.appstate.edu/2018/08/15/benyus |access-date=6 October 2022 |work=Appalachian Today |date=August 15, 2018 |language=en}}</ref>  By 2013, over 100 universities had joined the Biomimicry Educator’s Network, offering training in biomimetics.<ref name=""ASU2013""/> In 2014, the profit and non-profit aspects again became separate entities, with Biomimicry 3.8 engaging in for-profit consultancy and the Biomimicry Institute as a non-profit organization.<ref name=""G20"">{{cite web |title=Biomimicry Institute |url=https://www.g20-insights.org/think_tanks/biomimicry-institute/ |website=G20 Insights |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=de}}</ref>

==Programs==
'''AskNature''' is a freely accessible and comprehensive online database that connects nature's solutions with innovation professionals, students, and educators. Launched in 2008,<ref name=""Wendt"" />   AskNature contains nearly 1,700 ""biological strategies"" describing how living systems have adapted to thrive amongst a myriad of conditions and challenges. It also features a catalog of bio-inspired inventions and research projects, and a resource library for people learning about and teaching bio-inspired design.<ref>{{cite web |title=Field Guide to the Field Guide — AskNature |url=https://asknature.org/field-guide-to-the-field-guide/ |access-date=7 October 2022 |website=asknature.org}}</ref><ref name=""Penick"">{{cite journal |last1=Penick |first1=Clint A |last2=Cope |first2=Grace |last3=Morankar |first3=Swapnil |last4=Mistry |first4=Yash |last5=Grishin |first5=Alex |last6=Chawla |first6=Nikhilesh |last7=Bhate |first7=Dhruv |date=29 June 2022 |title=The Comparative Approach to Bio-Inspired Design: Integrating Biodiversity and Biologists into the Design Process |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icac097 |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |pages= |doi=10.1093/icb/icac097 |pmid=35767863 |access-date=7 October 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Bhatnagar"">{{cite web |last1=Bhatnagar |first1=Sampada |date=8 January 2022 |title=Nature-inspired innovations: Applying design thinking to biomimicry |url=https://uxdesign.cc/nature-inspired-innovations-applying-design-thinking-to-biomimicry-56bc568ea063 |access-date=7 October 2022 |website=UX Collective |language=en}}</ref> According to the annual report for 2013-2014,  over half a million people had visited AskNature in one year,<ref>{{cite web |title=Biomimicry Institute Annual Report 2013-2014 |url=https://biomimicry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/The_Biomimicry_Institute_Annual_Report_2013-2014-Spreads.pdf |access-date=7 October 2022 |website=Biomimicry Institute |page=12}}</ref>

The '''Biomimicry Youth Design Challenge (YDC)''' is a hands-on, project-based learning experience for middle and high school students.  This STEM challenge provides classroom and informal educators with an interdisciplinary framework that combines science, engineering, and environmental literacy with the envisioning of solutions to social and environmental problems.  Students identify problems, find inspiration in nature, and engineer designs to mitigate their problems. Students combine biological strategies from multiple organisms into their design. For example, a team of seventh graders wanted to reduce the need for harmful ice-melting products. They developed a design to reduce ice buildup on airplane wings after studying the structures of mint leaves, cicada wings and pine needles.<ref name=""Matheson"">{{cite news |last1=Matheson |first1=Hilary |title=Middle school team takes second in national Youth Design Challenge |url=https://dailyinterlake.com/news/2022/jun/17/middle-school-team-takes-second-national-youth-des/ |access-date=4 October 2022 |work=Daily Inter Lake |date=17 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

The '''Ray of Hope Prize®''' identifies the top nature-inspired startups in the world and fosters their growth by providing sustainable business training, communications support, and opportunities for non-dilutive funding—the top being a $100,000 equity-free prize.<ref>{{Cite web |title=You are being redirected... |url=https://biomimicry.org/rayofhopeprize |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=biomimicry.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Petrisor/Pexels |first=Published 2 months ago About a 7 minute read Image: Cosmin |date=2022-08-16 |title=10 Biomimetic Innovations Poised to Tackle Countless Climate, Biodiversity, Business Challenges |url=https://sustainablebrands.com/read/product-service-design-innovation/10-biomimetic-innovations-poised-to-tackle-countless-climate-biodiversity-business-challenges |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=Sustainable Brands |language=en}}</ref>

The '''Biomimicry Launchpad''' is an accelerator program that supports early-stage entrepreneurs working to bring nature-inspired innovations to market. The Launchpad provides entrepreneurs with resources to launch and grow biomimicry businesses, accelerates the development and commercialization of biomimicry innovations, and helps create new sustainability entrepreneurs.<ref name=""Ray2022"">{{cite news |title=10 Biomimetic Innovations Poised to Tackle Countless Climate, Biodiversity, Business Challenges |url=https://sustainablebrands.com/read/product-service-design-innovation/10-biomimetic-innovations-poised-to-tackle-countless-climate-biodiversity-business-challenges |access-date=4 September 2022 |work=Sustainable Brands |date=16 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""Anderson"">{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Ray C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uaWSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 |title=Mid-Course Correction Revisited: The Story and Legacy of a Radical Industrialist and his Quest for Authentic Change |last2=Lanier |first2=John A. |date=2019 |publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing |isbn=978-1-60358-889-8 |language=en |access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref><ref name=""tomato"">{{cite news |title=Adaptations in Nature Inspire Students in Award-Winning Design to Reduce Food Waste |url=https://www.pratt.edu/news/adaptations-in-nature-inspire-students-in-award-winning-design-to-reduce-fo/ |access-date=7 October 2022 |work=Pratt |date=6 June 2022 |language=en-us}}</ref>

'''Design for Decomposition''' launched in December 2021 and is a two-year, multi-million dollar project dedicated to demonstrating scalable new pathways for the ~92 million tonnes of fashion waste discarded annually by embracing true decomposition—the way leaves break down into soil—that builds healthy ecosystems.<ref name=""d4d.biomimicry.org"">{{Cite web |title=The Nature of Fashion: Design for Decomposition - The Biomimicry Institute |url=https://d4d.biomimicry.org/ |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=d4d.biomimicry.org}}</ref>

The initiative originated from the 2020 Nature of Fashion report,<ref>{{Cite web |title=You are being redirected... |url=https://biomimicry.org/thenatureoffashion/ |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=biomimicry.org}}</ref> which identified decomposition as a critical part of nature’s material cycles missing from current industrial thinking, and design for decomposition as the quickest route to a regenerative and equitable fashion industry.

The '''Biomimicry Global Design Challenge (BGDC)''' was an annual program that gave scientists, inventors and designers the opportunity to apply biomimicry to create solutions to problems of climate change. Whether emulating the functions of a healthy forest floor to support cost-effective reforestation, or creating a rock-like aggregate that sequesters carbon in concrete (modeled on the formation of shells and coral reefs), the design challenge teams created solutions to man-made problems by learning from nature.<ref name=""Rainey"">{{cite news |last1=Rainey |first1=James |date=October 28, 2018 |title=To fight global warming, humans look to plants and animals |language=en |work=NBC News |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/how-plants-animals-are-teaching-scientists-fight-climate-change-ncna924946 |access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref><ref name=""O'Reilly"">{{cite news |last1=O'Reilly |first1=Katie |date=November 6, 2017 |title=Innovators Compete for $100,000 to Revolutionize Global Food Systems |language=en |work=www.sierraclub.org |url=https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/innovators-compete-for-100000-revolutionize-global-food-systems |access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref> Participants received access to training, mentoring, and other resources. Finalists were invited to join the Biomimicry Launchpad to get support to bring their design to market.<ref name=""Anderson"" /> The program was first announced at the 2014 Annual Meeting of the [[Clinton Global Initiative]]. The first two years of the challenge focused on the issue of [[food insecurity]].<ref>{{cite news |date=September 22, 2014 |title=Ray C. Anderson Foundation and Biomimicry Institute Announce Biomimicry Design Challenge and ""Ray of Hope"" $100,000 Prize Press Release |work=Biomimicry.org |url=https://biomimicry.org/rcaf-bi-design-challenge/ |access-date=18 October 2022}}</ref> The Challenge was discontinued in 2021.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Biomimicry}}
[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in Montana]]
[[Category:Biomimetics]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
De Ceuvel,"{{Short description|Circular office park on former shipyard in Amsterdam}}
{{Orphan|date=January 2024}}

{{Infobox urban development project
 | embed               = 
 | name                = De Ceuvel
 | image               = 2019-06-09-De Ceuvel-5737.jpg
 | caption             = Houseboats and jetty at De Ceuvel
 | other_names         = De Ceuvel-Volharding
 | location            = Amsterdam
 | address             = Korte Papaverweg 2-6, 1032KB Amsterdam
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 | engineer            = 
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 | cost                = 
 | buildings           = 17
 | size                = 1250 m2
 | gross_leasable_area = 
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}}

'''De Ceuvel''' is a former shipyard in [[Amsterdam-Noord|North Amsterdam]], repurposed as a circular office park. Former houseboats hoisted onto the land are used as workspaces and ateliers for various creative and sustainable initiatives.<ref name=""Schuetze"">{{Cite news |last=Schuetze |first=Christopher F. |date=2014-11-19 |title=Building a Community on Polluted Land |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/20/business/energy-environment/ex-shipyard-in-amsterdam-houses-shops-and-offices.html |access-date=2022-11-08 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Plants purify the polluted soil through [[phytoremediation]] and the terrain is used for various experiments with clean technologies. The terrain has a bed-and-breakfast and a cafe-restaurant which is famous for its sustainable approach.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Eamon |title=Regeneration of Disused Industrial Heritage Spaces of Europe and Beyond: Recreated Spaces, Transformed Communities and Contested Sustainability? |url=https://www.globalbuiltenvironmentreview.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/ReidGBER2018ASpecialIssue.pdf |journal=Global Built Environment Review}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:2019-06-09-De_Ceuvel-5732.jpg|thumb|Timeline with pictures on an information sign at the terrain]]
In 1919 a shipyard was built next to the Fokker factory. Partly due to the ice-free water at the wharf in the winter, the company flourished from the 1920s. During [[World War II]], it was slightly damaged by bombs dropping on the nearby Fokker factory. In the 1950s, Louis Marie Pieterson bought the shipyard in poor financial condition. He invested in a new engine room and a new pier and also built his private house on the yard of the shipyard. In the early 1970s, the De Ceuvel company bought the facility, which was expanded several times in the following years. However, the yard closed in 2000, partly due to competition and plans to build a bridge that would restrict access for ships. The shipyard buildings were demolished in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web |title=De Ceuvel |url=https://www.asileflottant.com/de-ceuvel/ |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=Hotel Asile Flottant |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url= https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2019-06-09-De_Ceuvel-5737.jpg |title=History of De Ceuvel sign |website=Wikimedia Commons|date=9 June 2019 }}</ref>

In 2012, a team of architects won a ten-year lease for their concept of sustainable office park De Ceuvel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=De Ceuvel |url=https://openresearch.amsterdam/nl/page/31942/de-ceuvel |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=openresearch.amsterdam |language=nl}}</ref> Since 2013, houseboats have been hoisted out of the water and positioned on land. The site opened in 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barba Lata |first1=Iulian |last2=Duineveld |first2=Martijn |date=November 2019 |title=A harbour on land: De Ceuvel's topologies of creative reuse |journal=Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space |language=en |volume=51 |issue=8 |pages=1758–1774 |doi=10.1177/0308518X19860540 |issn=0308-518X|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019EnPlA..51.1758B }}</ref>

== Terrain and sustainable technologies ==
[[File:De_Ceuvel_(20468018631).jpg|thumb|Repurposed houseboats at De Ceuvel]]
[[File:2019-06-09-De_Ceuvel-1.jpg|thumb|The boats are connected through a jetty on land]]
De Ceuvel is a site of 1250 m² located at the ''Van Hasselt Canal'' with 15 former houseboats on land. The houseboat concept takes into account the temporality of the project and is intended to make it easier to move the project later on.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite news |last=Schwantje |first=Gunda |date=2015-08-23 |title=Alternative Stadtplanung: Die Verknüpfung der Elemente |language=de |work=Die Tageszeitung: taz |url=https://taz.de/!5218419/ |access-date=2022-11-08 |issn=0931-9085}}</ref> Due to the soil contamination, it was not possible to dig deeper than 50&nbsp;cm for foundations or utility pipes, so that they run over the surface.<ref name=""Schuetze""/>

The boats were converted into offices, studios and workspaces. The architects, landscape planners and sustainability experts opted for low-cost solutions to make the boats largely self-sufficient, using solar heating, heat exchangers and composting toilets, as well as filtering and using rainwater and vegetable wastewater treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Klaversma |first1=E. |last2=Roest |first2=K. |last3=Smeets |first3=P. |last4=van den Brand |first4=T. |last5=Cortial |first5=H. |date=2016 |title=Decentral drinking water and wastewater treatment at 'De Ceuvel' in Amsterdam |url=http://uest.ntua.gr/swws/proceedings/pdf/SWWS2016_Klaversma.pdf |journal=The International Water Association}}</ref> According to the operators, water consumption is around 75% lower than a conventional commercial space of this size. Plants are also used to clean the contaminated soil. They remove toxic metals from the soil through phytoremediation.<ref name="":0"" /> Since 2017 De Ceuvel has experimented with blockchain technologies to be able to trade sustainable energy within the community.<ref>{{Cite web |last=City |first=Amsterdam Smart |title=Jouliette |url=https://amsterdamsmartcity.com/updates/project/blockchain-based-energy-token |access-date=8 November 2022 |website=Amsterdam Smart City |date=27 September 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bekhuis |first=Kyra |date=21 June 2018 |title=The transition towards a sustainable way of living: an evaluation of the energy system at De Ceuvel |url=https://studenttheses.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/20.500.12932/31201/Bekhuis_Kyra_5553318.pdf?sequence=2 |website=Student Theses University of Utrecht}}</ref>

The individual houseboats are connected by a winding plank-clad wooden jetty. In the center of the area there is a café with terrace and a bed and breakfast. The future destination of the site after ten years of interim use is still uncertain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=De Ceuvel |url=https://beyond-social.org/archive/articles/De_Ceuvel.html |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=beyond-social.org}}</ref>

== Café de Ceuvel ==
[[File:Cafe_de_Ceuvel_(40222344863).jpg|thumb|Café de Ceuvel]]
The cafe-restaurant, designed by architect Wouter Valkenier, was also built with recycled materials such as a former emergency brigade and 80-year-old bollards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lata |first1=Iulian Barba |last2=Duineveld |first2=Martijn |title=A harbour on land: De Ceuvel's topologies of creative reuse |url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/236875/236875.pdf?sequence=1 |journal=Economy and Space|date=2019 |volume=51 |issue=8 |page=1758 |doi=10.1177/0308518X19860540 |bibcode=2019EnPlA..51.1758B }}</ref> The cafe has been praised for its radically sustainable approach,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-12-03 |title=ENTREE Hospitality & Style Awards 2014 |url=https://www.glamourland.tv/entree-hospitality-style-awards-2014/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Glamourland Magazine |language=nl}}</ref> which cooks partly with ingredients from a greenhouse on the roof and organizes festivals around the theme. In 2017 a [[Omroep NTR|public broadcaster (NTR)]] made a documentary on the story behind the owners.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hsLEnSpDhe8 |title=Make the world great again - NTR Documentaire over Café de Ceuvel |language=nl-NL}}</ref> The cafe was in the newspaper in 2021 as it convinced the Dutch Hospitality Pension Fund through a campaign to be the first fund in the country to divest from fossil fuels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Café de Ceuvel in Amsterdam wanted to save the planet, and the pension fund eventually joined in |url=https://www.paudal.com/2021/09/27/cafe-de-ceuvel-in-amsterdam-wanted-to-save-the-planet-and-the-pension-fund-eventually-joined-in/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=NRC |language=en}}</ref>

== External links ==

* [https://deceuvel.nl/en/ Official website]

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Amsterdam-Noord]]
[[Category:Industrial parks]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Sustainable finance,"{{Short description|Financial regulations, standards, norms and products that pursue an environmental objective.}}
'''Sustainable finance''' is the set of financial regulations, standards, norms and products that pursue an environmental objective. It allows the [[financial system]] to connect with the economy and its populations by financing its agents while maintaining a growth objective. The long-standing concept was promoted with the adoption of the [[Paris Agreement|Paris Climate Agreement]], which stipulates that parties must make ""finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and climate-resilient development.""<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf |title=Paris Agreement |date=2015 |website=[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]}}</ref> In addition, sustainable finance had already a key role to play in the [[European Green Deal]] and in other EU International agreements, but since the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] its role is even more important.

In 2015, the [[UN|United Nations]] adopted the [[2030 Agenda]] to steer the transition towards a sustainable and inclusive economy. This commitment involves 193 member states and comprises 17 goals and 169 targets. [[Sustainable Development Goals|SDGs]] aimed at tackling current global challenges, including protecting the planet. Sustainable finance has become a key cornerstone for the achievement of these goals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/banking-and-finance/sustainable-finance/overview-sustainable-finance_en|title=Overview of sustainable finance|website=European Commission}}</ref>

==Terminology==
The terminology is essential to understand the different concepts around sustainable finance and the differences. The [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) defines three concepts that are different but often used as synonyms, namely: climate, green and sustainable finance. First, [[climate finance]] is a subset of [[environmental finance]], it mainly refers to funds which are addressing [[climate change]] adaptation and mitigation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/10603/definitions_concept.pdf |title=United Nations Environment Programme, Definitions and Concepts |date=2016 |website=[[United Nations Environment Programme]]}}</ref> Then, green finance has a broader scope because it also covers other environmental issues such as [[biodiversity]] protection. Lastly, sustainable finance includes [[Environmental, Social and Corporate Governance]] (ESG) factors in its scope. Sustainable finance extends its domain to the three components of ESG; it is therefore the broadest term, covering all financing activities that contribute to sustainable development.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/store/en/PUB100458.pdf |title=Green and sustainable finance |date=2022 |website=[[ISO]]}}</ref>

== International Initiative ==
By signing the [[Paris Agreement]], more than 190 countries have committed to fighting climate change and reducing [[environmental degradation]]. To reach the target of a maximum temperature increase of 2&nbsp;°C, we need billions of green investments each year in key sectors of the global economy. Public finance will continue to play a key role, but a significant share of the funding will have to come from the private sector. Because financial markets are global, they offer a great opportunity, but this potential is largely untapped. Indeed, to mobilize international investors, it is necessary to promote integrated markets for environmentally sustainable finance at the global level.The UNFCCC and Paris Agreement's collective goal of mobilizing USD 100 billion per year by 2020 in the context of meaningful mitigation action and transparency on implementation fell short in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AR6 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2023 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.ipcc.ch |language=en}}</ref> Therefore, this requires a high degree of coherence between the different capital market frameworks and tools that are essential for investors to identify and seize green investment opportunities. This means working together to ensure the potential of financial markets, and it is in this context that the International Platform on Sustainable Finance has been created.<ref name="":7"">{{cite web |title=International Platform on Sustainable Finance |url=https://finance.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2021-11/international-platform-sustainable-finance-factsheet_en.pdf |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=Europa}}</ref>

=== International Platform on Sustainable Finance (IPSF) ===
The International Platform on Sustainable Finance (IPSF) was launched on 18 October 2019 by the [[European Union]]. The platform is a multi-stakeholder forum for dialogue between policymakers tasked with developing regulatory measures for sustainable finance to help investors identify and seize sustainable investment opportunities that truly contribute to climate and environmental goals.<ref name="":7""/><ref>{{cite web |title=International Platform on Sustainable Finance |url=https://finance.ec.europa.eu/sustainable-finance/international-platform-sustainable-finance_en#:~:text=The%20platform%20is%20a%20forum,invested%20in%20environmentally%20sustainable%20investments.&text=The%20ultimate%20objective%20of%20the,capital%20towards%20environmentally%20sustainable%20investments. |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=Europa}}</ref>

The founding members of the IPSF are obviously the [[European Union]], but also the competent authorities of [[Argentina]], [[Canada]], [[Chile]], [[China]], [[India]], [[Kenya]] and [[Morocco]]. However, since its foundation, the [[Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China|Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (HKSAR)]], [[Indonesia]], [[Japan]], [[Malaysia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Senegal]], [[Singapore]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[United Kingdom]] have also joined IPSF. Together, the 18 IPSF members represent 50% of the world's [[greenhouse gas emissions]], 50% of the world's population and 45% of the world's GDP.<ref name="":7""/>

There are also seven Observers of the International Platform, namely, the [[European Central Bank]], [[European Investment Bank]], [[OECD]], [[UNEP]], NGFS, OICV-IOSCO and The Coalition of Finance Ministers for Climate Action.<ref name="":7"" /> 
The ultimate objectives of the IPSF are to scale up the mobilization of private capital towards environmentally sustainable finance at the global level and to promote integrated markets for environmentally sustainable finance to increase the amount of private capital invested in environmentally sustainable investments by enabling members to exchange and disseminate information to promote best practice, benchmark their different initiatives and identify barriers and opportunities for sustainable finance while respecting national and regional contexts. Where appropriate, willing members can work to align their initiatives and approaches.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Platform on Sustainable Finance (IPSF) |url=https://www.switch-asia.eu/resource/international-platform-on-sustainable-finance-ipsf/ |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=Switchasia}}</ref>

== Sustainable Finance and China ==

=== Development of Sustainable Finance in China ===
China, as one of the world's largest economies and a global leader in environmental challenges, has taken significant strides in the development of sustainable finance. The country's journey toward integrating environmental, social, and governance ([[Environmental, social, and corporate governance|ESG]]) criteria into its financial system is characterized by a commitment to addressing climate change, promoting green investment, and adopting international best practices.

=== Catalyst of Sustainable Finance in China ===

==== Green Bond Market in China ====
A pivotal moment in China's sustainable finance journey was the emergence of green bonds. In 2015, the [[People's Bank of China]] and the [[National Development and Reform Commission]] issued guidelines for green bond issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=People's Bank of China Green Bond Endorsed Project Catalogue (2020 Edition) {{!}} Green Finance Platform |url=https://www.greenfinanceplatform.org/policies-and-regulations/peoples-bank-china-green-bond-endorsed-project-catalogue-2020-edition |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=www.greenfinanceplatform.org}}</ref><ref name="":02"">{{Cite web |last=Zhang |first=Hao |date=January 2020 |year=2020 |title=REGULATING GREEN BONDS IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA: DEFINITIONAL DIVERGENCE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY MAKING |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/562076/adbi-wp1072.pdf |access-date=November 17, 2023 |website=ADBI Working Paper Series}}</ref> These guidelines established the framework for certifying and regulating green bonds, ushering in a new era of green investment in the country. The guidelines looked to help classify projects and set eligibility criteria within six environmental sectors.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite web |last1=Deng |first1=Manshu |last2=Xie |first2=Wenhong |last3=MacGeoch |first3=Matthew |last4=Xu |first4=Xinru |last5=Shi |first5=Yi |last6=Shang |first6=Jin |last7=Chen |first7=Yingying |last8=Lu |first8=Zhengwei |last9=Qian |first9=Lihua |date=May 2023 |title=China Sustainable Debt - State of the Market Report 2022 |url=https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi_china_sotm_22_en.pdf |access-date=November 17, 2023 |website=Climate Bonds Initiative}}</ref> By the end of 2022 China had a cumulative labelled green bond volume of USD489bn (RMB 3.3tn).<ref name="":12"" /> In June 2020, the People's Bank of China (PBoC), China's central bank, China Securities and Regulatory Commission (CSRC), and National Development and Reform Commission released a Green Bond Endorsed Project Catalogue draft which looked to build an overarching guideline for green bonds in China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=People's Bank of China Green Bond Endorsed Project Catalogue (2020 Edition) {{!}} Green Finance Platform |url=https://www.greenfinanceplatform.org/policies-and-regulations/peoples-bank-china-green-bond-endorsed-project-catalogue-2020-edition |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=www.greenfinanceplatform.org}}</ref><ref name="":02"" /> China has since become the world's largest issuer of green bonds, with both domestic and international issuers seeking to fund environmentally friendly projects. Notable examples of issuers include the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC), which among the 40 green [[Kungfu bond|Kung Fu bond]] issuers ranked the largest with at about 6.75bn USD.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Meng |first1=Alan X. |last2=Xie |first2=Wenhong |last3=Shao |first3=Huan |last4=Shang |first4=Jin |last5=Qiqige |first5=Zhula |date=July 2021 |title=China Green Bond Market Report – 2022 |url=https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi_china_sotm_2021_06c_final_0.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119011357/https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi_china_sotm_2021_06c_final_0.pdf |access-date=November 17, 2023 |website=Climate Bonds Initiative |archive-date=November 19, 2023 }}</ref>

==== Promotion of Green Finance Policies in China ====
China's commitment to sustainable finance is reinforced by its strategic policy decisions. In 2016, the People's Bank of China launched a green finance pilot program in five provinces, followed by the Green Credit Issuance Guidelines, encouraging financial institutions to support green projects and integrate ESG criteria into their lending practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yanbo |last2=Li |first2=Xiang |date=2022-06-15 |title=The Impact of the Green Finance Reform and Innovation Pilot Zone on the Green Innovation—Evidence from China |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=7330 |doi=10.3390/ijerph19127330 |issn=1661-7827 |pmc=9223728 |pmid=35742578 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In June 2022, China's National Development and Reform Commission released its 14th 5 year plan on renewable energy development (2021-2025), to accelerate renewable energy expansion.<ref name="":14"">{{Cite web |last=zhoufeng |title=China's 14th Five-Year Plans on Renewable Energy Development and Modern Energy System |url=https://www.efchina.org/Blog-en/blog-20220905-en |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=www.efchina.org |language=en}}</ref> The plan looks to increase renewable energy generation by 50% and looks for a target of 3.3 trillion kWh as compared to 2020's 2.2 trillion kWh and hopes to reduce emissions by 2.6 gigatons annually.<ref name="":14""/> China's National Energy Administration has also furthered this goal by introducing policies supporting renewable energy development, facilitating investments in wind, solar, and hydroelectric power.<ref name="":13"">{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Shangjia |last2=Zhao |first2=Wenhui |last3=Fan |first3=Shuwen |last4=Xue |first4=Lei |last5=Huang |first5=Zijuan |last6=Liu |first6=Zhigang |date=January 2022 |title=Is the Renewable Portfolio Standard in China Effective? Research on RPS Allocation Efficiency in Chinese Provinces Based on the Zero-Sum DEA Model |journal=Energies |language=en |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=3949 |doi=10.3390/en15113949 |issn=1996-1073 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

China's National Energy Administration is committed to supporting renewable energy development through a variety of policies, including feed-in tariffs, renewable portfolio standards, investment subsidies, and grid access.<ref name="":13"" /> These policies have helped to make China the world leader in renewable energy development, and are attracting significant investment in renewable energy projects. The China Development Bank issued green bonds worth 10 billion yuan to improve the environmental protection efforts of the Yellow River and advance social development of regions.<ref>{{Cite web |website=China Development Bank |date=August 24, 2021 |title=China Development Bank enhances green initiatives |url=https://www.cdb.com.cn/English/xwzx_715/khdt/202108/t20210824_8996.html |access-date=December 1, 2023}}</ref> These efforts reflect China's aim to align its financial system with green development goals and transition toward a low-carbon economy.

==== International Collaboration ====
China recognizes the importance of international collaboration in sustainable finance. In 2015, China established the Green Finance Committee (GFC) to promote the development of green finance and align with international green finance principles. This platform was created in response to China hosting the G20 and has only grown since its founding. The GFC has actively engaged with global organizations such as the Green Finance Initiative (GFI) in the United Kingdom, contributing to a greater understanding of green finance's international dynamics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Fourth Anniversary of the China Green Finance Committee |url=https://www.paulsoninstitute.org/green-finance/green-scene/the-fourth-anniversary-of-the-china-green-finance-committee/ |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=Paulson Institute |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Next Generation of China for Sustainable Finance ===
China's dedication to sustainable finance is extending to multiple fronts, demonstrating a holistic approach to green development. The ambitious [[Belt and Road Initiative]] (BRI), a flagship project spanning numerous countries, is increasingly embracing green finance principles, prioritizing eco-friendly investments across its vast infrastructure and development endeavors. This shift aligns the BRI with sustainability goals, emphasizing clean energy, climate resilience, and biodiversity protection in partner nations.<ref name="":04"">{{Cite web |last1=Ivey |first1=Rebecca |last2=Song |first2=Sha |last3=Guo |first3=Kaidi |last4=Yeung |first4=Elton |last5=Cai |first5=Amy |last6=Qing |first6=Ni |last7=Leung |first7=Sammie |last8=Kuo |first8=Ivy |last9=Qian |first9=Wu |display-authors=3 |title=Advancing the Green Development of the Belt and Road Initiative: Harnessing Finance and Technology to Scale Up Low-Carbon Infrastructure |url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Advancing_the_Green_Development_of_the_Belt_and_Road_Initiative_2022.pdf |access-date=December 1, 2023}}</ref> The Green Investment Principles for the BIR were launched in 2018 and looked to create a plan that calls for assessment and disclosure of strategies for managing climate risk, setting new green investment targets, and a commitment to decreasing investment in carbon-intensive practices.<ref name="":04"" /> Simultaneously, the People's Bank of China is diligently crafting a green taxonomy to standardize the classification of environmentally responsible projects and assets, enhancing transparency and reducing the risk of greenwashing.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Alim |first1=Serena |last2=Asakura |first2=Rie |last3=Becka |first3=Nicolas |last4=Benoiton |first4=Cyril |date=April 2022 |title=Enhancing market transparency in green and transition finance |url=https://www.ngfs.net/sites/default/files/medias/documents/enhancing_market_transparency_in_green_and_transition_finance.pdf}}</ref> China is further solidifying its commitment by establishing a Green Finance Research Center, which will act as a global hub for sustainable finance research, fostering international collaboration.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Patel |first=Anika |date=2023-10-06 |title=Experts: How will the next decade of China's 'belt and road initiative' impact climate action? |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/experts-how-will-the-next-decade-of-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-impact-climate-action/ |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}}</ref> Notably, China's 14th Five-Year Plan introduces a comprehensive sustainability approach that permeates various sectors, encompassing agriculture, mining, transportation, and more.<ref name="":14""/> China's active engagement in international collaborations is poised to influence global green finance standards, driving increased transparency and accountability in sustainable investments.<ref name="":14"" />

=== Sustainable Finance in Hong Kong ===
Hong Kong’s Financial Secretary, Paul Chan, delivered the 2023-24 budget on 22 February 2023 with the promotion of a [[green economy]], sustainable development and China’s “3060 Dual Carbon Targets” at the forefront.<ref>{{cite web |title= The Way Forward in Green and Sustainable Financing in Hong Kong – A Reflection from the 2023-24 Budget |url=https://www.mayerbrown.com/zh-hans/perspectives-events/publications/2023/03/the-way-forward-in-green-and-sustainable-financing-in-hong-kong-a-reflection-from-the-2023-24-budget |website=Mayer Brown |access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>

== Sustainable Finance and The European Union ==
=== European Green Deal===
{{Main|European Green Deal}}

The [[European Green Deal]] is a proposal by the [[European Commission]], approved in 2020,  to put in place a series of policies to make Europe climate neutral by 2050 and to cut at least half of its {{CO2}} emissions by 2030.<ref>{{cite web |title=A European Green Deal |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en |website=Europa |date=14 July 2021 |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> Within it, the Commission has promised to raise no less than €1 trillion in order to achieve the objectives of the [[European Green Deal]] by making sustainable investments. Part of this money has been raised to finance the [[Next Generation EU]]. Sustainable finance is therefore one of the pillars on which the EU Green Deal focuses and in addition to its own investments, the Commission would also like to promote private investments by introducing taxonomy regulation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Finance and the Green Deal |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal/finance-and-green-deal_en |website=Europa |access-date=12 November 2022}}</ref>

=== Next Generation EU===
{{Main|Next Generation EU}}

More recently, the [[European Commission]], on behalf of its 27 member states, is also making greater use of green finance, especially [[green bond]] (see green bonds section) to finance part of NextGenerationEU.<ref>{{cite web |title=NextGenerationEU |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/eu-budget/eu-borrower-investor-relations/nextgenerationeu_en |website=Europa |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> The aim of this initiative is to relaunch the economy following [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and aims to improve the [[European Union]] on several levels including; making it greener, accelerating its digitalisation, improving the health system and preparing it for future challenges or supporting young people and making Europe more inclusive.<ref>{{cite web |title=Recovery Plans for Europe |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/recovery-plan-europe_en |website=Europa |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> The main project under this initiative is the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) which provides grants and loan funding to EU member states to support reform and investment. In order to access these funds, each EU Member State must propose a plan which must be approved by the [[European Commission]] and then by the [[Council]]. One of the most important criteria of this plan is that at least 37% is dedicated to the green aspect and 20% to digitalisation. Disbursement is gradual, with 13% received after the contract is signed, and the remainder on the basis of a bi-annual evaluation based on a report submitted and a payment request.<ref>{{cite web |title=Recovery and Resilience Facility |url=https://commission.europa.eu/business-economy-euro/economic-recovery/recovery-and-resilience-facility_en |website=Europa |date=12 February 2021 |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref>

==Tools and Standards==

=== Green bonds ===
{{Main|green bond}}

In order to actually green finance or make it more sustainable, specific tools may be required and some have already been developed. The main one is the [[green bond]]. Green bonds are loans issued in the market by a public or private organization to finance environmentally friendly activities. Their issuance is growing steadily with an average growth of over 50% per year over the last five years. They reached $170 billion in 2018 and $523 billion in 2021.<ref name=""Climate Bonds Initiative"">{{cite web|title=Climate Bonds Initiative|url=https://www.climatebonds.net/|access-date=2021-10-17|website=Climate Bonds Initiative|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=C |last2=MacGeoch |first2=M |last3=Michetti |first3=C |title=Sustainable Debt Global State of the Market 2021 |date=2022 |publisher=Climate Bonds Initiative |url=https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi_global_sotm_2021_02h_0.pdf |access-date=22 October 2022}}</ref> 
The aim of this type of [[bond (finance)]] is to encourage the financing of green projects by attracting investors and therefore reducing the cost of borrowing. According to empirical studies, the high demand for this type of bond provides it with a lower yield than its standard equivalent.<ref name="":4"">{{cite book |last1=Gabor |first1=Daniela |last2=Dafermos |first2=Yannis |last3=Nikolaid |first3=Maria |last4=Rice |first4=Peter |last5=van Lerven |first5=Frank |last6=Kerslake |first6=Robert |last7=Pettifor |first7=Ann |last8=Jacobs |first8=Michael |title=Finance and climate change: a progressive green finance strategy for the UK |date=2019 |publisher=Labour |url=https://labour.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/12851_19-Finance-and-Climate-Change-Report.pdf |access-date=11 November 2022}}</ref> Some scientific papers such as Gabor & al. (2019) strongly recommend including this climate factor in the risk assessment of bonds. The aim is, on the one hand, to increase the borrowing cost of brown bonds which can fund carbon-intensive projects and de-incentivise their investment by increasing the weight of climate risk. On the other hand, the goal is to reduce the weight of risk of green bonds in order to stimulate investment and potentially encourage banks to reduce the interest rate of these bonds.<ref name="":4"" />

From a legal point of view, green bonds are not really different from traditional bonds. The promises made to investors are not always included in the contract, and not often in a binding way. Issuers of green bonds usually follow standards and principles set by private-led organisations such as the [[International Capital Market Association]] (ICMA)'s Green Bond Principles<ref>{{cite web|title=Green Bond Principles|url=https://www.icmagroup.org/green-social-and-sustainability-bonds/green-bond-principles-gbp/|access-date=2020-05-22|website=www.icmagroup.org}}</ref> or the label of the Climate bond initiative.<ref name=""Climate Bonds Initiative"" /> The [[Paris Agreement|Paris agreement on climate change]] highlighted a desire to standardize reporting practices related to green bonds, in order to avoid [[greenwashing]]. To date, there are no regulations requiring the borrower to specify its ""green"" intentions in writing, however, the EU is currently developing a green bond standard which will force issuers to fund activities aligned with the [[EU taxonomy for sustainable activities]].<ref>{{cite web|date=6 July 2021|title=Commission puts forward a new strategy to make the EU's financial system more sustainable and proposes new European Green Bond Standard|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en|access-date=2021-10-17|website=European Commission|language=en}}</ref> This standard is expected to be a voluntary standard, operating alongside other voluntary standards, with academics and practitioners raising the policymakers' awareness to the dangers of imposing it as a mandatory standard.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karim Henide|date=2021-12-22|title=Green lemons: overcoming adverse selection in the green bond market|url=https://www.un-ilibrary.org/content/journals/2076099x/28/3/2|journal=Transnational Corporations|language=en|volume=28|issue=3|pages=35–63|doi=10.18356/2076099x-28-3-2|s2cid=245453922}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Henide|first=Karim|date=2022-01-17|title=The European Central Bank's vision for green bond standards forgoes inclusivity|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2022/01/17/the-european-central-banks-vision-for-green-bond-standards-forgoes-inclusivity/|access-date=2022-01-22|website=LSE Business Review}}</ref>

The [[European Union]] has already created its own ""Next Generation EU Green bonds framework"" to use green bonds to raise part of the funds for the [[Next Generation EU]] project. This project promises an investment of 750 billion euros in grants and loans (at 2018 prices), by the European Commission, aiming to revive the post-covid-19 economy in the 27 EU member states. Up to 30% of the budget will be raised by issuing green bonds, which results in up to 250 million, and a total of 14.5 million had already been raised by January 2022. This will make the [[European Commission]] the largest issuer of green bonds.<ref name="":4""/>

Empirical studies such as that conducted by Baldi and Pandimiglio (2022) show that the risk of [[greenwashing]] is present and may wrongly induce investors to accept lower rates of return than for brown investments.<ref name="":5"">{{cite journal |last1=Baldi |first1=F |last2=Pandimiglio |first2=A |title=The role of ESG scoring and greenwashing risk in explaining the yields of green bonds: A conceptual framework and econometric analysis. |date=May 2022 |journal=Global Finance Journal |volume=52 |page=100711 |doi=10.1016/j.gfj.2022.100711 |s2cid=246209080 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfj.2022.100711 |access-date=27 October 2022|hdl=11585/947074 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The standardization of this taxonomy would reduce the criticism of greenwashing that can be attributed to this type of obligation and enhance clarity and transparency in their use.<ref name="":3"" /> Baldi and Pandimiglio (2022) further suggest that rating agencies focus more on this type of risk in order to identify and quantify it better.<ref name="":5"" />

=== Taxonomy of sustainable activities ===
{{Main|EU taxonomy for sustainable activities}}

Because energy transition is a broad concept and sustainability or green can apply to many projects (renewable energy, energy efficiency, waste management, water management, public transportation, reforestation...), several taxonomies are being established to evaluate and certify ""green"" investments (having no or very little impact on the environment).

In 2018, the [[European Commission]] created a working group of technical experts on sustainable finance (TEG: Technical Expert Group) to define a classification of economic activities (the ""taxonomy""), in order to have a robust methodology defining whether an activity or company is sustainable or not. The aim of the taxonomy is to prevent [[greenwashing]] and to help investors make greener choices.<ref name="":1"">{{cite web|last=Sholem|first=Michael|date=10 March 2021|title=ESMA Proposes Rules for Taxonomy-Alignment of Non-Financial Undertakings and Asset Managers|url=https://www.natlawreview.com/article/esma-proposes-rules-taxonomy-alignment-non-financial-undertakings-and-asset-managers|access-date=5 April 2021|website=The National Law Review|language=en}}</ref> Investments are judged by six objectives: [[climate change mitigation]], [[climate change adaptation]], the [[circular economy]], pollution, effect on water, and [[biodiversity]].<ref name="":0"">{{cite web|title=EU taxonomy for sustainable activities|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/banking-and-finance/sustainable-finance/eu-taxonomy-sustainable-activities_en|access-date=5 April 2021|website=European Commission|language=en}}</ref>

The taxonomy came into force in July 2020.<ref name="":1"" /> The taxonomy is seen as the most comprehensive and sophisticated initiative of its type; it may inspire other countries to develop their own taxonomies or may indeed become the world's 'gold standard. However, when the disclosure regime comes into effect in January 2022 there will still be huge gaps in data and it may be several years before it becomes effective.

The classifications of [[Natural gas|fossil gas]] and [[Nuclear power|nuclear energy]] are controversial.<ref name="":2"">{{cite web|last=Sánchez Nicolás|first=Elena|date=2 April 2021|title=Experts threaten to quit over new EU 'green finance' rules|url=https://euobserver.com/climate/151437|access-date=5 April 2021|website=EUobserver|language=en}}</ref> The [[European Commission]] asked its [[Joint Research Centre]] to assess the [[environmental sustainability]] of nuclear. The results will be investigated for three months by two expert groups before the Commission makes a decision on the classification.<ref name="":0"" /> Natural gas is seen by some countries as the bridge between coal and [[renewable energy]], and those countries argue for natural gas to be considered sustainable under a set of conditions.<ref>{{cite web|last=Morgan|first=Sam|date=29 March 2021|title=View from Brussels: Nuclear power set for EU boost|url=https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2021/03/view-from-brussels-nuclear-power-set-for-eu-boost/|access-date=5 April 2021|website=eandt.theiet.org|language=en-US}}</ref> In response, various members of the expert group that advises the [[European Commission]] threatened to step down. They stated they see the inclusion of gas as a contradiction to climate science, as [[methane emissions]] from the natural gas form are a significant [[greenhouse gas]].<ref name="":2"" /><ref>{{cite web|last=Hall|first=Siobhan|date=25 March 2021|title=Draft EU taxonomy sparks discord over gas, nuclear future|url=http://www.montelnews.com/en/story/draft-eu-taxonomy-sparks-discord-over-gas-nuclear-future/1207136|access-date=5 April 2021|website=Montel news}}</ref>

The UK is working on its own separate taxonomy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chancellor sets out ambition for future of UK financial services|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/chancellor-sets-out-ambition-for-future-of-uk-financial-services|access-date=2021-05-20|website=GOV.UK|language=en}}</ref>

=== Green-supporting factor on capital requirements ===
To encourage banks to increase green lending, commercial banks<ref>{{cite web|date=2014-01-22|title=Supporting Factor|url=https://www.ebf.eu/sustainable-finance/supporting-factor/|access-date=2021-10-16|website=European Banking Federation|language=en-US|archive-date=2022-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124044244/https://www.ebf.eu/sustainable-finance/supporting-factor/|url-status=dead}}</ref> have been proposing to introduce a ""Green-supporting factor"" on banks' capital requirements. This proposal is currently being considered by the [[European Commission]] and the European Banking Authority.<ref>{{cite web|title=Keynote speech of Vice-President Valdis Dombrovskis on challenges and impacts of implementing Basel III|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/SPEECH_19_6269|access-date=2021-10-16|website=European Commission - European Commission|language=en}}</ref> However this approach is generally being opposed by central bankers<ref>{{cite web|title=A Green Supporting Factor — The Right Policy?, SUERF Policy Notes .:. SUERF - The European Money and Finance Forum|url=https://www.suerf.org/policynotes/3473/a-green-supporting-factor-the-right-policy|access-date=2021-10-16|website=SUERF.ORG}}</ref> and nonprofits organisations, which propose instead the adoption of higher capital requirements for assets linked with fossil fuels (""Brown-penalizing factor"").<ref>{{cite web|date=2020-06-07|title=Report – Breaking the climate-finance doom loop {{!}} Finance Watch|url=https://www.finance-watch.org/publication/breaking-the-climate-finance-doom-loop/|access-date=2021-10-16|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Mandatory and voluntary disclosure ===
{{Main|Sustainability Reporting}}

In addition, another tool and some standards lie in reporting and transparency. In 2015, the Financial Stability Board (FSB) launched the Taskforce on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) which is led by Michael Bloomberg. The TCFD's recommendations aim to encourage companies to better disclose the climate-related risks in their business, as well as their internal governance enabling the management of these risks. In the United Kingdom, the Governor of the Bank of England, Mark Carney, has actively supported the TCFD's recommendations and has called on several occasions for the implementation of obligations for companies in the financial sector to be transparent and to take into account financial risks in their management, notably through climate stress tests.

In France, the 2015 Energy Transition Law requires institutional investors to be transparent about their integration of Environmental, Social and Governance Criteria into their investment strategy.<ref>{{cite web|last=2016-04-22T15:13:00+01:00|title=French Energy Transition Law: Global investor briefing on Article 173|url=https://www.unpri.org/climate-change/french-energy-transition-law-global-investor-briefing-on-article-173/295.article|access-date=2021-10-17|website=PRI|language=en|archive-date=2021-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020091109/https://www.unpri.org/climate-change/french-energy-transition-law-global-investor-briefing-on-article-173/295.article|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Nevertheless, empirical research has shown the limited effect of disclosure policies if they remain voluntary.<ref>Bingler, Julia Anna and Kraus, Mathias and Leippold, Markus, Cheap Talk and Cherry-Picking: What ClimateBert has to say on Corporate Climate Risk Disclosures (March 2, 2021).</ref><ref>Mésonnier Jean-Stéphane, Nguyen Benoît « [https://publications.banque-france.fr/en/showing-cleaner-hands-mandatory-climate-related-disclosure-financial-institutions-and-financing Showing off cleaner hands: mandatory climate-related disclosure by financial institutions and the financing of fossil energy]  », Banque de France, January 2021</ref>

In addition, in October 2022, the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive was adopted. This new reporting rule will apply to all large firms, whether listed on stock markets or not. Therefore, around 50,000 companies will be covered by new rules, compared to about 11,700 with the former set of rules. More precisely, the impact of an organization on the environment, human rights and social standards will be introduced in this CSRD. Indeed, this reporting directive asks for more detailed reporting requirements thanks to common criteria, in line with the EU’s climate goals. The Commission will adopt the first set of standards by June 2023 after that, the aim of the Commission is to enlarge more and more companies to this set of standards. Indeed, from 1 January 2026, the rules will apply to listed SMEs and other undertakings, with reports due in 2027. However, SMEs can opt out until 2028. Thanks to this new set of rules, the EU has become a front-runner in global sustainability reporting standards.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable economy: Parliament adopts new reporting rules for multinationals |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20221107IPR49611/sustainable-economy-parliament-adopts-new-reporting-rules-for-multinationals |website=News European Parliament |date=11 October 2022 |access-date=1 December 2022}}</ref>

== Green Monetary Policy ==
Policymakers, through their green monetary policies, help speed up the adoption of sustainable finance by supporting the development of investment instruments and fund structures tailored specifically to sustainable finance, creating incentives for investors, and establishing a regulatory agenda to standardize ESG measures of performance.<ref name=""Green central banking"">{{cite web |title=Green central banking |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2022)733614 |website=European Parliament |access-date=11 November 2022}}</ref>

=== Green Central Banking ===
The term ""Green Central Banking"" refers to the critical role that central banks must play in achieving zero-net-emissions targets and mitigating climate change. By adjusting their monetary policies into “green monetary policy” and capital requirements, central banks can redirect investment into green financing.<ref name=""Green central banking""/>

=== Network for Greening the Financial System (NGFS) ===
{{Main|Network for Greening the Financial System}}

In 2018, under the leadership of [[Mark Carney]], [[Frank Elderson]], and Banque de France Governor [[François Villeroy de Galhau|Villeroy de Galhau]], eight central banks created the [[Network for Greening the Financial System]] (NGFS), a network of central banks and financial supervisors wanting to explore the potential role of central banks to accompany the energy transition. This network has nearly 116 central banks and supervisors and 19 observers including the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[European Central Bank]] (ECB). Priorities for the NGFS include sharing best practices, advancing climate and environmental risk management in the financial sector, and mobilizing mainstream finance.<ref name=""ngfs.net"">{{cite web |title=NGFS climate scenarios for central banks and supervisors |url=https://www.ngfs.net/en/ngfs-climate-scenarios-central-banks-and-supervisors |website=NGFS |date=24 June 2020 |access-date=22 November 2022}}</ref>

Several policy options for greening monetary policy instruments have been explored by the NGFS:<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-24 |title=Adapting central bank operations to a hotter world: Reviewing some options |url=https://www.ngfs.net/en/adapting-central-bank-operations-hotter-world-reviewing-some-options |access-date=2022-06-01 |website=Banque de France |language=en-GB}}</ref>

* '''Green refinancing operations:''' central banks can adopt green conditions when banks refinance themselves from central banks, for example by granting a lower interest rate if banks issue a certain volume of loans for green projects.
* '''Green collateral frameworks:''' central banks can restrict collateral eligibility rules by excluding polluting assets, or requiring banks to mobilize a pool of assets that is aligned with net zero trajectories.
* '''Green quantitative easing:''' central banks could restrict their asset purchases programmes to green bonds.

The NGFS, through its working group “Workstream 2”, has published new Scenarios for central banks and supervisors in September 2022 in partnership with an academic consortium. The NGFS Scenarios were developed to assess the impact of climate change on the global economy and financial markets. While developed primarily for use by central banks and supervisors, they may be valuable to the broader business sector, government, and academics as well.<ref name=""ngfs.net""/>

=== European Central Bank’s Financial Commitment to Addressing Climate Change ===
During the [[United Nations Climate Change Conference]] (COP 26), in July 2021, under the leadership of [[Christine Lagarde]] and after pressure from NGOs, the ECB committed to contributing to the implementation of the Paris Agreement's aim of “making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development”. (Article 2.1. (c) of the Paris Agreement, 2015) <ref>{{cite web |title=The ECB pledge on climate change action |url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/ecb.pledge_climate_change_action211103~6af74636d8.pt.pdf |website=Europa |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> The ECB also announced a detailed roadmap to incorporate climate change in its monetary policy framework.<ref>{{Cite journal|website=European Central Bank|date=2021-07-08|title=ECB presents action plan to include climate change considerations in its monetary policy strategy|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2021/html/ecb.pr210708_1~f104919225.en.html|language=en}}</ref> The action plan includes measures to integrate climate-risks metrics in the ECB's collateral framework and corporate sector purchase programme (CSPP) referred to bonds. Christine Lagarde said she was also in favour of developing ""green lending facilities""<ref>{{Cite web |last=Randow |first=Jana |date=1 June 2022 |title=Lagarde Has Open Mind on ECB Lending as a Climate-Crisis Tool |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-01/lagarde-has-open-mind-on-ecb-lending-as-a-climate-crisis-tool |access-date=2022-06-01 |website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> like the [[Bank of Japan]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-21 |title=Bank of Japan to launch climate lending facility |url=https://greencentralbanking.com/2021/06/21/bank-of-japan-to-launch-climate-lending-facility/ |access-date=2022-06-01 |website=Green Central Banking |language=en-US}}</ref> and [[People's Bank of China]].

=== Action Plan of the ECB on Climate Change ===
In accordance with its recent decisions, the ECB commits to contributing to the Paris Agreement goals and NGFS initiatives within its mandate by taking the following specific actions:<ref>{{cite web |title=The ECB pledge on climate change action |url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/ecb.pledge_climate_change_action211103~6af74636d8.pt.pdf |website=Europa |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref>
# Integrating climate-related risks into financial stability monitoring and prudential supervision of bank
# Integrating sustainability factors into own portfolio management
# Exploring the effects of climate-related risks on the Eurosystem monetary policy framework within our mandate
# Bridging data gaps in climate-related data
# Working towards higher awareness and intellectual capacity, also through technical assistance and knowledge sharing

== Debate ==
There are a few concerns and limitations that can be attributed to sustainable finance.

=== The important number of standards ===
First, as already seen, the concept of sustainable finance is directly linked with ESG. However, there are still no universally adopted standards for how companies and organisations can measure and report on their sustainability performance. Instead, we have a large number of NGOs working independently to develop standards for sustainability reporting, which is creating complexity and confusion for companies and investors.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite news |last1=Barker |first1=Richard |last2=Eccles |first2=Robert G. |last3=Serafeim |first3=George |date=2020-12-03 |title=The Future of ESG Is … Accounting? |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2020/12/the-future-of-esg-is-accounting |access-date=2022-12-14 |issn=0017-8012}}</ref>  Indeed, the initiators of reforms in sustainable finance can be very different. There are initiatives from non-governmental organisations such as [[Global Reporting Initiative]] (GRI), [[IFRS Foundation]], the International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC) and the [[Carbon Disclosure Project]].<ref name="":9"">{{Cite news |last1=Eccles |first1=Robert G. |last2=Mirchandani |first2=Bhakti |date=2022-02-15 |title=We Need Universal ESG Accounting Standards |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2022/02/we-need-universal-esg-accounting-standards |access-date=2022-12-14 |issn=0017-8012}}</ref> However, recently, it seems like the [[IFRS Foundation]] is taking the lead.<ref name="":8"" /> This is possible because the organisation possess a deep expertise in the standard-setting process, it also have a legitimacy in the corporate and investor community, and regulators support it internationally.

Then, since sustainable finance is rather new and above all, a constantly evolving topic with an important number of actors, it is impossible to find a constant framework overtime. For example, a new framework for sustainable finance, ISO 32210 was published in October 2022. This tool provides guidance to all organisations, active in the financial sector, including, but not limited to, direct lenders and investors, asset managers and service providers, on the implementation of sustainability principles, practices and terminology for financing activities.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISO 32210:2022(en) Sustainable finance — Guidance on the application of sustainability principles for organizations in the financial sector |url=https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:32210:ed-1:v1:en |access-date=12 November 2022 |website=ISO}}</ref>

Because of this pool of standards and the constant evolution, it is not unusual hat some [[funds]] or [[companies]] are not as green as they claim to be. Indeed, some ESG funds still hold shares in oil and coal companies. However, since there are no universally adopted standards, this practice is still ongoing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cardoni |first1=Andrea |last2=Kiseleva |first2=Evgeniia |last3=Terzani |first3=Simone |date=2019 |title=Evaluating the Intra-Industry Comparability of Sustainability Reports: The Case of the Oil and Gas Industry |journal=Sustainability |volume=11|issue=4 |page=1093 |doi=10.3390/su11041093 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Businesses can also leverage the opacity and the diversity of ESG ratings methodologies thus questioning the reliability of ratings,<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w30562 |title=ESG Confusion and Stock Returns: Tackling the Problem of Noise |last1=Berg |first1=Florian |last2=Koelbel |first2=Julian |date=October 2022 |publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research |location=Cambridge, MA |last3=Pavlova |first3=Anna |last4=Rigobon |first4=Roberto|doi=10.3386/w30562 }}</ref> greenwashing threats, and the relaying of inaccurate and piecemeal information to investors through self-reporting.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-08 |title=Here's why comparable ESG reporting is crucial for investors |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/comparable-esg-investors/ |access-date=2023-12-30 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bril |first1=Herman |last2=Kell |first2=Georg |last3=Rasche |first3=Andreas |date=2022-10-06 |title=Sustainability, Technology, and Finance |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003262039 |doi=10.4324/9781003262039|isbn=978-1-003-26203-9 |s2cid=252775344 }}</ref> This is considered as morally hazardous as they depend on dubious self-reported data based on the free will of companies to disclose information more than often unaudited and incomplete.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Lykkesfeldt |first1=Poul |title=Encompassing ESG Rating Agencies |date=2022 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05800-4_39 |work=Investor Relations and ESG Reporting in a Regulatory Perspective |pages=305–311 |access-date=2023-12-30 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-031-05799-1 |last2=Kjaergaard |first2=Laurits Louis|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-05800-4_39 }}</ref>

For instance, according to ESMA’s consultancy, of the 34 respondents disclosing the number of ESG rating agencies they rely on, 77% use more than one provider for ESG ratings, while 23% use only one provider.<ref>https://www.esma.europa.eu/sites/default/files/library/esma80-416-347_letter_on_esg_ratings_call_for_evidence_june_2022.pdf</ref>

If the incentives to greenwash are quite high, it is partly correlated to the fact that rated ESG firms enjoy lower capital and debt costs for doing so.<ref>Ferriani, F. (2023). Issuing bonds during the Covid-19 pandemic: Was there an ESG premium?. ''International Review of Financial Analysis'', ''88'', 102653.</ref> This problem is said to be mainly a question of the company’s maturity on [[Corporate social responsibility|Corporate and Societal Responsibility]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karwowski |first1=Mariusz |last2=Raulinajtys-Grzybek |first2=Monika |date=2021-03-19 |title=The application of corporate social responsibility (<scp>CSR</scp>) actions for mitigation of environmental, social, corporate governance (<scp>ESG</scp>) and reputational risk in integrated reports |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/csr.2137 |journal=Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=1270–1284 |doi=10.1002/csr.2137 |s2cid=233652951 |issn=1535-3958}}</ref> and where it is situated on the CSR pyramid that distinguishes four distinct levels of responsibilities: economic, legal, ethical, and lastly philanthropic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carroll |first1=Archie B. |last2=Shabana |first2=Kareem M. |date=2010-01-15 |title=The Business Case for Corporate Social Responsibility: A Review of Concepts, Research and Practice |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00275.x |journal=International Journal of Management Reviews |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=85–105 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00275.x |s2cid=8385030 |issn=1460-8545}}</ref>

Lastly, it is important to mention that the focus here was almost exclusively on the [[European Union]], at an international level, the lack of homogeneity on sustainable finance norms and standards is even larger. However, initiatives such as the International Platform on Sustainable Finance open the discussion and the exchange of best practices to have more international norms and standards.

=== A legislative Spaghetti Bowl ===
The global regulatory framework evolves in a global context of shift toward sustainable finance regulations. Currently, 29 countries in the world have in significant level of mandatory ESG disclosure regulation.<ref><nowiki>https://stacs.io/governments-eye-mandatory-esg-disclosures/</nowiki>, see also <nowiki>https://www.azeusconvene.com/articles/the-global-state-of-mandatory-esg-disclosures</nowiki></ref> Investors and financiers often favor companies with strong ESG records, which in turn can influence their ability to engage in international trade. Those who do are confronted to the multiplicity and divergence of regulatory frameworks around the world with specific market access prerequisites, disclosure standards, compliance supervision, authorities, etc.

Thus, the ESG market is often referred to as a “mess”,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ft.com/content/246010cd-5274-4f20-b63a-7eaaa6186251 | title=Letter: Untangling ESG mess will need more than regulation }}</ref> comparable to the [[Spaghetti bowl effect|“spaghetti bowl” effect]] regarding the profusion of global trade agreements.<ref>Bhagwati, J. N. (1995). US trade policy: The infatuation with FTAs.</ref>  As global supply chains expand, it is harder to find a common guideline on ESG factoring and face the subsequent “red tape” and costs, especially for SMEs.<ref>O’Reilly, S., Gorman, L., Mac An Bhaird, C., & Brennan, N. M. (2023, November). Implementing the European Union Green Taxonomy: implications for small-and medium-sized enterprises. In ''Accounting Forum'' (pp. 1-26). Routledge.</ref><ref name=""climate.ec.europa.eu"">https://climate.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2016-11/s2_a_barkmann_eea_en.pdf</ref>

All around the world, the green regulatory framework hardens, complexifies and presents never-ending interdependencies. The greenhouse gas emissions reporting requirements are a probing example of this ""spaghetti bowl”. It is said to lead to inefficiencies and a lack of transparency that can only be mitigated  through advanced streamlining processes.<ref name=""climate.ec.europa.eu""/>

=== Lack of comparability ===
In addition, the same actors also face a lack of comparability. Indeed, it is very difficult to compare companies and investments on the basis of their ESG performance. Taking again the example of the oil and gas industry, the reporting on sustainability is carried in varied ways. Indeed, according to a study conducted by researchers at the University of Perugia's Economics Department, out of 51 relevant GRI indicators, only four indicators appear in over 75% of the companies' GRI reports.<ref name="":9"" />

Also, a paper finds that only 60% of ESG ratings concord, compared to 99% for credit ratings from the largest rating agencies.<ref>Cited by Fichtner, J., Jaspert, R. and Petry, J. (2023), Mind the ESG capital allocation gap: The role of index providers, standard-setting, and “green” indices for the creation of sustainability impact. Regulation & Governance. {{doi|10.1111/rego.12530}} </ref>  The explanation of these discrepancies of methodologies according to the authors is the challenge of aggregating scores on three pillars, mainly the more complex social aspect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=CAPIZZI |first1=VINCENZO |last2=GIOIA |first2=ELEONORA |last3=GIUDICI |first3=GIANCARLO |last4=TENCA |first4=FRANCESCA |date=2021-11-12 |title=The Divergence of Esg Ratings: An Analysis of Italian Listed Companies |journal=Journal of Financial Management, Markets and Institutions |volume=09 |issue=2 |doi=10.1142/s2282717x21500067 |issn=2282-717X|doi-access=free |hdl=11311/1186251 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=""Berg 1315–1344"">{{Cite journal |last1=Berg |first1=Florian |last2=Kölbel |first2=Julian F |last3=Rigobon |first3=Roberto |date=2022-05-23 |title=Aggregate Confusion: The Divergence of ESG Ratings |journal=Review of Finance |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=1315–1344 |doi=10.1093/rof/rfac033 |issn=1572-3097|doi-access=free }}</ref> This phenomenon can be referred to as the '''“'''[[ESG ratings gap]]”  in the academic literature and highlights how ratings provided by ESG providers often vary significantly, leading to what is referred to as ""aggregate confusion"".<ref name=""Berg 1315–1344""/>

Another problem concerning methodologies is that there are no set-in stone and can evolve with time, making comparison attempts null and void. For instance, '''[[MSCI]]''' has a rating system that is based on a scale of AAA (top of the line) to CCC (bottom of line), accompanied with a report explaining why a company went up or down in its score overtime. It was noted that of 150 companies on MSCI’s repertoire, 50% had a score going up while changing nothing. The ESG rater later explained that they upgraded those companies because they updated their methodologies thus the scores went up. This way, most companies had upgraded for what MSCI calls “corporate behavior and data protection”, while only one company was upgraded for emission reduction. It was argued that MSCI worked in the interest of big S&P 500 corporations to get a higher score of ESG rating to help them lower their cost of capital and attract more investors.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Simpson |first1=Cam |last2=Rathi |first2=Akshat |last3=Kishan |first3=Saijel |date=2021-12-10 |title=Sustainable Investing Is Mostly About Sustaining Corporations |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2021-what-is-esg-investing-msci-ratings-focus-on-corporate-bottom-line/ |access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref>

This kind of ''post hoc'' adjustments were meticulously observed and linked to the thorny question of data manipulation to make ESG raters look more accurate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berg |first1=Florian |last2=Fabisik |first2=Kornelia |last3=Sautner |first3=Zacharias |date=2020 |title=Rewriting History II: The (Un)Predictable Past of ESG Ratings |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3722087 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3722087 |s2cid=237288718 |issn=1556-5068}}</ref> The result is that the ESG rating landscape is plagued with incoherence and makes it much harder for end investors to make a profound and thorough investment analysis.<ref>El-Hage, J. (2021). Fixing ESG: Are Mandatory ESG Disclosures the Solution to Misleading ESG Ratings?. ''Fordham J. Corp. & Fin. L.'', ''26'', pp368</ref>

=== Green Central Banking legitimacy ===
Another concern worth debating in sustainable finance is the legitimacy of Green Central Banking.

First, in response to the recent global financial crisis, which started with the outbreak of the pandemic, there has been a strong reliance on central banks to intervene not only for their traditional prudential motives of ensuring price and financial stability but also for more promotional purposes as a means of supporting other policy objectives such as promoting a low-carbon economy (Baer et al. 2021).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baer |first1=Moritz |last2=Campiglio |first2=Emanuele |last3=Deyris |first3=Jérôme |date=December 2021 |title=It takes two to dance: Institutional dynamics and climate-related financial policies |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092180092100269X |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=190 |pages=107210 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107210|bibcode=2021EcoEc.19007210B |hdl=11585/835003 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> However, according to many researchers, the pursuit of such promotional goals in monetary policy decisions raises serious questions about the legitimacy of independent central banks (Fontan et al. 2016).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fontan |first1=Clément |last2=Claveau |first2=François |last3=Dietsch |first3=Peter |date=2016-07-31 |title=Central banking and inequalities |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1470594x16651056 |journal=Politics, Philosophy & Economics |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=319–357 |doi=10.1177/1470594x16651056 |s2cid=156079188 |issn=1470-594X}}</ref> By way of illustration, Greenpeace protestors claimed in March 2021 that the [[European Central Bank]]'s (ECB) monetary policies subsidise fossil fuel companies (Treeck, 2021).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-10 |title=Greenpeace lands on ECB tower in climate finance protest |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/greenpeace-protest-european-central-bank-paraglider-climate-finance-carbon/ |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=POLITICO |language=en-US}}</ref>

Furthermore, the Central Bank Independence (CBI) framework says that central banks should be permitted to operate independently within a limited mandate (Dietsch et al., 2018),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tucker |first=Paul |date=2020-02-20 |title=Do Central Banks Serve the People? Peter Dietsch, Francois Claveau and Clement Fontan. Polity Press, 2018, vii + 135 pages. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s026626711900035x |journal=Economics and Philosophy |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=481–487 |doi=10.1017/s026626711900035x |s2cid=213077397 |issn=0266-2671}}</ref> although other writers feel that changing the central bank's mandate is insufficient (Fontan et al. 2022).<ref name="":10"" />

Central banks are rarely tasked with advancing environmental or climate change mitigation objectives. When it comes to these environmental policies, central banks must deal with arbitrary issues, and there is no agreement on who should bear the burden. Neither conservative nor progressive central bankers defend this dilemma (Fontan et al. 2022).<ref name="":10"" /> As a result, according to the previous authors, their pursuit of green monetary policies puts central banks in a tough spot, casting doubt on their legitimacy.

In a nutshell, Baer and co-authors argue that central banks may their legitimacy issues by working in tandem with elected officials. In other words, a thorough examination of the actions of central banks necessitates a close examination of the actions of the governments and parliaments that formulate the central bank's mandate (Elgie 2002).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Elgie |first=Robert |date=January 2002 |title=The politics of the European Central Bank: principal-agent theory and the democratic deficit |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13501760110120219 |journal=Journal of European Public Policy |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=186–200 |doi=10.1080/13501760110120219 |s2cid=53073648 |issn=1350-1763}}</ref> Whether it's through working with a green investment bank to reduce their carbon footprint or forming joint committees of central bankers and members of parliament to influence the types of assets they purchase (Fontan et al. 2022).<ref name="":10"">{{cite book |last1=Dietsch |first1=Peter |last2=Fontan |first2=Clément |last3=Dion |first3=Jérémie |last4=Claveau |first4=François |title=Green Central Banking |date=2022 |url=https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/ymre2/ |access-date=27 October 2022}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Sustainable business]]
[[Category:Ethical investment]]
[[Category:Ethical banking]]
[[Category:Corporate social responsibility]]
[[Category:Social finance]]
[[Category:Economy and the environment]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
United States building energy codes,"[[File:U.S. primary energy consumption by source and sector, 2018.jpg|thumb|U.S. primary energy consumption by source and sector, 2018. '''Note''': Energy Consumption for combined commercial and residential sectors is 39% of Total Energy Consumption when electrical system energy losses are included.<ref name="":21"" />]]
'''[[United States]] building energy codes''' are a [[subset]] of [[building codes]] that set minimum requirements for [[Energy conservation|energy-efficient]] design and [[construction]] for new and renovated buildings.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |title=Why Building Energy Codes? |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/why-building-energy-codes#:~:text=Building%20energy%20codes%2C%20which%20govern,money%20back%20into%20consumer's%20pockets |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes Program}}</ref> The intent of these energy codes is to moderate and reduce energy use and [[Emission intensity|emissions]] throughout the lifetime of a building.<ref name="":0"" /> Energy code provisions may include various aspects of building design and construction, such as: [[Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning|HVAC]] systems, [[building envelope]], electrical, and [[lighting]] systems.<ref name="":16"">{{Cite journal |last=Cox |first=Sadie |date=February 2016 |title=Building Energy Codes: Policy Overview and Good Practices |url=https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/65542.pdf |journal=National Renewable Energy Laboratory |via=Clean Energy Solutions Center}}</ref> There are building energy codes for both commercial and residential buildings.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web |title=Codes 101 |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/codes-101 |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes Program}}</ref> However, just as the United States does not have a national building code, it also does not have a national building energy code; rather, state, and local governments choose to adopt—and potentially revise—national model energy codes and standards.<ref name="":10"">{{Cite web |last=Cohan |first=David |date=May 31, 2016 |title=Energy Codes 101: What Are They and What is DOE's Role? |url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/buildings/articles/energy-codes-101-what-are-they-and-what-does-role |website=Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy: Buildings}}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last=Bartlett |first=R. |last2=Halverson |first2=M.A. |last3=Shankle |first3=D.I. |date=March 2003 |title=Understanding Building Energy Codes and Standards |url=https://www.pnnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-14235.pdf |journal=Pacific Northwest National Laboratory |via=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Code Program}}</ref><ref name="":11"">{{Cite web |date=May 2010 |title=Building Energy Codes 101: An Introduction |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/BECU_Codes_101.pdf |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=energycodes.gov}}</ref> Consequently, building energy codes, and building codes in general, vary between states and jurisdictions.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":12"">{{Cite web |last=VanGeem |first=Martha G. |date=October 24, 2016 |title=Energy Codes and Standards |url=https://www.wbdg.org/resources/energy-codes-and-standards |access-date=December 15, 2022 |website=Whole Building Design Guide}}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{Cite web |date=June 21, 2022 |title=Understanding Building Codes |url=https://www.nist.gov/buildings-construction/understanding-building-codes |website=National Institute of Standards and Technology: Buildings & Construction}}</ref>

[[Commercial property|Commercial]] and [[Residential area|residential]] buildings, combined, account for 39% of total U.S. energy consumption and about 75% of total U.S. [[Electricity generation|electricity]] use.<ref name="":21"">{{Cite web |date=November 25, 2022 |title=How much energy is consumed in U.S. buildings? |url=https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=86&t=1 |website=U.S. Energy Information Administration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 2015 |title=Chapter 5: Increasing Energy Efficiency of Building Systems and Technologies |url=https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2017/03/f34/qtr-2015-chapter5.pdf |journal=Quadrennial Technology Review |via=U.S. Department of Energy}}</ref><ref name="":4"">{{Cite web |title=Introduction to Building Codes |url=https://www.iccsafe.org/products-and-services/i-codes/code-development/cs/introduction-to-building-codes/ |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=International Code Council}}</ref> As such, by setting the minimum energy-efficiency requirements for building design and construction, energy codes have the capacity to increase cost-savings, advance [[United States energy independence|energy independence]], reduce [[Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States|greenhouse gas emissions]], and drive economic opportunity through technological innovations.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" />

== Overview of Building Codes in the United States ==
[[File:World-building-fire-1882.jpg|thumb|Depiction of New York World Building fire in New York City in 1882.]]
[[Building code|Building codes]] in the United States are a collection of [[Regulation|regulations]] and [[Law|laws]] adopted by state and local [[Jurisdiction|jurisdictions]] that set “minimum requirements for how [[Structural system|structural systems]], [[plumbing]], heating, ventilation, and air conditioning ([[Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning|HVAC]]), natural gas systems and other aspects of residential and commercial buildings should be designed and constructed.”<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":4"" /> The building code in many jurisdictions will often refer to an overarching “building code,"" which contains a collection of subset regulations (also called codes), such as the: Electrical Code (referring to the electrical system), Building Code (referring to structure and design), [[Plumbing code|Plumbing Code]], [[Fire safety|Fire Code]], Mechanical Code, and Energy Code.<ref name="":4"" /> In general, these codes are interrelated and inform aspects of one another, for example, provisions in the Fire Code regarding commercial cooking appliances and [[Kitchen hood|exhaust hoods]] may refer to installation provisions of appliances in the Mechanical Code.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=2021 International Building Code (IBC) |url=https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/IBC2021P2 |access-date=November 28, 2022 |website=International Code Council}}</ref><ref name="":5"">{{Cite web |last=Cocke |first=Elizabeth A. |date=February 20, 2018 |title=Building Codes: The Role They Can Play |url=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/pdredge/pdr-edge-frm-asst-sec-022018.html |access-date=December 6, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development}}</ref> Built on a long history of fire and [[natural disaster]] protection, the foundational purpose of building codes is to protect “the health, safety, and welfare of the public” as it pertains to the design and construction of buildings.<ref name="":5"" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ching |first=Francis D.K. |title=Building Codes Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding the 2015 International Building Code |last2=Winkel |first2=Steven R. |publisher=Wiley |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-119-15094-7 |edition=5th}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simon |first=Peter |date=October 2017 |title=Urban Construction: Building Code Requirements Improve Safety & Health |journal=Professional Safety |volume=62 |issue=10 |pages=40-44 |via=EBSCOhost: Academic Search Complete}}</ref>

=== <u>Codes vs. Standards vs. Model Codes</u> ===
There is a distinction to be made between codes, standards, and model codes.<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":4"" /> Codes are mandatory, legally enforceable requirements adopted by state and local jurisdictions.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web |date=August 2, 2016 |title=Codes and Standards Development |url=https://www.wbdg.org/resources/codes-and-standards-development |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=Whole Building Design Guide}}</ref><ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":5"" /> Standards, founded on evidence-based technical information, are non-mandatory recommendations and guidelines for best practices regarding various aspects of building design and construction.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":6"" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Vierra |first=Stephanie |date=June 17, 2022 |title=Green Building Standards and Certification Systems |url=https://www.wbdg.org/resources/green-building-standards-and-certification-systems |access-date=November 28, 2022 |website=Whole Building Design Guide}}</ref><ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal |last=Leon |first=Dr. Roberto |last2=Rossberg |first2=James |date=2012 |title=Evolution and Future of Building Codes in the USA |journal=Structural Engineering International |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=265-269 |via=Taylor&Francis}}</ref> Though jurisdictions can adopt [[Standards organization|standards]] directly in a building code, “standard committees generally write standards with the intent that they become a component of a model code.”<ref name="":3"" /> A [[model building code]] is a [[building code]] that incorporates standards and is “developed and maintained by an organization independent of the [[jurisdiction]] responsible for enacting the building code.”<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":4"" /> 

A model code does not carry the force of law, but is created to be adopted by a jurisdiction and is “written in a mandatory, enforceable language, [so] state and local jurisdictions can easily adopt the model.”<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":3"" /> If the model code is adopted—and likely revised to fit the context of a specific jurisdiction—then the model becomes a part of, or serves as the “model” for, the legally enforceable building code in state and local jurisdictions.<ref name="":3"" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 9, 2022 |title=Architectural Engineering |url=https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/c.php?g=388626&p=3484426 |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=Penn State University Libraries: Architectural Engineering Databases and Resources}}</ref><ref name="":7"" /><ref name="":6"" /><ref name="":4"" />

=== <u>Model Building Codes in the United States</u> ===
The most widely used [[Model building code|model building codes]] in the United States are [[Publishing|published]] by the [[International Building Code|International Code Council]], or the ICC, colloquially known as the I-Codes.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite web |title=The International Codes (I-Codes) |url=https://www.iccsafe.org/products-and-services/i-codes/the-i-codes/ |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=International Code Council}}</ref><ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":7"" /> Fifty states and the District of Columbia have adopted the I-Codes at the state or jurisdictional level.<ref name="":8"" /> The [[International Code Council]] (ICC) develops the [[Code|codes]] and standards used to construct [[Residential area|residential]] and [[Commercial property|commercial buildings]], including homes and [[School|schools]].<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":2"" />

For commercial buildings, the central model code adopted as a base code in many jurisdictions is the [[International Building Code]], developed by the ICC, and for residential buildings, the predominant model code used is the [https://www.iccsafe.org/products-and-services/i-codes/2018-i-codes/irc/ International Residential Code] (IRC), also developed by the ICC.<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":7"" /><ref name="":8"" /> Other model building codes, created by the ICC, and often adopted as a part of jurisdictional building codes, include the International Fire Code, [[International Energy Conservation Code]], and [[International Mechanical Code|International Mechanical code]].<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":8"" /> The I-Codes are updated every three years.<ref name="":8"" />

Model building codes are applied differently between states and jurisdictions.<ref name="":3"" /> This is by design, when model codes are adopted, the code provisions are dependent on regional climate and hazard risks, for example, “while California’s codes focus more on earthquakes, Florida’s include more measures addressing hurricanes.”<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":5"" /> Upon adoption, model codes are often amended and managed in accordance with jurisdictional needs, preferences, and currently existing legislation.<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":1"" /> This means that, with every three year update of the I-Codes, some model code provisions will not be included in certain jurisdictional building codes.<ref name="":3"" /> 
As the National Institute of Standards and Technology put it, “some states may limit or strike out new requirements they view as too costly, unnecessary or otherwise inappropriate for their constituents. Others may see value in the updates, sealing them into law or even strengthening them to protect their community.”<ref name="":3"" /> For example, in 2009 the International Residential Code (IRC) was updated to include a provision requiring [[Fire sprinkler system|sprinklers]] in all new one-and two-family residences, and [[Townhouse|townhouses]].<ref name="":9"">{{Cite news |last=Roulo |first=Candace |date=August 6, 2010 |title=Residential fire sprinkler battle continues: now states decide |work=Contractor Magazine |url=https://www.contractormag.com/piping/fire-sprinklers/article/20877811/residential-fire-sprinkler-battle-continues-now-states-decide |access-date=November 28, 2022}}</ref> While [[California]] and [[Pennsylvania]] adopted the new change, other states like [[New Hampshire]] delayed adoption of the code until 2012, and further, some states like [[Alaska]], [[Texas]], and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] opposed the addition of the provision to their building codes altogether.<ref name="":9"" />
== Building Energy Codes: Development & Adoption ==

=== <u>Model Energy Codes & Standards</u> ===
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, “energy codes and standards set minimum efficiency requirements for new and renovated buildings, assuring reductions in energy use and emissions over the life of the building.”<ref name="":0"" /> As with other building codes, model energy codes and standards are often written in a language such that they can be adopted—wholly, partially, or amended—into a jurisdiction’s legal building code.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":2"" /> 

The primary baseline national model energy codes are the [[International Energy Conservation Code]] (IECC), the ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1: Energy-Efficient Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings ([[ASHRAE 90.1]]), and [https://www.ashrae.org/news/esociety/newly-revised-standard-90-2-includes-new-performance-specifications-more ASHRAE Standard 90.2]: Energy-Efficient Standard of New Low-Rise Residential Buildings.<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":12"" /> Two private organizations develop these model energy codes, the International Code Council (ICC) and the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers ([[ASHRAE]]).<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":11"" />

The IECC has provisions that apply to both residential and commercial buildings, and, as stated in the above description, ASHRAE 90.1 refers to all buildings except low-rise residential, and ASHRAE 90.2 refers to residential buildings three stories or less.<ref name="":1"" /> 

In the development of model energy codes and standards, commercial and residential buildings are considered separate in order to allow for different provisions and parameters.<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":2"" />

=== <u>Commercial</u> ===
[[Commercial property|Commercial buildings]] are defined as “all buildings other than low-rise residential buildings, including multi-family high-rise residential buildings over three stories.""<ref name="":2"" /> The model code, IECC, and the standard, ASHRAE 90.1, apply to commercial buildings.<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":1"" /> The [[International Energy Conservation Code|IECC]] references several [[ASHRAE]] Standards, in particular, [[ASHRAE 90.1]] for commercial building construction.<ref name="":14"">{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=2021 International Energy Conservation Code |url=https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/IECC2021P1 |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=International Code Council: Digital Codes}}</ref> 

Being a part of the ICC’s collection of model codes, the IECC is revised annually and published in full-form every three years.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":8"" /> Headed by an ICC committee, revisions and code changes can be proposed by any interested individual, business, or organization.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":10"" /> The development and revision process include two public hearings to consider revisions and testimony.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":11"" /> The process concludes with a consensus vote, by IECC members, on all the changes.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":11"" />

ASHRAE 90.1 follows a similar path of development and revision.<ref name="":1"" /> Though ASHRAE 90.1 is revised and published every three years just like the IECC, people can submit interim revisions at any time within this period.<ref name="":10"" /> ASHRAE has a standards committee that manages the process, and votes on the final versions of the energy code.<ref name="":10"" /> 

Provisions in the commercial sector of the model codes affect building design and construction factors such as: thermal envelope, water heating, HVAC, and lighting systems.<ref name="":11"" /><ref name="":14"" /> In the 2021 IECC model code, for example, there are provisions that reference ASHRAE 90.1 concerning insulation R-values for opaque parts of the building envelope.<ref name="":14"" /> As another example, there are provisions in the IECC concerning the length, flow-rate, and [[Insulation value|insulation]] of [[piping]] as it relates to [[Water heating|hot-water heaters]] in commercial buildings.<ref name="":14"" />

=== <u>Residential</u> ===
Residential buildings are defined as “one- and two-family attached or detached [[Dwelling|dwellings]], and multi-family buildings three or fewer stories above grade.”<ref name="":2"" /> The model code, IECC, and standard, ASHRAE 90.2, apply to residential buildings.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":1"" />

Both the residential component of the IECC and ASHRAE 90.2 follow the same development and revision processes as described above in the commercial section, however, in the case of ASHRAE 90.2, the standards committee is maintained by a separate committee than the one that heads ASHRAE 90.1.<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":2"" /> 

Provisions in these model codes concern many of the same aspects as those in the commercial sector, just at a different scope.<ref name="":14"" /><ref name="":2"" /> In the 2021 IECC model code concerning residential energy efficiency, for example, there are provisions concerning different [[Fenestration (architecture)|fenestration]] (window) [[U-factor|U-Factors]] that are dependent on climate zone. Additionally, similar to the commercial sector, the residential provisions address hot-water circulation systems, exterior lighting systems, and insulation.<ref name="":14"" />

=== <u>Prescriptive vs. Performance</u> ===
Energy code provisions are usually designed with two different compliance path formats (i.e., the path needed to meet the requirements or intended result of the code): ''Prescriptive'' and ''Performance-based''. <ref name="":12"" /><ref name="":14"" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacobsen |first=Grant D. |date=2016 |title=Improving Energy Codes |journal=International Association for Energy Economics |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=25-40 |via=JSTOR}}</ref> 

A prescriptive energy code delineates specific requirements or criteria for building components that must be fulfilled in order to be in compliance with the code.<ref name="":12"" /><ref name="":14"" /> For example, “the allowable watts per square foot of lighting systems, and the minimum energy efficiencies required of mechanical systems.”<ref name="":12"" /> 

Performance-based codes are results-oriented, where compliance is predicated more on performing to a certain baseline of energy use.<ref name="":12"" /><ref name="":15"">{{Cite web |title=Performance Based Energy Codes |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/performance_based_compliance |access-date=December 12, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes Program}}</ref> The performance path allows for some more flexibility, when compared to prescriptive codes. <ref name="":12"" /><ref name="":15"" /> The performance path achieves this by creating space for building design-solutions that provide trade-offs between energy-intensive systems in order to meet both the energy performance goal and optimize cost-effective measures for a specific building.<ref name="":12"" /><ref name="":15"" /> 

=== <u>Code Adoption</u> ===

Model energy codes and standards can be adopted into legal building codes by jurisdictions around the United States.<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":11"" /> However, state and local jurisdictions will often carryout amendments, [[Addendum|addenda]], and provisions of their own to suit specific needs and preferences.<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":1"" /> 

The adoption of energy codes typically follow two main avenues: legislation or regulatory action.<ref name="":11"" /><ref name="":17"">{{Cite web |last=Cohan |first=David |date=September 19, 2016 |title=How Are Building Codes Adopted? |url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/buildings/articles/how-are-building-codes-adopted |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=Department of Energy: Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy}}</ref> In each case, the adoption process usually includes an advisory body, review and revision process, and public hearings.<ref name="":11"" /><ref name="":1"" />  With the legislation route, rather than creating an entire energy model code wholesale, the state legislation will often reference an already existing model energy code and standard like the IECC.<ref name="":1"" /> In this case, state legislation is adopting the model code directly.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":17"" /> The regulation route uses legislation not to adopt the code directly, but instead to delegate a regulatory agency or authority to adopt, implement, and enforce the energy code.<ref name="":17"" /><ref name="":1"" />

As reported by [[Pacific Northwest National Laboratory]], there is one other, more rare path to code adoption via local government: “if a state has limited authority to adopt an energy code (a ‘[[home rule]]’ state), units of local government have the option to assume that responsibility.”<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":17"" /> For example, in 2001, [[Chicago]] became the first jurisdiction in [[Illinois]] to adopt a building energy code, a modified version of IECC 2000.<ref name="":1"" />

The U.S. Department of Energy has a presence throughout the development and adoption of building energy codes and standards; the DOE participates in provisions, hearings, and suggests changes to model codes.<ref name="":2"" /> Likewise, federal regulations impact the processes involved in the development and adoption of national model energy codes.<ref name="":18"">{{Cite web |title=Statutory Requirements |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/statutory-requirements |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes Program}}</ref> For example, the Energy Conservation and Production Act (ECPA) requires the DOE “to provide technical assistance to states to support implementation of state residential and commercial building energy efficiency codes.”<ref name="":18"" /> Indeed, the DOE’s [[Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy|Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy]] runs the [[Building Energy Codes Program]] (BECP) for this exact reason, in order “to support building energy code development, adoption, implementation, and enforcement processes.”<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Building Energy Codes |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/about |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes Program}}</ref>

=== <u>Compliance & Enforcement</u> ===
Building energy code compliance is usually done at the local or municipal level by professionals trained to conduct field inspections and review construction plans.<ref name="":10"" /> Compliance is where the standards and agreed-upon codes become a reality, without proper compliance and enforcement the goals of the code will likely not come to fruition.<ref name="":19"">{{Cite web |last=Cohan |first=David |date=November 14, 2016 |title=Building Energy Code Compliance |url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/buildings/articles/building-energy-code-compliance |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy: Buildings}}</ref> However, “compliance and enforcement of building energy codes is a key challenge, even in jurisdictions with advanced building code processes. Local governments are often the most critical actors in supporting effective compliance and building code enforcement.”<ref name="":16"" /> 

Compliance requires cooperation at multiple levels and in multiple ways: state and local government issuing proper permits and establishing dedicated departments, the thorough education of building officials on new code developments, and the responsibility of building design and construction professionals to comply with the energy code.<ref name="":19"" /> As the energy code continues develop in the United States, this sentiment may become increasingly outdated, but in discussing compliance: <blockquote>“It is important to note that building officials and builders in some parts of the country see the energy code as fundamentally different from the historical ‘health, life, and safety’ codes that were created primarily to protect occupants from fire, flooding, and collapse. Energy codes are a more recent addition to the building codes family, with the first having been adopted in the late 1970s, while structural and fire codes have existed for hundreds of years/When resources are limited at local building departments, which is often the case, the energy code is likely to get less attention.”<ref name="":19"" /></blockquote>

=== <u>Energy Code Impacts</u> ===
[[File:U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 390 002 010 (9393913883).jpg|thumb|''Interdisciplinary Science Building at Brookhaven National Laboratory:'' energy efficient and environmentally sustainable laboratory building focused on energy-related research]]

==== Benefits and Future Considerations ====
Since buildings make-up such a large percentage of U.S. energy consumption, energy efficient building codes can have a large positive impact on cost-savings, energy independence, and ecological systems.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" /> 

Additionally, the adoption of codes that increase energy performance can improve building habitability and comfort which has been linked to an increase in productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chatterjee |first=Souran |date=2021 |title=Measuring the productivity impacts of energy efficiency: The case of high-efficiency buildings |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=318 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> Building-focused [[energy conservation]] has the potential to greatly reduce global carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=He |last2=Wang |first2=Honglei |last3=Hu |first3=Yu-Jie |date=2022 |title=The development trends of existing building energy conservation and emission reduction—A comprehensive review |journal=Energy Reports |volume=8 |pages=13170-13188 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> A reduction in carbon emissions can reduce air pollutants, mitigate harmful effects of climate change, and drive positive impacts on overall wellbeing and health.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Candanosa |first=Roberto Molar |date=2021 |title=Reducing Emissions to Lessen Climate Change Would Yield Dramatic Health Benefits by 2030 |url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3134/reducing-emissions-to-lessen-climate-change-would-yield-dramatic-health-benefits-by-2030/#:~:text=The%20research%20shows%20reducing%20global,million%20lost%20workdays%2C%201.7%20million |access-date=December 14, 2022 |website=climate.nasa.gov}}</ref>

==== Barriers and Drawbacks ====
In certain circumstances, adopting the energy efficient technologies required to meet building energy codes may increase overall costs for a builder.<ref name="":16"" /> The vast amount of buildings codes and standards that regulate building design and construction can be confusing for builders, lawmakers, and code developers alike.<ref name="":20"">{{Cite journal |last=Enker |first=Robert A. |last2=Morrison |first2=Gregory M. |date=2020 |title=The potential contribution of building codes to climate change response policies for the built environment |journal=Energy Efficiency |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=789-807 |via=EBSCOhost: Academic Search Complete}}</ref> This is made more apparent when trying to chart a path toward a specific goal such as energy efficiency and emissions reduction.<ref name="":20"" /> In turn, it can present a barrier to energy code adoption.<ref name="":20"" />

== <small>See Also</small> ==

* [[Energy conservation]] (""Buildings"")                                                        
* [[Green building]]                                                        
* [[International Energy Conservation Code]]
* [[Building code]]
* [[International Building Code]]
* [[Energy]]
* [[Energy-efficient HVAC]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Building codes]]
[[Category:Standards of the United States]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Red Sea Project,"{{Infobox settlement
| name               = 
| native_name        = البحر الأحمر
| native_name_lang   = ar
| settlement_type    = Tourism destination
| image_blank_emblem = [[file:Red Sea Global Logo.svg|120px]]
| image_flag         = 
| image_seal         = 
| image_shield       = 
| motto              = 
| pushpin_map        = Saudi Arabia
| coordinates        = {{Coord|25|30|18|N|36|57|18|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = Saudi Arabia
| established_title  = Announced
| established_date   = July 2017
| seat_type          = 
| government_footnotes = 
| leader_party       = 
| leader_title1      = CEO
| leader_name1       = [[John Pagano (CEO)|John Pagano]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/article/560049/SAUDI-ARABIA/Construction-underway-on-Red-Sea-project-site |title=Construction underway on Red Sea project site |date=Feb 27, 2019 |website=Saudigazette |access-date=Aug 21, 2020 |archive-date=September 7, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907203919/http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/article/560049/SAUDI-ARABIA/Construction-underway-on-Red-Sea-project-site |url-status=live }}</ref>
| leader_title2      = 
| leader_name2       = 
| unit_pref          = Metric
| area_footnotes     = 
| area_total_km2     = 28,000
| area_land_km2      = 
| area_water_km2     = 
| elevation_footnotes = 
| elevation_m        = 
| population_footnotes = 
| population_total   = 
| population_as_of   = 
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym = 
| timezone1          = Arabian Standard Time
| utc_offset1        = +03
| postal_code_type   = 
| postal_code        = 
| area_code_type     = 
| area_code          = 
| website            = {{Official URL}}
| official_name      = The Red Sea
}}
'''The Red Sea Project,''' commonly referred to as The Red Sea, is a planned tourism [[megaproject]] in [[Saudi Arabia]]. The project forms part of the [[Saudi Vision 2030]] program.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://saudigazette.com.sa/article/560049/SAUDI-ARABIA/Construction-underway-on-Red-Sea-project-site |title=Construction underway on Red Sea project site |date=2019-02-27 |website=Saudigazette |access-date=2019-02-27 |archive-date=2019-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227193037/http://saudigazette.com.sa/article/560049/SAUDI-ARABIA/Construction-underway-on-Red-Sea-project-site |url-status=live }}</ref> The project was announced by the Saudi Crown Prince [[Mohammad bin Salman]] in July 2017. 

Construction began at The Red Sea in February 2019<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mitchell |first=Bea |date=2019-02-28 |title=Construction begins on The Red Sea Project |url=https://blooloop.com/play/news/saudi-giga-red-sea-project/ |access-date=2023-01-24 |website=Blooloop |language=en-GB}}</ref> and was expected to be completed by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/travel-hospitality/409733-red-sea-project-set-to-add-58bn-to-saudi-arabias-gdp |title=Red Sea Project set to add $5.8bn to Saudi Arabia's GDP |last=Bridge |first=Sam |website=ArabianBusiness.com |access-date=2019-02-22 |archive-date=2019-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222152040/https://www.arabianbusiness.com/travel-hospitality/409733-red-sea-project-set-to-add-58bn-to-saudi-arabias-gdp |url-status=live }}</ref> The first three hotels are expected to open in 2023,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Phase I of Red Sea Project 50% complete: Official |url=https://www.argaam.com/en/article/articledetail/id/1616876 |access-date=2023-01-24 |website=ArgaamPlus |language=en}}</ref> while 16 hotels, the [[Red Sea International Airport]], a yachting marina, historical sites and recreation centers are expected to open in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inside Saudi Arabia's Red Sea: Everything you need to know |url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/industries/travel-hospitality/inside-saudi-arabias-red-sea-global-everything-you-need-to-know |access-date=24 January 2023 |website=Arabian Business}}</ref> 

On completion in 2030, The Red Sea aims to have 50 hotels with 8,000 rooms, and more than 1,000 residential properties across 22 islands and six inland sites.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |title=Inside Saudi Arabia's Red Sea: Everything you need to know |url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/industries/travel-hospitality/inside-saudi-arabias-red-sea-global-everything-you-need-to-know |access-date=24 January 2023 |website=Arabian Business}}</ref>
[[File:Red Sea island.jpg|thumb|One of the 92 islands that form an archipelago at The Red Sea tourism destination on the west coast of Saudi Arabia.]]

== Location ==
The project is located on the west coast of Saudi Arabia in a 28,000 km<sup>2</sup> area in [[Tabuk province]] between the cities of [[Umluj]] and [[Al Wajh|Al-Wajh]]. The area includes 90 unspoiled offshore islands, 200km of coastline on the Red Sea, beaches, desert, mountains and volcanoes.<ref name="":1"" /> This also incorporates the Al Wajh lagoon, a pristine 2,081 km2 area that includes valuable habitats (coral reefs, seagrass, and mangroves) and species of global conservation importance. <ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.3389/fmars.2020.00168 | doi-access=free | title=Reconciling Tourism Development and Conservation Outcomes Through Marine Spatial Planning for a Saudi Giga-Project in the Red Sea (The Red Sea Project, Vision 2030) | date=2020 | last1=Chalastani | first1=Vasiliki I. | last2=Manetos | first2=Panos | last3=Al-Suwailem | first3=Abdulaziz M. | last4=Hale | first4=Jason A. | last5=Vijayan | first5=Abhishekh P. | last6=Pagano | first6=John | last7=Williamson | first7=Ian | last8=Henshaw | first8=Scott D. | last9=Albaseet | first9=Raed | last10=Butt | first10=Faisal | last11=Brainard | first11=Russell E. | last12=Coccossis | first12=Harry | last13=Tsoukala | first13=Vasiliki K. | last14=Duarte | first14=Carlos M. | journal=Frontiers in Marine Science | volume=7 | hdl=10754/662629 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Neom]]
* [[Amaala]]
* [[Saudi Red Sea Authority]]

== Notes and references ==
'''Notes'''
{{Notelist}}

'''References'''
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Tourist attractions in Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Tabuk Province]]
[[Category:Economy of Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Planned communities in Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Proposed infrastructure in Saudi Arabia]]

[[Category:Sustainability]]
__FORCETOC__"
Government by algorithm,"{{short description|Alternative form of government or social ordering}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Regulation of algorithms]], [[e-government]] or [[Cyberocracy]]}}
{{Government by algorithm}}
{{Governance|Models}}

'''Government by algorithm'''<ref name=sstandford>{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Government by Algorithm: A Review and an Agenda |url=https://law.stanford.edu/publications/government-by-algorithm-a-review-and-an-agenda/ |website=Stanford Law School |access-date=20 March 2020}}</ref> (also known as '''algorithmic regulation''',<ref name=medina>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation. |journal=Kybernetes |date=2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052 |url=http://wosc.co/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Medina-Rethinking-Algorithmic-Regulation.pdf}}</ref> '''regulation by algorithms''', '''algorithmic governance''',<ref name=""Engin"">{{cite journal |last1=Engin |first1=Zeynep |last2=Treleaven |first2=Philip |title=Algorithmic Government: Automating Public Services and Supporting Civil Servants in using Data Science Technologies |journal=The Computer Journal|date=March 2019 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=448–460 |doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxy082|doi-access=free}}</ref> '''algocratic governance''', '''algorithmic legal order''' or '''algocracy'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=1 September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=2210-5441}}</ref>) is an alternative form of [[government]] or [[social order]]ing where the usage of computer [[algorithm]]s is applied to regulations, law enforcement, and generally any aspect of everyday life such as transportation or land registration.<ref name=""karen"">{{cite journal |last1=Yeung |first1=Karen |title=Algorithmic regulation: A critical interrogation |journal=Regulation & Governance |date=December 2018 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=505–523 |doi=10.1111/rego.12158|s2cid=157086008 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katzenbach |first1=Christian |last2=Ulbricht |first2=Lena |title=Algorithmic governance |journal=Internet Policy Review |date=29 November 2019 |volume=8 |issue=4 |doi=10.14763/2019.4.1424 |hdl=10419/210652 |url=https://policyreview.info/concepts/algorithmic-governance |access-date=19 March 2020 |issn=2197-6775|doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abril |first1=Rubén Rodríguez |title=DERECOM. Derecho de la Comunicación. - An approach to the algorithmic legal order and to its civil, trade and financial projection |website=www.derecom.com |url=http://www.derecom.com/secciones/articulos-de-fondo/item/398-an-approach-to-the-algorithmic-legal-order-and-to-its-civil-trade-and-financial-projection |access-date=20 May 2020 |language=es-es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Rule by Algorithm? Big Data and the Threat of Algocracy |url=https://ieet.org/index.php/IEET2/more/danaher20140107 |access-date=20 May 2020 |work=ieet.org}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain>{{citation |last1=Werbach |first1=Kevin |title=The Siren Song: Algorithmic Governance By Blockchain |date=24 September 2018 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3578610}}.</ref> The term ""government by algorithm"" has appeared in academic literature as an alternative for ""algorithmic governance"" in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williamson |first1=Ben |title=Decoding identity: Reprogramming pedagogic identities through algorithmic governance |journal=British Educational Research Association Conference |date=January 2013 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4477644 |access-date=26 December 2020}}</ref> A related term, algorithmic regulation, is defined as setting the standard, monitoring and modifying behaviour by means of computational algorithms{{snd}}automation of [[judiciary]] is in its scope.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hildebrandt |first1=Mireille |title=Algorithmic regulation and the rule of law |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=6 August 2018 |volume=376 |issue=2128 |pages=20170355 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2017.0355|pmid=30082301 |bibcode=2018RSPTA.37670355H |doi-access=free|hdl=2066/200765 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In the context of blockchain, it is also known as '''blockchain governance'''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lumineau |first1=Fabrice |last2=Wang |first2=Wenqian |last3=Schilke |first3=Oliver |title=Blockchain Governance—A New Way of Organizing Collaborations? |journal=Organization Science |date=1 March 2021 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=500–521 |doi=10.1287/orsc.2020.1379 |s2cid=225123270 |issn=1047-7039|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Government by algorithm raises new challenges that are not captured in the [[e-government]] literature and the practice of public administration.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Veale |first1=Michael |last2=Brass |first2=Irina |title=Administration by Algorithm? Public Management Meets Public Sector Machine Learning |date=2019 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3375391}}</ref> Some sources equate [[cyberocracy]], which is a hypothetical [[Government#Forms|form of government]] that rules by the effective use of information,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2008/P7745.pdf |title=Cyberocracy, Cyberspace, and Cyberology:Political Effects of the Information Revolution |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1991|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reprints/2007/RAND_RP222.pdf|title=Cyberocracy is Coming |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1992|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Ronfeldt |first1=David |last2=Varda |first2=Danielle |title=The Prospects for Cyberocracy (Revisited) |date=1 December 2008 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=1325809}}.</ref> with algorithmic governance, although algorithms are not the only means of processing information.<ref>{{cite web |title=Transparency in governance, through cyberocracy |url=https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2019/07/04/transparency-in-governance-through-cyberocracy |website=The Kathmandu Post |first=Bimal Pratap |last=Shah |date=July 4, 2019 |access-date=25 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hudson |first1=Alex |title='Far more than surveillance' is happening and could change how government is run |url=https://metro.co.uk/2019/08/28/far-more-than-surveillance-is-already-in-place-and-cyberocracy-could-change-how-government-is-run-10637802/ |website=Metro |access-date=25 April 2020 |date=28 August 2019}}</ref> [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo argued that the combination of a human society and certain regulation algorithms (such as reputation-based scoring) forms a [[social machine]].<ref name=socialmachine>{{cite journal |last1=Cristianini |first1=Nello |last2=Scantamburlo |first2=Teresa |title=On social machines for algorithmic regulation |journal=AI & Society |date=8 October 2019 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=645–662 |doi=10.1007/s00146-019-00917-8 |arxiv=1904.13316 |bibcode=2019arXiv190413316C |s2cid=140233845 |issn=1435-5655}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:CyberSyn-render-103.png|thumb|Computer-generated image of [[Project Cybersyn]] operations room]]
[[File:Legol Group 1977 (3832930465).jpg|thumb|LEGOL Group (1977)]]
[[File:-rpTEN - Tag 3 (26745091551).jpg|thumb|''""Blockchain and the future of governance. Let's overcome the hype and understand what can be done.""'' with Andrea Bauer, Boris Moshkovits und Shermin Voshmgir at [[re:publica]]]]

In 1962, the director of the Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] in Moscow (later Kharkevich Institute),<ref>{{cite web |title=Organisations: Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute): Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute), Moscow, Russia |url=http://www.mathnet.ru/php/organisation.phtml?orgid=5026&option_lang=eng |website=www.mathnet.ru |access-date=24 March 2021}}</ref> [[Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Kharkevich|Alexander Kharkevich]], published an article in the journal ""Communist"" about a computer network for processing information and control of the economy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Machine of communism. Why the USSR did not create the Internet |url=http://csef.ru/en/politica-i-geopolitica/223/mashiny-kommunizma-pochemu-v-sssr-tak-i-ne-sozdali-svoj-internet-6983 |website=csef.ru |access-date=21 March 2020 |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kharkevich |first1=Aleksandr Aleksandrovich|title=Theory of information. The identification of the images. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 3|date=1973|publisher=Moscow: Publishing House ""Nauka"", 1973. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of information transmission problems|location=Information and technology|pages=495–508}}</ref> In fact, he proposed to make a network like the modern Internet for the needs of algorithmic governance. This created a serious concern among CIA analysts.<ref name=cyberthreat>{{cite news |last1=Gerovitch |first1=Slava |title=How the Computer Got Its Revenge on the Soviet Union |url=https://nautil.us/issue/23/dominoes/how-the-computer-got-its-revenge-on-the-soviet-union |access-date=19 September 2021 |work=Nautilus |date=9 April 2015 |archive-date=22 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922175839/https://nautil.us/issue/23/Dominoes/how-the-computer-got-its-revenge-on-the-soviet-union |url-status=dead }}</ref> In particular, [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]] warned that ''""by 1970 the USSR may have a radically new production technology, involving total enterprises or complexes of industries, managed by closed-loop, feedback control employing [[self-teaching computer]]s""''.<ref name=cyberthreat/>

Between 1971 and 1973, the [[Chile]]an government carried out [[Project Cybersyn]] during the [[presidency of Salvador Allende]]. This project was aimed at constructing a distributed [[decision support system]] to improve the management of the national economy.<ref>{{ cite web| url=http://newsinfo.iu.edu/web/page/normal/11088.html| title=IU professor analyzes Chile's 'Project Cybersyn'| publisher=UI News Room| access-date=27 May 2013| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090910060602/http://newsinfo.iu.edu/web/page/normal/11088.html| archive-date=10 September 2009}}</ref><ref name=medina/> Elements of the project were used in 1972 to successfully overcome the traffic collapse caused by a [[Presidency of Salvador Allende#Crisis|CIA-sponsored strike of forty thousand truck drivers]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation |journal=Kybernetes |date=1 January 2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052}}</ref>

Also in the 1960s and 1970s, [[Herbert A. Simon]] championed [[expert systems]] as tools for rationalization and evaluation of administrative behavior.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freeman Engstrom |first1=David |last2=Ho |first2=Daniel E. |last3=Sharkey |first3=Catherine M. |last4=Cuéllar |first4=Mariano-Florentino |title=Government by Algorithm: Artificial Intelligence in Federal Administrative Agencies |url=https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |date=2020 |access-date=2020-03-26 |archive-date=2022-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815021400/https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The automation of rule-based processes was an ambition of tax agencies over many decades resulting in varying success.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Helen |last1=Margretts |author-link1=Helen Margetts |title=Information technology in government : Britain and America |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=9780203208038}}</ref> Early work from this period includes Thorne McCarty's influential TAXMAN project<ref name =""mccarty"">McCarty, L. Thorne. ''Reflections on"" Taxman: An Experiment in Artificial Intelligence and Legal Reasoning.'' Harvard Law Review (1977): 837–893.</ref> in the US and Ronald Stamper's [[LEGOL]] project<ref name=""stamper77"">Stamper, Ronald K. ''The LEGOL 1 prototype system and language.'' The Computer Journal 20.2 (1977): 102-108.</ref> in the UK. In 1993, the computer scientist [[Paul Cockshott]] from the [[University of Glasgow]] and the economist Allin Cottrell from the [[Wake Forest University]] published the book ''[[Towards a New Socialism]]'', where they claim to demonstrate the possibility of a democratically [[planned economy]] built on modern computer technology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cockshott |first1=W. Paul |title=Towards a new socialism |date=1993 |publisher=Spokesman |location=Nottingham, England |isbn=978-0851245454}}</ref> The Honourable Justice [[Michael Kirby (judge)|Michael Kirby]] published a paper in 1998, where he expressed optimism that the then-available computer technologies such as [[legal expert system]] could evolve to computer systems, which will strongly affect the practice of courts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kirby |first1=Michael |title=The Future of Courts - Do They Have One |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/jlinfos9&div=19&id=&page= |journal=Journal of Law and Information Science |access-date=12 April 2020 |pages=141 |date=1998|volume=9 }}</ref> In 2006, attorney [[Lawrence Lessig]], known for the slogan [[Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace|""Code is law""]], wrote:

<blockquote>[T]he invisible hand of cyberspace is building an architecture that is quite the opposite of its architecture at its birth. This invisible hand, pushed by government and by commerce, is constructing an architecture that will perfect control and make highly efficient regulation possible<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=Lessig |author-link1=Lawrence Lessig |title=Code |date=2006 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03914-2 |edition=Version 2.0}}</ref></blockquote>

Since the 2000s, algorithms have been designed and used to [[Closed-circuit television#Computer-controlled analytics and identification|automatically analyze surveillance videos]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sodemann |first1=Angela A. |last2=Ross |first2=Matthew P. |last3=Borghetti |first3=Brett J. |title=A Review of Anomaly Detection in Automated Surveillance |journal=IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part C: Applications and Reviews|date=November 2012 |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1257–1272 |doi=10.1109/TSMCC.2012.2215319|s2cid=15466712}}</ref>

In his 2006's book ''Virtual Migration'', [[A. Aneesh]] developed the concept of algocracy — information technologies constrain human participation in public decision making.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelty |first1=Christopher |title=Explaining IT |journal=Political and Legal Anthropology Review |date=2009 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=156–160 |doi=10.1111/j.1555-2934.2009.01035.x |jstor=24497537 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24497537 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=1081-6976}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DANTTO-13 }}</ref> Aneesh differentiated algocratic systems from bureaucratic systems (legal-rational regulation) as well as market-based systems (price-based regulation).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aneesh |first1=A. |title=Virtual Migration: the Programming of Globalization. |date=2006 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-3669-3 |url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/Virtual-Migration/}}</ref>

In 2013, algorithmic regulation was coined by [[Tim O'Reilly]], founder and CEO of O'Reilly Media Inc.:

<blockquote>Sometimes the ""rules"" aren't really even rules. Gordon Bruce, the former CIO of the city of Honolulu, explained to me that when he entered government from the private sector and tried to make changes, he was told, ""That's against the law."" His reply was ""OK. Show me the law."" ""Well, it isn't really a law. It's a regulation."" ""OK. Show me the regulation."" ""Well, it isn't really a regulation. It's a policy that was put in place by Mr. Somebody twenty years ago."" ""Great. We can change that!"" [...] Laws should specify goals, rights, outcomes, authorities, and limits. If specified broadly, those laws can stand the test of time. Regulations, which specify how to execute those laws in much more detail, should be regarded in much the same way that programmers regard their code and algorithms, that is, as a constantly updated toolset to achieve the outcomes specified in the laws. [...] It's time for government to enter the age of big data. Algorithmic regulation is an idea whose time has come.<ref name=timoreilly>{{cite book |last1=O’Reilly |first1=Tim |author-link1=Tim O'Reilly |editor1-last=Goldstein |editor1-first=B. |editor2-last=Dyson |editor2-first=L. |title=Beyond Transparency: open Data and the Future of Civic Innovation |date=2013 |publisher=Code for America Press |location=San Francisco |pages=289–300 |chapter=Open Data and Algorithmic Regulation}}</ref></blockquote>

In 2017, Ukraine's [[Ministry of Justice (Ukraine)|Ministry of Justice]] ran experimental [[government auction]]s using [[blockchain]] technology to ensure transparency and hinder corruption in governmental transactions.<ref name=ukrainereuteers/> ""Government by Algorithm?"" was the central theme introduced at Data for Policy 2017 conference held on 6–7 September 2017 in London.<ref>{{cite web |title=Data for Policy 2017 |url=https://dataforpolicy.org/data-for-policy-2017/ |website=Data for Policy CIC |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref>

==Examples==
===Smart cities===
[[File:Architecture-of-the-IoT-for-home-care-systems.jpg|thumb|Architecture of the [[IoT]] for home care systems]]

A [[smart city]] is an urban area where collected surveillance data is used to improve various operations. Increase in computational power allows more automated decision making and replacement of public agencies by algorithmic governance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brauneis |first1=Robert |last2=Goodman |first2=Ellen P. |title=Algorithmic Transparency for the Smart City |journal=Yale Journal of Law & Technology |date=1 January 2018 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=103 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-544510684/algorithmic-transparency-for-the-smart-city}}</ref> In particular, the combined use of artificial intelligence and blockchains for [[Internet of things|IoT]] may lead to the creation of [[sustainable]] smart city ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Saurabh |last2=Sharma |first2=Pradip Kumar |last3=Yoon |first3=Byungun |last4=Shojafar |first4=Mohammad |last5=Cho |first5=Gi Hwan |last6=Ra |first6=In-Ho |title=Convergence of blockchain and artificial intelligence in IoT network for the sustainable smart city |journal=Sustainable Cities and Society |date=1 December 2020 |volume=63 |pages=102364 |doi=10.1016/j.scs.2020.102364 |s2cid=225022879 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210670720305850 |access-date=24 March 2021 |issn=2210-6707}}</ref> [[Intelligent street lighting]] in [[Glasgow]] is an example of successful government application of AI algorithms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gardner |first1=Allison |title=Don't write off government algorithms – responsible AI can produce real benefits |work=The Conversation |url=https://theconversation.com/dont-write-off-government-algorithms-responsible-ai-can-produce-real-benefits-145895 |access-date=1 April 2021}}</ref> A study of smart city initiatives in the US shows that it requires public sector as a main organizer and coordinator, the private sector as a technology and infrastructure provider, and universities as expertise contributors.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morrow |first1=Garrett |title=The Robot in City Hall: The Limitations, Structure, and Governance of Smart City Technology Regimes|date=2022 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/6785af5e14f63d5e91d47b76337e4aec/1.pdf |via=ProQuest |language=en}}</ref>

The [[cryptocurrency]] millionaire Jeffrey Berns proposed the operation of [[local governments]] in [[Nevada]] by tech firms in 2021.<ref name=nevada>{{cite news |title=Nevada smart city: A millionaire's plan to create a local government |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56409924 |access-date=24 March 2021 |work=BBC News |date=18 March 2021}}</ref> Berns bought 67,000 acres (271&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) in Nevada's rural [[Storey County]] (population 4,104) for $170,000,000 (£121,000,000) in 2018 in order to develop a smart city with more than 36,000 residents that could generate an annual output of $4,600,000,000.<ref name=nevada/> Cryptocurrency will be allowed for payments.<ref name=nevada/> Blockchains, Inc. ""Innovation Zone"" was canceled in September 2021 after it failed to secure enough water<ref>{{Cite web |last=Independent |first=Daniel Rothberg {{!}} The Nevada |title=Blockchains, Inc. withdraws 'Innovation Zone' plan for Storey County |url=http://www.nnbw.com/news/2021/oct/12/blockchains-inc-withdraws-innovation-zone-plan-sto/ |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=www.nnbw.com}}</ref> for the planned 36,000 residents, through water imports from a site located 100 miles away in the neighboring [[Washoe County, Nevada|Washoe County]].<ref name=""thenevadaindependent.com"">{{Cite web |title=Months before a company lobbied the Legislature to create its own county, it purchased faraway water rights that could fuel future growth |url=https://thenevadaindependent.com/article/months-before-a-company-lobbied-the-legislature-to-create-its-own-county-it-purchased-faraway-water-rights-that-could-fuel-future-growth |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=The Nevada Independent |date=12 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Similar water pipeline proposed in 2007 was estimated to cost $100 million and to would have taken about 10 years to develop.<ref name=""thenevadaindependent.com""/> With additional water rights purchased from Tahoe Reno Industrial General Improvement District, ""Innovation Zone"" would have acquired enough water for about 15,400 homes - meaning that it would have barely covered its planned 15,000 dwelling units, leaving nothing for the rest of the projected city and its 22 million square-feet of industrial development.<ref name=""thenevadaindependent.com""/>

In [[Saudi Arabia]], the planners of [[The Line, Saudi Arabia|The Line]] assert that it will be monitored by AI to improve life by using data and predictive modeling.<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi Arabia is planning a 100-mile line of car-free smart communities |url=https://www.engadget.com/the-line-neom-smart-city-saudi-arabia-mohammed-bin-salman-113539487.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnLw&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAMcI4yDl2upDPXrWiYcCTvvnvLTYKdun8IrX9Z5qdG4mnuWTzhJXw6ImGxBrHyoFm8THyrYuJAnCXujn6nMP5RtPji43N5A0iz5T2qguDg1q8342WV8_PitetSew8vJ9bA-5qKIjexmcriDG6I84NBwoIgZbzR_BlQhWICkM5Jk3 |access-date=18 May 2022 |work=Engadget}}</ref>

===Reputation systems===
{{See also|Credit score}}
[[File:Model Cybernetic Factory.svg|thumb|Model of cybernetic thinking about organisation. On the one hand in reality a system is determined. On the other hand, cybernetic factory can be modeled as a control system.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Cybernetic and Management |date=1959 |publisher=English Universities Press |chapter=XVI}}</ref>]]

Tim O'Reilly suggested that data sources and [[reputation system]]s combined in algorithmic regulation can outperform traditional regulations.<ref name=timoreilly/> For instance, once taxi-drivers are rated by passengers, the quality of their services will improve automatically and ""drivers who provide poor service are eliminated"".<ref name=timoreilly/> O'Reilly's suggestion is based on [[control theory|control-theoreric]] concept of [[feedback|feed-back loop]]—[[positive feedback|improvements]] and [[negative feedback|disimprovements]] of reputation enforce desired behavior.<ref name=socialmachine/> The usage of feed-loops for the management of social systems is already been suggested in [[management cybernetics]] by [[Stafford Beer]] before.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beer |first1=Stafford |author-link1=Stafford Beer |title=Platform for change : a message from Stafford Beer. |date=1975 |publisher=J. Wiley |isbn=978-0471948407}}</ref>

These connections are explored by [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo, where the reputation-credit scoring system is modeled as an incentive given to the citizens and computed by a [[social machine]], so that rational agents would be motivated to increase their score by adapting their behaviour. Several ethical aspects of that technology are still being discussed.<ref name=socialmachine/>

China's [[Social Credit System]] was said to be a mass surveillance effort with a centralized numerical score for each citizen given for their actions, though newer reports say that this is a widespread misconception.<ref name="":46"">{{Cite web |title=China's social credit score – untangling myth from reality {{!}} Merics |url=https://merics.org/en/opinion/chinas-social-credit-score-untangling-myth-reality |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=merics.org |date=11 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""jamestown_2110"">{{cite journal |last1=Daum |first1=Jeremy |date=8 October 2021 |title=Far From a Panopticon, Social Credit Focuses on Legal Violations |url=https://jamestown.org/program/far-from-a-panopticon-social-credit-focuses-on-legal-violations/ |journal=China Brief |volume=21 |issue=19 |doi= |access-date=10 October 2021}}</ref><ref name=""diplomat_2103"">{{cite web |title=China's Social Credit System: Speculation vs. Reality |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/chinas-social-credit-system-speculation-vs-reality/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330122252/https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/chinas-social-credit-system-speculation-vs-reality/ |archive-date=30 March 2021 |website=The Diplomat}}</ref>

===Smart contracts===
[[Smart contract]]s, [[cryptocurrencies]], and [[decentralized autonomous organization]] are mentioned as means to replace traditional ways of governance.<ref name=indiadao>{{cite news |last1=Bindra |first1=Jaspreet |title=Transforming India through blockchain |url=https://www.livemint.com/Technology/UZIex6fPPyAqVuTHqpzZiN/Transforming-India-through-blockchain.html |access-date=31 May 2020 |work=Livemint |date=30 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Finn |first1=Ed |date=10 April 2017 |title=Do digital currencies spell the end of capitalism? |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/political-science/2017/apr/10/do-digital-currencies-spell-the-end-of-capitalism |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain/> Cryptocurrencies are currencies, which are enabled by algorithms without a governmental [[central bank]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reiff |first1=Nathan |title=Blockchain Explained |website=Investopedia |url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blockchain.asp |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref> [[Central bank digital currency]] often employs similar technology, but is differentiated from the fact that it does use a central bank. It is soon to be employed by major unions and governments such as the European Union and China. [[Smart contracts]] are self-executable [[contract]]s, whose objectives are the reduction of need in trusted governmental intermediators, arbitrations and enforcement costs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Szabo |first1=Nick |author-link1=Nick Szabo |title=View of Formalizing and Securing Relationships on Public Networks |journal=First Monday |date=1997 |doi=10.5210/fm.v2i9.548 |s2cid=33773111 |url=https://firstmonday.org/article/view/548/469 |access-date=2020-05-31 |archive-date=2022-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410235953/https://firstmonday.org/article/view/548/469 |url-status=dead |doi-access= free}}</ref><ref name=conbook>{{cite book |last1=Fries |first1=Martin |last2=P. Paal |first2=Boris |title=Smart Contracts |year=2019 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |jstor=j.ctvn96h9r |isbn=978-3-16-156911-1 |language=de}}</ref> A decentralized autonomous organization is an [[organization]] represented by smart contracts that is transparent, controlled by shareholders and not influenced by a central government.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is DAO - Decentralized Autonomous Organizations |url=https://blockchainhub.net/dao-decentralized-autonomous-organization/ |website=BlockchainHub |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Prusty |first=Narayan |date=27 Apr 2017 |title=Building Blockchain Projects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=80EwDwAAQBAJ |location=Birmingham, UK |publisher=Packt |page=9 |isbn=9781787125339}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Chohan |first1=Usman W. |title=The Decentralized Autonomous Organization and Governance Issues |date=4 December 2017 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3082055}}.</ref> Smart contracts have been discussed for use in such applications as use in (temporary) [[employment contract]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3270867|title=The Gig Economy, Smart Contracts, and Disruption of Traditional Work Arrangements|first1=Seth|last1=Oranburg|first2=Liya|last2=Palagashvili|date=October 22, 2018|via=Social Science Research Network|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3270867|ssrn=3270867 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328657407|title=A Blockchain-Based Decentralized System for Proper Handling of Temporary Employment Contracts}}</ref> and automatic transfership of funds and property (i.e. [[inheritance]], upon registration of a [[death certificate]]).<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/581948/EPRS_IDA(2017)581948_EN.pdf How blockchain technology could change our lives]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@illuminatesofficial/business-inheritance-in-blockchain-b3fab4613c8c|title=Business inheritance in blockchain|first=Illuminates|last=Official|date=September 11, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/chris-j-snook/4-small-business-verticals-artificial-intelligence-blockchain-will-destroy-in-coming-decade.html|title=Blockchain and AI are coming to kill these 4 business verticals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://silentnotary.com/#project|title=Silent Notary - Blockchain Notary Service 100% events falsification protection|website=silentnotary.com}}</ref> Some countries such as Georgia and Sweden have already launched blockchain programs focusing on property ([[Title search|land titles]] and [[real estate]] ownership)<ref name=ukrainereuteers>{{cite news |last1=Chavez-Dreyfuss |first1=Gertrude |title=Ukraine launches big blockchain deal with tech firm Bitfury |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-bitfury-blockchain-idUSKBN17F0N2 |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=Reuters |date=17 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bitfury.com/content/downloads/the_bitfury_group_republic_of_georgia_expand_blockchain_pilot_2_7_16.pdf|title=The Bitfury Group and Government of Republic of Georgia Expand Blockchain Pilot}}</ref><ref>[https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/inov_a_00276 A BLOCKCHAIN - Journals Gateway]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/corruption/integrity-forum/academic-papers/Georg%20Eder-%20Blockchain%20-%20Ghana_verified.pdf|title=Digital Transformation: Blockchain and Land Titles}}</ref> Ukraine is also looking at other areas too such as [[Public records|state registers]].<ref name=ukrainereuteers/>

===Algorithms in government agencies===
{{See also|Artificial intelligence in government}}
[[File:Team Rubicon - Rockaways - Palantir screenshot.jpg|thumb|Team Rubicon in the Rockaways Nov 12, 2012 - Palantir screenshot]]

According to a study of [[Stanford University]], 45% of the studied US federal agencies have experimented with AI and related machine learning (ML) tools up to 2020.<ref name=sstandford/> US federal agencies counted the number of [[artificial intelligence]] applications, which are listed below.<ref name=sstandford/> 53% of these applications were produced by in-house experts.<ref name=sstandford/> Commercial providers of residual applications include [[Palantir Technologies]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Leaked Palantir Doc Reveals Uses, Specific Functions And Key Clients |url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/01/11/leaked-palantir-doc-reveals-uses-specific-functions-and-key-clients/ |access-date=22 April 2020 |work=TechCrunch}}</ref>

{| class=""wikitable sortable""
|-
! Agency Name !! Number of Use Cases
|-
| [[Office of Justice Programs]] || 12
|-
| [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] || 10
|-
| [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] || 9
|-
| [[Food and Drug Administration]] || 8
|-
| [[United States Geological Survey]] || 8
|-
| [[United States Postal Service]] || 8
|-
| [[Social Security Administration]] || 7
|-
| [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] || 6
|-
| [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] || 5
|-
| [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] || 4
|}

In 2012, [[NOPD]] started a collaboration with Palantir Technologies in the field of [[predictive policing]].<ref name=verge>{{cite news |last1=Winston |first1=Ali |title=Palantir has secretly been using New Orleans to test its predictive policing technology |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/2/27/17054740/palantir-predictive-policing-tool-new-orleans-nopd |access-date=23 April 2020 |work=The Verge |date=27 February 2018}}</ref> Besides Palantir's Gotham software, other similar ([[numerical analysis software]]) used by police agencies (such as the NCRIC) include [[SAS (software)|SAS]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/neapqg/300-californian-cities-secretly-have-access-to-palantir|title=300 Californian Cities Secretly Have Access to Palantir|first=Caroline|last=Haskins|date=July 12, 2019}}</ref>

In the fight against money laundering, [[Financial Crimes Enforcement Network|FinCEN]] employs the FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System (FAIS) since 1995.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Senator |first1=Ted E. |last2=Wong |first2=Raphael W.H. |last3=Marrone |first3=Michael P. |last4=Llamas |first4=Winston M. |last5=Klinger |first5=Christina D. |last6=Khan |first6=A.F. Umar |last7=Cottini |first7=Matthew A. |last8=Goldberg |first8=Henry G. |last9=Wooton |first9=Jerry |title=The FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System: Identifying Potential Money Laundering from Reports of Large Cash Transactions |journal=AAAI |url=https://www.aaai.org/Library/IAAI/1995/iaai95-015.php |access-date=10 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldberg |first1=H. G. |last2=Senator |first2=T. E.  |chapter=The FinCEN AI System: Finding Financial Crimes in a Large Database of Cash Transactions |title=Agent Technology: Foundations, Applications, and Markets |date=1998 |pages=283–302 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-03678-5_15 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-03678-5_15 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-08344-0 |language=en}}</ref>

National health administration entities and organisations such as AHIMA (American Health Information Management Association) hold [[medical record]]s. Medical records serve as the central repository for planning patient care and documenting communication among patient and health care provider and professionals contributing to the patient's care. In the EU, work is ongoing on a [[European Health Data Space]] which supports the use of health data.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en|title=Press corner|website=European Commission - European Commission}}</ref>

US [[Department of Homeland Security]] has employed the software ATLAS, which run on [[Amazon Cloud]]. It scanned more than 16.5 million of records of naturalized Americans and flagged approximately 124,000 of them for manual analysis and review by [[USCIS]] officers regarding [[denaturalization]].<ref name=debal>{{cite news |last1=Biddle |first1=Sam |last2=Saleh |date=August 25, 2021 |first2=Maryam |title=Little-Known Federal Software Can Trigger Revocation of Citizenship |url=https://theintercept.com/2021/08/25/atlas-citizenship-denaturalization-homeland-security/ |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=The Intercept}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cuccinelli Announces USCIS' FY 2019 Accomplishments and Efforts to Implement President Trump's Goals |website=USCIS |url=https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/cuccinelli-announces-uscis-fy-2019-accomplishments-and-efforts-to-implement-president-trumps-goals |access-date=21 September 2021 |date=16 October 2019}}</ref> There were flagged due to potential fraud, public safety and national security issues. Some of the scanned data came from [[Terrorist Screening Database]] and [[National Crime Information Center]].

The [[NarxCare]] is a US software,{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=41}} which combines data from the prescription registries of various [[U.S. state]]s{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=40}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Romo|first=Vanessa|date=2018-05-08|title=Walmart Will Implement New Opioid Prescription Limits By End Of Summer|work=[[National Public Radio|NPR]]|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/05/08/609442939/walmart-will-implement-new-opioid-prescription-limits-by-end-of-summer|access-date=2021-10-06}}</ref> and uses [[machine learning]] to generate various three-digit ""risk scores"" for prescriptions of medications and an overall ""Overdose Risk Score"", collectively referred to as Narx Scores,{{Sfn|Oliva|2020|p=847}} in a process that potentially includes [[Emergency medical services|EMS]] and criminal justice data{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=41}} as well as court records.{{Sfn|Oliva|2020|p=848}}

In Estonia, artificial intelligence is used in its [[e-government]] to make it more automated and seamless. A virtual assistant will guide citizens through any interactions they have with the government. Automated and proactive services ""push"" services to citizens at key events of their lives (including births, bereavements, unemployment, ...). One example is the automated registering of babies when they are born.<ref>See section on smart contracts; this is possible by means of a digital birth certificate, triggering a smart contract</ref> Estonia's [[E-government in Europe#Estonia|X-Road system]] will also be rebuilt to include even more privacy control and accountability into the way the government uses citizen's data.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://govinsider.asia/innovation/marten-kaevats-national-digital-advisor-estonias-vision-for-an-invisible-government/|title=Exclusive: Estonia's vision for an 'invisible government'|date=March 20, 2019}}</ref>

In Costa Rica, the possible digitalization of public procurement activities (i.e. tenders for public works, ...) has been investigated. The paper discussing this possibility mentions that the use of ICT in procurement has several benefits such as increasing transparency, facilitating digital access to public tenders, reducing direct interaction between procurement officials and companies at moments of high integrity risk, increasing outreach and competition, and easier detection of irregularities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/countries/costarica/costa-rica-public-procurement-system.pdf|title=Enhancing the use of competitive tendering in Costa Rica's Public Procurement System}}</ref>

Besides using e-tenders for regular [[public works]] (construction of buildings, roads, ...), e-tenders can also be used for [[reforestation]] projects and other [[carbon sink]] restoration projects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/forestry-commission/about/procurement|title=Procurement at Forestry Commission|website=GOV.UK}}</ref> [[Carbon sink]] restoration projects [[Climate change mitigation#Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks|may]] be part of the [[nationally determined contributions]] plans in order to reach the national [[Paris Agreement#Effectiveness|Paris agreement goals]]

Government [[procurement]] [[Audit management|audit software]] can also be used.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourceforge.net/software/audit/for-government/|title=Best Government Audit Software - 2023 Reviews & Comparison|website=sourceforge.net}}</ref><ref>[https://revista.tcu.gov.br/ojs/index.php/RTCU/article/download/1379/1561 Audit app: an effective tool for government procurement assurance]</ref> Audits are performed in some countries after [[Subsidy#Preventing fraud|subsidies have been received]].

Some government agencies provide track and trace systems for services they offer. An example is [[track and trace]] for applications done by citizens (i.e. driving license procurement).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/track-your-driving-licence-application|title=Track your driving licence application|website=GOV.UK}}</ref>

Some government services use [[issue tracking system]] to keep track of ongoing issues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/services/track-progress-reported-road-fault-or-issue|title=Track progress of a reported road fault or issue &#124; nidirect|date=May 18, 2018|website=www.nidirect.gov.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://flsenate.gov/Tracker/help |title=Senate Tracker Help – The Florida Senate |website=flsenate.gov |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/legislation |title=Legislative Search Results |website=congress.gov |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://govtrack.us |title=GovTrack.us: Tracking the U.S. Congress |website=govtrack.us |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref>

===Justice by algorithm===
Judges' decisions in Australia are supported by the [[Split Up (expert system)|""Split Up"" software]] in case of determining the percentage of a split after a [[divorce]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stranieri |first1=Andrew |last2=Zeleznikow |first2=John |title=Proceedings of the fourth international conference on Information and knowledge management - CIKM '95 |chapter=Levels of reasoning as the basis for a formalisation of argumentation |date=2 December 1995 |pages=333–339 |doi=10.1145/221270.221608 |chapter-url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/221270.221608 |access-date=5 February 2022 |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|isbn=0897918126 |s2cid=12179742 }}</ref> [[COMPAS (software)|COMPAS]] software is used in USA to assess the risk of [[recidivism]] in courts.<ref>{{cite news |title=A computer program used for bail and sentencing decisions was labeled biased against blacks. It's actually not that clear. |author=Sam Corbett-Davies |author2=Emma Pierson |author3=Avi Feller |author4=Sharad Goel |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/10/17/can-an-algorithm-be-racist-our-analysis-is-more-cautious-than-propublicas/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=October 17, 2016 |access-date=January 1, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author=Aaron M. Bornstein |title=Are Algorithms Building the New Infrastructure of Racism? |magazine=[[Nautilus (science magazine)|Nautilus]] |date=December 21, 2017 |url=http://nautil.us/issue/55/trust/are-algorithms-building-the-new-infrastructure-of-racism |access-date=January 2, 2018 |issue=55 |archive-date=January 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103011728/http://nautil.us/issue/55/trust/are-algorithms-building-the-new-infrastructure-of-racism |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to the statement of Beijing Internet Court, China is the first country to create an internet court or cyber court.<ref name=internetcourt>{{cite web |title=Beijing Internet Court launches online litigation service center |url=https://english.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn/2019-07/01/c_190.htm |website=english.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn |access-date=13 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=China Now Has AI-Powered Judges |url=https://radiichina.com/china-now-has-ai-powered-robot-judges/ |access-date=13 April 2020 |work=RADII {{!}} Culture, Innovation, and Life in today's China |date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fish |first1=Tom |title=AI shock: China unveils 'cyber court' complete with AI judges and verdicts via chat app |url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/science/1214019/ai-china-cyber-court-artificial-intelligence-judges-verdicts-chat-app |access-date=13 April 2020 |work=Express.co.uk |date=6 December 2019}}</ref> The Chinese AI judge is a [[virtual actor|virtual recreation]] of an actual female judge. She ""will help the court's judges complete repetitive basic work, including litigation reception, thus enabling professional practitioners to focus better on their trial work"".<ref name=internetcourt/> Also [[Estonia]] plans to employ artificial intelligence to decide small-claim cases of less than €7,000.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Can AI Be a Fair Judge in Court? Estonia Thinks So |url=https://www.wired.com/story/can-ai-be-fair-judge-court-estonia-thinks-so/ |access-date=13 April 2020 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>

[[Lawbot]]s can perform tasks that are typically done by paralegals or young associates at law firms. One such technology used by US law firms to assist in legal research is from ROSS Intelligence,<ref>""ROSS Intelligence Lands Another Law Firm Client."" The American Lawyer. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 June 2017. <http://www.americanlawyer.com/id=1202769384977/ROSS-Intelligence-Lands-Another-Law-Firm-Client>.</ref> and others vary in sophistication and dependence on scripted [[algorithm]]s.<ref>CodeX Techindex. Stanford Law School, n.d. Web. 16 June 2017. <https://techindex.law.stanford.edu/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331081439/https://techindex.law.stanford.edu/ |date=2022-03-31 }}>.</ref> Another legal technology [[chatbot]] application is [[DoNotPay]].

===Algorithms in education===
{{further|Ofqual exam results algorithm}}

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, in-person final exams were impossible for thousands of students.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Broussard |first1=Meredith |author-link=Meredith Broussard |title=Opinion {{!}} When Algorithms Give Real Students Imaginary Grades |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/08/opinion/international-baccalaureate-algorithm-grades.html |work=The New York Times |date=8 September 2020}}</ref> The public high school [[Westminster High School (Westminster, California)|Westminster High]] employed algorithms to assign grades. UK's [[Department for Education]] also employed a statistical calculus to assign final grades in [[A-levels]], due to the pandemic.<ref name=""fuckthealgorithm"">{{cite magazine |title=Skewed Grading Algorithms Fuel Backlash Beyond the Classroom |url=https://www.wired.com/story/skewed-grading-algorithms-fuel-backlash-beyond-classroom/ |access-date=26 September 2020 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>

Besides use in grading, software systems like AI were used in preparation for college entrance exams.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/18/education/artificial-intelligence-tutors-teachers.html|title=The Machines Are Learning, and So Are the Students|first=Craig S.|last=Smith|date=December 18, 2019|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref>

AI teaching assistants are being developed and used for education (e.g., Georgia Tech's Jill Watson)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.educationworld.com/could-artificial-intelligence-replace-our-teachers|title=Could Artificial Intelligence Replace Our Teachers? &#124; Education World}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/a-professor-built-an-ai-teaching-assistant-for-his-courses-and-it-could-shape-the-future-of-education-2017-3|title=A professor built an AI teaching assistant for his courses — and it could shape the future of education|first=Todd|last=Leopold|website=Business Insider}}</ref> and there is also an ongoing debate on whether perhaps teachers can be entirely replaced by AI systems (e.g., in [[homeschooling]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/roybi-robot/the-future-of-homeschooling-how-robots-are-changing-in-home-education-473ede32e228|title=The Future of Homeschooling: How Robots are Changing In-Home Education|first=Roybi|last=Robot|date=September 23, 2018}}</ref>

===AI politicians===
{{See also|Chatbot#Politics}}

In 2018, an activist named Michihito Matsuda ran for mayor in the [[Tama, Tokyo|Tama city area of Tokyo]] as a human proxy for an [[artificial intelligence]] program.<ref>{{cite web |first=Michihito |last=Matsuda |title=POLITICS 2028: WHY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE WILL REPLACE POLITICIANS |website=SlideShare |date=14 July 2018 |url=https://www.slideshare.net/MichihitoMatsuda/politics-2028-why-artificial-intelligence-will-replace-politicians-by-michihito-matsuda |access-date=22 September 2019}}</ref> While election posters and campaign material used the term ''robot'', and displayed [[stock images]] of a feminine [[Android (robot)|android]], the ""AI mayor"" was in fact a [[machine learning algorithm]] trained using Tama city datasets.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnston |first1=Lachlan |title=There's an AI Running for the Mayoral Role of Tama City, Tokyo |url=https://www.otaquest.com/tama-city-ai-mayor/ |website=OTAQUEST |access-date=22 September 2019 |date=12 April 2018}}</ref> The project was backed by high-profile executives Tetsuzo Matsumoto of [[Softbank]] and Norio Murakami of [[Google]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ai-mayor.com/|title=AI党 &#124; 多摩市議会議員選挙2019|website=AI党 &#124; 多摩市議会議員選挙2019}}</ref> Michihito Matsuda came third in the election, being defeated by [[Hiroyuki Abe (politician)|Hiroyuki Abe]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Werden Bots die besseren Politiker? |url=https://www.politik-kommunikation.de/ressorts/artikel/werden-bots-die-besseren-politiker-73781989 |access-date=31 October 2020 |work=Politik & Kommunikation |language=de}}</ref> Organisers claimed that the 'AI mayor' was programmed to analyze [[Online petition|citizen petitions]] put forward to the [[city council]] in a more 'fair and balanced' way than human politicians.<ref>{{cite web|title=Robot to run for mayor in Japan promising 'fairness and balance' for all|first1=Abigail|last1=O'Leary|first2=Anna |last2=Verdon|date=April 17, 2018|website=mirror |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/robot-run-mayor-japan-world-12377782}}</ref>

In 2018, [[Cesar Hidalgo]] presented the idea of [[augumented democracy]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perez |first1=Oren |title=Collaborative е-Rulemaking, Democratic Bots, and the Future of Digital Democracy |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=31 January 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1145/3352463 |s2cid=211519367 |language=en |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free }}</ref> In an augumented democracy, legislation is done by [[digital twin]]s of every single person.

In 2019, AI-powered messenger [[chatbot]] SAM participated in the discussions on social media connected to an electoral race in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarmah |first1=Harshajit |title=World's First AI-powered Virtual Politician SAM Joins The Electoral Race In New Zealand |url=https://analyticsindiamag.com/worlds-first-ai-powered-virtual-politician-sam-joins-the-electoral-race-in-new-zealand/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=Analytics India Magazine |date=28 January 2019}}</ref> The creator of SAM, Nick Gerritsen, believes SAM will be advanced enough to run as a [[Virtual politician|candidate]] by late 2020, when New Zealand has its next general election.<ref>{{cite news |title=Meet SAM, world's first AI politician that hopes to run for New Zealand election in 2020 |date=26 November 2017 |work=Hindustan Times |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126111001/http://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 26, 2017 |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref>

In 2022, the chatbot ""Leader Lars"" or ""Leder Lars"" was nominated for [[The Synthetic Party]] to run in the 2022 [[Danish Realm|Danish]] parliamentary election,<ref>{{cite news |last=Sternberg |first=Sarah |date=20 June 2022 |title=Danskere vil ind på den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=Danes want to enter the political scene with artificial intelligence |newspaper=[[Jyllands-Posten]] |url=https://jyllands-posten.dk/kultur/ECE14145385/danskere-vil-ind-paa-den-politiske-scene-med-kunstig-intelligens/ |access-date=2022-06-20}}</ref> and was built by the artist collective [https://computerlars.com Computer Lars].<ref>{{cite news |last=Diwakar |first=Amar |date=2022-08-22 |title=Can an AI-led Danish party usher in an age of algorithmic politics? |trans-title= |newspaper=[[TRT World]] |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/can-an-ai-led-danish-party-usher-in-an-age-of-algorithmic-politics-60008 |access-date=2022-08-22}}</ref> Leader Lars differed from earlier virtual politicians by leading a [[political party]] and by not pretending to be an objective candidate.<ref>{{cite news |last=Xiang |first=Chloe |date=13 October 2022 |title=This Danish Political Party Is Led by an AI |trans-title= |newspaper=[[Motherboard (website)|Vice: Motherboard]] |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/jgpb3p/this-danish-political-party-is-led-by-an-ai |access-date=2022-10-13}}</ref> This chatbot engaged in critical discussions on politics with users from around the world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hearing |first=Alice |date=14 October 2022 |title=A.I. chatbot is leading a Danish political party and setting its policies. Now users are grilling it for its stance on political landmines |url=https://fortune.com/2022/10/14/ai-chatbot-leader-lars-the-synthetic-party-discord-russia-ukraine-crimea-policy/ |work=Fortune }}</ref>

In 2023, In the Japanese town of Manazuru, a mayoral candidate called ""[[AI Mayer]]"" hopes to be the first AI-powered officeholder in Japan in November 2023. This candidacy is said to be supported by a group led by Michihito Matsuda <ref>{{cite news |date=2023-11-07|title=Danskere vil ind den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=AI Mayer run to the election in Manazuru Town|newspaper=Tokyo Sports |url= https://www.tokyo-sports.co.jp/articles/-/282034 |access-date=2023-11-25}}</ref>

===Management of infection===
{{See also|Digital contact tracing|Disease surveillance|COVID-19 apps}}
[[File:A schematic of app-based COVID-19 contact tracing (Fig. 4 from Ferretti et al. 2020).jpg|thumb|A schematic of app-based COVID-19 contact tracing<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ferretti |first1=Luca |last2=Wymant |first2=Chris |last3=Kendall |first3=Michelle |last4=Zhao |first4=Lele |last5=Nurtay |first5=Anel |last6=Abeler-Dörner |first6=Lucie |last7=Parker |first7=Michael |last8=Bonsall |first8=David |last9=Fraser |first9=Christophe |title=Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 transmission suggests epidemic control with digital contact tracing |journal=Science |date=8 May 2020 |volume=368 |issue=6491 |pages=eabb6936 |doi=10.1126/science.abb6936 |pmid=32234805 |pmc=7164555 |language=en |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>]]

In February 2020, China launched a [[mobile app]] to deal with the [[Coronavirus disease 2019|Coronavirus outbreak]]<ref>{{cite news |title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact' app |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51439401 |access-date=7 March 2020 |work=BBC News |date=11 February 2020}}</ref> called ""close-contact-detector"".<ref name=""auto"">{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/tech/apps-social/article/3050054/china-launches-coronavirus-close-contact-detector-effort-reassure|title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact detector' platform|date=February 12, 2020|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref> Users are asked to enter their name and ID number. The app is able to detect ""close contact"" using surveillance data (i.e. using public transport records, including trains and flights)<ref name=""auto""/> and therefore a potential risk of infection. Every user can also check the status of three other users. To make this inquiry users scan a Quick Response (QR) code on their smartphones using apps like [[Alipay]] or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51439401|title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact detector' app|work=BBC News |date=February 11, 2020}}</ref> The close contact detector can be accessed via popular mobile apps including Alipay. If a potential risk is detected, the app not only recommends self-quarantine, it also alerts local health officials.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chen |first1=Angela |title=China's coronavirus app could have unintended consequences |website=MIT Technology Review |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/615199/coronavirus-china-app-close-contact-surveillance-covid-19-technology/ |access-date=7 March 2020}}</ref>

Alipay also has the [[Alipay Health Code]] which is used to keep citizens safe. This system generates a QR code in one of three colors (green, yellow, or red) after users fill in a form on Alipay with personal details. A green code enables the holder to move around unrestricted. A yellow code requires the user to stay at home for seven days and red means a two-week quarantine. In some cities such as Hangzhou, it has become nearly impossible to get around without showing one's Alipay code.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/china-coronavirus-surveillance.html|title=In Coronavirus Fight, China Gives Citizens a Color Code, With Red Flags|first1=Paul |last1=Mozur|first2=Raymond |last2=Zhong|first3=Aaron|last3=Krolik|newspaper=The New York Times |date=March 2, 2020}}</ref>

In Cannes, France, monitoring software has been used on footage shot by [[CCTV]] cameras, allowing to monitor their compliance to local [[social distancing]] and [[Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic|mask wearing]] during the COVID-19 pandemic. The system does not store identifying data, but rather allows to alert city authorities and police where breaches of the mask and mask wearing rules are spotted (allowing [[Fine (penalty)|fining]] to be carried out where needed). The algorithms used by the monitoring software can be incorporated into existing surveillance systems in public spaces (hospitals, stations, airports, shopping centres, ...) <ref>{{cite news |date=May 4, 2020 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-52529981|title=Coronavirus France: Cameras to monitor masks and social distancing|work=BBC News}}</ref>

Cellphone data is used to locate infected patients in South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and other countries.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Manancourt |first1=Vincent |title=Coronavirus tests Europe's resolve on privacy |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/coronavirus-tests-europe-resolve-on-privacy-tracking-apps-germany-italy/ |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=POLITICO |date=10 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/28/tech/korea-coronavirus-tracking-apps/index.html|title=Coronavirus mobile apps are surging in popularity in South Korea|author1=Ivan Watson |author2=Sophie Jeong |website=CNN|date=28 February 2020 }}</ref> In March 2020, the Israeli government enabled security agencies to track mobile phone data of people supposed to have coronavirus. The measure was taken to enforce quarantine and protect those who may come into contact with infected citizens.<ref>{{cite news|last=Tidy|first=Joe|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51930681|title=Coronavirus: Israel enables emergency spy powers|date=17 March 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=18 March 2020}}</ref> Also in March 2020, [[Deutsche Telekom]] shared private cellphone data with the federal government agency, [[Robert Koch Institute]], in order to research and prevent the spread of the virus.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Paksoy |first1=Yunus |title=German telecom giant shares private data with government amid privacy fears |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/german-telecom-giant-shares-private-data-with-government-amid-privacy-fears-34665 |access-date=20 March 2020 |agency=trtworld}}</ref> Russia deployed [[Facial recognition system|facial recognition technology]] to detect quarantine breakers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Moscow deploys facial recognition technology for coronavirus quarantine |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-moscow-technology-idUSKBN20F1RZ |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=Reuters |date=21 February 2020}}</ref> Italian regional health commissioner [[Giulio Gallera]] said that ""40% of people are continuing to move around anyway"", as he has been informed by mobile phone operators.<ref>{{cite news |title=Italians scolded for flouting lockdown as death toll nears 3,000 |url=https://www.post-gazette.com/news/world/2020/03/18/Italy-coronavirus-475-deaths-one-day-death-toll-2978-COVID-19-doctors/stories/202003180182 |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette}}</ref> In USA, Europe and UK, [[Palantir Technologies]] is taken in charge to provide COVID-19 tracking services.<ref>{{cite news |title=Palantir provides COVID-19 tracking software to CDC and NHS, pitches European health agencies |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/04/01/palantir-coronavirus-cdc-nhs-gotham-foundry/ |access-date=22 April 2020 |work=TechCrunch}}</ref>

===Prevention and management of environmental disasters===
{{See also|Early warning system}}

[[Tsunami]]s can be detected by [[Tsunami warning system]]s. They can make use of AI.<ref>{{cite web |title=Japanese team develops AI-based system to forecast tsunami and damages |url=https://www.preventionweb.net/news/how-ai-will-help-us-better-understand-tsunami-risks |website=www.preventionweb.net}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221057355|title=Artificially Intelligent Tsunami Early Warning System}}</ref> [[Flooding]]s can also be detected using AI systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2019/08/10/artificial-intelligence-wildfires-flooding-rescue/|title=How Artificial Intelligence Could Help Fight Climate Change-Driven Wildfires and Save Lives|website=Fortune}}</ref> [[Wildfire]]s can be predicted using AI systems.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Predictive modeling of wildfires: A new dataset and machine learning approach|first1=Younes Oulad|last1=Sayad|first2=Hajar |last2=Mousannif|first3=Hassan|last3=Al Moatassime|date=March 1, 2019|journal=Fire Safety Journal |volume=104|pages=130–146|doi=10.1016/j.firesaf.2019.01.006|s2cid=116032143|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261272818|title=Artificial intelligence for forest fire prediction}}</ref> [[Wildfire#Detection|Wildfire detection is possible by AI systems]] (i.e. through satellite data, aerial imagery, and GPS phone personnel position) and can help in the evacuation of people during wildfires,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Zhao |first1=Xilei |last2=Lovreglio |first2=Ruggiero |last3=Kuligowski |first3=Erica |last4=Nilsson |first4=Daniel |date=April 15, 2020 |title=Using Artificial Intelligence for Safe and Effective Wildfire Evacuations |journal=Fire Technology |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=483–485 |doi=10.1007/s10694-020-00979-x |s2cid=218801709 |doi-access=free}}</ref> to investigate how householders responded in wildfires<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Xilei |last2=Xu |first2=Yiming |last3=Lovreglio |first3=Ruggiero |last4=Kuligowski |first4=Erica |last5=Nilsson |first5=Daniel |last6=Cova |first6=Thomas J. |last7=Wu |first7=Alex |last8=Yan |first8=Xiang |date=2022-06-01 |title=Estimating wildfire evacuation decision and departure timing using large-scale GPS data |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136192092200102X |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |volume=107 |pages=103277 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2022.103277 |issn=1361-9209|arxiv=2109.07745 }}</ref> and spotting wildfire in real time using [[computer vision]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/05/tech/ai-wildfires/index.html |title=How AI is helping spot wildfires faster|author1=Rachel Metz |others=Video by John General |website=CNN|date=5 December 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/11/06/california-has-million-acres-forest-this-company-is-training-artificial-intelligence-scour-it-all-wildfire/|title=California has 33 million acres of forest. This company is training artificial intelligence to scour it all for wildfire. |first=Peter|last=Holley |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> [[Earthquake warning system|Earthquake detection systems]] are now improving alongside the development of AI technology through measuring seismic data and implementing complex algorithms to improve detection and prediction rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Mostafa |last2=Sheng |first2=Yixiao |last3=Zhu |first3=Weiqiang |last4=Beroza |first4=Gregory C. |date=2019 |title=STanford EArthquake Dataset (STEAD): A Global Data Set of Seismic Signals for AI |journal=IEEE Access |volume=7 |pages=179464–179476 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2947848 |s2cid=208111095 |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Banna |first1=Md. Hasan Al |last2=Taher |first2=Kazi Abu |last3=Kaiser |first3=M. Shamim |last4=Mahmud |first4=Mufti |last5=Rahman |first5=Md. Sazzadur |last6=Hosen |first6=A. S. M. Sanwar |last7=Cho |first7=Gi Hwan |date=2020 |title=Application of Artificial Intelligence in Predicting Earthquakes: State-of-the-Art and Future Challenges |journal=IEEE Access |volume=8 |pages=192880–192923 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3029859 |s2cid=226292959 |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-09 |title=How Location Intelligence Can Help Protect Lives During Disasters |url=https://ehsdailyadvisor.blr.com/2022/02/how-location-intelligence-can-help-protect-lives-during-disasters/ |access-date=2024-01-23 |website=EHS Daily Advisor |language=en-US}}</ref> Earthquake monitoring, phase picking, and seismic signal detection have developed through AI algorithms of [[Deep learning|deep-learning]], analysis, and computational models.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Mostafa |last2=Ellsworth |first2=William L. |last3=Zhu |first3=Weiqiang |last4=Chuang |first4=Lindsay Y. |last5=Beroza |first5=Gregory C. |date=2020-08-07 |title=Earthquake transformer—an attentive deep-learning model for simultaneous earthquake detection and phase picking |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=3952 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17591-w |pmid=32770023 |pmc=7415159 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3952M |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> [[Locust]] breeding areas can be approximated using machine learning, which could help to stop locust swarms in an early phase.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gómez |first1=Diego |last2=Salvador |first2=Pablo |last3=Sanz |first3=Julia |last4=Casanova |first4=Carlos |last5=Taratiel |first5=Daniel |last6=Casanova |first6=Jose Luis |date=August 15, 2018 |title=Machine learning approach to locate desert locust breeding areas based on ESA CCI soil moisture |journal=Journal of Applied Remote Sensing |volume=12 |issue=3 |at=036011 |bibcode=2018JARS...12c6011G |doi=10.1117/1.JRS.12.036011 |doi-access=free |s2cid=52230139}}</ref>

==Reception==
===Benefits===
{{See also|Techno-progressivism}}

Algorithmic regulation is supposed to be a system of governance where more exact data, collected from citizens via their smart devices and computers, is used to more efficiently organize human life as a collective.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McCormick |first1=Tim |title=A brief exchange with Tim O'Reilly about ""algorithmic regulation"" {{!}} Tim McCormick |date=15 February 2014 |url=https://tjm.org/2014/02/15/a-brief-exchange-with-tim-oreilly-about-algorithmic-regulation/ |access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Why the internet of things could destroy the welfare state |url=http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jul/20/rise-of-data-death-of-politics-evgeny-morozov-algorithmic-regulation |access-date=2 June 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=19 July 2014}}</ref> As [[Deloitte]] estimated in 2017, automation of US government work could save 96.7 million federal hours annually, with a potential savings of $3.3 billion; at the high end, this rises to 1.2 billion hours and potential annual savings of $41.1 billion.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Eggers |first1=illiam D. |last2=Schatsky |first2=David |last3=Viechnick |first3=Peter |title=Demystifying artificial intelligence in government |website=Deloitte Insights |url=https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/focus/cognitive-technologies/artificial-intelligence-government.html |access-date=4 April 2020}}</ref>

===Criticism===
There are potential risks associated with the use of algorithms in government. Those include [[Algorithmic bias|algorithms becoming susceptible to bias]],<ref name="":1"">{{cite web |url=https://ash.harvard.edu/files/ash/files/artificial_intelligence_for_citizen_services.pdf|title=Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government|last=Mehr|first=Hila|date=August 2017|website=ash.harvard.edu|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> a lack of transparency in how an algorithm may make decisions,<ref name="":6"">{{cite web|url=https://www.capgemini.com/consulting/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/10/ai-in-public-sector.pdf|title=Unleashing the potential of Artificial Intelligence in the Public Sector|last=Capgemini Consulting|date=2017|website=www.capgemini.com|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> and the accountability for any such decisions.<ref name="":6"" /> According to a 2016's book [[Weapons of Math Destruction]], algorithms and [[big data]] are suspected to increase inequality due to opacity, scale and damage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=Shikha |title=Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy |journal=Vikalpa: The Journal for Decision Makers |date=June 2019 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=97–98 |doi=10.1177/0256090919853933 |s2cid=198779932 |issn=0256-0909|doi-access=free }}</ref>

There is also a serious concern that [[gaming the system|gaming]] by the regulated parties might occur, once more [[Right to explanation|transparency is brought into the decision making by algorithmic governance]], regulated parties might try to manipulate their outcome in own favor and even use [[adversarial machine learning]].<ref name=sstandford/><ref name=socialmachine/> According to [[Yuval Noah Harari|Harari]], the conflict between democracy and dictatorship is seen as a conflict of two different data-processing systems—AI and algorithms may swing the advantage toward the latter by processing enormous amounts of information centrally.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harari |first1=Story by Yuval Noah |title=Why Technology Favors Tyranny |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/10/yuval-noah-harari-technology-tyranny/568330/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=The Atlantic}}</ref>

In 2018, the Netherlands employed an algorithmic system SyRI (Systeem Risico Indicatie) to detect citizens perceived being high risk for committing [[welfare fraud]], which quietly flagged thousands of people to investigators.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Europe Limits Government by Algorithm. The US, Not So Much |url=https://www.wired.com/story/europe-limits-government-algorithm-us-not-much/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref> This caused a public protest. The district court of Hague shut down SyRI referencing [[Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights]] (ECHR).<ref>Rechtbank Den Haag 5 February 2020, C-09-550982-HA ZA 18-388 (English), {{ECLI|ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2020:1878}}</ref>

The contributors of the 2019 documentary [[iHuman (2019 film)|iHuman]] expressed apprehension of ""infinitely stable dictatorships"" created by government AI.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Amber |title='iHuman': IDFA Review |url=https://www.screendaily.com/reviews/ihuman-idfa-review/5144918.article |website=Screen |access-date=21 April 2020}}</ref>

Due to public criticism, the Australian government announced the suspension of [[Robodebt scheme]] key functions in 2019, and a review of all debts raised using the programme.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rinta-Kahila |first1=Tapani |last2=Someh |first2=Ida |last3=Gillespie |first3=Nicole |last4=Indulska |first4=Marta |last5=Gregor |first5=Shirley |title=Algorithmic decision-making and system destructiveness: A case of automatic debt recovery |journal=European Journal of Information Systems |date=4 May 2022 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=313–338 |doi=10.1080/0960085X.2021.1960905|s2cid=239735326 |doi-access=free |hdl=1885/294609 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In 2020, algorithms assigning exam grades to students in the [[2020 UK GCSE and A-Level grading controversy|UK sparked open protest]] under the banner ""Fuck the algorithm.""<ref name=""fuckthealgorithm"" /> This protest was successful and the grades were taken back.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Reuter |first1=Markus |title=Fuck the Algorithm - Jugendproteste in Großbritannien gegen maschinelle Notenvergabe erfolgreich |url=https://netzpolitik.org/2020/fuck-the-algorithm-jugendproteste-in-grossbritannien-gegen-maschinelle-notenvergabe-erfolgreich/ |access-date=3 October 2020 |work=netzpolitik.org |date=17 August 2020 |language=de-DE}}</ref>

In 2020, the US government software [[ATLAS (software)|ATLAS]], which run on [[Amazon Cloud]], sparked uproar from activists and Amazon's own employees.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Government Is Using an Algorithm to Flag American Citizens for Denaturalization: Report |url=https://gizmodo.com/u-s-government-is-using-an-algorithm-to-flag-american-1847565703 |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=Gizmodo}}</ref>

In 2021, Eticas Foundation has launched a database of governmental algorithms called ''Observatory of Algorithms with Social Impact'' (OASI).<ref>{{cite press release |title=OASI, the first search engine to find the algorithms that governments and companies use on citizens |url=https://www.eureporter.co/lifestyle/computer-technology/2021/10/11/oasi-the-first-search-engine-to-find-the-algorithms-that-governments-and-companies-use-on-citizens/ |access-date=16 October 2021}}</ref>

====Algorithmic bias and transparency====
{{Main|Algorithmic bias}}

An initial approach towards transparency included the [[Open-source software|open-sourcing of algorithms]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Heald|first=David|title=Transparency: The Key to Better Governance?|date=2006-09-07|publisher=British Academy|isbn=978-0-19-726383-9|doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197263839.003.0002}}</ref> Software code can be looked into and improvements can be proposed through [[Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities|source-code-hosting facilities]].

===Public acceptance===
A 2019 poll conducted by [[IE University]]'s Center for the Governance of Change in Spain found that 25% of citizens from selected European countries were somewhat or totally in favor of letting an artificial intelligence make important decisions about how their country is run.<ref>{{cite web |title=European Tech Insights (2019) {{!}} IE CGC |website=Center for the Governance of Change |access-date=11 April 2020 |url=https://docs.ie.edu/cgc/European-Tech-Insights-2019.pdf}}</ref> The following table lists the results by country:

{| class=""wikitable sortable""
|-
! Country !! Percentage
|-
| France || 25%
|-
| Germany || 31%
|-
| Ireland || 29%
|-
| Italy || 28%
|-
| Netherlands || 43%
|-
| Portugal || 19%
|-
| Spain || 26%
|-
| UK || 31%
|}

Researchers found some evidence that when citizens perceive their political leaders or security providers to be untrustworthy, disappointing, or immoral, they prefer to replace them by artificial agents, whom they consider to be more reliable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spatola |first1=Nicolas |last2=Macdorman |first2=Karl F. |title=Why Real Citizens Would Turn to Artificial Leaders |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=11 July 2021 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=26:1–26:24 |doi=10.1145/3447954 |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free |hdl=1805/30988 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The evidence is established by survey experiments on university students of all genders.

==In popular culture==
The novels [[Daemon (novel series)|''Daemon'']] and ''[[Freedom™]]'' by [[Daniel Suarez (author)|Daniel Suarez]] describe a fictional scenario of global algorithmic regulation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rieger |first1=Frank |title=Understanding the Daemon |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/medien/english-version-understanding-the-daemon-1621404.html |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=FAZ.NET |language=de}}</ref> [[Matthew De Abaitua]]'s ''If Then'' imagines an algorithm supposedly based on ""fairness"" recreating a premodern rural economy.<ref>Stainforth, Elizabeth and Jo Lindsay Walton. ""Computing Utopia: The Horizons of Computational Economies in History and Science Fiction."" Science Fiction Studies, vol. 46 no. 3, 2019, p. 471-489. Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/sfs.2019.0084.</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Anti-corruption]]
* [[Civic technology]]
* [[Code for America]]
* [[Cyberpunk]]
* [[Cybersyn]]
* [[Digital divide]]
* [[Digital Nations]]
* [[Distributed ledger technology law]]
* [[Dutch childcare benefits scandal]]
* [[ERulemaking]]
* [[Lawbot]]
* [[Legal informatics]]
* [[Management cybernetics]]
* [[Multivac]]
* [[Predictive analytics]]
* [[Sharing economy]]
* [[Smart contract]]
* [[Algorithmocracy]] - [https://algorithmocracy.org/]
{{div col end}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== General and cited references ==
* {{Cite book |last=Lessig |first=Lawrence |year=2006 |title=Code: Version 2.0 |url=https://lessig.org/product/codev2 |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03914-2 |oclc=133467669}} Wikipedia article: ''[[Code: Version 2.0]]''.
* {{Cite journal |last=Oliva |first=Jennifer |date=2020-01-08 |title=Prescription-Drug Policing: The Right To Health Information Privacy Pre- and Post-Carpenter |url=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/dlj/vol69/iss4/1 |journal=[[Duke Law Journal]] |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=775–853 |issn=0012-7086}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Szalavitz |first=Maia |date=October 2021 |title=The Pain Algorithm |url=https://www.wired.com/story/opioid-drug-addiction-algorithm-chronic-pain |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|WIRED]] |pages=36–47 |issn=1059-1028}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Yeung |first1=Karen |last2=Lodge |first2=Martin |year=2019 |title=Algorithmic Regulation |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198838494}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|algocracy}}
* [https://dataforpolicy.org/data-for-policy-2017/ Government by Algorithm?] by Data for Policy 2017 Conference
* [https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf Government by Algorithm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815021400/https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |date=2022-08-15 }} by [[Stanford University]]
* [https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/624262/EPRS_STU(2019)624262_EN.pdf A governance framework for algorithmic accountability and transparency] by [[European Parliament]]
* [https://academic.oup.com/comjnl/article/62/3/448/5070384 Algorithmic Government] by Zeynep Engin and Philip Treleaven, [[University College London]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fsz6Zw1BkTg Algorithmic Government] by Prof. Philip C. Treleaven of [[University College London]]
* [https://ash.harvard.edu/files/ash/files/artificial_intelligence_for_citizen_services.pdf Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government] by Hila Mehr of [[Harvard University]]
* [https://eticasfoundation.org/oasi/register/ The OASI Register], algorithms with social impact
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt11279794/?ref_=nm_flmg_dr_1 ''iHuman''] (Documentary, 2019) by [[Tonje Hessen Schei]]
* [https://motivatingspeech.com/how-blockchain-can-transform-india-jaspreet-bindra/ How Blockchain can transform India: Jaspreet Bindra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628064819/https://motivatingspeech.com/how-blockchain-can-transform-india-jaspreet-bindra/ |date=2021-06-28 }}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sr2ga3BBMTc Can An AI Design Our Tax Policy?]
* [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09540962.2020.1821514/ New development: Blockchain—a revolutionary tool for the public sector], An introduction on the Blockchain's usage in the public sector by Vasileios Yfantis
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/cesar_hidalgo_a_bold_idea_to_replace_politicians A bold idea to replace politicians] by [[César Hidalgo]]

[[Category:Government by algorithm| ]]
[[Category:Applications of artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Collaboration]]
[[Category:E-government]]
[[Category:Information society|*]]
[[Category:Social influence]]
[[Category:Social information processing]]
[[Category:Social networks]]
[[Category:Social systems]]
[[Category:Sociology of technology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Technological utopianism]]
[[Category:Technology in society]]
[[Category:Transhumanism]]"
Christoph Becker,"{{Short description|Canadian academic}}
{{Infobox person
| name               = Christoph Becker
| image              = Christoph Becker.jpg
| birth_place        = Austria
| education          = Vienna University of Technology (BSc Computer Science, MSc Computer Science, MSc Economics, Doctorate Computer Science)
| employer           = [[University of Toronto]]
| known_for          = Sustainability in System Design Digital Curation 
Digital Preservation Planning
| notable_works      = [https://www.sustainabilitydesign.org/karlskrona-manifesto/ Karlskrona Manifesto] (2015) <br>     
[https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262545600/insolvent/ Insolvent: How to Reorient Computing for Just Sustainability] (2023)
| website            = {{URL|christoph-becker.info}}
}}
 
'''Christoph Becker''' is a Professor of Information and Director of the Digital Curation Institute at the [[University of Toronto]]. His research focuses on the design of just and sustainable information and software systems, judgment and decision-making in systems design, social responsibility in computing, and digital curation.

Becker is one of the co-founders of the [[The Karlskrona Manifesto|Karlskrona Manifesto for Sustainability Design]] and is the author of the book ''[https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262545600/insolvent/ Insolvent: How to Reorient Computing for Just Sustainability].''

== Career ==
Becker received his BSc in Computer Science, MSc in Software Engineering, MSc in Economics and Computer Science, and Doctorate in Computer Science at the [[TU Wien|Vienna University of Technology]]. After completing his PhD in 2010 with a thesis on decision-making in digital preservation, he spent a winter in Lisbon as a visiting post-doctoral researcher with the Information Systems research group at IST Lisbon. He returned to Vienna to lead a research program on scalable decision support for digital preservation as part of the large-scale EC-funded project [https://scape-project.eu/ SCAPE: Scalable Preservation Environments], which he co-developed with an international consortium of universities, memory organizations, industrial research and commercial partners.

In 2013, he moved to Toronto, Canada to become an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Information and later an Associate Professor in 2018. Since 2014, he has served as the Director of the [https://dci.ischool.utoronto.ca/ Digital Curation Institute], where he leads interdisciplinary research in digital curation along with appointed fellows, graduate students, faculty, researchers and industry partners. Becker is also an Associate Member of the School of the Environment at the University of Toronto.

His book ''Insolvent: How to Reorient Computing for Just Sustainability'' appears at [[MIT Press]] from June 2023.

== Research ==
Becker’s current research focuses on [[sustainability]] and social justice within computing and system design and the use of critical theories to examine the politics, values and cognitive processes of design.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-10-19 |title=Research {{!}} Christoph Becker |url=https://www.christoph-becker.info/research/ |access-date=2023-04-20 |language=en-US}}</ref>

His previous research included digital sustainability through digital curation and preservation, archiving and digital libraries.

He has received funding from the [[Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council|National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada]], Ontario Research Fund, [[Canada Foundation for Innovation]], the [[Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development|European Commission’s Framework Program]], the Vienna Science and Technology Fund, the United Nation’s Food and Agriculture Organization, and the University of Toronto’s Connaught Fund.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ORCID |url=https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8364-0593 |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=orcid.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Christoph Becker |url=https://discover.research.utoronto.ca/21004-christoph-becker |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=discover.research.utoronto.ca}}</ref>

Becker is an associate editor of the recently launched [https://dl.acm.org/journal/jrc/editorial-board ACM Journal of Responsible Computing], a member of the program committees of [https://conf.researchr.org/committee/icse-2023/icse-2023-technical-track-programme-committee ICSE], [https://conf.researchr.org/committee/chase-2023/chase-2023-research-track-program-committee CHASE], [http://ict4s.org/ ICT4S], [https://computingwithinlimits.org/2023/ Computing within Limits], and [https://conf.researchr.org/committee/ease-2023/ease-2023-research-program-committee EASE]''',''' and a co-founder of ''[https://techotherwise.pubpub.org/ TechOtherwise]'''''.'''

== Works ==

* [https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262545600/insolvent/ Insolvent: How to Reorient Computing for Just Sustainability]
* [https://scholar.google.ca/citations?user=sYZlySIAAAAJ Christoph Becker - Google Scholar]

== Public Writing ==

* Christoph Becker, Andrew Clement. [https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/2021/02/22/its-time-to-defund-big-tech-and-empower-communities.html It’s time to defund Big Tech and empower communities]. Toronto Star. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-24 |title=Opinion {{!}} It's time to defund Big Tech and empower communities |url=https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/2021/02/22/its-time-to-defund-big-tech-and-empower-communities.html |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=thestar.com |language=en}}</ref> 
* Christopher Frauenberger, Ann Light, Christoph Becker, Dawn Walker, Curtis McCord, Steve Easterbrook, Lisa Nathan, Irina Shklovski, Elizabeth Patitsas. [https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000114033073/ein-neuer-kompass-fuer-die-digitale-zukunft Ein neuer Kompass für die digitale Zukunft]. Kommentare der anderen, DerStandard.at <ref>{{Cite web |title=Ein neuer Kompass für die digitale Zukunft |url=https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000114033073/ein-neuer-kompass-fuer-die-digitale-zukunft |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=DER STANDARD |language=de-AT}}</ref>

== Awards ==

* '''2019''': Best Paper award, 6th International Conference on ICT for Sustainability (ICT4S), for “Sidewalk and Toronto: Critical Systems Heuristics and the Smart City” {{arxiv|1906.02266}}. 
* '''2019''': W. Kaye Lamb Prize of the Association of Canadian Archivists (ACA) for article “Metaphors We Work By: Reframing Digital Objects, Significant Properties and the Design of Digital Preservation Systems” <ref>{{Cite web |title=W. Kaye Lamb Prize Winners {{!}} Archivaria |url=https://archivaria.ca/index.php/archivaria/awards/w-kaye-lamb-prize-winners |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=archivaria.ca}}</ref>
* '''2014''': Best Demo award, Combined ACM/IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries & Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries Conference, for SCAPE Planning and Watch System
* '''2012''': Digital Preservation Coalition: Digital Preservation Award for Research & Innovation in Digital Preservation for the PLANETS project ([[Digital Preservation Award|Digital Preservation Award - Wikipedia]])
* '''2011''': Shortlisted for the German/Austrian/Swiss computer science doctoral dissertation award.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Becker |first=Christoph |url=http://dl.gi.de/handle/20.500.12116/33775 |title=Trustworthy Preservation Planning |date=2011 |publisher=Gesellschaft für Informatik |isbn=978-3-88579-415-8 |language=de}}</ref> 
* '''2010''': German Association for the Advancement of Information Sciences: Thesis award for doctoral thesis, “Trustworthy preservation planning”.<ref>{{Cite web |last=JP |date=2011-01-26 |title=Vergabe des VFI-Förderungspreises 2010 |url=https://voeb-b.at/vergabe-des-vfi-foerderungspreises-2010/ |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=Vereinigung Österreichischer Bibliothekarinnen und Bibliothekare |language=de-DE}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Becker, Christoph}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:University of Toronto people]]
[[Category:21st-century Austrian writers]]
[[Category:Austrian academics]]
[[Category:TU Wien alumni]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainability books]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]"
Reconstructed clothing,"[[File:Ruwanthi's collection at TFDA 2021.jpg|thumb|Reconstructed clothing at a fashion show.]]
{{Clothing and the environment}}
'''Reconstructed clothing''' is used or [[vintage clothing]] that has been [[fashion design|redesigned]] and [[sewing|resewn]] into a new garment.<ref name=""pdi"">De la Paz, Gino.  ""If It's Worth It, Then Rework It.""  Philippine Daily Inquirer (November 13, 2004).</ref>  Reconstructed [[clothing]] became [[Fashion trends|trendy]] in the [[2000s in fashion|mid-2000s]].<ref name=""pdi""/>  During this first wave of trend, ''Generation T'' (2006), which gave instructions for ""108 Ways to Transform a [[T-Shirt]]"", was published.<ref>Nicolay, Megan.  Generation T: 108 Ways to Transform a T-Shirt. Workman Publishing Company, 2006.</ref>  The book included instructions for how to make [[halter top]]s, [[A-line skirt]]s, and string [[bikini]]s out of T-shirts. In 2008, Nicolay released another book entitled: ''Generation T-Beyond Fashion 120 More Ways to Transform Your T's''. This book had a bigger variety of projects including ones for children, men, and even pets. 

In March 2006, the DIY group Compai released their first DIY clothing reconstruction book, ''99 Ways to Cut, Sew, Trim, and Tie Your T-shirt Into Something Fabulous!'' After this book's release, Compai went on to release three more books about reconstructing jeans, sweaters and scarves.

During the latter half of the 2010s, reconstructed clothing became popular within high fashion. Brands such as RE/DONE and [[Vetements]] popularized jeans constructed from vintage denim. [[Marine Serre]], winner of the 2017 [[LVMH]] prize for young designers, pledges a minimum of 50% of her collections consist of reconstructed clothing. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-16|title=Here's How Marine Serre's Upcycled Clothes Actually Get Made|url=https://www.papermag.com/marine-serre-spring-2020-upcycling-2645734672.html|access-date=2020-09-10|website=PAPER|language=en}}</ref> New York brand [[Bode (fashion brand)|BODE]] has from its 2016 inception focused on pieces reconstructed from vintage or antique textiles such as quilts, tablecloths, lace doilies, and oven mitts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Colyar |first=Brock |date=2023-07-05 |title=Welcome to Bodeworld |url=https://www.thecut.com/article/bode-menswear-clothing-brand-emily-adams-bode-aujla.html |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=The Cut |language=en}}</ref>

Reconstructed clothing is appealing because it allows the designer to ""stamp [their ideas] into an existing piece...and come up with a totally different piece"" and because it makes the wearer's clothing unique.<ref name=""pdi""/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2000s fashion]]
[[Category:Fashion design]]
[[Category:Clothing and the environment]]
[[Category:Reuse]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]

{{Fashion}}{{Clothing}}{{fashion-stub}}{{Clothing-stub}}
[[Category:Clothing]]"
Music of the Spheres World Tour,"{{Short description|2022–2024 concert tour by Coldplay}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox concert
| concert_tour_name = Music of the Spheres World Tour
| artist            = [[Coldplay]]
| image             = Music of the Spheres World Tour Poster.png
| image_size        = 220px
| image_caption     = Promotional poster example
| location          = {{Flatlist|
* Asia
* Europe
* North America
* South America
* Oceania
}}
| album             = ''[[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|Music of the Spheres]]''
| start_date        = {{Start date|df=yes|2022|03|18}}
| end_date          = {{End date|df=yes|2024|11|16}}
| number_of_shows   = 177
| producer          = [[Live Nation (events promoter)|Live Nation]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Fields a Global Tour |url=https://hitsdailydouble.com/news&id=328689&title=COLDPLAY-FIELDS-A-GLOBAL-TOUR- |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220807215014/https://hitsdailydouble.com/news&id=328689&title=COLDPLAY-FIELDS-A-GLOBAL-TOUR- |archive-date=7 August 2022 |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=Hits Daily Double}}</ref>
| attendance        = 7.66 million{{efn|name=COLDBOX|Based on the 132 reported dates.}}
| gross             = $810.9 million{{efn|name=COLDBOX}}
| website           = {{URL|coldplay.com/tour}}
| last_tour         = [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour]]<br/>(2016–2017)
| this_tour         = '''Music of the Spheres World Tour'''<br/>(2022–2024)
| next_tour         = ...
}}

The '''Music of the Spheres World Tour''' is the ongoing eighth [[concert tour]] undertaken by British [[Rock music|rock]] band [[Coldplay]]. Announced on 14 October 2021, it is being staged in support of their ninth studio album, ''[[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|Music of the Spheres]]'', marking their return to live performances after the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. The band had not toured for their previous record, ''[[Everyday Life (Coldplay album)|Everyday Life]]'' (2019), because they wanted to launch an [[Environmentalism in music|environmentally friendly]] strategy to travel. According to the plans they developed over the previous two years with specialists, [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] will be reduced by 50% in comparison to the [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour|Head Full of Dreams Tour]] (2016–17).

Similar to the [[Mylo Xyloto Tour]] (2011–12), the concerts make extensive use of [[pyrotechnics]] and [[confetti]]. However, they were adapted to minimise the group's [[carbon footprint]]. Other ideas involved creating the first mobile rechargeable show battery in the world with [[BMW]] and planting a tree for every ticket sold. The tour began at [[Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica (2011)|Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica]] on 18 March 2022 and is scheduled to end at New Zealand's [[Eden Park]] on 16 November 2024. Coldplay received widespread acclaim from music critics, who praised the band for their musicianship, stage presence, joyfulness, and production value.

With a [[Impact of the Music of the Spheres World Tour|global cultural impact]], the Music of the Spheres World Tour surpassed $810.9 million in revenue from 7.66 million tickets across 132 dates, making it the [[List of highest-grossing concert tours|third-highest-grossing]] and [[List of most-attended concert tours|second-most attended]] tour of all time. The band also [[#Venue records|broke several records]] at the venues they visited. To celebrate the performances, ''[[Coldplay – Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate|Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate]]'' (2023) was broadcast in cinemas around the world. Emissions were cut by 47% in the concert run's first year, leading ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' to rank Coldplay among the most influential climate action leaders on the planet. Similarly, ''[[Pollstar]]'' declared that they ushered into ""a new era of sustainable touring"".

== Development ==
=== Background ===
After the release of Coldplay's eighth album, ''[[Everyday Life (Coldplay album)|Everyday Life]]'' (2019), [[Chris Martin]] said the band would not tour until they could ensure their shows are [[Environmentalism in music|environmentally friendly]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2019 |title=Coldplay to Pause Touring Until Concerts are Environmentally Beneficial |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-50490700 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20191121120734/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-50490700 |archive-date=21 November 2019 |access-date=5 September 2023 |website=BBC News}}</ref> which led the record to be promoted with small charity concerts and a performance at the [[Amman Citadel]] in Jordan, broadcast by [[YouTube]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 November 2019 |title=Coldplay Apresenta Novo Disco, Everyday Life, Sob Amanhecer da Jordânia |trans-title=Coldplay Present New Album, Everyday Life, Under Jordan's Dawn |url=https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-apresenta-novo-disco-everyday-life-sob-amanhecer-da-jordania-assista/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230621112852/https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-apresenta-novo-disco-everyday-life-sob-amanhecer-da-jordania-assista/ |archive-date=21 June 2023 |access-date=21 June 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> On 14 October 2021, a day before ''[[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|Music of the Spheres]]'' was made available, the group posted on social media they would be returning to live shows following the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Announce 2022 World Tour |url=https://pitchfork.com/news/coldplay-announce-2022-world-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615211311/https://pitchfork.com/news/coldplay-announce-2022-world-tour/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Pitchfork}}</ref> The announcement was accompanied by a detailed 12 steps plan, which was developed in two years with environmental experts and set out how Coldplay would reduce [[carbon dioxide]] emissions by 50% compared to [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour]] (2016–17).<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Music of the Spheres World Tour Announced |url=https://www.coldplay.com/music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-announced/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016160004/https://www.coldplay.com/music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-announced/ |archive-date=16 October 2021 |access-date=14 October 2021 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref> To celebrate the album's release, they inaugurated [[Climate Pledge Arena]] on 22 October 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Covers Pearl Jam, Brings Six-Year-Old On Stage at Seattle Show |url=https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-covers-pearl-jam-brings-six-year-old-on-stage-at-seattle-show/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220105171010/https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-covers-pearl-jam-brings-six-year-old-on-stage-at-seattle-show/ |archive-date=5 January 2022 |access-date=5 January 2022 |website=American Songwriter}}</ref> The event was broadcast by [[Amazon Prime Video]] and later followed by a performance at [[Expo 2020]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 November 2021 |title=Live From Climate Pledge Arena EP Out Today |url=https://www.coldplay.com/live-from-climate-pledge-arena-ep-out-today/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220706024831/https://www.coldplay.com/live-from-climate-pledge-arena-ep-out-today/ |archive-date=6 July 2022 |access-date=5 July 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}
* {{Cite web |date=14 February 2022 |title=Coldplay To Perform Free Show For Dubai Expo |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-to-perform-free-show-for-dubai-expo-3161160 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220626200944/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-to-perform-free-show-for-dubai-expo-3161160 |archive-date=26 June 2022 |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=NME}}</ref> while the concert run began in Costa Rica due to [[Renewable energy in Costa Rica|the country's renewable-energy-sourced]] power grid.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 October 2021 |title=Why Coldplay Chose Costa Rica To Open Their World Tour |url=https://costaricaforexpats.com/why-coldplay-chose-costa-rica-to-open-their-world-tour/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220616004457/https://costaricaforexpats.com/why-coldplay-chose-costa-rica-to-open-their-world-tour/ |archive-date=16 June 2022 |access-date=16 June 2022 |website=Costa Rica for Expats}}</ref>

=== Ecological plan ===
[[File:Coldplay MOTS World Tour Press Release Photo 1.png|thumb|alt=A man performs with a microphone as the stage behind him release numerous fireworks|Coldplay's stage was adapted to require less energy to function]]
A team of sustainability experts was commissioned to investigate Coldplay's [[carbon footprint]] and study how to reduce it.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Announce Details of Sustainable 2022 World Stadium Tour |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-announce-details-of-sustainable-2022-world-stadium-tour-dates-tickets-3070629 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220426001835/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-announce-details-of-sustainable-2022-world-stadium-tour-dates-tickets-3070629 |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=25 April 2022 |website=NME}}</ref> Alongside [[BMW]], the band also developed the first ever mobile rechargeable show battery,<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 June 2021 |title=The First-Ever BMW iX and the First-Ever BMW i4: Joint Global Campaign Plays to the Rhythm of Coldplay's New Hit |url=https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0335298EN/the-first-ever-bmw-ix-and-the-first-ever-bmw-i4:-joint-global-campaign-plays-to-the-rhythm-of-coldplay-s-new-hit?language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220106225032/https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0335298EN/the-first-ever-bmw-ix-and-the-first-ever-bmw-i4:-joint-global-campaign-plays-to-the-rhythm-of-coldplay-s-new-hit?language=en |archive-date=6 January 2022 |access-date=13 June 2021 |website=Press BMW Group}}</ref> which was made from recyclable [[BMW i3]] batteries and powered concerts by using renewable resources such as [[hydrotreated vegetable oil]], [[solar power]] and [[kinetic energy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 December 2021 |title=Coldplay's New Tour Powered by BMW Batteries |url=https://luxuryboutiquemagazine.com/2021/10/18/coldplays-new-tour-powered-by-bmw-batteries/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220106230929/https://luxuryboutiquemagazine.com/2021/10/18/coldplays-new-tour-powered-by-bmw-batteries/ |archive-date=6 January 2022 |access-date=6 January 2022 |website=Luxury Boutique}}</ref> Unavoidable emissions were [[Carbon offset|offset]] according to [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]'s principles.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 October 2021 |title=Coldplay To Use Oxford Offsetting Principles For Unavoidable Tour Emissions |url=https://netzeroclimate.org/coldplay-to-use-oxford-offsetting-principles-for-unavoidable-tour-emissions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615203324/https://netzeroclimate.org/coldplay-to-use-oxford-offsetting-principles-for-unavoidable-tour-emissions/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Net Zero Climate}}</ref> They claimed a tree would be planted for every ticket sold through a global [[reforestation]] agreement with One Tree Planted as well.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=One Tree Planted To Fulfill Coldplay's Reforestation Targets Around Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://onetreeplanted.org/blogs/stories/coldplay-sustainability-reforestation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220116232615/https://onetreeplanted.org/blogs/stories/coldplay-sustainability-reforestation |archive-date=16 January 2022 |access-date=29 December 2021 |website=One Tree Planted}}</ref> For transportation, the tour was routed to [[Environmental effects of aviation|reduce air travel]], ground freight used [[electric vehicle]]s or [[biofuel]] and the band embarked on commercial flights whenever possible.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coldplay's 12-Point Sustainability Plan |url=https://ecolibrium.earth/case-study/coldplays-12-point-sustainability-plan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615193630/https://ecolibrium.earth/case-study/coldplays-12-point-sustainability-plan/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Ecolibrium}}</ref> In all of them, commercial and charter, an additional charge was paid to provide airplanes with [[Neste]]'s [[Aviation biofuel|sustainable aviation fuel]], made from waste and residues such as used cooking oil.<ref name=""OSP"">{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Music of the Spheres World Tour – Sustainability Plan |url=https://sustainability.coldplay.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014121010/https://sustainability.coldplay.com/ |archive-date=14 October 2021 |access-date=14 October 2021 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>

The stages were built ""from a combination of lightweight, low-carbon and re-usable materials including recycled steel"", being also customized to incorporate low-energy [[LED display|displays]], [[laser]]s, [[lighting]] set-ups and a [[Public address system|PA system]] that consumed 50% less power, helping to reduce environmental noise outside.<ref name=""OSP"" /> Similarly, delay towers had wind-turbines and unused seats had solar blankets.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Music of the Spheres – The Tour Report |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/09/music-of-the-spheres-the-tour-report/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220919181407/https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/09/music-of-the-spheres-the-tour-report/ |archive-date=19 September 2022 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=IQ}}</ref>

For special effects, Coldplay used [[Biodegradation|biodegradable]] confetti adapted to require less compressed gas for ignition, while [[pyrotechnics]] had new formulas to reduce or eliminate harmful chemicals and mitigate the explosive charge.<ref name=""OSP"" /> [[Xyloband]]s were substituted by [[PixMob]] wristbands made from 100% compostable materials and the band pledged to decrease their production by collecting, sterilising and recharging them after every show.<ref name=""L&SA"">{{Cite web |date=July 2022 |title=Pythagorean Theorems: Working Out the Complex Geometry of Coldplay's Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://edition.pagesuite-professional.co.uk/html5/reader/production/default.aspx?pubname=&edid=56011c8e-f0d6-4654-925d-ae39a868aac3&pnum=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730042114/https://edition.pagesuite-professional.co.uk/html5/reader/production/default.aspx?pubname=&edid=56011c8e-f0d6-4654-925d-ae39a868aac3&pnum=1 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |access-date=30 July 2022 |website=Lighting & Sound America |page=51}}
* {{Cite web |date=26 October 2021 |title=Coldplay's Music of the Spheres World Tour Will Be Environment Friendly |url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/coldplays-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-will-be-environment-friendly-63962/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230325025337/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/coldplays-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-will-be-environment-friendly-63962/ |archive-date=25 March 2023 |access-date=25 March 2023 |website=NDTV}}</ref> To minimise [[Food loss and waste|food waste]], they had crew catering menus that offered [[Plant-based diet|plant-based]] and [[Meat-free days|meat-free]] options as the standard, sourced products from suppliers adept to regenerative agriculture techniques, supported the development of synthetic, lab-grown cultured meals, donated surplus to local [[food bank]]s and [[compost]]ed organic waste such as vegetable peelings and scraps.<ref name=""OSP"" /> The band also worked with venues to establish recycling programs, replace [[Single-use plastic|single-use water bottles]] with alternatives such as the [[Ball Corporation|Ball]] aluminium cups, include refill stations, introduce aerated taps, lower flushing toilets and reduce water pressure.<ref name=""OSP"" />

=== Fan accessibility ===
Coldplay partnered with [[SAP]] to develop a free [[mobile app]]lication for the tour which calculated the total carbon footprint generated by concert goers and encouraged them to take environmentally friendly travel options.<ref name=""APP"">{{Cite web |date=12 March 2022 |title=How Technology Tunes Coldplay's Eco-friendly Tour To Hit The Right Note |url=https://news.sap.com/2022/03/technology-tunes-eco-friendly-coldplay-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615184928/https://news.sap.com/2022/03/technology-tunes-eco-friendly-coldplay-tour/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=SAP News Center}}</ref> Fans who committed to the effort were given a discount code on their merchandise store.<ref name=""APP"" /> Partners and vendors were carefully selected to provide high quality products made from natural fibres and re-usable materials, which were then packaged in recycled paper, card or compostable bags.<ref name=""OSP"" /> Additionally, the band incorporated kinetic floors and [[stationary bicycle]]s to venues to power the C-stage and further interact with attendees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 August 2022 |title=Music of the Spheres Designers Put Our Planet First |url=https://www.livedesignonline.com/concerts/music-spheres-designers-reach-stars |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220822033415/https://www.livedesignonline.com/concerts/luz-studio-provides-production-design-leon-bridges-tour |archive-date=22 August 2022 |access-date=22 August 2022 |website=Live Design}}</ref> They provided bass-delivering vests from [[SubPac (company)|SubPac]] and two sign language interpreters for concert goers with [[hearing loss]] as well,<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2022 |title=Here's How Coldplay Ensures Their Shows Are Inclusive And Accessible To All |url=https://kiisfm.iheart.com/content/2022-05-15-heres-how-coldplay-ensures-their-shows-are-inclusive-and-accessible-to-all/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220601135024/https://kiisfm.iheart.com/content/2022-05-15-heres-how-coldplay-ensures-their-shows-are-inclusive-and-accessible-to-all/ |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=1 June 2022 |website=102.7 Kiis FM}}</ref> while guests who are [[Visual impairment|blind or have low vision]] were offered a designated platform and touch tours before each show.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 July 2022 |title=Inclusivity On The Tour |url=https://www.coldplay.com/inclusivity-on-the-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220708115449/https://www.coldplay.com/inclusivity-on-the-tour/ |archive-date=8 July 2022 |access-date=8 July 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref> In May 2022, the band announced Infinity Tickets, a limited set of $20 admissions for fans who could not afford standard prices.{{efn|Infinity Ticket batches were sold only in pairs and had their locations selected at random, while values did not included possible taxes and fees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2022 |title=Infinity Ticket, La Iniciativa de Coldplay para Fanáticos que No Pueden Pagar Boletos |trans-title=Infinity Ticket, Coldplay's Initiative for Fans That Can't Pay Tickets |url=https://www.24-horas.mx/2022/05/26/infinity-ticket-la-iniciativa-de-coldplay-para-fanaticos-que-no-pueden-pagar-boletos/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220601141117/https://www.24-horas.mx/2022/05/26/infinity-ticket-la-iniciativa-de-coldplay-para-fanaticos-que-no-pueden-pagar-boletos/ |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=1 June 2022 |website=24 Horas El Diario Sin Límites |language=es}}</ref>}}

=== Partnerships ===
In May 2022, ''[[The Times]]'' revealed Coldplay donated over £2.1 million to environmental causes through J Van Mars Foundation during the previous year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2022 |title=Coldplay's Chris Martin Net Worth |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/sunday-times-rich-list-coldplay-net-worth-chris-martin-guy-berryman-jonny-buckland-will-champion-v66n69xsp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220522030130/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/sunday-times-rich-list-coldplay-net-worth-chris-martin-guy-berryman-jonny-buckland-will-champion-v66n69xsp |archive-date=22 May 2022 |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=The Times}}</ref> Aside from teaming up with One Tree Planted, the band continued their cooperation with [[ClientEarth]], to which they have been patrons since 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2010 |title=Coldplay Become Patrons of ClientEarth |url=http://coldplay.com/newsdetail.php?id=665 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708174633/http://coldplay.com/newsdetail.php?id=665 |archive-date=8 July 2011 |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref> Support to [[the Ocean Cleanup]] was declared as well, as they sponsored two watercrafts to collect plastic from polluted rivers before it reaches the sea in [[Malaysia]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 2021 |title=Coldplay Sponsors Watercraft To Clean Up Polluted Rivers In Malaysia |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-sponsors-watercraft-to-clean-up-polluted-rivers-in-malaysia-2910867 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220116232457/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-sponsors-watercraft-to-clean-up-polluted-rivers-in-malaysia-2910867 |archive-date=16 January 2022 |access-date=29 December 2021 |website=NME}}</ref> Other organizations endorsed by Coldplay include [[Global Citizen (organization)|Global Citizen]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 March 2017 |title=Coldplay Brings 20 Years of Music and Charity to Global Citizen Germany |url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/coldplay-global-citizen-festival-hamburg/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220116231525/https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/coldplay-global-citizen-festival-hamburg/ |archive-date=16 January 2022 |access-date=29 December 2021 |website=Global Citizen}}</ref> The Food Forest Project,<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 May 2022 |title=Shepton Mallet Charity, The Food Forest Project, Gets the Backing of Coldplay |url=https://sheptonmallet.nub.news/news/local-news/shepton-mallet-charity-the-food-forest-project-gets-the-backing-of-coldplay-130911 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615174841/https://sheptonmallet.nub.news/news/local-news/shepton-mallet-charity-the-food-forest-project-gets-the-backing-of-coldplay-130911 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Shepton Mallet News}}</ref> [[Sea Shepherd Conservation Society operations|Sea Shepherd UK]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 March 2022 |title=Coldplay Supports Sea Shepherd To Protect Marine Wildlife |url=https://www.seashepherd.org.uk/news-and-commentary/news/coldplay-supports-sea-shepherd-to-protect-marine-wildlife.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615174758/https://www.seashepherd.org.uk/news-and-commentary/news/coldplay-supports-sea-shepherd-to-protect-marine-wildlife.html |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Sea Shepherd UK}}</ref> Project Seagrass,<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2022 |title=Coldplay Become Ambassadors For Swansea Charity Project Seagrass |url=https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2022-03-04/coldplay-becomes-ambassador-for-swansea-seagrass-restoration-charity |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615174931/https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2022-03-04/coldplay-becomes-ambassador-for-swansea-seagrass-restoration-charity |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=ITV News}}</ref> Seafields,<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 October 2021 |title=Coldplay's World Tour Supports Low-carbon Seaweed Harvesting Project |url=https://marineindustrynews.co.uk/coldplays-world-tour-supports-low-carbon-seaweed-harvesting-project/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615175806/https://marineindustrynews.co.uk/coldplays-world-tour-supports-low-carbon-seaweed-harvesting-project/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Marine Industry News}}</ref> My Trees Trust,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Partners Zimbabwe's My Tree Trust In Efforts To Reduce Carbon Emissions |url=https://www.chronicle.co.zw/coldplay-partners-zimbabwes-my-tree-trust-in-efforts-to-reduce-carbon-emissions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615175820/https://www.chronicle.co.zw/coldplay-partners-zimbabwes-my-tree-trust-in-efforts-to-reduce-carbon-emissions/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Chronicle}}</ref> Farm Under the Radar,<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 September 2021 |title=Support |url=https://farmundertheradar.uk/support/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615180054/https://farmundertheradar.uk/support/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Farm Under The Radar}}</ref> Project Quercus,<ref name=""GQR"">{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Goes Climate Positive For 2022 Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/coldplay-2022-tour-sustainability/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615180641/https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/coldplay-2022-tour-sustainability/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Green Queen}}</ref> Sustainable Food Trust,<ref name=""GQR"" /> Global Tech Advocates,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tech For Net Zero Resource Hub |url=https://www.globaltechadvocates.org/tech-for-net-zero-resource-hub/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615180900/https://www.globaltechadvocates.org/tech-for-net-zero-resource-hub/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Global Tech Advocates}}</ref> Knowledge Pele,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2022 |title=Knowledge Pele Partners With Coldplay, Costa Rica To Engender Sustainability |url=https://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/knowledge-pele-partners-with-coldplay-costa-rica-to-engender-sustainability-2022-04-20/rep_id:4136 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615181046/https://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/knowledge-pele-partners-with-coldplay-costa-rica-to-engender-sustainability-2022-04-20/rep_id:4136 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Engineering News}}</ref> [[Climeworks]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 October 2021 |title=Is Carbon Capture Here? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/31/climate/is-carbon-capture-here.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211101022320/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/31/climate/is-carbon-capture-here.html |archive-date=1 November 2021 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> Cleaner Seas Group,<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Cleaner Seas Group And Coldplay |url=https://cleanerseasgroup.com/cleaner-seas/coldplay-and-cleaner-seas-group |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615182150/https://cleanerseasgroup.com/cleaner-seas/coldplay-and-cleaner-seas-group |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Cleaner Seas Group}}</ref> Conservation Collective and the Devon Environment Foundation,<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2022 |title=New Supporter: Coldplay |url=https://conservation-collective.org/new-partnership-coldplay/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615182116/https://conservation-collective.org/new-partnership-coldplay/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Conservation Collective}}</ref> which have all assisted them to reach the tour's goal. Additionally, [[Imperial College London]]'s [[Grantham Institute – Climate Change and Environment|Grantham Institute]] helped the band to study and publish their progress.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Coldplay And Imperial To Measure Climate Impact of Touring |url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/231175/coldplay-imperial-measure-climate-impact-touring/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615184455/https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/231175/coldplay-imperial-measure-climate-impact-touring/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Imperial College London}}</ref> In 2022, [[DHL]] announced they were partnering with Coldplay to provide expertise in sustainable logistics and transport solutions,<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 July 2022 |title=DHL Teams Up with Coldplay to Make Their Tour as Sustainable as Possible |url=https://www.dhl.com/global-en/home/press/press-archive/2022/dhl-teams-up-with-coldplay-to-make-their-tour-as-sustainable-as-possible.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713050153/https://www.dhl.com/global-en/home/press/press-archive/2022/dhl-teams-up-with-coldplay-to-make-their-tour-as-sustainable-as-possible.html |archive-date=13 July 2022 |access-date=8 December 2022 |website=DHL}}</ref> while the following year saw an alliance with [[AIA Group|AIA Vitality]] in Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 November 2023 |title=AIA Vitality Ambil Peran Pada Aspek Sustainability Konser Coldplay |trans-title=AIA Vitality Takes Role in Sustainability Aspects of Coldplay Concerts |url=https://kumparan.com/kumparanhits/aia-vitality-ambil-peran-pada-aspek-sustainability-konser-coldplay-21b47tg9zqu/full |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117190134/https://kumparan.com/kumparanhits/aia-vitality-ambil-peran-pada-aspek-sustainability-konser-coldplay-21b47tg9zqu |archive-date=17 November 2023 |access-date=17 November 2023 |website=Kumparan |language=id}}</ref>

== Opening acts ==
[[File:Coldplay MOTS World Tour Press Release Photo 2.png|thumb|alt=A woman performs with a microphone and guitar while a man plays the piano and sing with her|[[Chris Martin]] and [[H.E.R.]] performing ""[[Let Somebody Go]]"" at [[Raymond James Stadium]], [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]]]
American singer [[H.E.R.]] was the band's most frequent [[Opening act|supporting act]], opening for them in [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]] (with [[MishCatt|Mish Catt]]),<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 February 2022 |title=Mishcatt y H.E.R. Serán los Actos Teloneros de Coldplay en Costa Rica |trans-title=Mishcatt and H.E.R. Will Be the Opening Acts for Coldplay in Costa Rica |url=https://delfino.cr/2022/02/mishcatt-y-h-e-r-seran-los-actos-teloneros-de-coldplay-en-costa-rica |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303142856/https://delfino.cr/2022/02/mishcatt-y-h-e-r-seran-los-actos-teloneros-de-coldplay-en-costa-rica |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Delfino |language=es}}</ref> [[Santo Domingo]] (with La Marimba),<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 March 2022 |title=La Marimba Será Telonera de Coldplay |trans-title=La Marimba Will Be Coldplay's Opening Act |url=https://lainformacion.com.do/mirador/musica-y-literatura/la-marimba-sera-telonera-de-coldplay |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303143328/https://lainformacion.com.do/mirador/musica-y-literatura/la-marimba-sera-telonera-de-coldplay |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=La Información |language=es}}</ref> and [[Buenos Aires]] (with [[Zoe Gotusso]]) in 2022.{{efn|name=CAVA|The concert in Buenos Aires on 2 November 2022 was originally going to feature Gotusso as well, but she was replaced by Clara Cava due to illness.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 October 2022 |title=Coldplay en Argentina: Así Fue el Show de Zoe Gotusso en la Previa |trans-title=Coldplay in Argentina: This was the Zoe Gotusso Show in the preview |url=https://www.lavoz.com.ar/vos/musica/coldplay-en-argentina-asi-fue-el-show-de-zoe-gotusso-en-la-previa/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303145914/https://www.lavoz.com.ar/vos/musica/coldplay-en-argentina-asi-fue-el-show-de-zoe-gotusso-en-la-previa/ |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=La Voz |language=es}}
* {{Cite web |date=2 November 2022 |title=Coldplay en Argentina: Quién es Clara Cava, la Cantante Convocada de Emergencia |trans-title=Coldplay in Argentina: Who is Clara Cava, the Singer Called in Emergency |url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/espectaculos/quien-es-clara-cava-la-cantante-convocada-de-emergencia-por-coldplay-nid02112022/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221103113942/https://www.lanacion.com.ar/espectaculos/quien-es-clara-cava-la-cantante-convocada-de-emergencia-por-coldplay-nid02112022/ |archive-date=3 November 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=La Nación |language=es}}</ref>}} During the first run across the United States, she was paired with a new act in each stop, those included Leila Pari ([[Dallas]]), Alaina Castillo ([[Houston]]), [[Kacy Hill]] ([[Glendale, Arizona|Glendale]]), Bobby Gonz ([[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]]), [[Drama (American band)|Drama]] ([[Chicago]]), [[Shaed]] ([[Landover, Maryland|Landover]]), [[Bea Miller]] ([[East Rutherford, New Jersey|East Rutherford]]), [[Lizzy McAlpine]] ([[Philadelphia]]), [[Mariah the Scientist]] ([[Atlanta]]), and [[Gigi (Canadian band)|Gigi]] ([[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2022 |title=Coldplay Anuncia Shows em SP e Outro no RJ, Além do Rock in Rio |trans-title=Coldplay Announces Shows in São Paulo and Another in Rio de Janeiro, Besides Rock in Rio |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/blogs/lineup/2022/04/coldplay-anuncia-shows-em-sp-e-outro-no-rj-alem-do-rock-in-rio.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303153536/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/blogs/lineup/2022/04/coldplay-anuncia-shows-em-sp-e-outro-no-rj-alem-do-rock-in-rio.shtml |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Folha de S.Paulo |language=pt}}</ref> However, for the second leg in the continent, she was accompanied by [[070 Shake]] and Gonz in all performances.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2023 |title=Coldplay is Bringing Their Music of the Spheres World Tour Out West: See the Dates |url=https://www.audacy.com/national/music/coldplay-bringing-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-out-west-see-the-dates |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303151044/https://www.audacy.com/national/music/coldplay-bringing-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-out-west-see-the-dates |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Audacy}}

* {{Cite tweet |number=1710425757686595657 |user=gonz_foreal |title=Ever grateful to @coldplay & everyone involved |author=Bobby Gonz |date=6 October 2023 |access-date=13 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013134528/https://twitter.com/gonz_foreal/status/1710425757686595657 |archive-date=13 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>

H.E.R. also took part in many dates from the first European batch, although occasionally replaced by [[London Grammar]].<ref name=""EUROKING2"">{{Cite tweet |number=1531909144109883393 |user=coldplay |title=We're very pleased to announce the opening acts for this summer's UK / European dates |author=Coldplay |date=1 June 2022 |access-date=3 March 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303160353/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1531909144109883393 |archive-date=3 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> They collaborated with Alli Neumann in [[Frankfurt]] and [[Berlin]];{{efn|The concerts in Berlin on 10 and 12 July 2022 were originally going to feature [[Zoe Wees]], but she was replaced by Neumann due to illness.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1546078098466258951|user=ZoeWeesOfficial|title=Thank you @Coldplay for giving me this opportunity! You can't imagine how much I was looking forward to this! Hope we can make it happen next time|author=Zoe Wees|date=10 July 2022|access-date=11 July 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220711011558/https://twitter.com/ZoeWeesOfficial/status/1546078098466258951|archive-date=11 July 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>|name=WEES}} [[Mery Spolsky]] in [[Warsaw]]; Gaumar and [[Lous and the Yakuza]] in [[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis]]; and [[Nina Nesbitt]] in [[Glasgow]].<ref name=""EUROKING2"" /> The former was additionally invited to the [[City of Brussels|Brussels]] concerts, while the secondary openers at [[Wembley Stadium]] were [[Griff (singer)|Griff]], [[Ibibio Sound Machine]] and [[Laura Mvula]].<ref name=""EUROKING2"" /> Mexico had exclusively national supporters in the initial shows ([[Carla Morrison]] and [[DannyLux]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 April 2022 |title=Meet DannyLux, the Mexican-American Singer Opening for Coldplay |url=https://remezcla.com/features/music/meet-dannylux-mexican-american-singer-opening-coldplay-interview/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303165243/https://remezcla.com/features/music/meet-dannylux-mexican-american-singer-opening-coldplay-interview/ |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Remezcla}}</ref> Still in 2022, [[Camila Cabello]] played in [[Lima]] (with Andrea Martinez), [[Bogotá]] (with Mabiland), and [[Santiago]] (with Princesa Alba).<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 September 2022 |title=September Opening Acts + Extra Tickets Released |url=https://www.coldplay.com/september-opening-acts-extra-tickets-released/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303174258/https://www.coldplay.com/september-opening-acts-extra-tickets-released/ |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref> [[Chvrches]] then followed Elana Dara ([[São Paulo]]) and Clara x Sofia ([[Curitiba]] and [[Rio de Janeiro]]) in 2023.<ref name=""LULA132"">{{Cite web |date=17 October 2022 |title=Após Adiar Shows, Coldplay Anuncia Apresentação Extra em Curitiba em 2023 |trans-title=After Postponing Shows, Coldplay Announce Extra Presentation in Curitiba in 2023 |url=https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/10/17/coldplay-curitiba.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303180511/https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/10/17/coldplay-curitiba.htm |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref>

For the second European run, they held shows after [[Hinds (band)|Hinds]] ([[Barcelona]]), [[Mafalda (British singer)|Ona Mafalda]] (Barcelona), Porij ([[Manchester]]),{{efn|name=OASIS|The concerts in Manchester on 31 May and 1 June 2023 included a surprise set from the Oasis Academy Temple Steel Band before the opening acts.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1663876466361155584|user=coldplay|title=#ColdplayManchester|author=Coldplay|date=31 May 2023|access-date=9 June 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230609190106/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1663876466361155584/|archive-date=9 June 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>}} [[Hana Lili]] ([[Cardiff]]), Laila al Habash ([[Naples]]) and [[Mara Sattei]] ([[Milan]]), while Griff joined [[Bárbara Bandeira]] in [[Coimbra]]; Caroline Alves in [[Zürich]]; [[Oh Land]] in [[Copenhagen]];{{efn|name=LAND|The concerts in Copenhagen on 5 and 6 July 2023 were originally going to feature Jada, but she was replaced by Oh Land due to pregnancy complications.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Sender Kærlig Hilsen til Gravid Jada: Kede af, at du Ikke Kan Være Her |trans-title=Coldplay Sends Loving Greetings to Pregnant Jada: Sorry You Can't Be Here |url=https://www.seoghoer.dk/kendte/coldplay-sender-kaerlig-hilsen-til-gravid-jada-kede-af-du-ikke-kan-vaere-her |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230706161609/https://www.seoghoer.dk/kendte/coldplay-sender-kaerlig-hilsen-til-gravid-jada-kede-af-du-ikke-kan-vaere-her |archive-date=6 July 2023 |access-date=6 July 2023 |website=Se og Hør |language=da}}</ref>}} Luciia in [[Gothenburg]]; and Zoë Tauran in [[Amsterdam]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 April 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Support Acts for 2023 European Tour |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-announce-support-acts-for-2023-european-tour-3427069 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230406223830/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-announce-support-acts-for-2023-european-tour-3427069 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |access-date=6 April 2023 |website=NME}}</ref> A few months later, Coldplay announced the openers for [[Tokyo]] ([[Yoasobi]]), [[Kaohsiung]] ([[Accusefive]]), [[Jakarta]] (Rahmania Astrini), [[Kuala Lumpur]] (Bunga),<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Four Stadium Shows in Singapore in 2024 |url=https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-asia-tour-2024-dates-tickets-3454415 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230612031153/https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-asia-tour-2024-dates-tickets-3454415 |archive-date=12 June 2023 |access-date=12 June 2023 |website=NME}}</ref> [[Bocaue]] (Jikamarie), [[Singapore]] ([[Jasmine Sokko]], [[Sandra Riley Tang|Rriley]], and Jinan Laetitia), and [[Bangkok]] (Valentina Ploy).<ref name=""FERNANDEZ"">{{Cite web |date=8 December 2023 |title=Jikamarie to Open for Coldplay's Philippine Arena Concerts |url=https://billboardphilippines.com/music/news/jikamarie-to-open-for-coldplays-philippine-arena-concerts/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210032658/https://billboardphilippines.com/music/news/jikamarie-to-open-for-coldplays-philippine-arena-concerts/ |archive-date=10 December 2023 |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=Billboard Philippines}}</ref> Oceania had seven guests: [[Thelma Plum]], [[Amy Shark]], [[Tash Sultana]], Adrian Dzvuke, King Ibis, [[PinkPantheress]] and Emmanuel Kelly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Australia and New Zealand 2024 Tour Dates |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-australia-new-zealand-2024-tour-dates-tickets-3543972 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125044037/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-australia-new-zealand-2024-tour-dates-tickets-3543972 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |access-date=25 November 2023 |website=NME}}
* {{Cite web |date=15 October 2023 |title=Coldplay Name Local Support Acts for Music of the Spheres Double-Header in Perth |url=https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/coldplay-local-supports-music-of-the-spheres-perth/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125043547/https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/coldplay-local-supports-music-of-the-spheres-perth/ |archive-date=25 November 2023 |access-date=25 November 2023 |website=Music Feeds}}</ref> Europe's third stint featured [[Maisie Peters]], [[Janelle Monáe]] and [[Maggie Rogers]], who had to team up with Antonia Kaouri ([[Athens]]), [[Emaa]] ([[Bucharest]]), Solére ([[Budapest]]), [[Alma (Finnish singer)|Alma]] ([[Helsinki]]), Ronisia ([[Décines-Charpieu]]), [[Rose Villain]] ([[Rome]]), Wees ([[Düsseldorf]]), Wilhelmine ([[Munich]]), Oska ([[Vienna]]), and Aby Coulibaly ([[Dublin]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 February 2024 |title=2024 European Tour Supports Announced |url=https://www.coldplay.com/2024-european-tour-supports-announced/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217044725/https://www.coldplay.com/2024-european-tour-supports-announced/ |archive-date=17 February 2024 |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>

== Concert synopsis ==
Martin mentioned that the concert was divided into four acts because it is ""a journey traveling outwards into the unknown to then come home having learned something new. This is represented both visually and with what songs fit into what act"".<ref name=""WILDE"">{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Coldplay's Manager (and Chris Martin, Too!) Answer Our Questions |url=https://www.setlist.fm/news/06-23/coldplays-manager-and-chris-martin-too-answer-our-questions-6bd6aad6 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230608201845/https://www.setlist.fm/news/06-23/coldplays-manager-and-chris-martin-too-answer-our-questions-6bd6aad6 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |website=Setlist FM}}</ref> Following the support performances, two guest speakers (usually from the visited country) greet the attendees and introduce a video with Coldplay's sustainability efforts.<ref name=""SHARP"">{{Cite web |date=23 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Bring a Higher Power at Their Wembley Finale |url=https://www.express.co.uk/entertainment/music/1659382/coldplay-wembley-stadium-finale-music-Higher-Power |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220904130454/https://www.express.co.uk/entertainment/music/1659382/coldplay-wembley-stadium-finale-music-Higher-Power |archive-date=4 September 2022 |access-date=4 September 2022 |website=Daily Express}}</ref> It runs for about three minutes and features ""Light Through the Veins"" by [[Jon Hopkins]] as its soundtrack.<ref name=""RUTH"">{{Cite web |date=22 August 2022 |title=Alan Partridge Joins Coldplay on Stage to Sing Running Up That Hill at Wembley |url=https://www.radiox.co.uk/artists/coldplay/alan-partridge-joins-sing-running-up-that-hill-wembley/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230318210150/https://www.radiox.co.uk/artists/coldplay/alan-partridge-joins-sing-running-up-that-hill-wembley/ |archive-date=18 March 2023 |access-date=18 March 2023 |website=Radio X}}</ref> Once the short film ends, the band are welcomed and ""Flying"", a score written by [[John Williams]] for ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (soundtrack)|E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' (1982), is played.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2023 |title=Show do Coldplay Sacode Curitiba. Nesta Quarta-Feira Tem Mais. Veja Fotos |trans-title=Coldplay's Show Shakes Curitiba. More to Come This Wednesday. See Photos |url=https://www.bemparana.com.br/cultura/show-do-coldplay-sacode-curitiba-nesta-quarta-feira-tem-mais-veja-fotos/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610133915/https://www.bemparana.com.br/cultura/show-do-coldplay-sacode-curitiba-nesta-quarta-feira-tem-mais-veja-fotos/ |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Bem Paraná |language=pt}}</ref> This marks the beginning of '''''Act I – Planets''''', which is about ""knowing there's a bigger magic out there somewhere and choosing to go and look for it"".<ref name=""WILDE"" /> The screens exhibit a live feed of each group member emerging from under or near the stage.<ref name=""FILM"">{{Cite AV media |title=Coldplay – Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate |year=2023 |publisher=Trafalgar Releasing |location=United Kingdom |type=film}}</ref> After they wave to the audience, ""Flying"" is transitioned into ""Music of the Spheres"" and Martin stays on the B-stage, while [[Guy Berryman]], [[Jonny Buckland]] and [[Will Champion]] head to the main one.<ref name=""FILM"" /> Red lights are emitted from the wristbands, leading to ""[[Higher Power (Coldplay song)|Higher Power]]"".<ref name=""FILM"" />

Following the song, Martin makes his way to the main stage for ""[[Adventure of a Lifetime]]"" and giant colourful balls are thrown to the public.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Coldplay in Cardiff Review: Chris Martin and Co's Mind-Blowing Gig Brings Riot of Colour to Principality Stadium |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/coldplay-cardiff-review-chris-martin-27060763 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610151348/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/coldplay-cardiff-review-chris-martin-27060763 |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Wales Online}}</ref> Coldplay then transition into ""[[Paradise (Coldplay song)|Paradise]]"", which features an extended introduction and outro based on a call-and-repeat exchange with the crowd.{{efn|Before the shows in [[Bogotá]], however, the song did not include this extension.<ref name=""LORIS"">{{Cite AV media |date=20 July 2022 |title=Coldplay Live Paris 2022 – Music of the Spheres – Stade de France – 17/07/2022 4K |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cDJm0ogbwA |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625173422/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cDJm0ogbwA |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}
* {{Cite AV media|date=17 September 2022 |title=Coldplay en Bogotá – Concierto Completo (16 de Septiembre de 2022) |trans-title=Coldplay in Bogotá – Complete Concert (16 September 2022) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqwC1EW_xpA |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625172058/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqwC1EW_xpA |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |via=[[YouTube]] |language=es}}</ref>}} They used to perform ""[[Charlie Brown (Coldplay song)|Charlie Brown]]"" right after, but it was removed from the set list starting from [[Bogotá]].<ref name=""LORIS"" /> An excerpt of ""Oceans"" can be heard and ""[[The Scientist (song)|The Scientist]]"" begins; Martin formally thanks the audience for their time while on the piano, then a sped up, backwards version of the song is played as the band head to the B-stage once again.<ref name=""FILM"" /> This transition leads to ""[[Viva la Vida]]"", the first track from '''''Act II – Moons''''',<ref name=""UKLIST"">{{Cite web |date=7 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Music of the Spheres Tour Setlist 2023 in Full: What Chris Martin and Co Will Perform at Their Cardiff Concerts, Support Acts, Stage Time and More |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour-setlist-2023-in-full-what-chris-martin-and-co-will-perform-at-their-cardiff-concerts-support-acts-stage-time-and-more__37152/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610205841/https://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour-setlist-2023-in-full-what-chris-martin-and-co-will-perform-at-their-cardiff-concerts-support-acts-stage-time-and-more__37152/ |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Official Charts Company}}</ref> a segment defined by struggle, since the universe ""is rough and gritty sometimes"".<ref name=""WILDE"" /> After the night is continued with either ""[[Hymn for the Weekend]]"" or ""[[Something Just Like This]]"", they reach a section which often changes: ""[[Let Somebody Go]]"" might have a guest appearance,<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Take Wembley with Craig David, Max Martin, Natalie Imbruglia, Jiggle Jiggle |url=https://www.stereogum.com/2196314/coldplays-wembley-shows-had-a-jiggle-jiggle-cover-a-craig-david-medley-more/news/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610223313/https://www.stereogum.com/2196314/coldplays-wembley-shows-had-a-jiggle-jiggle-cover-a-craig-david-medley-more/news/ |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Stereogum}}</ref> be followed by ""بنی آدم"" (""''Bani Adam''""),<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 March 2022 |title=Coldplay Kick Off Eco-Friendly Music of the Spheres World Tour in Costa Rica |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-begin-eco-friendly-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-costa-rica-setlist-reaction-video-3185945 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610221323/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-begin-eco-friendly-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-costa-rica-setlist-reaction-video-3185945 |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=NME}}</ref> or accompanied by ""Politik"".<ref name=""POLIFRANK"">{{Cite web |date=11 July 2022 |title=Coldplay-Star: Deutschland ist ein Tolles Vorbild |trans-title=Coldplay Star: Germany is a Great Role Model |url=https://www.t-online.de/unterhaltung/musik/id_92355206/coldplay-in-berlin-chris-martin-deutschland-ist-ein-tolles-vorbild-.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610222112/https://www.t-online.de/unterhaltung/musik/id_92355206/coldplay-in-berlin-chris-martin-deutschland-ist-ein-tolles-vorbild-.html |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=T-Online |language=de}}</ref> Since 2023, however, this part became The Songbook, where Martin invites a fan and holds a piano session with them.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 June 2023 |title=La Sostenibile Leggerezza dei Coldplay a Napoli |trans-title=The Sustainable Lightness of Coldplay in Naples |url=https://www.rollingstone.it/musica/live/la-sostenibile-leggerezza-dei-coldplay-a-napoli/759339/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230902133457/https://www.rollingstone.it/musica/live/la-sostenibile-leggerezza-dei-coldplay-a-napoli/759339/ |archive-date=2 September 2023 |access-date=2 September 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Italia |language=it}}</ref>

[[File:ColdplayCWB210323 (4 of 6).jpg|left|thumb|alt=Four men wearing custom helmets perform on stage, from left to right, they are on the bass, dancing, electronic drum pad and guitar|Coldplay performing ""Aeterna"" at [[Estádio Couto Pereira]], [[Curitiba]]]]
His bandmates rest on the main stage and only return for ""[[In My Place]]"",<ref name=""POLIFRANK"" /> which is occasionally exchanged with ""[[Orphans (Coldplay song)|Orphans]]"",<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2023 |title=Com Participação de Milton Nascimento, Coldplay Encerra Turnê no Brasil |trans-title=With Guest Appearance from Milton Nascimento, Coldplay Finish Tour in Brazil |url=https://www.band.uol.com.br/noticias/coldplay-turne-brasil-milton-nascimento-16592291 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610235006/https://www.band.uol.com.br/noticias/coldplay-turne-brasil-milton-nascimento-16592291 |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Band |language=pt}}</ref> ""[[A Head Full of Dreams (song)|A Head Full of Dreams]]"" or ""Charlie Brown"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 April 2023 |title=Coldplay em São Paulo: Relembre os Seis Shows da Banda no Nosso #ThrowbackApril |trans-title=Coldplay in São Paulo: Remember the Band's Six Shows in Our #ThrowbackApril |url=https://coldplaybrasil.com/2023/04/coldplay-em-sao-paulo-relembre-os-seis-shows-da-banda-no-nosso-throwbackapril/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610233709/https://coldplaybrasil.com/2023/04/coldplay-em-sao-paulo-relembre-os-seis-shows-da-banda-no-nosso-throwbackapril/ |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Coldplay Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> To finish ""Yellow"", the public are asked to dedicate the last chorus to those who are seated on the back of the venue.<ref name=""FILM"" /> Giant red hearts are created across the venue with the wristbands to mark the beginning of '''''Act III – Stars'''''.<ref name=""FILM"" /> This section was inspired by meeting free aliens and represents ""loving oneself and therefore being able to love others of all creeds and colours"".<ref name=""WILDE"" /> Martin is joined by Angel Moon for ""Human Heart"" and the puppet makes the vocals from [[We Are King]].<ref name=""FILM"" /> 

Conversely, flashing white lights and green lasers are used in ""People of the Pride"" and ""[[Clocks (song)|Clocks]]"", respectively.<ref name=""WILDE"" /> Following the two songs, a secondary act known as The Lightclub kicks off with ""Infinity Sign"" being played while Martin, Berryman, Buckland and Champion are wearing custom alien helmets.<ref name=""UKLIST"" /> Depending on which song was performed earlier, the transition leads to either ""Something Just Like This"" or ""Hymn for the Weekend"" ([[Seeb (music producers)|Seeb]] Remix).<ref name=""ROTATION"">{{Cite tweet|number=1634742397283319811|user=coldplayxtra|title=Night 2 of #ColdplaySãoPaulo included a revamped setlist and a new song titled Aeterna|author=ColdplayXtra|date=11 March 2023|access-date=12 March 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230312024650/https://twitter.com/coldplayxtra/status/1634742397283319811|archive-date=12 March 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> Both of them are carried out in [[American Sign Language]].<ref name=""FILM"" /> After the first option, the concert is continued by ""[[Midnight (Coldplay song)|Midnight]]"", but if the second is chosen, ""Aeterna"" is reproduced instead.<ref name=""ROTATION"" />

Once this segment ends, Coldplay head back to the main stage for ""[[My Universe (song)|My Universe]]"" (featuring [[Holography|holographic]] images of [[BTS]] members on the screens) and ""[[A Sky Full of Stars]]"" (stopped before the chorus and restarted after Martin tells the audience to put their phones away).<ref name=""FILM"" /> ""Sunrise"", which includes [[Louis Armstrong]]'s speech from ""[[What a Wonderful World]]"", is responsible for starting '''''Act IV – Home''''',{{efn|Before the shows in [[Bogotá]], however, the song was used as the ending of Act II.<ref name=""LORIS"" />}} when you conclude a journey ""knowing/loving yourself a bit more"" and able to see all beings as beautiful.<ref name=""WILDE"" /> During this interlude, the band walk to the C-stage, where they usually perform tracks from ''[[Parachutes (Coldplay album)|Parachutes]]'' (2000), covers or invite a local guest.<ref name=""BOURNE"">{{Cite web |date=31 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Deliver Stunning Show at Etihad Stadium – As Chris Martin Makes Sure to Endear Himself to Manchester Crowd |url=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/coldplay-etihad-stadium-manchester-review-27024450 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230601125428/https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/coldplay-etihad-stadium-manchester-review-27024450 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |access-date=1 June 2023 |website=Manchester Evening News}}</ref> This section then sees Martin thanking the tour's crew, introducing his bandmates by name and asking the public to raise their arms to send love out into the world, triggering multiple fireworks.<ref name=""FILM"" /> After two or three songs, Coldplay return to the main stage for ""Humankind"", ""[[Fix You]]"" and ""Biutyful"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Se Despide de Barcelona Tras un Póquer de Conciertos para la Historia |trans-title=Coldplay Say Goodbye to Barcelona After a Poker of Concerts for History |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/musica/20230528/9001648/coldplay-despide-barcelona-poker-conciertos-historia.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230529080508/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/musica/20230528/9001648/coldplay-despide-barcelona-poker-conciertos-historia.html |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=11 June 2023 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es}}</ref> The latter features the Weirdos, a puppet group led by Angel Moon.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 June 2023 |title=14 Ways Coldplay Had Cardiff Fans Saying It Was the Best Show Ever |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/14-ways-coldplay-cardiff-fans-27070678 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230611155740/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/14-ways-coldplay-cardiff-fans-27070678 |archive-date=11 June 2023 |access-date=11 June 2023 |website=Wales Online}}</ref> When the final blast of confetti gets launched, the phrase ""Believe in Love"" appears on the central screen, end credits are exhibited on the remaining ones, and the band bid farewell as ""A Wave"" is played in the background.<ref name=""FILM"" />

== Commercial performance ==
=== Ticket sales ===
Coldplay broke numerous attendance, gross and demand records around the world. Sales for the first European leg were opened on 22 October 2021 and the band sold more than a million tickets in 24 hours according to ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]''.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=25 April 2022 |title=Revealed: Billboard's 2022 International Power Players |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/billboard-international-power-players-2022-list/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220425175254/https://www.billboard.com/pro/billboard-international-power-players-2022-list/ |archive-date=25 April 2022 |access-date=25 April 2022}}</ref> Additional dates were announced in all cities.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1452939002970091526|user=coldplay|title=New extra dates added|author=Coldplay|date=26 October 2021|access-date=23 August 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230823140715/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1452939002970091526|archive-date=23 August 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> Over 200,000 admissions were bought for the four shows at [[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]] in less than a day.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 December 2021 |title=Coldplay Vuelve a la Argentina y es Furor: Más 200 mil Entradas Vendidos en 7 Horas y Cuarta Fecha Confirmada |trans-title=Coldplay Returns to Argentina and It's Furious: More Than 200k Tickets Sold In 7 Hours and Fourth Date Confirmed |url=https://www.clarin.com/espectaculos/musica/salen-venta-entradas-coldplay-argentina-cuestan-comprarlas_0_9Ys8D5FQt.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220426002520/https://www.clarin.com/espectaculos/musica/salen-venta-entradas-coldplay-argentina-cuestan-comprarlas_0_9Ys8D5FQt.html |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=12 December 2021 |website=Clarín |language=es}}</ref> Months later, the group scheduled another six performances at the venue, becoming the first act to hold 10 concerts during a single tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Confirmó Su 10° River Plate |trans-title=Coldplay Confirmed Their 10th River Plate |url=https://billboard.com.ar/coldplay-confirmo-su-10-river-plate/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220609131858/https://billboard.com.ar/coldplay-confirmo-su-10-river-plate/ |archive-date=9 June 2022 |access-date=9 June 2022 |website=Billboard Argentina |language=es}}</ref> On 25 August 2022, the second European run saw 1.4 million entries being purchased in 24 hours,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Sell 1.4 Million Tickets for 2023 UK and European Tour |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-sell-1-4million-tickets-for-2023-uk-and-european-tour-announce-new-dates-buy-tickets-3298401 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220826214212/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-sell-1-4million-tickets-for-2023-uk-and-european-tour-announce-new-dates-buy-tickets-3298401 |archive-date=26 August 2022 |access-date=26 August 2022 |website=NME}}</ref> marking the fastest sales in history by a band and the biggest overall since [[Robbie Williams]]' [[Close Encounters Tour]] in 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 November 2005 |title=Robbie Sets Ticket Sales Record |url=https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/music/robbie-sets-ticket-sales-record-20051125-ge1baz.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230326150825/https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/music/robbie-sets-ticket-sales-record-20051125-ge1baz.html |archive-date=26 March 2023 |access-date=26 March 2023 |website=The Age}}</ref> More than 712,000 customers tried to buy tickets in the United Kingdom, with the extremely high demand at [[City of Manchester Stadium|Etihad]] and [[Millennium Stadium|Principality]] stadiums causing the British [[Ticketmaster]] website to crash.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=As It Happened: Coldplay Add Two More Nights to Manchester 2023 Shows as Thousands Buy Tickets |url=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/live-coldplay-manchester-2023-tickets-24839317 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825161617/https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/live-coldplay-manchester-2023-tickets-24839317 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=25 August 2022 |website=Manchester Evening News}}
* {{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Recap: Coldplay Add Second Cardiff Show Due to Overwhelming Demand as Thousands Buy Tickets |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/recap-coldplay-cardiff-2023-tickets-24840473 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825163201/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/recap-coldplay-cardiff-2023-tickets-24840473 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=25 August 2022 |website=Wales Online}}</ref> The same happened in Spain, where they achieved the fastest sales of all time.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Vende Todo el Aforo de los Cuatro Conciertos en Barcelona |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20220825/8483262/coldplay-anuncia-cuarto-concierto-barcelona-gira-mundial-venta-entradas.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220825172809/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20220825/8483262/coldplay-anuncia-cuarto-concierto-barcelona-gira-mundial-venta-entradas.html |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=25 August 2022 |website=La Vanguardia}}</ref>[[File:Coldplay MOTS World Tour Press Release Photo 3 (cropped).png|thumb|alt=A man walks on the stage as giant colourful balls bouce in the background|Coldplay broke a variety of records in Asia, Europe and Latin America]]Media outlets reported extensive online queues in Portugal (450,000 users),<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Nunca Houve Tanta Procura Para Um Evento em Portugal Como Para Coldplay, Diz Ticketline |trans-title=There Has Never Been So Much Demand for an Event in Portugal as for Coldplay, Says Ticketline |url=https://observador.pt/2022/08/25/nunca-houve-tanta-procura-para-um-evento-em-portugal-como-para-coldplay-diz-ticketline/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230823191257/https://observador.pt/2022/08/25/nunca-houve-tanta-procura-para-um-evento-em-portugal-como-para-coldplay-diz-ticketline/ |archive-date=23 August 2023 |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Observador |language=pt}}</ref> Italy (700,000 users),<ref name=""LAFFRANCHI"">{{Cite web |date=26 August 2022 |title=Coldplay, Biglietti Esauriti. Perché Piacciono Tanto Agli Italiani |trans-title=Coldplay Tickets Sold Out. Because Italians Like Them So Much |url=https://www.corriere.it/spettacoli/22_agosto_26/01-spettacoli-apretxtcorriere-web-sezioni-d0a8e55c-24a9-11ed-9477-8142972fc587.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230123021937/https://www.corriere.it/spettacoli/22_agosto_26/01-spettacoli-apretxtcorriere-web-sezioni-d0a8e55c-24a9-11ed-9477-8142972fc587.shtml |archive-date=23 January 2023 |access-date=26 August 2022 |website=Corriere della Sera |language=it}}</ref> and the Netherlands (700,000 users) as well.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Ook Stormloop op Vierde Concert Coldplay: Enorme Digitale Wachtrij |trans-title=Another Rush to Coldplay's Fourth Concert: Huge Digital Queue |url=https://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/nederland/artikel/5329003/coldplay-johan-cruijff-arena-ticketmaster-marktplaats-mojo-tickets |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220825184446/https://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/nederland/artikel/5329003/coldplay-johan-cruijff-arena-ticketmaster-marktplaats-mojo-tickets |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=25 August 2022 |website=RTL Nieuws |language=nl}}</ref> In December 2022, ''Billboard'' observed that despite reporting data from only 40 out of 64 shows performed, Coldplay achieved the most successful tour of the year by a group.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=1 December 2022 |title=2022 Year-End Boxscore Charts |url=https://www.billboard.com/2022-year-end-boxscore-charts/#top-40-tours |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221201183147/https://www.billboard.com/2022-year-end-boxscore-charts/%23top-40-tours |archive-date=1 December 2022 |access-date=1 December 2022 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref> When missing were numbers made available, it was revealed they actually earned the biggest concert run in overall terms, with $342.1 million from 3.8 million tickets sold.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Add Six New Asian Dates for 2024 |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/12/coldplay-add-six-new-asian-dates-for-2024/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230625062435/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/12/coldplay-add-six-new-asian-dates-for-2024/ |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> As the band concluded their second Latin American leg, it was announced Coldplay had the biggest tour of the continent's history ($193 million from 2.3 million entries sold).<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1648030764422819848|user=touringdata|title=@Coldplay's ""Music of the Spheres"" extends its record as the highest-grossing tour in Latin America's history, with $193.3 million from 2.375 million tickets sold (40 shows)|author=Touring Data|date=17 April 2023|access-date=8 May 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230508204348/https://twitter.com/touringdata/status/1648030764422819848|archive-date=8 May 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 15 May 2023, presale for [[Perth Stadium|Optus Stadium]] saw the biggest demand ever registered on Ticketmaster Australia, as over 300,000 people were attempting to buy tickets.<ref name=""FEEDS"">{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Both Coldplay Shows at Perth's Optus Stadium Are Now Sold Out |url=https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/both-coldplay-shows-at-perths-optus-stadium-are-now-sold-out/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823201820/https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/both-coldplay-shows-at-perths-optus-stadium-are-now-sold-out/ |archive-date=23 August 2023 |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Music Feeds}}</ref> The record was extended to 365,000 during general sales.<ref name=""FEEDS"" /> ''[[BH (newspaper)|BH]]'' mentioned that 400,000 users entered GoLive Asia's website simultaneously for the [[Bukit Jalil National Stadium]] concert.<ref name=""SALLEHUDDIN"">{{Cite web |date=17 May 2023 |title=Tiket Konsert Coldplay Sold Out |trans-title=Coldplay Concert Tickets Sold Out |url=https://www.bharian.com.my/hiburan/selebriti/2023/05/1102368/tiket-konsert-coldplay-sold-out |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230521000343/https://www.bharian.com.my/hiburan/selebriti/2023/05/1102368/tiket-konsert-coldplay-sold-out |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=BH |language=ms}}</ref> Similarly, 1.7 million customers tried to get admissions at [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]].<ref name=""LOKET"">{{Cite tweet|number=1659511549768380416|user=loketcom|title=New record for Loket.com!!|author=Loket|date=19 May 2023|access-date=21 May 2023|language=id|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230521001312/https://twitter.com/loketcom/status/1659511549768380416/|archive-date=21 May 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[NME]]'' claimed a million buyers were in the queue for the [[National Stadium, Singapore|Singapore National Stadium]] shows.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Sixth Stadium Show in Singapore Due to Overwhelming Demand |url=https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-six-stadium-concert-singapore-2024-dates-tickets-3458184 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230620025002/https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-six-stadium-concert-singapore-2024-dates-tickets-3458184 |archive-date=20 June 2023 |access-date=20 June 2023 |website=NME}}</ref> [[SM Investments|SM Tickets]] delayed online purchasing for the second performance at [[Philippine Arena]] following a website crash.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 June 2023 |title=Online Ticket Sales for Coldplay's Second Philippine Arena Concert Paused Due to Technical Issues; Tickets Available at SM Store and SM Cinemas |url=https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/online-ticket-sales-for-coldplay-s-second-philippine-arena-concert-paused-due-to-technical-issues-sm-tickets-2023-2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230623113601/https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/online-ticket-sales-for-coldplay-s-second-philippine-arena-concert-paused-due-to-technical-issues-sm-tickets-2023-2024 |archive-date=23 June 2023 |access-date=23 June 2023 |website=Bandwagon}}</ref>

As per ''[[Die Presse]]'', around 600,000 people tried to secure admissions for the dates at [[Ernst-Happel-Stadion]] in August 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 August 2023 |title=Hype Um Stadionkonzerte: Warum Spielen Taylor Swift und Coldplay So Oft in Wien? |trans-title=Stadium Concerts Hype: Why Do Taylor Swift and Coldplay Play So Often in Vienna? |url=https://www.diepresse.com/14427497/hype-um-stadionkonzerte-warum-spielen-taylor-swift-und-coldplay-so-oft-in-wien |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230822142808/https://www.diepresse.com/14427497/hype-um-stadionkonzerte-warum-spielen-taylor-swift-und-coldplay-so-oft-in-wien |archive-date=22 August 2023 |access-date=22 August 2023 |website=Die Presse |language=de}}</ref> Three months later, ''[[Stuff (company)|Stuff]]'' informed that over 200,000 customers lined up for [[Eden Park]]'s presale.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 November 2023 |title=Over 200,000 People Waited in Line to Get Tickets to Coldplay's NZ Show |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/music/301017289/over-200000-people-waited-in-line-to-get-tickets-to-coldplays-nz-show |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129191337/https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/music/301017289/over-200000-people-waited-in-line-to-get-tickets-to-coldplays-nz-show |archive-date=29 November 2023 |access-date=29 November 2023 |website=Stuff}}</ref> Moreover, the Music of the Spheres World Tour has been ranked as the [[List of highest-grossing concert tours|third-highest-grossing concert run of all time]], with over $810.9 million from 7.66 million entries.<ref name=""ALLEN"">{{Cite web |date=16 February 2024 |title=Chart Scene: Coldplay Back to No. 1 on Live75 |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2024/02/16/chart-scene-coldplay-back-to-no-1-on-live75/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240222050828/https://news.pollstar.com/2024/02/16/chart-scene-coldplay-back-to-no-1-on-live75/ |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> ''[[IQ (magazine)|IQ]]'' noted that Coldplay sold nine million tickets worldwide counting upcoming concerts, becoming the first act in history to achieve the feat.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2023 |title=Coldplay World Tour Powers to Ticket Sales Record |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/11/coldplay-world-tour-powers-to-ticket-sales-record/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231120182038/https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/11/coldplay-world-tour-powers-to-ticket-sales-record/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=IQ}}</ref>

=== Venue records ===
{| class=""wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"" style=""text-align:center;""
|+Achievements of the Music of the Spheres World Tour
|-
! scope=""col"" style=""width:2em;""  |Year
! scope=""col"" style=""width:14em;"" |Period
! scope=""col"" style=""width:16em;"" |Venue
! scope=""col"" style=""width:8em;""  |Country
! scope=""col"" style=""width:40em;"" |Description
! scope=""col"" class=""unsortable""  |{{Abbr|Ref.|References}}
|-
! rowspan=""29"" scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |2022
| rowspan=""2""  |18 and 19 March
| rowspan=""2""  |[[Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica (2011)|Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica]]
| rowspan=""2""  |Costa Rica
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform two sold-out shows on a single tour
| <ref name=""WAL"">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Tour Shatters Latin American Records |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/06/coldplay-tour-shatters-latin-america-records/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220616015115/https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/06/coldplay-tour-shatters-latin-america-records/ |archive-date=16 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=IQ}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance for a male act (86,199)
| <ref name=""MXBOX"">{{Cite magazine |date=21 April 2022 |title=Bad Bunny Sets New Records in March 2022 Boxscore Report |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/bad-bunny-sets-records-march-2022-boxscore-report/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220623235007/https://www.billboard.com/pro/bad-bunny-sets-records-march-2022-boxscore-report/ |archive-date=23 June 2022 |access-date=23 June 2022 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |25 and 26 March
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Estadio BBVA]]
| rowspan=""6"" |Mexico
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform two sold-out shows on a single tour
| <ref name=""WAL"" />
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (112,262)
| <ref name=""MXBOX"" />
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |29 and 30 March
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Estadio Akron]]
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform two sold-out shows on a single tour.
| <ref name=""WAL"" />
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (90,153)
| <ref name=""MXBOX"" />
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |3–7 April
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Foro Sol]]
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform four shows on a single tour in the 21st century
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=17 June 2023 |title=Taylor Swift Logró Agotar Cuatro Conciertos: ¿Qué Otros Artistas Han Llenado Más Veces el Foro Sol? |trans-title=Taylor Swift Managed to Sold Out Four Concerts: Which Other Artists Have Filled Foro Sol the Most Times? |url=https://www.infobae.com/mexico/2023/06/17/taylor-swift-logro-agotar-cuatro-conciertos-que-otros-artistas-han-llenado-mas-veces-el-foro-sol/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230618130639/https://www.infobae.com/mexico/2023/06/17/taylor-swift-logro-agotar-cuatro-conciertos-que-otros-artistas-han-llenado-mas-veces-el-foro-sol/ |archive-date=18 June 2023 |access-date=18 June 2023 |website=Infobae |language=es}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance for an English-speaking act (259,591)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=24 April 2022 |title=Coldplay Generó Estos Milliones de Pesos Con Sus 8 Conciertos En Mexico |trans-title=Coldplay Generated These Millions of Pesos With Their 8 Concerts In Mexico |url=https://jaliscohoy.com.mx/coldplay-genero-estos-millones-de-pesos-con-sus-8-conciertos-en-mexico/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220505185835/https://jaliscohoy.com.mx/coldplay-genero-estos-millones-de-pesos-con-sus-8-conciertos-en-mexico/ |archive-date=5 May 2022 |access-date=5 May 2022 |website=Jalisco Hoy |language=es}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |10–13 July
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Olympiastadion (Berlin)|Olympiastadion]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Germany
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=11 July 2022 |title=Coldplay im Olympiastadion – Alle Farben und Alle Gefühle |trans-title=Coldplay in the Olympiastadion – All Colors and All Feelings |url=https://www.moz.de/nachrichten/kultur/open-air-konzert-coldplay-im-olympiastadion-_-alle-farben-und-alle-gefuehle-65409611.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230823013615/https://www.moz.de/nachrichten/kultur/open-air-konzert-coldplay-im-olympiastadion-_-alle-farben-und-alle-gefuehle-65409611.html |archive-date=23 August 2023 |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Märkische Oderzeitung |language=de}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (216,535)
| <ref>{{Cite magazine |date=25 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Tops July Boxscore Report with More Than $60 Million in Concert Grosses |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-july-boxscore-report-top-live-acts/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220825174620/https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-july-boxscore-report-top-live-acts/ |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=25 August 2022}}</ref>
|-
| 16–19 July
| rowspan=""5"" |[[Stade de France]]
| rowspan=""5"" |France
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in France (over 200,000 units in a morning)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=25 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Le 20 Juillet 2022 – Billetterie Officielle |trans-title=Coldplay On 20 July 2022 – Official Ticketing |url=https://www.stadefrance.com/fr/billetterie/coldplay-4-2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220603221010/https://www.stadefrance.com/fr/billetterie/coldplay-4-2022 |archive-date=3 June 2022 |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Stade de France |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""4"" |16–20 July
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to sell over 300,000 tickets on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=20 July 2022 |title=Coldplay Enchante le Stade de France avec Quatre Soirées Spectaculaires et Festives |trans-title=Coldplay Enchants the Stade de France with Four Spectacular and Festive Evenings |url=https://www.francetvinfo.fr/culture/musique/coldplay-enchante-le-stade-de-france-avec-quatre-soirees-spectaculaires-et-festives_5268286.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721215627/https://www.francetvinfo.fr/culture/musique/coldplay-enchante-le-stade-de-france-avec-quatre-soirees-spectaculaires-et-festives_5268286.html |archive-date=21 July 2022 |access-date=21 July 2022 |website=France Info |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2022 |title=Coldplay: 320,000 Spectateurs pour les Concerts au Stade de France, Record pour le Groupe |trans-title=Coldplay: 320,000 Spectators for Concerts at the Stade de France, Record for the Group |url=http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-121952.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722122249/http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-121952.html |archive-date=22 July 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=Pure Charts |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (318,331)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=5 August 2022 |title=Coldplay: Les Chiffres Fous des Quatre Concerts au Stade de France |trans-title=Coldplay: The Crazy Figures of the Four Concerts at the Stade de France |url=http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-122094.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805115220/http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-122094.html |archive-date=5 August 2022 |access-date=5 August 2022 |website=Pure Charts |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Most career performances by an international group (8 shows)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=10 September 2023 |title=Muse: Les Chiffres des Concerts en France Cet Été Donnent le Tournis |trans-title=Muse: The Figures for Concerts in France This Summer are Dizzying |url=https://www.chartsinfrance.net/Muse/news-126032.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230910165904/https://www.chartsinfrance.net/Muse/news-126032.html |archive-date=10 September 2023 |access-date=10 September 2023 |website=Pure Charts |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| 5–8 August
| rowspan=""4"" |[[King Baudouin Stadium]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Belgium
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Belgium (over 150,000 units in a morning)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2021 |title=Koop Tickets Voor Coldplay: Music of the Spheres World Tour |trans-title=Buy Tickets For Coldplay: Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://nl.livenation.be/show/1350672/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour/brussels/2022-08-09/nl |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220602131416/https://nl.livenation.be/show/1350672/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour/brussels/2022-08-09/nl |archive-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=2 June 2022 |website=Live Nation Belgium |language=nl}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""3"" |5–9 August
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to sell over 200,000 tickets on a single tour
| rowspan=""3"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2022 |title=Coldplay, le Groupe de Tous les Records Arrive à Bruxelles |trans-title=Coldplay, the Group of All the Records Arrive in Brussels |url=https://www.lesoir.be/457358/article/2022-08-01/coldplay-le-groupe-de-tous-les-records-arrive-bruxelles |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220805100315/https://www.lesoir.be/457358/article/2022-08-01/coldplay-le-groupe-de-tous-les-records-arrive-bruxelles |archive-date=5 August 2022 |access-date=5 August 2022 |website=Le Soir |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform three and four shows on a single tour
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (224,719)
|-
| 12–21 August
| [[Wembley Stadium]]
| England
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Longest residency for a rock act (tied with [[the Rolling Stones]])
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=22 December 2022 |title=Coldplay, Ed Sheeran and Harry Styles Help Wembley Stadium Hit 1.3M Concert Attendance in 2022 |url=https://www.musicweek.com/live/read/coldplay-ed-sheeran-and-harry-styles-help-wembley-stadium-hit-1-3m-concert-attendance-in-2022/087169 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221222194939/https://www.musicweek.com/live/read/coldplay-ed-sheeran-and-harry-styles-help-wembley-stadium-hit-1-3m-concert-attendance-in-2022/087169 |archive-date=22 December 2022 |access-date=22 December 2022 |website=Music Week}}</ref>
|-
| 10 September
| [[Barra Olympic Park]]
| Brazil
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever for a headlining group at [[Rock in Rio]] 
| <ref name=""CPRIR"">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2022 |title=Ingressos para o Rock in Rio Acabam para os Dias de Justin Bieber, Coldplay, Post Malone, Dua Lipa, Green Day e Guns N' Roses |trans-title=Rock in Rio Tickets for Justin Bieber, Coldplay, Post Malone, Dua Lipa, Green Day and Guns N' Roses Days are Sold Out |url=https://g1.globo.com/pop-arte/musica/rock-in-rio/2022/noticia/2022/04/05/dia-de-justin-bieber-no-rock-in-rio-tem-ingressos-esgotados-em-12-minutos.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220426001252/https://g1.globo.com/pop-arte/musica/rock-in-rio/2022/noticia/2022/04/05/dia-de-justin-bieber-no-rock-in-rio-tem-ingressos-esgotados-em-12-minutos.ghtml |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=25 April 2022 |website=G1 |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |13 and 14 September
| rowspan=""2"" |[[National Stadium of Peru|Estadio Nacional del Perú]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Peru
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First English-speaking act to perform two consecutive sold-out dates
|<ref name=""WAL"" />
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance for an English-speaking act (85,845)
| <ref name=""POLLSTAR"">{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Coldplay – Tour History Report |url=https://pdfhost.io/v/0qRXxIUak_Coldplay_Pollstar_Tour_History_200123 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908225449/https://pdfhost.io/v/0qRXxIUak_Coldplay_Pollstar_Tour_History_200123 |archive-date=8 September 2023 |access-date=8 September 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| 16 and 17 September
| [[Estadio El Campín]]
| Colombia
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Most sold-out shows on a single tour (tied with [[Guns N' Roses]])
| <ref name=""WAL"" />
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |20–24 September
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Estadio Nacional Julio Martínez Prádanos|Estadio Nacional de Chile]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Chile
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform three and four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2023 |title=Iron Maiden Smash Colombia Ticket Sales Record |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/12/iron-maiden-smash-colombia-ticket-sales-record/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231206204801/https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/12/iron-maiden-smash-colombia-ticket-sales-record/ |archive-date=6 December 2023 |access-date=6 December 2023 |website=IQ}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (256,916)
| <ref name=""POLLSTAR"" />
|-
| rowspan=""3"" |25 October–8 November
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Argentina
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform 10 shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=7 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Agotó su Décimo River y Rompió Todos los Récords |trans-title=Coldplay's has Sold Out Their Tenth River and Broken All the Records |url=https://tn.com.ar/musica/bandas/2022/06/07/coldplay-agoto-su-decimo-river-y-rompio-todos-los-records/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220607183039/https://tn.com.ar/musica/bandas/2022/06/07/coldplay-agoto-su-decimo-river-y-rompio-todos-los-records/ |archive-date=7 June 2022 |access-date=7 June 2022 |website=TN |language=es}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance boxscore worldwide (626,841)
| <ref name=""GOTTFRIED"">{{Cite web |date=11 December 2023 |title=Year in Europe: What's Next After the Year of the Stadium? |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/12/11/year-in-europe-whats-next-after-the-year-of-the-stadium/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212033254/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/12/11/year-in-europe-whats-next-after-the-year-of-the-stadium/ |archive-date=12 December 2023 |access-date=12 December 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest-grossing boxscore in Latin American history ($49.7 million)
| <ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1603200972263944193|user=touringdata|title=Coldplay earns the highest-grossing report in Latin America history, with $49.7 million from 627,000 tickets sold in 10 shows at Estadio River Plate in Buenos Aires on Oct. 25-Nov. 8.|author=Touring Data|date=14 December 2022|access-date=22 December 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20221222201304/https://twitter.com/touringdata/status/1603200972263944193|archive-date=22 December 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan=""34"" scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |2023
| rowspan=""3""  |10–18 March
| rowspan=""3""  |[[Estádio do Morumbi]]
| rowspan=""7""  |Brazil
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform five and six shows on a single tour
| <ref name=""SPRJ"">{{Cite web |date=8 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Bate Recordes de Público em Maratona de Shows no Brasil |trans-title=Coldplay Breaks Public Records in Marathon of Shows in Brazil |url=https://orbi.band.uol.com.br/entretenimento/coldplay-bate-recordes-de-publico-em-maratona-de-shows-no-brasil-4448 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230309021409/https://orbi.band.uol.com.br/entretenimento/coldplay-bate-recordes-de-publico-em-maratona-de-shows-no-brasil-4448 |archive-date=9 March 2023 |access-date=9 March 2023 |website=Orbi |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (439,651)
| rowspan=""2"" |<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=13 June 2023 |title=How Coldplay's Commitment to Latin America Delivered the Year's Biggest Shows in the World |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-concerts-latin-america-years-biggest-shows/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230625144829/https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-concerts-latin-america-years-biggest-shows/ |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |magazine=Billboard}}
* {{Cite magazine |date=20 April 2011 |title=U2 Breaks All-Time Tour Gross Record in Brazil |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/u2-breaks-all-time-tour-gross-record-in-brazil-1178263/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230425131935/https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/u2-breaks-all-time-tour-gross-record-in-brazil-1178263/ |archive-date=25 April 2023 |access-date=25 April 2023 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest-grossing boxscore in Brazilian history ($40.1 million)
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |21 and 22 March
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Estádio Couto Pereira]]
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform two shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2022 |title=Coldplay em Curitiba: Banda Anuncia Show Extra Após Ingressos para Primeira Apresentação Esgotarem |trans-title=Coldplay in Curitiba: Band Announces Extra Show After Tickets for the First Performance is Sold Out |url=https://g1.globo.com/pr/parana/noticia/2022/10/20/coldplay-anuncia-show-extra-em-curitiba.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230305000516/https://g1.globo.com/pr/parana/noticia/2022/10/20/coldplay-anuncia-show-extra-em-curitiba.ghtml |archive-date=5 March 2023 |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=G1 |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (85,776)
| <ref name=""BRBOX"">{{Cite web |date=21 April 2023 |title=Chart Scene: Coldplay Tops Live75 with Latin American Sellouts |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/04/21/coldplay-tops-live75-with-latin-american-sellouts/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230425130856/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/04/21/coldplay-tops-live75-with-latin-american-sellouts/ |archive-date=25 April 2023 |access-date=25 April 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |25–28 March
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Estádio Olímpico Nilton Santos]]
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform three shows on a single tour
| <ref name=""SPRJ"" />
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (211,012)
| <ref name=""BRBOX"" />
|-
| rowspan=""4"" |17–21 May
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Estádio Cidade de Coimbra]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Portugal
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Portugal (over 200,000 units in a morning)
| rowspan=""3"" |<ref name=""LUSIADAS"">{{Cite web |date=10 May 2023 |title=Coldplay: Mas Afinal que Loucura é Esta? Tudo o que Há para Saber Sobre o Maior Espetáculo do Mundo |trans-title=Coldplay: But What Kind of Madness is This? Everything There Is To Know About the World's Greatest Show |url=https://www.flash.pt/weekend/detalhe/coldplay-mas-afinal-que-loucura-e-esta-tudo-o-que-ha-para-saber-sobre-o-maior-espetaculo-do-mundo |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230511143124/https://www.flash.pt/weekend/detalhe/coldplay-mas-afinal-que-loucura-e-esta-tudo-o-que-ha-para-saber-sobre-o-maior-espetaculo-do-mundo |archive-date=11 May 2023 |access-date=11 May 2023 |website=Flash! |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to sell over 200,000 tickets on a single tour
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform three and four shows on a single tour
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (208,284)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Música, Cor e Sonhos: Todas as Palavras São Poucas para Descrever a Noite dos Coldplay em Coimbra |trans-title=Music, Colour and Dreams: All the Words are Few to Describe Coldplay's Night in Coimbra |url=https://mag.sapo.pt/musica/artigos/musica-cor-e-sonhos-todas-as-palavras-sao-poucas-para-descrever-a-noite-dos-coldplay-em-coimbra |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230518185130/https://mag.sapo.pt/musica/artigos/musica-cor-e-sonhos-todas-as-palavras-sao-poucas-para-descrever-a-noite-dos-coldplay-em-coimbra |archive-date=18 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=SAPO |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""3"" |24–28 May
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Spain
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Spain (over 200,000 units in a morning)
| rowspan=""2"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Agota en Tiempo Récord las 200,000 Entradas para Sus Cuatro Conciertos en Barcelona |trans-title=Coldplay's 200,000 Tickets for Their Shows in Barcelona Sold Out in Record Time |url=https://www.expansion.com/directivos/estilo-vida/2022/08/22/6303c8f1468aeb975d8b4629.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827121326/https://www.expansion.com/directivos/estilo-vida/2022/08/22/6303c8f1468aeb975d8b4629.html |archive-date=27 August 2022 |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=Expansión |language=es}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform three and four shows on a single tour
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (224,761)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=31 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Set Spanish Stadium Record |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/05/coldplay-set-spanish-stadium-record/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230601121356/https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/05/coldplay-set-spanish-stadium-record/ |archive-date=1 June 2023 |access-date=1 June 2023 |website=IQ}}</ref>
|-
| 21 and 22 June
| [[Stadio Diego Armando Maradona]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Italy
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Naples (over 86,000 units in half an hour)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=5 October 2022 |title=Chris Martin Ha Una Brutta Infezione, i Coldplay Rimandano 8 Concerti |trans-title=Chris Martin Has a Bad Infection, Coldplay Postpone 8 Concerts |url=https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2022/10/05/coldplay-concerti-rinviati |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230203023250/https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2022/10/05/coldplay-concerti-rinviati |archive-date=3 February 2023 |access-date=3 February 2023 |website=Sky TG24 |language=it}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""3"" |25–29 June
| rowspan=""3"" |[[San Siro]]
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Italy (over 240,000 units in a morning)
| rowspan=""2"" |<ref name=""LAFFRANCHI"" />
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First international act to perform three and four shows on a single tour
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance for an international act (249,560)
| <ref name=""GOTTFRIED"" />
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |8–12 July
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Ullevi]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Sweden
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First international act to perform four shows on a single tour
| <ref name=""KNUTSSON"">{{Cite web |date=13 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Slår Rekord – Första Internationella Akt att Sälja Ut Fyra Ullevi |trans-title=Coldplay Break Records – First International Act to Sell Out Four Ullevi |url=https://gaffa.se/nyheter/2023/juli/coldplay-slar-rekord-forsta-internationella-akt-att-salja-ut-fyra-ullevi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725025013/https://gaffa.se/nyheter/2023/juli/coldplay-slar-rekord-forsta-internationella-akt-att-salja-ut-fyra-ullevi/ |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=GAFFA Sweden |language=sv}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance for an international act (267,180)
| <ref name=""GOTTFRIED"" />
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |15–19 July
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Johan Cruyff Arena]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Netherlands
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First group to perform four shows on a single tour in the 21st century
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2023 |title=Coldplay in de Johan Cruijff Arena: De Grootste Rock-'N-Roll-Onderneming Ooit Komt Naar Amsterdam |trans-title=Coldplay in the Johan Cruyff Arena: The Biggest Rock 'N' Roll Company Ever Comes to Amsterdam |url=https://www.ad.nl/show/coldplay-in-de-johan-cruijff-arena-de-grootste-rock-n-roll-onderneming-ooit-komt-naar-amsterdam~a35967f4/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230715212232/https://www.ad.nl/show/coldplay-in-de-johan-cruijff-arena-de-grootste-rock-n-roll-onderneming-ooit-komt-naar-amsterdam~a35967f4/ |archive-date=15 July 2023 |access-date=15 July 2023 |website=AD |language=nl}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance of the 21st century for a group (217,609)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=3 January 2024 |title=High Stakes in Lowlands: The Dutch Business Is Firing on All Cylinders |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2024/01/03/high-stakes-in-lowlands-the-dutch-business-is-firing-on-all-cylinders/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104153151/https://news.pollstar.com/2024/01/03/high-stakes-in-lowlands-the-dutch-business-is-firing-on-all-cylinders/ |archive-date=4 January 2024 |access-date=4 January 2024 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |27 and 28 September
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Snapdragon Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |United States
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform two shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=Coldplay Extends Tour and Adds Second Concerts at San Diego's Snapdragon Stadium and Pasadena's Rose Bowl |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/entertainment/music/story/2023-01-27/coldplay-extends-tour-and-adds-second-concerts-at-snapdragon-stadium-in-san-diego-and-rose-bowl-in-pasadena |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230128153541/https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/entertainment/music/story/2023-01-27/coldplay-extends-tour-and-adds-second-concerts-at-snapdragon-stadium-in-san-diego-and-rose-bowl-in-pasadena |archive-date=28 January 2023 |access-date=28 January 2023 |website=The San Diego Union-Tribune}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (64,130)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=3 November 2023 |title=Chart Scene: Jason Aldean Lands on Live75 Following Tour Wrap |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/11/03/chart-scene-jason-aldean-lands-on-live75-following-tour-wrap/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231103211500/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/11/03/chart-scene-jason-aldean-lands-on-live75-following-tour-wrap/ |archive-date=3 November 2023 |access-date=3 November 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""3"" |11 and 12 November
| rowspan=""3"" |[[National Stadium (Kaohsiung)|Kaohsiung National Stadium]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Taiwan
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First English-speaking act to perform two shows on a single tour
| rowspan=""2"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 加場6分鐘完售! |trans-title=Coldplay's Extra Show Sold Out in 6 Minutes! |url=https://star.ettoday.net/news/2501738 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231106034304/https://star.ettoday.net/news/2501738 |archive-date=6 November 2023 |access-date=6 November 2023 |website=ETtoday |language=zh}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Taiwan (over 100,000 units in a morning)
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance for an English-speaking act (102,949)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=11 December 2023 |title=RBD Conquers Billboard's November Boxscore Report |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/rbd-billboard-november-boxscore/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231224031119/https://www.billboard.com/pro/rbd-billboard-november-boxscore/ |archive-date=24 December 2023 |access-date=24 December 2023 |website=Billboard}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |15 November
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Indonesia
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Biggest queue in Indonesian history (over 1.7 million customers)
| <ref name=""LOKET"" />
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest-grossing single-day boxscore in Asian history ($13.9 million)
| <ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1755368389940232656 |user=touringdata |title=@Coldplay earns the highest-grossing concert in Asia's history, with $13.9 million at Gelora Bung Karno Stadium in Jakarta on November 15, 2023 |author=Touring Data |date=7 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240208020220/https://twitter.com/touringdata/status/1755368389940232656 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""3"" |18 and 19 November
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Perth Stadium|Optus Stadium]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Australia
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Biggest queue in Australian Ticketmaster history (over 365,000 customers)
| rowspan=""2"" |<ref name=""FEEDS"" />
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First group to perform two shows on a single tour
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (124,883)
| <ref name=""REID"">{{Cite web |date=19 November 2023 |title=Coldplay's Celestial Playground: Chris Martin Brings Joy, Tears to Perth's Optus Stadium |url=https://au.rollingstone.com/music/music-live-reviews/coldplay-perth-optus-stadium-live-review-52530/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231119132712/https://au.rollingstone.com/music/music-live-reviews/coldplay-perth-optus-stadium-live-review-52530/ |archive-date=19 November 2023 |access-date=19 November 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Australia}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |22 November
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Bukit Jalil National Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Malaysia
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Biggest queue in Malaysian history (over 400,000 customers)
| <ref name=""SALLEHUDDIN"" />
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest single-day attendance in Asian history for a Western act (81,812)
| <ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1755368809475506503 |user=touringdata |title=@Coldplay earns the most attended concert by a western artist in Asia's history, with 81,812 tickets sold at Bukit Jalil Stadium in Kuala Lumpur on November 22, 2023. |author=Touring Data |date=7 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240208020225/https://twitter.com/touringdata/status/1755368809475506503 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan=""25"" scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |2024
| rowspan=""2"" |19 and 20 January
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Philippine Arena]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Philippines
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First English-speaking group to perform two shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1728003824735203340 |user=philconcerts |title=Next Stop: PILIPINAS! Coldplay will be the first band to hold two sold-out shows on Jan. 19 and 20, 2024 at the Philippine Arena by @livenationph |author=Philippine Concerts |date=24 November 2023 |access-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240118195659/https://twitter.com/philconcerts/status/1728003824735203340/ |archive-date=18 January 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (96,079)
| <ref name=""ALLEN"" />
|-
| 23–27 January
| rowspan=""3"" |[[National Stadium, Singapore|Singapore National Stadium]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Singapore
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Singapore (over 200,000 units in a morning)
| rowspan=""2"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 October 2023 |title=Asia News: No Eras Movie in Malaysia; Coldplay Releases More Tix |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/10/06/asia-news-no-eras-movie-in-malaysia-coldplay-releases-more-tix/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007185551/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/10/06/asia-news-no-eras-movie-in-malaysia-coldplay-releases-more-tix/ |archive-date=7 October 2023 |access-date=7 October 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |23–31 January
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to perform three, four, five and six shows on a single tour
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance (321,113)
| <ref name=""ALLEN"" />
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |3 and 4 February
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Rajamangala Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Thailand
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First English-speaking act to perform two shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=23 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Second Bangkok Concert Date, Final Show for Asia Leg of Music of the Spheres Tour |url=https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/coldplay-announce-a-second-bangkok-concert-date-for-music-of-the-spheres-asia-tour-tickets-february-2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230623111726/https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/coldplay-announce-a-second-bangkok-concert-date-for-music-of-the-spheres-asia-tour-tickets-february-2024 |archive-date=23 June 2023 |access-date=23 June 2023 |website=Bandwagon}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Highest attendance for an English-speaking act (106,027)
| <ref name=""ALLEN"" />
|-
| 8 and 9 June
| [[Olympic Stadium (Athens)|Olympic Stadium]]
| Greece
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First international act to schedule two shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2023 |title=Sold Out Οι Δύο Συναυλίες Των Coldplay Στο ΟΑΚΑ |trans-title=Coldplay's Two Concerts at OAKA are Sold Out |url=https://www.newsbomb.gr/bombplus/politismos/story/1453021/sold-out-oi-dyo-synavlies-ton-coldplay-sto-oaka |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230728172230/https://www.newsbomb.gr/bombplus/politismos/story/1453021/sold-out-oi-dyo-synavlies-ton-coldplay-sto-oaka |archive-date=28 July 2023 |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=Newsbomb |language=el}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""3"" |12 and 13 June
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Arena Națională]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Romania
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Biggest queue in Romanian history (over 100,000 customers)
| rowspan=""2"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2023 |title=Primele Bilete Puse în Vânzare Pentru Concertele Coldplay au Fost Epuizate. Peste 100.000 de Oameni S-Au Înscris la Presale |trans-title=The First Tickets on Sale for the Coldplay Concerts Have Sold Out. Over 100,000 People Signed Up at the Press |url=https://observatornews.ro/entertainment/primele-bilete-puse-in-vanzare-pentru-concertele-coldplay-au-fost-epuizate-533519.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725165252/https://observatornews.ro/entertainment/primele-bilete-puse-in-vanzare-pentru-concertele-coldplay-au-fost-epuizate-533519.html |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=The Observator |language=ro}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to schedule two shows on a single tour
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Romania
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2023 |title=Record la Vânzarea Biletelor Pentru Concertele din România ale Trupei Coldplay |trans-title=Record Sales of Tickets for Coldplay Concerts in Romania |url=https://www.brasov.net/record-la-vanzarea-biletelor-pentru-concertele-din-romania-ale-trupei-coldplay-este-cea-mai-rapida-vanzare-din-istoria-show-urilor-live-din-tara-noastra/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230728164619/https://www.brasov.net/record-la-vanzarea-biletelor-pentru-concertele-din-romania-ale-trupei-coldplay-este-cea-mai-rapida-vanzare-din-istoria-show-urilor-live-din-tara-noastra/ |archive-date=28 July 2023 |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=Brasov |language=ro}}</ref>
|-
| 16–19 June
| [[Puskás Aréna]]
| Hungary
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to schedule three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=17 October 2023 |title=Azahriah Meglátogatta Azokat, Akik a Körúton Álltak Sorba Jegyért a Puskás Arénabeli Harmadik Koncertjére |trans-title=Azahriah Visited Those Who Lined Up on the Boulevard for Tickets to the Third Concert at Puskás Aréna |url=https://www.vg.hu/extra/2023/10/azahriah-meglatogatta-azokat-akik-a-koruton-alltak-sorba-jegyert-a-harmadik-puskas-arena-koncertjere |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231017150925/https://www.vg.hu/extra/2023/10/azahriah-meglatogatta-azokat-akik-a-koruton-alltak-sorba-jegyert-a-harmadik-puskas-arena-koncertjere |archive-date=17 October 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 |website=Világgazdaság |language=hu}}</ref>
|-
| 22–25 June
| [[Parc Olympique Lyonnais|Groupama Stadium]]
| France
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First group to schedule three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Ajoute Une Troisième Date à Lyon en 2024 |trans-title=Coldplay Add a Third Date in Lyon in 2024 |url=https://www.nrj.fr/artistes/coldplay/actus/coldplay-ajoute-une-troisieme-date-a-lyon-en-2024-71359896 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725181958/https://www.nrj.fr/artistes/coldplay/actus/coldplay-ajoute-une-troisieme-date-a-lyon-en-2024-71359896 |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=NRJ |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| 29 June
| [[Glastonbury Festival#Location|Worthy Farm]]
| England
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Most career performances by a headliner at [[Glastonbury Festival]] (5 shows)
| <ref name=""THOMAS"">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2024 |title=Dua Lipa, Coldplay and SZA to Headline 2024 Glastonbury Festival |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2024/mar/14/2024-glastonbury-festival-lineup-dua-lipa-coldplay-sza-shania-twain |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314124819/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2024/mar/14/2024-glastonbury-festival-lineup-dua-lipa-coldplay-sza-shania-twain |archive-date=14 March 2024 |access-date=14 March 2024 |website=The Guardian}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |12–16 July
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Stadio Olimpico]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Italy
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First international act to schedule three and four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2023 |title=Coldplay a Roma, i Concerti All'Olimpico Diventano Quattro |trans-title=Coldplay in Rome, Concerts at the Olimpico Become Four |url=https://www.romatoday.it/eventi/cultura/coldplay-olimpico-nuove-date-luglio-2024.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725162455/https://www.romatoday.it/eventi/cultura/coldplay-olimpico-nuove-date-luglio-2024.html |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=RomaToday |language=it}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Rome (over 240,000 units in a morning)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2023 |title=Coldplay in Concerto a Roma Nel 2024: Biglietti Esauriti in Pochi Minuti |trans-title=Coldplay Concert in Rome in 2024: Tickets Sold Out in Minutes |url=https://tg.la7.it/cronaca/coldplay-i-biglietti-per-roma-2024-esauriti-in-pochi-minuti-fan-in-rivolta-28-07-2023-190017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240123160417/https://tg.la7.it/cronaca/coldplay-i-biglietti-per-roma-2024-esauriti-in-pochi-minuti-fan-in-rivolta-28-07-2023-190017 |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |website=TG La7 |language=it}}
* {{Cite web |date=16 August 2023 |title=Le Band Sono Tutt'altro Che Finite |trans-title=Bands Are Far From Finished |url=https://www.rockol.it/news-738931/le-band-non-sono-finite-blur-muse-depeche-mode-coldplay-rinascita |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230816193252/https://www.rockol.it/news-738931/le-band-non-sono-finite-blur-muse-depeche-mode-coldplay-rinascita |archive-date=16 August 2023 |access-date=16 August 2023 |website=Rockol |language=it}}</ref>
|-
| 20–23 July
| [[Merkur Spiel-Arena]]
| Germany
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to schedule three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2023 |title=Presale Startet Heute: Coldplay Mit Drei Konzerten 2024 in Düsseldorf – Zeitplan, Einlass und Alle Infos |trans-title=Presale Starts today: Coldplay with Three concerts in 2024 in Düsseldorf – Schedule, Admission and All Information |url=https://www.tonight.de/duesseldorf/coldplay-konzert-in-duesseldorf-merkur-spiel-arena-termin-20-21-23-juli-2024-zeitplan-einlass-tickets-preise-vorband-anfahrt-alle-infos_281579.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725185831/https://www.tonight.de/duesseldorf/coldplay-konzert-in-duesseldorf-merkur-spiel-arena-termin-20-21-23-juli-2024-zeitplan-einlass-tickets-preise-vorband-anfahrt-alle-infos_281579.html |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=Tonight |language=de}}</ref>
|-
| 27–31 July
| [[Helsinki Olympic Stadium]]
| Finland
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to schedule three and four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=27 July 2023 |title=Det Blir en Fjärde Coldplay-Konsert på Olympiastadion i Helsingfors |trans-title=There Will Be a Fourth Coldplay Concert at the Olympic Stadium in Helsinki |url=https://svenska.yle.fi/a/7-10038757 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230727200355/https://svenska.yle.fi/a/7-10038757 |archive-date=27 July 2023 |access-date=27 July 2023 |website=Yle |language=sv}}</ref>
|-
| 15–18 August
| [[Olympiastadion (Munich)|Olympiastadion]]
| Germany
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First international group to schedule three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=26 July 2023 |title=Coldplay (Music of the Spheres World Tour – Delivered by DHL) |url=https://www.olympiapark.de/de/veranstaltungen/coldplay-n3938 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230726214431/https://www.olympiapark.de/de/veranstaltungen/coldplay-n3938 |archive-date=26 July 2023 |access-date=26 July 2023 |website=Olympiapark München |language=de}}</ref>
|-
| 21–25 August
| [[Ernst-Happel-Stadion]]
| Austria
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to schedule four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=27 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Stellt Neuen Rekord Auf: Viertes Konzert für Wien 2024 Bestätigt |trans-title=Coldplay Sets a New Record: Fourth Concert for Vienna 2024 Confirmed |url=https://kurier.at/kultur/coldplay-stellt-neuen-rekord-auf-viertes-konzert-fuer-wien-2024-bestaetigt/402537761 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230727141805/https://kurier.at/kultur/coldplay-stellt-neuen-rekord-auf-viertes-konzert-fuer-wien-2024-bestaetigt/402537761 |archive-date=27 July 2023 |access-date=27 July 2023 |website=Kurier |language=de}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |29 August–2 September
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Croke Park]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Ireland
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First group to schedule four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2023 |title=Ticketmaster Website Crashes for Some Coldplay Fans, with Two More Croke Park Dates Announced |url=https://www.thejournal.ie/ticketmaster-website-crashes-for-some-coldplay-fans-6127881-Jul2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725173833/https://www.thejournal.ie/ticketmaster-website-crashes-for-some-coldplay-fans-6127881-Jul2023/ |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=The Journal}}</ref>
|-
| style=""text-align:left;"" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Ireland
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2023 |title=Irish Coldplay Fans Hit Out at Ticketmaster As Four Dublin Concerts Sell Out in Record Time |url=https://www.irishstar.com/culture/entertainment/irish-coldplay-fans-hit-out-30576650 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230728164424/https://www.irishstar.com/culture/entertainment/irish-coldplay-fans-hit-out-30576650 |archive-date=28 July 2023 |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=Irish Star}}</ref>
|-
| 30 October–3 November
| [[Docklands Stadium|Marvel Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Australia
| rowspan=""2"" style=""text-align:left;"" |First group to schedule four shows on a single tour
| rowspan=""2"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Adds More Aussie Shows as They Smash Box Office Records |url=https://www.heraldsun.com.au/entertainment/music/coldplay-adds-more-aussie-shows-as-concert-presale-goes-nuts/news-story/7874902a29d72fbee1fe7c430d06bf34 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231130210117/https://www.heraldsun.com.au/entertainment/music/coldplay-adds-more-aussie-shows-as-concert-presale-goes-nuts/news-story/7874902a29d72fbee1fe7c430d06bf34?amp&nk=c559663bdb9cf16ce9107976d797028d-1701378085 |archive-date=30 November 2023 |access-date=30 November 2023 |website=Herald Sun}}</ref>
|-
| 6–10 November
| [[Stadium Australia|Accor Stadium]]
|-
| 13–16 November
| [[Eden Park]]
| New Zealand
| style=""text-align:left;"" |First act to schedule three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Make NZ History with Third Eden Park Show: Dates, Tickets and Sale Information |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/coldplay-makes-nz-history-with-third-eden-park-show-dates-tickets-and-presale-information/6JK4T3LOM5BRZDG7BHCCJVSB4E/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130031752/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/coldplay-makes-nz-history-with-third-eden-park-show-dates-tickets-and-presale-information/6JK4T3LOM5BRZDG7BHCCJVSB4E/ |archive-date=30 November 2023 |access-date=30 November 2023 |website=The New Zealand Herald}}</ref>
|}

== Critical reception ==
=== North America ===
The tour received widespread acclaim from music critics worldwide.{{efn|Six stars: ''[[Gaffa (magazine)|GAFFA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 July 2023 |title=Chris Martin Lyckas få Hela Ullevi att Lägga Undan Mobilerna |trans-title=Chris Martin Manages to Get All of Ullevi to Put Away Their Phones |url=https://gaffa.se/recensioner/2023/juli/konserter/coldplay-ullevi-8-7-allsangen-tranger-sig-obehindrat-in-i-varje-oppet-fonster/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230710211503/https://gaffa.se/recensioner/2023/juli/konserter/coldplay-ullevi-8-7-allsangen-tranger-sig-obehindrat-in-i-varje-oppet-fonster/ |archive-date=10 July 2023 |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=GAFFA Sweden |language=sv}}</ref> Five: ''[[Daily Express]]'',<ref name=""SHARP"" /> ''[[Evening Standard]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 August 2022 |title=Coldplay at Wembley Review: As Good as it Gets in a Stadium |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/music/coldplay-wembley-review-london-chris-martin-music-of-the-spheres-b1018565.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220816013224/https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/music/coldplay-wembley-review-london-chris-martin-music-of-the-spheres-b1018565.html |archive-date=16 August 2022 |access-date=15 August 2022 |website=Evening Standard}}</ref> and ''[[Glasgow Times]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2022 |title=Review of Coldplay, Who Create Something Special at Glasgow's Hampden Park |url=https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/scottish-news/20723772.review-coldplay-create-something-special-glasgows-hampden-park/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220904130433/https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/scottish-news/20723772.review-coldplay-create-something-special-glasgows-hampden-park/ |archive-date=4 September 2022 |access-date=4 September 2022 |website=Glasgow Times}}</ref> Four: ''[[Algemeen Dagblad|AD]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Pakt in de Arena Zelfs de Grootste Cynicus Met Boter en Suiker In |trans-title=Coldplay Pack Even the Biggest Cynic with Butter and Sugar in the Arena |url=https://www.ad.nl/show/recensie-coldplay-pakt-in-de-arena-zelfs-de-grootste-cynicus-met-boter-en-suiker-in~ab4f4095/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230716120212/https://www.ad.nl/show/recensie-coldplay-pakt-in-de-arena-zelfs-de-grootste-cynicus-met-boter-en-suiker-in~ab4f4095/ |archive-date=16 July 2023 |access-date=16 July 2023 |website=AD |language=nl}}</ref> ''[[Rolling Stone|Rolling Stone UK]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Live at Wembley: Chris Martin Delivers a Masterclass in Showmanship |url=https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/live-reviews/coldplay-live-at-wembley-chris-martin-delivers-a-masterclass-in-showmanship-21800/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220827192310/https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/live-reviews/coldplay-live-at-wembley-chris-martin-delivers-a-masterclass-in-showmanship-21800/ |archive-date=27 August 2022 |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=Rolling Stone UK}}</ref> and ''[[The Scotsman]]''.<ref name=""SHEPHERD"">{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Music Review: Coldplay, Hampden Park, Glasgow |url=https://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/music-review-coldplay-hampden-park-glasgow-3818882 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230405124613/https://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/music-review-coldplay-hampden-park-glasgow-3818882 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |access-date=5 April 2023 |website=The Scotsman}}</ref>}} Andrew Chamings from ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' said that despite his ""cynicism, Coldplay's show was a joyous, bright, cathartic post-pandemic triumph"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 May 2022 |title=Chris Martin and Coldplay Harness Strange Technology at Triumphant Bay Area Concert at Levi's Stadium |url=https://www.sfgate.com/sf-culture/amp/coldplay-concert-review-san-francisco-17176646.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220517032059/https://www.sfgate.com/sf-culture/amp/coldplay-concert-review-san-francisco-17176646.php |archive-date=17 May 2022 |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=SFGate}}</ref> Writing for ''[[Houston Press]]'', Marco Torres called it ""a beautiful dream, with balloons flying around, confetti bursting from air cannons and lasers shooting from the stage through the smoke"" as the group performed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Makes Dreams Come True at NRG Stadium |url=https://www.houstonpress.com/music/last-night-coldplay-at-nrg-13350389 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220606135945/https://www.houstonpress.com/music/last-night-coldplay-at-nrg-13350389 |archive-date=6 June 2022 |access-date=6 June 2022 |website=Houston Press}}</ref> ''[[Fort Worth Star-Telegram]]''{{'s}} Mac Engel claimed that Martin showed all of the skills that make him one of the top performers of his generation and made [[Cotton Bowl (stadium)|Cotton Bowl]] feel intimate with a powerful set.<ref name=""HPR"">{{Cite web |date=7 May 2022 |title=Led by Chris Martin, Coldplay Makes the Cotton Bowl Feel Intimate with a Powerful Set |url=https://amp.star-telegram.com/entertainment/article261164377.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615224157/https://amp.star-telegram.com/entertainment/article261164377.html |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Fort Worth Star-Telegram}}</ref> In her review for ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'', Selena Fragassi credited the concerts with setting the bar for what tours could be like in the future.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2022 |title=At Coldplay's Space-Themed Show, the Pressing Matters of Earth Prevail |url=https://chicago.suntimes.com/2022/5/29/23146574/coldplay-review-soldier-field-chicago-tour-music-of-the-spheres-uvalde-ukraine-green-chris-martin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220601140023/https://chicago.suntimes.com/2022/5/29/23146574/coldplay-review-soldier-field-chicago-tour-music-of-the-spheres-uvalde-ukraine-green-chris-martin |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=23 March 2023 |website=Chicago Sun-Times}}</ref> Similarly, Christopher A. Daniel from ''[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]'' praised the production values as ""reminiscent of the art rock foundation paved by bands like [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]], [[Kraftwerk]] and [[Pink Floyd]]"", adding that Coldplay are set to become a ""must-see legendary act"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Returns to Atlanta with a Musical and Visual Feast |url=https://www.ajc.com/things-to-do/coldplay-returns-to-atlanta-with-a-musical-and-visual-feast/IE3P5PIKSFHS5OSWYC5LP3FGUU/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220614103144/https://www.ajc.com/things-to-do/coldplay-returns-to-atlanta-with-a-musical-and-visual-feast/IE3P5PIKSFHS5OSWYC5LP3FGUU/ |archive-date=14 June 2022 |access-date=17 August 2022 |website=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution}}</ref> Furthermore, Philip Cosores of ''[[Uproxx]]'' mentioned ""there is no wasted energy, with every bit of the set time used to create memories and impact the audience"".<ref name=""COSORES"">{{Cite web |date=29 September 2023 |title=The Sustainability of Coldplay |url=https://uproxx.com/indie/coldplay-concert-review-music-of-the-spheres-tour-san-diego-snapdragon-sustainability/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230930134932/https://uproxx.com/indie/coldplay-concert-review-music-of-the-spheres-tour-san-diego-snapdragon-sustainability/ |archive-date=30 September 2023 |access-date=30 September 2023 |website=Uproxx}}</ref> He then concluded that if environmental concerns are further adopted for touring, the status of the band ""as one of the essential artists of our time will take on greater meaning than just the legacy of their music"".<ref name=""COSORES"" />

=== Europe ===
''Regioactive''{{'s}} Torsten Reitz declared that they were ""full of energy and much more powerful than on record"", mastering both upbeat and quiet moments.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2022 |title=Coldplay Verbreiten Im Deutsche Bank Park Frankfurt Pure Lebensfreude |trans-title=Coldplay Spread Pure Joie de Vivre in Deutsche Bank Park, Frankfurt |url=https://www.regioactive.de/review/2022/07/04/coldplay-verbreiten-im-deutsche-bank-park-frankfurt-pure-lebensfreude-df1Xmz436k |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722143841/https://www.regioactive.de/review/2022/07/04/coldplay-verbreiten-im-deutsche-bank-park-frankfurt-pure-lebensfreude-df1Xmz436k |archive-date=22 July 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=Regioactive |language=de}}</ref> Marine Pineau wrote that Coldplay lived up to their reputation as a live act and lauded the band for their showmanship in her review for [[Virgin Radio]].<ref name=""SDFR"">{{Cite web |date=20 July 2022 |title=Coldplay au Stade de France: Retour sur une Troisième Soirée Magistrale |trans-title=Coldplay at the Stade de France: Back on a Third Masterful Evening |url=https://www.virginradio.fr/musique/coldplay-au-stade-de-france-retour-sur-une-troisieme-soiree-magistrale-97573.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722131447/https://www.virginradio.fr/musique/coldplay-au-stade-de-france-retour-sur-une-troisieme-soiree-magistrale-97573.html |archive-date=22 July 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=Virgin Radio |language=fr}}</ref> [[Alexis Petridis]] from ''[[The Guardian]]'' praised the tour for being a ""genuinely immersive"" experience which gave depth to its [[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|namesake album]] through an inventive approach, rating the residency at [[Wembley Stadium]] with five stars.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Review – A Barrage of Hits and Eye-popping Spectacle |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2022/aug/13/coldplay-review-a-barrage-of-hits-and-eye-popping-spectacle?CMP=twt_a-culture_b-gdnculture |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220813172242/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2022/aug/13/coldplay-review-a-barrage-of-hits-and-eye-popping-spectacle?CMP=twt_a-culture_b-gdnculture |archive-date=13 August 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=The Guardian}}</ref> Kate Solomon of ''[[The Times]]'' considered it a ""triumphant homecoming"", awarded Coldplay four stars and commended their musicianship.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Review – Feel-Good Factor Rubs Off at Triumphant Homecoming |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-review-feel-good-factor-rubs-off-at-triumphant-homecoming-xdf8w5s5q |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220813021338/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-review-feel-good-factor-rubs-off-at-triumphant-homecoming-xdf8w5s5q |archive-date=13 August 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=The Times}}</ref> [[The Daily Telegraph|''The Telegraph'']]{{'s}} [[Neil McCormick]] hailed them as ""modern masters"" of stadium entertainment and granted the same score.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 August 2022 |title=Coldplay, Wembley Stadium, Review: Chris Martin's Infectious Joy Is Impossible To Resist |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/music/concerts/coldplay-wembley-stadium-review-chris-martins-infectious-joy/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220813132858/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/music/concerts/coldplay-wembley-stadium-review-chris-martins-infectious-joy/ |archive-date=13 August 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=The Telegraph}}</ref> Writing a five-star piece for ''[[NME]]'', Hannah Mylrea stated that the band offered a masterclass in how a massive pop show can be done.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Live in London: A Fantastical, Feel-Good Bonanza That Delives on a Bold Promise |url=https://www.nme.com/reviews/live/coldplay-live-in-london-wembley-stadium-music-of-the-spheres-natalie-umbruglia-3292045 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220817182807/https://www.nme.com/reviews/live/coldplay-live-in-london-wembley-stadium-music-of-the-spheres-natalie-umbruglia-3292045 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |access-date=17 August 2022 |website=NME}}</ref> Moreover, Wilson Ledo from [[CNN Portugal]] mentioned the concerts had a permanent euphoria and praised how Martin interacted with the public constantly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2020 |title=Coldplay em Coimbra. E Se Nos Desligássemos, para nos Encontrarmos na Imensidão das Luzes? |trans-title=Coldplay in Coimbra. What If We Disconnected, to Find Ourselves in the Vastness of the Lights? |url=https://cnnportugal.iol.pt/coldplay/coimbra/coldplay-em-coimbra-e-se-nos-desligassemos-para-nos-encontrarmos-na-imensidao-da-luz/20230518/646579b3d34ea91b0aac9fbc |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230518030228/https://cnnportugal.iol.pt/coldplay/coimbra/coldplay-em-coimbra-e-se-nos-desligassemos-para-nos-encontrarmos-na-imensidao-da-luz/20230518/646579b3d34ea91b0aac9fbc |archive-date=18 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=CNN Portugal |language=pt}}</ref> In his ''Muzikalia'' article, Pau Clot informed that Coldplay offered a spectacle which ""cannot be matched by anyone on this planet today"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2023 |title=Coldplay (Estadi Olimpic) Barcelona 25/05/23 |url=https://muzikalia.com/coldplay-estadi-olimpic-barcelona-25-05-23/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230530124548/https://muzikalia.com/coldplay-estadi-olimpic-barcelona-25-05-23/ |archive-date=30 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=Muzikalia |language=es}}</ref> ''[[Göteborgs-Posten]]''{{'s}} Johan Lindqvista highlighted the stage presence of the group and said Martin had enough ""love and showman charisma that he shines brighter than all the lights and lasers"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 July 2023 |title=Recension: Coldplay, Ullevi – Lördag 8 Juli |trans-title=Review: Coldplay, Ullevi – Saturday 8 July |url=https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-lördag-8-juli-1.104402431 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230708214755/https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-l%C3%B6rdag-8-juli-1.104402431 |archive-date=8 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Göteborgs-Posten |language=sv}}</ref>

=== Rock in Rio ===
[[File:GuyBerrymanWembley160822 (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=A man wearing a custom space helmet plays the bass|Berryman performing ""Infinity Sign"" at [[Wembley Stadium]], [[London]]]]
Felipe Branco Cruz from ''[[Veja (magazine)|Veja]]'' argued the band ""reinvented the concept of arena rock"" with their performance at [[Rock in Rio]] festival, turning the public into protagonists of the show rather than mere spectators and consequently carrying on the legacy of spectacles ""which transcend music"" that was established by groups such as [[Pink Floyd]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]] and [[U2]].<ref name=""CRUZ"">{{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Com Show no Rock in Rio, Coldplay Reinventa o Conceito de Rock de Arena |trans-title=With Rock in Rio Show, Coldplay Reinvents the Concept of Arena Rock |url=https://veja.abril.com.br/cultura/com-show-no-rock-in-rio-coldplay-reinventa-o-conceito-de-rock-de-arena/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911153822/https://veja.abril.com.br/cultura/com-show-no-rock-in-rio-coldplay-reinventa-o-conceito-de-rock-de-arena/ |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Veja |language=pt}}</ref> Writing for [[Universo Online|UOL]], Yolanda Reis said it is ""undeniable"" they are ""true showmen"" and defined the concert as ""unforgettable"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Ame ou Odeie, é Fato: Coldplay fez Show que Rock in Rio Quis e Mereceu |trans-title=Love or Hate, It's a Fact: Coldplay Made the Show Rock in Rio Wanted and Deserved |url=https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/09/11/ame-ou-odeie-e-fato-coldplay-fez-show-que-rock-in-rio-quis-e-mereceu.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911141852/https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/09/11/ame-ou-odeie-e-fato-coldplay-fez-show-que-rock-in-rio-quis-e-mereceu.htm |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref> ''[[Folha de S.Paulo|Folha de São Paulo]]''{{'s}} Carlos Albuquerque affirmed Coldplay exhibited ""nearly two hours of delicious escapism"" and effortlessly took advantage of everything at their disposal on stage.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Coldplay no Rock in Rio faz Show Apoteótico com Luzes e a Potência de Chris Martin |trans-title=Coldplay does Apotheotic Show at Rock in Rio with Lights and Chris Martin's Power |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2022/09/coldplay-no-rock-in-rio-leva-blockbuster-ao-palco-mundo-em-show-de-cinema.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911142950/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2022/09/coldplay-no-rock-in-rio-leva-blockbuster-ao-palco-mundo-em-show-de-cinema.shtml |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Folha de S.Paulo |language=pt}}</ref> Ana Raquel Lelles praised them for keeping the audience excited with a ""masterful"" repertory in spite of the rainstorm in her review for ''[[Estado de Minas]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Rouba a Cena no Penúltimo Dia do Rock in Rio |trans-title=Coldplay Steals the Show at Rock in Rio's Second-to-last Day |url=https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2022/09/11/interna_cultura,1392839/coldplay-rouba-a-cena-no-penultimo-dia-do-rock-in-rio.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911142756/https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2022/09/11/interna_cultura,1392839/coldplay-rouba-a-cena-no-penultimo-dia-do-rock-in-rio.shtml |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Estado de Minas |language=pt}}</ref> Julio Maria from ''[[O Estado de S. Paulo|Estadão]]'' commented the band managed to achieve a ""higher level of spectacle"" and highlighted ""[[Paradise (Coldplay song)|Paradise]]"" as the ""first great catharsis"" in the curve which ""continued to climb"" throughout the night.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Rock in Rio: Coldplay Está em Um Nível Superior de Espetáculo |trans-title=Rock in Rio: Coldplay are on a Higher Level of Spectacle |url=https://www.estadao.com.br/cultura/musica/rock-in-rio-coldplay-esta-em-um-nivel-superior-de-espetaculo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911135631/https://www.estadao.com.br/cultura/musica/rock-in-rio-coldplay-esta-em-um-nivel-superior-de-espetaculo/ |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Estadão |language=pt}}</ref> Roberto Medina, the founder and president of the festival, claimed ""there was only one moment like today, [[Freddie Mercury]] in 1985. It was incredible, it was memorable"".<ref name=""CRUZ"" />

=== Latin America ===
Writing for ''[[El Comercio (Peru)|El Comercio]]'', Juan Carlos Fangacio Arakaki mentioned Coldplay were ""impeccable"", delivering a complete and diverse set list in a show which ""never let down"".<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 September 2022 |title=Coldplay en Lima: El Impecable Concierto de Una Banda-ONG |trans-title=Coldplay in Lima: The Impeccable Concert of an NGO Band |url=https://elcomercio.pe/luces/musica/coldplay-en-lima-el-impecable-concierto-de-una-banda-ong-cronica-chris-martin-estadio-nacional-13-de-septiembre-music-of-the-spheres-noticia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221101000152/https://elcomercio.pe/luces/musica/coldplay-en-lima-el-impecable-concierto-de-una-banda-ong-cronica-chris-martin-estadio-nacional-13-de-septiembre-music-of-the-spheres-noticia/ |archive-date=1 November 2022 |access-date=1 November 2022 |website=El Comercio |language=es}}</ref> [[CNN Chile]]'s Pablo Figueroa said the group showcased ""confidence, strength and respect for their audience"", becoming ""protagonists in one of the most exciting musical moments"" of the country since the [[Chilean transition to democracy|transition to democracy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 September 2022 |title=Opinión de Pablo Figueroa: Coldplay le Canta a la Memoria |trans-title=Pablo Figueroa's Opinion: Coldplay Sings to the Memories |url=https://www.cnnchile.com/opinion/opinion-pablo-figueroa-concierto-coldplay_20220921/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221031230719/https://www.cnnchile.com/opinion/opinion-pablo-figueroa-concierto-coldplay_20220921/ |archive-date=31 October 2022 |access-date=31 October 2022 |website=CNN Chile |language=es}}</ref> Marcelo Fernández Bitar from ''[[Clarín (Argentine newspaper)|Clarín]]'' emphasised Martin's charisma, his bandmates' solidity and the band's connection with the public, adding the performance reaffirmed the passion evoked by their songs.<ref name=""BITAR"">{{Cite web |date=26 October 2022 |title=Coldplay en Argentina: Las Razones de Un Show Espectacular que No Hay que Perderse |trans-title=Coldplay in Argentina: The Reasons for a Spectacular Show That You Can't Miss |url=https://www.clarin.com/espectaculos/musica/coldplay-argentina-espectacular-primer-show-maraton-river_0_cFWO8cwkUl.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221027195230/https://www.clarin.com/espectaculos/musica/coldplay-argentina-espectacular-primer-show-maraton-river_0_cFWO8cwkUl.html |archive-date=27 October 2022 |access-date=31 October 2022 |website=Clarín |language=es}}</ref> Similarly, an editorial by ''[[Infobae]]'' praised Coldplay for being ""versatile"" and ""synchronised"" in a concert that ranged from ""the most subtle"" to ""the most grand"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2022 |title=Coldplay en Argentina: Cómo Fue el Espectacular Primer Show en River |trans-title=Coldplay in Argentina: How the First Spectacular Show at River Went |url=https://www.infobae.com/teleshow/2022/10/26/coldplay-comenzo-su-serie-en-river-y-renovo-el-romance-con-argentina-con-un-homenaje-a-soda-stereo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221026190811/https://www.infobae.com/teleshow/2022/10/26/coldplay-comenzo-su-serie-en-river-y-renovo-el-romance-con-argentina-con-un-homenaje-a-soda-stereo/ |archive-date=26 October 2022 |access-date=31 October 2022 |website=Infobae |language=es}}</ref> In his review for ''[[La Nación]]'', Mauro Apicella commented they managed to be in the vanguard of stadium technology with good and simple ideas which never leaves out the audience and have songs that ""became classics"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2022 |title=Fórmula de Éxito: Tras el Primer Show en River, las Claves para Entender Por Qué Todos Quieren Ir a Ver a Coldplay |trans-title=Formula of Success: The Key Points to Understand Why Everyone Wants to See Coldplay, After the First Show at River |url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/espectaculos/musica/formula-de-exito-tras-el-primer-show-en-river-las-claves-para-entender-por-que-todos-quieren-ir-a-nid26102022/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221101015754/https://www.lanacion.com.ar/espectaculos/musica/formula-de-exito-tras-el-primer-show-en-river-las-claves-para-entender-por-que-todos-quieren-ir-a-nid26102022/ |archive-date=1 November 2022 |access-date=1 November 2022 |website=La Nación |language=es}}</ref> [[Omelete]]'s Caio Coletti stated Berryman's bass is ""irresistibly propulsive"", Martin's uncoordinated dancing ""at this point is already a trademark"" and Champion has proved to be a good vocalist by guiding the ""[[Viva la Vida]]"" chants.<ref name=""COLETTI"">{{Cite web |date=10 March 2023 |title=O Coldplay é Coadjuvante no Espetáculo do Coldplay – E com Toda a Razão |trans-title=Coldplay are Supporters in Coldplay's Spectacle – And with Good Reason |url=https://www.omelete.com.br/musica/coldplay-relato-sao-paulo-2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230311183338/https://www.omelete.com.br/musica/coldplay-relato-sao-paulo-2023 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |access-date=11 March 2023 |website=Omelete |language=pt}}</ref> He also lauded them for giving a highly sensorial performance and understanding how the night of the show ""is all about entertaining fans and finding new ways to elevate their experience"".<ref name=""COLETTI"" />

=== Asia–Pacific ===
''Barks''{{'}} Saori Yoshiba ({{lang-ja|吉羽さおり}}) considered the tour a ""captivating mixture of depth and intensity"" which allowed her to ""fully feel the power of music and the energy of a live performance"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title= |script-title=ja:ライブレポート : コールドプレイ、会場が一体となった6年ぶり来日公演 |trans-title=Live Report: Coldplay Performs in Japan for the First Time in 6 Years with a Unified Venue |url=https://www.barks.jp/news/?id=1000241929 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213043756/https://www.barks.jp/news/?id=1000241929 |archive-date=13 December 2023 |access-date=13 December 2023 |website=Barks |language=ja}}</ref> Writing for [[CNN Indonesia]], Muhammad Feraldi Hifzurahman revealed that while the statement feels exaggerated at first, Coldplay ""really deserve to be called a musical experience that must be tried at least once in your life"".<ref name=""HIFZURAHMAN"">{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=Konser Coldplay di Jakarta Yang (Semestinya) Paripurna |trans-title=Coldplay's (Supposedly) Plenary Concert in Jakarta |url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20231116165008-227-1025194/konser-coldplay-di-jakarta-yang-semestinya-paripurna/1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213050417/https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20231116165008-227-1025194/konser-coldplay-di-jakarta-yang-semestinya-paripurna/1 |archive-date=13 December 2023 |access-date=13 December 2023 |website=CNN Indonesia |language=id}}</ref> Conversely, his review included only four stars out of five because the organisers of the venue failed to manage the crowd.<ref name=""HIFZURAHMAN"" /> Sam Mead from ''[[The Music (magazine)|The Music]]'' declared that ""over two decades in, this is the band at their best – hard-hitting, punchy grooves"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 November 2023 |title=Live Review: Coldplay – Music of the Spheres Tour @ Optus Stadium, Perth |url=https://themusic.com.au/reviews/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour-optus-stadium-perth/JEmaNjk4Ozo/19-11-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231119132605/https://themusic.com.au/reviews/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour-optus-stadium-perth/JEmaNjk4Ozo/19-11-23 |archive-date=19 November 2023 |access-date=13 December 2023 |website=The Music}}</ref> As per Caleb Runciman of ''[[The West Australian]]'', they delivered the greatest event of [[Perth Stadium|Optus Stadium]] history and a set that ""felt like a concert, theatre production, and light show all in one"".<ref name=""RUNCIMAN"">{{Cite web |date=19 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Perth Review: Rock Band Led by Chris Martin Given an Eccentric and Energetic Show at Optus Stadium |url=https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/coldplay-in-perth-rock-band-led-by-chris-martin-given-an-eccentric-and-energetic-show-at-optus-stadium-c-12551130 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231119014621/https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/coldplay-in-perth-rock-band-led-by-chris-martin-given-an-eccentric-and-energetic-show-at-optus-stadium-c-12551130 |archive-date=19 November 2023 |access-date=15 December 2023 |website=The West Australian}}</ref> He commended the musical prowess of the group as well, rating them with five stars.<ref name=""RUNCIMAN"" /> ''[[Rolling Stone Australia]]''{{'s}} Poppy Reid defended that Coldplay solidified their status among the most visionary live acts in [[rock music]] and seamlessly ""blended their hits with visual wonders"" on their performances.<ref name=""REID"" /> In a review for the ''[[Manila Bulletin]]'', Gregorio Larrazabal pointed out that the inclusion of national guests at the [[Philippine Arena]] has offered ""a cultural confluence, a dazzling spectacle not just of musical prowess, but of global and local melodies intertwining"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 January 2024 |title=Finding Harmony in a Global Soundscape |url=https://mb.com.ph/2024/1/31/finding-harmony-in-a-global-soundscape |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240201143043/https://pdfhost.io/v/MH67A85Wg_Finding_Harmony_in_a_Global_Soundscape_Larrazabal_2024 |archive-date=1 February 2024 |access-date=1 February 2024 |website=Manila Bulletin}}</ref>

== Accolades ==
''[[Folha de S.Paulo|Folha de São Paulo]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 September 2022 |title=Veja os Melhores e Piores Shows do Rock in Rio 2022, com Green Day e Coldplay |language=pt |trans-title=See the Best and the Worst Shows of Rock in Rio 2022, with Green Day and Coldplay |website=Folha de S.Paulo |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2022/09/veja-os-melhores-e-piores-shows-do-rock-in-rio-2022-com-green-day-e-coldplay.shtml |url-status=live |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220912233718/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2022/09/veja-os-melhores-e-piores-shows-do-rock-in-rio-2022-com-green-day-e-coldplay.shtml |archive-date=12 September 2022}}</ref> [[G1 (website)|G1]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Os Melhores e os Piores Shows do Rock in Rio 2022... Os Destaques e as Decepções do Festival |trans-title=The Best and the Worst Shows from Rock in Rio 2022... Highlights and Disappointments of the Festival |url=https://g1.globo.com/pop-arte/musica/rock-in-rio/2022/noticia/2022/09/12/os-melhores-e-os-piores-shows-do-rock-in-rio-2022-veja-os-destaques-e-as-decepcoes-do-festival.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220912182108/https://g1.globo.com/pop-arte/musica/rock-in-rio/2022/noticia/2022/09/12/os-melhores-e-os-piores-shows-do-rock-in-rio-2022-veja-os-destaques-e-as-decepcoes-do-festival.ghtml |archive-date=12 September 2022 |access-date=12 September 2022 |website=G1 |language=pt}}</ref> ''[[O Globo]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Rock in Rio 2022: Saiba Quais Foram os Dez Melhores Shows, na Opinião dos Críticos |trans-title=Rock in Rio 2022: Check Out the Ten Best Shows, in the Critics' Opinion |url=https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/musica/noticia/2022/09/rock-in-rio-2022-saiba-quais-foram-os-dez-melhores-shows-do-festival-na-opiniao-dos-criticos.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220912232328/https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/musica/noticia/2022/09/rock-in-rio-2022-saiba-quais-foram-os-dez-melhores-shows-do-festival-na-opiniao-dos-criticos.ghtml |archive-date=12 September 2022 |access-date=13 September 2022 |website=O Globo |language=pt}}</ref> and [[Universo Online|UOL]] ranked Coldplay's performance among the best of [[Rock in Rio]] 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Rock in Rio 2022: Os Melhores Shows da Edição, de Coldplay a Ludmilla |trans-title=Rock in Rio 2022: The Edition's Best Shows, from Coldplay to Ludmilla |url=https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/09/12/rock-in-rio-2022-os-melhores-shows-da-edicao-de-coldplay-a-ludmilla.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220912182111/https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/09/12/rock-in-rio-2022-os-melhores-shows-da-edicao-de-coldplay-a-ludmilla.htm |archive-date=12 September 2022 |access-date=12 September 2022 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref> ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' mentioned the stage's inflatable spheres while discussing the best special effects of the year.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=16 December 2022 |title=The Year's Top 5 Concert Special Effects: Fiery Pianos, Floating Dolphins and Flaming Cannons |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/adele-lady-gaga-bad-bunny-concerts-best-special-effects-2022/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221221223830/https://www.billboard.com/pro/adele-lady-gaga-bad-bunny-concerts-best-special-effects-2022/ |archive-date=21 December 2022 |access-date=22 December 2022}}</ref> ''[[Panorama (magazine)|Panorama]]'', [[Sky TG24]] and ''[[The West Australian]]'' called the tour one of the greatest events of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 December 2023 |title=I 10 Concerti Più Belli del 2023 |trans-title=The 10 Best Concerts of 2023 |url=https://www.panorama.it/lifestyle/musica/10-concerti-piu-belli-del-2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230171438/https://www.panorama.it/lifestyle/musica/10-concerti-piu-belli-del-2023 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |access-date=30 December 2023 |website=Panorama |language=it}}
* {{Cite web |date=26 December 2023 |title=Un Anno di Concerti Fantastici: I Dieci Tour da Ricordare del 2023 |trans-title=A Year of Fantastic Concerts: The Ten Tours to Remember of 2023 |url=https://www.tgcom24.mediaset.it/spettacolo/tour-2023-dieci-da-ricordare_74727582-202302k.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227055649/https://www.tgcom24.mediaset.it/spettacolo/tour-2023-dieci-da-ricordare_74727582-202302k.shtml |archive-date=27 December 2023 |access-date=27 December 2023 |website=Sky TG24 |language=it}}
* {{Cite web |date=28 December 2023 |title=Basil Zempilas: The Defining Moments of 2023 As I See Them |url=https://thewest.com.au/opinion/basil-zempilas-the-defining-moments-of-2023-as-i-see-them-c-13044004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231228194125/https://thewest.com.au/opinion/basil-zempilas-the-defining-moments-of-2023-as-i-see-them-c-13044004 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |access-date=28 December 2023 |website=The West Australian}}</ref>

{| class=""wikitable sortable plainrowheaders""
|+Awards and nominations for the Music of the Spheres World Tour
|-
! scope=""col"" |Year
! scope=""col"" |Ceremony
! scope=""col"" |Category
! scope=""col"" |Result
! scope=""col"" class=""unsortable"" |{{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
! rowspan=""8"" scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |2023
| [[iHeartRadio Music Awards]]
| Tour of the Year
| {{Won}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Celebrates Tour of the Year Win with Performance from Brazil |url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2023-03-27-coldplay-celebrates-tour-of-the-year-win-with-performance-from-brazil/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230627190657/https://www.iheart.com/content/2023-03-27-coldplay-celebrates-tour-of-the-year-win-with-performance-from-brazil/ |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=27 June 2023 |website=iHeartMedia}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Pollstar|''Pollstar'' Awards]]
| Major Tour of the Year
| {{Nominated}}
| rowspan=""4"" style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2022 |title=Voting Opens for 34th Annual Pollstar Awards: Everything You Need to Know |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2022/11/11/voting-opens-for-34th-annual-pollstar-awards/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221114171555/https://news.pollstar.com/2022/11/11/voting-opens-for-34th-annual-pollstar-awards/ |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=3 December 2022 |website=Pollstar}}
* {{Cite web |date=22 February 2023 |title=Harry Styles, Bad Bunny Among 2023 Pollstar Award Winners; Chappelle, Grohl & Henley Make Surprise Cameos |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/02/22/harry-styles-bad-bunny-among-2023-pollstar-award-winners-chappelle-grohl-henley-make-surprise-cameos/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230223120045/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/02/22/harry-styles-bad-bunny-among-2023-pollstar-award-winners-chappelle-grohl-henley-make-surprise-cameos/ |archive-date=23 February 2023 |access-date=23 February 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| Rock Tour of the Year
| {{Nominated}}
|-
| WhizBang Award
| {{Won}}
|-
| Live Music Is Better Award
| {{Nominated}}
|-
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Ticketmaster|Ticketmaster Awards]]
| Concert of the Year – Poland
| {{Nominated}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref>{{Cite instagram|user=ticketmasterpl|postid=CnOzzXOIsn9|date=10 January 2023|title=The 2023 Ticketmaster Awards|access-date=21 January 2023|author=Ticketmaster Polska|archive-date=21 January 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230121135609/https://instagram.fbfh3-3.fna.fbcdn.net/v/t51.2885-15/324468706_2465989346885607_6704113552292041063_n.webp?stp=dst-jpg_e35&_nc_ht=instagram.fbfh3-3.fna.fbcdn.net&_nc_cat=103&_nc_ohc=_i9yM3lkeo8AX-6UW4A&edm=ACOOH6wBAAAA&ccb=7-5&ig_cache_key=MzAxMjU3MzAyMTE0MjYzNDAxMw%3D%3D.2-ccb7-5&oh=00_AfAN15c3xA48C-M4Img8uTNv6jBVGg6lGrqwcBoZTRPaqQ&oe=63D1924F&_nc_sid=ec1c8f|language=pl}}</ref>
|-
| Best International Concert – France
| {{Won}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref name=""ELISE"">{{Cite web |date=9 February 2024 |title=Ticketmaster Awards 2024: Revivez Vos Meilleurs Lives! |trans-title=Ticketmaster Awards 2024: Relive Your Best Lives! |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.fr/ticketmaster-et-vous/ticketmaster-awards/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222042748/https://blog.ticketmaster.fr/ticketmaster-et-vous/ticketmaster-awards/ |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster France |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2023 – Italy
| {{Won}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref name=""TMIT"">{{Cite web |date=18 January 2024 |title=Ticketmaster Awards: Tutti i Vincitori |trans-title=Ticketmaster Awards: All the Winners |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.it/tempo-libero-eventi-speciali/ticketmaster-awards-2024-vota-i-migliori-cantanti-concerti-ed-eventi-dellanno-4423/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222045450/https://blog.ticketmaster.it/tempo-libero-eventi-speciali/ticketmaster-awards-2024-vota-i-migliori-cantanti-concerti-ed-eventi-dellanno-4423/ |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster Italy |language=it}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan=""11"" scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |2024
| [[iHeartRadio Music Awards]]
| Favorite Tour Photographer{{efn|Credited to American photographer Anna Lee instead of Coldplay.<ref name=""FIELDS"">{{Cite web |date=18 January 2024 |title=2024 iHeartRadio Music Awards Nominees Revealed |url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2024-01-17-2024-iheartradio-music-awards-nominees-revealed/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118150020/https://www.iheart.com/content/2024-01-17-2024-iheartradio-music-awards-nominees-revealed/ |archive-date=18 January 2024 |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=iHeartMedia}}</ref>}}
| {{Pending}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref name=""FIELDS"" />
|-
| [[People's Choice Awards]]
| {{Sort|Concert Tour of the Year|The Concert Tour of the Year}}
| {{Nominated}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 January 2024 |title=2024 People's Choice Awards: Complete List of Nominees |url=https://www.eonline.com/news/1392489/2024-peoples-choice-awards-complete-list-of-nominees |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111144930/https://www.eonline.com/news/1392489/2024-peoples-choice-awards-complete-list-of-nominees |archive-date=11 January 2024 |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=E! Online}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Pollstar|''Pollstar'' Awards]]
| Pop Tour of the Year
| {{Nominated}}
| rowspan=""2"" style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref name=""STAFF"">{{Cite web |date=10 November 2023 |title=Nominations Announced for 35th Annual Pollstar Awards, Voting Open Now |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/11/10/nominations-announced-for-35th-annual-pollstar-awards-voting-open-now/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231110180814/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/11/10/nominations-announced-for-35th-annual-pollstar-awards-voting-open-now/ |archive-date=10 November 2023 |access-date=10 November 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| Road Warrior of the Year{{efn|Credited to American tour manager Marguerite Nguyen instead of Coldplay.<ref name=""STAFF""/>}}
| {{Nominated}}
|-
| rowspan=""7"" |[[Ticketmaster|Ticketmaster Awards]]
| Concert of the Year – Sweden
| {{Won}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 February 2024 |title=Vinnarna i Ticketmaster Awards |trans-title=The Winners of the Ticketmaster Awards 2024 |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.se/ticketmaster-awards/vinnarna-i-ticketmaster-awards-2024/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222035307/https://blog.ticketmaster.se/ticketmaster-awards/vinnarna-i-ticketmaster-awards-2024/ |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster Sweden |language=sv}}</ref>
|-
| Concert of the Year – Switzerland
| {{Won}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 February 2024 |title=Ticketmaster Awards 2024 {{!}} Die Gewinner Stehen Fest |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.ch/de/news/ticketmaster-awards-2024-4318 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222051807/https://blog.ticketmaster.ch/de/news/ticketmaster-awards-2024-4318 |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster Switzerland}}</ref>
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2024 – Australia
| {{Nominated}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 February 2024 |title=Most Anticipated Event of 2024 Nominees |url=https://www.facebook.com/TicketmasterAU/posts/pfbid0yTsDTN6nAnZkuKkxmtzxLZzEfAK8f3MJMHQNcAvydLLarBqLSWhBeVsnUxCFu4TZl |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240222155848/https://www.facebook.com/TicketmasterAU/posts/pfbid0yTsDTN6nAnZkuKkxmtzxLZzEfAK8f3MJMHQNcAvydLLarBqLSWhBeVsnUxCFu4TZl |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster Australia |via=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2024 – France
| {{Won}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref name=""ELISE"" />
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2024 – Germany
| {{Won}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 February 2024 |title=Ticketmaster Awards 2024: Eure Gewinner Innen stehen fest! |trans-title=Ticketmaster Awards 2024: Your Winners Have Been Chosen! |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.de/musik/ticketmaster-awards-2024-gewinner-fan-voting-15135/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222040416/https://blog.ticketmaster.de/musik/ticketmaster-awards-2024-gewinner-fan-voting-15135/ |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster Germany |language=de}}</ref>
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2024 – Italy
| {{Won}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref name=""TMIT"" />
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2024 – New Zealand
| {{Won}}
| style=""text-align:center;"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 January 2024 |title=Vote Now! The 2024 Ticketmaster Awards Are Here |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.co.nz/news-2/vote-now-the-2024-ticketmaster-awards-are-here-3180 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222054637/https://blog.ticketmaster.co.nz/news-2/vote-now-the-2024-ticketmaster-awards-are-here-3180 |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster New Zealand}}</ref>
|}

== Concert film ==
{{Main|Coldplay – Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate{{!}}''Coldplay – Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate''}}
In September 2022, the band announced that one of their performances at [[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]] would be transmitted to cinemas around the world through a partnership with Trafalgar Releasing, the company responsible for premiering ''[[Coldplay: A Head Full of Dreams]]'' back in 2018.<ref name=""KAUFMAN"">{{Cite magazine |date=8 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Announce Live Worldwide Concert Screening from Buenos Aires |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-live-worldwide-concert-broadcast-buenos-aires-1235136150/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220908171615/https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-live-worldwide-concert-broadcast-buenos-aires-1235136150/ |archive-date=8 September 2022 |access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> Released as ''Live Broadcast from Buenos Aires'', the project was directed by Paul Dugdale and exhibited in 81 countries, setting the record for live theatrical events.<ref name=""BOXPRO"">{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=Coldplay: Music of the Spheres Live Cinema Event Breaks Record |url=https://www.boxofficepro.com/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-live-cinema-event-breaks-record/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221103164450/https://www.boxofficepro.com/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-live-cinema-event-breaks-record/ |archive-date=3 November 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=Boxoffice Pro}}</ref> On 19 April 2023, a [[director's cut]] was made available featuring remastered sound, visuals captured using different filming techniques, and an exclusive behind-the-scenes interview with the group.<ref name=""RAMACHANDRAN"">{{Cite web |date=1 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Concert Film Featuring BTS' Jin Sets April Release Dates |url=https://variety.com/2023/film/news/coldplay-concert-film-bts-jin-1235539633/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230301224852/https://variety.com/2023/film/news/coldplay-concert-film-bts-jin-1235539633/ |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=1 March 2023 |website=Variety}}</ref> This version was titled ''Coldplay – Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate'' and additionally included [[ScreenX|panoramic]] and [[4DX]] formats.<ref name=""RAMACHANDRAN"" /> Writing for ''MadMass'', Mattia Salvi noted the film was engaging, versatile, and a ""complex visual transliteration, which fortunately Dugdale and his entire crew manage to achieve with great naturalness, without inappropriate artifices"".<ref name=""SALVI"">{{Cite web |date=7 May 2023 |title=Coldplay: Music of the Spheres – Live at River Plate, Recensione Concerto Live di Paul Dugdale |trans-title=Coldplay: Music of the Spheres – Live at River Plate, Paul Dugdale's Live Concert Review |url=https://www.madmass.it/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-live-at-river-plate-recensione-concerto-live-paul-dugdale/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230927041502/https://www.madmass.it/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-live-at-river-plate-recensione-concerto-live-paul-dugdale/ |archive-date=27 September 2023 |access-date=27 September 2023 |website=MadMass |language=it}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
{{Main|Impact of the Music of the Spheres World Tour}}
According to ''[[Pollstar]]''{{'s}} Eric Renner Brown, Coldplay have ushered into ""a new era of sustainable touring"" with the Music of the Spheres World Tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Coldplay's Greener Pastures: With Music of the Spheres, One of the Most Successful Touring Bands Ever Kicks Off a New Era of Sustainable Touring |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2021/10/20/coldplays-greener-pastures-with-music-of-the-spheres-one-of-the-most-successful-touring-bands-ever-kicks-off-a-new-era-of-sustainable-touring-2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220630010327/https://news.pollstar.com/2021/10/20/coldplays-greener-pastures-with-music-of-the-spheres-one-of-the-most-successful-touring-bands-ever-kicks-off-a-new-era-of-sustainable-touring-2/ |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> Their efforts were considered unprecedented for a stadium concert run,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2022 |title=La Tournée de Coldplay Est-Elle Vraiment Écologique? |trans-title=Is the Coldplay Tour Really Eco-Friendly? |url=https://www.lesoir.be/457640/article/2022-08-02/la-tournee-de-coldplay-est-elle-vraiment-ecologique |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220805101321/https://www.lesoir.be/457640/article/2022-08-02/la-tournee-de-coldplay-est-elle-vraiment-ecologique |archive-date=5 August 2022 |access-date=5 August 2022 |website=Le Soir |language=fr}}</ref> as the band reduced their [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] by 47% in the first year activities,<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Reduced Its Carbon Footprint of Live Shows by 47% |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/02/coldplay-reduced-its-carbon-footprint-of-live-shows-by-47/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230603230448/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/02/coldplay-reduced-its-carbon-footprint-of-live-shows-by-47/ |archive-date=3 June 2023 |access-date=3 June 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> planted seven million trees in forest reserves,<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 September 2023 |title=Coldplay Kick Off West Coast Tour with Explosive Seattle Show |url=https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-kicks-off-west-coast-tour-with-explosive-seattle-show/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230925211034/https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-kicks-off-west-coast-tour-with-explosive-seattle-show/ |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=American Songwriter}}</ref> and had their methods adopted by [[Live Nation (events promoter)|Live Nation]] to provide green options to more artists.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=22 April 2022 |title=Touring Returned from the Pandemic Greener Than Ever |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/concerts-green-touring-pandemic-coldplay-billie-eilish/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220426221638/https://www.billboard.com/pro/concerts-green-touring-pandemic-coldplay-billie-eilish/ |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=26 April 2022}}</ref> Furthermore, they were listed among the most influential climate action leaders in the world by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=The 100 Most Influential Climate Leaders in Business 2023 |url=https://time.com/collection/time100-climate/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116151051/https://time.com/collection/time100-climate/ |archive-date=16 November 2023 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=Time}}</ref> Since the tour became a leading topic of news coverage in visited countries, it was also called a media phenomenon.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2022 |title=Coldplay Invadió de Positividad las Redes Sociales |trans-title=Coldplay Invaded Social Media with Positivity |url=https://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/967493/espectaculos/coldplay-invadio-positividad-redes-sociales.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230917053055/https://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/967493/espectaculos/coldplay-invadio-positividad-redes-sociales.html |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=17 September 2023 |website=La Gaceta |language=es}}</ref> Mark Beaumont from ''[[The Times]]'' opined that the band regained public respect and credibility, which prompted a shift in attitude towards them.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=How It Became Cool to Like Coldplay |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-stadium-tour-how-they-became-cool-928dd6n93 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220825075016/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-stadium-tour-how-they-became-cool-928dd6n93 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=The Times}}</ref>

Due to its high demand, the tour caused [[Ticket resale|ticket speculation]] to rise in numerous regions, including Portugal,<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 May 2023 |title=ASAE Deteve 32 Pessoas por Especulação com Bilhetes dos Coldplay |trans-title=ASAE Detained 32 People for Coldplay Tickets Speculation |url=https://www.jn.pt/justica/asae-deteve-32-pessoas-por-especulacao-com-bilhetes-dos-coldplay-16400050.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230523234151/https://www.jn.pt/justica/asae-deteve-32-pessoas-por-especulacao-com-bilhetes-dos-coldplay-16400050.html |archive-date=23 May 2023 |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=JN |language=pt}}</ref> Italy,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay e Blanco, Secondary Ticketing: Scoperti 26 Bagarini Con 15 Mila Biglietti |trans-title=Coldplay and Blanco, Secondary Ticketing: 26 Touts Discovered with 15,000 Tickets |url=https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/coldplay-e-blanco-secondary-ticketing-scoperti-26-bagarini-15mila-biglietti-AE7lwxlD |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230919172521/https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/coldplay-e-blanco-secondary-ticketing-scoperti-26-bagarini-15mila-biglietti-AE7lwxlD |archive-date=19 September 2023 |access-date=19 September 2023 |website=Il Sole 24 Ore |language=it}}</ref> and Malaysia.<ref name=""DAIM"">{{Cite web |date=23 May 2023 |title=Govt to Enact Anti-Scalping Law Following Coldplay Concert Tickets Controversy |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2023/05/912380/govt-enact-anti-scalping-law-following-coldplay-concert-tickets |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230524000501/https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2023/05/912380/govt-enact-anti-scalping-law-following-coldplay-concert-tickets |archive-date=24 May 2023 |access-date=24 May 2023 |website=New Straits Times}}</ref> In the latter country, investigation of those cases inspired new legislation for future shows.<ref name=""DAIM"" /> Similarly, the [[government of Indonesia]] decided to make their event permit process more flexible after Coldplay could not schedule enough dates to meet demand.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2023 |title=Coldplay's One-Day Concert Pushes Indonesia to Simplify Permits |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-01/coldplay-s-one-day-concert-pushes-indonesia-to-simplify-permits |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230801122202/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-01/coldplay-s-one-day-concert-pushes-indonesia-to-simplify-permits |archive-date=1 August 2023 |access-date=1 August 2023 |website=Bloomberg}}</ref> Media outlets commented that ticketless fans gathered outside venues to hear the group perform in cities such as [[Barcelona]], [[Rio de Janeiro]] and [[Kaohsiung]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Desborda el Estadi |trans-title=Coldplay Overflows the Estadi |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20230529/9001167/fiesta-masiva-coldplay.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230529233912/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20230529/9001167/fiesta-masiva-coldplay.html |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es}}
* {{Cite tweet|number=1641106566672785411|user=tracklist|title=E esses fãs do Coldplay assistindo o show do lado de fora do estádio no Rio de Janeiro?|author=Tracklist|date=29 March 2023|access-date=17 September 2023|language=pt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918000639/https://twitter.com/tracklist/status/1641106566672785411|archive-date=18 September 2023|url-status=live|trans-title=And these Coldplay fans watching the show outside the stadium in Rio de Janeiro?}}
* {{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:怎算的? 世運館容5.5萬 Coldplay 稱吸8.6萬 高雄交通局給答案 |trans-title=How to Calculate It? The World Games Stadium Has a Capacity of 55,000. It Is Claimed That Coldplay Will Attract 86,000. The Kaohsiung Transportation Bureau Gives the Answer |url=https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7570222 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113121011/https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7570222 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=United Daily News |language=zh}}</ref> Concerts were noted for boosting local economies as well, drawing comparisons to winning a [[lottery]] prize.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Concert: Malaysia Missed Economic Lottery, Says Muar MP |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/politics/2023/06/922432/coldplay-concert-malaysia-missed-economic-lottery-says-muar-mp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230822133240/https://www.nst.com.my/news/politics/2023/06/922432/coldplay-concert-malaysia-missed-economic-lottery-says-muar-mp |archive-date=22 August 2023 |access-date=22 August 2023 |website=New Straits Times}}</ref> Additionally, the band experienced a resurgence on the music charts, as [[Coldplay discography|their discography]] saw major gains in sales.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=31 August 2022 |title=New Around the World: Coldplay's Catalog Climbs Global Charts |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-catalog-global-charts-new-around-the-world/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220901134228/https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-catalog-global-charts-new-around-the-world/ |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=4 September 2022}}</ref> To endorse local [[Nonprofit organization|non-profits]], they partnered with [[Global Citizen (organization)|Global Citizen]] and the Love Button Global Movement.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Love Button World Tour |url=https://www.lovebutton.org/world-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515142214/https://www.lovebutton.org/world-tour/ |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=Love Button}}</ref>

== Set list ==
This set list was taken from the 3 July 2022 concert in [[Frankfurt]], Germany. It does not represent all shows throughout the tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 April 2023 |title=Scaletta Concerto Coldplay 2023: Music of the Spheres World Tour |trans-title=Coldplay's 2023 Concert Setlist: Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://www.tag24.it/586671-scaletta-concerto-coldplay-2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230625164905/https://www.tag24.it/586671-scaletta-concerto-coldplay-2023/ |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=Tag 24 by Unicusano |language=it}}</ref>

{{div col}}
;Act I – Planets
#""Flying"" {{small|(from ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (soundtrack)|E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'')}}
#""Music of the Spheres"" {{small|(intro)}}
#""[[Higher Power (Coldplay song)|Higher Power]]""
#""[[Adventure of a Lifetime]]""
#""[[Paradise (Coldplay song)|Paradise]]""
#""[[Charlie Brown (Coldplay song)|Charlie Brown]]""
#""[[The Scientist (song)|The Scientist]]"" {{small|(with elements of ""Oceans"")}}

;Act II – Moons
#<li value=""8"">""[[Viva la Vida]]""
#""[[Hymn for the Weekend]]""
#""[[Let Somebody Go]]""
#""Politik""
#""[[In My Place]]""
#""[[Yellow (Coldplay song)|Yellow]]""
#""Sunrise"" {{small|(with [[Louis Armstrong]]'s speech from ""[[What a Wonderful World]]"")}}

;Act III – Stars
#<li value=""15"">""Human Heart""
#""People of the Pride""
#""[[Clocks (song)|Clocks]]""
#""Infinity Sign"" {{small|(with elements of ""Music of the Spheres II"" and ""[[Every Teardrop Is a Waterfall]]"")}}
#""[[Something Just Like This]]"" {{small|(performed in [[American Sign Language]])}}
#""[[Midnight (Coldplay song)|Midnight]]"" {{small|(with elements of [[Lone (musician)|Lone]]'s ""Blue Moon Tree"")}}
#""[[My Universe (song)|My Universe]]""
#""[[A Sky Full of Stars]]""

;Act IV – Home
#<li value=""23"">""[[Sparks (Coldplay song)|Sparks]]""
#""[[Magic (Coldplay song)|Magic]]""
#""Humankind""
#""[[Fix You]]""
#""Biutyful""
#""A Wave"" {{small|(outro)}}
{{div col end}}

=== Details ===
* A video showcasing Coldplay's sustainability efforts was exhibited before every performance, with ""Light Through the Veins"" by [[Jon Hopkins]] serving as its soundtrack.<ref name=""RUTH"" />
* ""Infinity Sign"", ""[[Something Just Like This]]"", ""[[Midnight (Coldplay song)|Midnight]]"", ""[[My Universe (song)|My Universe]]"" and ""[[A Sky Full of Stars]]"" are collectively referred to as The Lightclub.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1505040851143208960|user=coldplayxtra|title=Confirmed setlist for Coldplay's tour opening show in Costa Rica, handwritten by Chris Martin!|author=Coldplay Xtra|date=19 March 2022|access-date=20 March 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220320174442/https://twitter.com/coldplayxtra/status/1505040851143208960|archive-date=20 March 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ""[[God Put a Smile upon Your Face]]"",<ref>{{Cite AV media|date=19 March 2022 |title=Coldplay – God Put a Smile upon Your Face @ Estadio Nacional, San Jose, CR |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DCmJQvAalE |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715200050/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DCmJQvAalE |archive-date=15 July 2023 |access-date=15 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> ""[[In My Place]]"",<ref name=""BITAR"" /> and ""[[The Scientist (song)|The Scientist]]"" featured [[Will Champion]]'s main vocals in select dates.<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=2 July 2023 |title=Coldplay – Live in Zürich – The Scientist |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KnQP1TmyVRQ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702210328/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KnQP1TmyVRQ |archive-date=2 July 2023 |access-date=2 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* ""[[Don't Panic (Coldplay song)|Don't Panic]]"" was performed during Act IV in select dates, sometimes featuring Buckland and Champion's main vocals.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Canta Magic em Espanhol em Segundo Show no Peru |trans-title=Coldplay Sings Magic in Spanish at Second Show in Peru |url=https://www.vagalume.com.br/news/2022/09/15/coldplay-canta-magic-em-espanhol-em-segundo-show-no-peru.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220915210211/https://www.vagalume.com.br/news/2022/09/15/coldplay-canta-magic-em-espanhol-em-segundo-show-no-peru.html |archive-date=15 September 2022 |access-date=15 September 2022 |website=Vagalume |language=pt}}</ref>
* ""Don't Panic"" featured [[Fher Olvera]] on the harmonica in Zapopan on 30 March 2022 and [[Roger Federer]] on the shaker in Zürich on 2 July 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 March 2022 |title=Coldplay Vuelve a Invitar a Cantante de Maná, pero Cambia de Canción |trans-title=Coldplay Invites Mana's Singer Again, but Changes the Song |url=https://www.merca20.com/coldplay-mana-dont-panic-guadalajara/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220606141347/https://www.merca20.com/coldplay-mana-dont-panic-guadalajara/ |archive-date=6 June 2022 |access-date=6 June 2022 |website=Merca 2.0 |language=es}}
* {{Cite magazine |date=3 July 2023 |title=Roger Federer Joins Coldplay on Stage in Zürich: You are Flawless on the Shaker |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-joined-guest-roger-federer-shaker-zurich-concert-1235365836/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230703152407/https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-joined-guest-roger-federer-shaker-zurich-concert-1235365836/ |archive-date=3 July 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref>
* ""[[Sparks (Coldplay song)|Sparks]]"" featured pedal steel guitar players in select dates, including [[Josh Abbott Band|Preston Wait]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Dedicates Powerful Song to Texas During Concert |url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2022-05-10-coldplay-dedicates-powerful-song-to-texas-during-concert/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230311042108/https://www.iheart.com/content/2022-05-10-coldplay-dedicates-powerful-song-to-texas-during-concert/ |archive-date=11 March 2023 |access-date=11 March 2023 |website=iHeartRadio}}</ref> [[Far from Alaska|Cris Botarelli]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Faz História em Show no Brasil com Estrutura Surreal, Seu Jorge e Mais |trans-title=Coldplay Makes History in Show in Brazil with Surrealistic Structure, Seu Jorge and More |url=https://www.tenhomaisdiscosqueamigos.com/2023/03/11/coldplay-show-sao-paulo-resenha/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230311054953/https://www.tenhomaisdiscosqueamigos.com/2023/03/11/coldplay-show-sao-paulo-resenha/ |archive-date=11 March 2023 |access-date=11 March 2023 |website=Tenho Mais Discos Que Amigos! |language=pt}}</ref> and Laura Solla.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 May 2023 |title=Laura Solla, la Guitarrista Gallega a la que Llamó Coldplay para Tocar con Ellos: Aún no Me lo Creo |trans-title=Laura Solla, the Galician Guitarist Whom Coldplay Invited to Play with Them: I Still Can't Believe It |url=https://www.niusdiario.es/espana/galicia/20230519/laura-solla-guitarrista-gallega-llamo-coldplay-conciertos-espana-portugal_18_09567920.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230520015419/https://www.niusdiario.es/espana/galicia/20230519/laura-solla-guitarrista-gallega-llamo-coldplay-conciertos-espana-portugal_18_09567920.html |archive-date=20 May 2023 |access-date=20 May 2023 |website=Nius |language=es}}</ref>
* ""[[Let Somebody Go]]"" featured Coldplay's opening acts or fans in select dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Joined on Stage by H.E.R. as Music of the Spheres US Tour Concludes |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-joined-on-stage-by-h-e-r-as-music-of-the-spheres-us-tour-concludes-3248190 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615225559/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-joined-on-stage-by-h-e-r-as-music-of-the-spheres-us-tour-concludes-3248190 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=NME}}
* {{Cite web |date=21 July 2022 |title=Coldplay: Incroyable Moment sur Scène au Stade de France pour ce Fan Français |trans-title=Coldplay: Incredible Moment on Stage at Stade de France for This French Fan |url=http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-121942.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722123137/http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-121942.html |archive-date=22 July 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=Pure Charts |language=fr}}</ref> [[Selena Gomez]] appeared with both in Pasadena on 1 October 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 October 2023 |title=Selena Gomez Faz Participação em Show do Coldplay |trans-title=Selena Gomez Performs at Coldplay Concert |url=https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2023/10/02/interna_cultura,1570242/selena-gomez-faz-participacao-em-show-do-coldplay.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231002153832/https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2023/10/02/interna_cultura,1570242/selena-gomez-faz-participacao-em-show-do-coldplay.shtml |archive-date=2 October 2023 |access-date=2 October 2023 |website=Estado de Minas |language=pt}}</ref>
* ""Sparks"" and ""[[Magic (Coldplay song)|Magic]]"" were performed in each country's respective language in select dates.<ref name=""GRZYBOWSKI"">{{Cite web |date=9 July 2022 |title=Coldplay Zagrał w Polsce. Sen o Warszawie Znów na Narodowym |trans-title=Coldplay Performs in Poland. Sen o Warszawie Again at the National Stadium |url=https://www.terazmuzyka.pl/coldplay-zagral-w-polsce-sen-o-warszawie-znow-na-narodowym-relacja-zdjecia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711140243/https://www.terazmuzyka.pl/coldplay-zagral-w-polsce-sen-o-warszawie-znow-na-narodowym-relacja-zdjecia/ |archive-date=11 July 2022 |access-date=11 July 2022 |website=Teraz Muzyka |language=pl}}
* {{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Arrebata o Rock in Rio e Canta até em Português |trans-title=Coldplay Takes Over Rock in Rio and Even Sings in Portuguese |url=https://www.omelete.com.br/rock-in-rio/coldplay-rock-in-rio-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911142831/https://www.omelete.com.br/rock-in-rio/coldplay-rock-in-rio-22 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Omelete |language=pt}}</ref> The latter sometimes featured Coldplay's opening acts or fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Coldplay em Coimbra: As Novidades do Segundo Concerto, com Vídeos e Alinhamento |trans-title=Coldplay in Coimbra: News from the Second Concert, with Videos and Setlist |url=https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-19-Coldplay-em-Coimbra-as-novidades-do-segundo-concerto-com-videos-e-alinhamento-1d550752 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230519030006/https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-19-Coldplay-em-Coimbra-as-novidades-do-segundo-concerto-com-videos-e-alinhamento-1d550752 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |access-date=19 May 2023 |website=Expresso |language=pt}}
* {{Cite web |date=12 July 2023 |title=Recension: Coldplay, Ullevi – Onsdag 12 Juni |trans-title=Review: Coldplay, Ullevi – Wednesday 12 June |url=https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-onsdag-12-juni-1.104731274 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230712215132/https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-onsdag-12-juni-1.104731274 |archive-date=12 July 2023 |access-date=13 July 2023 |website=Göteborgs-Posten |language=sv}}</ref>
* ""Something Just Like This"" was performed for a second time featuring a choir during Act IV in select dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 July 2022 |title=Coldplay Im Olympiastadion, Berlin: Nicht Wirklich Nachhaltig, Aber Für Immer Schön |trans-title=Coldplay In Olympiastadion, Berlin: Not Really Sustainable, But Beautiful Forever |url=https://www.musikexpress.de/coldplay-im-olympiastadion-berlin-nicht-wirklich-nachhaltig-aber-fuer-immer-schoen-2172295/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220711123150/https://www.musikexpress.de/coldplay-im-olympiastadion-berlin-nicht-wirklich-nachhaltig-aber-fuer-immer-schoen-2172295/ |archive-date=11 July 2022 |access-date=11 July 2022 |website=Musikexpress |language=de}}
* {{Cite web |date=17 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Sorprendió en Bogotá: Cantó Reguetón de J Balvin y en Lenguaje de Señas |trans-title=Coldplay Surprises in Bogotá: They Sang J Balvin's Reggaeton and in Sign Language |url=https://www.elcolombiano.com/cultura/concierto-de-coldplay-sorprende-con-lenguaje-de-senas-y-regueton-de-j-balvin-en-bogota-LK18650586 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220918120819/https://www.elcolombiano.com/cultura/concierto-de-coldplay-sorprende-con-lenguaje-de-senas-y-regueton-de-j-balvin-en-bogota-LK18650586 |archive-date=18 September 2022 |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=El Colombiano |language=es}}</ref>
* ""Sunrise"",<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1557376121271885826|user=coldplay|title=The mighty @davrossimusic graced our stage in Brussels for Sunrise, which he arranged and performed on Everyday Life.|author=Coldplay|date=10 August 2022|access-date=11 August 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220811031427/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1557376121271885826|archive-date=11 August 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> ""[[Pino Daniele|Napule È]]"",<ref name=""NAPOLAY"">{{Cite web |date=22 June 2023 |title=Coldplay, nel Secondo Show a Napoli Cambia la Scaletta |trans-title=Coldplay, the Set List Changes at the Second Show in Naples |url=https://www.ilmattino.it/spettacoli/musica/coldplay_trouble_secondo_show_napoli-7478162.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230622214131/https://www.ilmattino.it/spettacoli/musica/coldplay_trouble_secondo_show_napoli-7478162.html |archive-date=22 June 2023 |access-date=22 June 2023 |website=Il Mattino |language=it}}</ref> ""[[Oh mia bela Madunina|Oh Mia Bela Madunina]]"",<ref name=""REDAZIONE"">{{Cite web |date=26 June 2023 |title=Con O Mia Bela Madunina i Coldplay Omaggiano Anche Milano |trans-title=With O Mia Bela Madunina Coldplay Also Pay Homage to Milan |url=https://www.rockol.it/news-738131/coldplay-live-milano-chris-martin-canta-o-mia-bela-madunina |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627131739/https://www.rockol.it/news-738131/coldplay-live-milano-chris-martin-canta-o-mia-bela-madunina |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=26 June 2023 |website=Rockol |language=it}}</ref> and ""[[Eppure sentire (Un senso di te)|Eppure Sentire (Un Senso di Te)]]"" featured [[Davide Rossi]] on the violin in select dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2023 |title=Coldplay a Milano, Elisa Canta Eppure Sentire Insieme a Loro |trans-title=Coldplay in Milan, Elisa Sings Eppure Sentire with Them |url=https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2023/06/30/coldplay-elisa-eppure-sentire |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230703151647/https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2023/06/30/coldplay-elisa-eppure-sentire |archive-date=3 July 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=Sky TG24 |language=it}}</ref>
* ""My Universe"" and ""A Sky Full of Stars"" featured [[Max Martin]] on the tambourine in London on 13 August 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 2022 |title=Watch Coldplay Perform with Craig David at Wembley Stadium |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-coldplay-perform-with-craig-david-at-wembley-stadium-3289485 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220814130009/https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-coldplay-perform-with-craig-david-at-wembley-stadium-3289485 |archive-date=14 August 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022 |website=NME}}</ref>
* ""[[Clocks (song)|Clocks]]"" featured Benjamin Teacher on the guitar in London on 17 August 2022 plus Manchester on 3 and 4 June 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2022 |title=Londra, Buskers: Proteste Contro il Divieto di Esibirsi nei Giorni di Lutto |trans-title=London, Buskers: Protests Against the Ban on Performing on Days of Mourning |url=https://italia-uktv.co.uk/londra-buskers-proteste-contro-il-divieto-di-esibirsi-nei-giorni-di-lutto/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230727131716/https://italia-uktv.co.uk/londra-buskers-proteste-contro-il-divieto-di-esibirsi-nei-giorni-di-lutto/ |archive-date=27 July 2023 |access-date=27 July 2023 |website=Italia UK TV |language=it}}
* {{Cite web |date=30 May 2023 |title=Something Special This Weekend Coming |url=https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=1268555767294258&set=pb.100024195406015.-2207520000. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230727132326/https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=1268555767294258&set=pb.100024195406015.-2207520000. |archive-date=27 July 2023 |access-date=27 July 2023 |website=Benjamin Teacher |via=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
* ""A Sky Full of Stars"" featured [[Simon Pegg]] on the tambourine in London on 20 August 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2022 |title=Watch Coldplay Perform Kate Bush and ABBA Covers with Alan Partridge and Jacob Collier |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-coldplay-perform-kate-bush-and-abba-covers-with-alan-partridge-and-jacob-collier-3294491 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220821130421/https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-coldplay-perform-kate-bush-and-abba-covers-with-alan-partridge-and-jacob-collier-3294491 |archive-date=21 August 2022 |access-date=21 August 2022 |website=NME}}</ref>
* ""[[Viva la Vida]]"" was performed twice in Rio de Janeiro on 10 September 2022.<ref name=""CRUZ"" />
* ""[[Fix You]]"" and ""Biutyful"" featured percussionists or choirs in select dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 March 2023 |title=Show do Coldplay Tem Participação da Bateria do Curso de Direito da USP |trans-title=Coldplay's Show Features USP's Law School Bateria |url=https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2023/03/19/interna_cultura,1470675/show-do-coldplay-tem-participacao-da-bateria-do-curso-de-direito-da-usp.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230323200859/https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2023/03/19/interna_cultura,1470675/show-do-coldplay-tem-participacao-da-bateria-do-curso-de-direito-da-usp.shtml |archive-date=23 March 2023 |access-date=23 March 2023 |website=Estado de Minas |language=pt}}
* {{Cite web |date=3 October 2023 |title=AGT Finalists Mzansi Youth Choir Performs an Intimate Rendition of Fix You Alongside Coldplay |url=https://talentrecap.com/agt-finalists-mzansi-youth-choir-performs-an-intimate-rendition-of-fix-you-alongside-coldplay/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008044354/https://talentrecap.com/agt-finalists-mzansi-youth-choir-performs-an-intimate-rendition-of-fix-you-alongside-coldplay/ |archive-date=8 October 2023 |access-date=8 October 2023 |website=Talent Recap}}</ref>
* ""Cry Cry Cry"" was performed during Act IV in select dates, featuring [[Lauren Mayberry]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 July 2023 |title=Interview with Lauren from Chvrches |url=https://www.coldplay.com/interview-with-lauren-from-chvrches/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230707172916/https://www.coldplay.com/interview-with-lauren-from-chvrches/ |archive-date=7 July 2023 |access-date=7 July 2023 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>
* ""A Wave"" was replaced by a recording session for ""One World"" in São Paulo on 18 March and Rio de Janeiro on 28 March 2023.<ref name=""EXPRESSO"">{{Cite web |date=21 May 2023 |title=Hoje é o Dia do Último Concerto dos Coldplay: Estas São as Canções que Eles Ainda Não Tocaram em Coimbra |trans-title=Today Is the Day of Coldplay's Last Concert: These Are the Songs They Have Not Played in Coimbra Yet |url=https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-21-Hoje-e-o-dia-do-ultimo-concerto-dos-Coldplay-estas-sao-as-cancoes-que-eles-ainda-nao-tocaram-em-Coimbra-8ef98e66 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210011301/https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-21-Hoje-e-o-dia-do-ultimo-concerto-dos-Coldplay-estas-sao-as-cancoes-que-eles-ainda-nao-tocaram-em-Coimbra-8ef98e66 |archive-date=10 December 2023 |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=Expresso |language=pt}}</ref>
* ""Humankind"" and ""Biutyful"" were replaced by ""Charlie Brown"" and ""Metade de Mim"" with 5ª Punkada, respectively, in Coimbra on 21 May 2023.<ref name=""CARMINHO"">{{Cite web |date=21 May 2023 |title=Coldplay em Coimbra: Carminho Subiu ao Palco para Cantar a Balada da Despedida com Chris Martin |trans-title=Coldplay in Coimbra: Carminho Took the Stage to Sing Balada da Despedida with Chris Martin |url=https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-21-Coldplay-em-Coimbra-Carminho-subiu-ao-palco-para-cantar-a-Balada-da-Despedida-com-Chris-Martin-d6f29e9d |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230522010015/https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-21-Coldplay-em-Coimbra-Carminho-subiu-ao-palco-para-cantar-a-Balada-da-Despedida-com-Chris-Martin-d6f29e9d |archive-date=22 May 2023 |access-date=22 May 2023 |website=Expresso |language=pt}}</ref>
* ""[[What's Love Got to Do with It (song)|What's Love Got to Do with It]]"" was covered during Act II in select dates, sometimes featuring Coldplay's opening acts or fans.<ref name=""SURIO"">{{Cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Épica y Buenrollismo en el Tercer Concierto de Coldplay en Barcelona |trans-title=Epicness and Good Vibes at Coldplay's Third Concert in Barcelona |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/musica/20230528/9000235/epica-buenrollismo.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230528124057/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/musica/20230528/9000235/epica-buenrollismo.html |archive-date=28 May 2023 |access-date=28 May 2023 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es}}</ref>
* ""Human Heart"" featured Collier, [[Stevie Mackey]] and [[We Are King]] in Pasadena on 30 September and 1 October 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 October 2023 |title=Music of the Spheres Tour Review: Coldplay Bring a Higher Power to the Rose Bowl |url=https://www.blastoutyourstereo.com/music-of-the-spheres-tour-coldplay-rose-bowl-review-9-30/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231002154458/https://www.blastoutyourstereo.com/music-of-the-spheres-tour-coldplay-rose-bowl-review-9-30/ |archive-date=2 October 2023 |access-date=2 October 2023 |website=Blast}}</ref>
* ""Sparks"" was followed by a recording session for an untitled song in Bocaue on 19 January 2024.<ref name=""PAGULONG"">{{Cite web |date=24 January 2024 |title=Coldplay Turns Philippine Arena Into a Beautiful Universe of Its Own |url=https://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2024/01/24/2327961/coldplay-turns-philippine-arena-beautiful-universe-its-own |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123172158/https://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2024/01/24/2327961/coldplay-turns-philippine-arena-beautiful-universe-its-own |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |website=The Philippine Star}}</ref>
* ""The Jumbotron Song"" was performed during Act IV on select dates, it consisted of Martin improvising a track based on the audience members appearing on the screens.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2024 |title=Coldplay Kickstart 6-Night Singapore Residency with Vibrant Performances and Heartfelt Connections – Photo Gallery |url=https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/coldplay-kickstart-6-night-singapore-residency-with-colourful-performances-heartfelt-connections-fans-coldplayers-jasmine-sokko-jinan-laetitia-chris-martin-national-stadium-setlist-january-2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127045641/https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/coldplay-kickstart-6-night-singapore-residency-with-colourful-performances-heartfelt-connections-fans-coldplayers-jasmine-sokko-jinan-laetitia-chris-martin-national-stadium-setlist-january-2024 |archive-date=27 January 2024 |access-date=27 January 2024 |website=Bandwagon Asia}}</ref>

=== Highlights ===
The band performed covers, invited guests and fans, wrote songs specifically for the occasion and made dedications in numerous dates, skipping to the rest of the show otherwise:

;2022
* 18 and 19 March – San José: ""Patriótica Costarricense"".<ref name=""LUNA"">{{Cite web |date=4 April 2022 |title=Coldplay y Fher de Maná Cantaron Rayando el Sol en México |trans-title=Coldplay and Fher of Maná Sing Rayando el Sol in Mexico |url=https://www.dondeir.com/musica/coldplay-fher-mana-rayando-el-sol-mexico/2022/03/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231104163306/https://www.dondeir.com/musica/coldplay-fher-mana-rayando-el-sol-mexico/2022/03/ |archive-date=4 November 2023 |access-date=4 November 2023 |website=Dónde Ir |language=es}}</ref>
* 22 March – Santo Domingo: ""[[Juan Luis Guerra|Bachata Rosa]]"".<ref name=""LUNA"" />
* 26 March – Guadalupe: ""[[Gravity (Embrace song)|Gravity]]"" with a fan and ""[[Vicente Fernández|El Corrido de Monterrey]]"".<ref name=""LUNA"" />
* 29 and 30 March – Zapopan: ""Rayando el Sol"" with [[Fher Olvera]].<ref name=""LUNA"" />
* 3 April – Mexico City: ""[[Juan Gabriel|Amor Eterno]]"".<ref name=""INFOBAE"">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2022 |title=Quién Es Huillo, el Niño Mexicano Con Autismo que Coldplay Subió al Escenario |trans-title=Who Is Huillo, the Mexican Boy with Autism That Coldplay Took to the Stage |url=https://www.infobae.com/america/mexico/2022/04/05/quien-es-huillo-el-nino-mexicano-con-autismo-que-coldplay-subio-al-escenario/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120000904/https://www.infobae.com/america/mexico/2022/04/05/quien-es-huillo-el-nino-mexicano-con-autismo-que-coldplay-subio-al-escenario/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=Infobae |language=es}}</ref>
* 4 April – Mexico City: ""Different is OK"" with Huillo.<ref name=""INFOBAE"" />
* 7 April – Mexico City: ""Green Eyes"" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=18 April 2022 |title=Coldplay – Green Eyes (Foro Sol, Mexico City, April 7th, 2022) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ud2LMcVPWD |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716223951/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ud2LMcVPWD |archive-date=16 July 2023 |access-date=16 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* 6 May – Dallas: ""Dallas Every Day"" with [[Josh Abbott Band|Preston Wait]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 November 2022 |title=How Did We Miss This Dallas Song by Coldplay? |url=https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/a-tiktok-makes-the-rounds-with-a-dallas-af-song-by-coldplay-15349009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126165143/https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/a-tiktok-makes-the-rounds-with-a-dallas-af-song-by-coldplay-15349009 |archive-date=26 January 2023 |access-date=26 January 2023 |website=Dallas Observer}}</ref>
* 8 May – Houston: ""Houston #2"".<ref name=""HPR"" />
* 12 May – Glendale: ""Phoenix, AZ"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 May 2022 |title=How Coldplay Shot a Music Video With Puppets and Still Gave Metro Phoenix a Show |url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/music/2022/05/13/coldplay-2022-tour-review-phoenix-video-shoot/9758795002/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220522022130/https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/music/2022/05/13/coldplay-2022-tour-review-phoenix-video-shoot/9758795002/ |archive-date=22 May 2022 |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=The Arizona Republic}}</ref>
* 28 and 29 May – Chicago: ""[[Superstar (Lupe Fiasco song)|Superstar]]"" with [[Lupe Fiasco]].<ref name=""FIASCO"">{{Cite magazine |date=30 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Blast Chicago Fans With Waves of Intergalactic Love at Show Featuring Hometown Superstar Lupe Fiasco |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/concerts/coldplay-chicago-soldier-field-concert-2022-tour-lupe-fiasco-1235078780/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220606134810/https://www.billboard.com/music/concerts/coldplay-chicago-soldier-field-concert-2022-tour-lupe-fiasco-1235078780/ |archive-date=6 June 2022 |access-date=6 June 2022 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref> The latter date also included ""Chicago Song"".<ref name=""FIASCO"" />
* 1 June – Landover: ""Washington, DC the Day We Got Set Free"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Bring Pop Rock with a Side of Confetti to N.J. in Huge Stadium Show |url=https://www.nj.com/entertainment/2022/06/coldplay-bring-pop-rock-with-a-side-of-confetti-to-nj-in-huge-stadium-show-review.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615225403/https://www.nj.com/entertainment/2022/06/coldplay-bring-pop-rock-with-a-side-of-confetti-to-nj-in-huge-stadium-show-review.html |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=NJ.com}}</ref>
* 4 June – East Rutherford: ""[[Can't Get You Out of My Head]]"" with [[Kylie Minogue]].<ref name=""IRVIN"">{{Cite web |date=13 June 2022 |title=Watch Coldplay Bring Kelly Rowland Onstage to Sing Destiny's Child's Independent Women in Atlanta |url=https://people.com/music/coldplay-covers-destinys-child-independent-women-with-kelly-rowland-in-atlanta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231104164142/https://people.com/music/coldplay-covers-destinys-child-independent-women-with-kelly-rowland-in-atlanta/ |archive-date=4 November 2023 |access-date=4 November 2023 |website=People}}</ref>
* 5 June – East Rutherford: ""[[Working on a Dream (song)|Working on a Dream]]"" and ""[[Dancing in the Dark (Bruce Springsteen song)|Dancing in the Dark]]"" with [[Bruce Springsteen]].<ref name=""IRVIN"" />
* 8 June – Philadelphia: ""Philadelphia Song"".<ref>{{Cite AV media|date=28 July 2022 |title=Coldplay Philadelphia Song (Improv) Live at Lincoln Financial Field, Philadelphia, PA 6/8/2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqNUO_W475I |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712030239/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqNUO_W475I |archive-date=12 July 2023 |access-date=12 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* 11 June – Atlanta: ""[[Independent Women Part I]]"" with [[Kelly Rowland]].<ref name=""IRVIN"" />
* 14 June – Tampa: ""Tampa Bay on a Tuesday"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Bathes Packed Tampa Stadium in Light, Color and Fun |url=https://www.tampabay.com/life-culture/music/music-reviews/2022/06/15/coldplay-bathes-packed-tampa-stadium-in-light-color-and-fun/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615220417/https://www.tampabay.com/life-culture/music/music-reviews/2022/06/15/coldplay-bathes-packed-tampa-stadium-in-light-color-and-fun/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Tampa Bay Times}}</ref>
* 8 July – Warsaw: ""[[Sen o Warszawie]]"" and ""[[Okean Elzy|Obiymy]]"", the latter featuring Romario Punch.<ref name=""GRZYBOWSKI"" />
* 8 August – Brussels: ""Green Eyes"" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 August 2022 |title=Beau Moment au Concert de Coldplay à Bruxelles, Chris Martin Partage une Chanson Avec une Fan Sur Scène |trans-title=Beautiful Moment at the Coldplay Concert in Brussels, Chris Martin Shares a Song with a Fan on Stage |url=https://www.lavenir.net/culture/2022/08/09/beau-moment-au-concert-de-coldplay-a-bruxelles-chris-martin-partage-une-chanson-avec-une-fan-sur-scene-video-ZX2F5MVBTVFS7PRHUT7DFJ6UTI/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809142319/https://www.lavenir.net/culture/2022/08/09/beau-moment-au-concert-de-coldplay-a-bruxelles-chris-martin-partage-une-chanson-avec-une-fan-sur-scene-video-ZX2F5MVBTVFS7PRHUT7DFJ6UTI/ |archive-date=9 August 2022 |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=L'avenir |language=fr}}</ref>
* 9 August – Brussels: ""Obiymy"" with [[Svyatoslav Vakarchuk]].<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1557383013054533645|user=s_vakarchuk|title=Dear @coldplay thank you very much for your support! @okeanelzy #Ukraine|author=Sviatoslav Vakarchuk|date=10 August 2022|access-date=11 August 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220811032628/https://twitter.com/s_vakarchuk/status/1557383013054533645|archive-date=11 August 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 12 and 13 August – London: ""Live in the Moment"" and ""[[Fill Me In]]"" with [[Craig David]] and [[Jacob Collier]].<ref name=""RICHARDS"">{{Cite web |date=22 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Bring Out Stormzy for Blinded by Your Grace, Pt. 1 Performance at Final Wembley Show |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-bring-out-stormzy-for-blinded-by-your-grace-pt-1-performance-at-final-wembley-show-3295072 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220822131628/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-bring-out-stormzy-for-blinded-by-your-grace-pt-1-performance-at-final-wembley-show-3295072 |archive-date=22 August 2022 |access-date=22 August 2022 |website=NME}}</ref> The latter was replaced by ""[[7 Days (Craig David song)|7 Days]]"" on the second night.<ref name=""RICHARDS"" />
* 16 August – London: ""[[Torn (Ednaswap song)#Natalie Imbruglia version|Torn]]"" and ""[[Summer Nights (Grease song)|Summer Nights]]"" with [[Natalie Imbruglia]] and Collier.<ref name=""RICHARDS"" />
* 17 August – London: ""[[Pure Shores]]"" and ""[[Never Ever (All Saints song)|Never Ever]]"" with [[Shaznay Lewis]] and Collier.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 August 2022 |title=Watch Coldplay Cover All Saints Songs with Shaznay Lewis at Wembley Stadium Gig |url=https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/news/watch-coldplay-cover-all-saints-songs-with-shaznay-lewis-at-wembley-stadium-gig-21567/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220818115907/https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/news/watch-coldplay-cover-all-saints-songs-with-shaznay-lewis-at-wembley-stadium-gig-21567/ |archive-date=18 August 2022 |access-date=18 August 2022 |website=Rolling Stone UK}}</ref>
* 20 August – London: ""[[Running Up That Hill]]"" and ""[[Knowing Me, Knowing You]]"" with [[Steve Coogan]] and Collier.<ref name=""RUTH"" />
* 21 August – London: ""Blinded by Your Grace, Pt. 1"" with [[Stormzy]] and Collier.<ref name=""RICHARDS"" />
* 23 and 24 August – Glasgow: ""[[A Girl Like You (Edwyn Collins song)|A Girl Like You]]"" with [[Edwyn Collins]].<ref name=""SHEPHERD"" />
* 13 September – Lima: ""Perú Estoy Enamorado with You"" and ""Til Kingdom Come"" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 September 2022 |title=Coldplay: Los 10 Mejores Momentos que Dejaron los Dos Conciertos de la Banda en Lima |trans-title=Coldplay: The 10 Best Moments Left by the Band's Two Concerts in Lima |url=https://www.infobae.com/america/peru/2022/09/15/coldplay-los-10-mejores-momentos-que-dejaron-los-dos-conciertos-de-la-banda-en-lima/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231231024519/https://www.infobae.com/america/peru/2022/09/15/coldplay-los-10-mejores-momentos-que-dejaron-los-dos-conciertos-de-la-banda-en-lima/ |archive-date=31 December 2023 |access-date=31 December 2023 |website=Infobae |language=es}}</ref>
* 16 September – Bogotá: ""[[La Canción]]"".<ref name=""TENDENCIAS"">{{Cite web |date=18 September 2022 |title=La Canción de Manuel Turizo con Chris Martin en Concierto de Coldplay |trans-title=Manuel Turizo's Song with Chris Martin at Coldplay's Concert |url=https://www.eltiempo.com/cultura/gente/coldplay-en-bogota-manuel-turizo-canto-bachata-con-chris-martin-703298 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220918120623/https://www.eltiempo.com/cultura/gente/coldplay-en-bogota-manuel-turizo-canto-bachata-con-chris-martin-703298 |archive-date=18 September 2022 |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=El Tiempo |language=es}}</ref>
* 17 September – Bogotá: ""La Bachata"" with [[Manuel Turizo]].<ref name=""TENDENCIAS"" />
* 28 and 29 October – Buenos Aires: ""[[Baraye]]"" with [[Golshifteh Farahani]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 October 2022 |title=Coldplay Perform Baraye in Farsi with Iranian Actress Golshifteh Farahani |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music-stage/2022/10/30/coldplay-perform-baraye-in-farsi-with-iranian-actress-golshifteh-farahani/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221031122627/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music-stage/2022/10/30/coldplay-perform-baraye-in-farsi-with-iranian-actress-golshifteh-farahani/ |archive-date=31 October 2022 |access-date=31 October 2022 |website=The National}}</ref> The former date also featured ""[[The Astronaut (song)|The Astronaut]]"" with [[Jin (singer)|Jin]].<ref name=""TELAM"">{{Cite web |date=9 November 2022 |title=Coldplay Terminó Con Sus Shows en River: Invitados y Agradecimiento a los Fans |trans-title=Coldplay Finished Their Shows at River: Guests and Appreciation to Fans |url=https://tn.com.ar/musica/noticias/2022/11/09/coldplay-termino-con-sus-shows-en-river-invitados-y-agradecimiento-a-los-fans/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228225750/https://tn.com.ar/musica/noticias/2022/11/09/coldplay-termino-con-sus-shows-en-river-invitados-y-agradecimiento-a-los-fans/ |archive-date=28 December 2023 |access-date=28 December 2023 |website=TN |language=es}}</ref>
* 1 and 2 November – Buenos Aires: ""[[Let Somebody Go]]"" and ""Carne y Hueso"" with [[Tini (singer)|Tini]].<ref name=""TELAM"" />
* 7 November – Buenos Aires: ""Persiana Americana"" and ""[[Yellow (Coldplay song)|Yellow]]"" with [[Charly Alberti]] and [[Zeta Bosio]].<ref name=""TELAM"" />
* 8 November – Buenos Aires: ""La Bachata"" with Turizo, then Alberti and Bosio again.<ref name=""TELAM"" />

;2023
* 10 and 11 March – São Paulo: ""Amiga da Minha Mulher"" with [[Seu Jorge]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 March 2023 |title=Watch Coldplay Perform with Seu Jorge in São Paulo |url=https://www.stereogum.com/2216629/coldplay-seu-jorge-san-paulo-performance/news/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230312202020/https://www.stereogum.com/2216629/coldplay-seu-jorge-san-paulo-performance/news/ |archive-date=12 March 2023 |access-date=12 March 2023 |website=Stereogum}}</ref> The latter date also featured ""[[Gravity (Embrace song)|Gravity]]"" with a fan.<ref name=""EXPRESSO"" />
* 13 March – São Paulo: ""[[Charlie Brown (Coldplay song)|Charlie Brown]]"" and ""[[Daddy (Coldplay song)|Daddy]]"" with fans.<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=14 March 2023 |title=Coldplay – Charlie Brown (Live in São Paulo 2023) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=No3zQaKyoBw |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314213704/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=No3zQaKyoBw |archive-date=14 March 2023 |access-date=14 March 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}
* {{Cite web |date=15 March 2023 |title=Adolescente de Curitiba Toca Daddy com Coldplay em SP e Homenageia Pai que Faleceu de Covid: Estava Comigo Ali |trans-title=Teenager from Curitiba Plays Daddy with Coldplay in São Paulo and Honors Father Who Died of Covid: He was with Me There |url=https://g1.globo.com/pr/parana/noticia/2023/03/15/adolescente-de-curitiba-toca-daddy-com-coldplay-em-sp-e-homenageia-pai-que-morreu-de-covid-estava-comigo-ali.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230316180309/https://g1.globo.com/pr/parana/noticia/2023/03/15/adolescente-de-curitiba-toca-daddy-com-coldplay-em-sp-e-homenageia-pai-que-morreu-de-covid-estava-comigo-ali.ghtml |archive-date=16 March 2023 |access-date=16 March 2023 |website=G1 |language=pt}}</ref>
* 14 March – São Paulo: ""[[Magic (Coldplay song)|Magic]]"" and ""Quando Você Passa"" with [[Sandy (singer)|Sandy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 March 2023 |title=Após Seu Jorge, Coldplay Surpreende Fãs e Chama Sandy ao Palco em São Paulo |trans-title=After Seu Jorge, Coldplay Surprise Fans and Invite Sandy to the Stage in São Paulo |url=https://www.tenhomaisdiscosqueamigos.com/2023/03/15/sandy-participacao-show-coldplay/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230315193447/https://www.tenhomaisdiscosqueamigos.com/2023/03/15/sandy-participacao-show-coldplay/ |archive-date=15 March 2023 |access-date=15 March 2023 |website=Tenho Mais Discos Que Amigos! |language=pt}}</ref>
* 17 March – São Paulo: ""Everything's Not Lost"" and ""Green Eyes"" with fans.<ref name=""EXPRESSO"" />
* 18 March – São Paulo: ""Envolvidão"" with Rael and ""Quando Você Passa"" with Sandy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Canta Envolvidão com Rael em Seu Último Show da Turnê em São Paulo |trans-title=Coldplay Sing Envolvidão with Rael on Their Last Show of the Tour in São Paulo |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2023/03/coldplay-canta-envolvidao-com-rael-em-seu-ultimo-show-da-turne-em-sao-paulo.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230319023823/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2023/03/coldplay-canta-envolvidao-com-rael-em-seu-ultimo-show-da-turne-em-sao-paulo.shtml |archive-date=19 March 2023 |access-date=19 March 2023 |website=Folha de S.Paulo |language=pt}}</ref>
* 25 March – Rio de Janeiro: ""[[Strawberry Swing]]"" with fans, then ""Todo Homem"" with [[Moreno Veloso|Moreno]], Zeca and Tom Veloso.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 March 2023 |title=Em Primeiro Show no Rio, Coldplay Canta com Filhos de Caetano Veloso |trans-title=At First Show in Rio, Coldplay Sings with the Sons of Caetano Veloso |url=https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2023/03/26/em-primeiro-show-no-rio-coldplay-canta-com-filhos-de-caetano-veloso.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230326143252/https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2023/03/26/em-primeiro-show-no-rio-coldplay-canta-com-filhos-de-caetano-veloso.htm |archive-date=26 March 2023 |access-date=26 March 2023 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref>
* 26 March – Rio de Janeiro: ""Green Eyes"" with a fan, then Seu Jorge again.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Leva Engenhão a Viagem Intergaláctica com Mensagem Sustentável |trans-title=Coldplay Takes Engenhão to Intergalactic Trip with Sustainability Message |url=https://www.folhape.com.br/cultura/coldplay-leva-engenhao-a-viagem-intergalactica-com-mensagem/263632/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230327145018/https://www.folhape.com.br/cultura/coldplay-leva-engenhao-a-viagem-intergalactica-com-mensagem/263632/ |archive-date=27 March 2023 |access-date=27 March 2023 |website=Folha de Pernambuco |language=pt}}</ref>
* 28 March – Rio de Janeiro: ""[[Champion of the World (song)|Champion of the World]]"" with fans, Seu Jorge and the Velosos again, then ""Maria Maria"" with [[Milton Nascimento]] and [[Hamilton de Holanda]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Recebe Milton Nascimento, Seu Jorge e Outros Convidados no Último Show de Turnê no Brasil |trans-title=Coldplay Host Milton Nascimento, Seu Jorge and Other Guests at Last Tour Show in Brazil |url=https://g1.globo.com/rj/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2023/03/29/coldplay-encerra-serie-de-shows-no-brasil-recebendo-convidados-no-rio.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230329114814/https://g1.globo.com/rj/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2023/03/29/coldplay-encerra-serie-de-shows-no-brasil-recebendo-convidados-no-rio.ghtml |archive-date=29 March 2023 |access-date=29 March 2023 |website=G1 |language=pt}}</ref>
* 17 May – Coimbra: ""[[The Hardest Part (Coldplay song)|The Hardest Part]]"" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Coldplay, Primeiro Round em Coimbra: Chuva de Balões, Luzes, Confetti e Hits |trans-title=Coldplay, First Round in Coimbra: Rain of Balloons, Lights, Confetti and Hits |url=https://www.publico.pt/2023/05/18/culturaipsilon/reportagem/coldplay-round-coimbra-chuva-baloes-luzes-confetti-hits-2050100 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127205008/https://www.publico.pt/2023/05/18/culturaipsilon/reportagem/coldplay-round-coimbra-chuva-baloes-luzes-confetti-hits-2050100 |archive-date=27 January 2024 |access-date=27 January 2024 |website=Público |language=pt}}</ref>
* 20 May – Coimbra: ""[[Violet Hill]]"" with a dedication to Apple Martin.<ref name=""EXPRESSO"" />
* 21 May – Coimbra: ""Como Tu"" with [[Bárbara Bandeira]] and Ivandro.<ref name=""CARMINHO"" />
* 24 May – Barcelona: ""[[Proud Mary]]"" with the [[Gipsy Kings]].<ref name=""CATALUNYA"">{{Cite web |date=25 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Cautiva en un Estadi Olímpic con 55,000 Personas en su Primera Noche de Cuatro en Barcelona |trans-title=Coldplay Captivate in an Estadi Olímpic with 55,000 People on Their First Night of Four in Barcelona |url=https://www.europapress.es/catalunya/noticia-coldplay-cautiva-estadi-olimpic-55000-personas-primera-noche-cuatro-barcelona-20230525002002.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230525111737/https://www.europapress.es/catalunya/noticia-coldplay-cautiva-estadi-olimpic-55000-personas-primera-noche-cuatro-barcelona-20230525002002.html |archive-date=25 May 2023 |access-date=25 May 2023 |website=Europa Press |language=es}}</ref>
* 27 May – Barcelona: ""Til Kingdom Come"" with a fan and ""A Mi Manera"" with the Gipsy Kings.<ref name=""SURIO"" />
* 31 May – Manchester: ""Green Eyes"" with a fan.<ref name=""BOURNE"" />
* 1 June – Manchester: ""[[Everyday Life (song)|Everyday Life]]"" with a fan, then ""1989"" and ""Buss Down"" with [[Aitch (rapper)|Aitch]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2023 |title=Watch Aitch Join Coldplay on Stage at Manchester Etihad Gig |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-aitch-join-coldplay-on-stage-at-manchester-etihad-gig-footage-setlist-3450999 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216211635/https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-aitch-join-coldplay-on-stage-at-manchester-etihad-gig-footage-setlist-3450999 |archive-date=16 December 2023 |access-date=16 December 2023 |website=NME}}</ref>
* 3 June – Manchester: ""A Rush of Blood to the Head"" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1665103600375197697|user=coldplay|title=A Rush Of Blood To The Head #ColdplayManchester|author=Coldplay|date=3 June 2023|access-date=3 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603211207/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1665103600375197697|archive-date=3 June 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 6 June – Cardiff: ""Green Eyes"" with Kris Williams, ""[[Dakota (song)|Dakota]]"" with [[Kelly Jones]] and ""[[Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]"" with the Bridgend Male Choir.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2023 |title=Kelly Jones Joins Coldplay for First Night of Huge Principality Stadium Gigs in Surprise |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/kelly-jones-joins-coldplay-first-27069665 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230606223528/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/kelly-jones-joins-coldplay-first-27069665 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |access-date=6 June 2023 |website=Wales Online}}</ref>
* 7 June – Cardiff: ""Charlie Brown"" with fans, then Jones and the Bridgend Male Choir again.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=The Beautiful Moment Coldplay's Chris Martin Played Charlie Brown on Piano and Sang for a Woman Who Had Cancer |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/beautiful-moment-coldplays-chris-martin-27078945 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230608131137/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/beautiful-moment-coldplays-chris-martin-27078945 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |website=Wales Online}}
* {{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Fans Praise Coldplay for Epic Two-Night Concert in Cardiff That Had Respect for Welsh Culture |url=https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2023-06-08/coldplay-was-a-night-full-of-light-and-love-with-a-respect-for-wales |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230608131759/https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2023-06-08/coldplay-was-a-night-full-of-light-and-love-with-a-respect-for-wales |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |website=ITV News}}</ref>
* 21 and 22 June – Naples: ""[[Everglow (song)|Everglow]]"" with a fan and ""[[Pino Daniele|Napule È]]"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 June 2023 |title=I Coldplay a Napoli Omaggiano Pino Daniele |trans-title=Coldplay in Naples Pay Homage to Pino Daniele |url=https://www.rockol.it/news-738064/coldplay-live-napoli-al-maradona-cover-pino-daniele-napule-e |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230622113611/https://www.rockol.it/news-738064/coldplay-live-napoli-al-maradona-cover-pino-daniele-napule-e |archive-date=22 June 2023 |access-date=22 June 2023 |website=Rockol |language=it}}</ref> The former was replaced by ""[[Trouble (Coldplay song)|Trouble]]"" on the second night.<ref name=""NAPOLAY"" />
* 26 June – Milan: ""Politik"" with a fan, then ""[[Diamante (Zucchero Fornaciari song)|Diamante]]"" and ""Hey Man"" with [[Zucchero Fornaciari|Zucchero]].<ref name=""SUGAR"">{{Cite web |date=27 June 2023 |title=I Coldplay alla Scala del Pop (con l'Aiuto di Zucchero) |trans-title=Coldplay at the Ladder of Pop (with Help from Zucchero) |url=https://www.rockol.it/news-738149/coldplay-a-san-siro-zucchero-duetto-recensione-scaletta-video |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230627132623/https://www.rockol.it/news-738149/coldplay-a-san-siro-zucchero-duetto-recensione-scaletta-video |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=27 June 2023 |website=Rockol |language=it}}</ref>
* 28 June – Milan: ""Til Kingdom Come"" with a fan.<ref name=""CONIGLIO"">{{Cite web |date=30 June 2023 |title=Coldplay – Live @ San Siro (Milano, 25 & 29/07/2023) |trans-title=Coldplay – Live @ San Siro (Milan, 25 & 29/07/2023) |url=https://www.indieforbunnies.com/2023/06/30/coldplay-live-san-siro-milano-25-29-07-2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230703151650/https://www.indieforbunnies.com/2023/06/30/coldplay-live-san-siro-milano-25-29-07-2023/ |archive-date=3 July 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=Indie for Bunnies |language=it}}</ref>
* 29 June – Milan: ""Swallowed in the Sea"" with a fan and ""[[Eppure sentire (Un senso di te)|Eppure Sentire (Un Senso di Te)]]"" with [[Elisa (Italian singer)|Elisa]].<ref name=""CONIGLIO"" />
* 1 and 2 July – Zürich: ""Til Kingdom Come"" with fans and ""[[Your Song]]"".<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=2 July 2023 |title=Coldplay – Til Kingdom Come – Zürich 01/07/2023 (Chris Invites Guests from the Crowd to Sing Along) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7EsaHhmWlg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702204515/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7EsaHhmWlg |archive-date=2 July 2023 |access-date=2 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}
* {{Cite web |date=1 July 2023 |title=So Spektakulär War das Coldplay-Konzert in Zürich |trans-title=That's How Spectacular the Coldplay Concert in Zürich Was |url=https://www.blick.ch/people-tv/schweiz/ceos-freuen-sich-auf-indi-rock-band-im-zuercher-letzigrund-coldplay-heizt-wirtschaftselite-ein-id18716033.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230702003117/https://www.blick.ch/people-tv/schweiz/ceos-freuen-sich-auf-indi-rock-band-im-zuercher-letzigrund-coldplay-heizt-wirtschaftselite-ein-id18716033.html |archive-date=2 July 2023 |access-date=2 July 2023 |website=Blick |language=de}}</ref> The former was replaced by ""Everglow"" on the second night.<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=2 July 2023 |title=[4K] Coldplay – Everglow w/ Fans on Stage (Live @ Letzigrund Stadion, Zürich 02-07-2023) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAcc2AHEFkA |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703030317/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAcc2AHEFkA |archive-date=3 July 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* 5 and 6 July – Copenhagen: ""Daddy"" with a fan and ""[[Der er et yndigt land|Der er et Yndigt Land]]"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Forener Musik, Mennesker og Fællesskab i Park |trans-title=Coldplay Unites Music, People and Community in the Park |url=https://poplish.dk/2023/07/06/coldplay-forener-musik-mennesker-og-faellesskab-i-parken/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230706114101/https://poplish.dk/2023/07/06/coldplay-forener-musik-mennesker-og-faellesskab-i-parken/ |archive-date=6 July 2023 |access-date=6 July 2023 |website=Poplish |language=da}}</ref> The former was replaced by ""Trouble"" on the second night.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1677067709110972417|user=coldplay|title=Trouble #ColdplayCopenhagen|author=Coldplay|date=6 July 2023|access-date=7 July 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230707021205/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1677067709110972417|archive-date=7 July 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 8 July – Gothenburg: ""[[Rocket Man (song)|Rocket Man]]"", video call with [[Elton John]] and ""Let Somebody Go"" with a dedication to [[Avicii]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 July 2023 |title=Varm och Vänlig Ullevi-Triumf för Coldplay |trans-title=Warm and Friendly Ullevi Triumph for Coldplay |url=https://www.aftonbladet.se/nojesbladet/musik/a/Mov81R/coldplay-recension-8-juli-pa-ullevi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230708222602/https://www.aftonbladet.se/nojesbladet/musik/a/Mov81R/coldplay-recension-8-juli-pa-ullevi |archive-date=8 July 2023 |access-date=8 July 2023 |website=Aftonbladet |language=sv}}</ref>
* 9 July – Gothenburg: ""[[Everybody (Backstreet's Back)]]"" and ""[[A Sky Full of Stars]]"" with a dedication to Avicii.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 July 2023 |title=Recension: Coldplay, Ullevi – Söndag 9 Juli |trans-title=Review: Coldplay, Ullevi – Sunday 9 July |url=https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-söndag-9-juli-1.104450909 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230709220640/https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-s%C3%B6ndag-9-juli-1.104450909 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |access-date=9 July 2023 |website=Göteborgs-Posten |language=sv}}</ref>
* 11 July – Gothenburg: ""Everything's Not Lost"" with fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 July 2023 |title=Recension: Coldplay, Ullevi, Tisdag – Recension Låt för Låt |trans-title=Review: Coldplay, Ullevi, Tuesday – Review Song by Song |url=https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-tisdag-recension-låt-för-låt-1.104651365 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230712055843/https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-tisdag-recension-l%C3%A5t-f%C3%B6r-l%C3%A5t-1.104651365 |archive-date=12 July 2023 |access-date=12 July 2023 |website=Göteborgs-Posten |language=sv}}</ref>
* 12 July – Gothenburg: Improvised birthday song with fans.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1679250532693622785|user=coldplay|title=Happy birthday Jennifer #ColdplayGothenburg|author=Coldplay|date=12 July 2023|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230713022404/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1679250532693622785|archive-date=13 July 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 16 July – Amsterdam: ""[[Barbie Girl]]"" with fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Sorprende al Público con un Cover Inesperado de Barbie Girl en Concierto |trans-title=Coldplay Surprise the Public with an Unexpected Cover of Barbie Girl in Concert |url=https://www.rockandpop.cl/2023/07/coldplay-sorprende-al-publico-con-un-cover-inesperado-de-barbie-girl-en-concierto/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230717020446/https://www.rockandpop.cl/2023/07/coldplay-sorprende-al-publico-con-un-cover-inesperado-de-barbie-girl-en-concierto/ |archive-date=17 July 2023 |access-date=17 July 2023 |website=Rock & Pop |language=es}}</ref>
* 19 July – Amsterdam: ""Daddy"" with fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2023 |title=Live Blog from Amsterdam |url=https://www.coldplay.com/live-blog-from-amsterdam-on-wednesday/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230719232602/https://www.coldplay.com/live-blog-from-amsterdam-on-wednesday/ |archive-date=19 July 2023 |access-date=19 July 2023 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>
* 22 September – Vancouver: ""[[In My Place]]"" with fans and ""[[(Everything I Do) I Do It for You]]"" with [[Bryan Adams]].<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=23 September 2023 |title=Coldplay – In My Place feat. Fan + Husband @ Vancouver BC Place 09/22/23 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NCW7-s4sUdE |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925021256/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NCW7-s4sUdE |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=25 September 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}
* {{Cite web |date=23 September 2023 |title=Iconic Canadian Singer Surprises Fans at Vancouver Coldplay Concert |url=https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/bryan-adams-vancouver-coldplay-concert |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230923193737/https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/bryan-adams-vancouver-coldplay-concert |archive-date=23 September 2023 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Daily Hive}}</ref>
* 23 September – Vancouver: Improvised birthday song with fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 September 2023 |title=Coldplay Gives Young Fan Unforgettable Birthday Gift During Vancouver Concert |url=https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/coldplay-young-fan-birthday-song |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230927025805/https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/coldplay-young-fan-birthday-song |archive-date=27 September 2023 |access-date=27 September 2023 |website=Daily Hive}}</ref>
* 28 September – San Diego: ""Abantabani"" with the Mzansi Youth Choir.<ref name=""ZULU"">{{Cite web |date=8 November 2023 |title=South Africa's Most Talented Youth Choir Performing in Durban |url=https://www.citizen.co.za/berea-mail/news-headlines/2023/11/08/south-africas-most-talented-youth-choir-performing-in-durban/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231108121908/https://www.citizen.co.za/berea-mail/news-headlines/2023/11/08/south-africas-most-talented-youth-choir-performing-in-durban/ |archive-date=8 November 2023 |access-date=8 November 2023 |website=The Citizen}}</ref>
* 30 September – Pasadena: The Mzansi Youth Choir again.<ref name=""ZULU"" />
* 6 November – Tokyo: ""The Astronaut"" with a dedication to Jin.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 November 2023 |title=Watch Coldplay's Acoustic Cover of The Astronaut by BTS' Jin |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-perform-acoustic-cover-the-astronaut-bts-jin-3532619 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231107154916/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-perform-acoustic-cover-the-astronaut-bts-jin-3532619 |archive-date=7 November 2023 |access-date=7 November 2023 |website=NME}}</ref>
* 11 November – Kaohsiung: ""In My Place"" with fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 高雄演唱會「飆台語」問1句話！讚台灣是「美麗的國家」 |trans-title=Coldplay Ask a Question in Taiwanese at Kaohsiung Concert! Praise Taiwan as a Beautiful Country |url=https://www.setn.com/news.aspx?newsid=1381828 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231112035752/https://www.setn.com/news.aspx?newsid=1381828 |archive-date=12 November 2023 |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=SETN |language=zh}}</ref>
* 15 November – Jakarta: ""Senja Teduh Pelita"" with [[Maliq & D'Essentials|Maliq & D'essentials]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=Maliq & D'essentials Jadi Penampil Kejutan di Konser Coldplay Jakarta |trans-title=Maliq & D'essentials Become Surprise Performers at Coldplay Jakarta Concert |url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20231116023513-227-1024842/maliq-dessentials-jadi-penampil-kejutan-di-konser-coldplay-jakarta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231115235028/https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20231116023513-227-1024842/maliq-dessentials-jadi-penampil-kejutan-di-konser-coldplay-jakarta |archive-date=15 November 2023 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=CNN Indonesia |language=id}}</ref>
* 18 November – Perth: ""Song for Australia"".<ref name=""KANE"">{{Cite web |date=20 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Music of the Spheres 2023 Australian Tour Setlists |url=https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-2023-australian-tour-setlists/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120000042/https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-2023-australian-tour-setlists/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=Music Feeds}}</ref>
* 19 November – Perth: ""Song for Shane"".<ref name=""KANE"" />
* 22 November – Kuala Lumpur: ""Sparks"" with a dedication to a dead fan and ""Malaysian Rain"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 November 2023 |title=It Actually Happened, Coldplay Performed Here in Malaysia! |url=https://www.therakyatpost.com/fun/2023/11/23/it-actually-happened-coldplay-performed-here-in-malaysia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123214415/https://www.therakyatpost.com/fun/2023/11/23/it-actually-happened-coldplay-performed-here-in-malaysia/ |archive-date=23 November 2023 |access-date=23 November 2023 |website=The Rakyat Post}}</ref>

;2024
* 19 January – Bocaue: ""Raining in Manila"" with [[Lola Amour]].<ref name=""PAGULONG"" />
* 20 January – Bocaue: ""Local Traffic Song"" and ""[[Uhaw]]"" with [[Dilaw]].<ref name=""PAGULONG"" />
* 24 January – Singapore: ""Us Against the World"" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1750181939879760275 |user=coldplayaccess |title=Setlist #ColdplaySingapore 2/6 |author=Coldplay Access |date=24 January 2024 |access-date=27 January 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240127053905/https://twitter.com/coldplayaccess/status/1750181939879760275 |archive-date=27 January 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* 27 January – Singapore: ""Charlie Brown"" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1751251606572618100 |user=coldplayaccess |title=Setlist #ColdplaySingapore 4/6 |author=Coldplay Access |date=27 January 2024 |access-date=27 January 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240127155447/https://twitter.com/coldplayaccess/status/1751251606572618100 |archive-date=27 January 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* 4 February – Bangkok: ""Warning Sign"" with a fan and ""A Moment"" with Zweed N' Roll.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2024 |title= |script-title=th:รีวิวคอนเสิร์ต Coldplay Live in Bangkok 2024 |trans-title=Coldplay Live in Bangkok 2024 Concert Review |url=https://spacebar.th/culture/space-review-coldplay-live-in-bangkok-2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240205154648/https://spacebar.th/culture/space-review-coldplay-live-in-bangkok-2024 |archive-date=5 February 2024 |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=Spacebar |language=th}}</ref>

;Recurrent
<!-- The following songs have been performed three or more times in the same city. Do not add songs which were only played twice. -->

* Buenos Aires – ""[[De Música Ligera]]"" on all dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2022 |title=En Una Galaxia Muy Lejana: Cómo Fue El Primer Show de La Residencia de Coldplay en Buenos Aires |trans-title=In a Very Distant Galaxy: How the First Show of Coldplay's Buenos Aires Residency Went |url=https://es.rollingstone.com/en-una-galaxia-muy-lejana-como-fue-el-primer-show-de-la-residencia-de-coldplay-en-buenos-aires-slug/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221026185636/https://es.rollingstone.com/en-una-galaxia-muy-lejana-como-fue-el-primer-show-de-la-residencia-de-coldplay-en-buenos-aires-slug/ |archive-date=26 October 2022 |access-date=26 October 2022 |website=Rolling Stone Argentina |language=es}}</ref> The song featured Alberti and Bosio on the last two nights.<ref name=""TELAM"" />
* Coimbra – ""[[Fernando Machado Soares|Balada da Despedida]]"" on all dates.<ref name=""CARMINHO"" /> The song featured Bandeira on the last two nights and [[Carminho]] joined her for the final one.<ref name=""CARMINHO"" />
* Barcelona – ""[[Bamboléo]]"" and ""[[Nel blu, dipinto di blu (song)|Volare]]"" with the Gipsy Kings on all dates.<ref name=""CATALUNYA"" />
* Manchester – ""[[Sit Down (song)|Sit Down]]"" on all dates.<ref name=""BOURNE"" /> The song featured [[Tim Booth]] on the last two nights.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 June 2023 |title=Coldplay: Vocalista dos James Canta Sit Down com Chris Martin Durante Concert |trans-title=Coldplay: James Vocalist Sings Sit Down with Chris Martin During Concert |url=https://mag.sapo.pt/musica/artigos/coldplay-vocalista-dos-james-canta-sit-down-com-chris-martin-durante-concerto |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230604181626/https://mag.sapo.pt/musica/artigos/coldplay-vocalista-dos-james-canta-sit-down-com-chris-martin-durante-concerto |archive-date=4 June 2023 |access-date=4 June 2023 |website=SAPO |language=pt}}</ref>
* Milan – ""[[Oh mia bela Madunina|Oh Mia Bela Madunina]]"" in the first three dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2023 |title=Coldplay, il Duetto a Sorpresa con Zucchero nel Concerto a San Siro |trans-title=Coldplay, the Surprise Duet with Zucchero in the Concert at San Siro |url=https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2023/06/27/coldplay-concerto-milano-zucchero |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230627132352/https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2023/06/27/coldplay-concerto-milano-zucchero |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=27 June 2023 |website=Sky TG24 |language=it}}</ref> The song featured Zucchero on the second night.<ref name=""SUGAR"" />
* Various – ""Everglow"",<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 September 2022 |title=Cantando en Español y un Fan en el Escenario: La Segunda Noche de Coldplay en Chile |trans-title=Singing in Spanish and a Fan on the Stage: Coldplay's Second Night in Chile |url=https://www.latercera.com/culto/2022/09/22/cantando-en-espanol-y-un-fan-en-el-escenario-la-segunda-noche-de-coldplay-en-chile/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220922213125/https://www.latercera.com/culto/2022/09/22/cantando-en-espanol-y-un-fan-en-el-escenario-la-segunda-noche-de-coldplay-en-chile/ |archive-date=22 September 2022 |access-date=22 September 2022 |website=La Tercera |language=es}}
* {{Cite web |date=8 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Wins Praise at Tokyo Concert After Performing Song for Fan Who Lost Her Husband |url=https://cnalifestyle.channelnewsasia.com/entertainment/coldplay-everglow-tokyo-concert-377226 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231108023116/https://cnalifestyle.channelnewsasia.com/entertainment/coldplay-everglow-tokyo-concert-377226 |archive-date=8 November 2023 |access-date=8 November 2023 |website=CNA Lifestyle}}</ref> ""Fly On"",<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2022 |title=Chris Martin Abandons Messy Coldplay Performance |url=https://britpopnews.com/chris-martin-abandons-messy-coldplay-performance/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303211539/https://britpopnews.com/chris-martin-abandons-messy-coldplay-performance/ |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Brit Pop News}}
* {{Cite web |date=21 September 2023 |title=Review: Coldplay Shows Two Decades of Evolution at Sold-Out Seattle Concert |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/entertainment/music/coldplay-brings-evening-singalong-to-seattle/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921201312/https://www.seattletimes.com/entertainment/music/coldplay-brings-evening-singalong-to-seattle/ |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=The Seattle Times}}</ref> and ""[[Up&Up]]"" were the most frequent Songbook requests.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Pakt de Johan Cruijff Arena Van Voor Naar Achter In |trans-title=Coldplay Packs the Johan Cruyff Arena from Front to Back |url=https://www.parool.nl/kunst-media/coldplay-pakt-de-johan-cruijff-arena-van-voor-naar-achter-in~bbdd1384/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230715224551/https://www.parool.nl/kunst-media/coldplay-pakt-de-johan-cruijff-arena-van-voor-naar-achter-in~bbdd1384/ |archive-date=15 July 2023 |access-date=15 July 2023 |website=Het Parool |language=nl}}
* {{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:台上脫口中文髒話! Coldplay 接地氣粉絲嗨翻 |trans-title=Swearing in Chinese on Stage! Coldplay's Down-to-Earth Fans are Enjoying It |url=https://hk.news.yahoo.com/%E5%8F%B0%E4%B8%8A%E8%84%AB%E5%8F%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E9%AB%92%E8%A9%B1-coldplay%E6%8E%A5%E5%9C%B0%E6%B0%A3%E7%B2%89%E7%B5%B2%E5%97%A8%E7%BF%BB-075048463.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231114024410/https://hk.news.yahoo.com/%E5%8F%B0%E4%B8%8A%E8%84%AB%E5%8F%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E9%AB%92%E8%A9%B1-coldplay%E6%8E%A5%E5%9C%B0%E6%B0%A3%E7%B2%89%E7%B5%B2%E5%97%A8%E7%BF%BB-075048463.html?guccounter=1 |archive-date=14 November 2023 |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=Yahoo! News Taiwan |language=zh}}</ref>

== Tour dates ==
{| class=""wikitable plainrowheaders"" style=""text-align:center;""
|+List of 2022 concerts, showing date, city, country, venue, opening acts, attendance and gross revenue<ref name=""POLLSTAR"" />
|-
! scope=""col"" style=""width:12em;"" |Date (2022)
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |City
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |Country
! scope=""col"" style=""width:16em;"" |Venue
! scope=""col"" style=""width:11em;"" |Opening acts
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |Attendance
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |Revenue
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |18 March
| rowspan=""2"" |[[San José, Costa Rica|San José]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Costa Rica
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica (2011)|Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica]]
| rowspan=""2"" |[[H.E.R.]]<br/>[[MishCatt]]
| rowspan=""2"" |86,199 / 86,199
| rowspan=""2"" |$5,687,127
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |19 March
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |22 March
| [[Santo Domingo]]
| Dominican Republic
| [[Félix Sánchez Olympic Stadium|Estadio Olímpico Félix Sánchez]]
| H.E.R.<br/>La Marimba
| 30,524 / 30,524
| $2,571,873
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |25 March
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Guadalupe, Nuevo León|Guadalupe]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Monterrey]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan=""8"" |Mexico
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Estadio BBVA]]
| rowspan=""8"" |[[Carla Morrison]]<br/>[[DannyLux]]
| rowspan=""2"" |112,262 / 112,262
| rowspan=""2"" |$8,996,432
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |26 March
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |29 March
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Zapopan]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Guadalajara]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Estadio Akron]]
| rowspan=""2"" |90,153 / 90,153
| rowspan=""2"" |$8,190,681
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |30 March
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |3 April
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Mexico City]]
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Foro Sol]]
| rowspan=""4"" |259,591 / 259,591
| rowspan=""4"" |$19,544,924
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |4 April
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |6 April
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |7 April
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |6 May
| [[Dallas]]
| rowspan=""12"" |United States
| [[Cotton Bowl (stadium)|Cotton Bowl]]
| H.E.R.<br/>Leila Pari
| 58,669 / 58,669
| $6,065,763
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |8 May
| [[Houston]]
| [[NRG Stadium]]
| H.E.R.<br/>Alaina Castillo
| 46,959 / 46,959
| $5,413,072
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |12 May{{efn|The concert in Glendale on 12 May 2022 was originally scheduled for 3 May 2022, but it was rescheduled due to logistical reasons.<ref name=""USTOUR"">{{Cite web |date=28 January 2022 |title=Coldplay Postpones Bay Area, Los Angeles, Phoenix Stadium Shows |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2022/01/28/coldplay-postpones-bay-area-los-angeles-phoenix-stadium-shows/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220308055300/https://www.mercurynews.com/2022/01/28/coldplay-postpones-bay-area-los-angeles-phoenix-stadium-shows/ |archive-date=8 March 2022 |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=The Mercury News}}</ref>}}
| [[Glendale, Arizona|Glendale]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] in promotional material.}}
| [[State Farm Stadium]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Kacy Hill]]
| 42,849 / 42,849
| $3,542,528
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |15 May{{efn|The concert in Santa Clara on 15 May 2022 was originally scheduled for 23 April 2022, but it was rescheduled due to logistical reasons.<ref name=""USTOUR"" />}}
| [[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]]
| [[Levi's Stadium]]
| H.E.R.<br/>Bobby Gonz
| 50,791 / 50,791
| $5,861,025
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |28 May
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Chicago]]
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Soldier Field]]
| rowspan=""2"" |H.E.R.<br/>[[Drama (American band)|Drama]]
| rowspan=""2"" |107,072 / 107,072
| rowspan=""2"" |$10,969,930
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |29 May
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |1 June
| [[Landover, Maryland|Landover]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Washington, D.C.]] in promotional material.}}
| [[FedExField]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Shaed]]
| 47,133 / 47,133
| $5,196,389
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |4 June
| rowspan=""2"" |[[East Rutherford, New Jersey|East Rutherford]]
| rowspan=""2"" |[[MetLife Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |H.E.R.<br/>[[Bea Miller]]
| rowspan=""2"" |117,240 / 117,240
| rowspan=""2"" |$13,153,892
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |5 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |8 June
| [[Philadelphia]]
| [[Lincoln Financial Field]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Lizzy McAlpine]]
| 57,415 / 57,415
| $5,606,712
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |11 June
| [[Atlanta]]
| [[Mercedes-Benz Stadium]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Mariah the Scientist]]
| 54,059 / 54,059
| $5,913,613
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |14 June
| [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]
| [[Raymond James Stadium]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Gigi (Canadian band)|Gigi]]
| 55,980 / 55,980
| $6,300,175
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |2 July
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Frankfurt]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Germany
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Waldstadion (Frankfurt)|Deutsche Bank Park]]
| rowspan=""2"" |H.E.R.<br/>Alli Neumann
| rowspan=""3"" |138,282 / 138,282
| rowspan=""3"" |$13,745,935
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |3 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |5 July
| [[London Grammar]]<br/>Alli Neumann
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |8 July
| [[Warsaw]]
| Poland
| [[Stadion Narodowy|PGE Narodowy]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Mery Spolsky]]
| 57,574 / 57,574
| $4,576,813
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |10 July{{efn|name=WEES}}
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Berlin]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Germany
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Olympiastadion (Berlin)|Olympiastadion]]
| London Grammar<br/>Alli Neumann
| rowspan=""3"" |216,535 / 216,535
| rowspan=""3"" |$20,389,783
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |12 July{{efn|name=WEES}}
| rowspan=""2"" |H.E.R.<br/>Alli Neumann
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |13 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |16 July
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Paris]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan=""4"" |France
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Stade de France]]
| rowspan=""2"" |H.E.R.<br/>Gaumar
| rowspan=""4"" |318,331 / 318,331
| rowspan=""4"" |$28,035,164
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |17 July{{efn|The concert in Saint-Denis on 17 July 2022 included an audio-only broadcast for free on Coldplay's mobile tour application.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2022 |title=Live Audio Stream From Paris Through The App |url=https://www.coldplay.com/live-audio-stream-from-paris-through-the-app/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712161845/https://www.coldplay.com/live-audio-stream-from-paris-through-the-app/ |archive-date=12 July 2022 |access-date=12 July 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |19 July
| rowspan=""2"" | London Grammar<br/>[[Lous and the Yakuza]]
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |20 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |5 August
| rowspan=""4"" |[[City of Brussels|Brussels]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Belgium
| rowspan=""4"" |[[King Baudouin Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |H.E.R.<br/>Lous and the Yakuza
| rowspan=""4"" |224,719 / 224,719
| rowspan=""4"" |$20,007,105
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |6 August
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |8 August
| rowspan=""2"" |London Grammar<br/>Lous and the Yakuza
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |9 August
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |12 August
| rowspan=""6"" |[[London]]
| rowspan=""6"" |England
| rowspan=""6"" |[[Wembley Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |H.E.R.<br/>[[Griff (singer)|Griff]]
| rowspan=""6"" |464,839 / 464,839
| rowspan=""6"" |$49,209,920
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |13 August
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |16 August
| London Grammar<br/>[[Ibibio Sound Machine]]
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |17 August
| H.E.R.<br/>Ibibio Sound Machine
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |20 August
| rowspan=""2"" |London Grammar<br/>[[Laura Mvula]]
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |21 August{{efn|The concert in London on 21 August 2022 was originally scheduled for 19 August 2022, but it was rescheduled due to [[London Underground]] workers' national strike.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 August 2022 |title=19 August Wembley Show Moves To 21 August |url=https://www.coldplay.com/19-august-wembley-show-moves-to-21-august/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220803160805/https://www.coldplay.com/19-august-wembley-show-moves-to-21-august/ |archive-date=3 August 2022 |access-date=3 August 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |23 August
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Glasgow]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Scotland
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Hampden Park]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Nina Nesbitt]]
| rowspan=""2"" |106,209 / 106,209
| rowspan=""2"" |$10,402,757
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |24 August
| London Grammar<br/>Nina Nesbitt
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |10 September{{efn|The concert in Rio de Janeiro on 10 September 2022 was part of the [[Rock in Rio]] festival.<ref name=""CPRIR"" />}}
| [[Rio de Janeiro]]
| Brazil
| [[Barra Olympic Park]]
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" | 13 September{{efn|The concert in Lima on 13 September 2022 was originally scheduled for 20 September 2022, but it was rescheduled due to logistical reasons.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2022 |title=Coldplay Confirma Segunda Presentación en Lima y Primer Concierto Cambia de Fecha |trans-title=Coldplay Confirms Second Presentation in Lima and First Concert Changes Date |url=https://rpp.pe/musica/conciertos/coldplay-confirma-segunda-presentacion-en-lima-y-primer-concierto-cambia-de-fecha-noticia-1398167 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426004559/https://rpp.pe/musica/conciertos/coldplay-confirma-segunda-presentacion-en-lima-y-primer-concierto-cambia-de-fecha-noticia-1398167 |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=RPP |language=es}}</ref>}}
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Lima]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Peru
| rowspan=""2"" |[[National Stadium of Peru|Estadio Nacional del Perú]]
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Camila Cabello]]<br/>Andrea Martinez
| rowspan=""2"" |85,845 / 85,845
| rowspan=""2"" |$9,242,799
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |14 September
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |16 September
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Bogotá]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Colombia
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Estadio El Campín]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Camila Cabello<br/>Mabiland
| rowspan=""2"" |88,314 / 88,314
| rowspan=""2"" |$8,062,927
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |17 September
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |20 September
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Santiago]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Chile
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Estadio Nacional Julio Martínez Prádanos|Estadio Nacional de Chile]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Camila Cabello<br/>Princesa Alba
| rowspan=""4"" |256,916 / 256,916
| rowspan=""4"" |$15,886,887
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |21 September
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |23 September
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |24 September
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |25 October
| rowspan=""10"" |[[Buenos Aires]]
| rowspan=""10"" |Argentina
| rowspan=""10"" |[[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]]
| rowspan=""5""  |H.E.R.<br/>[[Zoe Gotusso]]
| rowspan=""10"" |626,841 / 626,841
| rowspan=""10"" |$49,695,814
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |26 October
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |28 October{{efn|The concert in Buenos Aires on 28 October 2022 was broadcast in various cinemas worldwide.<ref name=""KAUFMAN"" />}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |29 October
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |1 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=text-align:center;""|2 November{{efn|name=CAVA}}
| H.E.R.<br/>Clara Cava
|-
! scope=""row"" style=text-align:center;""|4 November
| rowspan=""4"" |H.E.R.<br/>Zoe Gotusso
|-
! scope=""row"" style=text-align:center;""|5 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=text-align:center;""|7 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=text-align:center;""|8 November
|}
{| class=""wikitable plainrowheaders"" style=""text-align:center;""
|+List of 2023 concerts, showing date, city, country, venue, opening acts, attendance and gross revenue<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Year-End Top 300 Concert Grosses |url=https://data.pollstar.com/Chart/2024/01/121123_ye.top300.concert.grosses_digital_1040.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226172312/https://data.pollstar.com/Chart/2024/01/121123_ye.top300.concert.grosses_digital_1040.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2024 |access-date=26 February 2024 |website=Pollstar}}
* {{Cite web |date=23 December 2023 |title=RBD Conquista el No. 1 del Billboard Boxscore de Noviembre |trans-title=RBD Conquers the No. 1 on November's Billboard Boxscore |url=https://www.billboard.com/espanol/noticias/rbd-gira-no-1-boxscore-noviembre-2023-1235564856/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208023010/https://www.billboard.com/espanol/noticias/rbd-gira-no-1-boxscore-noviembre-2023-1235564856/ |archive-date=8 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=Billboard |language=es}}</ref>
|-
! scope=""col"" style=""width:12em;"" |Date (2023)
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |City
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |Country
! scope=""col"" style=""width:16em;"" |Venue
! scope=""col"" style=""width:11em;"" |Opening acts
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |Attendance
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |Revenue
|-
! scope=""row"" style=text-align:center;""|10 March{{efn|name=CSP|The concerts in São Paulo on 10–18 March 2023 were originally scheduled for 15–22 October 2022 at [[Allianz Parque]], but they were rescheduled due to illness.<ref name=""MORUMBI"">{{Cite web |date=10 October 2022 |title=Coldplay Anuncia Novas Datas de Shows no Brasil |trans-title=Coldplay Announce New Dates for Shows in Brazil |url=https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/10/10/coldplay-anuncia-novas-datas-de-shows-no-brasil-show-em-sp-mudou-de-local.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221010162311/https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/10/10/coldplay-anuncia-novas-datas-de-shows-no-brasil-show-em-sp-mudou-de-local.htm |archive-date=10 October 2022 |access-date=10 October 2022 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref>}}
| rowspan=""6""  |[[São Paulo]]
| rowspan=""11"" |Brazil
| rowspan=""6""  |[[Estádio do Morumbi]]
| rowspan=""6""  |[[Chvrches]]<br/>Elana Dara
| rowspan=""6""  |439,651 / 439,651
| rowspan=""6""  |$40,104,881
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |11 March{{efn|name=CSP}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |13 March{{efn|name=CSP}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |14 March{{efn|name=CSP}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |17 March{{efn|name=CSP}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |18 March{{efn|name=CSP}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |21 March
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Curitiba]]
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Estádio Couto Pereira]]
| rowspan=""5"" |Chvrches<br/>Clara x Sofia
| rowspan=""2"" |85,776 / 85,776
| rowspan=""2"" |$8,126,841
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |22 March
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |25 March{{efn|name=CRJ|The concerts in Rio de Janeiro on 25 and 26 March 2023 were originally scheduled for 11 and 12 October 2022, but they were rescheduled due to illness.<ref name=""MORUMBI"" />}}
| rowspan=""3"" |Rio de Janeiro
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Estádio Olímpico Nilton Santos]]
| rowspan=""3"" |211,012 / 211,012
| rowspan=""3"" |$17,204,664
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |26 March{{efn|name=CRJ}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |28 March
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |17 May
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Coimbra]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Portugal
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Estádio Cidade de Coimbra]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Griff<br/>[[Bárbara Bandeira]]
| rowspan=""4"" |208,284 / 208,284
| rowspan=""4"" |$21,473,885
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |18 May
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |20 May
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |21 May
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |24 May
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Barcelona]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Spain
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Chvrches<br/>[[Hinds (band)|Hinds]]
| rowspan=""4"" |224,761 / 224,761
| rowspan=""4"" |$27,262,896
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |25 May
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |27 May
| rowspan=""2"" |Chvrches<br/>[[Mafalda (British singer)|Ona Mafalda]]
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |28 May
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |31 May{{efn|name=OASIS}}
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Manchester]]
| rowspan=""4"" |England
| rowspan=""4"" |[[City of Manchester Stadium|Etihad Stadium]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Chvrches<br/>Porij
| rowspan=""4"" |195,874 / 195,874
| rowspan=""4"" |$24,164,085
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |1 June{{efn|name=OASIS}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |3 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |4 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |6 June
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Cardiff]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Wales
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Millennium Stadium|Principality Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Chvrches<br/>[[Hana Lili]]
| rowspan=""2"" |119,280 / 119,280
| rowspan=""2"" |$14,151,135
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |7 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |21 June
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Naples]]
| rowspan=""6"" |Italy
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Stadio Diego Armando Maradona]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Chvrches<br/>Laila al Habash
| rowspan=""2"" |93,341 / 93,341
| rowspan=""2"" |$9,856,532
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |22 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |25 June
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Milan]]
| rowspan=""4"" |[[San Siro]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Chvrches<br/>[[Mara Sattei]]
| rowspan=""4"" |249,560 / 249,560
| rowspan=""4"" |$29,439,180
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |26 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |28 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |29 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |1 July
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Zürich]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Switzerland
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Letzigrund]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Griff<br/>Caroline Alves
| rowspan=""2"" |95,055 / 95,055
| rowspan=""2"" |$14,972,413
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |2 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |5 July{{efn|name=LAND}}
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Copenhagen]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Denmark
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Parken Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Griff<br/>[[Oh Land]]
| rowspan=""2"" |98,646 / 98,646
| rowspan=""2"" |$12,230,710
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |6 July{{efn|name=LAND}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |8 July
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Gothenburg]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Sweden
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Ullevi]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Griff<br/>Luciia
| rowspan=""4"" |267,180 / 267,180
| rowspan=""4"" |$26,242,821
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |9 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |11 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |12 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |15 July
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Amsterdam]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Netherlands
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Johan Cruyff Arena]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Griff<br/>Zoë Tauran
| rowspan=""4"" |217,609 / 217,609
| rowspan=""4"" |$30,322,573
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |16 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |18 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |19 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |20 September
| [[Seattle]]
| United States
| [[Lumen Field]]
| rowspan=""7"" |H.E.R.<br/>[[070 Shake]]<br/>Bobby Gonz
| 60,342 / 60,342
| $8,124,415
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |22 September
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Vancouver]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Canada
| rowspan=""2"" |[[BC Place]]
| rowspan=""2"" |89,645 / 89,645
| rowspan=""2"" |$12,405,572
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |23 September
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |27 September
| rowspan=""2"" |[[San Diego]]
| rowspan=""4"" |United States
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Snapdragon Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |64,130 / 64,130
| rowspan=""2"" |$10,355,147
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |28 September
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |30 September
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]]{{efn-lr|name=LAX|Labelled as [[Los Angeles]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Rose Bowl (stadium)|Rose Bowl]]
| rowspan=""2"" |136,043 / 136,043
| rowspan=""2"" |$19,019,116
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |1 October
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |6 November
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Tokyo]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Japan
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Tokyo Dome]]
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Yoasobi]]
| rowspan=""2"" |97,267 / 97,267
| rowspan=""2"" |$13,726,445
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |7 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |11 November
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Kaohsiung]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Taiwan
| rowspan=""2"" |[[National Stadium (Kaohsiung)|Kaohsiung National Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Accusefive]]
| rowspan=""2"" |102,949 / 102,949
| rowspan=""2"" |$15,159,017
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |12 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |15 November
| [[Jakarta]]
| Indonesia
| [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]]
| Rahmania Astrini
| 78,541 / 78,541
| $13,893,822
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |18 November
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Perth]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Australia
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Perth Stadium|Optus Stadium]]
| [[Amy Shark]]<br/>[[Thelma Plum]]<br/>Adrian Dzvuke
| rowspan=""2"" |124,883 / 124,883
| rowspan=""2"" |$13,888,883
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |19 November
| [[Tash Sultana]]<br/>Thelma Plum<br/>King Ibis
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |22 November
| [[Kuala Lumpur]]
| Malaysia
| [[Bukit Jalil National Stadium]]
| Bunga
| 81,812 / 81,812
| $10,904,369
|}
{| class=""wikitable plainrowheaders"" style=""text-align:center;""
|+List of 2024 concerts, showing date, city, country, venue, opening acts, attendance and gross revenue<ref name=""ALLEN"" />
|-
! scope=""col"" style=""width:12em;"" |Date (2024)
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |City
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |Country
! scope=""col"" style=""width:16em;"" |Venue
! scope=""col"" style=""width:11em;"" |Opening acts
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |Attendance
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;"" |Revenue
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |19 January
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Bocaue, Bulacan|Bocaue]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Manila]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan=""2"" |Philippines
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Philippine Arena]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Jikamarie
| rowspan=""2"" |96,079 / 96,079
| rowspan=""2"" |$15,425,465
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |20 January
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |23 January
| colspan=""2"" rowspan=""6"" |[[Singapore]]
| rowspan=""6"" |[[National Stadium, Singapore|Singapore National Stadium]]
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Jasmine Sokko]]<br/>Jinan Laetitia
| rowspan=""6"" |321,113 / 321,113
| rowspan=""6"" |$43,362,247
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |24 January
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |26 January
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |27 January
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Sandra Riley Tang|Rriley]]<br/>Jinan Laetitia
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |30 January
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |31 January
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |3 February
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Bangkok]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Thailand
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Rajamangala Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Valentina Ploy
| rowspan=""2"" |106,027 / 106,027
| rowspan=""2"" |$16,878,887
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |4 February
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |8 June
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Athens]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Greece
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Olympic Stadium (Athens)|Olympic Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Maisie Peters]]<br/>Antonia Kaouri
| rowspan=""2"" |—
| rowspan=""2"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |9 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |12 June
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Bucharest]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Romania
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Arena Națională]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Maisie Peters<br/>[[Emaa]]
| rowspan=""2"" |—
| rowspan=""2"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |13 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |16 June
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Budapest]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Hungary
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Puskás Aréna]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Maisie Peters<br/>Solére
| rowspan=""3"" |—
| rowspan=""3"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |18 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |19 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |22 June
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Décines-Charpieu]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Lyon]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan=""3"" |France
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Parc Olympique Lyonnais|Groupama Stadium]]
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Janelle Monáe]]<br/>Ronisia
| rowspan=""3"" |—
| rowspan=""3"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |23 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |25 June
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |29 June{{efn|The concert in Pilton on 29 June 2024 will be part of the [[Glastonbury Festival]].<ref name=""THOMAS"" />}}
| [[Pilton, Somerset|Pilton]]
| England
| [[Glastonbury Festival#Location|Worthy Farm]]
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |12 July
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Rome]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Italy
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Stadio Olimpico]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Janelle Monáe<br/>[[Rose Villain]]
| rowspan=""4"" |—
| rowspan=""4"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |13 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |15 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |16 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |20 July
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Düsseldorf]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Germany
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Merkur Spiel-Arena]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Janelle Monáe<br/>[[Zoe Wees]]
| rowspan=""3"" |—
| rowspan=""3"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |21 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |23 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |27 July
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Helsinki]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Finland
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Helsinki Olympic Stadium]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Maisie Peters<br/>[[Alma (Finnish singer)|Alma]]
| rowspan=""4"" |—
| rowspan=""4"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |28 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |30 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |31 July
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |15 August
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Munich]]
| rowspan=""3"" |Germany
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Olympiastadion (Munich)|Olympiastadion]]
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Maggie Rogers]]<br/>Wilhelmine
| rowspan=""3"" |—
| rowspan=""3"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |17 August
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |18 August
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |21 August
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Vienna]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Austria
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Ernst-Happel-Stadion]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Maggie Rogers<br/>Oska
| rowspan=""4"" |—
| rowspan=""4"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |22 August
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |24 August
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |25 August
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |29 August
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Dublin]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Ireland
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Croke Park]]
| rowspan=""4"" |Maggie Rogers<br/>Aby Coulibaly
| rowspan=""4"" |—
| rowspan=""4"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |30 August
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |1 September
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |2 September
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |30 October
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Melbourne]]
| rowspan=""8"" |Australia
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Docklands Stadium|Marvel Stadium]]
| rowspan=""11"" |[[PinkPantheress]]<br/>Emmanuel Kelly
| rowspan=""4"" |—
| rowspan=""4"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |31 October
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |2 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |3 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |6 November
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Sydney]]
| rowspan=""4"" |[[Stadium Australia|Accor Stadium]]
| rowspan=""4"" |—
| rowspan=""4"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |7 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |9 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |10 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |13 November
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Auckland]]
| rowspan=""3"" |New Zealand
| rowspan=""3"" |[[Eden Park]]
| rowspan=""3"" |—
| rowspan=""3"" |—
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |15 November
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |16 November
|-
! colspan=""5"" |Total
! 7,667,658 / 7,667,658 (100%)
! $810,966,041
|}

== Cancelled shows ==
{| class=""wikitable plainrowheaders"" style=""text-align:center;""
|+List of 2022 cancelled concerts, showing date, city, country, venue and reason
|-
! scope=""col"" style=""width:12em;""    |Date (2022)
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;""    |City
! scope=""col"" style=""width:10em;""    |Country
! scope=""col"" style=""width:16em;""    |Venue
! scope=""col"" style=""width:29.95em;"" |Reason
! scope=""col"" class=""unsortable""     |{{Abbr|Ref.|References}}
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |26 April
| rowspan=""2"" |[[Inglewood, California|Inglewood]]{{efn-lr|name=LAX}}
| rowspan=""2"" |United States
| rowspan=""2"" |[[SoFi Stadium]]
| rowspan=""2"" |Logistic and production issues
| rowspan=""2"" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2022 |title=SoFi Stadium Shows Update |url=https://www.coldplay.com/sofi-stadium-shows-update/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520173023/https://www.coldplay.com/sofi-stadium-shows-update/ |archive-date=20 May 2022 |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>
|-
! scope=""row"" style=""text-align:center;"" |30 April
|}

== Personnel ==
Credits taken from the band's official tour book, which was released ""In loving memory of Ben Farrey and Steve Strange"".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salmon |first=Chris |title=Music of the Spheres World Tour Book |publisher=Parlophone |year=2023 |location=Amsterdam|language=en}}</ref>

{{div col}}
;Performing members
* [[Chris Martin]] – lead vocals, piano, rhythm guitar
* [[Jonny Buckland]] – lead guitar, backing vocals, keyboards
* [[Guy Berryman]] – bass, backing vocals, keyboards, percussion
* [[Will Champion]] – drums, backing vocals, percussion

;Management
* [[Phil Harvey (band manager)|Phil Harvey]] – CEO, manager
* Arlene Moon – manager
* Mandi Frost – manager
* Jonathan Kessler – tour advisor
* Alex Pollock – tour advisor
* Marguerite Nguyen – tour manager
* Orla Clarke – assistant tour manager
* Andy Frost – road manager, head of security
* Kim-Maree Penn – band security
* Dan Green – audio producer
* [[Rik Simpson]] – broadcast producer
* Bill Rahko – Pro Tools director
* Chris Salmon – director of communications
* Sam Seager – head of visual content
* Lauren Rauch – management coordinator
* Lauren Evans – physiotherapist
* Valeska Voiges – band chef
* Emma Jane Randall – band assistant
* Jessie Collins – band assistant
* Claire Finbow – band assistant
* Ria Sioux Byers – band tour assistant
* Jen Milkis – assistant to Phil Harvey, creative coordinator
* Luke Howell – sustainability officer
* Bertie Knutzen – head of philanthropy
* Debs Wild – web ambassador

;Audio
* Tony Smith – audio director
* Chris Wood – monitor engineer
* Nick Davis – monitor tech
* Ali Viles – RF tech
* James Smallwood – audio tech, RF tech assistant
* Matt Latham – studio tech
* Nick Mooney – audio crew chief

;Audio crew
* Suzy Mucciarone
* Alex Hadjigeorgiou
* Dom Thorne
* Don Parks
* Simon Hall
* Joe Simmons
* Tim Grant
* Georgios Mavreas
* Alex Martinez

;Wristbands
* Samantha Torres – lead pixel manager, crew chief
* Garrett Fleming – pixel manager
* Stuart Earnshaw – technician
* Alex Huggins – technician

;Videos
* Ant Barrett – multi camera diretor
* Joshua Koffman – screens diretor
* Phil Johnston – video crew chief
* Peter Laleman - head of [[Light-emitting diode|LED]]
* Owen Evans – engineer (server speciality)
* Chris Farrants – engineer (vision speciality)
* Piotr Klimczyk – engineer (vision speciality)
* Micah Williams – camera supervisor

;Video crew
* Gorgon Davies
* Drew Welker
* Lisa Baker
* Maarten Deschacht
* Michaёl Cordier
* Jens Couckuijt
* Matt Canter
* James Cronly
* Tina Clay
* Manan Patel
* Percy Vermeulen
* John Prosser

;Video content
* Studio Flint
* Fray Studio
* North House
* Luke Halls Studio
* Victor Scorrano
* Impossible Brief
* Hello Charlie
* [[Pilar Zeta]]
* Conner Griffith
* Mixed Emotions London

;Band photo/videography
* Anna Lee
* P the Chemist

;Merch
* Paul Nolan – merchandise manager
* Martine Wilson – merchandise manager

;Communications
* Turner Pollari – crew chief
* Dalton McGuire – radios, [[Information technology|IT]], communications

;Production
* Chris Kansy – production manager
* Jake Berry – production consultant
* Eme Boucher – production coordinator
* Kim Van Loon – production coordinator
* Paul Traynor – stage manager
* Russell Glenn – technical stage manager
* Courtney Eusebio – tour accountant
* Nichole Garcia – ticketing
* Julia Whittle – show caller

;Security
* David White – FoH security
* Adrian Murphy – BoH security

;Backline
* Laurie Jenkins – crew chief, drum tech
* Craig Hope – guitar tech
* Matt McGinn – guitar tech
* Matt Tagliaferro – guitar tech
* Paul Newman – bass tech
* Eric Harris – keys and digital tech
* Dan Roe – Pro Tools tech
* Neil Cole – piano tech
* Nicolette Santino – Angel Moon

;Wardrobe and backstage
* Beth Fenton – band clothing director, stylist
* Tiffany Henry – dressing rooms, grooming, wardrobe
* Fabio Borreani – dressing rooms assistant
* Kylie Morris – dressing rooms hospitality
* Tracy On – sous chef
* Minh Nguyen – utilities
* Michael Raven – laundry
* Poppy Ogilvy – band tour assistant
* Samara Henderson – BoH apprentice

;Carpentry
* Flory Turner – head carpenter
* Michael Viehmeyer – inflatables, assistant stage manager

;Carpenter crew
* Bryan Humphries
* Andrew Pearson
* Andy Turner
* Jan Legowski
* Steve Carlsen
* Pat Boyd
* Corey Settle

;Power
* Mick McGillion – crew chief
* Neil Whybrow – electrician
* James Hardy – electrician
* John Hardy – electrician
* Mark Rennocks – generators operator

;Lighting
* Shaheem Litchmore – lighting director
* Emilio Aguilar – FoH tech, operator
* Daric Bassan – lighting crew chief
* Dio Kollia – lighting apprentice

;Lighting crew
* Luke Dobson
* Charlie Collins
* Kyle Rutkowski
* Kevin Royan
* Rob Corman-Savage
* Andrew Mueller
* Calvin Mosier
* Michelle Radogna
* Emma Hart
* Zach Boebel

;Special effects
* Michael Barrett-Bourmier – crew chief
* Ashley Neal – effects operations, laser programming

;Special effects crew
* Michael Hartle
* David Castillo
* Alan Grant
* Brien Carpenter
* Victor Negron
* Steffi Müller
* Thornsten Stein
* Bill Petrina

;Design and art direction
* Pilar Zeta, Victor Scorrano, Coldplay – original album artwork
* [[James Marcus Haney|Marcus Haney]], Stevie Rae Gibbs, Anna Lee, P the Chemist – photo/videography

;Creative
* Misty Buckley – creative director, production designer
* Richard Olivieri – art director
* Holly Molcher – assistant art director, design draughter
* Gloria Lamb – scenic art diretor, props
* Grant Draper – creative project manager
* Sooner Routhier – lighting designer
* David Kennedy – SFX effects designer
* Malcolm Birkett – technical set designer
* Leo Flint – video designer
* Dan Trenchard – video programmer
* Matthew Kemp – lighting programmer [[PixMob]]
* Luke Davies – assistant video designer

;Charity partners
* Rebecca White – [[Global Citizen (organization)|Global Citizen]] representative
* Garrick Dawson – Love Button Global Movement representative
* Océane Bayard – [[KultureCity]] representative

;Rigging crew
* Bjorn Melchert (lead rigger)
* Mark Kohorn
* George Werner
* Jonny Ackles

;Energy zone
* Michelle Ochoa – automation
* Courtney Dodd – tech
* Shariff Lovett – tech
* Edwin Van Eekhout – energy floors
* Tim Jansen – energy floors
* Tim Benson – batteries

;Barricades and cable ramps
* Bjorn Steegen – crew chief
* Koen Daems – tech

;Live Nation promoters
* Jared Braverman
* Phil Bowdery
* Casey Green
* Sophia Burn
* Redd Barua-Norton

;SJM promoters
* Simon Moran
* Andy Redhead
* Rob Ballantine
* Matt Woolliscroft

;Live Nation touring
* Andrew Craig – in tour representative
* Ariel Bojeun – sustainability
* Lau Johannsen – VIP Nation

;Booking agents
* Marty Diamond, Larry Webman – Wasserman
* Josh Javor, Hannah Edds – X-Ray Touring

;Russells
* Gavin Maude
* Ryan Vince

;Dales Evans & Co. Ltd.
* Lester Dales
* Paul Makin
* Donna Nixon
* Shelley Goldin

;David Weise & Associates
* David Weise
* Rob Salzman
* Glenn Frank
* Dina Demas
* Diana Clark

;Steel and advance
* Bart Durbin – site coordinator
* Robert Hale – site coordinator
* Erik Ehn – backstage advance coordinator
* Ross Brown – catering advance
* Samantha Smith – catering advance
* Chris Salmon – tour book words
* RabbitHole – tour book design
{{div col end}}

== Gear ==
Credits taken from ''[[Front of House (magazine)|Projection, Lights & Staging News]]'', with product quantities being represented between parenthesis whenever possible.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://plsn.com/articles/production-spotlight/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230113141819/https://plsn.com/articles/production-spotlight/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour/ |archive-date=13 January 2023 |access-date=13 January 2023 |website=Projection, Lights & Staging News}}</ref>

{{div col}}
;Lighting
* MA Lighting grandMA3 Full Size Console (2)
* MA Lighting grandMA3 Light Console (1)
* MA Lighting Network Processing Units (10)
* ACME Pixel Line IP Strobe (38)
* ACME Thunderbolt (48)
* Astera AX3 with Domes (80)
* Ayrton Domino Profile S (66)
* Ayrton Perseo Profile S (74)
* Chauvet Professional Strike M (192)
* Chauvet Professional Well Panel (12)
* Claypaky Xtylos Aqua (74)
* Robe BMFL FollowSpot (2)
* Robe BMFL FollowSpot LT (12)
* Robe RoboSpot Base Stations (7)

;Video
* Moonrise Arch: ROE Visual CB8 LED Panels
* I-Mag Circles: ROE Visual CB8 LED Panels
* Spheres: PRG 25mm LED Inflatable Spheres
* Media Servers: Disguise GX 2C

;Special Effects
* FireOne Firing System (1)
* X-Laser 36W Triton Unit (8)
* X-Laser 10W Triton Audience Scanning Unit (8)
* Arctos 120W Trident (1)
* Arctos 15W Coral Series Unit (12)
* Explo X2 Wave Flamer (8)
* MagicFX Stadiumblaster Confetti Cannon (16)
* MagicFX Stadiumshot Confetti Cannon (31)
* Master FX Mystic Haze Machine (12)
* HazeBase Base Tour Haze Machine (6)
* TubeHaze Setup (6)

;Truss
* Tyler Truss 10' Custom HUD Truss Arch (14)
* Tyler Truss 10' HUD Truss (8)
* Tyler Truss 5' HUD Truss (26)
* Tyler Truss HUD Truss Corners (32)
* Custom Lighting Ladders (16)
{{div col end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of Coldplay live performances]]
* [[List of highest-grossing live music artists]]
* [[List of highest-grossing concert tours]]
* [[List of most-attended concert tours]]

== Notes ==
;Cities
{{Notelist-lr|3}}

;Others
{{Notelist|1}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|3}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* {{URL|1=https://coldplay.com/|2=Coldplay Official Website}}
* {{URL|1=https://sustainability.coldplay.com/|2=Coldplay Sustainability Website}}

{{Coldplay}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2022 concert tours]]
[[Category:2023 concert tours]]
[[Category:2024 concert tours]]
[[Category:Climate change in music]]
[[Category:Coldplay concert tours]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Argentina]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Australia]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Austria]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Belgium]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Brazil]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Canada]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Chile]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Colombia]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Denmark]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Finland]]
[[Category:Concert tours of France]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Germany]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Greece]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Hungary]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Ireland]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Italy]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Japan]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Mexico]]
[[Category:Concert tours of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Peru]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Poland]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Portugal]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Romania]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Singapore]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Spain]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Sweden]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Thailand]]
[[Category:Concert tours of the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Concert tours of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Concert tours of the Philippines]]
[[Category:Concert tours of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Concert tours of the United States]]
[[Category:Good articles]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Impact of the Music of the Spheres World Tour,"{{Short description|Effect the tour has had on popular culture}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
[[File:ColdplayAMS18072023.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Four men perform on a small stage as a large crowd is gathered around them|Coldplay at the [[Johan Cruyff Arena]] in 2023]]

Publications have widely documented and analysed the environmental, cultural, economic, commercial and philanthropic influence achieved by British [[Rock music|rock]] band [[Coldplay]] with the [[Music of the Spheres World Tour]] (2022–24). Described as a media phenomenon, the concert run marked their return to live entertainment after the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and was said to be responsible for a shift in public attitude towards them, further illustrating [[Cultural impact of Coldplay|the impact the group have on popular culture]]. ''[[The Times]]'' hailed it as ""the greatest live music show that humans have yet devised"" in visual, emotional and melodic terms.<ref name=""BEAUMONT"">{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=How It Became Cool to Like Coldplay |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-stadium-tour-how-they-became-cool-928dd6n93 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220825075016/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-stadium-tour-how-they-became-cool-928dd6n93 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=The Times}}</ref>

While announcing the first performances, Coldplay also revealed a series of sustainability efforts to reduce their [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] by 50%, in comparison to the [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour]] (2016–17). Those included the creation of brand new [[Light-emitting diode|LED]] stage products and a partnership with [[BMW]] to design the first mobile rechargeable show battery in the world. This association, along with the fact that [[Neste]] was their [[biofuel]] provider, led to [[greenwashing]] accusations. Nevertheless, the group reduced [[carbon footprint]] by 47% and planted over seven million trees. ''[[Pollstar]]'' stated that they ushered into ""a new era of sustainable touring"",<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Coldplay's Greener Pastures: With Music of the Spheres, One of the Most Successful Touring Bands Ever Kicks Off a New Era of Sustainable Touring |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2021/10/20/coldplays-greener-pastures-with-music-of-the-spheres-one-of-the-most-successful-touring-bands-ever-kicks-off-a-new-era-of-sustainable-touring-2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220630010327/https://news.pollstar.com/2021/10/20/coldplays-greener-pastures-with-music-of-the-spheres-one-of-the-most-successful-touring-bands-ever-kicks-off-a-new-era-of-sustainable-touring-2/ |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> while ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' ranked them among the most influential climate action leaders in the world.

Beyond sold-out stadiums, Coldplay drew crowds of ticketless fans in cities including [[Barcelona]], [[Rio de Janeiro]] and [[Kaohsiung]]. Interest in the shows was considered unprecedented across Asia, Europe, Latin America and Oceania, prompting measures against [[Ticket resale|ticket scalping]] and debates about pricing. The government of countries such as Indonesia decided to make their event documentation process more flexible after the band could not schedule enough concerts to meet demand. Moreover, places visited by the tour experienced financial boosts in hotels, restaurants, bars and [[Service industries|many other services]]. A [[#Wider influence|macroeconomic impact]] was similarly registered in Argentina and [[Singapore]]. On [[Record chart|music charts]], [[Coldplay discography|Coldplay's discography]] had a resurgence in sales and [[Music streaming service|streams]]. They teamed up with [[Global Citizen (organization)|Global Citizen]] and the Love Button Global Movement to endorse local non-profit institutions as well.

== Sustainable touring ==
=== Industry response ===
{{See also|Environmentalism in music}}
[[File:BMW-HQ.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=A tall building formed by cylinders stands beside a short bowl-shaped building, there are trees near both of them as well|Coldplay developed the first mobile rechargeable show battery in the world through a partnership with [[BMW]].]]
Following the release of Coldplay's eighth album, ''[[Everyday Life (Coldplay album)|Everyday Life]]'' (2019), [[Chris Martin]] said the band would not be touring until they could ensure their concerts are environmentally friendly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2019 |title=Coldplay to Pause Touring Until Concerts are Environmentally Beneficial |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-50490700 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20191121120734/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-50490700 |archive-date=21 November 2019 |access-date=5 September 2023 |website=BBC News}}</ref> The record was promoted with small shows for charity and a performance at the [[Amman Citadel]] in Jordan, broadcast by [[YouTube]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 November 2019 |title=Coldplay Apresenta Novo Disco, Everyday Life, Sob Amanhecer da Jordânia |trans-title=Coldplay Present New Album, Everyday Life, Under Jordan's Dawn |url=https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-apresenta-novo-disco-everyday-life-sob-amanhecer-da-jordania-assista/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230621112852/https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-apresenta-novo-disco-everyday-life-sob-amanhecer-da-jordania-assista/ |archive-date=21 June 2023 |access-date=21 June 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> On 14 October 2021, a day before ''[[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|Music of the Spheres]]'' was made available, the group posted on social media they were returning to live entertainment after the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Announce 2022 World Tour |url=https://pitchfork.com/news/coldplay-announce-2022-world-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615211311/https://pitchfork.com/news/coldplay-announce-2022-world-tour/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Pitchfork}}</ref> The announcement also included [[Music of the Spheres World Tour#Ecological plan|a series of environmental plans]] developed in two years with help from sustainability experts; they were aimed at reducing [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] by 50% in comparison to [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour|their previous tour]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Music of the Spheres World Tour Announced |url=https://www.coldplay.com/music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-announced/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016160004/https://www.coldplay.com/music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-announced/ |archive-date=16 October 2021 |access-date=14 October 2021 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref> Furthermore, the group established a partnership with [[BMW]] to create the first mobile rechargeable show battery in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 June 2021 |title=The First-Ever BMW iX and the First-Ever BMW i4: Joint Global Campaign Plays to the Rhythm of Coldplay's New Hit |url=https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0335298EN/the-first-ever-bmw-ix-and-the-first-ever-bmw-i4:-joint-global-campaign-plays-to-the-rhythm-of-coldplay-s-new-hit?language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220106225032/https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0335298EN/the-first-ever-bmw-ix-and-the-first-ever-bmw-i4:-joint-global-campaign-plays-to-the-rhythm-of-coldplay-s-new-hit?language=en |archive-date=6 January 2022 |access-date=13 June 2021 |website=Press BMW Group}}</ref>

''[[Le Soir]]''{{'s}} Didier Zacharie affirmed that the efforts proposed by Coldplay were unprecedented for a stadium concert run and added their initiative was commendable.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2022 |title=La Tournée de Coldplay Est-Elle Vraiment Écologique? |trans-title=Is the Coldplay Tour Really Eco-Friendly? |url=https://www.lesoir.be/457640/article/2022-08-02/la-tournee-de-coldplay-est-elle-vraiment-ecologique |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220805101321/https://www.lesoir.be/457640/article/2022-08-02/la-tournee-de-coldplay-est-elle-vraiment-ecologique |archive-date=5 August 2022 |access-date=5 August 2022 |website=Le Soir |language=fr}}</ref> Alex Duke from ''[[Impact (student magazine)|Impact]]'' said the band were ""redefining the rulebook"" in a world that ""desperately needs radical climate action"" and praised them for bringing environmental issues to the forefront of international music news through a pioneering endeavour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2021 |title=Coldplay's Eco-Friendly Tour: What Is It and What Does It Mean for Touring in the Future? |url=https://impactnottingham.com/2021/11/coldplays-eco-friendly-tour-what-is-it-and-what-does-it-mean-for-touring-in-the-future/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220429214929/https://impactnottingham.com/2021/11/coldplays-eco-friendly-tour-what-is-it-and-what-does-it-mean-for-touring-in-the-future/ |archive-date=29 April 2022 |access-date=29 April 2022 |website=Impact Nottingham}}</ref> In an article for ''[[Vogue Scandinavia]]'', Doris Daga observed the tour set the bar for how artists could contribute to mitigate their environmental impact and complimented the band's transparency on ""the reality that no [show] will be carbon negative in 2022"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2022 |title=Dancing and Solar Power: The Future of Sustainable Touring |url=https://www.voguescandinavia.com/articles/kinetic-energy-and-solar-power-the-future-of-sustainable-touring |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220427044123/https://www.voguescandinavia.com/articles/kinetic-energy-and-solar-power-the-future-of-sustainable-touring |archive-date=27 April 2022 |access-date=27 April 2022 |website=Vogue Scandinavia}}</ref>

According to Lucy August-Perna, the sustainability director of [[Live Nation (events promoter)|Live Nation]], Coldplay's proposal helped to ""build on the framework [the company] had been developing over the past five years on their tours and venues"".<ref name=""MIMS"">{{Cite magazine |date=22 April 2022 |title=Touring Returned from the Pandemic Greener Than Ever |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/concerts-green-touring-pandemic-coldplay-billie-eilish/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220426221638/https://www.billboard.com/pro/concerts-green-touring-pandemic-coldplay-billie-eilish/ |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=26 April 2022}}</ref> She also described the measures created by the group as ""impressive and forward-thinking"", since they focused on concrete solutions.<ref name=""MIMS"" /> Additionally, the director claimed she was working to adopt their plans, institutionalise what they learn and provide environmentally conscious options for more performers worldwide.<ref name=""MIMS"" />

Writing for ''[[Veja (magazine)|Veja]]'', Amanda Capuano commented that the [[concert residency]] template used by Coldplay on the tour schedule underscored a trend previously seen with [[Adele]] and [[Harry Styles]], where musicians with sizable demand are traveling less due to an increased interest in [[logistics]], [[quality of life]] and [[mental health]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 September 2022 |title=Do Coldplay a Harry Styles, Vida dos Popstars na Estrada Já Não é a Mesma |trans-title=From Coldplay to Harry Styles, Popstars' Life on the Road is No Longer the Same |url=https://veja.abril.com.br/coluna/o-som-e-a-furia/do-coldplay-a-harry-styles-vida-dos-popstars-na-estrada-ja-nao-e-a-mesma/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230402035501/https://veja.abril.com.br/coluna/o-som-e-a-furia/do-coldplay-a-harry-styles-vida-dos-popstars-na-estrada-ja-nao-e-a-mesma/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=Veja |language=pt}}</ref> Moreover, the group's collaboration with John Wiseman from Worldwide Sales and Frederic Opsomer from PRG Projects led to the development of completely new [[Light-emitting diode|LED]] stage products.<ref name=""PEARL"">{{Cite web |date=27 July 2022 |title=Executive Profile: PRG Lights Up Coldplay's Music of the Spheres Stadium Tour |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2022/07/27/executive-profile-prg-lights-up-coldplays-music-of-the-spheres-stadium-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220730150747/https://news.pollstar.com/2022/07/27/executive-profile-prg-lights-up-coldplays-music-of-the-spheres-stadium-tour/ |archive-date=30 July 2022 |access-date=30 July 2022 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> Opsomer attested that the custom technology built for the concert run will become commonplace in the next years as well, thanking Coldplay for the initiative.<ref name=""PEARL"" /> ''[[Uproxx]]'' and ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' later noticed they had an impact on tours from [[Billie Eilish]] and [[Shawn Mendes]], respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 June 2022 |title=From Coldplay to Billie Eilish, Summer Tours are Putting a Focus on Sustainability |url=https://uproxx.com/music/summer-tour-sustainability-coldplay-shawn-mendes-billie-eilish/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220627173629/https://uproxx.com/music/summer-tour-sustainability-coldplay-shawn-mendes-billie-eilish/ |archive-date=27 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022 |website=Uproxx}}
* {{Cite magazine |date=29 April 2022 |title=Shawn Mendes Announces Sustainability Initiatives for Wonder Tour |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/pop/shawn-mendes-sustainability-initiatives-wonder-tour-exclusive-1235064810/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220627173609/https://www.billboard.com/music/pop/shawn-mendes-sustainability-initiatives-wonder-tour-exclusive-1235064810/ |archive-date=27 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref> In 2023, the Kappa FuturFestival took measures similar to the Music of the Spheres World Tour,<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 June 2023 |title=Non Solo UK, Ora Anche L'Italia fa Eventi Musicali Eco-Friendly: Ma a Guidare Sono Sempre i Coldplay |trans-title=Not Only the UK, Now Italy Too Is Hosting Eco-Friendly Music Events: But Coldplay Is Always Leading the Way |url=https://www.repubblica.it/spettacoli/musica/2023/06/13/news/eventi_musicali_sempre_piu_eco-friendly-403944163/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230615013556/https://www.repubblica.it/spettacoli/musica/2023/06/13/news/eventi_musicali_sempre_piu_eco-friendly-403944163/ |archive-date=15 June 2023 |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=La Repubblica |language=it}}</ref> while 2024 saw the band receiving support from Live Nation and [[Warner Music Group]] to fund a carbon footprint study that will suggest practical solutions for live music events at every level.<ref name=""HENDERSON"">{{Cite web |date=29 January 2024 |title=Coldplay, Live Nation and More Co-Sign on Sustainability Study |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2024/01/coldplay-live-nation-co-sign-sustainability-study/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240202170723/https://www.iq-mag.net/2024/01/coldplay-live-nation-co-sign-sustainability-study/ |archive-date=2 February 2024 |access-date=2 February 2024 |website=IQ}}</ref>

=== Controversy ===
{{Quote box
| quote    = When we announced this tour, we said that we would try our best to make it as sustainable and low carbon-impact as possible, but that it would be a work in progress. That remains true. We don't claim to have got it all right yet.
| author   = —Coldplay, 2022<ref name=""MOORE"">{{Cite magazine |date=12 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Respond to Being Called Useful Idiots Over Deal with Oil Company |url=https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/news/coldplay-respond-called-useful-idiots-deal-oil-company-16683/ |url-status=live |magazine=Rolling Stone |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220630160101/https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/news/coldplay-respond-called-useful-idiots-deal-oil-company-16683/ |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=30 June 2022}}</ref>
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Carlos Calvo Ambel from [[European Federation for Transport and Environment|Transport & Environment]] declared that Coldplay were ""no doubt well-intentioned"" but condemned their collaboration with [[Neste]].<ref name=""NESLEN"">{{Cite web |date=11 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Labelled Useful Idiots for Greenwashing After Deal with Oil Company |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/may/11/coldplay-labelled-useful-idiots-for-greenwashing-after-deal-with-oil-company |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220627152357/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/may/11/coldplay-labelled-useful-idiots-for-greenwashing-after-deal-with-oil-company |archive-date=27 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022 |website=The Guardian}}</ref> He accused the company of ""cynically using [the band] to greenwash its reputation"", since [[biofuel]]s were supplied to the tour while they had links to deforestation; therefore, the partnership should be discontinued to give priority to better solutions.<ref name=""NESLEN"" /> [[SumOfUs]]' Eoin Dubsky criticised the ties with [[BMW]] and concluded the group needed to take greater care while doing their diligences, as the multinational was lobbying to prevent the [[European Union]] from establishing a deadline for vehicles to be [[Net zero emissions|carbon neutral]].<ref name=""NESLEN"" />

On the same day, Coldplay published a statement reiterating that their plan was a work in progress and they ""genuinely welcome suggestions as to how to do it better"".<ref name=""MOORE"" /> The band also emphasised having no connection to BMW's corporate policies, adding that various car manufacturers were approached to provide the expertise needed and the company were the ones that provided help.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Respond to Being Called Useful Idiots for Greenwashing: We are Doing Our Best |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/coldplay-greenwashing-chris-martin-b2076459.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230908000503/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/coldplay-greenwashing-chris-martin-b2076459.html |archive-date=8 September 2023 |access-date=8 September 2023 |website=The Independent}}</ref> Neste separately mentioned that investigations regarding their palm oil vendors were launched, but no evidence of violations or links to deforestation was found.<ref name=""RIPAOJA"">{{Cite web |date=13 June 2022 |title=Suosikkiyhtye Teki Ssopimuksen Suomalaisyrityksen Kanssa – Sitten Repesi Totaalinen Raivo |trans-title=The Favorite Band Made a Deal with a Finnish Company – Then a Total Rage Broke Out |url=https://www.is.fi/viihde/art-2000008813474.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220630163835/https://www.is.fi/viihde/art-2000008813474.html |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=30 June 2022 |website=Ilta-Sanomat |language=fi}}</ref> Their response team affirmed that only renewable aviation fuel produced with used frying fat and animal fat waste was delivered to the concert run as well.<ref name=""RIPAOJA"" />

=== Reduced emissions ===
After a team led by professor John Fernandez at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) collected data from the concerts and compared it to the [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour]] (2016–17), publications reported that Coldplay have managed to reduce their [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] by 47% so far.<ref name=""ARELIZ"">{{Cite web |date=3 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Reduced Its Carbon Footprint of Live Shows by 47% |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/02/coldplay-reduced-its-carbon-footprint-of-live-shows-by-47/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230603230448/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/02/coldplay-reduced-its-carbon-footprint-of-live-shows-by-47/ |archive-date=3 June 2023 |access-date=3 June 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> Research attested 66% of all waste was diverted from landfills, while [[Xyloband|LED wristbands]] had a production decrease of 80% and a return rate average of 86% per date.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2024 |title=Coldplay Share Details of Game-Changing Environmental Measures on Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-share-details-of-game-changing-environmental-measures-on-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-3570067 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120175243/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-share-details-of-game-changing-environmental-measures-on-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-3570067 |archive-date=20 January 2024 |access-date=20 January 2024 |website=NME}}</ref> Furthermore, 3,770 meals and 73&nbsp;kg of toiletries from the catering were given out to unhoused and unsheltered people.<ref name=""ASWAD"">{{Cite web |date=5 June 2023 |title=Coldplay's Music of the Spheres Tour Drastically Reduces Band's Carbon Footprint, Sets New Standards in Sustainability |url=https://variety.com/2023/music/news/coldplay-tour-carbon-footprint-sustainability-green-1235632704/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230606120447/https://variety.com/2023/music/news/coldplay-tour-carbon-footprint-sustainability-green-1235632704/ |archive-date=6 June 2023 |access-date=6 June 2023 |website=Variety}}</ref> The solar installations, kinetic floors and [[stationary bicycle]]s generated around 15&nbsp;kWh every night, being enough to fuel tool-charging stations for the crew.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=2 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Tout 5 Million Trees Planted So Far on Music of the Spheres Tour |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-5-million-trees-planted-carbon-reduction-music-of-spheres-tour-1235344736/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230608210404/https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-5-million-trees-planted-carbon-reduction-music-of-spheres-tour-1235344736/ |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref> It was also informed that performances were operating entirely from renewable energy.<ref name=""ASWAD"" />

Coldplay consequently became ""pioneers for the future of sustainability"" in live entertainment,<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Work Towards Net Zero on Sustainable Tour |url=https://sustainabilitymag.com/articles/Coldplay-work-towards-net-zero-on-sustainable-tour |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230711125244/https://sustainabilitymag.com/articles/Coldplay-work-towards-net-zero-on-sustainable-tour |archive-date=11 July 2023 |access-date=11 July 2023 |website=Sustainability}}</ref> with Fernandez deeming their plans ""critically important, scientifically rigorous and of the highest quality"".<ref name=""ARELIZ"" /> In June 2023, [[BBC News]] interviewed senior cleansing officer Samantha Thomas about waste from concerts and she noticed that after the band performed at [[Millennium Stadium|Principality Stadium]], streets were significantly cleaner than other events.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Coldplay: Are the Band's Fans as Eco-Conscious as Them? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-65836492 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230608210428/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-65836492 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |website=BBC News}}</ref> As per ''[[Gaffa (magazine)|GAFFA]]''{{'s}} Jim Knutsson, the concert run established itself as a platform for green technologies and environmental commitment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Slår Rekord – Första Internationella Akt att Sälja Ut Fyra Ullevi |trans-title=Coldplay Break Records – First International Act to Sell Out Four Ullevi |url=https://gaffa.se/nyheter/2023/juli/coldplay-slar-rekord-forsta-internationella-akt-att-salja-ut-fyra-ullevi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725025013/https://gaffa.se/nyheter/2023/juli/coldplay-slar-rekord-forsta-internationella-akt-att-salja-ut-fyra-ullevi/ |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=GAFFA Sweden |language=sv}}</ref> ''[[American Songwriter]]'' later revealed that over seven million trees have been planted by the group on forest reserves.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 September 2023 |title=Coldplay Kick Off West Coast Tour with Explosive Seattle Show |url=https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-kicks-off-west-coast-tour-with-explosive-seattle-show/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230925211034/https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-kicks-off-west-coast-tour-with-explosive-seattle-show/ |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=American Songwriter}}</ref> In November 2023, they were included on the inaugural [[Time 100|''Time'' 100 Climate]] editorial,<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=The 100 Most Influential Climate Leaders in Business 2023 |url=https://time.com/collection/time100-climate/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116151051/https://time.com/collection/time100-climate/ |archive-date=16 November 2023 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=Time}}</ref> which ranked the most influential climate action leaders based on their recent and measurable achievements.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=How We Chose the 100 Most Influential Climate Leaders in Business for 2023 |url=https://time.com/6334864/how-we-chose-time100-climate-2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117162024/https://time.com/6334864/how-we-chose-time100-climate-2023/ |archive-date=17 November 2023 |access-date=17 November 2023 |website=Time}}</ref>

== Popular culture ==
=== Media coverage ===
[[File:Chris Martin and Lula (23.03.2023) (52769320559) (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=A casually-dressed man holding a guitar smiles along with another man and a woman, who are dressed formally|Martin giving a guitar to Brazilian President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva|Lula da Silva]] and First Lady [[Rosângela Lula da Silva|Janja]] during their meeting in 2023]]
Discussing the cultural impact of the shows for ''[[The Times]]'', Mark Beaumont opined that they ""marked a significant shift in attitude towards this once widely maligned band"", since even ""the most cynical hacks have been converted"" after going to a Coldplay live performance.<ref name=""BEAUMONT"" /> He also declared that their ""dedication to the stadium spectacle is regaining them respect and credibility in all quarters"".<ref name=""BEAUMONT"" /> ''[[La Gaceta (Tucumán)|La Gaceta]]''{{'s}} Pablo Hamada hailed the tour as a media phenomenon which brought a wave of positivity beyond the concerts, as the band became a leading topic of news coverage and [[social media]] engagement in the countries they visited.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2022 |title=Coldplay Invadió de Positividad las Redes Sociales |trans-title=Coldplay Invaded Social Media with Positivity |url=https://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/967493/espectaculos/coldplay-invadio-positividad-redes-sociales.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230917053055/https://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/967493/espectaculos/coldplay-invadio-positividad-redes-sociales.html |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=17 September 2023 |website=La Gaceta |language=es}}</ref>

Furthermore, Sofía Campos from ''[[La Razón (Madrid)|La Razón]]'' stated that the frenzy evoked by Coldplay reflected their cross-generational appeal,<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 May 2023 |title=El Fenómeno Coldplay Aterriza en España Batiendo Récords: Cuatro Días en el Estadi Olimpic |trans-title=The Coldplay Phenomenon Lands in Spain Breaking Records: Four Days at Estadi Olimpic |url=https://www.larazon.es/cultura/musica/fenomeno-coldplay-aterriza-espana-batiendo-records-cuatro-dias-estadi-olimpic_20230524646dbf0c21596b0001366df2.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230917173342/https://www.larazon.es/cultura/musica/fenomeno-coldplay-aterriza-espana-batiendo-records-cuatro-dias-estadi-olimpic_20230524646dbf0c21596b0001366df2.html |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=17 September 2023 |website=La Razón |language=es}}</ref> while Julio Maria claimed that they are the last rock band capable of filling stadiums worldwide in his piece for ''[[O Estado de S. Paulo|Estadão]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Traz Maior Espetáculo de Retorno à Vida da Pós-Pandemia |trans-title=Coldplay Bring the Greatest Return to Life Spectacle of the Post-Pandemic Era |url=https://www.estadao.com.br/cultura/musica/coldplay-traz-maior-espetaculo-de-retorno-a-vida-da-pos-pandemia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230917220215/https://www.estadao.com.br/cultura/musica/coldplay-traz-maior-espetaculo-de-retorno-a-vida-da-pos-pandemia/ |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=17 September 2023 |website=Estadão |language=pt}}</ref> Brazilian publications coined the term ""Coldplaymania"" to portray the group's stay in the country, since the concert run was subject of intense media scrutiny.<ref name=""RSBR"">{{Cite web |date=29 March 2023 |title=Rolling Stone Brasil Lança Especial Digital Sobre o Coldplay no País |trans-title=Rolling Stone Brazil Releases Digital Special About Coldplay in the Country |url=https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/musica/rolling-stone-brasil-lanca-especial-digital-sobre-o-coldplay-no-pais/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230402230002/https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/musica/rolling-stone-brasil-lanca-especial-digital-sobre-o-coldplay-no-pais/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> Martin was also criticised by [[Jair Bolsonaro]] defenders for meeting with President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva|Lula da Silva]], who invited Coldplay to the 30th [[United Nations Climate Change conference]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2023 |title=Deputado Bolsonarista Cobra Lula por Violão do Coldplay |trans-title=Bolsonarista Deputy Charges Lula for Coldplay's Guitar |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/colunas/painel/2023/03/deputado-bolsonarista-cobra-lula-por-violao-do-coldplay.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230529231222/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/colunas/painel/2023/03/deputado-bolsonarista-cobra-lula-por-violao-do-coldplay.shtml |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=Folha de S. Paulo |language=pt}}
* {{Cite web |date=23 March 2023 |title=Lula Encontra Chris Martin, Ganha Violão e Convida Coldplay para Show na COP |trans-title=Lula Meets Chris Martin, Gets Guitar and Invites Coldplay for Show at COP |url=https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/politica/lula-encontra-chris-martin-ganha-violao-e-convida-coldplay-para-show-na-cop/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230402233333/https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/politica/lula-encontra-chris-martin-ganha-violao-e-convida-coldplay-para-show-na-cop/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=CNN Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> Additionally, multiple outlets noted that ticketless fans gathered outside the venues to hear them perform.{{efn|Including in cities like [[Barcelona]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Desborda el Estadi |trans-title=Coldplay Overflows the Estadi |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20230529/9001167/fiesta-masiva-coldplay.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230529233912/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20230529/9001167/fiesta-masiva-coldplay.html |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es}}</ref> [[Kaohsiung]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:怎算的? 世運館容5.5萬 Coldplay 稱吸8.6萬 高雄交通局給答案 |trans-title=How to Calculate It? The World Games Stadium Has a Capacity of 55,000. It Is Claimed That Coldplay Will Attract 86,000. The Kaohsiung Transportation Bureau Gives the Answer |url=https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7570222 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113121011/https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7570222 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=United Daily News |language=zh}}</ref> [[Rio de Janeiro]],<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1641106566672785411|user=tracklist|title=E esses fãs do Coldplay assistindo o show do lado de fora do estádio no Rio de Janeiro?|author=Tracklist|date=29 March 2023|access-date=17 September 2023|language=pt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918000639/https://twitter.com/tracklist/status/1641106566672785411|archive-date=18 September 2023|url-status=live|trans-title=And these Coldplay fans watching the show outside the stadium in Rio de Janeiro?}}</ref> [[Singapore]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 February 2024 |title=An Adventure of a Lifetime: Coldplay's Singapore Concerts as Told by Fans Outside the National Stadium |url=https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/an-adventure-of-a-lifetime-coldplay-singapore-concert-as-told-by-fans-outside-national-stadium-cat-0-10-15-100-interview-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240209234525/https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/an-adventure-of-a-lifetime-coldplay-singapore-concert-as-told-by-fans-outside-national-stadium-cat-0-10-15-100-interview-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour |archive-date=9 February 2024 |access-date=9 February 2024 |website=Bandwagon Asia}}</ref> and [[Zürich]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 July 2023 |title=Coldplay in Zürich: So Feiern Die Fans Rund Ums Stadion |trans-title=Coldplay in Zurich: This Is How the Fans Celebrate Around the Stadium |url=https://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/coldplay-in-zuerich-so-feiern-die-fans-rund-ums-stadion-197196745498 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711180138/https://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/coldplay-in-zuerich-so-feiern-die-fans-rund-ums-stadion-197196745498 |archive-date=11 July 2023 |url-access=subscription |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=Tages-Anzeiger |language=de}}</ref>}}

=== Tributes and nods ===
''[[Rolling Stone]]'' released exclusive issues of their magazines in Argentina,<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 September 2022 |title=Sale Un Nuevo Bookazine Rolling Stone: Coldplay, las Mejores Entrevistas y Su Discografía Completa |trans-title=A New Rolling Stone Bookazine is Out: Coldplay, the Best Interviews and Their Complete Discography |url=https://es.rollingstone.com/sale-un-nuevo-bookazine-rolling-stone-coldplay-arg/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230402225600/https://es.rollingstone.com/sale-un-nuevo-bookazine-rolling-stone-coldplay-arg/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Argentina |language=es}}</ref> France,<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2022 |title=Coldplay au Vert en Couverture de Rolling Stone |trans-title=Coldplay Goes Green on the Cover of Rolling Stone |url=https://www.rollingstone.fr/coldplay-au-vert-en-couverture-de-rolling-stone/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230402224830/https://www.rollingstone.fr/coldplay-au-vert-en-couverture-de-rolling-stone/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=Rolling Stone France |language=fr}}</ref> and Brazil to celebrate the tour.<ref name=""RSBR"" /> A number of councillors from the [[Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro]] proposed honouring the band with the [[Pedro Ernesto|Pedro Ernesto Medal]], but their submission is yet to be voted.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 December 2022 |title=Coldplay Pode Receber Medalha de Mérito na Câmara dos Vereadores do Rio |trans-title=Coldplay Might Receive Award of Merit at Rio's Municipal Chamber |url=https://www.estadao.com.br/emais/gente/coldplay-pode-receber-medalha-de-merito-na-camara-dos-vereadores-do-rio-entenda/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403011609/https://www.estadao.com.br/emais/gente/coldplay-pode-receber-medalha-de-merito-na-camara-dos-vereadores-do-rio-entenda/ |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Estadão |language=pt}}</ref> ''[[Blitz (Portuguese magazine)|Blitz]]'' held a photography exhibit in [[Coimbra]] to mark their return to Portugal.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 2023 |title=Blitz Apresenta Coldplay em Portugal, a Exposição |trans-title=Blitz Presents Coldplay in Portugal, the Exhibition |url=https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-03-30-BLITZ-apresenta-Coldplay-em-Portugal-a-exposicao-cc81d590 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403114919/https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-03-30-BLITZ-apresenta-Coldplay-em-Portugal-a-exposicao-cc81d590 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Expresso |language=pt}}</ref> Italian illustrator Lorenzo Ruggiero, who has worked for [[Marvel Comics|Marvel]] and [[DC Comics]], paid tribute to their shows in [[Naples]] with a drawing.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=I Coldplay Diventano un Fumetto, il Disegno Pop di Lorenzo Ruggiero |trans-title=Coldplay Become a Comic, Lorenzo Ruggiero's Pop Drawing |url=https://napoli.repubblica.it/cronaca/2023/06/20/news/i_coldplay_diventano_un_fumetto_il_disegno_pop_di_lorenzo_ruggiero-405181608/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230622141228/https://napoli.repubblica.it/cronaca/2023/06/20/news/i_coldplay_diventano_un_fumetto_il_disegno_pop_di_lorenzo_ruggiero-405181608/ |archive-date=22 June 2023 |access-date=22 June 2023 |website=La Repubblica |language=it}}</ref> After the announcement of Asian dates for the tour, numerous brands and companies from the continent launched campaigns referencing Coldplay's discography.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 May 2023 |title=Here are 10 Big Brands Who are Jumping Onto the Coldplay Bandwagon |url=https://www.therakyatpost.com/news/2023/05/12/big-brands-get-on-board-coldplay-hype-netizens-add-on-to-the-fun/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230623212703/https://www.therakyatpost.com/news/2023/05/12/big-brands-get-on-board-coldplay-hype-netizens-add-on-to-the-fun/ |archive-date=23 June 2023 |access-date=23 June 2023 |website=The Rakyat Post}}
* {{Cite web |date=21 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Comes to Asia: Quick Thinking Brands Joining in on the Fun |url=https://www.marketing-interactive.com/coldplay-comes-to-asia-quick-thinking-brands-joining-in-on-the-fun |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230623212820/https://www.marketing-interactive.com/coldplay-comes-to-asia-quick-thinking-brands-joining-in-on-the-fun |archive-date=23 June 2023 |access-date=23 June 2023 |website=Marketing-Interactive}}</ref> In July 2023, Dutch magazine ''Soundz'' published a feature dedicated to them.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Special |url=https://www.soundz.nl/product/pre-sale-coldplay-special/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230918022139/https://www.soundz.nl/product/pre-sale-coldplay-special/ |archive-date=18 September 2023 |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=Soundz |language=nl}}</ref> Influenced by the group's [[Rock in Rio]] set, spinoff festival The Town and the [[Sambadrome Marquês de Sapucaí|Sapucaí Carnival Parade]] began to use [[Xyloband|LED wristbands]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 September 2023 |title=The Town Terá Momento Coldplay Ao Cair da Noite |trans-title=The Town Will Have a Coldplay Moment at Nightfall |url=https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/noticia/2023/09/02/the-town-tera-momento-coldplay-ao-cair-da-noite.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230918010212/https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/noticia/2023/09/02/the-town-tera-momento-coldplay-ao-cair-da-noite.ghtml |archive-date=18 September 2023 |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=O Globo |language=pt}}
* {{Cite web |date=11 February 2024 |title=Tecnologia do Coldplay Conquista a Sapucaí |trans-title=Coldplay's Technology Conquers Sapucaí |url=https://veja.abril.com.br/coluna/veja-gente/tecnologia-do-coldplay-conquista-a-sapucai/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240212054704/https://veja.abril.com.br/coluna/veja-gente/tecnologia-do-coldplay-conquista-a-sapucai/ |archive-date=12 February 2024 |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=Veja |language=pt}}</ref> [[Warner Music Group|Warner Music]] Brazil revealed that Coldplay inspired [[Bruno Mars]] for his visit to the country as well.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 September 2023 |title=Coldplay Inspirou Bruno Mars em Shows e Vídeo Feitos no Brasil, Diz Gravadora |trans-title=Coldplay Inspired Bruno Mars in Shows and Video made in Brazil, Says Record Label |url=https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/musica/noticia/2023/09/25/coldplay-inspirou-bruno-mars-em-shows-e-video-feitos-no-brasil-diz-gravadora.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230925132242/https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/musica/noticia/2023/09/25/coldplay-inspirou-bruno-mars-em-shows-e-video-feitos-no-brasil-diz-gravadora.ghtml |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=O Globo |language=pt}}</ref> ''[[Rockin'On Japan]]'' reviewed the history and music of the band to celebrate the two concerts at [[Tokyo Dome]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 November 2023 |title= |script-title=ja:ロッキング・オン12月号ではコールドプレイの全アルバムディスコグラフィーを総まとめします！ |trans-title=In the December Issue of Rocking On, We Will Be Summarizing Coldplay's Entire Album Discography! |url=https://rockinon.com/blog/rockinon/207843 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231105223230/https://rockinon.com/blog/rockinon/207843 |archive-date=5 November 2023 |access-date=5 November 2023 |website=Rockin'On Japan |language=ja}}</ref> [[Eden Park]] paid homage to their record-breaking three nights at the venue with a special mural.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2023 |title=Coldplay's New Zealand Show Inspires a New Mural at Eden Park: Here's How It Unfolded |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/coldplays-new-zealand-show-inspires-a-new-mural-at-eden-park-heres-how-it-unfolded/T5CSWNW3EVEU7MEAEQNCAIT4Z4/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130211951/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/coldplays-new-zealand-show-inspires-a-new-mural-at-eden-park-heres-how-it-unfolded/T5CSWNW3EVEU7MEAEQNCAIT4Z4/ |archive-date=30 November 2023 |access-date=2 December 2023 |website=The New Zealand Herald}}</ref>

=== Seismic activity ===
On 10 July 2022, seismic stations in Germany detected a [[Seismic magnitude scales|1.28-magnitude earthquake]] in [[Berlin]].<ref name=""REIN"">{{Cite web |date=12 July 2022 |title=Berlin-Spandau: Coldplay-Konzert Löst Erdbeben Aus |trans-title=Berlin-Spandau: Coldplay Concert Triggers Earthquake |url=https://www.musikexpress.de/berlin-spandau-coldplay-konzert-loest-erdbeben-aus-2172515/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230918030026/https://www.musikexpress.de/berlin-spandau-coldplay-konzert-loest-erdbeben-aus-2172515/ |archive-date=18 September 2023 |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=Musikexpress |language=de}}</ref> Its main frequency corresponded exactly to the beat of ""[[A Sky Full of Stars]]"", which led analysts to attribute the triggering to Coldplay's performance at [[Olympiastadion (Berlin)|Olympiastadion]].<ref name=""REIN"" /> The group acknowledged the occurrence and encouraged their fans to surpass the number in subsequent nights, resulting in a 1.5-magnitude earthquake on 12 July.<ref name=""TEMEL"">{{Cite web |date=14 July 2022 |title=Erschütterndes Fanverhalten: Mikro-Erdbeben Dei Coldplay |trans-title=Shocking Fan Behavior: Coldplay's Micro-Earthquakes |url=https://kurier.at/kultur/erschuetterndes-fanverhalten-coldplay-loesen-mikro-erdbeben-aus/402074905 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714192700/https://kurier.at/kultur/erschuetterndes-fanverhalten-coldplay-loesen-mikro-erdbeben-aus/402074905 |archive-date=14 July 2022 |access-date=14 July 2022 |website=Kurier |language=de}}</ref> According to ''[[Kurier]]''{{'s}} Peter Temel, the new register outperformed the day [[Florence and the Machine]] played ""[[Dog Days Are Over]]"" at Tempelhof Sounds.<ref name=""TEMEL"" /> He also commented that fast songs and crowd coordination can explain the phenomena.<ref name=""TEMEL"" /> Concert goers provoked a 1.5-magnitude earthquake once again during the third and final show.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1547085381165883393|user=ErdbebenDE|title=Coldplay macht gute Werbung für die eigenen Konzerte|author=Erdbeben Deutschland|date=13 July 2022|access-date=18 September 2023|language=de|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230918031417/https://twitter.com/ErdbebenDE/status/1547085381165883393|archive-date=18 September 2023|url-status=live|trans-title=Coldplay does good advertising for its own concerts}}</ref> In the following year, the band caused tremors at the [[National Stadium (Kaohsiung)|Kaohsiung National Stadium]] neighborhood.<ref name=""HUIFEN"">{{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay開唱周遭住家地震 有進入侏羅紀世界的錯覺 |trans-title=Earthquake in Nearby Homes as Coldplay Perform, It Feels Like Entering Jurassic World |url=https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7569735 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113173158/https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7569735 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=United Daily News |language=zh}}</ref>

=== Asian protests ===
{{See also|LGBT rights in Indonesia|LGBT rights in Malaysia|l2=Malaysia}}
Coldplay were criticised by several groups of conservative [[muslims]] for performing in Indonesia and Malaysia.<ref name=""SADEWO"">{{Cite web |date=17 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Hit by LGBT Issues, Continue or Cancel Concert? |trans-title=Coldplay Dihantam Isu LGBT, Lanjut Atau Batal Konser? |url=https://news.republika.co.id/berita/ruspk7318/coldplay-dihantam-isu-lgbt-lanjut-atau-batal-konser |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231123035742/https://news.republika.co.id/berita/ruspk7318/coldplay-dihantam-isu-lgbt-lanjut-atau-batal-konser |archive-date=23 November 2023 |access-date=23 November 2023 |website=Republika |language=id}}</ref> Novel Bamukmin, the Deputy Secretary-General of PA 212, declared the tour should be cancelled in [[Jakarta]] because the band endorse the [[LGBT community]],<ref name=""SADEWO"" /> while Nasrudin Hassan from the [[Malaysian Islamic Party]] condemned them for promoting a culture of ""[[hedonism]]"" and ""[[Deviance (sociology)|deviance]]"".<ref name=""SADEWO"" /> Conversely, [[Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy|Minister for Tourism]] [[Sandiaga Uno]] argued that the event would improve Indonesia's notoriety as a destination for international artists.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 May 2023 |title=As Coldplay Fever Grips Indonesia, Malaysia, Religious Right Calls to Cancel Band's Shows |url=https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/indonesian/indonesia-malaysia-coldplay-concerts-controversy-05302023114359.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231123025526/https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/indonesian/indonesia-malaysia-coldplay-concerts-controversy-05302023114359.html |archive-date=23 November 2023 |access-date=23 November 2023 |website=Benar News}}</ref> [[Syed Saddiq Syed Abdul Rahman]] likewise regarded it as a chance to generate economic surplus for [[Kuala Lumpur]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Concert: Malaysia Missed Economic Lottery, Says Muar MP |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/politics/2023/06/922432/coldplay-concert-malaysia-missed-economic-lottery-says-muar-mp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230822133240/https://www.nst.com.my/news/politics/2023/06/922432/coldplay-concert-malaysia-missed-economic-lottery-says-muar-mp |archive-date=22 August 2023 |access-date=22 August 2023 |website=New Straits Times}}</ref> On 10 November 2023, dozens of people marched outside Jakarta's British Embassy calling for the cancellation of the [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]] show.<ref name=""TIM"">{{Cite web |date=14 November 2023 |title=Sandi Respons Ancaman Massa Anti-LGBT Bakar Panggung Konser Coldplay |trans-title=Sandi Responds to Anti-LGBT Crowd Threatening to Burn Coldplay Concert Stage |url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/ekonomi/20231114102204-92-1023864/sandi-respons-ancaman-massa-anti-lgbt-bakar-panggung-konser-coldplay |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231114044923/https://www.cnnindonesia.com/ekonomi/20231114102204-92-1023864/sandi-respons-ancaman-massa-anti-lgbt-bakar-panggung-konser-coldplay |archive-date=14 November 2023 |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=CNN Indonesia |language=id}}</ref> They defended that Indonesian muslims should be mourning the [[War crimes in the 2023 Israel–Hamas war|war crimes Israel committed against Palestine]] instead of watching Coldplay live.<ref name=""TIM"" /> Extremist groups threatened to burn down their stage set-up,<ref name=""TIM"" /> while others only asked the police to ensure the venue had no [[Gay agenda|LGBT propaganda]] in place.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 November 2023 |title=Anti LGBT Movement Stage Demonstration Against Coldplay Concert in Jakarta |url=https://en.tempo.co/read/1797203/anti-lgbt-movement-stage-demonstration-against-coldplay-concert-in-jakarta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124193624/https://en.tempo.co/read/1797203/anti-lgbt-movement-stage-demonstration-against-coldplay-concert-in-jakarta |archive-date=24 November 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=Tempo}}</ref> In Malaysia, [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Prime Minister]] [[Anwar Ibrahim]] said that boycott requests were unnecessary because the band support Palestine,<ref name=""EWE"">{{Cite web |date=23 November 2023 |title=Malaysia's Defining Political Tension Takes the Concert Stage |url=https://time.com/6339205/malaysia-concerts-politicized-coldplay-anwar-islam/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124202125/https://time.com/6339205/malaysia-concerts-politicized-coldplay-anwar-islam/ |archive-date=24 November 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=Time}}</ref> but authorities still had a ""kill switch"" available for use in case of misbehavior.<ref name=""EWE"" /> The device was created after two members of [[the 1975]] kissed each other at [[Good Vibes Festival]] earlier that year.<ref name=""EWE"" /> Although Martin replaced the [[Rainbow flag (LGBT)|rainbow flag]] with one from the Love Button Global Movement, both concerts went out as usual.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=Full of Magic and Love, Coldplay's Appearance Exceeds Expectations |url=https://voi.id/en/musik/330111 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124195253/https://voi.id/en/musik/330111 |archive-date=24 November 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=VOI}}</ref>

== Economy ==
=== Demand and politics ===
{{Quote box
| quote    = Our expectations were high and we were aggressive in terms of the routing, but it has surpassed any expectations. It's truly remarkable. The band [are] a juggernaut, a true powerhouse and we're really excited to be involved.
| author   = —Bruce Moran, 2022<ref name=""HANLEY"">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Tour Shatters Latin American Records |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/06/coldplay-tour-shatters-latin-america-records/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220616015115/https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/06/coldplay-tour-shatters-latin-america-records/ |archive-date=16 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=IQ}}</ref>
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Sales for the tour led to public and political debate due to unprecedented interest in Asia,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Sixth Stadium Show in Singapore Due to Overwhelming Demand |url=https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-six-stadium-concert-singapore-2024-dates-tickets-3458184 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230620025002/https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-six-stadium-concert-singapore-2024-dates-tickets-3458184 |archive-date=20 June 2023 |access-date=20 June 2023 |website=NME}}</ref> Europe,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2022 |title=Coldplay, Biglietti Esauriti. Perché Piacciono Tanto Agli Italiani |trans-title=Coldplay Tickets Sold Out. Because Italians Like Them So Much |url=https://www.corriere.it/spettacoli/22_agosto_26/01-spettacoli-apretxtcorriere-web-sezioni-d0a8e55c-24a9-11ed-9477-8142972fc587.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230123021937/https://www.corriere.it/spettacoli/22_agosto_26/01-spettacoli-apretxtcorriere-web-sezioni-d0a8e55c-24a9-11ed-9477-8142972fc587.shtml |archive-date=23 January 2023 |access-date=26 August 2022 |website=Corriere della Sera |language=it}}</ref> Latin America,<ref name=""HANLEY"" /> and Oceania.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Both Coldplay Shows at Perth's Optus Stadium Are Now Sold Out |url=https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/both-coldplay-shows-at-perths-optus-stadium-are-now-sold-out/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823201820/https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/both-coldplay-shows-at-perths-optus-stadium-are-now-sold-out/ |archive-date=23 August 2023 |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=MusicFeeds}}</ref> Coldplay announced only two dates in [[Perth]] for latter continent through a partnership with the government of West Australia, which resulted in wide criticism from fans who lived in other regions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 May 2023 |title=Fans Furious Over Coldplay's Major Aussie News: Total Joke |url=https://7news.com.au/entertainment/music/fans-furious-over-coldplays-major-aussie-news-total-joke-c-10606794 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918153350/https://7news.com.au/entertainment/music/fans-furious-over-coldplays-major-aussie-news-total-joke-c-10606794 |archive-date=18 September 2023 |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=7}}</ref> Conversely, [[Live Nation (events promoter)|Live Nation]]'s Bruce Moran lauded the band for ""the most spectacular run through Latin America ever"", as their numerous performances broke records in nearly all countries visited.<ref name=""HANLEY"" /> Interviewed by ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'', Bruno Del Granado from [[Creative Artists Agency|CAA]] said that Coldplay's success and the founding of new arenas proved there was no longer an excuse for artists to avoid the territory.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=13 June 2023 |title=How Coldplay's Commitment to Latin America Delivered the Year's Biggest Shows in the World |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-concerts-latin-america-years-biggest-shows/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230918181548/https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-concerts-latin-america-years-biggest-shows/ |archive-date=18 September 2023 |access-date=18 September 2023}}</ref>

Demand for the concerts also caused [[Price gouging|ticket speculation]] to rise in Portugal, with 32 arrests being carried out.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 May 2023 |title=ASAE Deteve 32 Pessoas por Especulação com Bilhetes dos Coldplay |trans-title=ASAE Detained 32 People for Coldplay Tickets Speculation |url=https://www.jn.pt/justica/asae-deteve-32-pessoas-por-especulacao-com-bilhetes-dos-coldplay-16400050.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230523234151/https://www.jn.pt/justica/asae-deteve-32-pessoas-por-especulacao-com-bilhetes-dos-coldplay-16400050.html |archive-date=23 May 2023 |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=JN |language=pt}}</ref> Álvaro Covões, the director of events promoter Everything Is New, mentioned that they are ""a global phenomenon which only happens once every 30 years"", adding he only experienced such fan frenzy [[Beatlemania|when the Beatles were active]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2023 |title=Álvaro Covões: Os Coldplay São Um Fenómeno Global que Só Acontece de 30 em 30 Anos. A Última Vez que Aconteceu Foi com os Beatles |trans-title=Álvaro Covões: Coldplay are a Global Phenomenon Which Only Happens Once Every 30 Years. The Last Time It Happened was with the Beatles |url=https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-04-29-Alvaro-Covoes-Os-Coldplay-sao-um-fenomeno-global-que-so-acontece-de-30-em-30-anos.-A-ultima-vez-que-aconteceu-foi-com-os-Beatles-cd76e876 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230502223118/https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-04-29-Alvaro-Covoes-Os-Coldplay-sao-um-fenomeno-global-que-so-acontece-de-30-em-30-anos.-A-ultima-vez-que-aconteceu-foi-com-os-Beatles-cd76e876 |archive-date=2 May 2023 |access-date=2 May 2023 |website=Expresso |language=pt}}</ref> Similarly, the Organization of Consumers and Users (OCU) submitted an appeal to Spain's [[Ministry of Consumer Affairs (Spain)|Ministry of Consumer Affairs]] to reduce resales with abusive prices and poor insurances.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 October 2022 |title=El Boom de Coldplay Llega a Agencias de Comunicación, Cines o la OCU |trans-title=Coldplay's Boom Arrives at Communication Agencies, Cinemas or the OCU |url=https://www.diariodesevilla.es/vivirensevilla/Coldplay-llega-agencias-comunicacion-OCU_0_1723628712.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403034446/https://www.diariodesevilla.es/vivirensevilla/Coldplay-llega-agencias-comunicacion-OCU_0_1723628712.html |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Diario de Sevilla |language=es}}</ref> In Italy, the [[Autorità per le Garanzie nelle Comunicazioni|Authority for Communications Guarantees]] (AGCOM) conducted an operation against scalpers focused on the shows scheduled by Coldplay and arrested 26 lawbreakers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay e Blanco, Secondary Ticketing: Scoperti 26 Bagarini Con 15 Mila Biglietti |trans-title=Coldplay and Blanco, Secondary Ticketing: 26 Touts Discovered with 15,000 Tickets |url=https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/coldplay-e-blanco-secondary-ticketing-scoperti-26-bagarini-15mila-biglietti-AE7lwxlD |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230919172521/https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/coldplay-e-blanco-secondary-ticketing-scoperti-26-bagarini-15mila-biglietti-AE7lwxlD |archive-date=19 September 2023 |access-date=19 September 2023 |website=Il Sole 24 Ore |language=it}}</ref>

Moreover, [[Fahmi Fadzil]] revealed that the [[government of Malaysia]] will enact new legislation to monitor and control transactions in the secondary market after tickets for [[Kuala Lumpur]] were traded at considerably high prices.<ref name=""DAIM"">{{Cite web |date=23 May 2023 |title=Govt to Enact Anti-Scalping Law Following Coldplay Concert Tickets Controversy |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2023/05/912380/govt-enact-anti-scalping-law-following-coldplay-concert-tickets |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230524000501/https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2023/05/912380/govt-enact-anti-scalping-law-following-coldplay-concert-tickets |archive-date=24 May 2023 |access-date=24 May 2023 |website=New Straits Times}}</ref> Investigation of these cases helped to write the initial drafts.<ref name=""DAIM"" /> [[Bloomberg News]] then affirmed that the [[government of Indonesia]] decided to simplify and digitalise their permits process because the band had multiple extra dates in neighbouring capitals, but not in [[Jakarta]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2023 |title=Coldplay's One-Day Concert Pushes Indonesia to Simplify Permits |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-01/coldplay-s-one-day-concert-pushes-indonesia-to-simplify-permits |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230801122202/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-01/coldplay-s-one-day-concert-pushes-indonesia-to-simplify-permits |archive-date=1 August 2023 |access-date=1 August 2023 |website=Bloomberg}}</ref> The tour has promoted discussions regarding admission prices as well, since Coldplay kept them affordable despite the [[economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Has the Cheapest Big Tour in the World |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/pop-star-ranking/2022-may/coldplay-has-the-cheapest-big-tour-in-the-world.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230620105005/https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/pop-star-ranking/2022-may/coldplay-has-the-cheapest-big-tour-in-the-world.html |archive-date=20 June 2023 |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=Bloomberg}}</ref> They additionally established a program known as Infinity Tickets, where limited sets of $20 entries were released for fans who could not pay regular costs.{{efn|Infinity Ticket batches were sold only in pairs and had their locations selected at random, while values did not included possible taxes and fees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2022 |title=Infinity Ticket, La Iniciativa de Coldplay para Fanáticos que No Pueden Pagar Boletos |trans-title=Infinity Ticket, Coldplay's Initiative for Fans That Can't Pay Tickets |url=https://www.24-horas.mx/2022/05/26/infinity-ticket-la-iniciativa-de-coldplay-para-fanaticos-que-no-pueden-pagar-boletos/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220601141117/https://www.24-horas.mx/2022/05/26/infinity-ticket-la-iniciativa-de-coldplay-para-fanaticos-que-no-pueden-pagar-boletos/ |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=1 June 2022 |website=24 Horas El Diario Sin Límites |language=es}}</ref>}} Acts like [[Yungblud]] and [[Olivia Rodrigo]] later reproduced the practice.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 June 2023 |title=Yungblud Offers $20 Tickets for His 2023 North American Tour |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/yungblud-offers-20-tickets-for-his-2023-north-american-tour-3460221 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230920172951/https://www.nme.com/news/music/yungblud-offers-20-tickets-for-his-2023-north-american-tour-3460221 |archive-date=20 September 2023 |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=NME}}
* {{Cite AV media |date=17 October 2023 |time=0:36 to 1:29 |title=Olivia Rodrigo Talks Massive New Tour, Prioritizing Her Mental Health |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bMmvjxd1wiY |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017212026/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bMmvjxd1wiY |archive-date=17 October 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

=== Local business ===
[[File:Confeitaria Colombo no Centro do Rio (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=Overview of an indoors restaurant with numerous people sitting at the tables|Cities visited by the tour enjoyed a financial surge in hotels, restaurants, bars and [[Service industries|various other services]].]]
Coldplay were credited with fueling the commerce of regions where they performed. Hotels with a view for [[Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica (2011)|Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica]] in [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]] became fully booked after their concerts were sold out, since people began to search for other ways to see them.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 October 2021 |title=Ver a Coldplay como Sea: Hoteles con Vista al Estadio Nacional Tienen Reservas Llenas para El 18 de Marzo |trans-title=See Coldplay No Matter What: Hotels with a View of Estadio Nacional are Fully Booked for 18 of March |url=https://www.nacion.com/viva/entretenimiento/ver-a-coldplay-como-sea-hoteles-con-vista-al/SLWGFJXEFZHSPAURFY64IGCVPY/story/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031210136/https://www.nacion.com/viva/entretenimiento/ver-a-coldplay-como-sea-hoteles-con-vista-al/SLWGFJXEFZHSPAURFY64IGCVPY/story/ |archive-date=31 October 2021 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=La Nación |language=es}}</ref> ''[[El Espectador]]'' noticed that accommodation occupancy rates reached 85% when the band visited Bogotá.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 December 2022 |title=Conciertos: Los Protagonistas del Crecimiento de La Economía Colombiana |trans-title=Concerts: The Protagonists of the Colombian Economy's Growth |url=https://www.elespectador.com/entretenimiento/musica/conciertos-los-protagonistas-del-crecimiento-de-la-economia-colombiana/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230920223724/https://www.elespectador.com/entretenimiento/musica/conciertos-los-protagonistas-del-crecimiento-de-la-economia-colombiana/ |archive-date=20 September 2023 |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=El Espectador |language=pt}}</ref> Similarly, [[Buenos Aires]] registered their highest percentages in 10 years during the band's residency at [[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2023 |title=Hoteles en Buenos Aires: El 2022 Logró la Ocupación Más Alta de los Últimos 10 Años, Cuál Fue la Curiosa Razón? |trans-title=Hotels in Buenos Aires: 2022 Achieved the Highest Occupancy of the Last 10 Years, What Was the Curious Reason? |url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/propiedades/hoteles-en-buenos-aires-el-2022-logro-la-ocupacion-mas-alta-de-los-ultimos-10-anos-cual-fue-la-nid10032023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113210957/https://www.lanacion.com.ar/propiedades/hoteles-en-buenos-aires-el-2022-logro-la-ocupacion-mas-alta-de-los-ultimos-10-anos-cual-fue-la-nid10032023/ |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=La Nación |language=es}}</ref> ''[[Clarín (Argentine newspaper)|Clarín]]'' noted that revenue from bars and restaurants in the city triplicated with the tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 November 2022 |title=El Efecto Coldplay en los Restaurantes y Bares de Núñez: Venden el Triple Gracias a los Recitales |trans-title=The Coldplay Effect at Restaurant and Bars in Núñez: They are Selling Thrice as Much Thanks to the Shows |url=https://www.clarin.com/gourmet/efecto-coldplay-restaurantes-bares-nunez-venden-triple-gracias-recitales_0_fiC4ANoZf6.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403162052/https://www.clarin.com/gourmet/efecto-coldplay-restaurantes-bares-nunez-venden-triple-gracias-recitales_0_fiC4ANoZf6.html |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Clarín |language=es}}</ref> Business owners in [[Curitiba]] said its impact surpassed the [[2014 FIFA World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 March 2023 |title=Efeito Coldplay: Bares e Restaurantes Comemoram Movimento Recorde |trans-title=Coldplay Effect: Restaurant and Bars Celebrate Record Movement |url=https://www.gazetadopovo.com.br/bomgourmet/bomgourmet-negocios/efeito-coldplay-bares-e-restaurantes-comemoram-movimento-recorde/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403161758/https://www.gazetadopovo.com.br/bomgourmet/bomgourmet-negocios/efeito-coldplay-bares-e-restaurantes-comemoram-movimento-recorde/ |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Gazeta do Povo |language=pt}}</ref>

During their stay in [[Rio de Janeiro]], the group moved profits superior to [[Brazilian real|R$]]86 million.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 March 2023 |title=Turnê do Coldplay Deve Movimentar Mais de R$86 Milhões na Economia do Rio |trans-title=Coldplay Tour Should Move More Than R$86 Million in Rio's economy |url=https://www.band.uol.com.br/bandnews-fm/rio-de-janeiro/noticias/turne-do-coldplay-deve-movimentar-mais-de-r-86-mi-na-economia-do-rio-16591901 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403161916/https://www.band.uol.com.br/bandnews-fm/rio-de-janeiro/noticias/turne-do-coldplay-deve-movimentar-mais-de-r-86-mi-na-economia-do-rio-16591901 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref> Furthermore, the [[President of the Municipal Chamber]] of [[Coimbra]] observed that they generated more than [[Euro sign|€]]36 million in direct economic returns to the town.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2023 |title=Coldplay em Coimbra Geraram Retorno Económico Directo de 36 Milhões de Euros |trans-title=Coldplay Generated a Direct Economic Return of 36 Million Euros in Coimbra |url=https://www.publico.pt/2023/06/29/local/noticia/coldplay-coimbra-geraram-retorno-economico-directo-36-milhoes-euros-2055130 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230630012036/https://www.publico.pt/2023/06/29/local/noticia/coldplay-coimbra-geraram-retorno-economico-directo-36-milhoes-euros-2055130 |archive-date=30 June 2023 |access-date=30 June 2023 |website=Público |language=pt}}</ref> Hotel prices rose by 1,000% when they announced concerts there.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 August 2022 |title=Custavam 120€, Agora Custam 1200€: Efeito Coldplay Atinge Alojamentos em Coimbra |trans-title=They Used To Cost €120, Now They Are €1200: Coldplay Effect Reaches Accommodations in Coimbra |url=https://www.nit.pt/fora-de-casa/turismos-rurais-e-hoteis/custavam-120e-agora-custam-1200e-efeito-coldplay-atinge-alojamentos-em-coimbra |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403025646/https://www.nit.pt/fora-de-casa/turismos-rurais-e-hoteis/custavam-120e-agora-custam-1200e-efeito-coldplay-atinge-alojamentos-em-coimbra |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=NiT |language=pt}}</ref> Equivalent boosts were also seen in places such as [[Dublin]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Fans Face Fees of Over €2,440 for Dublin Accommodation for Croke Park Gigs |url=https://www.thejournal.ie/coldplay-accommodation-dublin-croke-park-6124042-Jul2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921003628/https://www.thejournal.ie/coldplay-accommodation-dublin-croke-park-6124042-Jul2023/ |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=The Journal}}</ref> [[Düsseldorf]],<ref name=""ULLRICH"">{{Cite web |date=1 August 2023 |title=Coldplay: Nach VVK-Chaos – Fans Haben Weiteres Problem |trans-title=Coldplay: After Presale Chaos – Fans Have Another Problem |url=https://www.watson.de/unterhaltung/musik/434842300-coldplay-nach-vvk-chaos-bei-ticketmaster-fans-haben-naechstes-problem |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921003608/https://www.watson.de/unterhaltung/musik/434842300-coldplay-nach-vvk-chaos-bei-ticketmaster-fans-haben-naechstes-problem |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Watson |language=de}}</ref> [[Helsinki]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2023 |title=Suositun Hotellisivuston Hinnat Ampaisivat Taivaisiin, Kun Coldplay Ilmoitti Helsingin-Keikastaan |trans-title=The Prices on the Popular Hotel Website Skyrocketed When Coldplay Announced Their Concert in Helsinki |url=https://www.hs.fi/kaupunki/helsinki/art-2000009738168.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230724155111/https://www.hs.fi/kaupunki/helsinki/art-2000009738168.html |archive-date=24 July 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Helsingin Sanomat |language=fi}}</ref> [[Munich]],<ref name=""ULLRICH"" /> and [[Singapore]] (where [[Agoda]] reported a 556% increase in searches).<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Jan 2024 Concert in Singapore Has Fans in India Excited; Spike in Search for Hotels, Shows Agoda Data |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/coldplay-jan-2024-concert-in-singapore-has-fans-in-india-excited-spike-in-search-for-hotels-shows-agoda-data/articleshow/101221462.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230625164314/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/coldplay-jan-2024-concert-in-singapore-has-fans-in-india-excited-spike-in-search-for-hotels-shows-agoda-data/articleshow/101221462.cms?from=mdr |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=The Economic Times}}</ref> Marketing agency Hello Monday launched a contest giving away tickets for the [[Barcelona]] nights and received one million comments on [[social media]], along with 80,000 new users on their own platform.<ref name=""DIARIO"">{{Cite web |date=1 October 2022 |title=El Boom de Coldplay Llega a Agencias de Comunicación, Cines o la OCU |trans-title=Coldplay's Boom Arrives at Communication Agencies, Cinemas or the OCU |url=https://www.diariodesevilla.es/vivirensevilla/Coldplay-llega-agencias-comunicacion-OCU_0_1723628712.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403034446/https://www.diariodesevilla.es/vivirensevilla/Coldplay-llega-agencias-comunicacion-OCU_0_1723628712.html |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Diario de Sevilla |language=es}}</ref> ''[[Diario de Sevilla]]'' considered it one of the most viral advertising campaigns of the year in Spain.<ref name=""DIARIO"" />

In November 2023, the [[Kaohsiung City Government]] donated discount coupons to fans who attended the shows in the region to boost revenue at night markets.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 歌迷快看! 來高雄聽演唱會再送商圈夜市優惠券 |trans-title=Coldplay Fans, Take a Look! Come to Kaohsiung for a Concert and Get Coupons for Night Markets in the Shopping District |url=https://www.ctee.com.tw/news/20231104700422-431401 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106032421/https://www.ctee.com.tw/news/20231104700422-431401 |archive-date=6 November 2023 |access-date=6 November 2023 |website=Commercial Times |language=zh}}</ref> ''[[United Daily News]]'' estimated that around 30,000 citizens were attracted to those businesses.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 演唱會效應加乘 城市嶼浪市集 狂吸3萬人潮 |trans-title=The Coldplay Concert Effect Was Combined with the Urban Island Market to Attract a Crowd of 30,000 People |url=https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7569704 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113152401/https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7569704 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=United Daily News |language=zh}}</ref> Their earnings grew by 30%, while accommodations in the city had a 90% occupancy rate.<ref name=""CNA"">{{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 嗨唱高雄帶來17萬人次 創5.5億觀光產值 |trans-title=Coldplay's Performance in Kaohsiung Brought 170,000 Visitors and Created a Tourism Output Value of 550 Million |url=https://www.cna.com.tw/news/ahel/202311130202.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113122227/https://www.cna.com.tw/news/ahel/202311130202.aspx |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=CNA |language=zh}}</ref> Coldplay generated a record income of [[New Taiwan dollar|NT$]]550 million as a result.<ref name=""CNA"" /> [[CNBC Indonesia]] stated that the concert at [[Jakarta]]'s [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]] brought [[Indonesian rupiah|Rp]]1.4 trillion in revenue for the city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 November 2023 |title=Konser Hanya Sehari, Coldplay Cuan Rp1,4 Triliun |trans-title=Only One Day Concert, Coldplay Profit Rp1.4 Trillion |url=https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20231117125925-8-489848/video-konser-hanya-sehari-coldplay-cuan-rp-14-triliun |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119143107/https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20231117125925-8-489848/video-konser-hanya-sehari-coldplay-cuan-rp-14-triliun |archive-date=19 November 2023 |access-date=19 November 2023 |website=CNBC Indonesia |language=id}}</ref> It also helped to improve the proceeds of the venue by 50% in comparison to 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2023 |title=Pendapatan GBK di 2023 Melonjak 50%, Dampak Konser Coldplay? |trans-title=GBK Revenue in 2023 Soars 50%, Impact of Coldplay Concert? |url=https://www.liputan6.com/bisnis/read/5474059/pendapatan-gbk-di-2023-melonjak-50-dampak-konser-coldplay |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180802/https://www.liputan6.com/bisnis/read/5474059/pendapatan-gbk-di-2023-melonjak-50-dampak-konser-coldplay |archive-date=7 December 2023 |access-date=7 December 2023 |website=Liputan 6 |language=id}}</ref> [[Expedia Group]] later informed that flight searches to [[Perth]] grew by almost 135% when the band performed at [[Perth Stadium|Optus Stadium]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 November 2023 |title=Aussie City Declared Sydney Destination Dupe |url=https://www.news.com.au/travel/australian-holidays/aussie-city-declared-sydney-destination-dupe/news-story/ba90d4b6cb909c25a67f374800339faa |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207185546/https://www.news.com.au/travel/australian-holidays/aussie-city-declared-sydney-destination-dupe/news-story/ba90d4b6cb909c25a67f374800339faa |archive-date=7 December 2023 |access-date=7 December 2023 |website=News.com.au}}</ref> As per [[Minister for Tourism (Western Australia)|Minister for Tourism]] [[Rita Saffioti]], about 3,500 locals were expected to take new jobs in town with the impact of the tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Concerts Set to Provide Extra Work, Create Thousands of Jobs Across Perth |url=https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/coldplay-concerts-set-to-provide-extra-work-create-thousands-of-jobs-across-perth-c-12518939 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231111160028/https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/coldplay-concerts-set-to-provide-extra-work-create-thousands-of-jobs-across-perth-c-12518939 |archive-date=11 November 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |website=The West Australian}}</ref>

=== Civil transport ===
As part of their sustainability efforts, Coldplay teamed up with [[SAP]] to design a [[Mobile app|mobile application]] for the tour.<ref name=""SOMERS"">{{Cite web |date=12 March 2022 |title=How Technology Tunes Coldplay's Eco-friendly Tour To Hit The Right Note |url=https://news.sap.com/2022/03/technology-tunes-eco-friendly-coldplay-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615184928/https://news.sap.com/2022/03/technology-tunes-eco-friendly-coldplay-tour/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=SAP News Center}}</ref> It calculated the [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] from the attendees and encouraged them to take eco-friendly travel options by offering merchandise store discounts.<ref name=""SOMERS"" /> In the United States, the group collaborated with the public transportation providers of four cities to grant cheaper rides, which improved passenger turnout by an average of 59% on performance days.<ref name=""HENDERSON"" /> Organisations from [[City of Brussels|Brussels]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2022 |title=La Stib Renforce Son offre de Transport Pour Les Concerts de Coldplay |trans-title=Stib Strengthens Its Transport Offer for Coldplay Concerts |url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/la-stib-renforce-son-offre-de-transport-pour-les-concerts-de-coldplay-11041118 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921033808/https://www.rtbf.be/article/la-stib-renforce-son-offre-de-transport-pour-les-concerts-de-coldplay-11041118 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=RTBF |language=fr}}</ref> [[Cardiff]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 June 2023 |title=Great Western Railway Provides Additional Trains for Coldplay Concert Goers |url=https://news.gwr.com/news/great-western-railway-provides-additional-trains-for-coldplay-concert-goers |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921153141/https://news.gwr.com/news/great-western-railway-provides-additional-trains-for-coldplay-concert-goers |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Great Western Railway}}</ref> [[Glasgow]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2022 |title=ScotRail Announces More Trains for Coldplay Gigs at Hampden Stadium |url=https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/scottish-news/20680071.scotrail-announces-trains-coldplay-gigs-hampden-stadium/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921033547/https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/scottish-news/20680071.scotrail-announces-trains-coldplay-gigs-hampden-stadium/ |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Glasgow Times}}</ref> [[Milan]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2023 |title=Coldplay a Milano: Come Arrivare al Concerto, Metro, Orari, Biglietti e Scaletta |trans-title=Coldplay in Milan: How to Get to the Concert, Metro, Timetables, Tickets and Setlist |url=https://www.ilgiorno.it/milano/cosa-fare/coldplay--concerto-come-arrivare-metro-orari-scaletta-xie85ujk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921155103/https://www.ilgiorno.it/milano/cosa-fare/coldplay--concerto-come-arrivare-metro-orari-scaletta-xie85ujk |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Il Giorno |language=it}}</ref> and [[Santiago]] set up exclusive services to support demand as well.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 September 2022 |title=Conoce los Refuerzos de Buses que Dispondrá El DTPM para los Conciertos de Coldplay En El Estadio Nacional |trans-title=Check Out the Bus Reinforcements That DTPM Will Have for the Coldplay Concerts at the National Stadium |url=https://www.red.cl/red-comunica/conoce-los-refuerzos-de-buses-que-dispondra-el-dtpm-para-los-conciertos-de-coldplay-en-el-estadio-nacional/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921160110/https://www.red.cl/red-comunica/conoce-los-refuerzos-de-buses-que-dispondra-el-dtpm-para-los-conciertos-de-coldplay-en-el-estadio-nacional/ |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Red Movilidad |language=es}}</ref> When the band visited Brazil, Tembici and the British Embassy gave admissions to fans who managed to present completely sustainable ways to arrive at the concerts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Dará Ingressos Para Fãs Com Práticas Sustentáveis |trans-title=Coldplay Will Give Tickets to Fans with Sustainable Practices |url=https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-dara-ingressos-para-fas-com-praticas-sustentaveis/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921041239/https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-dara-ingressos-para-fas-com-praticas-sustentaveis/ |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> Over 36,000 people used the [[Rio de Janeiro Metro]] to watch them at [[Estádio Olímpico Nilton Santos]], almost six times more than the weekdays average.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2023 |title=Engenho de Dentro Vive Renascimento com Shows Lotados e Comércio em Alta |trans-title=Engenho de Dentro Is Experiencing a Renaissance with Crowded Shows and Booming Commerce |url=https://oglobo.globo.com/rio/noticia/2023/10/14/engenho-de-dentro-vive-renascimento-com-shows-lotados-e-comercio-em-alta.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231015002015/https://oglobo.globo.com/rio/noticia/2023/10/14/engenho-de-dentro-vive-renascimento-com-shows-lotados-e-comercio-em-alta.ghtml |archive-date=15 October 2023 |access-date=15 October 2023 |website=O Globo |language=pt}}</ref> In [[Gothenburg]], outsiders earned free public transport to [[Ullevi]] after being surveyed by the Green City Zone project, which outlined travel behaviour to reduce [[carbon footprint]] in major events.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 July 2023 |title=Göteborg Utvecklar Utsläppsfria Evenemang Under Coldplay På Ullevi |trans-title=Gothenburg to Develop Emission-Free Events During Coldplay at Ullevi |url=https://via.tt.se/pressmeddelande/3356516/goteborg-utvecklar-utslappsfria-evenemang-under-coldplay-pa-ullevi?publisherId=2567142&lang=sv |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921033454/https://via.tt.se/pressmeddelande/3356516/goteborg-utvecklar-utslappsfria-evenemang-under-coldplay-pa-ullevi?publisherId=2567142&lang=sv |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=VIA TT |language=sv}}</ref> Moreover, the [[Kaohsiung Metro]] attributed their biggest days of activity in 2023 to Coldplay (565,000 passengers).<ref name=""HUIFEN"" /> ''[[Kompas]]'' revealed that [[Jakarta MRT]] had their largest user rate since 2019 with the [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]] concert.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=Gara-Gara Konser Coldplay, Jumlah Penumpang MRT Tertinggi Sejak 2019 |trans-title=Due to Coldplay's Concert, the Number of MRT Passengers Is the Highest Since 2019 |url=https://www.kompas.com/properti/read/2023/11/16/160000821/gara-gara-konser-coldplay-jumlah-penumpang-mrt-tertinggi-sejak-2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231116145336/https://www.kompas.com/properti/read/2023/11/16/160000821/gara-gara-konser-coldplay-jumlah-penumpang-mrt-tertinggi-sejak-2019 |archive-date=16 November 2023 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=Kompas |language=id}}</ref> In 2024, [[Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)|Singapore MRT]] offered free buses to four train stations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2024 |title=Grab to Offer Free Shuttle Bus Rides to 4 MRT Stations from Coldplay Concerts |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/grab-to-offer-free-shuttle-buses-to-4-mrt-stations-from-coldplay-concerts |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123231900/https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/grab-to-offer-free-shuttle-buses-to-4-mrt-stations-from-coldplay-concerts |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |website=The Straits Times}}</ref>

=== Wider influence ===
[[File:Singapore Marina Bay Sands viewed from UOB Plaza 1 (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=Three buildings connected to each other stand near the seashore|The shows in [[Singapore]] were part of a [[Government of Singapore|government]] plan to promote the city as the music capital of Asia.]]
Several countries experienced a [[Macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] impact associated with the Music of the Spheres World Tour. Referencing the performances at [[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]], the [[government of Argentina]] established the ""Coldplay dollar"", an [[exchange rate]] of the American currency which was used for international live events.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 October 2022 |title=Dólar Coldplay y Dólar Qatar: Argentina Devalúa Su Moneda por Sectores |trans-title=Coldplay Dollar and Qatar Dollar: Argentina Devalues Its Currency by Sectors |url=https://elpais.com/argentina/2022-10-12/dolar-coldplay-y-dolar-qatar-argentina-devalua-su-moneda-por-sectores.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221024140910/https://elpais.com/argentina/2022-10-12/dolar-coldplay-y-dolar-qatar-argentina-devalua-su-moneda-por-sectores.html |archive-date=24 October 2022 |access-date=26 October 2022 |website=El País |language=es}}</ref> [[Bank Central Asia]]'s stock exchange value enjoyed a boost after it was announced their card holders got exclusive access to the [[Jakarta]] presales.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 May 2023 |title=BBCA Melesat 2,28%, Efek Coldplay Masih Berlanjut? |trans-title=BBCA Increases 2.28%, Coldplay Effect Still Continues? |url=https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/market/20230519141003-17-438766/bbca-melesat-228-efek-coldplay-masih-berlanjut/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230521004940/https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/market/20230519141003-17-438766/bbca-melesat-228-efek-coldplay-masih-berlanjut/ |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=CNBC Indonesia |language=id}}</ref> According to ''[[Wall Street Italia]]'', the shows in [[Naples]] and [[Milan]] had an overall economic impact of more than €500 million in Italy, based on expenses with tickets, hotel, food and tourism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2023 |title=Coldplay, Qual è Stato L'Impatto dei Loro Concerti Su Economia e Ambiente? |trans-title=Coldplay, What Was the Impact of Their Concerts on the Economy and the Environment? |url=https://www.wallstreetitalia.com/coldplay-qual-e-limpatto-dei-loro-concerti-su-economia-e-ambiente/#l-impatto-sull-economia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921192310/https://www.wallstreetitalia.com/coldplay-qual-e-limpatto-dei-loro-concerti-su-economia-e-ambiente/%23l-impatto-sull-economia |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Wall Street Italia |language=it}}</ref>

''[[The Music (magazine)|The Music]]'' observed that the double nights in [[Perth]] brought at least $75 million for Western Australian economy, drawing 40,000 out-of-state visitors as well.<ref name=""ELIEZER"">{{Cite web |date=30 November 2023 |title=Has Perth Turned the Corner As a Live Music Destination? |url=https://themusic.com.au/industry/has-perth-turned-the-corner-as-a-live-music-destination/U4PpR0ZJSEs/30-11-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231130195021/https://themusic.com.au/industry/has-perth-turned-the-corner-as-a-live-music-destination/U4PpR0ZJSEs/30-11-23 |archive-date=30 November 2023 |access-date=30 November 2023 |website=The Music}}</ref> [[Premier of Western Australia|Premier]] [[Roger Cook (politician)|Roger Cook]] also added that the group successfully created a model where the city can be included as part of the Asian tours carried out by other artists.<ref name=""ELIEZER"" /> ''[[Today (Singapore newspaper)|Today]]'' estimated they generated [[Singapore dollar|S$]]96 million in revenue for [[Singapore]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 July 2023 |title=Analysis: How Big Names Like Taylor Swift, Coldplay Can Bring in the Big Bucks for Singapore |url=https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/analysis-taylor-swift-coldplay-concert-tourism-inflation-2203556 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725024135/https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/analysis-taylor-swift-coldplay-concert-tourism-inflation-2203556 |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=Today}}</ref> Marketing professor Seshan Ramaswami declared that while efforts to stage international events were made by the government before, Coldplay and their six-day residency were a major step to expand the region's demographic reach to fans in Asia and the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Swiftly Hots Up Concert Tourism Mania: Music to the Ears for Singapore's Economy |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/business/coldplay-swiftly-hots-up-concert-tourism-mania-music-to-the-ears-of-singapore-s-economy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625183738/https://www.straitstimes.com/business/coldplay-swiftly-hots-up-concert-tourism-mania-music-to-the-ears-of-singapore-s-economy |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=The Straits Times}}</ref> As a result, the band helped to take [[Asia–Pacific]]'s tourism economy back to pre-[[COVID-19 pandemic|pandemic]] levels.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 November 2023 |title=Coldplay, Taylor Swift Boosting Tourism, Travel in AsPac – ForwardKeys |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2023/11/06/coldplay-taylor-swift-boosting-tourism-travel-in-aspac-forwardkeys/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231106043901/https://businessmirror.com.ph/2023/11/06/coldplay-taylor-swift-boosting-tourism-travel-in-aspac-forwardkeys/ |archive-date=6 November 2023 |access-date=6 November 2023 |website=BusinessMirror}}</ref>

In September 2023, ''[[Irish Examiner]]'' informed that concert spending in Ireland rose by 88% with the four dates at [[Croke Park]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 August 2023 |title=Taylor Swift and Coldplay Drive a Surge in Concert Spending by Irish Consumers |url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/business/economy/arid-41206372.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921194055/https://www.irishexaminer.com/business/economy/arid-41206372.html |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Irish Examiner}}</ref> [[RTÉ]] likewise claimed that they were responsible for the biggest ticket sales day of the year in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 December 2023 |title=Surge in Flight Bookings in January – AIB Spending Report |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2023/1220/1422941-surge-in-flight-bookings-in-january-aib-spend-report/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221001751/https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2023/1220/1422941-surge-in-flight-bookings-in-january-aib-spend-report/ |archive-date=21 December 2023 |access-date=21 December 2023 |website=RTÉ}}</ref> Based on annual comparisons, [[CTS Eventim]] (36%) and Live Nation (32%) mentioned Coldplay among the driving factors behind their increase in profit.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=CTS Eventim Revenues Hit €1.75BN for Year-to-Date |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/11/cts-eventim-revenue-hits-e1-75bn-for-year-to-date/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231120183311/https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/11/cts-eventim-revenue-hits-e1-75bn-for-year-to-date/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=IQ}}
* {{Cite web |date=31 January 2024 |title=Billboard 2024 Power 100 List Revealed |url=https://www.billboard.com/h/billboard-2024-power-100-list/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203055505/https://www.billboard.com/h/billboard-2024-power-100-list/ |archive-date=3 February 2024 |access-date=3 February 2024 |website=Billboard}}</ref> Writing for ''[[El Cronista]]'', José Vales credited the group with the rise of [[music tourism]], as they can incite travel-related searches around the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 November 2023 |title=Taylor Swift y Coldplay: Cómo Potencian El Turismo los Influencers Musicales y Qué Se Espera Para 2024 |trans-title=Taylor Swift and Coldplay: How Musical Influencers Boost Tourism and What Is Expected for 2024 |url=https://www.cronista.com/espana/actualidad-es/taylor-swift-y-coldplay-como-potencian-el-turismo-los-influencers-musicales-y-que-se-espera-para-2024/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231115235216/https://www.cronista.com/espana/actualidad-es/taylor-swift-y-coldplay-como-potencian-el-turismo-los-influencers-musicales-y-que-se-espera-para-2024/ |archive-date=15 November 2023 |access-date=21 November 2023 |website=El Cronista |language=es}}</ref>

== Other areas ==
=== Music charts === 
Coldplay's discography experienced considerable sales and streaming gains throughout the tour, leading songs to debut and reach new peaks on [[Billboard Global 200|''Billboard'' Global 200]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=31 August 2022 |title=New Around the World: Coldplay's Catalog Climbs Global Charts |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-catalog-global-charts-new-around-the-world/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220901134228/https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-catalog-global-charts-new-around-the-world/ |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=4 September 2022}}</ref> Following their shows at [[Estadio Akron]], in [[Zapopan]], they rose to number two on [[Spotify]] Mexico's Daily Top Artists chart.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 2023 |title=Daily Top Artists Mexico |url=https://charts.spotify.com/charts/view/artist-mx-daily/2022-03-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729213605/https://i.ibb.co/jLXySrW/Screenshot-1.png |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Spotify Charts}}</ref> [[Warner Music Group]] also certified ""[[My Universe (song)|My Universe]]"" and ''[[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|Music of the Spheres]]'' (2021) as 3× Platinum and Gold in the country, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Coldplay Recibe Disco de Oro de Warner Music México por las Vendas del Álbum Music of the Spheres |trans-title=Coldplay Receives Gold Disc from Warner Music Mexico for Music of the Spheres Sales |url=https://warnermusic.com.mx/files/2022/Coldplay_MOTS_GoldCertification_MX.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220406001027/https://warnermusic.com.mx/files/2022/Coldplay_MOTS_GoldCertification_MX.pdf |archive-date=6 April 2022 |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=Warner Music MX |language=es}}</ref> The album returned to Germany's [[GfK Entertainment charts|Offizielle Top 100]] at number 19 with the [[Frankfurt]] and [[Berlin]] dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 August 2022 |title=Coldplay – Music of the Spheres |url=https://www.offiziellecharts.de/album-details-483965 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729215336/https://www.offiziellecharts.de/album-details-483965 |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Offizielle Deutsche Charts |language=de}}</ref> In Belgium, the group's entire studio album catalogue – plus ''[[Live in Buenos Aires (Coldplay album)|Live in Buenos Aires]]'' (2018) – appeared in both the [[Flanders]] and [[Wallonia]] rankings.<ref name=""BELCHART"">{{Cite web |date=13 August 2022 |title=Ultratop – Albums Top 200 |url=https://www.ultratop.be/fr/albums/2022/20220813 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729220916/https://www.ultratop.be/fr/albums/2022/20220813 |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Ultratop |language=fr}}
* {{Cite web |date=13 August 2022 |title=Ultratop – Albums Top 200 |url=https://www.ultratop.be/nl/albums/2022/20220813 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729220828/https://www.ultratop.be/nl/albums/2022/20220813 |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Ultratop |language=nl}}</ref> ''[[Live 2012 (Coldplay album)|Live 2012]]'' entered the latter list as well.<ref name=""BELCHART"" /> After the residency at [[Wembley Stadium]], ""[[Yellow (Coldplay song)|Yellow]]"",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Yellow by Coldplay |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-yellow/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729222853/https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-yellow/ |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Official Charts Company}}</ref> ""[[Viva la Vida]]"",<ref name=""UKCHART"">{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Viva la Vida by Coldplay |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-viva-la-vida/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729222938/https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-viva-la-vida/ |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Official Charts Company}}</ref> and ""[[A Sky Full of Stars]]"" were featured in the [[UK Singles Chart]]s for the first time since 2014, 2017 and 2016, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=A Sky Full of Stars by Coldplay |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-a-sky-full-of-stars/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729222927/https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-a-sky-full-of-stars/ |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Official Charts Company}}</ref> ""[[Viva la Vida]]"" has remained on the list for more than 30 non-consecutive weeks ever since.<ref name=""UKCHART"" />

[[File:ColdplayWembley16082219 (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|215x215px|alt=Four men perform on the stage, from left to right, they are on the bass, timpani, microphone and guitar|Coldplay performing ""[[Viva la Vida]]"" at [[Wembley Stadium]], London]]
Following their set at [[Rock in Rio]], Coldplay became the first international group to top Spotify Brazil's Daily Top Artists chart.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Celebra Sucesso nos Charts Após Rock in Rio |trans-title=Coldplay Celebrate Chart Success Following Rock in Rio |url=https://www.terra.com.br/diversao/musica/rock-in-rio/coldplay-celebra-sucesso-nos-charts-apos-rock-in-rio,ff0e0e21ae13fc322898dcabe086bd4f0mcxqc2m.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729230210/https://www.terra.com.br/diversao/musica/rock-in-rio/coldplay-celebra-sucesso-nos-charts-apos-rock-in-rio,ff0e0e21ae13fc322898dcabe086bd4f0mcxqc2m.html |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Terra |language=pt}}</ref> In Argentina, ''[[Parachutes (Coldplay album)|Parachutes]]'' (2000) achieved a new peak on the albums chart at number six.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 November 2022 |title=Los Discos Más Vendidos |trans-title=The Best-Selling Records |url=https://www.diariodecultura.com.ar/rankings/los-discos-mas-vendidos-de-la-semana-3/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114162751/https://www.diariodecultura.com.ar/rankings/los-discos-mas-vendidos-de-la-semana-3/ |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Diario de Cultura |language=es}}</ref> The feat was repeated in Portugal, where it rose to number three and was accompanied by eight other projects from the band.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2023 |title=Portuguese Charts: Albums – 21/2023 |url=https://portuguesecharts.com/archive.asp?todo=show&woche=21&jahr=2023&sparte=a |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729233905/https://portuguesecharts.com/archive.asp?todo=show&woche=21&jahr=2023&sparte=a |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Portuguese Charts}}</ref> Out of the 13 songs they had placed on the [[Associação Fonográfica Portuguesa|Portuguese Singles Chart]], eight saw their biggest weekly performance, including ""[[Fix You]]"", ""[[Paradise (Coldplay song)|Paradise]]"", ""[[Clocks (song)|Clocks]]"", ""[[Higher Power (Coldplay song)|Higher Power]]"" and ""[[Sparks (Coldplay song)|Sparks]]"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2023 |title=Portuguese Charts: Singles – 21/2023 |url=https://portuguesecharts.com/archive.asp?todo=show&woche=21&jahr=2023&sparte=s |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729234302/https://portuguesecharts.com/archive.asp?todo=show&woche=21&jahr=2023&sparte=s |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Portuguese Charts}}</ref>

More countries where sales charts were flooded include Italy (7 albums and 4 songs),<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 June 2023 |title=Album & Compilation – Classifica Settimanale WK 26 |trans-title=Albums & Compilations – Weekly Chart WK 26 |url=https://www.fimi.it/top-of-the-music/classifiche.kl#/charts/1/2023/26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730002554/https://www.fimi.it/top-of-the-music/classifiche.kl%23/charts/1/2023/26 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=FIMI |language=it}}
* {{Cite web |date=23 June 2023 |title=Singoli – Classifica Settimanale WK 26 |trans-title=Singles – Weekly Chart WK 26 |url=https://www.fimi.it/top-of-the-music/classifiche.kl#/charts/3/2023/26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730005152/https://www.fimi.it/top-of-the-music/classifiche.kl%23/charts/3/2023/26 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=FIMI |language=it}}</ref> Switzerland (6 albums and 4 songs),<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 July 2023 |title=Top 100 Alben |trans-title=Top 100 Albums |url=http://swisscharts.com/pdf/hitparade_ch_a_2023_07_09.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730003632/http://swisscharts.com/pdf/hitparade_ch_a_2023_07_09.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Schweizer Hitparade |language=de}}
* {{Cite web |date=9 July 2023 |title=Top 100 Singles |url=https://hitparade.ch/pdf/hitparade_ch_s_2023_07_09.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730003947/https://hitparade.ch/pdf/hitparade_ch_s_2023_07_09.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Schweizer Hitparade |language=de}}</ref> Sweden (8 albums and 12 songs),<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 July 2023 |title=Sverigetopplistan – Albums Top 60 |trans-title=Sweden Top List – Albums Top 60 |url=https://swedishcharts.com/weekchart.asp?cat=a&year=2023&date=20230714 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730002705/https://swedishcharts.com/weekchart.asp?cat=a&year=2023&date=20230714 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Swedish Charts |language=sv}}
* {{Cite web |date=14 July 2023 |title=Sverigetopplistan – Singles Top 100 |trans-title=Sweden Top List – Singles Top 100 |url=https://swedishcharts.com/weekchart.asp?cat=s&year=2023&date=20230714 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730002702/https://swedishcharts.com/weekchart.asp?cat=s&year=2023&date=20230714 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Swedish Charts |language=sv}}</ref> and the Netherlands (7 albums and 10 songs).<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Prominent in Nederlandse Albumlijst na ArenaA Shows |trans-title=Coldplay Prominent in Dutch Album Chart After ArenaA Shows |url=https://www.welingelichtekringen.nl/anp/coldplay-prominent-in-nederlandse-albumlijst-na-arenaa-shows |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725043938/https://www.welingelichtekringen.nl/anp/coldplay-prominent-in-nederlandse-albumlijst-na-arenaa-shows |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=Welingelichte Kringen |language=nl}}
* {{Cite web |date=22 July 2023 |title=Dutch Single Top 100 |url=https://dutchcharts.nl/weekchart.asp?cat=s&date=20230722&year=2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730002006/https://dutchcharts.nl/weekchart.asp?cat=s&date=20230722&year=2023 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Dutch Charts |language=nl}}</ref> Despite not holding shows in Norway, Coldplay had six album and song placements on [[VG-lista|VG-Lista]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 July 2023 |title=Topp 40 Album (2023 – Uke 28) |trans-title=Top 40 Albums (2023 – Week 28) |url=https://www.vglista.no/topplister/topp-40-album-2023-28/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730134221/https://www.vglista.no/topplister/topp-40-album-2023-28/ |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=VG-Lista |language=no}}
* {{Cite web |date=17 July 2023 |title=Topp 20 Single (2023 – Uke 29) |trans-title=Top 20 Singles (2023 – Week 29) |url=https://www.vglista.no/topplister/topp-20-single-2023-29/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730133845/https://www.vglista.no/topplister/topp-20-single-2023-29/ |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=VG-Lista |language=no}}</ref> With the concerts that were carried out in Taiwan, Indonesia and Malaysia, ""Yellow"", ""Viva la Vida"" and ""A Sky Full of Stars"" remained their best-performing tracks.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Taiwan Songs – Week of November 25, 2023 |url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/taiwan-songs-hotw/2023-11-25/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231129183159/https://www.billboard.com/charts/taiwan-songs-hotw/2023-11-25/ |archive-date=29 November 2023 |access-date=29 November 2023 |website=Billboard}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Coldplay – Indonesia Songs |url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/coldplay/chart-history/i43/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730011535/https://www.billboard.com/artist/coldplay/chart-history/i43/ |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Billboard}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Malaysia Songs – Week of December 9, 2023 |url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/malaysia-songs-hotw/2023-12-09/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209035421/https://www.billboard.com/charts/malaysia-songs-hotw/2023-12-09/ |archive-date=9 December 2023 |access-date=9 December 2023 |website=Billboard}}</ref> After the third European leg was scheduled, the group scored chart entries in Greece (2 albums and 8 songs),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Top 75 Albums Sales Chart (Combined) – Week: 30/2023 |url=https://www.ifpi.gr/charts_en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805030705/https://www.ifpi.gr/charts_en.html |archive-date=5 August 2023 |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=IFPI Greece}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Digital Singles Chart (International) – Week: 30/2023 |url=https://www.ifpi.gr/digital_ien.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805030708/https://www.ifpi.gr/digital_ien.html |archive-date=5 August 2023 |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=IFPI Greece}}</ref> Finland (8 albums and 5 songs),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Suomen Virallinen Lista – Albumit (30/2023) |trans-title=Finland's Official List – Albums (30/2023) |url=https://www.ifpi.fi/lista/albumit/2023/30/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230805025614/https://www.ifpi.fi/lista/albumit/2023/30/ |archive-date=5 August 2023 |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=Musiikki Tuottajat |language=fi}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Suomen Virallinen Lista – Singlet (31/2023) |trans-title=Finland's Official List – Singles (31/2023) |url=https://www.ifpi.fi/lista/singlet/2023/31/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230805025625/https://www.ifpi.fi/lista/singlet/2023/31/ |archive-date=5 August 2023 |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=Musiikki Tuottajat |language=fi}}</ref> and Ireland (5 albums and 4 songs).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Top 100 Albums – Week Ending 4 August 2023 |url=https://www.irma.ie/#chartTab2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923031332/https://pdfhost.io/v/07yUPRdFU_Irish_Albums_Chart_Week_30_2023 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Irish Recorded Music Association |type=Select ""28-Jul-23"" and write ""Coldplay"" in the search bar}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Official Irish Singles Chart: 27 July 2023 – 2 August 2023 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/irish-singles-chart/20230728/ie7501/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230923031621/https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/irish-singles-chart/20230728/ie7501/ |archive-date=23 September 2023 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Official Charts Company}}</ref> As per David Pardillos from ''[[Infobae]]'', they were the band with the most searched lyrics of 2023 on [[Google]] because of the tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2023 |title=Estos Son los Artistas Más Buscados en 2023 |trans-title=These Are the Most Searched Artists in 2023 |url=https://www.infobae.com/espana/2023/11/10/estos-son-los-artistas-mas-buscados-en-2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231111184334/https://www.infobae.com/espana/2023/11/10/estos-son-los-artistas-mas-buscados-en-2023/ |archive-date=11 November 2023 |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=Infobae |language=es}}</ref>

In January 2024, Coldplay earned their first Top 10 hit on the [[Philippines Songs]] ranking with ""Yellow"".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Coldplay – Philippines Songs |url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/coldplay/chart-history/i42/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131184112/https://www.billboard.com/artist/coldplay/chart-history/i42/ |archive-date=31 January 2024 |access-date=31 January 2024 |website=Billboard}}</ref> [[Lola Amour]] were invited to perform ""Raining in Manila"" at the first [[Philippine Arena]] show as well,<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2024 |title=Coldplay Turns Philippine Arena Into a Beautiful Universe of Its Own |url=https://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2024/01/24/2327961/coldplay-turns-philippine-arena-beautiful-universe-its-own |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123172158/https://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2024/01/24/2327961/coldplay-turns-philippine-arena-beautiful-universe-its-own |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |website=The Philippine Star}}</ref> leading the track to appear at number 24 on the same week.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Philippines Songs – Week of February 3, 2024 |url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/philippines-songs-hotw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131164718/https://www.billboard.com/charts/philippines-songs-hotw/ |archive-date=31 January 2024 |access-date=31 January 2024 |website=Billboard}}</ref> Out of the 30 slots available on [[Singapore]]'s [[Recording Industry Association Singapore|Top Streaming Chart]], the band occupied 17 of them, including the first nine.<ref name=""SINGAPORE"">{{cite web |date=1 February 2024 |title=RIAS Top Charts (Week 5) |url=https://www.rias.org.sg/rias-top-charts/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240206113709/https://www.rias.org.sg/rias-top-charts/ |archive-date=6 February 2024 |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=RIAS}}</ref> ""Viva la Vida"" and ""Yellow"" became their second and third chart-topping singles in the region,<ref name=""SINGAPORE"" /> joining ""My Universe"".<ref>{{cite web |date=30 September 2021 |title=RIAS Top Charts (Week 39) |url=https://www.rias.org.sg/rias-top-charts/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211005090713/https://www.rias.org.sg/rias-top-charts/ |archive-date=5 October 2021 |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=RIAS}}</ref>

=== Philanthropy ===
In addition to donating 10% from all of their profits to charity,<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 May 2005 |title=Coldplay's Slow-Burning Success |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2780109.stm |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805124727/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2780109.stm |archive-date=5 August 2019}}
* {{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=ClientEarth Reaction: Coldplay Announce Music of the Spheres Word Tour |url=https://www.clientearth.org/latest/press-office/press/coldplay-world-tour-release/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134028/https://www.clientearth.org/latest/press-office/press/coldplay-world-tour-release/ |archive-date=29 December 2021 |access-date=16 January 2022 |website=Client Earth}}</ref> Coldplay teamed up with [[Global Citizen (organization)|Global Citizen]] and the Love Button Global Movement to gather volunteers in each tour stop and endorse local non-profit institutions on their individual missions, which included distributing food, creating gardens and providing shelter for refugees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Love Button World Tour |url=https://www.lovebutton.org/world-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515142214/https://www.lovebutton.org/world-tour/ |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=Love Button}}</ref> In [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]], participants helped with United Community Corporation's Sky Full of Stars Carnival and Distribution, an event where residents earned access to free groceries and services such as rental and bill assistance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2022 |title=Newark Carnival Event Ringing in Summer Fun Will Also Provide Outreach Resources to Residents |url=https://www.tapinto.net/towns/newark/sections/giving-back/articles/newark-carnival-event-ringing-in-summer-fun-will-also-provide-outreach-resources-to-residents |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230531115325/https://www.tapinto.net/towns/newark/sections/giving-back/articles/newark-carnival-event-ringing-in-summer-fun-will-also-provide-outreach-resources-to-residents |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=Tap Into Newark}}</ref> They later helped to organise a warehouse used by Team Ukraine Love in [[Warsaw]].<ref name=""LOVE"">{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Updates Feed (July 7, 2022 & July 8, 2022) |url=https://www.teamukrainelove.com/updates-feed |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230531115856/https://www.teamukrainelove.com/updates-feed |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=Team Ukraine Love}}</ref> The foundation is focused on providing aid to those who were displaced from their homes by the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref name=""LOVE"" /> In [[Bogotá]], the group donated gifts to the children and health personnel of Hospital Simón Bolívar.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Envió Obsequios a Niños del Hospital Simón Bolívar en Bogotá |trans-title=Coldplay Sent Gifts to Children at the Simón Bolívar Hospital in Bogotá |url=https://www.rcnradio.com/entretenimiento/coldplay-envio-obsequios-a-ninos-del-hospital-simon-bolivar-en-bogota |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921160130/https://www.rcnradio.com/entretenimiento/coldplay-envio-obsequios-a-ninos-del-hospital-simon-bolivar-en-bogota |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=RCN Radio |language=es}}</ref> During their stay in [[Buenos Aires]], volunteers established a partnership with [[TECHO]], an institution focused on improving local infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 November 2022 |title=En Su Paso por Argentina, Coldplay Se Sumó a un Proyecto Solidario en La Matanza |trans-title=In Their Passage Through Argentina, Coldplay Joined a Solidarity Project in La Matanza |url=https://www.el1digital.com.ar/sociedad/en-su-paso-por-argentina-coldplay-se-sumo-a-un-proyecto-solidario-en-la-matanza/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230601020152/https://www.el1digital.com.ar/sociedad/en-su-paso-por-argentina-coldplay-se-sumo-a-un-proyecto-solidario-en-la-matanza/ |archive-date=1 June 2023 |access-date=1 June 2023 |website=El1 Digital |language=es}}</ref> They also helped SP Invisível in [[São Paulo]] for the humanisation of views on homeless people and the promotion of individualised care experiences.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Levará Pessoas em Situação de Rua para Assistir ao Show da Banda em São Paulo |trans-title=Coldplay Will Take Homeless People to Watch Their Show in São Paulo |url=https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/entretenimento/coldplay-levara-pessoas-em-situacao-de-rua-para-assistir-ao-show-da-banda-em-sao-paulo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230531114952/https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/entretenimento/coldplay-levara-pessoas-em-situacao-de-rua-para-assistir-ao-show-da-banda-em-sao-paulo/ |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=CNN Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> In [[Coimbra]], various initiatives were launched in collaboration with Serve the City Portugal,<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 May 2023 |title=Love Button: O Movimento Global que Distribui Amor à Boleia dos Coldplay |trans-title=Love Button: The Global Movement That Distributes Love to Coldplay's Ride |url=https://coimbracoolectiva.pt/historias/love-button-o-movimento-global-que-distribui-amor-a-boleia-dos-coldplay/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230531114937/https://coimbracoolectiva.pt/historias/love-button-o-movimento-global-que-distribui-amor-a-boleia-dos-coldplay/ |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=Coimbra Coolectiva |language=pt}}</ref> while [[Copenhagen]] saw a free clinic being set up.<ref name=""PALO"">{{Cite web |date=8 July 2023 |title=Coldplays Samarbetspartner Planterar Träd i Hammarkullen |trans-title=Coldplay's Partner Plants Trees in Hammarkullen |url=https://www.gp.se/kultur/kultur/coldplays-samarbetspartner-planterar-träd-i-hammarkullen-1.104377335 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230709121654/https://www.gp.se/kultur/kultur/coldplays-samarbetspartner-planterar-tr%C3%A4d-i-hammarkullen-1.104377335 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Göteborgs-Posten |language=sv}}</ref> Love Button then made a joint effort with Folkets Hus and Bostadsbolaget to plant trees in [[Gothenburg]].<ref name=""PALO"" /> Moreover, Coldplay donated a ticket for auction to the [[Rare Beauty|Rare Impact Fund]], which aims to expand access to mental health services for young people worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 October 2023 |title=Selena Gomez Gets Support from Francia Raisa at Mental Health Fundraiser: Super Proud |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/celebrities/2023/10/05/selena-gomez-inaugural-rare-impact-fund-taylor-swift-francia-raisa/71075057007/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231017004246/https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/celebrities/2023/10/05/selena-gomez-inaugural-rare-impact-fund-taylor-swift-francia-raisa/71075057007/ |archive-date=17 October 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 |website=USA Today}}</ref> During the [[Kaohsiung]] dates, volunteers granted assistance to the Love & Hope Children's Home.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 高雄開唱前送暖 志工團伴弱勢兒同樂 |trans-title=Coldplay Sent a Volunteer Group to Have Fun with Disadvantaged Children Before the Concert Started in Kaohsiung |url=https://www.cna.com.tw/news/aloc/202311110098.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231111174001/https://www.cna.com.tw/news/aloc/202311110098.aspx |archive-date=11 November 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |website=CNA |language=zh}}</ref> The band additionally gave presents to workers and patients at the Mother and Child Hospital of [[Jakarta]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 November 2023 |title=Diam-Diam Coldplay Donasi Merchandise Kepada Pasien Anak di RSIA Bunda Jakarta |trans-title=Coldplay Secretly Donate Merchandise to Child Patients at RSIA Bunda Jakarta |url=https://www.kompas.com/hype/read/2023/11/29/160526566/diam-diam-coldplay-donasi-merchandise-kepada-pasien-anak-di-rsia-bunda |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123235637/https://www.kompas.com/hype/read/2023/11/29/160526566/diam-diam-coldplay-donasi-merchandise-kepada-pasien-anak-di-rsia-bunda#google_vignette |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |website=Kompas |language=id}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Cultural impact of Coldplay]]
* [[List of Coldplay live performances]]
* [[List of highest-grossing live music artists]]
* [[List of highest-grossing concert tours]]
* [[List of most-attended concert tours]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|3}}

== External links ==
* {{URL|1=https://coldplay.com/|2=Coldplay Official Website}}
* {{URL|1=https://sustainability.coldplay.com/|2=Coldplay Sustainability Website}}

{{Coldplay}}

[[Category:Coldplay]]
[[Category:2020s in music]]
[[Category:2022 in music]]
[[Category:2023 in music]]
[[Category:2024 in music]]
[[Category:Climate change in music]]
[[Category:Controversies in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Controversies in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Cultural impact|Music of the Spheres World Tour]]
[[Category:Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic]]
[[Category:LGBT-related controversies in music]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Green finance and the Belt and Road Initiative,"[[Green finance]] is officially promoted as an important feature of the [[Belt and Road Initiative]], [[China]]'s signature global economic development initiative. The official vision for the BRI calls for an environmentally friendly ""Green Belt and Road"".<ref name=""iisd"">{{cite web |title=Special Policy Study on Green Belt and Road and 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development |url=https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/cciced/agm/cciced-sps-green-belt-roads.pdf |publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development |access-date=2019-11-26 |archive-date=2019-11-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117073910/https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/cciced/agm/cciced-sps-green-belt-roads.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Policy==
Chinese policy documents for the BRI coordinate and encourage green finance and investment. 

The [[Ministry of Ecology and Environment]] with four other ministries released the ""Guidance on Promoting a Green Belt and Road"" in 2017. A section of the policy document covers mobilizing capital for financing green projects using ""international multilateral and bilateral cooperative institutions and funds, such as [[Silk Road Fund]], [[South-South Cooperation Assistance Fund]], [[China-ASEAN Investment Cooperation Fund]], [[China-Central and Eastern Europe Investment Cooperation Fund]], [[China-ASEAN Maritime Cooperation Fund]], [[Special Fund for Asian Regional Cooperation]] and [[LMC Special Fund]]."" [[Policy banks|Policy institutions]] like the [[China Development Bank]] and [[Export-Import Bank of China]] are to play the ""guiding role"".<ref name=""guidance"">{{cite web |title=Guidance on Promoting Green Belt and Road |url=http://english.mee.gov.cn/Resources/Policies/policies/Frameworkp1/201706/t20170628_416864.shtml |publisher=Ministry of Ecology and Environment}}</ref>

The [[Development Research Center of the State Council]] and Export-Import Bank of China released a report in 2019 on green finance for the Belt and Road. The report gives recommendations and draws on lessons for China to develop Belt and Road green finance and goes into the details about ""implementing the concept of green finance"" by Export-Import Bank.<ref name=""drc"">{{cite web |title=DRC and China EximBank release report on green finance for Belt and Road |url=http://en.drc.gov.cn/2019-05/08/content_37466622.htm |publisher=Development Research Center of the State Council}}</ref>

==Forms==
The various forms of green finance includes investments, lending, and insurance by Chinese state-owned financial entities and companies for renewable energy projects in host countries of the Belt and Road.<ref name=""nrdc"">{{cite web |title=Greener Power Projects for the Belt & Road Initiative (BRI) |date=22 April 2019 |url=https://www.nrdc.org/experts/han-chen/greener-power-projects-belt-road-initiative-bri |publisher=Natural Resources Defense Council}}</ref> 

===Bonds===
The market for [[climate bond|green bonds]] in China is the second largest in the world.<ref name=""bondmarket"">{{cite news |title=Bolstering the Belt and Road Initiative through green finance |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/26/WS5cc24e0fa3104842260b86e6.html |work=China Daily |date=April 26, 2019}}</ref> In the international bond market, Chinese banks have also issued green bonds. China Development Bank in November 2017 issued the first green bond specifically for Belt and Road projects. This first green BRI bond had EUR and USD tranches of US$1.1 billion for ""renewable energy, clean transportation and water resource management projects"" in BRI countries.<ref name=""bond"">{{cite news |last1=Geis |first1=Ruediger |title=Can the Belt and Road Initiative Be Green? |url=https://www.brinknews.com/can-the-belt-and-road-initiative-be-green/ |work=Brink |date=March 19, 2019}}</ref> In the same month, the [[Bank of China]] issued a green bond on the [[London Stock Exchange]] although not specifically for projects in the BRI.<ref name=""bankofchina"">{{cite news |last1=Yu |first1=Enoch |title=London calling: green finance, belt and road the latest China business push |url=https://www.scmp.com/business/china-business/article/2093306/london-calling-green-finance-belt-and-road-latest-china |work=South China Morning Post |date=May 7, 2017}}</ref>

===Loans===
The two primary Chinese policy banks for financing BRI projects are China Development Bank and Export Import Bank and each states support for advancing more green loans. Both banks consider green loans to mean financing projects in renewable energy or environmental protection.<ref name=""chatham"">{{cite web |title=The Role of Investors in Promoting Sustainable Infrastructure Under the Belt and Road Initiative |url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/research/2018-05-11-role-investors-sustainable-infrastructure-belt-and-road-hoare-hong-hein.pdf |publisher=Chatham House}}</ref> The Export Import Bank claimed to fulfill green obligations under the Belt and Road by supporting ""a large number of projects featuring low energy consumption and high value added in areas of new energy development and utilization and the [[circular economy]].""<ref name=""whitepaper"">{{cite web |title=White Paper on Green Finance |url=http://english.eximbank.gov.cn/News/WhitePOGF/201807/P020180718416279996548.pdf |publisher=The Export-Import Bank of China}}</ref> However, out of the energy project loans advanced by both banks between 2014 and 2017 for the BRI, 18% went to coal while solar and wind accounted for 3.4% and 2.9% respectively.<ref name=""nrdc""/><ref name=""forbes"">{{cite news |title=Leveraging China's ""Green Soft Power"" For Responsible Belt and Road Initiative Investment |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/energyinnovation/2019/05/14/leveraging-chinas-green-soft-power-for-responsible-belt-and-road-initiative-investment/#6461b6293e4f |work=Forbes |date=May 14, 2019}}</ref>

==Coal projects==
The primary contradiction with adherence to green finance and BRI projects is the large amount of lending by Chinese banks for coal fired power plants. In contrast, Western financial institutions have limited or prohibited financing of coal fired power plants starting with the [[World Bank]] and [[European Investment Bank]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xiong |first1=Minpeng |last2=Yang |first2=Xiaowen |last3=Chen |first3=Sisi |last4=Shi |first4=Fulian |last5=Yuan |first5=Jiahui |title=Environmental Stress Testing for China's Overseas Coal Power Investment Project |journal=Sustainability |date=October 4, 2019|volume=11 |issue=19 |pages=5506 |doi=10.3390/su11195506 |doi-access=free }}</ref> State owned Chinese commercial banks have shown a willingness to limit coal projects. In 2017, [[ICBC]] and [[China Construction Bank]] decided to not fund the [[Carmichael coal mine]] after environmental protests by the Australian public.<ref name=""nonfunding"">{{cite news |title=China's top two banks won't finance controversial Adani coal mine in Australia |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/australasia/article/2122741/chinas-top-two-banks-wont-finance-us15-billion-controversial |agency=Reuters |date=December 4, 2017}}</ref>

In 2021, the [[International Institute of Green Finance]] reported that China didn't finance any coal projects via its Belt and Road Initiative in the first half of 2021, which is a first since 2013 when BRI was launched.<ref>{{Cite web|title=China Avoids Coal Projects in Belt and Road for First Time|url=https://au.finance.yahoo.com/news/china-avoids-coal-projects-belt-020457525.html|access-date=2021-08-13|website=au.finance.yahoo.com|language=en-AU|archive-date=2021-08-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813000303/https://au.finance.yahoo.com/news/china-avoids-coal-projects-belt-020457525.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Belt and Road Initiative}}

[[Category:Belt and Road Initiative]]
[[Category:Bonds in foreign currencies]]
[[Category:Economy of China]]
[[Category:Finance in China]]
[[Category:Foreign trade of China]]
[[Category:Industrial ecology]]
[[Category:International finance]]
[[Category:Investment]]
[[Category:Natural resources]]
[[Category:Resource economics]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Doctor of Sustainability,"'''Doctor of Sustainability''' ({{lang-la|doctor rerum sustinentium}}, lit. 'doctor of things sustainability'), abbreviated '''Dr. rer. sust.''' or '''DSus''' is a [[Transdisciplinarity|transdisciplinary]] doctoral academic degree awarded in the field of [[sustainability science]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=An der Hochschule Darmstadt wird ein Doktor in Nachhaltigkeitswissenschaften möglich |url=https://nachrichten.idw-online.de/2019/03/27/an-der-hochschule-darmstadt-wird-ein-doktor-in-nachhaltigkeitswissenschaften-moeglich |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=nachrichten.idw-online.de |language=de-DE}}</ref> Like other doctorate degrees, it is the highest academic qualification in the field and equivalent to a [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]].  

== Motivation ==
The introduction of this doctoral degree was partly due to the demand that science and research make a greater contribution to solving social problems and to produce knowledge that is ""socially robust"". The main idea is to depart from the understanding of science being a compartmentalized preoccupation with academic problems to an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary process of knowledge genesis in a network of scientists and relevant stakeholders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martens |first=Pim |date=April 2006 |title=Sustainability: science or fiction? |journal=Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=36–41 |doi=10.1080/15487733.2006.11907976 |issn=1548-7733|doi-access=free |bibcode=2006SSPP....2...36M }}</ref>

[[Sustainability science]]s address the complex interplay between society and the environment in an attempt to provide new insights into existing challenges while opening up new forays of knowledge. Research in sustainability science focuses on issues relating to [[sustainability]] and [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Swart |first1=R. J |last2=Raskin |first2=P |last3=Robinson |first3=J |date=2004-07-01 |title=The problem of the future: sustainability science and scenario analysis |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378003000670 |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=137–146 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2003.10.002 |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> A characteristic of dissertations in this field are the practical nature of the problems they address without being strictly restricted to employing theories and methods from any specific discipline.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=William C. |last2=Dickson |first2=Nancy M. |date=2003-07-08 |title=Sustainability science: The emerging research program |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=100 |issue=14 |pages=8059–8061 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1231333100 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=166181 |pmid=12794187 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The overarching principle of [[sustainability measurement]] is often used as a framework for scientific analysis.

== History and Development ==
The first approval for conferment of this degree was granted on March 27, 2019, to [[Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences]] by the Hessian Minister of Science [[Angela Dorn-Rancke|Angela Dorn]]. This was after the federal state of Hesse passed a law that made it possible for its universities of applied sciences to apply for independent rights to award doctoral degrees in research-intensive disciplines.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Doctoral Center Sustainability Sciences – Graduiertenschule Darmstadt |url=https://graduiertenschule.h-da.de/en/doctoral-centers/doctoral-center-sustainability-sciences |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=graduiertenschule.h-da.de}}</ref>

As of 2020, [[Curtin University]] in Perth Australia offers a similar degree albeit as Doctor of Sustainable Development. At Curtin University, the doctoral candidates must complete course work equivalent to 100 credit points before embarking on their doctoral thesis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Doctor of Sustainable Development {{!}} Curtin University |url=https://www.curtin.edu.au/study/offering/course-rs-doctor-of-sustainable-development--dr-susdev/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |language=en}}</ref> 

The [[Arizona State University]] offers a Doctor of Philosophy degree in sustainability. Students can be admitted to the PhD program with either a bachelor's or a master's degree from an international institution with recognized and accredited degrees. The course work requirements vary based on the candidates prior qualifications and highest academic degree. The dissertation phase only begins after successfully completing the coursework. A proposal must be submitted and defended before the dissertation research work can be conducted. The doctoral degree program concludes with the publication of the dissertation accompanied by a dissertation defense.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Doctor of Philosophy in sustainability |url=https://schoolofsustainability.asu.edu/graduate-degrees/doctor-of-philosophy-in-sustainability/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=School of Sustainability |language=en-US}}</ref>    

As of 2023,  the [[United Nations University]] offers a PhD programme in Sustainability Science.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PhD in Sustainability Science |url=https://unu.edu/ias/doctorate-degree/phd-sustainability-science |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=United Nations University |language=en}}</ref> This is a three-year programme that aims to produce scholars who will become key researchers in the field of sustainability science. The program seeks to promote a better understanding on matters sustainability by incorporating global change perspectives, specifically those related to climate change and biodiversity. The entry requirements include having a masters degree in a field related to sustainability and a minimum of 2 years of professional field experience related to sustainability. Students can select courses from those offered by UNU-IAS, while also enjoying the opportunity to take courses at other leading universities in Japan such as the [[University of Tokyo]], [[Sophia University]], and [[International Christian University]]. Like in most other places, the PhD degree concludes with a dissertation. 

The [[University of Surrey]] offers a Practitioner Doctorate in Sustainability.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Practitioner Doctorate in Sustainability PhD/ EngD research course {{!}} University of Surrey |url=https://www.surrey.ac.uk/postgraduate/practitioner-doctorate-sustainability-phd-engd |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=www.surrey.ac.uk}}</ref> The degree is designed to allow students to pursue research studies at doctoral level while gaining invaluable research experience in a prestigious organisation external to the University. The programme is aimed at high-achieving researchers and graduates whose vision is to become a sustainability leader in industry. A series of sustainability modules and personal development workshops among four specified taught modules must be completed. The final assessment is based on the presentation of the doctoral thesis, which is discussed during a viva examination with at least two examiners. The dissertation can be submitted as a monograph or as a cumulative of several publication format chapters. 

== See also ==

* [[Doctor of Engineering]]
* [[Doctor of Business Administration]]
* [[Doctor of Science]]
* [[Doctor of Philosophy]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Interspecies design,"{{Short description|Design approach emphasizing relationships and interactions between multiple species}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
'''Interspecies design''' is design practice that intentionally involves and emphasizes the contributions of multiple species, focusing on the participation and outcomes for both human and non-human lifeforms. It aims to create a mutual benefit and centers on designing ''for'' and ''with'' all life.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Roudavski, S.)) | veditors=((Parham, J.)) | date= 2021 | chapter=Cambridge Companion to Literature and the Anthropocene | title=Interspecies Design | publisher=Cambridge University Press | pages=147–162 | isbn=978-1-108-49853-1 | url=https://zenodo.org/records/5010584/files/Roudavski%20-%202021%20-%20Interspecies%20Design.pdf}}</ref>

== Definition ==
Interspecies design is characterized by the participation of more than one species in design activities and the use of design outcomes by multiple species. This concept extends to all design practices that could potentially involve multiple species, making it a broad and inclusive field.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Roudavski, S.)) | journal=Architect Victoria | title=Design for All Life: Editorial | volume=3 | pages=32–37 | date= 2022 | doi=10.5281/zenodo.7803940}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Parker, D.)), ((Roudavski, S.)), ((Jones, T. M.)), ((Soanes, K.)) | year=2022 | title=New Design Tech Offers Hope for Urban Wildlife | url=https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/new-design-tech-offers-hope-for-urban-wildlife | access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref>

== Need and ethics ==
The field arises from a need to include all those at risk of harm, domination, or oppression in the design process, highlighting the ethical dimension of design decisions. This approach challenges traditional practices by considering the impact on and inclusion of non-human species.<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Roudavski, S.)) | title=DRS2020: Synergy | veditors=((Boess, S.)), ((Cheung, M.)), ((Cain, R.)) | year=2020 | chapter=Multispecies Cohabitation and Future Design | volume=2 | publisher=Design Research Society | doi=10.21606/drs.2020.402| isbn=9781912294381 | s2cid=225227723 | doi-access=free | hdl=11343/241799 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>

== Synonyms and related concepts ==
Interspecies design is related to but distinct from concepts such as interspecies cultures,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Parker, D.)), ((Soanes, K.)), ((Roudavski, S.)) | journal=Transpositiones | title=Interspecies Cultures and Future Design | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages=183–236 | date= 2022 | issn=2749-4128 | doi=10.14220/trns.2022.1.1.183| s2cid=248111213 | doi-access=free }}</ref> multispecies design, ecocentric design, ecological engineering, and more-than-human design. It focuses on processes rather than goals, and values all expressions of life instead of focusing on select species or criteria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://research.deepdesignlab.online/notes/nfidpcqrwaeqhsl5v2k18kx/|title=Interspecies Design|date=30 July 2021 |access-date=2023-12-03}}</ref>

== Challenges and limitations ==
Interspecies design faces challenges in defining its scope and focus. Questions arise about why to focus on species specifically, and not on other taxonomic groups, individual organisms, or broader ecological systems.

== Application in art and design ==
In the realm of art and design, interspecies design has been applied in creating shared spaces and experiences for multiple species, such as in the design of prosthetic habitat-structures for owls.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=Dan|last2=Roudavski|first2=Stanislav|title=Toward Interspecies Art and Design: Prosthetic Habitat-Structures in Human-Owl Cultures|journal=Leonardo|date=2022|volume=55|issue=4|pages=351–356|doi=10.1162/leon_a_02224|s2cid=249076101 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Animal-computer interaction]]
* [[Human–animal studies]]
* [[Ecological design]]
* [[Environmental ethics]]

== References ==
<references />

== Further reading ==

* Alexis, Nekeisha Alayna (2020). ''Beyond Compare: Intersectionality and Interspeciesism for Co-Liberation with Other Animals''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-138-35921-5}}
* Coulter, Kendra (2016). ''Animals, Work, and the Promise of Interspecies Solidarity''. Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-1-137-55879-4}}
* Goodale, Eben; Beauchamp, Guy; Ruxton, Graeme D. (2017). ''Mixed-Species Groups of Animals: Behavior, Community Structure, and Conservation''. Academic Press. {{ISBN|978-0-12-805355-3}}
* Linden, Dirk van der (2021). ""Interspecies Information Systems"". ''Requirements Engineering''. doi:[https://doi.org/10/gmmvps 10/gmmvps]
* Meijer, Eva (2019). ''When Animals Speak: Toward an Interspecies Democracy''. New York University Press. {{ISBN|978-1-4798-3126-5}}
* Parker, Dan; Roudavski, Stanislav (2022). ""Toward Interspecies Art and Design: Prosthetic Habitat-Structures in Human-Owl Cultures"". ''Leonardo''. 55 (4): 351–356. [[doi:10.1162/leon_a_02224]].
* Rice, Louis (2018). ""Nonhumans in Participatory Design"". ''CoDesign''. 14 (3): 238–257. doi:[https://doi.org/10/gfvpfx 10/gfvpfx].
* Roudavski, Stanislav (2021). ""Interspecies Design"". In Parham, John (ed.). ''Cambridge Companion to Literature and the Anthropocene''. Cambridge University Press. pp.&nbsp;147–162. {{ISBN|978-1-108-68311-1}}
* Santos, Rodrigo dos; Kaczmarek, Michelle; Shankar, Saguna; Nathan, Lisa P. (2021). ""Who Are We Listening to? The Inclusion of Other-than-Human Participants in Design"". ''LIMITS ’21: Workshop on Computing within Limits''. doi:[https://doi.org/10/gkdd7f 10/gkdd7f].
* Veselova, Emīlija; Gaziulusoy, İdil (2019). ""Implications of the Bioinclusive Ethic on Collaborative and Participatory Design"". ''The Design Journal''. 22 (sup1): 1571–1586. doi:[https://doi.org/10/f9p9 10/f9p9].
* Vink, Janneke (2020). ''The Open Society and Its Animals''. Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-3-030-41924-0}}

[[Category:Design]]
[[Category:Animals and humans]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Interspecies communication]]"
List of environmental podcasts,"{{Short description|none}}

The following is a '''list of environmental podcasts''' that focus on [[environmentalism]], [[sustainability]], [[climate change]], and [[pollution]].

== List ==
{{Dynamic list|date=November 2021}}
{| class=""wikitable sortable""
!Podcast
!Year
!Starring, Narrator(s), or Host(s)
!Produced by
!Ref
|-
|''[[Timber Wars]]''
|2020–present
|Aaron Scott
|[[Oregon Public Broadcasting]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-11|title=3 New Environmental Podcasts You'll Want to Binge|url=https://www.outsideonline.com/culture/books-media/environmental-podcast-recommendations/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Outside Online|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184101/https://www.outsideonline.com/culture/books-media/environmental-podcast-recommendations/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Inherited''
|2020
|Georgia Wright and Julianna Bradley
|Critical Frequency
|<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|date=2022-10-22|title=Podcast ECO CHIC Cloud 10 and iHeartPodcasts|url=https://open.spotify.com/show/7p2jRnwldD4qFMYLmToxHJ |access-date=2022-10-22|website=Outside Online|language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Grouse (podcast)|Grouse]]''
|2020
|Ashley Ahearn
|[[BirdNote]] and [[Boise State Public Radio]]
|<ref name="":0"" />
|-
|''Living Planet''
|2021–present
|Sam Baker
|[[Deutsche Welle]]
|<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|date=2021-08-20|title=Top 7 environmental and pollution podcasts|url=https://www.skymetweather.com/content/lifestyle-and-culture/top-7-environmental-and-pollution-podcasts/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=www.skymetweather.com|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184053/https://www.skymetweather.com/content/lifestyle-and-culture/top-7-environmental-and-pollution-podcasts/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Threshold Podcast]]''
|2017–present
|Amy Martin
|Auricle Productions
|<ref name="":1"" />
|-
|''CleanLaw''
|2018–present
|Hana Vizcarra, Hannah Perls, Ari Peskoe, Carrie Jenks, Lowry Yankwich, and Jody Freeman
|HLS Environmental & Energy Law Program
|<ref name="":1"" />
|-
|''[[Terrestrial (podcast)|Terrestrial]]''
|2017
|Ashley Ahearn
|[[KUOW-FM|KUOW]]
|<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|date=2017-06-06|title=6 Hard-Hitting Environmental Podcasts • The Revelator|url=https://therevelator.org/environmental-podcasts/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=The Revelator|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184105/https://therevelator.org/environmental-podcasts/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Mongabay Newscast''
|2016–present
|Mike Gaworecki
|[[Mongabay]]
|<ref name="":2"" />
|-
|''The Energy Gang''
|2013–present
|Ed Crooks
|[[Wood Mackenzie]]
|<ref name="":2"" />
|-
|''The Big One''
|2019–present
|Jacob Margolis and Misha Euceph
|[[KPCC (radio station)|KPCC]] and [[KPCC (radio station)|Southern California Public Radio]]
|<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|date=2019-04-03|title=These Environmental Podcasts Are Scary as Sh—t|url=https://www.outsideonline.com/culture/books-media/scary-environmental-podcasts/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Outside Online|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184051/https://www.outsideonline.com/culture/books-media/scary-environmental-podcasts/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Hot and Dry''
|2019–present
|Cally Carswell, Collin Haffey, and Page Buono
|Independent
|<ref name="":3"" />
|-
|''Edition Spéciale''
|2018
|Fernand Lot
|[[Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-01-11|title=Eau, air, terre : cinq podcasts sur la pollution tous azimuts|url=https://www.telerama.fr/radio/eau,-air,-terre-cinq-podcasts-sur-la-pollution-tous-azimuts,n5428639.php|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Télérama|language=fr|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184051/https://www.telerama.fr/radio/eau,-air,-terre-cinq-podcasts-sur-la-pollution-tous-azimuts,n5428639.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Living on Earth''
|2001–present
|[[Steve Curwood]]
|World Media Foundation
|<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|last=Staff|first=Greener Ideal|title=12 Environmental Podcasts to Listen to in 2021|url=https://greenerideal.com/news/environment/environmental-podcasts/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=greenerideal.com|date=7 May 2021 |language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184052/https://greenerideal.com/news/environment/environmental-podcasts/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Outrage and Optimism''
|2019–present
|[[Christiana Figueres]]
|Global Optimism
|<ref name="":4"" />
|-
|''Sustainable(ish)''
|2018–present
|Jen Gale
|Independent
|<ref name="":4"" />
|-
|''Target Zero Hunger''
|2016–present
|Sandra Ferrari
|[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]
|<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|title=Movies, Podcasts and Books to Educate Yourself on Climate Change, Sustainability and the Hunger Crisis|url=http://www.ellecanada.com/culture/society/8-movies-podcasts-and-books-to-educate-yourself-on-climate-change-sustainability-and-the-hunger-crisis|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Elle Canada|language=en|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184057/https://www.ellecanada.com/culture/society/8-movies-podcasts-and-books-to-educate-yourself-on-climate-change-sustainability-and-the-hunger-crisis|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''TILclimate''
|2019–present
|Laur Hesse Fisher
|[[MIT]] Environmental Solutions Initiative
|<ref name="":5"" />
|-
|''A Rational Fear''
|2020–present
|[[Dan Ilic]]
|Independent
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-23|title=Australians are making podcasts about climate change and Bigfoot — and they're earning thousands of dollars in subscriptions every month|url=https://www.businessinsider.com.au/australian-podcasts-subscription-patreon-independent-boonta-vista-a-rational-fear-2020-11|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Business Insider Australia|language=en-AU|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184053/https://www.businessinsider.com.au/australian-podcasts-subscription-patreon-independent-boonta-vista-a-rational-fear-2020-11|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Sustainababble''
|2015–present
|Ol and Dave
|Independent
|<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web|date=2020-10-05|title=The 10 Best Sustainability Podcasts You Need To Listen To Now|url=https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/the-10-best-sustainability-podcasts-you-need-to-listen-to-now/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Green Queen|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184053/https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/the-10-best-sustainability-podcasts-you-need-to-listen-to-now/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Green Dreamer''
|2018–present
|Kamea Chayne
|Independent
|<ref name="":6"" />
|-
|''Sustainable Asia''
|2019–present
|Marcy Trent Long
|Independent
|<ref name="":6"" />
|-
|''Podship Earth''
|2018–present
|Jared Blumenfeld
|Independent
|<ref name="":7"">{{Cite web|title=13 sustainability podcasts that will keep your earbuds plugged in {{!}} Greenbiz|url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/13-sustainability-podcasts-will-keep-your-earbuds-plugged|access-date=2021-11-15|website=www.greenbiz.com|language=en|archive-date=2022-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115183757/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/13-sustainability-podcasts-will-keep-your-earbuds-plugged|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''The Drawdown Agenda''
|2018–2019
|Fergal Byrne
|Independent
|<ref name="":7"" />
|-
|''Carbon Removal Newsroom''
|2019–present
|Ramez Naam
|[[Nori (company)|Nori]]
|<ref name="":7"" />
|-
|''Direct Current''
|2016–present
|
|[[United States Department of Energy]]
|<ref name="":8"">{{Cite web|title=7 exceptional sustainability podcasts you should tune in to {{!}} Greenbiz|url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/7-exceptional-sustainability-podcasts-you-should-tune|access-date=2021-11-15|website=www.greenbiz.com|language=en|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184055/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/7-exceptional-sustainability-podcasts-you-should-tune|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''The Sustainability Agenda''
|2016–present
|Fergal Byrne
|Independent
|<ref name="":8"" />
|-
|''Infinite Earth Radio''
|2016–2019
|Michael Hancox and Vernice Miller-Travis
|Skeo and the Local Government Commission
|<ref name="":8"" />
|-
|''Sustainability Defined''
|2016–present
|Jay Siegel and Scott Breen
|Independent
|<ref name="":9"">{{Cite web|title=Pod's green earth: 14 sustainability podcasts you need to know {{!}} Greenbiz|url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/pods-green-earth-14-sustainability-podcasts-you-need-know|access-date=2021-11-15|website=www.greenbiz.com|language=en|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184054/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/pods-green-earth-14-sustainability-podcasts-you-need-know|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Think: Sustainability''
|2016–present
|Sophie Ellis
|2SER 107.3
|<ref name="":9"" />
|-
|''[[Climate One]]''
|2007–present
|[[Greg Dalton]]
|[[Commonwealth Club of California]]
|<ref name="":9"" />
|-
|''Hot Take''
|2019–present
|[[Amy Westervelt]]
|[[Crooked Media]]
|<ref name="":10"">{{Cite web|title=Here Are the Top 10 Climate Change Podcasts Out Right Now|url=https://gizmodo.com/here-are-10-of-the-best-climate-change-podcasts-out-rig-1845397380|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Gizmodo|date=17 October 2020 |language=en-us|archive-date=2022-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418194426/https://gizmodo.com/here-are-10-of-the-best-climate-change-podcasts-out-rig-1845397380|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Floodlines]]''
|2020–2021
|[[Vann R. Newkirk II]]
|[[The Atlantic]]
|<ref name="":10"" />
|-
|''[[Boomtown (podcast)|Boomtown]]''
|2019–present
|Christian Wallace
|Imperative Entertainment and [[Texas Monthly]]
|<ref name="":10"" />
|-
|''[[Mothers of Invention (podcast)|Mothers of Invention]]''
|2018–present
|[[Mary Robinson]] and [[Maeve Higgins]]
|[[Doc Society]]
|<ref name="":11"">{{Cite web|date=2021-05-19|title=5 Climate Change Podcasts You Should Be Listening to Right Now|url=https://studybreaks.com/culture/music/climate-change-podcasts/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Study Breaks|language=en-us|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184053/https://studybreaks.com/culture/music/climate-change-podcasts/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''America Adapts the Climate Change Podcast''
|2016–present
|Doug Parsons
|Independent
|<ref name="":11"" />
|-
|''How to Save a Planet''
|2019–present
|Muna Suleiman
|[[Friends of the Earth]]
|<ref name="":11"" />
|-
|''Emergence Magazine Podcast''
|2018–present
|Various
|Kalliopeia Foundation
|<ref name="":12"">{{Cite web |title=8 Genuinely Great Podcasts on Climate Change and the Natural World |url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/podcasts-climate-change-environment/ |access-date=2021-11-15 |website=Global Citizen |date=5 March 2021 |language=en |archive-date=2021-10-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008032328/https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/podcasts-climate-change-environment/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|''For What It's Earth''
|2019–present
|Emma Brisdion and Lloyd Hopkins
|Independent
|<ref name="":12"" />
|-
|''The Crisis''
|2021–present
|Ramon Campos, Sayre Quevedo, and Agnes Walton
|[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]]
|<ref name="":13"">{{Cite news|last=Lett|first=Phoebe|date=2021-04-18|title=Listen to a Changing Planet, Through These 5 Climate Podcasts|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/17/at-home/climate-change-podcasts.html|access-date=2021-11-15|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184055/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/17/at-home/climate-change-podcasts.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Broken Ground''
|2019–present
|Claudine Ebeid McElwain
|[[Southern Environmental Law Center]]
|<ref name="":13"" />
|-
|''Life Raft''
|2020–present
|Lauren Malara and Travis Lux
|[[WWNO]] and [[WRKF]]
|<ref name="":13"" />
|-
|''[[Costing the Earth|Costing The Earth]]''
|2021–present
|Thais and Lina
|[[BBC Radio]]
|<ref name="":14"">{{Cite web|title=8 Podcasts About Climate Change That Can Help You Remain Informed|url=https://www.bustle.com/p/8-podcasts-about-climate-change-that-can-help-you-remain-informed-16994758|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Bustle|date=23 April 2019 |language=en|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184052/https://www.bustle.com/p/8-podcasts-about-climate-change-that-can-help-you-remain-informed-16994758|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Climate Cast''
|2021–present
|Paul Huttner
|[[Minnesota Public Radio]]
|<ref name="":14"" />
|-
|''A Climate Change Podcast''
|2017–2019
|Rajesh, Dave, and Curt Newton
|[[MIT]] ClimateX
|<ref name="":14"" />
|-
|
|}

== See also ==
*[[Popular science]]
*[[Environmental journalism]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Science and the public}}
{{environmental humanities}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Environmental podcasts}}
[[Category:Lists of podcasts|environmental]]
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Pollution]]
[[Category:Green politics]]
[[Category:Environment-related lists|Podcasts]]"
Solar canopy,"{{Short description|Arrays on structures built over land with other uses}}
[[File:Parking under Solar Canopy (52937580768).jpg|thumb|Solar canopy parking lot in [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] at Hotel Marcel.  There are EV [[Charging station#SAE|level 2]] chargers underneath the canopy and a 12-stall [[Tesla Supercharger]] behind.]]
[[File:NNHS Walnut St solar canopy close.agr.jpg|thumb|Solar canopies over a high school parking lot]]
[[File:1Wiata fotowoltaika Carport.Solar.jpg|thumb|[[Carport]] solar canopy]]

'''Solar canopies''' are [[Solar Arrays|solar arrays]] installed on [[Canopy (architecture)|canopies]], which could be a parking lot canopy, [[carport]], [[gazebo]], [[Pergola]], or [[patio cover]].

==Solar canopy parking lots==
{{See also|Green parking lot}}
[[File:Solar canopy parking ramp Gundersen Hospital.jpg|thumb|Solar canopy parking ramp [[Gundersen Health System|Gundersen Hospital]]]]
The mounting structure makes solar canopy parking lots 50% to twice as expensive to build as traditional grass field solar arrays, but as [[distributed energy resources]] they avoid [[transmission congestion]] and losses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yeaQUhAOdtk |title=Archived copy |access-date=2024-01-03 |archive-date=2024-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103071538/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yeaQUhAOdtk |url-status=live }}</ref> The canopies can protect the cars and [[Asphalt concrete|asphalt]] from extreme weather.

A French law passed in 2023 will require parking lots larger than {{Convert|50000|sqft|m2}} to build solar canopies covering half their area. This could result in installed capacity of 6.75–11.25 gigawatts, at a cost of $8.7–14.6 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Birnbaum |first=Michael |date=2023-02-08 |title=New French law will blanket parking lots with solar panels |language=en-US |work=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2023/02/06/france-solar-parking-lots/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=2023-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306093420/https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2023/02/06/france-solar-parking-lots/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2022, the world's largest solar car park canopy opened in the Netherlands with 35 MW capacity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-11 |title=Largest solar car park in the world opens at Dutch music festival |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/05/11/largest-solar-car-park-in-the-world-opens-at-famous-dutch-festival |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=euronews |language=en |archive-date=2023-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812161622/https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/05/11/largest-solar-car-park-in-the-world-opens-at-famous-dutch-festival |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Rutgers University]] is building 14.5 MW of solar canopies on parking lots in 2023, which will generate 18 [[GWh]] annually, in addition to the 32-acre 8.8 MW solar canopy parking lot already installed there in 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Michelle |date=2023-06-21 |title=Rutgers University is still a trailblazer in parking lot solar |url=https://electrek.co/2023/06/21/rutgers-university-parking-lot-solar/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Electrek |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-06-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630180734/https://electrek.co/2023/06/21/rutgers-university-parking-lot-solar/ |url-status=live }}</ref> 

If [[Walmart Supercenter]]s installed Solar canopies on their 3,500+ parking lots it would generate 11.1 gigawatts of solar power [[nameplate capacity]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Putting Solar Canopies on Parking Lots Is a Smart Green Move |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/putting-solar-panels-atop-parking-lots-a-green-energy-solution |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101131044/https://e360.yale.edu/features/putting-solar-panels-atop-parking-lots-a-green-energy-solution |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deshmukh |first=Swaraj Sanjay |last2=Pearce |first2=Joshua M. |date=2021-05-01 |title=Electric vehicle charging potential from retail parking lot solar photovoltaic awnings |url=https://research.aalto.fi/files/55239913/ELEC_Pearce_Electric_vehicle_charging_potential.pdf |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=169 |pages=608–617 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2021.01.068 |issn=0960-1481}}</ref>

==Gazebos==
At [[Park|parks]] or backyard [[Patio cover|patios]], [[Gazebo|gazebos]] can be installed as a solar canopy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-14 |title=Are solar canopies and carports worth it? |url=https://www.solarreviews.com/content/blog/are-solar-canopies-worth-it |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Solar Reviews |language=en}}</ref> 
[[File:Thing film solar on standing seam metal roof.webp|thumb|center|[[Thin-film solar cell#Thin film solar on metal roofs|Thin film solar on standing seam metal roof]] gazebo 3D sketch]]

==Tesla Supercharger stations with solar canopies==
Some [[Tesla Supercharger]] stations have solar canopies installed to protect drivers and vehicles from the elements while recharging. [[Tesla Megapack]]s are also installed at some of these locations to store that energy locally.<ref>https://www.tesmanian.com/blogs/tesmanian-blog/first-known-tesla-v4-supercharger-with-solar-panels-and-megapack-is-coming-to-arizona</ref>
[[File:Tesla Supercharger station with solar canopy.webp|thumb|center|3D sketch of [[Tesla Supercharger]] station with solar canopies and 8 [[Tesla Megapack|Megapack]] set for close to 32 [[MWh|Mw/h]]]]

==See also==
* [[Community solar]]
* [[Solar landfill]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Parking]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:Parking facilities]]
[[Category:Solar power]]
[[Category:Photovoltaics]]
[[Category:Sustainability| ]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Human-Environment interaction]]"
Solar landfill,"{{Multiple issues|
{{notability|1=Neologisms|date=January 2024}}
{{advert|date=January 2024}}
}}
[[File:Faria 000102 153913 493502 4578 (35502216424).jpg|thumb|Solar arrays on a full [[landfill]] in [[Rehoboth, Massachusetts|Rehoboth, MA]]]]
A '''solar landfill,''' also referred to as a brightfield, is a former [[landfill]] site that has been transformed into a [[solar array]] or [[solar farm]]. Landfills that are no longer in use are often called [[brownfields]] due to potential environmental concerns. By repurposing these brownfields into solar fields, they become known as brightfields.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Barone |first1=Emily |title=U.S. Landfills Are Getting a Second Life as Solar Farms |url=https://time.com/6183376/landfills-becoming-solar-farms/ |magazine=TIME |date=2 June 2022 }}</ref> In the United States, there are more than 10,000 closed or inactive landfills, which have the potential to accommodate over 60 [[gigawatts]] of solar installations.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://rmi.org/insight/the-future-of-landfills-is-bright/ | title=The Future of Landfills is Bright }}</ref>

==Development==
[[File:Growth in Solar Installations on Landfills.webp|thumb|Growth in solar installations on landfills<ref>https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2023-11/re-on-cl-tracking-matrix-112823.pdf{{Bare URL PDF|date=February 2024}}
</ref>]]
[[File:NUMBER OF RE-POWERING PROJECTS BY STATE.webp|thumb|280px|Completed [[Brownfield land|Brownfield]] renewable projects by State as of November 2023
{{legend|#0FA1DF|States with financial incentives}}
{{legend|#ACD097|States with streamlined permitting policies}}
{{legend|#FFCB7A|States with financial incentives and streamlined permitting policies}}
{{legend|#ffffff|States with no incentives}}
{{legend
| white <!--light green-->
| Number of brownfield completed projects in each State
| border    = 1px solid black <!--red-->
| textcolor = black <!--blue-->
| size      = 100%
| text      = 5
}}
]]

In 2023 the largest solar landfill completed construction in [[Houston]], Texas. The 50 [[Megawatt|MW]] solar array was installed on a 240-acre site that was previously an [[Incineration|incinerator]] and landfill closed by the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) in 1974.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://communityplaymaker.com/discoveries/how-a-houston-solar-project-empowered-a-working-class-neighborhood/ | title=How a Houston Solar Project Empowered a Working-Class Neighborhood }}</ref>

Landfill sites are often suitable locations for solar farms due to their existing [[infrastructure]], including [[Access road|access roads]], [[electric utilities]], and systems for using [[landfill gas]]. Additionally, these sites are elevated and devoid of objects that could obstruct [[solar irradiance]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://energytech.com/renewables/article/21275410/where-trash-turns-into-treasure-the-future-of-solar-on-landfills | title=Where Trash Turns into Treasure: The Future of Solar on Landfills | date=12 October 2023 }}</ref> Siting Solar projects on landfills may have the added benefit of not requiring the developer to build on or disrupt existing ecosystems, such as would be the case if the project were to be sited on an area that requires clear-cutting or other modifications.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://governing.com/now/why-arent-more-solar-farms-built-on-municipal-landfills | title=Why Aren't More Solar Farms Built on Municipal Landfills? | date=2 March 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Simon |first1=Julia |title=In some fights over solar, it's environmentalist vs. environmentalist |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/06/18/1177524841/solar-energy-project-location-debate |work=NPR |date=18 June 2023 }}</ref>

In order to be approved to site a solar project on a brownfield, most states require a measure of [[Environmental remediation|rehabilitation]] to be conducted on the land, including the disposal of on-site hazardous materials<ref>{{cite web | url=https://dec.ny.gov/environmental-protection/site-cleanup/brownfield-and-state-superfund-programs/brownfield | title=Brownfield Cleanup Program - NYDEC }}</ref> as well as ecological restoration such as the introduction of native species, improving the resiliency of the land and ensuring that a stable ecosystem is maintained.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/Featured-Stories/Transforming-Brownfields-for-a-Greener-Future | title=Transforming Brownfields for a Greener Future }}</ref>

== Environmental Impact ==
Solar projects sited on brownfields can help mitigate [[Environmental hazard|environmental hazards]] associated with landfill sites by covering and sealing the waste, preventing further contamination of soil and groundwater, and reducing methane emissions through the capture of [[landfill gas]]. By repurposing landfills for solar development, previously unusable land can be reclaimed for a productive purpose, reducing the need for new land development and preserving natural habitats.

Prior to development, landfills may require extensive site preparation, including capping, grading, and soil remediation, to ensure the stability and suitability of the land for solar installation. This work has the added benefit of protecting the surrounding ecosystem from the potentially harmful materials within the landfill.

While Solar Farms' impact on wildlife is a hotly debated topic, in many cases, the benefits provided by rehabilitating a landfill in order to site a solar landfill may outweigh the negative effects posed by the existence of a solar farm.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1525/cse.2018.001123 | doi=10.1525/cse.2018.001123 | title=Best Practices in Responsible Land Use for Improving Biodiversity at a Utility-Scale Solar Facility | date=2018 | last1=Sinha | first1=Parikhit | last2=Hoffman | first2=Beth | last3=Sakers | first3=John | last4=Althouse | first4=Lynnedee | journal=Case Studies in the Environment | volume=2 | pages=1–12 }}</ref> Not only does the conversion of landfills into solar farms reduce [[greenhouse gas]] emissions and contribute to renewable energy generation, but also repurposes previously unusable land and mitigates environmental hazards associated with abandoned landfill sites.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jea.7500165 | doi=10.1038/sj.jea.7500165 | title=The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): A resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants | date=2001 | last1=Klepeis | first1=Neil E. | last2=Nelson | first2=William C. | last3=Ott | first3=Wayne R. | last4=Robinson | first4=John P. | last5=Tsang | first5=Andy M. | last6=Switzer | first6=Paul | last7=Behar | first7=Joseph V. | last8=Hern | first8=Stephen C. | last9=Engelmann | first9=William H. | journal=Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology | volume=11 | issue=3 | pages=231–252 | pmid=11477521 | s2cid=22445147 }}</ref>

While capping a landfill serves to mitigate exposure to waste products, there are some potential downsides to this process. 

One issue is that capping the landfill may seal off microbiomes in the soil which are often home to diverse species of fungi and bacteria which thrive in the landfill environment, potentially leading to biodiversity loss through partitioning of the two ecosystems. <ref>{{cite journal | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37126164/ | pmid=37126164 | date=2023 | author1=Morita AKM | last2=Sakamoto | first2=I. K. | author3=Varesche MBA | last4=Wendland | first4=E. | title=Effects of capping on microbial populations and contaminant immobilization in an old unlined landfill | journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research International | volume=30 | issue=26 | pages=68548–68562 | doi=10.1007/s11356-023-27311-8 | bibcode=2023ESPR...3068548M | s2cid=250232441 }}</ref>

A potential route to combat biodiversity loss is to utilize the [[Biodiversity offsetting|mitigation hierarchy]] to ensure that proper measures are taken to offset any impacts caused by development.

== Challenges ==
'''Regulatory Compliance:''' Solar development on landfills must adhere to stringent environmental regulations and permitting requirements to address concerns related to soil contamination, habitat disruption, and public health.

'''Technical Considerations:''' Solar installations on landfills may face technical challenges related to land subsidence, soil settlement, and ground stability, requiring specialized engineering and construction techniques to ensure the long-term viability of the project.

==See also==
*[[Community solar]]
*[[Solar canopy]]
*[[Tesla Megapack]]
{{multiple image
 | align = center
 | total_width = 420

 | image1 = La Crosse landfill solar trackers.webp
 | caption1 = [[Solar tracker#Vertical|vertical axis solar trackers]] 3D sketch

 | image2 = La Crosse landfill solar trackers morning.webp
 | caption2 = Solar trackers in the morning facing east
 
 | image3 = La Crosse landfill solar trackers noon.webp
 | height3 = 90
 | caption3 = solar trackers at noon laying flat
 
 | image4 = La Crosse landfill solar trackers evening.webp
 | height4 = 100
 | caption4 = Solar trackers in the evening facing west
 
 | footer = 3D model of solar landfill with [[Solar tracker#Vertical|vertical axis solar trackers]] and [[Tesla Megapack]] with [[solar canopies]]. Showing how the vertical axis solar trackers track the sun across the sky from morning (east) to evening (west).
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{cleanup-link rot|date=February 2024}}
# https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2023-11/re-on-cl-tracking-matrix-112823.pdf
# https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/Clean-Energy-Siting-Resources/Transitioning-Underused-Spaces
# https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/supporting-brownfields-redevelopment-using-tax-incentives-and-credits
# https://www.powermag.com/solar-farm-at-a-landfill-site-brings-new-meaning-for-waste-to-energy/
# https://encorerenewableenergy.com/services/brownfields-redevelopment/
# {{cite journal |last1=Spiess |first1=Thierry |last2=De Sousa |first2=Christopher |title=Barriers to Renewable Energy Development on Brownfields |journal=Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning |date=7 August 2016 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=507–534 |doi=10.1080/1523908X.2016.1146986 |bibcode=2016JEPP...18..507S |s2cid=155310511 }}
# https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/2019-brownfields-federal-programs-guide


[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:Solar power]]
[[Category:Photovoltaics]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Human-Environment interaction]]"
Digital sustainability,"{{Short description|Concept involving intangible goods}}
[[File:Icon_Digitale_Nachhaltigkeit_Farbig.svg|alt=Label Digital Sustainability|thumb|Label Digital Sustainability]]

The concept of '''digital sustainability''' describes the long-term oriented production and further development of digital artifacts and addresses the [[tragedy of the anticommons]]. Originating from the term [[sustainability]], which has been predominantly used in connection with ecological topics, the concept of digital sustainability, according to the definition of [[sustainable development]] in the [[Our Common Future|Brundtland Report]], refers to the conscious handling of [[resource]]s in a way that their current creation and use do not impair the needs of future generations.

== Definition and distinction ==
''Digital resources are sustainably managed when their benefit to society is maximized, so that the digital needs of current and future generations are equally met. The societal benefit is maximized when the resources are accessible to the largest number and reusable with a minimum of technical, legal, and social restrictions. Digital resources are knowledge and cultural artifacts digitally represented as text, image, audio, video, or software.'' (Definition after Dapp)

Digital sustainability distinguishes itself from the original definition of sustainability in that digital sustainability exclusively deals with [[intangible good]]s, so-called knowledge goods. Such non-physical resources are [[rivalry (economics)#non-rivalry|non-rivalrous]], so that no consumption of the goods can occur. Nevertheless, digital resources can be both [[excludability|excludable]] (a so-called [[club good]]s) and non-excludable (a so-called [[Public good (economics)|public good]]s). Through the protection of [[intellectual property]], digital resources can be excluded from free use and further development (see also ""[[Copyright]]"").

== Ten preconditions of digital sustainability ==
In early 2017, a scientific publication appeared in ''[[Sustainability Science]]'' by [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer Publishing]]<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-016-0412-2|title=Digital sustainability: basic conditions for sustainable digital artifacts and their ecosystems|first1=Matthias|last1=Stuermer|first2=Gabriel|last2=Abu-Tayeh|first3=Thomas|last3=Myrach|date=March 1, 2017|journal=Sustainability Science|volume=12|issue=2|pages=247–262|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/s11625-016-0412-2|pmid=30174752|pmc=6106115|bibcode=2017SuSc...12..247S }}</ref> and in July 2017 a related article in German<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parldigi.ch/de/digitale-nachhaltigkeit/|title=Digitale Nachhaltigkeit: Digitale Gemeingüter für die Wissensgesellschaft der Zukunft – Parldigi – Digitale Nachhaltigkeit|date=July 7, 2017}}</ref> describing ten preconditions of digital sustainability. The first four criteria concern the properties of the [[digital good]]s, the next five criteria the properties of the [[ecosystem]], and the last criterion the impact on society. Concrete examples of digital sustainability include [[Wikipedia]], [[Linux]], and [[OpenStreetMap]].

The following ten preconditions of digital sustainability were presented with individual icons at DINAcon 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parldigi.ch/de/icons-voraussetzungen/|title=Icons Voraussetzungen digitale Nachhaltigkeit – Parldigi – Digitale Nachhaltigkeit}}</ref> These are also published on [[Wikimedia Commons]] under the [[Creative Commons]] Zero license.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:DINA_badge_colour|title=Category:DINA badge colour - Wikimedia Commons|website=commons.wikimedia.org}}</ref>

=== Properties of the digital good ===

Source:<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-016-0412-2|title=Digital sustainability: basic conditions for sustainable digital artifacts and their ecosystems|first1=Matthias|last1=Stuermer|first2=Gabriel|last2=Abu-Tayeh|first3=Thomas|last3=Myrach|date=March 1, 2017|journal=Sustainability Science|volume=12|issue=2|pages=247–262|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/s11625-016-0412-2|pmid=30174752|pmc=6106115|bibcode=2017SuSc...12..247S }}</ref>

{| class=""wikitable_no-border""
|- class=""backgroundcolor5""
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 01 Ausgereift Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''1. Elaborateness:''' The digital good must be qualitatively elaborate. For example, a software solution must be [[software quality|high-quality programmed]], function correctly and [[information security|securely]], and fully cover the [[requirements management|necessary requirements]].
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 02 Transparente Strukturen Farbig.svg|100px]] 
| '''2. Transparent structures:''' Digitally sustainable goods must have transparent structures, meaning the [[source code]] of a software must be [[open source|fully disclosed]] and the format of data must be publicly documented using an [[open standard]]. This technical transparency enables control and improvements, leading to more trust and [[software bug|fewer errors]].
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 03 Semantische Daten Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''3. Semantic data:''' The advancing digitization requires that information is not only understood by humans but also by machines. Consequently, digitally sustainable information must be linked through [[conceptual schema|semantic data]]. Such [[metadata]] allows large amounts of digital information to be processed, aggregated, and interpreted by machines.
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 04 Verteilte Standorte Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''4. Distributed location:''' In the digital world, the physical aspect also plays an important role. If data is stored only in one location or a system runs only on a single server, the long-term availability of these digital goods is at risk. It is digitally sustainable if information and applications are redundantly stored in multiple locations, for example, using [[peer-to-peer]] approaches. This reduces dependence on the physical location and increases permanent availability.
|-
|}

=== Properties of the ecosystem ===
{| class=""wikitable_no-border""
|- class=""backgroundcolor5""
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 05 Freie Lizenz Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''5. [[Free license|Open licensing regime]]:''' Legal frameworks must allow digital goods to be freely used, modified, and redistributed. This way, once created digital knowledge can be improved and applied unrestrictedly by society. This is the case, for example, with [[open source]], [[open data]], or [[open access]] licenses.
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 06 Geteiltes Wissen Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''6. Shared tacit knowledge:''' The expert improvement and expansion of digital knowledge require that know-how and experiences ([[tacit knowledge]]) are distributed among as many people as possible from different organizations. This reduces the knowledge-dependence on individual persons and companies ([[vendor lock-in|lock-in effect]]) and increases contributions from others.
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 07 Partizipationskultur Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''7. [[public participation (decision making)|Participatory culture]]:''' All competent individuals should be able to contribute constructively to the expansion and further development of the digital good. This requires a healthy participation culture. For example, [[peer review]] processes in the community can ensure the required quality of data and software.
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 08 Faire Führungsstrukturen Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''8. Good governance:''' Good governance ensure thats control over the digital good does not lie with a single person or organization but is distributed as decentralized as possible. Transparent governance structures such as public elections or the [[meritocracy]] principle regulate the responsibilities. This criterion is based on the concept of [[good governance]].
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 09 Breit Abgestützte Finanzierung Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''9. Diversified financing:''' The infrastructure (such as Internet [[server (computing)|server]]s), the responsible personnel, and other resources should be paid for by as many different actors as possible. Broadly supported financing allows independence from a single institution and reduces [[conflict of interest]].
|-
|}

=== Impact on Society ===
{| class=""wikitable_no-border""
|- class=""backgroundcolor5""
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 10 Beitrag Zur Nachhaltigen Entwicklung Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''10. Contributing to sustainable development:''' Digitally sustainable goods and their communities should contribute to [[sustainable development]] in the classical sense. In other words, digitally sustainable programs and data should have a positive [[ecology|ecological]], [[sustainability#social_sustainability|social]], or [[sustainability#economic_sustainability|economic]] impact. At the same time, digitally sustainable goods must use resources from a sustainable background in their production and application. For example, the production of digital goods should be done by workers with [[fair trade|fair remuneration]] and electricity from [[renewable energy|renewable energy sources]] should be used.
|-
|}

== References ==
=== Digital sustainability in academia ===
Since 2004, the definition by Marcus Dapp has been further developed and taught in a lecture of the same name at [[ETH Zurich]].<ref>http://www.vvz.ethz.ch/Vorlesungsverzeichnis/lerneinheit.view?semkez=2018W&lerneinheitId=125702 Digital Sustainability in the Knowledge Society</ref> The student organizations ''TheAlternative'' and ''SUBDiN'' ([[University of Basel]]) also describe this new sustainability approach in detail.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thealternative.ch/|title=TheAlternative|website=www.thealternative.ch}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.subdin.ch/|title=SUBDiN - Studentische Union Basel für Digitale Nachhaltigkeit|website=www.subdin.ch}}</ref> The first historical text that explained the concept in writing was a competition entry for the anniversary publication ""Essays 2030"" of ETH Zurich, titled ""ETH Zurich - A Pioneer in Digital Sustainability"".<ref>{{cite web |title=ETH - Competition Visions ETH 2030 - Online Version |url=http://www.essays2030.ethz.ch/onlineversion/index |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715164505/http://www.essays2030.ethz.ch/onlineversion/index |archive-date=2015-07-15}}</ref> A more recent contribution describes digital sustainability in the context of Open Data and Open-Source Software.<ref>{{cite web |title=Open Government Data and Free Software – Cornerstones of a Digital Sustainability Agenda {{!}} The 2013 Open Reader |url=http://books.buchundnetz.com/the2013openreader/chapter/open-government-data-and-free-software-cornerstones-of-a-digital-sustaina |access-date=2015-07-19 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since 2014,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unibe.ch/aktuell/medien/media_relations/archiv/news/2014/nachhaltige_entwicklung_goes_digital/index_ger.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010234658/https://www.unibe.ch/aktuell/medien/media_relations/archiv/news/2014/nachhaltige_entwicklung_goes_digital/index_ger.html |archive-date=2020-10-10 |language=de-DE |title=Official media release of the University of Bern on the establishment of the Research Center for Digital Sustainability }}</ref> the [[University of Bern]] has had the Research Center for Digital Sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.unibe.ch/index_ger.html |title=Forschungsstelle Digitale Nachhaltigkeit |language=de-DE |date=2020-03-15 |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref> The center is led by Matthias Stürmer<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.unibe.ch/ueber_uns/personen/dr_stuermer_matthias/index_ger.html |title=Dr. Matthias Stürmer |language=de-DE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121234450/https://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.unibe.ch/ueber_uns/personen/dr_stuermer_matthias/index_ger.html |archive-date=2019-11-21}}</ref> and employs around 20 staff members.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.unibe.ch/ueber_uns/team/index_ger.html |title=Research Center for Digital Sustainability. Team |date=2019-11-18 |access-date=2021-08-26 |language=de-DE}}</ref> The research center was established with a start-up funding of CHF 80,000 from CH Open<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ch-open.ch/ |title=CH Open |language=de-DE |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref> at the Institute of Information Systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iwi.unibe.ch/index_eng.html |title= Institute of Information Systems |date=2021-10-05 |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref> Since 2019, the research center has been located at the Institute of Computer Science.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.inf.unibe.ch/index_eng.html |title=Institute of Computer Science |date=2021-03-05 |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref> The research center addresses issues related to [[open-source software]], [[open data]], [[linked data]], [[open government]], [[smart city]], [[blockchain]], [[smart contract]]s, and [[procurement|public procurement]] in [[research]], teaching, and service provision.

=== Open-source software and sustainability ===
Based on the [[sustainability|definition of sustainability]], Thorsten Busch describes in the ''Open Source Yearbook 2008'' the relationship between open-source software and the concept of sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.golem.de/0803/58082.html | title= Open Source und Nachhaltigkeit | last=Busch | first=Thorsten |language=de-DE |date=2008-03-03 | access-date=2024-01-21}}</ref> The extensive literature analysis addresses both the ecological aspects of [[information and communications technology]] and the societal influences of digital, intangible resources. The focus is on the problem of the [[digital divide]], which, according to Busch, could be reduced, for example, by promoting open-source software. Busch uses the term ""informational sustainability"" coined by [[Volker Grassmuck]] for the same issue as the concept of digital sustainability described here.

== References ==
<references responsive />

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|Sustainability}}
{{Commonscat|Sustainability}}
{{Commonscat|Digital sustainability}}
* [https://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.unibe.ch/index_eng.html Research Center for Digital Sustainability]

[[Category:Computing and society]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Archival science]]"
Solar reforming,"{{Short description|Technology for conversion of waste}}
{{Multiple issues|{{cleanup|date=February 2024|reason=inappropriate style}}
{{Essay-like|date=February 2024}}}}

'''Solar reforming''' is the sunlight-driven conversion of diverse carbon waste resources (including solid, liquid, and gaseous waste streams such as [[biomass]], [[plastic]]s, industrial by-products, [[Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric carbon dioxide]], etc.) into sustainable fuels (or energy vectors) and value-added chemicals.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Subhajit |last2=Linley |first2=Stuart |last3=Reisner |first3=Erwin |date=2024-01-30 |title=Solar reforming as an emerging technology for circular chemical industries |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41570-023-00567-x |journal=Nature Reviews Chemistry |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=87–105 |doi=10.1038/s41570-023-00567-x |pmid=38291132 |s2cid=267332161 |issn=2397-3358}}</ref> It encompasses a set of technologies (and processes) operating under ambient and aqueous conditions, utilizing solar spectrum to generate maximum value.<ref name="":0"" /> Solar reforming offers an attractive and unifying solution to address the contemporary challenges of [[climate change]] and [[Pollution|environmental pollution]] by creating a sustainable [[Circular economy|circular network]] of waste upcycling, clean fuel (and chemical) generation and the consequent mitigation of [[Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse emissions]] (in alignment with the [[Sustainable Development Goals|United Nations Sustainable Development Goals]]).

== Background ==
The earliest sunlight-driven reforming (now referred to as photoreforming or PC reforming which forms a small sub-section of solar reforming; see ''Definition and classifications'' section) of waste-derived substrates involved the use of [[Titanium dioxide|TiO<sub>2</sub>]] [[semiconductor]] [[Photocatalysis|photocatalyst]] (generally loaded with a hydrogen evolution co-catalyst such as Pt). Kawai and Sakata from the [[Institute for Molecular Science]], Okazaki, [[Japan]] in the 1980s reported that the organics derived from different solid waste matter could be used as [[electron donor]]s to drive the generation of [[Hydrogen economy|hydrogen gas]] over TiO<sub>2</sub> photocatalyst composites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kawai |first1=Tomoji |last2=Sakata |first2=Tadayoshi |date=1980-07-31 |title=Conversion of carbohydrate into hydrogen fuel by a photocatalytic process |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/286474a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=286 |issue=5772 |pages=474–476 |doi=10.1038/286474a0 |bibcode=1980Natur.286..474K |s2cid=4356641 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kawai |first1=Tomoji |last2=Sakata |first2=Tadayoshi |date=January 1981 |title=Photocatalytic hydrogen production from water by the decomposition of poly-vinylchloride, protein, algae, dead insects, and excrement |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1246/cl.1981.81 |journal=Chemistry Letters |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=81–84 |doi=10.1246/cl.1981.81 |issn=0366-7022}}</ref> In 2017, Wakerley, Kuehnel and Reisner at the [[University of Cambridge]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] demonstrated the photocatalytic production of hydrogen using raw [[lignocellulosic biomass]] substrates in the presence of [[Visible spectrum|visible-light]] responsive CdS|CdO<sub>x</sub> [[quantum dot]]s under alkaline conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wakerley |first1=David W. |last2=Kuehnel |first2=Moritz F. |last3=Orchard |first3=Katherine L. |last4=Ly |first4=Khoa H. |last5=Rosser |first5=Timothy E. |last6=Reisner |first6=Erwin |date=2017-03-13 |title=Solar-driven reforming of lignocellulose to H2 with a CdS/CdOx photocatalyst |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nenergy201721 |journal=Nature Energy |language=en |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1038/nenergy.2017.21 |s2cid=100128646 |issn=2058-7546}}</ref> This was followed by the utilization of less-toxic, carbon-based, visible-light absorbing photocatalyst composites (for example [[Carbon nitride|carbon-nitride]] based systems) for biomass and plastics photoreforming to hydrogen and organics by Kasap, Uekert and Reisner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kasap |first1=Hatice |last2=Achilleos |first2=Demetra S. |last3=Huang |first3=Ailun |last4=Reisner |first4=Erwin |date=2018-09-19 |title=Photoreforming of Lignocellulose into H 2 Using Nanoengineered Carbon Nitride under Benign Conditions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.8b07853 |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |language=en |volume=140 |issue=37 |pages=11604–11607 |doi=10.1021/jacs.8b07853 |pmid=30153420 |s2cid=52111870 |issn=0002-7863}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Uekert |first1=Taylor |last2=Kasap |first2=Hatice |last3=Reisner |first3=Erwin |date=2019-09-25 |title=Photoreforming of Nonrecyclable Plastic Waste over a Carbon Nitride/Nickel Phosphide Catalyst |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |language=en |volume=141 |issue=38 |pages=15201–15210 |doi=10.1021/jacs.9b06872 |issn=0002-7863 |pmc=7007225 |pmid=31462034}}</ref> In addition to variations of carbon nitride, other photocatalyst composite systems based on [[Graphite oxide|graphene oxides]], [[MXenes]], [[Coordination polymer|co-ordination polymers]] and [[Metal chalcogenide|metal chalcogenides]] were reported during this period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Jiu |last2=Kumar |first2=Pawan |last3=Zhao |first3=Heng |last4=Kibria |first4=Md Golam |last5=Hu |first5=Jinguang |date=2021 |title=Polymeric carbon nitride-based photocatalysts for photoreforming of biomass derivatives |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D1GC02307A |journal=Green Chemistry |language=en |volume=23 |issue=19 |pages=7435–7457 |doi=10.1039/D1GC02307A |issn=1463-9262 |s2cid=238644248}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Xinxing |last2=Zhao |first2=Heng |last3=Khan |first3=Mohd Adnan |last4=Maity |first4=Partha |last5=Al-Attas |first5=Tareq |last6=Larter |first6=Stephen |last7=Yong |first7=Qiang |last8=Mohammed |first8=Omar F. |last9=Kibria |first9=Md Golam |last10=Hu |first10=Jinguang |date=2020-10-19 |title=Sunlight-Driven Biomass Photorefinery for Coproduction of Sustainable Hydrogen and Value-Added Biochemicals |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c06282 |journal=ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering |language=en |volume=8 |issue=41 |pages=15772–15781 |doi=10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c06282 |issn=2168-0485 |s2cid=225149072}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=Cheng |last2=Xie |first2=Maoliang |last3=Liu |first3=Sicong |last4=Chen |first4=Runlin |last5=Su |first5=Hang |last6=Zhou |first6=Lan |last7=Pang |first7=Yuxia |last8=Lou |first8=Hongming |last9=Qiu |first9=Xueqing |date=2021-09-22 |title=Visible Light-Driven Reforming of Lignocellulose into H 2 by Intrinsic Monolayer Carbon Nitride |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.1c10842 |journal=ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces |language=en |volume=13 |issue=37 |pages=44243–44253 |doi=10.1021/acsami.1c10842 |issn=1944-8244 |pmid=34499461 |s2cid=237472526}}</ref><ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last1=Pichler |first1=Christian M. |last2=Bhattacharjee |first2=Subhajit |last3=Rahaman |first3=Motiar |last4=Uekert |first4=Taylor |last5=Reisner |first5=Erwin |date=2021-08-06 |title=Conversion of Polyethylene Waste into Gaseous Hydrocarbons via Integrated Tandem Chemical–Photo/Electrocatalytic Processes |journal=ACS Catalysis |language=en |volume=11 |issue=15 |pages=9159–9167 |doi=10.1021/acscatal.1c02133 |issn=2155-5435 |pmc=8353629 |pmid=34386271}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guan |first1=Lijiang |last2=Cheng |first2=Guang |last3=Tan |first3=Bien |last4=Jin |first4=Shangbin |date=2021 |title=Covalent triazine frameworks constructed via benzyl halide monomers showing high photocatalytic activity in biomass reforming |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D1CC01102B |journal=Chemical Communications |language=en |volume=57 |issue=42 |pages=5147–5150 |doi=10.1039/D1CC01102B |issn=1359-7345 |pmid=33899846 |s2cid=233400735}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Van-Can |last2=Nimbalkar |first2=Dipak B. |last3=Nam |first3=Le D. |last4=Lee |first4=Yuh-Lang |last5=Teng |first5=Hsisheng |date=2021-05-07 |title=Photocatalytic Cellulose Reforming for H 2 and Formate Production by Using Graphene Oxide-Dot Catalysts |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acscatal.1c00217 |journal=ACS Catalysis |language=en |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=4955–4967 |doi=10.1021/acscatal.1c00217 |issn=2155-5435 |s2cid=233564941}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cao |first1=Bingqian |last2=Wan |first2=Shipeng |last3=Wang |first3=Yanan |last4=Guo |first4=Haiwei |last5=Ou |first5=Man |last6=Zhong |first6=Qin |date=2022-01-01 |title=Highly-efficient visible-light-driven photocatalytic H2 evolution integrated with microplastic degradation over MXene/ZnxCd1-xS photocatalyst |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002197972101167X |journal=Journal of Colloid and Interface Science |volume=605 |pages=311–319 |doi=10.1016/j.jcis.2021.07.113 |issn=0021-9797 |pmid=34332406}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nagakawa |first1=Haruki |last2=Nagata |first2=Morio |date=2021-12-02 |title=Highly Efficient Hydrogen Production in the Photoreforming of Lignocellulosic Biomass Catalyzed by Cu,In-Doped ZnS Derived from ZIF-8 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/admi.202101581 |journal=Advanced Materials Interfaces |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.1002/admi.202101581 |issn=2196-7350 |s2cid=244880250}}</ref> A major limitation of PC reforming is the use of conventional harsh alkaline pre-treatment conditions (pH >13 and high temperatures) for polymeric substrates such as [[Condensation polymer|condensation plastics]], accounting for more than 80% of the operation costs.<ref name="":3"" /> This was circumvented with the introduction of a new chemoenzymatic reforming pathway in 2023 by Bhattacharjee, Guo, Reisner and Hollfelder, which employed near-neutral pH, moderate temperatures for pre-treating plastics and nanoplastics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Subhajit |last2=Guo |first2=Chengzhi |last3=Lam |first3=Erwin |last4=Holstein |first4=Josephin M. |last5=Rangel Pereira |first5=Mariana |last6=Pichler |first6=Christian M. |last7=Pornrungroj |first7=Chanon |last8=Rahaman |first8=Motiar |last9=Uekert |first9=Taylor |last10=Hollfelder |first10=Florian |last11=Reisner |first11=Erwin |date=2023-09-20 |title=Chemoenzymatic Photoreforming: A Sustainable Approach for Solar Fuel Generation from Plastic Feedstocks |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |language=en |volume=145 |issue=37 |pages=20355–20364 |doi=10.1021/jacs.3c05486 |issn=0002-7863 |pmc=10515630 |pmid=37671930}}</ref> In 2020, Jiao and Xie reported the photocatalytic conversion of addition plastics such as [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]] to high energy-density to C<sub>2</sub> fuels over a [[Niobium pentoxide|Nb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>]] catalyst under natural conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jiao |first1=Xingchen |last2=Zheng |first2=Kai |last3=Chen |first3=Qingxia |last4=Li |first4=Xiaodong |last5=Li |first5=Yamin |last6=Shao |first6=Weiwei |last7=Xu |first7=Jiaqi |last8=Zhu |first8=Junfa |last9=Pan |first9=Yang |last10=Sun |first10=Yongfu |last11=Xie |first11=Yi |date=September 2020 |title=Photocatalytic Conversion of Waste Plastics into C 2 Fuels under Simulated Natural Environment Conditions |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.201915766 |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |language=en |volume=59 |issue=36 |pages=15497–15501 |doi=10.1002/anie.201915766 |pmid=32003512 |s2cid=210983540 |issn=1433-7851}}</ref>

The photocatalytic process (referred to as PC reforming; see ''Categorization and configurations'' section below) offers a simple, one-pot and facile deployment scope, but has several major limitations, making it challenging for commercial implementation.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last1=Uekert |first1=Taylor |last2=Pichler |first2=Christian M. |last3=Schubert |first3=Teresa |last4=Reisner |first4=Erwin |date=2020-11-30 |title=Solar-driven reforming of solid waste for a sustainable future |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-020-00650-x |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=383–391 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00650-x |bibcode=2020NatSu...4..383U |s2cid=227236618 |issn=2398-9629}}</ref> In 2021, sunlight-driven [[Photoelectrochemical process|photoelectrochemical]] (PEC) systems/technologies operating with no external bias or voltage input were introduced by Bhattacharjee and Reisner at the [[University of Cambridge]].<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Subhajit |last2=Andrei |first2=Virgil |last3=Pornrungroj |first3=Chanon |last4=Rahaman |first4=Motiar |last5=Pichler |first5=Christian M. |last6=Reisner |first6=Erwin |date=2021-10-27 |title=Reforming of Soluble Biomass and Plastic Derived Waste Using a Bias-Free Cu 30 Pd 70 {{!}}Perovskite{{!}}Pt Photoelectrochemical Device |journal=Advanced Functional Materials |language=en |volume=32 |issue=7 |doi=10.1002/adfm.202109313 |issn=1616-301X|doi-access=free }}</ref> These PEC reforming (see ''Categorization and configurations'' section) systems reformed diverse pre-treated waste streams (such as [[Lignocellulosic biomass|lignocellulose]] and [[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET plastics]]) to selective value-added chemicals with the simultaneous generation of [[green hydrogen]], and achieving areal production rates 100-10000 times higher than conventional photocatalytic processes.<ref name="":4"" /> In 2023, Bhattacharjee, Rahaman and Reisner extended the PEC platform to a solar reactor which could reduce [[greenhouse gas]] CO<sub>2</sub> to different energy vectors ([[Carbon monoxide|CO]], [[syngas]], [[formate]] depending on the type of catalyst integrated) and convert waste PET plastics to [[glycolic acid]] at the same time.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Subhajit |last2=Rahaman |first2=Motiar |last3=Andrei |first3=Virgil |last4=Miller |first4=Melanie |last5=Rodríguez-Jiménez |first5=Santiago |last6=Lam |first6=Erwin |last7=Pornrungroj |first7=Chanon |last8=Reisner |first8=Erwin |date=2023-01-09 |title=Photoelectrochemical CO2-to-fuel conversion with simultaneous plastic reforming |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s44160-022-00196-0 |journal=Nature Synthesis |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=182–192 |doi=10.1038/s44160-022-00196-0 |s2cid=255686581 |issn=2731-0582}}</ref> This further inspired the direct capture and conversion of CO<sub>2</sub> to products from [[flue gas]] and air ([[direct air capture]]) in a PEC reforming process (with simultaneous plastic conversion).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kar |first1=Sayan |last2=Rahaman |first2=Motiar |last3=Andrei |first3=Virgil |last4=Bhattacharjee |first4=Subhajit |last5=Roy |first5=Souvik |last6=Reisner |first6=Erwin |date=2023-07-19 |title=Integrated capture and solar-driven utilization of CO2 from flue gas and air |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2023.05.022 |journal=Joule |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=1496–1514 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2023.05.022 |issn=2542-4351}}</ref> Choi and Ryu demonstrated a [[Polyoxometalate|polyoxometallate]]-medated PEC process to achieve biomass conversion with unassisted hydrogen production in 2022.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Choi |first1=Yuri |last2=Mehrotra |first2=Rashmi |last3=Lee |first3=Sang-Hak |last4=Nguyen |first4=Trang Vu Thien |last5=Lee |first5=Inhui |last6=Kim |first6=Jiyeong |last7=Yang |first7=Hwa-Young |last8=Oh |first8=Hyeonmyeong |last9=Kim |first9=Hyunwoo |last10=Lee |first10=Jae-Won |last11=Kim |first11=Yong Hwan |last12=Jang |first12=Sung-Yeon |last13=Jang |first13=Ji-Wook |last14=Ryu |first14=Jungki |date=2022-10-03 |title=Bias-free solar hydrogen production at 19.8 mA cm−2 using perovskite photocathode and lignocellulosic biomass |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=5709 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-33435-1 |pmid=36192405 |pmc=9529942 |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> Similarly, Pan and Chu, in 2023  reported a PEC cell for renewable formate production from sunlight, CO<sub>2</sub> and biomass-derived sugars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=Yuyang |last2=Zhang |first2=Huiyan |last3=Zhang |first3=Bowen |last4=Gong |first4=Feng |last5=Feng |first5=Jianyong |last6=Huang |first6=Huiting |last7=Vanka |first7=Srinivas |last8=Fan |first8=Ronglei |last9=Cao |first9=Qi |last10=Shen |first10=Mingrong |last11=Li |first11=Zhaosheng |last12=Zou |first12=Zhigang |last13=Xiao |first13=Rui |last14=Chu |first14=Sheng |date=2023-02-23 |title=Renewable formate from sunlight, biomass and carbon dioxide in a photoelectrochemical cell |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1013 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-36726-3 |pmid=36823177 |pmc=9950059 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.1013P |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> These developments has led solar reforming (and electroreforming, where renewable electricity drives redox processes; see Caterogization and configurations section) to gradually emerge as an active area of exploration.

== Concept and considerations ==
=== Definition and classifications ===
Solar reforming is the sunlight-driven transformation of waste substrates to valuable products (such as sustainable fuels and chemicals) as defined by scientists Subhajit Bhattacharjee, Stuart Linley and Erwin Reisner in their 2024 [[Nature Reviews Chemistry]] article where they conceptualized and formalized the field by introducing its concepts, classification, configurations and metrics.<ref name="":0"" /> It generally operates without external heating and pressure, and also introduces a thermodynamic advantage over traditional [[green hydrogen]] or CO<sub>2</sub> reduction fuel producing methods such as [[water splitting]] or CO<sub>2</sub> splitting, respectively. Depending on solar spectrum utilization, solar reforming can be classified into two categories: “solar catalytic reforming” and “solar thermal reforming”.<ref name="":0"" /> Solar catalytic reforming refers to transformation processes primarily driven by [[ultraviolet]] (UV) or [[Visible spectrum|visible light]].<ref name="":0"" /> It also includes the subset of ‘photoreforming’ encompassing utilization of high energy [[photon]]s in the UV or near-UV region of the solar spectrum (for example, by semiconductor photocatalysts such as TiO<sub>2</sub>). Solar thermal reforming, on the other hand, exploits the [[infrared]] (IR) region for waste upcycling to generate products of high economic value.<ref name="":0"" /> An important aspect of solar reforming is value creation, which means that the overall value creation from product formation must be greater than substrate value destruction.<ref name="":0"" /> In terms of deployment architectures, solar catalytic reforming can be further categorized into: photocatalytic reforming (PC reforming), photoelectrochemical reforming (PEC reforming) and photovoltaic-electrochemical reforming (PV-EC reforming).<ref name="":0"" />

=== Advantages over conventional waste recycling and upcycling processes ===
Solar reforming offers several advantages over conventional methods of waste management or fuel/chemical production. It offers a less energy-intensive and low carbon alterative to methods of waste reforming such as [[pyrolysis]] and [[gasification]] which require high energy input.<ref name="":0"" /> Solar reforming also provides several benefits over traditional green hydrogen production methods such as [[water splitting]] (H<sub>2</sub>O → H<sub>2</sub> + ½O<sub>2</sub>, ΔG° = 237 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>). It offers a thermodynamic advantage over water splitting by circumventing the energetically and kinetically demanding water oxidation half reaction (E⁰ = +1.23 V vs. reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE)) by energetically neutral oxidation of waste-derived organics (C<sub>x</sub>H<sub>y</sub>O<sub>z</sub> + (2''x''−''z'')H<sub>2</sub>O → (2''x''−''z''+''y''/2)H<sub>2</sub> + ''x''CO<sub>2</sub>; ΔG° ~0 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>).<ref name="":0"" /> This results in better performance in terms of higher production rates, and also translates to other similar processes which depend on water oxidation as the counter reaction such as CO<sub>2</sub> splitting. Furthermore, concentrated streams of hydrogen produced from solar reforming is safer than [[Oxyhydrogen|explosive mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen]] (from traditional water splitting), that otherwise require additional separation costs.<ref name="":0"" /> The added economic advantage of forming two different valuable products (for example, gaseous reductive fuels and liquid oxidative chemicals) simultaneously makes solar reforming suitable for commercial applications.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Solar reforming metrics ===
Solar reforming encompasses a range of technological processes and configurations and therefore, suitable performance metrics can evaluate the commercial viability. In [[artificial photosynthesis]], the most common metric is the solar-to-fuel conversion efficiency (η<sub>STF</sub>) as shown below, where ‘r’ is the product formation rate, ‘ΔG’ is the [[Gibbs free energy]] change during the process, ‘A’ is the sunlight irradiation area and ‘P’ is the total light intensity flux.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":6"" /> The η<sub>STF</sub> can be adopted as a metric for solar reforming but with certain considerations. Since the ΔG values for solar reforming processes are very low (ΔG ~0 kJ mol<sup>‒1</sup>), this makes the η<sub>STF</sub> per definition close to zero, despite the high production rates and [[quantum yield]]s. However, replacing the ΔG for product formation (during solar reforming) with that of product utilisation (|ΔG<sub>use</sub>|; such as [[combustion]] of the hydrogen fuel generated) can give a better representation of the process efficiency.<ref name="":0"" />

<math>\eta_{\mathrm{STF}}=\frac{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{SR}}\left(\mathrm{mol} \cdot \mathrm{s}^{-1}\right) \times \Delta \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{SR}}\left(\mathrm{J} \cdot \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)}{\mathrm{P}_{\text {total }}\left(\mathrm{W} \cdot \mathrm{m}^{-2}\right) \times \mathrm{A}\left(\mathrm{m}^2\right)}</math>

Since solar reforming is highly dependent on the light harvester and its area of [[photon]] collection, a more technologically relevant metric is the areal production rate (r<sub>areal</sub>) as shown, where ‘n’ is the [[Mole (unit)|moles]] of product formed, ‘A’ is the sunlight irradiation area and ‘t’ is the time.<ref name="":0"" />

<math>\mathrm{r}_{\text {areal}}=\frac{\mathrm{n}_{\text {product}}(\mathrm{mol})}{\mathrm{A}\left(\mathrm{m}^2\right) \times \mathrm{t}(\mathrm{h})}</math>

Although r<sub>areal</sub> is a more consistent metric for solar reforming, it neglects some key parameters such as type of waste utilized, pre-treatment costs, product value, scaling, other process and separation costs, deployment variables, etc.<ref name="":0"" /> Therefore, a more adaptable and robust metric is the solar-to-value creation rate (''r''<sub>STV</sub>) which can encompass all these factors and provide a more holistic and practical picture from the economic or commercial point of view.<ref name="":0"" /> The simplified equation for ''r''<sub>STV</sub> is shown below, where ''C<sub>i</sub>'' and ''C<sub>k</sub>'' are the costs of the product ‘i’ and substrate ‘k’, respectively. ‘''C<sub>p</sub>''’ is the pre-treatment cost for the waste substrate ‘k’, and ‘''n<sub>i</sub>''’ and ‘''n<sub>k</sub>''’ are amounts (in moles) of the product ‘i’ formed and substrate ‘k’ consumed during solar reforming, respectively. Note that the metric is adaptable and can be expanded to include other relevant parameters as applicable.<ref name="":0"" />

<math>r_{\mathrm{STV}}= \frac{ {\textstyle \sum_{i=1}^M \displaystyle C_i ($mol^{-1})\times n_i(mol)} - {\textstyle \sum_{k=1}^N \displaystyle \bigl(C_k+C_p\bigr) ($mol^{-1})\times n_k (mol)}}{A (m^2)\times t(h)}{}</math>

=== Categorization and configurations ===
Solar reforming depends on the properties of the light absorber and the catalysts involved, and their selection, screening and integration to generate maximum value. The design and deployment of solar reforming technologies dictates the efficiency, scale and target substrates/products. In this context, solar reforming (more specifically, solar catalytic reforming) can be classified into three architectures:<ref name="":0"" />

* Photocatalytic (PC) reforming - PC reforming is a one-pot process involving homogeneous or heterogenous [[Photocatalysis|photocatalyst]] suspensions (or immobilized photocatalysts on sheets<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last1=Uekert |first1=Taylor |last2=Bajada |first2=Mark A. |last3=Schubert |first3=Teresa |last4=Pichler |first4=Christian M. |last5=Reisner |first5=Erwin |date=2021-10-05 |title=Scalable Photocatalyst Panels for Photoreforming of Plastic, Biomass and Mixed Waste in Flow |url=https://chemistry-europe.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cssc.202002580 |journal=ChemSusChem |language=en |volume=14 |issue=19 |pages=4190–4197 |bibcode=2021ChSCh..14.4190U |doi=10.1002/cssc.202002580 |issn=1864-5631 |pmid=33156562 |s2cid=226271147}}</ref><ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal |last1=Andrei |first1=Virgil |last2=Wang |first2=Qian |last3=Uekert |first3=Taylor |last4=Bhattacharjee |first4=Subhajit |last5=Reisner |first5=Erwin |date=2022-12-06 |title=Solar Panel Technologies for Light-to-Chemical Conversion |journal=Accounts of Chemical Research |language=en |volume=55 |issue=23 |pages=3376–3386 |doi=10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00477 |issn=0001-4842 |pmc=9730848 |pmid=36395337}}</ref> or floating materials<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Linley |first1=Stuart |last2=Reisner |first2=Erwin |date=2023-05-12 |title=Floating Carbon Nitride Composites for Practical Solar Reforming of Pre-Treated Wastes to Hydrogen Gas |journal=Advanced Science |language=en |volume=10 |issue=21 |pages=e2207314 |doi=10.1002/advs.202207314 |issn=2198-3844 |pmc=10375181 |pmid=37171802}}</ref> for easy recovery), which, under sunlight irradiation generate charge carriers ([[electron-hole pairs]]) to catalyze redox reactions (UV or near-UV based photoreforming systems generally also come under PC reforming). Despite the low cost and simplicity of PC reforming, there are major drawbacks of this approach which includes low product formation rates, poor selectivity of oxidation products or overoxidation to release CO<sub>2</sub>, challenging catalyst/process optimization and harsh pre-treatment conditions.<ref name="":3"" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Djurišić |first1=Aleksandra B. |last2=He |first2=Yanling |last3=Ng |first3=Alan M. C. |date=2020-03-01 |title=Visible-light photocatalysts: Prospects and challenges |journal=APL Materials |volume=8 |issue=3 |page=030903 |doi=10.1063/1.5140497 |bibcode=2020APLM....8c0903D |issn=2166-532X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kou |first1=Jiahui |last2=Lu |first2=Chunhua |last3=Wang |first3=Jian |last4=Chen |first4=Yukai |last5=Xu |first5=Zhongzi |last6=Varma |first6=Rajender S. |date=2017-02-08 |title=Selectivity Enhancement in Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Transformations |journal=Chemical Reviews |language=en |volume=117 |issue=3 |pages=1445–1514 |doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00396 |pmid=28093903 |issn=0009-2665|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Photoelectrochemical (PEC) reforming - PEC reforming involves the use of PEC systems/assemblies which consist of separated (photo)electrodes generally connected using a wire and submerged in solution ([[electrolyte]]).<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"" /> A photoelectrode consists of a light-absorber and additional charge transport and [[Catalysis|catalyst]] layers to facilitate the redox processes. While conventional PEC systems typically require a bias or voltage input in addition to the energy obtained from incident light irradiation, PEC reforming ideally operates with a single light absorber without any external bias or voltage (that is, completely driven by sunlight).<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":0"" /> PEC reforming can already produce clean fuels and valuable chemicals with high selectivity and achieve production rates which are 2-4 orders of magnitude higher than conventional PC processes.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"" /> The spatial separation between the redox processes offered by PEC systems allows flexibility in the screening and integration of light-absorbers and catalysts, and also better product separation.<ref name="":5"" /> They can also benefit from better spectral utilization such as using [[Concentrated solar power|solar concentrators]] or [[Thermoelectric generator|thermoelectric modules]] to harvest heat, thereby improving reaction kinetics and performance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Qian |last2=Pornrungroj |first2=Chanon |last3=Linley |first3=Stuart |last4=Reisner |first4=Erwin |date=2021-11-19 |title=Strategies to improve light utilization in solar fuel synthesis |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-021-00919-1 |journal=Nature Energy |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=13–24 |doi=10.1038/s41560-021-00919-1 |s2cid=256726357 |issn=2058-7546}}</ref> The versatility and high performance of these new PEC arrangements, therefore has wide scope of further exploitation and research.
* PV-EC reforming and extension to ‘electroreforming’ systems - PV-EC reforming refers to the use of electricity generated from [[Photovoltaics|photovoltaic]] panels (and therefore driven by sunlight) to drive electrochemical ([[electrolysis]]) reactions for waste reforming.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobsson |first1=T. Jesper |last2=Fjällström |first2=Viktor |last3=Edoff |first3=Marika |last4=Edvinsson |first4=Tomas |date=2014-06-19 |title=Sustainable solar hydrogen production: from photoelectrochemical cells to PV-electrolyzers and back again |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2014/ee/c4ee00754a |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |language=en |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=2056–2070 |doi=10.1039/C4EE00754A |issn=1754-5706}}</ref> The concept of PV-EC reforming can be further extended to ‘electroreforming’ where renewable electricity from sources other than the sun (for example, wind, hydro, nuclear, among others) is used to power the electrochemical reactions achieving valuable fuel and chemical production from waste feedstocks. While traditionally most electrolysers, including commercial ones focus on [[water splitting]] to produce hydrogen, new electrochemical systems, catalysts and concepts have emerged which have started to look into waste substrates for utilisation as sustainable feedstocks.<ref name="":2""/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Hua |last2=Ren |first2=Yue |last3=Li |first3=Zhenhua |last4=Xu |first4=Ming |last5=Wang |first5=Ye |last6=Ge |first6=Ruixiang |last7=Kong |first7=Xianggui |last8=Zheng |first8=Lirong |last9=Duan |first9=Haohong |date=2021-08-17 |title=Electrocatalytic upcycling of polyethylene terephthalate to commodity chemicals and H2 fuel |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=4679 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-25048-x |pmid=34404779 |pmc=8371182 |issn=2041-1723}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Jianying |last2=Li |first2=Xin |last3=Wang |first3=Maolin |last4=Zhang |first4=Ting |last5=Chai |first5=Xinyu |last6=Lu |first6=Junlin |last7=Wang |first7=Tianfu |last8=Zhao |first8=Yixin |last9=Ma |first9=Ding |date=2022-06-03 |title=Electrocatalytic Valorization of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) Plastic and CO 2 for Simultaneous Production of Formic Acid |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acscatal.2c01128 |journal=ACS Catalysis |language=en |volume=12 |issue=11 |pages=6722–6728 |doi=10.1021/acscatal.2c01128 |s2cid=249026599 |issn=2155-5435}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Hu |last2=Lu |first2=Dan |last3=Wang |first3=Jiarui |last4=Tu |first4=Wenguang |last5=Wu |first5=Dan |last6=Koh |first6=See Wee |last7=Gao |first7=Pingqi |last8=Xu |first8=Zhichuan J. |last9=Deng |first9=Sili |last10=Zhou |first10=Yan |last11=You |first11=Bo |last12=Li |first12=Hong |date=2021-03-31 |title=Raw biomass electroreforming coupled to green hydrogen generation |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=2008 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-22250-9 |pmid=33790295 |pmc=8012647 |issn=2041-1723}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pichler |first1=Christian M. |last2=Bhattacharjee |first2=Subhajit |last3=Lam |first3=Erwin |last4=Su |first4=Lin |last5=Collauto |first5=Alberto |last6=Roessler |first6=Maxie M. |last7=Cobb |first7=Samuel J. |last8=Badiani |first8=Vivek M. |last9=Rahaman |first9=Motiar |last10=Reisner |first10=Erwin |date=2022-11-04 |title=Bio-Electrocatalytic Conversion of Food Waste to Ethylene via Succinic Acid as the Central Intermediate |journal=ACS Catalysis |language=en |volume=12 |issue=21 |pages=13360–13371 |doi=10.1021/acscatal.2c02689 |issn=2155-5435 |pmc=9638992 |pmid=36366764}}</ref>

== Introduction of 'Photon Economy' ==
An important concept introduced in the context of solar reforming is the ‘photon economy’, which, as defined by Bhattacharjee, Linley and Reisner, is the maximum utilization of all incident photons for maximizing product formation and value creation.<ref name="":0"" /> An ideal solar reforming process is one where the light absorber can absorb incident [[Ultraviolet|UV]] and [[Visible spectrum|visible light]] photons with maximum [[quantum yield]], generating high charge carrier concentration to drive redox half reactions at maximum rate. On the other hand, the residual, non-absorbed low-energy [[Infrared|IR]] photons may be used for boosting reaction kinetics, waste pre-treatment or other means of value creation (for example, [[desalination]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pornrungroj |first1=Chanon |last2=Mohamad Annuar |first2=Ariffin Bin |last3=Wang |first3=Qian |last4=Rahaman |first4=Motiar |last5=Bhattacharjee |first5=Subhajit |last6=Andrei |first6=Virgil |last7=Reisner |first7=Erwin |date=2023-11-13 |title=Hybrid photothermal–photocatalyst sheets for solar-driven overall water splitting coupled to water purification |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s44221-023-00139-9 |journal=Nature Water |language=en |volume=1 |issue=11 |pages=952–960 |doi=10.1038/s44221-023-00139-9 |issn=2731-6084}}</ref> etc.). Therefore, proper light and thermal management through various means (such as using solar concentrators, thermoelectric modules, among others) is encouraged to have both an [[Atom economy|atom economical]] and photon economical approach to extract maximum value from solar reforming processes.

== Reception and media ==
The technological advancements in solar reforming garnered widespread interest in recent years. The works from scientists at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] on PC reforming of raw lignocellulosic biomass or pre-treated polyester plastics to produce hydrogen and organics attracted attention of several stakeholders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scientists harness solar power to produce clean hydrogen from biomass |url=http://www.biofueldaily.com/reports/Scientists_harness_solar_power_to_produce_clean_hydrogen_from_biomass_999.html |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Bio Fuel Daily}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-12-22 |title=Covid: PPE 'could be recycled' with help of sunlight |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-55396511 |access-date=2024-02-13 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scientists harness solar power to produce clean hydrogen from biomass |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/713884 |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=EurekAlert! |language=en}}</ref> The recent technological breakthrough leading to the development of high-performing solar powered reactors (PEC reforming) for the simultaneous upcycling of greenhouse gas CO<sub>2</sub> and waste plastics to sustainable products received widespread acclaim and was highlighted in several prominent national and international media outlets.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-03-14 |title=Could waste plastic become a useful fuel source? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-64703976 |access-date=2024-02-13 |work=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Theil |first=Michele |date=2023-01-23 |title=Scientists have found a way to convert plastics and CO2 into sustainable fuels using solar power |url=https://www.bigissue.com/news/environment/scientists-break-through-process-convert-plastics-greenhouse-gases-sustainable-fuels/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=The Big Issue |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Plastic waste and CO2 converted into hydrogen and feedstock chemical using sunlight |url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/plastic-waste-and-co2-converted-into-hydrogen-and-feedstock-chemical-using-sunlight/4017613.article |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Chemistry World |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-10 |title=Solar reactor converts both CO2 and plastic waste into useful products |url=https://newatlas.com/environment/solar-reactor-co2-plastic-waste-useful-products/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=New Atlas |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-09 |title=Solar-powered system converts plastic and greenhouse gases into sustainable fuels |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/solar-powered-system-converts-plastic-and-greenhouse-gases-into-sustainable-fuels |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=University of Cambridge |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Solar-powered system converts plastic and greenhouse gases into sustainable fuels |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/01/230109112706.htm |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Solar Powered Machine Turns CO2 and Waste Plastic Into Valuable Fuel |url=https://futurism.com/solar-machine-co2-plastic-fuel |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Futurism}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Converting plastics and greenhouse gases into sustainable energy {{!}} Technology |url=https://www.labroots.com/trending/technology/24402/converting-plastics-greenhouse-gases-sustainable-energy |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Labroots}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=محمود |first=عبد الحكيم |title=ابتكار نظام ثنائي يعمل بالطاقة الشمسية يحول البلاستيك وغازات الاحتباس الحراري إلى وقود مستدام |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/science/2023/1/26/%d8%a7%d8%a8%d8%aa%d9%83%d8%a7%d8%b1-%d9%86%d8%b8%d8%a7%d9%85-%d8%ab%d9%86%d8%a7%d8%a6%d9%8a-%d9%8a%d8%b9%d9%85%d9%84-%d8%a8%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b7%d8%a7%d9%82%d8%a9 |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=الجزيرة نت |language=ar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Patel |first=Prachi |date=2023-01-12 |title=Solar powered reactor converts plastic and CO2 into fuel |url=https://www.anthropocenemagazine.org/2023/01/sunlight-converts-plastic-and-carbon-dioxide-into-useful-chemicals/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-24 |title=BREAKTHROUGH! Indian researchers at Cambridge university offer solution to global warming and plastic pollution |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/world/breakthrough-indian-researchers-at-cambridge-university-offer-solution-to-global-warming-and-plastic-pollution-article-97282783 |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Video {{!}} The Importance Of Solving The Biggest Environmental Challenges Through Research & Technology |url=https://www.ndtv.com/video/news/banega-swasth-india/the-importance-of-solving-the-biggest-environmental-challenges-through-research-technology-689126 |access-date=2024-02-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhatia |first=Anisha |date=2023-03-17 |title=Two Indian Scientists On The Importance Of Solving The Biggest Environmental Challenges Through Research And Technology |url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/two-indian-scientists-on-the-importance-of-solving-the-biggest-environmental-challenges-through-research-and-technology-74812/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-09 |title=Scientists use 'miracle material' to convert plastic waste into sustainable fuel |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/tech/solar-power-energy-perovskite-plastic-waste-b2258781.html |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=In Breakthrough, 2 Indian Scientists Offer Answers To These Global Issues |url=https://www.ndtv.com/science/in-breakthrough-2-indian-scientists-offer-answers-to-these-global-issues-3719985 |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> Solar reforming processes primarily developed in Cambridge were also selected as “one of the eleven great ideas from British universities that could change the world” by Sunday Times (April 2020 edition)<ref>{{Cite news |last=Forster |first=Rosie Kinchen and Katherine |date=2024-02-13 |title=Reasons to be cheerful: 11 great ideas from British universities that could change the world |newspaper=[[The Times]] |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/reasons-to-be-cheerful-11-great-ideas-from-british-universities-that-could-change-the-world-32msbbdlz |access-date=2024-02-13 |language=en |issn=0140-0460}}</ref> and featured in the UK Prime Minister’s Speech on Net Zero, “''Or the researchers at Cambridge who pioneered a new way to turn sunlight into fuel''”<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-20 |title=PM speech on Net Zero: 20 September 2023 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-speech-on-net-zero-20-september-2023 |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> (indicating solar reforming which was a major subset of the broader research activities at Cambridge).

== Outlook and future scope ==
Solar reforming is currently in the development phase and the scalable deployment of a particular solar reforming technology (PC, PEC or PV-EC) would depend on a variety of factors. These factors include deployment location and sunlight variability/intermittency, characteristics of the chosen waste stream, viable pre-treatment methods, target products, nature of the catalysts and their lifetime, fuel/chemical storage requirements, land use versus open water sources, capital and operational costs, production and solar-to-value creation rates, and governmental policies and incentives, among others.<ref name="":0"" /> Solar reforming may not be only limited to the conventional chemical pathways discussed, and may also include other relevant industrial processes such as light-driven organic transformations, flow photochemistry, integration with industrial electrolysis, among others.<ref name="":0"" /> The products from conventional solar reforming such as [[green hydrogen]] or other platform chemicals have a broad value-chain. It is also now understood that sustainable fuel/chemical producing technologies of the future will rely on biomass, plastics and CO<sub>2</sub> as key carbon feedstocks to replace [[fossil fuel]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-10-09 |title=Roadmap Chemie 2050 |url=https://www.vci.de/services/publikationen/broschueren-faltblaetter/vci-dechema-futurecamp-studie-roadmap-2050-treibhausgasneutralitaet-chemieindustrie-deutschland-langfassung.jsp |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=VCI Online |language=German}}</ref> Therefore, with sunlight being abundant and the cheapest source of energy, solar reforming is well-positioned to drive [[decarbonization]] and facilitate the transition from a linear to [[circular economy]] in the coming decades.<ref name="":0"" />

== See also ==
* [[Artificial photosynthesis]]
* [[Circular economy]]
* [[Conference of the parties]]
* [[Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide]]
* [[Electrochemistry]]
* [[Hydrogen economy]]
* [[Net zero emissions]]
* [[Photocatalysis]]
* [[Photoelectrochemistry]]
* [[Solar fuel]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable energy]]
[[Category:Energy]]
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Science and technology]]
[[Category:University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Solar energy]]
[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Materials science]]
[[Category:Chemical industry]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Green chemistry]]"
Digital Cleanup Day,"{{Short description|Annual environmental awareness event}}{{Infobox organization
| name = Digital Cleanup Day
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| type = Collective of associations: Institut du numérique responsable, World Cleanup Day France, [[Let's Do It! World]]
| purpose = Raising awareness of the environmental impact of digital technology through action
| headquarters = Roosikrantsi 3, Tallinn, Estonia
| region = Worldwide (more than 170 countries and territories)
| methods = Mobilizing businesses, local authorities, associations, schools, citizens, and individuals to organize Digital Cleanups every March to clean up their data, repair their digital equipment, or collect digital WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment)
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = Heidi Solba
| website = {{URL|https://www.digitalcleanupday.org/}}
}}

The '''Digital Cleanup Day''', is an annual event to raise global awareness about the environmental impact of the digital industry. This initiative encourages people to take concrete action by cleaning up their [[digital data]] and/or giving a second life to their unused computer equipment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=When Is Your Digital Cleanup Day? |url=https://www.cmswire.com/digital-experience/making-digital-waste-visible/ |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=CMSWire.com |language=en}}</ref> It takes place every third Saturday in March.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Digital Cleanup Day – International day of digital cleanup – Data – Reuse – Recycling |url=https://cyberworldcleanupday.fr/welcome.html |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=www.CyberWorldCleanUpDay.fr}}</ref>

== History ==
In 2019, drawing inspiration from the [[World Cleanup Day]], computer scientist Kévin Guerin came up with the idea of a digital version, specifically focused on the [[Cyberspace]] and comparable to [[Black Friday (shopping)|Black Friday]]/[[Cyber Monday]] – the Cyber World CleanUp Day. Guerin proposed a partnership between World Cleanup Day France, providing communication and mobilization expertise, and the think tank Institute of Sustainable IT (ISIT), providing the technical expertise for a more environmentally responsible digital world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-04 |title=Interview Kévin Guérin – Cyber World CleanUp Day |url=https://institutnr.org/interview-cyber-worldcleanup-day |access-date=2024-03-04 |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2021-03-14 |title=Pollution numérique : l'heure du grand nettoyage de printemps ! |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceinter/podcasts/social-lab/pollution-numerique-l-heure-du-grand-nettoyage-de-printemps-6847252 |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=France Inter |language=fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

The event was launched in France in 2020. The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] provided the opportunity to convey eight easy recipes for a CyberCleanUp, focused on data cleaning, to the World Cleanup Day community, who were accustomed to cleaning up nature and were now confined to their homes. The idea spread from France<ref>{{cite web |date=15 March 2021 |title=Emission de gaz à effet de serre : grand nettoyage numérique de printemps dans le Gard |url=https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/occitanie/gard/emission-de-gaz-a-effet-de-serre-le-grand-nettoyage-numerique-de-printemps-est-necessaire-1998787.html |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=France 3 Occitanie |language=fr-FR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nettoyage de printemps des données numériques à Saint-Alban |url=https://www.ladepeche.fr/2021/03/12/nettoyage-de-printemps-des-donnees-numeriques-9422434.php |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=ladepeche.fr |language=fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Agde : ""Digital Cleanup Day"" le 18 mars à la MAG – Hérault Tribune |url=https://www.herault-tribune.com/articles/agde-digital-cleanup-day-le-18-mars-a-la-mag/,%20https://www.herault-tribune.com/articles/agde-digital-cleanup-day-le-18-mars-a-la-mag/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.herault-tribune.com |language=fr-FR}}{{Dead link|date=February 2024|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2022-03-07 |title=À Quimper, le Centre des abeilles soucieux de l'empreinte environnementale du numérique |url=https://www.letelegramme.fr/finistere/quimper/a-quimper-le-centre-des-abeilles-soucieux-de-l-empreinte-environnementale-du-numerique-07-03-2022-12934938.php |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Le Telegramme |language=fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> to other countries, like Italy<ref>{{cite web |date=2023-03-18 |title=Anche un'email inquina: proviamo a ridurre l'impatto ecologico dei nostri rifiuti digitali |url=https://www.repubblica.it/green-and-blue/2023/03/18/news/digital_cleanup_day_impatto_rifuti_digitali-392571705/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=la Repubblica |language=it}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> and Switzerland,<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2022 |title=Serge Dal Busco: ""En matière de durabilité numérique, l'Etat doit montrer l'exemple"" |url=https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve/serge-dal-busco-matiere-durabilite-numerique-letat-montrer-lexemple |newspaper=Le Temps}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Journée genevoise ""D-Tox, je nettoie mes données"" le 17 mars |url=https://www.geneve.ch/fr/actualites/journee-genevoise-nettoie-donnees-17-mars |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=www.geneve.ch |language=fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Poland,<ref>{{cite web |title=Planet Heroes – The first eco crowdfunding platform |url=https://planetheroes.pl/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=planetheroes.pl |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Netherlands,<ref>{{cite web |date=18 March 2023 |title=Digitaal ontspullen goed voor milieu maar blijft druppel op gloeiende plaat {{!}} Commentaar |url=https://www.leidschdagblad.nl/cnt/dmf20230317_64335984 |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=Leidsch Dagblad |language=nl-BE}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dataverbruik belangrijk aandeel in CO2-uitstoot bedrijven – Vroege Vogels – BNNVARA |url=https://www.bnnvara.nl/vroegevogels/artikelen/dataverbruik-belangrijk-aandeel-in-co2-uitstoot-bedrijven |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=Vroege Vogels |language=nl}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Digital Cleanup Day: 4 redenen waarom jouw bedrijf een digitale schoonmaak nodig heeft |url=https://www.deondernemer.nl/innovatie/cybersecurity/digital-cleanup-day-digitale-schoonmaak~4428782 |access-date=2023-11-05 |work=[[de Ondernemer]] |language=nl}}</ref> Germany,<ref>{{cite web |date=2023-03-17 |title=Digital Cleanup Day: Überflüssige Mails, Daten und Apps – Onlineportal von IT Management |url=https://www.it-daily.net/it-management/digitalisierung/digital-cleanup-day-ueberfluessige-mails-daten-und-apps |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=www.it-daily.net |language=de-DE}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=e.V |first=Bitkom |date=17 March 2023 |title=Digital Cleanup Day: 73 Prozent löschen überflüssige Mails, Daten und Apps für mehr Klimaschutz {{!}} Presseinformation {{!}} Bitkom e.V. |url=https://www.bitkom.org/Presse/Presseinformation/Digital-Cleanup-Day-Daten_loeschen-fuer-Klimaschutz |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.bitkom.org |language=de}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=GmbH |first=vivanty Media |date=2023-03-17 |title=Digital Cleanup Day: Bitkom gibt 5 Tipps zum digitalen Aufräumen |url=https://www.infosat.de/digitale-welt/digital-cleanup-day-bitkom-gibt-5-tipps-zum-digitalen-aufr-umen |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=INFOSAT – Alles aus der digitalen Welt |language=de}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Brazil,<ref>{{cite web |last=Redação |date=2023-03-17 |title=Even an email pollutes: let's try to reduce the ecological impact of our digital waste |url=https://aracajuagoranoticias.com.br/rss-268/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327085053/https://aracajuagoranoticias.com.br/rss-268/ |archive-date=2023-03-27 |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=A.A.N |language=pt-BR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> USA,<ref>{{cite web |last=Dame |first=Marketing Communications: Web {{!}} University of Notre |date=18 March 2023 |title=Digital Cleanup Day {{!}} Office of Sustainability {{!}} University of Notre Dame |url=https://green.nd.edu/events/2023/03/18/digital-cleanup-day/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Office of Sustainability |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Rhodes |first=Phil |title=March 18 is Digital Cleanup Day – apparently |url=https://www.redsharknews.com/march-18-is-digital-cleanup-day-apparently |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.redsharknews.com |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Sandle |first=Dr Tim |date=2023-03-15 |title=Cleaning up digital data for the environment and business efficiency |url=https://www.digitaljournal.com/tech-science/cleaning-up-digital-data-for-the-environment-and-business-efficiency/article |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Digital Journal |language=en-US}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> UK,<ref>{{cite web |date=18 March 2022 |title=Digital Cleanup Day: Our plans |url=https://www.nexerdigital.com/news-and-thoughts/digital-cleanup-day/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.nexerdigital.com |language=en-gb}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mill |first=The Skill |date=2022-03-15 |title=Digital Cleanup Day – 19 March 2022 |url=https://www.theskillmill.org/post/digital-cleanup-day-19-march-2022 |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=theskillmill |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Israel,<ref>{{cite web |last=Cohen |first=Doron Ben |date=2022-03-19 |title=How to celebrate Digital Cleanup Day, March 19th 2022 {{!}} Atera's Blog |url=https://www.atera.com/blog/how-to-celebrate-digital-cleanup-day-march-19th-2022/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Atera – RMM software {{!}} PSA & Remote Access for IT Pros |language=en-US}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Croatia,<ref>{{cite web |title=Association Calls on Croatians to Join Digital Cleanup Day |url=https://total-croatia-news.com/lifestyle/association-calls-on-croatians-to-join-digital-cleanup-day/ |access-date=2024-03-02 |website=www.total-croatia-news.com |language=en-gb}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 April 2022 |title=DIGITAL CLEANUP DAY |url=https://yerun.eu/2022/04/education-for-sustainability-at-uniri/ |website=yerun.eu}}</ref> Tunesia,<ref>{{cite web |last=Belhassen |first=Samir |date=2022-03-19 |title=ESET : Un nettoyage de printemps pas comme les autres... Le Cyber World Clean Up Day nous y invite {{!}} iT-News |url=https://www.it-news.tn/2022/03/19/eset-un-nettoyage-de-printemps-pas-comme-les-autres-le-cyber-world-clean-up-day-nous-y-invite/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |language=fr-FR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Senegal,<ref>{{cite web |last=admin4life |date=2022-03-19 |title=On relève le défi du Cyber World CleanUp Day 2022! |url=https://www.it4life.org/tech4good/participation-cwcud-2022/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=IT4LIFE |language=fr-FR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Belgium,<ref>{{cite web |last=Geraldine |date=2022-03-23 |title=Cyber World Cleanup Day : FormaForm s'engage et agit sur la pollution numérique |url=https://www.formaform.be/cyber-world-cleanup-day-formaform-sengage-et-agit-sur-la-pollution-numerique/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=FormaForm |language=fr-BE}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Philippines<ref>{{cite web |last=Team |first=The Good News Pilipinas |date=2022-10-25 |title=6 Ways To Do Digital CleanUp |url=https://www.goodnewspilipinas.com/6-ways-to-do-digital-cleanup/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Good News Pilipinas |language=en-US}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> and Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web |date=2022-04-10 |title=Digital Clean Day 2022 : Clean Your Cloud And Take Out Your Digital Trash! {{!}} CHANGEMAKR.ASIA |url=https://changemakr.asia/call-to-action-clean-your-cloud-and-take-out-your-digital-trash/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=changemakr.asia |language=en-US}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Alone in 2023 Digital Cleanup Day has taken place in 122 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-26 |title=Digital Cleanup Day : Bilan de la 4ème édition |url=https://institutnr.org/digital-cleanup-day-2023-bilan |access-date=2024-03-04 |language=fr-FR}}</ref>

In 2021 the global civic organization [[Let's Do It! World]] (LDIW), which is an accredited member of the [[United Nations Environment Programme]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Bluebob |date=2020-09-16 |title=Cyber World CleanUp Day : le grand ménage des données digitales ! - |url=https://www.filgoodnews.com/cyber-world-cleanup-day-le-grand-menage-des-donnees/ |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=FilGoodNews |language=fr-FR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> included this project in its annual plans and set the third Saturday of March as the annual date. In 2023 the Cyber World Cleanup Day changed its name to Digital Cleanup Day.<ref>{{cite web |author=nrj.fr |title=Cyber World CleanUp Day 2022: nettoyons ensemble nos données numériques ! |url=https://www.nrj.fr/actus/cyber-world-cleanup-day-2022-nettoyons-ensemble-nos-donnees-numeriques-71356546}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=PARIS : Votre entreprise souffre-t-elle d'un excès de données ? » La lettre économique et politique de PACA |url=http://www.presseagence.fr/lettre-economique-politique-paca/2022/03/07/paris-votre-entreprise-souffre-t-elle-dun-exces-de-donnees/ |access-date=2023-03-17 |language=fr-FR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

== Environmental impacts ==
Initially, it was thought that the digital age would benefit the environment by reducing paper consumption. However, the carbon footprint of the digital industry has increased as digital consumption grows exponentially.<ref>{{cite web |title=L'impact du numérique sur l'environnement... – Paris Côte d'Azur |url=https://pariscotedazur.fr/archives/article/6703 |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=pariscotedazur.fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

The French Environment and Energy Management Agency (ADEME) estimated in its study ''The hidden face of digital'' published in 2019, that the digital sector was responsible for 4% of total [[Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions]], a figure that could double by 2025 with the significant increase in digital use.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-09-19 |title=Une journée pour nettoyer ses données numériques |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2020/09/19/une-journee-pour-nettoyer-ses-donnees-numeriques_6052811_3244.html |access-date=2023-03-22 |work=Le Monde.fr |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Douville |first=Thibault |date=2020 |title=L'émergence des cyber-risques |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-archives-de-philosophie-du-droit-2020-1-page-289.htm?ref=doi |journal=Archives de Philosophie du Droit |language=French |edition=2020/1, Tome 62 |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=289–298 |doi=10.3917/apd.621.0304 |s2cid=238147043}}</ref> According to the ''Global Energy & CO2 Status Report 2019'' by the [[International Energy Agency]] the internet and its supporting systems produce 900 million tons of CO2 every year, which is more than the annual emissions of the whole of Germany. The internet might consume 20% of the world's total energy by 2030.<ref>IEA (2019), Global Energy & CO2 Status Report 2019, IEA, Paris <nowiki>https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-co2-status-report-2019</nowiki>, Licence: CC BY 4.0</ref><ref name="":0"">{{cite web |last=e.V |first=Brandenburg 21 |date=23 February 2023 |title=Brandenburg 21 e.V. – Jetzt planen: Am 18. März ist Digital Cleanup Day |url=https://www.nachhaltig-in-brandenburg.de/news/1/807932/nachrichten/www.nachhaltig-in-brandenburg.de/news/1/807932/nachrichten/jetzt-planen-am-18.-m%C3%A4rz-ist-digital-cleanup-day.html |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.nachhaltig-in-brandenburg.de |language=de}}</ref>

""Deleting an email is like turning the water off while you brush your teeth"", as Caroline Donnelly from [[Computer Weekly]] puts it.<ref name="":1"">{{cite web |title=Digital Cleanup Day: It's time to take out the digital trash – Ahead in the Clouds |url=https://www.computerweekly.com/blog/Ahead-in-the-Clouds/Digital-Cleanup-Day-Its-time-to-take-out-the-digital-trash |access-date=2023-03-18 |website=www.computerweekly.com}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> However, online videos account for the largest share of global data streams, namely 80%.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Efoui-Hess |first=Maxime |title=Climate Crisis: The Unsustainable Use of Online Video |url=https://theshiftproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/2019-02.pdf |access-date=2024-03-05 |page=4}}</ref> All data on the Internet, even when it is not being used, must be kept available 24/7 by [[Data center|data centers]] all over the world and therefore consumes energy and cooling water even when inactive.<ref name="":1"" />

The main objective of the Digital Cleanup Day is to limit the environmental impacts caused by the increasing use of digital technologies. It encourages all actors in the area to delete unnecessary computer files, emails, unused applications, old conversation histories on social networks and to give a second life to digital equipment by opting for repair or reuse.<ref>{{cite web |date=14 March 2021 |title=Le Cyber World CleanUp Day: une journée des bonnes pratiques numériques |url=https://www.linfodurable.fr/technomedias/le-cyber-world-cleanup-day-une-journee-des-bonnes-pratiques-numeriques-24486 |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=www.linfodurable.fr |language=fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Diminuer notre empreinte numérique |url=https://www.larochelle.fr/action-municipale/ville-durable/demarche-et-strategie-sur-le-territoire/diminuer-notre-empreinte-numerique |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=www.larochelle.fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

== National initiatives independent of the global project ==

=== Estonia ===
* Telia Estonia's Digital Cleanup Day since 2019<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-03-26|date=2020-07-05|language=en|title=TalTech signed up for the nationwide Digital Cleanup Day {{!}} TalTech|url=https://taltech.ee/en/news/taltech-signed-nationwide-digital-cleanup-day|website=taltech.ee}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-02 |title=Dozens of terabytes of digital waste deleted during Telia Digital Cleanup Day 2024 |url=https://www.baltictimes.com/dozens_of_terabytes_of_digital_waste_deleted_during_telia_digital_cleanup_day_2024/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=www.baltictimes.com}}</ref>

=== USA ===
* every 2nd Monday in February since 2000 National Clean Out Your Computer Day<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-03-26|date=2020-02-11|first=Theresa|language=en-US|last=Carper|title=National Clean Out Your Computer Day – February 8|url=https://nationaltoday.com/national-clean-out-your-computer-day/|website=National Today}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Clean Out Your Computer Day – Fun Holiday |url=https://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/fun/clean-out-your-computer-day |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=www.timeanddate.com |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

=== Canada ===

* every 3rd Monday of October since 2010 National Clean Out Your Virtual Desktop Day<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Clean Out Your Virtual Desktop Day – Fun Holiday |url=https://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/fun/national-clean-out-your-virtual-desktop-day |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=www.timeanddate.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pittman |first=Cody |date=2020-10-17 |title=National Clean Your Virtual Desktop Day |url=https://nationaltoday.com/clean-virtual-desktop-day/ |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=National Today |language=en-US}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology
}}
* [[Let's Do It! World]]
* [[World Cleanup Day]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.digitalcleanupday.org/ Digital Cleanup Day]
* [https://isit-europe.org/ European Institutes for Sustainable IT (ISIT)]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Digital Cleanup Day}}
[[Category:International environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Ecology organizations]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 2020]]
[[Category:March observances]]
[[Category:Energy conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]"
Dashboard of Sustainability,"{{Short description|MDG / Sustainabilty software}}
[[Image:Ppi fut.gif|thumb|right|300px|''Dashboard of Sustainability'' screenshot: A number of indicators in the outer circle are combined to three sub-themes; the sub-themes are then condensed to a Policy Performance Index, PPI]]
The '''''Dashboard of Sustainability''''' is a free-of-charge, non-commercial software package configured to convey the complex relationships among economic, social, and environmental issues.
The software is designed to help developing countries achieve the [[Millennium Development Goals]] and work towards [[sustainable development]]. The software package was developed by members of the Consultative Group on Sustainable Development Indicators (CGSDI),<ref>Consultative Group on Sustainable Development Indicators.  (2006)  ''[http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/dashboard.asp Dashboard of Sustainability.]''; see also ''[http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/history.asp CGSDI history] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106123832/http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/history.asp |date=2007-01-06 }}'' and ''[http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/members.asp CGSDI members] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224102435/http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/members.asp |date=2007-02-24 }}'', all obtained Apr. 11, 2007.</ref> and has been applied to quite a number of indicator sets, inter alia to the Millennium Development Goals indicators and the United Nations [[Commission on Sustainable Development]] indicators.

In 2002, Dashboard of Sustainability researchers Jochen Jesinghaus and Peter Hardi presented the Dashboard of Sustainability at the [[Earth Summit 2002|Johannesburg Summit]]<ref>IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB) ''[http://www.iisd.ca/2002/wssd/enbots/aug30.html ENB on the side, Aug. 30, 2002]'' obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> and the 2002 [[World Social Forum]] in [[Porto Alegre]].<ref>Ranjit Devraj (TerraViva), ''[http://ipsnews.net/terraviva/05_dashboard.shtml Internet Dashboard Device for Navigating Development] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070411090712/http://www.ipsnews.net/terraviva/05_dashboard.shtml |date=2007-04-11 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> It was also included in the resources for the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] World Forum on Key Indicators.<ref>OECD (2004), ''[http://www.oecd.org/document/2/0,2340,en_21571361_31834434_33637186_1_1_1_1,00.html European Union 2002, Dashboard of Sustainability]'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>

In January 2006, the Millennium Project utilized the Dashboard of Sustainability to conclude in their ""State of the Future"" report that global prospects for improving the overall health, wealth, and sustainability of humanity are improving, but slowly.<ref>Glenn, Jerome C.; Gordon, Theodore J.  (Jan. 1, 2006)  [[The Futurist (magazine)|The Futurist]].  ''[http://www.wfs.org/futcontjf06.htm Update on the State of the Future: environmental sustainability, global partnerships against terror, technology, and drug availability figure in humanity's future..] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061130001803/http://www.wfs.org/futcontjf06.htm |date=2006-11-30 }}''  Volume 40; Issue 1, Pg. 20.  obtained Nov. 11, 2006.</ref>  In February 2006, it was proposed that the Dashboard of Sustainability be utilized to combine and represent two or more of the following five frameworks presently used for developing sustainability indicators: domain-based, goal-based, issue-based, sectoral, and causal frameworks.<ref>Olalla-Tárraga, Miguel Ángel (Feb. 1, 2006). ''International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology''. ''[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/sapi/ijsd/2006/00000013/00000001/art00001 A conceptual framework to assess sustainability in urban ecological systems.]''  Volume 13; Issue 1, Pg. 1.  obtained Nov. 11, 2006.</ref>

[[Image:DoSscreenshot.jpg|275px|thumb|{{center|MDG Dashboard screenshot showing gender equality map of Africa}}]]

== Known applications (external links) ==

''Translating a spreadsheet into a dashboard is relatively straightforward, see ''[http://www.jj2007.eu/dc/DbManual.doc The Manual]'', and numerous indicator sets have been translated into the dashboard format. While many of them are not publicly available, the following applications have been put online by their authors.''

=== Applications with global scope ===
Millennium Development Goals Indicators Dashboard<ref>European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), available as ''[https://archive.today/20130701105929/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/mdg_unsd/?Lg=enCp=1Cu=54Cl=52Tu=15Tl=1Cm=1Ci=4Lm=0 Africa only browser version]'' or ''[http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/ full download version for Windows] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130701110136/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/ |date=2013-07-01 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> - see screenshot to the right and the [http://www.jj2007.eu/mdg_unsd/index.htm online demo] 

Sustainable Development Indicators Dashboard (UN CSD set)<ref>European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC) ''[http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/envind/dashbrds.htm CSD dashboard] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508004640/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/envind/dashbrds.htm |date=2015-05-08 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>

UNESCO/SCOPE Policy brief on Sustainable Development 
<ref>UNESCO, Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment, ''[http://www.unesco.org/mab/publications/pdf/PolicyBriefsNo1.pdf Indicators of sustainable development: reliable tools for decision making]'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>

Maternal and Neonatal Program Effort index (MNPI) <ref>Constella Futures, ''[https://archive.today/20130701104028/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/mnpi_cf/index.htm?Lg=enCp=1Cu=27Cl=27Tu=1Tl=6Cm=1Ci=42Lm=0 JRC browser version]'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>

=== Applications with national scope ===

* '''Australia''': National Land & Water Resources Audit,<ref>Natural Heritage Trust, ''[http://www.nlwra.gov.au/downloads/final_reports/CAUsf_Report_Card_body.pdf Report Card Review and Concept Development, July 2004, p. 138-140] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009234444/http://www.nlwra.gov.au/downloads/final_reports/CAUsf_Report_Card_body.pdf |date=2006-10-09 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Sydney Regional Innovation Dashboard<ref>M. Cristina Martinez-Fernandez, Tavis Potts, Marc Rerceretnam, Merete Bjorkli, ''[http://aegis.uws.edu.au/innovationedges/images/innovedges_booklet_nocover.pdf Innovation at the Edges: The role of Innovation Drivers in South West Sydney] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070902043228/http://aegis.uws.edu.au/innovationedges/images/innovedges_booklet_nocover.pdf |date=2007-09-02 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>
* '''Azores''' regional dashboard<ref>Governo Regional dos Açores, ''[http://sram.azores.gov.pt/predsa/livro/perspectivas_sustentabilidade.zip Perspectivas para a sustentabilidade na região autónoma dos Açores] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724081510/http://sram.azores.gov.pt/predsa/livro/perspectivas_sustentabilidade.zip |date=2011-07-24 }}'', 45 MB zip archive obtained Apr. 11, 2007; ''[http://sram.azores.gov.pt/predsa/downloads/pdf/indices.pdf shorter summary (page 7)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029083917/http://sram.azores.gov.pt/predsa/downloads/pdf/indices.pdf |date=2007-10-29 }}''</ref>
* '''Brazil''': National multiannual plan (Plano Plurianual, PPA),<ref>Ministério de Planejamento, Secretaria de Planejamento e Investimentos Estratégicos: ""[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070825130248/http://www.planejamento.gov.br/arquivos_down/spi/Planejamento_territorial/Modelo_Avalia_Sustentabilidade.pdf Estudo da Dimensão Territorial do PPA, Modelo de Avaliação de Sustentabilidade]"", Brasilia Dezembro 2006; see also Hans Michael van Bellen: ""[http://www.scielo.br/pdf/asoc/v7n1/23537.pdf Desenvolvimento Sustentável, Uma Descrição das Principais Ferramentas de Avaliação]"", Ambiente & Sociedade – Vol. VII nº. 1 jan./jun. 2004, both obtained 23 May 2007</ref> Rural sustainability,<ref>Alexandre Gervásio de Sousa; Alethéia Ferreira da Cruz; Francis Lee Ribeiro: Aplicação do Dashboard of Sustainability na Avaliação da Sustentabilidade do Desenvolvimento Rural Local; Universidade Federal De Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brasil, in: XLIV Congresso da Sociedade Brasileira de Economia e Sociologia e Rural; Questões Agrárias, Educação no Campo e Desenvolvimento, Julho, 2006 – ""[http://www.sober.org.br/palestra/anais_sober_final_4_16.pdf Livro de Resumos]"", obtained 22 May 2007</ref>  Lages,<ref>Luciana Borba Benetti: ""[http://www.tede.ufsc.br/teses/PGEA0261.pdf Avaliação do Índice de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (IDS) do Município de Lages/SC Através do Método do Painel de Sustentabilidade]""</ref> Mato Grosso<ref>Indicadores de Desenvolvimento Sustentável: ""[http://www.sema.mt.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2434&Itemid=777 Metodologia de Cálculo]"", obtained 18 January 2015</ref>
* '''Greece''' regional dashboard<ref>Despina Kallidromitou, Yiannis Smirlis, Marc Bonazountas (NTUA 2004), ''[http://www.ath.aegean.gr/srcosmos/showpub.aspx?aa=4202 Assessing Regional Sustainability in Greece] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060226113307/http://www.ath.aegean.gr/srcosmos/showpub.aspx?aa=4202 |date=2006-02-26 }}'', obtained April 11, 2007; see also ''[http://www.oikologos.gr/News2006/0287.html this report in Greek] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810142043/http://www.oikologos.gr/News2006/0287.html |date=2007-08-10 }}'', obtained 30 May 2007</ref>
* '''India/West Bengal''' Monitoring of Public Health Progress<ref>Technical Assistance Support Team Health Systems Development Initiative (DHFW, GoWB, 2008), ''[http://mohfw.nic.in/NRHM/GOA%20Workshop/PDFs/04-06-08_pdf/West%20Bengal%20-%20Monitoring%204%20Jun%202008.pdf]'', obtained September 29, 2010</ref>
* '''Italy''': Sicily waste management, agriculture indicators,<ref>Antonella Trisorio (INEA 2004): ''[http://www.toulouse.inra.fr/lerna/projet/rappsost_ing.pdf Measuring Sustainability: Indicators for Italian Agriculture] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710112453/http://www.toulouse.inra.fr/lerna/projet/rappsost_ing.pdf |date=2007-07-10 }}''</ref> Bienno,<ref>Certificazione EMAS Comune di Bienno, ''[http://www.sigeambiente.it/progetti/emasbienno/progetti.php Progetto Dashboard]'', obtained Oct. 4, 2010</ref> Bologna’s Ecological Footprint,<ref>Provincia di Bologna, ''[http://www.provincia.bologna.it/ambiente/dashboard.htm Pannello di controllo della sostenibilità]'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Ecosistema Urbano,<ref>Ambiente Italia, ''[http://www.ambienteitalia.it/chisiamo_engl/pdf/Ecosistema_2005_EN.pdf Ecosistema Urbano] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928071505/http://www.ambienteitalia.it/chisiamo_engl/pdf/Ecosistema_2005_EN.pdf |date=2007-09-28 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Padua,<ref>Antonio Scipioni, Anna Mazzi, Francesca Arena, Laura Fornasiero, ''[http://www.iccr-international.org/regionet/docs/ws3-mazzi.pdf Aggregated indexes to measure urban sustainability. The experience of Padua Municipality: a Quality of Life Observatory] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055932/http://www.iccr-international.org/regionet/docs/ws3-mazzi.pdf |date=2007-09-28 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Liguria,<ref>Andrea Picollo, Regione Liguria, ''[http://www.ics.trieste.it/Documents/Downloads/df3281.pdf Sediment Quality evaluation TRIAD Approach using Dashboard software] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716143602/http://www.ics.trieste.it/Documents/Downloads/df3281.pdf |date=2007-07-16 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Regional wellbeing indices,<ref>Dott. Bruno Ricca, Dott. Antonino Genovesi, Prof. Mario Monastero (Univ. di Messina), ''[http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/envind/ricca.pdf XXII Conferenza italiana di scienze regionali: La misurazione del benessere tra crescita e sviluppo: il caso delle regioni italiane]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Varese PTCP<ref>Provincia di Varese: ""[http://www.provincia.va.it/ente_data/conferenzacomuni.nsf/67add6fbe88db610c1256dab00332d27/8d891064208d7a03c12571a00045cb89/$FILE/Valutazione.pdf Piano Territoriale di Coordinamento Provinciale, Valutazione del PTCP] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927214442/http://www.provincia.va.it/ente_data/conferenzacomuni.nsf/67add6fbe88db610c1256dab00332d27/8d891064208d7a03c12571a00045cb89/$FILE/Valutazione.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}"", 2006, obtained 23 May 2007</ref>

* '''Estonian''' National Strategy on Sustainable Development<ref>Keskkonnaministeerium, ''[http://www.envir.ee/166310 Sustainable Estonia 21] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070502114648/http://www.envir.ee/166310 |date=2007-05-02 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> and Estonian regional dashboards<ref>Keskkonnaministeerium, ''[http://www.stat.ee/index.aw/section=44536/set_lang_id=1 Jätkusuutlikkuse näidikulaud] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061129194244/http://www.stat.ee/index.aw/section=44536/set_lang_id=1 |date=2006-11-29 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007 (available in Estonian and English)</ref>
* '''Switzerland''' Regional Dashboard<ref>Vicente Carabias-Hütter, David Kümin & Dominik Siegrist, ''[http://www.wsl.ch/mmv-3/call/MMV3_proceedings.pdf Fostering Sustainable Regional Development p. 138-140] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926223416/http://www.wsl.ch/mmv-3/call/MMV3_proceedings.pdf |date=2007-09-26 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>
* '''Tanzania Districts Dashboard'''<ref>REPOA on behalf of the Research and Analysis Working Group, Ministry of Planning, Economy and Empowerment, The United Republic of Tanzania, ''[http://www.repoa.or.tz/research_analysis_working_group/publications.php Poverty and Human Development Report 2005], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509231733/http://www.repoa.or.tz/research_analysis_working_group/publications.php |date=2007-05-09 }}''; as Dashboard downloadable ''[http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/tza_dist/index.htm here] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710231347/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/tza_dist/index.htm |date=2014-07-10 }}'', both obtained May 25, 2007</ref>
* Sustainable Development in the '''United States''': An Experimental Set of Indicators<ref>U.S. Interagency Working Group on Sustainable Development Indicators, Washington, D.C. ''[http://www.sdi.gov/lpBin22/lpext.dll/Folder1/Infobase7/@J@/cd/@J@/d9/@J@/10a/@#JD_SDI2001-Chapter2-1 The Sustainability Dashboard] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930161313/http://www.sdi.gov/lpBin22/lpext.dll/Folder1/Infobase7/@J@/cd/@J@/d9/@J@/10a/@#JD_SDI2001-Chapter2-1 |date=2007-09-30 }}'', September 2001, obtained Apr. 11, 2007; see also ''[http://www.sdi.gov/lpBin22/lpext.dll/Folder1/Infobase7/@J@/cd/@#JD_SDI2001-TableofContents Table of contents] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216071027/http://www.sdi.gov/lpBin22/lpext.dll/Folder1/Infobase7/@J@/cd/@#JD_SDI2001-TableofContents |date=2007-02-16 }}''</ref>

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150508004640/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/envind/dashbrds.htm Dashboard of Sustainability]: a free, non-commercial software which allows to present complex relationships between economic, social and environmental issues in a highly communicative format aimed at decision-makers and citizens interested in Sustainable Development.
*[http://www.jj2007.eu/MdgDashboard.htm MDG Dashboard: Millennium Development Indicators]: download page for the latest version of the software, updated in September 2014 (note that running the executable requires a Virtual Machine with a 32-bit Windows client).

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Science software for Windows]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental science software]]"
Category:Fair trade,"{{Cat main|Fair trade}}
{{commonscat}}
Articles relating to [[fair trade]], an institutional arrangement designed to help producers in [[developing country|developing countries]] achieve better trading conditions. Members of the fair trade movement advocate the payment of higher prices to exporters, as well as improved social and [[environmental law|environmental standards]]. The movement focuses in particular on commodities, or products which are typically exported from developing countries to [[developed country|developed countries]], but also consumed in domestic markets, most notably [[handicrafts]], [[Economics of coffee|coffee]], [[Cocoa bean#Production|cocoa]], [[wine]], [[sugar]], fresh [[fruit]], [[chocolate]], [[flower]]s and [[gold]].


[[Category:Economic globalization]]
[[Category:Economy and the environment]]
[[Category:Ethical consumerism]]
[[Category:Food industry]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[Category:Social economy]]
[[Category:Social movements]]
[[Category:Sustainable business]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Trade policy]]"
Sustainable development in Scotland,"{{Lead too short|date=December 2020}}
[[File:Sustainable development.svg|right|thumb|alt=Three intersecting circles representing economy, society and environment showing how sustainability involves cooperation at the point where they all intersect.| Definitions of sustainability often refer to the ""three pillars"" of social, environmental and economic sustainability.<ref name=Adams2006>Adams, W.M. (2006). [http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_future_of_sustanability.pdf ""The Future of Sustainability: Re-thinking Environment and Development in the Twenty-first Century.""] Report of the IUCN Renowned Thinkers Meeting, 29–31 January 2006. Retrieved on: 2009-02-16.</ref>]]
'''Sustainable development in Scotland ''' has  a number of distinct strands. The idea of sustainable development was used by the [[Brundtland Commission]] which defined it  as [[Economic development|development]] that ""meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.""<ref>United Nations. 1987.[https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm ""Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development.""] General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987. Retrieved: 2007-04-12</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Smith | first = Charles | author-link = Charles Emrys Smith |author2=Rees, Gareth  | title = Economic Development, 2nd edition | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1998 | location = Basingstoke | isbn = 0-333-72228-0 }}</ref> At the [[2005 World Summit]] it was noted that this requires the reconciliation of [[Natural environment|environmental]], [[society|social]] and [[economic]] demands - the ""three pillars"" of sustainability.<ref>[[United Nations General Assembly]] (2005). [http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/487/60/PDF/N0548760.pdf?OpenElement 2005 World Summit Outcome] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090807193112/http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/487/60/PDF/N0548760.pdf?OpenElement |date=2009-08-07 }}, Resolution A/60/1, adopted by the General Assembly on 15 September 2005. Retrieved on: 2009-02-17.</ref> These general aims are being addressed in a diversity of ways by the public, private, voluntary and community sectors in Scotland.

== Sustainable communities ==
Scotland's first dedicated programme for sustainable communities was delivered by Forward Scotland between 1997 and 1999 as part of a UK wide initiative led by Encams. Partnerships with a number of local authorities were developed and dedicated officers recruited to work with communities. This programme piloted the Community Eco-cal a forerunner of ecological footprinting. This programme was evaluated by Professor Michael Carley, Heriot-Watt University and the lessons learned informed a successor programme, 2000–2002, where community groups themselves were the focus. This produced the very first handbook for sustainable communities and a series of highly successful community projects. During this time the first community grants programme for sustainable communities was launched funded by the New Opportunities Fund (now the Big Lottery Fund). This programme funded some pioneering projects in areas such as community renewables, local food, community waste management and the first ecological footprinting projects in Scotland.
[[File:PA120016.JPG|thumb|Eco-house at [[Findhorn Ecovillage]]]]
In April 2007 plans were announced for [[Biggar, South Lanarkshire|Biggar]] to become the first 'carbon-neutral' town in [[Scotland]].<ref name=Scot04>Johnston, Ian (20 April 2007). [http://news.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=607152007 ""Biggar and better as Lanarkshire town bids to be Scotland's first carbon-neutral community""] Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''. Retrieved on 27 April 2007.</ref> In the same month [[Findhorn Ecovillage]] confirmed that its [[ecological footprint]] is the lowest ever recorded in the industrialised world.<ref name=Scot04/> In January 2008 [[HICEC]] published a report to ""review the opportunities and actions needed to support an island community to become carbon-neutral"".<ref>[http://www.hie.co.uk/establishing-a-carbon-neutral-island.html ""Establishing a carbon-neutral island""]. HIE. Retrieved 10 February 2008. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305191036/http://www.hie.co.uk/establishing-a-carbon-neutral-island.html |date=March 5, 2008 }}</ref> Following this, in June 2008 it was announced that [[Stirling]] was aiming to become Britain's first carbon-neutral city, hosting the [http://www.goingcarbonneutralstirling.org.uk/ Going Carbon Neutral Stirling] project.<ref>[http://www.heraldscotland.com/stirling-bids-to-be-first-carbon-neutral-city-1.882498 ""Stirling bids to be first carbon-neutral city""] (13 June 2008) Glasgow. ''The Herald''. Retrieved 6 April 2010.</ref>

[[Community Energy Scotland]] is a charity that provides free advice, grant funding and finance for [[renewable energy]] projects developed by community groups in Scotland. The main aim of the company is to enable all communities to generate and use renewable energy for their long term and collective benefit.<ref name=HICEC>HICEC. (2006) ''Highlands and Islands Community Energy Company Annual Review''. Inverness. [http://www.hie.co.uk/HICEC/HICEC-Annual_review.pdf]</ref> In March 2010 the local [[development trust]] on the island of [[Tiree]] commissioned a 950&nbsp;kW community-owned wind turbine project, the fourth such large-scale project in Scotland.<ref>[http://www.tireerenewableenergy.co.uk/ ""Tiree renewable energy""]. tireerenewableenergy.co.uk. Retrieved 22 August 2010. The first three projects were on [[Gigha]] and [[Westray]] and at [[Findhorn Ecovillage]].</ref>

[[Transition Towns|Transition Town projects]] aim to raise awareness of sustainable living and build local [[ecological resilience]]. Examples in Scotland include [[Forres]], [[Portobello, Edinburgh|Portobello]], [[West Kilbride]] and [[Hawick]].<ref>[http://www.transitionscotland.org/where-transition-happening-scotland ""Where Transition is happening""]. transitionscotland.org. Retrieved 17 August 2010.</ref>

In August 2010 the historian [[James Hunter (historian)|James Hunter]] stated that the transfer of ownership into community control had brought about ""a spectacular reversal of [[Gigha|Gigha's]] slide towards complete population collapse"" and suggested that the UK Government should  learn lessons from this and other community buy-outs in places such as [[Assynt]], [[Eigg]], and [[Knoydart]] to inform their [[Big Society]] plans.<ref>""Ross, David (20 August 2010) ""Cameron should visit Gigha to see the Big Society in action, says historian"". Glasgow: ''The Herald''.</ref> These successes notwithstanding, civil servants have been criticised for impeding community buy-outs of land via the [[Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003]]. For example, the proposed community purchase of the former [[RAF Machrihanish]] base was thwarted due to technical problems with the application despite 97.4% local support in a referendum.<ref>Ross, David (1 September 2010). ""'Bias' thwarts community bids to buy land claims capaigner"". Glasgow: ''The Herald''.</ref>

==Public sector==

===Government policy===
The first serious policy was written in 1998 in anticipation of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, by the Secretary of State's Advisory Group for Sustainable Development. This was followed by strategy that focussed on Waste, Energy and Travel in 2002 and Choosing our Future in 2005, which was written in association with the UK shared framework for sustainable development. In 2007 the Scottish National Party took office in a minority government pursuing 5 strategic objectives that encompass sustainable development but do not specifically reference it. Instead the government has adopted sustainable economic growth as its principal target.

In June 2007 [[John Swinney]], the new Cabinet Secretary for Finance and Sustainable Growth in the [[Scottish Government]], announced plans for a Climate Change Bill that would include an intention to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050.<ref>Schofield, Kevin (22 June 2007). [http://www.theherald.co.uk/politics/news/display.var.1490712.0.0.php ""Scotland could be ‘world leader’ in fighting climate change"".] Glasgow. ''The Herald''. Retrieved on 31 August 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926225455/http://www.theherald.co.uk/politics/news/display.var.1490712.0.0.php |date=September 26, 2007 }}</ref>

In August 2007 the Scottish Government announced the creation of a [[Saltire Prize]] for innovation in industry, which will reward excellence in developing new renewable energy technologies.<ref>[http://www.hi-energy.org.uk/Default.aspx.LocID-%20%20%2006gnew02i%20%20%20.RefLocID-06g008001.Lang-EN.htm ""Green energy excellence to be rewarded"": John Swinney announces Saltire Prize] Hi-Energy (15 August 2007) Press release. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927004915/http://www.hi-energy.org.uk/Default.aspx.LocID-%20%20%2006gnew02i%20%20%20.RefLocID-06g008001.Lang-EN.htm |date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref> In contrast the UK government's stance the Scottish Government have ruled out both new [[nuclear power]] stations in Scotland and the burial of nuclear waste.<ref>[http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/10/Nuclear ""The Scottish Government's response to the UK Consultation on the Future of Nuclear Power.""] (9 October 2007)The Scottish Government. Retrieved 22 January 2008.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/6237080.stm ""Nuclear waste burials ruled out""] bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 22 January 2008.</ref>

The passage of the [[Climate change in Scotland#Mitigation|Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009]] has a created and informed a wide variety of initiatives. The Climate Change Delivery Plan sets out what needs to be done to achieve emissions reductions to meet the statutory targets that are included in the Act. The Climate Change Adaptation Framework, published in December 2009  aims to build resilience and capacity for change. Other public sector initiatives  include:
* The Renewable Energy Framework, the Renewables Action Plan, and the Renewable Heat Action Plan
* The [[Flood Risk Management (Scotland) Act 2009]]
* Scotland's Climate Change Declaration
* The Rural Land Use Study
* The Scottish Climate Change Impact Partnership

===Scottish Sustainable Development Forum===
The Scottish Sustainable Development Forum (SSDF) is a group the focussed on promoting debate and action on sustainable development issues in Scotland. Forum membership is open to any individual who wishes to make Scotland more sustainable.<ref>[http://www.ssdforum.org.uk/ ""About Us""] Scottish Sustainable Development Forum. Retrieved 22 January 2008.</ref>

===Public bodies===
In January 2010 it emerged that [[Scottish Environment Protection Agency|SEPA]], the government body responsible for protecting the environment had failed to reach its carbon emissions targets. Its aim is to cut {{CO2}} emissions from business activities by 25% by 2012 compared with 2006 but a report showed that they had risen by 10% in the past year.<ref>Fyall, Jenny (29 January 2010) '' 'Green police' fail to hit own targets"".''The Scotsman''. Edinburgh.</ref>

==Energy production and distribution==
{{Main|Renewable energy in Scotland}}
[[File:Windmills and Ailsa Craig aka Paddy's Milestone rotated.jpg|thumb|right|Wind, wave and tide make up more than 80% of Scotland's renewable energy potential.]]
The natural resource base for [[renewable energy|renewables]] is extraordinary by [[Renewable energy in the European Union|European]], and even global standards. In addition to an existing installed capacity{{Ref label|A|a|none}} of 1.3 [[watt|Gigawatts]] (GW) of [[hydroelectricity|hydro-electric]] schemes, Scotland has an estimated potential of 36.5 GW of [[wind power|wind]] and 7.5 GW of [[tidal power]], 25% of the estimated total capacity for the [[European Union]] and up to 14 GW of [[wave power]] potential, 10% of EU capacity.<ref name=Pow>RSPB Scotland, WWF Scotland and FOE Scotland (February 2006) ''The Power of Scotland: Cutting Carbon with Scotland's Renewable Energy''. RSPB et al.</ref><ref name=SER/> The renewable electricity generating capacity may be 60 GW or more, considerably greater than the existing capacity from all Scottish fuel sources of 10.3 GW.<ref name=Pow/><ref name=SRF4>Scottish Renewables (January 2006) ''Market and Planning Report''. Issue No 4.</ref>

Much of this potential remains untapped, but continuing improvements in engineering are enabling more of the [[renewable resource]]s to be utilised. Fears regarding ""[[peak oil]]"" and [[climate change]] have driven the subject high up the political agenda and are also encouraging the use of various [[biofuel]]s. Although the finances of many projects remain either speculative or dependent on [[subsidy|subsidies]], it is probable that there has been a significant, and in all likelihood long-term change, in the underpinning economics.<ref name=Monbiot>Monbiot, George (2006) ''Heat: How to Stop the Planet Burning''. London. Allen Lane.</ref>

In addition to planned increases in both large-scale generating capacity and microsystems using renewable sources, various related schemes to reduce [[greenhouse gas|carbon emissions]] are being researched.<ref name=BPPH>{{cite web|url=http://www.peterheadhydrogenpower.com/|title=Peterhead hydrogen project|publisher=[[BP]]|access-date=2007-02-02}}</ref> Although there is significant support from the public, private and community-led sectors, concerns about the effect of the technologies on the natural environment have been expressed. There is also an emerging political debate about the relationship between the siting, and the ownership and control of these widely distributed resources.<ref>HICEC. (2006) [http://www.hie.co.uk/HICEC/HICEC-Annual_review.pdf ''Highlands and Islands Community Energy Company Annual Review'']. (PDF). Inverness. Retrieved on 31 August 2007.</ref>
{{renewable energy sources}}

===Wind power===
{{Main|Wind power in Scotland}}
Wind power in Scotland is an area of considerable activity, with 1550 MW of installed capacity as at October 2008.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/south_of_scotland/7695508.stm Turbines achieve energy landmark]</ref> [[Wind power]] is the fastest growing of the renewable energy technologies in Scotland and the world's largest [[wind turbine]] generator (5 MW) is currently undergoing testing in the North Sea, 15 miles off the east coast. There are numerous large wind farms as well as a number, both planned and operating, which are in community ownership. The siting of turbines is sometimes an issue, but surveys have shown high levels of community acceptance for wind power in Scotland. There is further potential for expansion, especially offshore, given the high average wind speeds.

In May 2008 Scottish and Southern Energy confirmed it was proceeding with the Greater Gabbard wind farm, located off the south coast of England. However, they sold their stake in this project, expected to become the largest wind farm in the world, to [[npower (UK)|Npower]] some six months later.<ref>[http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/story?id=52579 ""Greater Gabbard Wind Project Gets Go-ahead ""] (27 May 2008) Renewable Energy World.com. Retrieved 9 November 2008.</ref><ref>Rutherford, Hamish (4 November 2008) ""SSE sells half of giant wind farm project to Npower for £308m."" Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''.</ref>

===Lower carbon power stations===
In May 2007 Scottish Power announced that Alstom Power and Doosan Babcock had been commissioned to design plans for ""clean coal"" technology at [[Longannet]] and [[Cockenzie power station|Cockenzie]] power stations. This would have become the largest project of its kind in Europe<ref>Dalton, Alistair (18 May 2007). [http://news.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id=771022007 "" 'Dinosaur' power stations in line for £1bn green revamp""]. Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''. Retrieved on 31 August 2007.</ref> but it was cancelled in 2011 after the Westminster Government withdrew funding.<ref>Currie, Brian (19 Oct 2011) ""Scots £1bn climate change plant is axed"". Glasgow. ''The Herald''.</ref> [[Scottish Power]] have also announced that they wished to reduce carbon emissions by using biomass products such as willow or cereals at Longannet and Cockenzie. This could save up to 300,000 tonnes (330,000&nbsp;tons) of carbon emissions per annum. However, the challenge of replacing large-scale power production with renewables was highlighted by the fact that to replace 5% of the fuel from these plants, fully 12% of Scotland's agricultural land would be required.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/6905893.stm ""Crop energy power plan unveiled"".] BBC online (July 19, 2007). Retrieved on 27 July 2007.</ref>

===Carbon sequestration===
The [[British Geological Survey]] estimate that potentially 755 billion tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> could be stored in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s in the [[North Sea]] (Scotland's annual CO<sub>2</sub> output is circa 50 million tonnes). The process also aids the recovery of oil and gas as it increases pressure in the oil field. The [[Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom)|DTI]] estimate that as much as 2 billion additional barrels of oil could be recovered as a result of CO<sub>2</sub> injection.<ref name=SER>''A Scottish Energy Review''. (November 2005) Scottish National Party Framework Paper. Edinburgh.</ref>

Although this process could reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from conventional power plants by as much as 80–90%, if combined with increased oil recovery the net savings in carbon emissions may be much less as the total volume of oil and gas used from that field would increase.<ref name=Monbiot />

===Electricity distribution===
However, controversy has arisen about [[Ofgem]]'s proposed plans to increase transmission charges for distant electrical generation. This was widely seen as placing renewable energy production in Scotland at a considerable disadvantage. Jason Ormiston, the chief executive of [[Scottish Renewables]] was quoted as saying ""At a time when the UK government's chief scientific adviser has said that climate change is the greatest threat to humanity, here we have the industry regulator penalising renewable electricity generators for generating where the resource is greatest.""<ref>Johnston, Ian (27 July 2007). [http://news.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id=1170522007 "" 'Mad' fines of £200,000 jeopardise Scots green energy sector""]. Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''. Retrieved on 27 July 2007.</ref> The issue was highlighted the following month when leaked Department of Trade and Industry documents indicated that, despite Scottish successes, under current policies Britain would miss the EU's 2020 target of 20% energy from renewables by a considerable margin.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/13/renewableenergy.energy ""Revealed: cover-up plan on energy target"".] London. ''Guardian Unlimited'' (13 August 2007). Retrieved on 13 August 2007.</ref> In the same month a report by [[Xero Energy Limited]] into these 'use of system' transmission charges across Europe indicated that the UK system creates costs that are up to thirty times higher in Scotland than elsewhere in Europe and that charges for the [[List of islands of Scotland|islands]] are ""almost certainly higher than any other European country"". [[Rob Gibson]] an [[Member of the Scottish Parliament|MSP]] for the Highlands and Islands described the charges as ""a tax on geography"", and Elaine Hanton of [[Highlands and Islands Enterprise|HIE]] claimed the report raised ""serious concerns"".<ref>Ross, John (14 September 2007) ""Green energy in Highlands being hampered by 'tax on geography' "". Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''.</ref><ref>Scott, N.C. (August 2007) [http://www.hie.co.uk/HIE-economic-reports-2007/EU-practices-grid-connection.pdf ''European practices with grid connection, reinforcement, constraint and charging of renewable energy projects''] (pdf) Inverness. HIE/Xero Energy. Retrieved on 13 September 2007.</ref>

Discussions between the Scottish and Norwegian governments aimed at creating a sub-sea grid to take renewable energy from Scotland to the European mainland are planned for early 2008.<ref>""Salmond plans Norwegian energy link up"" (29 October 2007) ''The Scotsman''. Edinburgh.</ref>

===Hydrogen economy===
An innovative approach was proposed by [[BP]] in partnership with [[Scottish and Southern Energy]] for the creation of a hydrogen-based power station at [[Peterhead]]. The project would have taken natural gas extracted from the [[North Sea oil|North Sea]], [[cracking (chemistry)|crack]] the gas to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide, and burn the hydrogen as the fuel source to create electricity in a 475 MW power station. The CO<sub>2</sub> would then have been returned to the Miller field reservoir more than {{convert|4|km|mi|0}} under the seabed in a process called [[carbon sequestration]] (see above). The scheme was expected to be in production by 2009 at a projected cost of $600&nbsp;million, although it fell through as it failed to gain sufficient support from the UK government to enable this to occur. Had it been completed, the plant would have been the first industrial-scale, hydrogen power station in the world.<ref name=BPPH /><ref>There are ongoing attempts to keep the project alive—see for example Perry, David (25 May 2007) ""Last-ditch fight on to save green gas project"". Aberdeen. ''Press and Journal''.</ref>

In October 2007 a joint venture was announced by the PURE Energy Centre and the Hjaltland Housing Association to create two “unplugged” hydrogen houses on a remote site in Eshaness, [[Northmavine]], in [[Shetland]]. The installation will involve two combined heat and power systems, wind turbines and a hydrogen fuel cell to heat the houses at times when the wind is not blowing. There is also the possibility of a hydrogen refuelling station 
at the site for hydrogen-powered cars. A spokesman for PURE said “Forty per cent of the world-wide population lives with no access to 
electricity and heat. The CHP scheme will provide these populations with such access. There will be no impact on the environment whatsoever. This is totally clean energy.""<ref>[http://www.hie.co.uk/HICEC/HICEC-News-Oct07.pdf ""‘Unplugged Houses’ at Northmavine""] (pdf) (October 2007) ''Community Energy News No 6''. Dingwall. HICEC. Retrieved 18 October 2007.</ref>

==Housing==
[[File:Expohouses.jpg|thumb|Eco-houses at the Inverness expo]]
""Tygh-Na-Cladach"" (English: the house by the shore"") in Dunoon is the UK's first ""affordable"" [[passivhaus]], designed by Gokay Deveci of [[Robert Gordon University]] for Fyne Homes.<ref>[http://www.sphc.co.uk/bethania-social-housing-dunoon-passive-design ""Tygh-Na-Cladach - the first Passive House in Scotland is UK's first 'Affordable Housing' Passivhaus""]. Scottish Passivhaus Centre. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</ref> For the month of August 2010 Scotland's first green housing expo opened in [[Inverness]]. The event showcased 52 new designs.<ref>[http://www.scotlandshousingexpo.com/ ""Welcome to Scotland's Housing Expo!""]. scotlandshousingexpo.com. Retrieved 17 August 2010.</ref>

==Waste treatment==
[[Moray]] Council has announced an 800&nbsp;kW [[landfill gas]] project near [[Spey Bay]]. Contractors Renewable Power Systems expect the facility to come into production in 2008.<ref>Paterson, Lorna (28 September 2007) ""Landfill site's waste gases set to provide enough power for around 1,600 homes."" Aberdeen. ''The Press and Journal''.</ref> There are as yet no plans for [[Plasma arc waste disposal]] in Scotland although a plant is under construction at [[Swindon]] in England.<ref>[http://www.advancedplasmapower.com/swindon-gasplasma-plant.aspx ""Swindon Gasplasma® plant""]. Advanced Plasma Power. Retrieved 23 July 2011.</ref>

In 2013 [[Baron Wallace of Tankerness]] sided with liquidators [[KPMG]] who are arguing UK insolvency law has precedence over  Scottish environmental regulations. Wallace's position, taken ""on behalf of the UK Government"" is that the liquidators have the power to abandon environmental clean-up costs after the company with the responsibility for them has gone bust. KPMG estimates the liquidation of Scottish Coal will leave up to £30 million that would be paid to creditor [[Lloyds Banking Group|Lloyds Bank]] rather go towards the restoration of disused mines in [[Ayrshire]] and [[Lanarkshire]]. Opponents of KPMG include the [[Scottish Government]], the [[Scottish Environment Protection Agency]], [[South Lanarkshire Council]] and [[East Ayrshire Council]].<ref>Vass, Stephen (11 August 2013) ""Scots rules attacked by UK Government in clean-up battle over open-cast mines"".  Glasgow. ''The Herald''.</ref>

==Agriculture and food==
In November 2008, Keenan Recycling completed a £3.2 million plant at [[New Deer]] for the production of organic fertilisers. Capable of producing 20,000 tonnes per annum the operators hope to capitalise on the soaring price of compound fertilisers, which tripled in the previous 18 months.<ref>Buglass, Dan (4 November 2008) ""Green fertiliser plant 'will help cut production costs'."" Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''.</ref>

==Transport==
[[File:CairngormsEV.jpg|thumb|Electric Vauxhall run by the Cairngorms National Park Authority]]
Designated [[recharging point]]s to run electric vehicles have been installed at the [[Cairngorms]] National Park Authority offices at [[Grantown]] and at the [[Aviemore]] offices of local charity, the Badenoch and Strathspey Community Transport Company. In 2010 the government body that manages and promotes sustainable transport in Scotland announced that, despite a goal of reducing carbon emissions  for travel by staff by 8% over a two-year period, that they had risen by 3%. Transport Scotland has now set a new target of cutting their travel emissions by 12% over the next three years.<ref>Henderson, Damien (28 July 2010) ""Red-faced for missing green target"". Glasgow. ''The Herald''.</ref>

In 2011 [[Caledonian MacBrayne]] announced they were developing engineering concept designs for the world's first sea going RORO passenger hybrid (battery/diesel-electric) ferry. The ferries are designed for use on short crossing routes and use battery banks supplying a minimum of 20% of the energy consumed on board.<ref>[http://www.cmassets.co.uk/en/our-work/events.html ""Hybrid ferries: the opportunity for Scotland""]. Caledonian Maritime Assets Limited. Retrieved 27 Nov 2011.</ref> [[MV Hallaig|MV ''Hallaig'']] was launched in December 2012 at [[Ferguson Shipbuilders|Ferguson's yard]] in [[Port Glasgow]] by Deputy First Minister [[Nicola Sturgeon]].<ref name=""ek""/> The Scottish Government invested more than £20 million in the project<ref name=""ek""/> and
''Hallaig'' is the first of two vehicle roll-on roll-off hybrid-powered ferries. She has a low-carbon system of diesel electric and lithium ion battery power.<ref name=""ek"">{{cite news| url=http://www.eastkilbridenews.co.uk/lanarkshire-news/scottish-news/2012/12/17/hybrid-ferry-hallaig-to-be-launched-68653-32440969/| title=Hybrid ferry Hallaig to be launched| publisher=East Kilbride News| date=17 December 2012| access-date=13 January 2013}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Community Energy Scotland]]
*[[EMEC]]
*[[Findhorn Ecovillage]]
*[[HICEC]]
*[[Renewable energy in Scotland]]
*[[Scoraig]]
*[[Centre for Alternative Technology]]
*[[Sustainable development]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://siser.eps.hw.ac.uk/ Scottish Institute for Solar Energy Research (SISER)]
*[http://www.bodhi-eco-project.org.uk/ Bodhi Eco-project]
*[http://www.sci-scotland.org.uk/ Sustainable Communities Initiatives]
*[http://www.ssdforum.org.uk/ SSDF]
*[http://www.forward-scotland.org.uk/ Forward Scotland]
*[http://www.sustainablescotland.com/ sustainablescotland.com]

{{Scottish Energy}}
{{Sustainability}}

[[Category:Sustainability in Scotland]]
[[Category:Renewable energy in Scotland]]
[[Category:Sustainable development|Scotland]]"
Clean growth,"'''Clean growth''' is goal 7 of the UN's sustainability goals, first published in 2009.<ref name=""auto3"">{{cite web|url=https://unctad.org/en/docs/ditcted20092_en.pdf |title=Trade and Environment Review |publisher=unctad.org |date=2010 |accessdate=2020-03-11}}</ref> Clean growth refers to economic growth that is energy efficient, uses sustainable agricultural practices, and uses renewable energy technologies according to the ‘Poles’ outlined in the UN's [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref name=""auto3""/> In other words, it is economic growth tied to conscious and sustainable principles with the aim of reducing, minimising, or eliminating altogether (where possible) the potential negative side effects that economic and income growth can have on the environment.<ref name=""auto"">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/statements/mr-liu/2017/11/hl-symposium-global-energy.html|title=High-Level Symposium ""Global Energy Interconnection: Advancing the Sustainable Development Goals"" &#124; Under-Secretary-General Liu Zhenmin - United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|website=www.un.org}}</ref>

In accordance with these standards, governments and institutions around the world are developing policies and putting pressure on industries, businesses, and consumers to work towards economic growth that is both sustainable and clean, but doing so without compromising an individual nation's healthy income growth. The purpose of 'clean growth' is to improve the overall standard of living and quality of life of people around the world by developing policies that ensure increased positive impacts and decreased negative effects resulting from increased economic growth around the globe. The term serves to marry two concepts often held in opposite regard: economic growth and sustainability; and do so in a way that ensures neither is compromised.<ref name=""auto3""/><ref name=""auto""/>

[[Nicolas Sarkozy]] outlined the term well when he advocated for the need to consider the environment and economic growth in tandem, as not being contradictory but complementary: <blockquote>""Our first goal is to find the way to achieve ""clean"" growth and I want to defend this idea here today. We haven't got to choose between saving the planet and growth. We need to have growth and save the planet. So we need a growth that consumes less energy and fewer raw materials. A new economy must be invented.""<ref>[http://www.ambafrance-us.org/news/statmnts/2007/62unga_sarkozy_speech_climate_change092407.asp speech] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120184856/http://www.ambafrance-us.org/news/statmnts/2007/62unga_sarkozy_speech_climate_change092407.asp |date=2008-01-20 }}, UN assembly, sept. 2007</ref>
</blockquote>  Not only does he outline the term clearly, but he also suggests that clean growth is a new way of approaching economic growth that requires both strategic resource and economic management as well as innovative technologies.  The transition into clean growth economies, considering current technology trends and consumer preferences, could be very seamless as well.

The term ‘clean growth’ has been used as a means of redefining the value of economic growth and development.  Sheer increases in income, as represented by GDP growth, have proven to be insufficient in measuring overall quality of life; and while economic growth is a good thing, the speed at which growth occurs has, historically, taken precedence over the quality of economic development. This focus on speed and quantity of growth has resulted in numerous negative side effects, particularly: pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and [[resource depletion]]. Today, with the consequences felt, sustainability has taken a priority.<ref name=""auto2"">{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr=710&menu=1515|title=Promoting poles of clean growth to foster the transition to a more sustainable economy .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>

Governments and international organisations alike are developing policies to ensure cleaner and more [[sustainable growth]] for the future. A statement made by the UN's Under-Secretary General, Liu Zhenmin, regarding clean growth: “The technology for worldwide energy connectivity is there. The barriers are institutional, not technological.” The UN representative, further reinforces the current economic climate which is already both innovative and geared towards clean growth and positive environmental impact; Zhenmin points out, however, that policies on a global level, as well as on a national and corporate level need to be redefined and geared toward fostering clean economic growth. Institutions are slow to change and if they do not change appropriately, can remain a hindrance against and inevitably slow the transition to clean growth and sustainability worldwide.<ref name=""auto1"">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/sustainable/clean-energy-for-global-goals.html|title=Shift to clean, affordable energy critical to attaining Global Goals – UN officials|date=November 2, 2017|website=UN DESA &#124; United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs}}</ref>  Liu called for a change in mindset, stressing that ""decisive progress can only be made through partnerships that mobilise and share knowledge, expertise, technology and financial resources are indispensable to success.""<ref name=""auto1""/><ref name=""auto2""/><ref name=""auto""/>

[[Efficient energy use|Energy Efficiency]]<ref name=""auto2""/>

Energy and, in particular, renewable energy are key to clean growth.  According to the UN Under-Secretary General, “Without increased access to modern energy, energy efficiency and renewable energy, there will be no progress on climate action.""<ref name=""auto1""/> Energy is the engine to a thriving economy, between life essentials such as cooking food or providing heating in homes and buildings, to industrial machines and transportation modes — economies today depend completely on energy. In terms of economic growth, energy is essential, but energy can also be one of the most detrimental factors to the environment, which is why clean energy is so central to clean growth around the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Efficient_energy_use&oldid=944697150|title=Efficient energy use|date=March 9, 2020|via=Wikipedia}}</ref><ref name=""auto""/>

[[Sustainable agriculture]]<ref name=""auto2""/>

Sustainable agriculture is fundamental. Food security and basic needs must be met in order for a society to survive and be able to thrive. Agriculture provides food and food products, as well as textiles.  These products fulfil the basic needs of society and in many cases is that which the nation's economy is based. Sustainable agriculture suggests farming in ways that meet societal needs without compromising the needs of future generations. Agriculture, despite being essential, can be very detrimental to the environment; through overcropping (depleting nutrients in the soil), overgrazing, de-foresting (cutting down trees for farming land and for lumber), depletion of water resources, and pesticide use which pollutes the surrounding soil and water.  Thus, sustainable agriculture is when a society manages its land and resources in a way that meets current societal and economic needs yet does not compromise future societal and economic needs. It is an essential aspect of clean growth.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_agriculture&oldid=944048049|title=Sustainable agriculture|date=March 5, 2020|via=Wikipedia}}</ref><ref name=""auto""/>

[[Renewable energy|Renewable energy technologies]]<ref name=""auto2""/>

Renewable energy is energy that is achieved through renewable sources such as sun, wind, and rain; as opposed to energy derived from oil or natural gas, which are non-renewable and can be depleted if overused. Transitioning to renewable energy solves two problems: the problem of depleting non-renewable resources and the problem of pollution as an offshoot of using non-renewable sources.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renewable_energy&oldid=944728535|title=Renewable energy|date=March 9, 2020|via=Wikipedia}}</ref><ref name=""auto""/>

The ‘clean growth’ concept is changing the way governments, institutions, industries, businesses, and people around the world perceive economic growth and the way they approach it.  Clean growth is seen as a very positive and valuable approach to economic development that encourages, promotes, and fosters a sustainable and clean future without undermining the need for and value of overall economic growth and development.

[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg7 Clean Growth Progress Report 2019]

According to the United Nation's Report of the Secretary General, the 2019 progress toward Goal 7, clean growth initiative, was as follows:

<blockquote>
*""The global electrification rate rose from 83 per cent in 2010 to 87 per cent in 2015, with the increase accelerating to reach 89 per cent in 2017. However, some 840 million people around the world are still without access to electricity.
*""The global share of the population with access to [[clean cooking]] fuels and technologies reached 61 per cent in 2017, up from 57 per cent in 2010. Despite this progress, close to 3 billion people still rely primarily on inefficient and polluting cooking systems.
*""The renewable energy share of total final energy consumption gradually increased from 16.6 per cent in 2010 to 17.5 per cent in 2016, though much faster change is required to meet climate goals. Even though the absolute level of renewable energy consumption has grown by more than 18 per cent since 2010, only since 2012 has the growth of renewables outpaced the growth of total energy consumption. E/2019/68 14/39 19-07404
*""Global primary energy intensity (ratio of energy used per unit of GDP) improved from 5.9 in 2010 to 5.1 in 2016, a rate of improvement of 2.3 per cent, which is still short of the 2.7 per cent annual rate needed to reach target 3 of Sustainable Development Goal 7.""<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg7|title=Goal 7 .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref> </blockquote>

==See also==
*[[Green economy]]

== References ==
<references/>

== Articles ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110202195148/http://cleantechgrowth.org/  Articles on CleanTech Growth]

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Economic growth]]"
Development-supported agriculture,"{{Short description|Nascent movement in real estate development}}
{{Cleanup bare URLs|date=September 2022}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2019}}
'''Development-supported agriculture''' is a nascent movement in real estate development that preserves and invests in agricultural land use.  As farmland is lost due to the challenging economics of farming and the pressures of the real estate industry,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Satterthwaite|first1=David|last2=McGranahan|first2=Gordon|last3=Tacoli|first3=Cecilia|date=2010-09-27|title=Urbanization and its implications for food and farming |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=365|issue=1554|pages=2809–2820|doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0136 |pmc=2935117|pmid=20713386}}</ref> DSA attempts to reconcile the need for development with the need to preserve agricultural land. The overall goal of DSA is to incubate small-scale organic farms that co-exist with residential land development, providing benefits to farmers, residents, the local community, and the environment.

A related term, ''agricultural urbanism'', refers to agricultural operations located in proximity to and integrated with urban areas.  The term of agricultural urbanism was coined by Mark Holland and Janine de la Salle, and is based on their book by the same name, published by Green Frigate Press in 2010 (De la Salle and Holland et al.).  The term and concept of Agricultural Urbanism was originally developed in British Columbia in 2008 during a planning process for a development project called Southlands in South Delta, Metro Vancouver and was introduced to planner, real estate developer, and founder of the New Urbanism movement, Andres Duany, as part of the preparation for a design charrette which Duany and his team were involved in.

Two academics who authored a chapter (Patrick Condon from UBC and Kent Mulnix from Kwantlen Polytechnic) posited the original idea of using development to support agriculture by using mechanisms such as transferring density rights from agricultural land onto adjacent areas and preserving the agricultural land through covenants while harvesting the development land value in the adjacent area that received the transferred development rights.

Andres Duany has been a significant proponent of the idea as well as the author of a similar stream of thought called Agrarian Urbanism.  Duany's adoption of the concept has given it a higher profile,<ref>{{cite web|last=Hawley|first=Steve|title=Agricultural Urbanism:Transects and Food Planning|url=http://www.houstontomorrow.org/initiatives/story/agricultural-urbanism/|publisher=HoustonTomorrow|accessdate=20 March 2012}}</ref>

== Background ==

The term ''development-supported agriculture'' (DSA) was coined to describe the Harvest project. A variety of individuals collaborated on the project, including planner Duane Verner, developer Nathan Wieler, members of Piedmont Biofuels, participants in the Sustainable Agriculture program at Central Carolina Community College, and others. The group set out to determine the best usage for an existing farm that was being sold by the owner, a career farmer named Paul McCoy. It became clear that the group had an opportunity to create a unique residential community where farmers and residents have a symbiotic relationship. This relationship would benefit all involved, while also improving the general state of residential development and helping to reduce the ecological destruction associated with typical residential development models. Reynolds & Jewell Landscape Architecture was retained to design the master plan for the community, and the team grew to include experienced organic farmers, experts on native plants, and others. As of July 2008, the developer is actively implementing the master plan, and response to the concept has been overwhelmingly positive.

==DSA and CSA==

Development-supported agriculture has its roots in the [[community-supported agriculture]] (CSA) movement. However, whereas CSA typically focuses on establishing a direct business relationship between consumers and farmers, DSA builds on a [[barter]] approach first and foremost, while also ensuring that products from DSA farms are integrated into the local economy. On a more general level, DSA is a response to concerns about the urbanization of agricultural land and an attempt to preserve existing farms. Another goal of DSA is to establish a new generation of farmers by using the revenue from real estate development to establish small-scale organic farms that are protected in perpetuity by conservation easements and property covenants.

== Five points of DSA ==

Development-supported agriculture is based on the concept of a master-planned residential development with farming as the central amenity. This model provides residents with the benefits of, and the opportunity to experience, small-scale organic farming. Property owners have the option of participating in the farming or leasing their land to a farmer; in either case, the farmland is protected from development. Homesites are restricted to certain areas and continuous areas of open space are maintained across multiple properties.

In the spirit of [[Le Corbusier| Le Corbusier's]] ""Five Points of a New Architecture,"" DSA focuses on five core principles:

# Preservation of farmland through limited development and continuity of previous farming uses.
# Agreements between developers and farmers (development provides farm infrastructure, farmers provide farm products to residents and the local community).
# Low-impact development techniques, sustainable architecture, and careful ecological/environmental planning.
# Establishment of wildlife corridors and animal habitats, promotion of native plant species, and protection of water quality.
# Utilization of an open-source development model that provides a framework for master-planned farm communities and integrated local food systems.

== Examples ==

=== Developments in the urban-rural fringe ===

====Harvest, North Carolina====

Harvest<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wieler.com/communities/harvest/overview/|title = WIELER / Communities / Harvest / Harvest: A Farm Community}}</ref> is a {{convert|200|acre|km2|adj=on}} development introduced in 2008, sited in the [[New Hope River Valley]] in [[Chatham County, North Carolina]].  The development consists of 20 individual properties with an organic farm as the literal and metaphorical center of the community.  A farmbelt easement protects farmland and preserves rural views.

According to Paul McCoy, the previous owner of the land, the Harvest property had been used for farming since the American Revolution.  During the middle of the 20th century, the primary use of the farm was for growing tobacco.  In the late 20th century, the farm was used to grow a typical rotation of tobacco, corn, and soybeans. In 2008, the developer of Harvest began transitioning the farm from conventional operations to organic certification. The change from commercial (i.e. using pesticides) to organic farming will help protect the water quality of nearby Jordan Lake and the Haw River.

====Serenbe, Georgia====

Another example of an urban-rural fringe project that fits into the DSA framework is [[Serenbe]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://serenbe.com/community |title=Archived copy |access-date=2021-11-09 |archive-date=2021-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109092825/https://serenbe.com/community |url-status=dead }}</ref> This community is located on one of the last undeveloped parcels of land in the [[Atlanta]] area. The founders of Serenbe realized that their largely untouched {{convert|900|acre|km2}} presented a window of opportunity for creating a unique type of residential development. A {{convert|25|acre|m2|adj=on}} organic farm is located at Serenbe that provides organic produce throughout Atlanta and The Chattahoochee Hill Country. The {{convert|900|acre|km2}} of Serenbe lie in the heart of {{convert|40000|acre|km2}} protected with a master plan that calls for 80% green space. Building sites are limited to 220 structures, including live/work spaces and commercial buildings.

====Middle Green Valley, Solano County, CA====

One of the largest and most recent examples of development-supported agriculture is in Middle Green Valley in southwestern Solano County, California.  
The City of Fairfield to the south, and unincorporated Solano County to the north, have continued to entitle subdivisions while Green Valley has remained largely undeveloped agricultural land and open space.  Like many places at the edge of suburban boundaries, there has been a longstanding conflict between the open space desired by neighbors and development rights desired by landowners.  The landowners in this part of Green Valley have been under pressure to preserve the rural culture, even as the basic economics of agriculture have eroded the financial viability of their lands.  Usually, the only viable choice was to develop their property to realize economic benefit.  Many of the landowners, some whose families have cultivated the land for over 150 years, wished to realize the development value while at the same time maintain the integrity of the open space, agricultural productivity and the farming legacy.

In 2010, at significant cost and with no guarantee of success, the Solano County Board of Supervisors – with meaningful participation from landowners AND neighborhood groups – approved a Specific Plan for Middle Green Valley.  The final plan includes more than 1,400 acres of protected agricultural and open space and a small village of about 400 clustered homes that are shielded from the main views from Green Valley Road.  Over 15 different land owners covering almost 200 acres signed the Master Development Agreement putting this plan into place.<ref>[http://www.solanocounty.com/depts/rm/documents/eir/middle_green_valley_specific_plan.asp Solano County - Middle Green Valley Specific Plan]</ref>

Preserving the rural beauty and cultural legacy of the Green Valley area is the guiding vision in crafting a long term, equitable, and sustainable development plan. The Specific Plan celebrates and perpetuates the tradition of the working landscapes that characterize this part of Solano County for over 150 years. A core component is the promotion of [[sustainable food systems|sustainable food]] and agriculture systems as a means to connect agricultural lands, the built and natural environments, community health and natural resource stewardship.

=====The Green Valley Agricultural Conservancy=====

To provide assurances for the long-term preservation and management of the open space, the Middle Green Valley Specific Plan envisioned the creation of a non-profit Conservancy (the GVAC) to oversee the ±1,490 acres of productive agricultural land, pastures, and natural areas. The Conservancy has three primary areas of responsibility:

* Assisting and encouraging the farms in Green Valley;
* Overseeing the management, stewardship, enhancement, restoration and access easements for conservation lands; and
* Managing and developing a design review process for the community

One of the first tangible initiatives by the Conservancy to promote and support local farmers and artisans has been the creation of Totally Local - a new Certified Farmers' Market (CFM) - that was started in July 2011. The Green Valley Farmers' Market provides a community gathering place to share a cup of coffee, meet the local farmers, taste some great local food, and simply have some conversation with neighbors. The Conservancy's goal is not to compete with, but rather complement the already established food stands and local artisans in the region to help provide a stable platform for featuring LOCAL agricultural and artisan products.

====Other====
*Prairie Crossing, Illinois<ref name=""Building Communities with Farms"" /> 
*Bundoran Farm, Virginia<ref name=""Building Communities with Farms"" /> 
*South Village, Vermont<ref name=""Building Communities with Farms"" /> 
*Fort Collins, Colorado<ref name=""Bucking Horse"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drhorton.com/colorado/northern-colorado/fort-collins|title=New Homes in Fort Collins, Colorado &#124; D.R. Horton|website=DR Horton: America's Largest Homebuilder}}</ref> 
*Hidden Springs, Idaho<ref name=""Building Communities with Farms"">{{cite web|url=https://www.farmlandinfo.org/building-communities-farms-insights-developers-architects-and-farmers-integrating-agriculture-and|title=Building Communities with Farms: Insights from developers, architects and farmers on integrating agriculture and development|last=Ranney|first=Vicky, Keith Kirley, Michael Sands|publisher=Liberty Prairie Foundation|accessdate=20 March 2012}}</ref>

=== Urban agricultural developments ===

East Lake Commons<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.villagehabitat.com/project_menu/east_lake/east_lake.htm |title=East lake |access-date=2008-06-13 |archive-date=2008-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617221316/http://www.villagehabitat.com/project_menu/east_lake/east_lake.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> is a {{convert|20|acre|m2|adj=on}} cohousing community planned by Village Habitat Design located {{convert|4|mi|km}} from downtown Atlanta.

Southeast False Creek and Olympic Village<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://vancouver.ca/olympicvillage/|title = Olympic Village}}</ref> is an {{convert|80|acre|m2|adj=on}} sustainable development project near downtown [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] that includes an urban agriculture component.

=== Future possibilities: vertical farming===

[[Vertical farming]], also known as skyfarming, is a conceptual form of agriculture done in urban high-rises. In these high-rises, food such as fruit, vegetables, fish, and livestock can be raised by using greenhouse growing methods and recycled resources year-round, allowing cities of the future to become self-sufficient. The concept of the vertical farm remains mostly hypothetical; however, many people believe that this type of development will become necessary as a result of increased [[urban density]] and rising energy costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2018/08/14/vertical-farming-future|title=Vertical Farming for the Future|website=www.usda.gov|language=en|access-date=2019-04-02}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Civic agriculture]]
* [[Community-supported agriculture]]
* [[Green belt]]
* [[Preservation development]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://wieler.com/communities/harvest/ Harvest]
* [http://www.biofuels.coop/ Piedmont Biofuels]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229171033/http://www.prairiecrossing.com/libertyprairiefoundation/index.php Liberty Prairie Foundation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120223231933/http://prairiecrossing.com/libertyprairiefoundation/LPF-Publication9-10.pdf ''Building Communities with Farms'']
* [http://www.verticalfarm.com/ Vertical Farm]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070811101105/http://www.sagecenter.org/new-ruralism.pdf ''A Call for New Ruralism'']
* [http://www.lyleestill.com ''Small is Possible''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610235823/http://www.lyleestill.com/ |date=2010-06-10 }} by Lyle Estill
* [http://www.dailyrepublic.com/archives/supervisors-ok-eir-for-middle-green-valley-plan/ ""Solano County Approves Green Valley Plan""]
* [http://www.gvagconservancy.org/ Green Valley Agricultural Conservancy]
* [http://www.dailyrepublic.com/news/first-ever-green-valley-farmers-market-held/ ""First Ever Green Valley Farmers' Market a Hit""]

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Organic farming]]"
Strategic sustainable investing,"{{Short description|Investment strategy}}
'''Strategic sustainable investing''' ('''SSI''') is an [[investment strategy]] that recognizes and rewards leading companies that are moving society towards [[sustainability]]. SSI relies on a consensus-based scientific definition of [[sustainability]], and the assumption that ‘''[[Backcasting]] from Principles of Sustainability''’,<ref>Holmberg, J and Robèrt, K-H “Backcasting from non-overlapping sustainability principles – a framework for strategic planning”, International .Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 7:1–18. 2000</ref> whereby a vision of a sustainable future is set as the reference point for developing strategic actions, is the preferred approach to strategically move a company towards sustainability. It was developed by researchers at the [[Blekinge Institute of Technology]] in Sweden.

==The strategic sustainable investment system==
SSI outlines that the financial investment will offer a competitive risk-adjusted return, while providing investment capital to companies that are actively attempting to become more sustainable. It implies lower exposure to sustainability-related risks and it considers financial metrics together with [[environmental, social, and corporate governance|environmental, social, and governance]] (ESG) aspects, as well as strategy analyses to educate investment decision-making.<ref name=""SSI"">[http://bth.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A829533&dswid=1448 Blandford, Nick, Timothy Nash and André Winter “Strategic Sustainable Investing: Recognizing Value in Transitional Leadership.” Master's thesis, Blekinge Institute of Technology, 2008]</ref>

Characteristics of SSI:<br />
•	Lower sustainability risk exposure <br />
•	A definition of sustainability based on scientific consensus<ref name= ""tools and concepts"">[https://archive.today/20130201194739/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VFX-44KVV9J-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=214b19c668891d8b85307af38cb9017c Robèrt, K.-H. “Tools and concepts for sustainable development, how do they relate to a framework for sustainable development, and to each other?” Journal of Cleaner Production 8: 243–254. 2000]</ref> <br />
•	Primarily driven by movement towards sustainability<br />
•	Considers financial, ESG, and strategy analysis

SSI operates by prioritizing investment capital allocation to companies that are taking the lead in shifting away from unsustainable behaviour towards new ways of doing business. This capital allocation will provide an incentive for companies to move forward in a sustainable direction. This movement is reported in [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) and other extra-financial reports, but is also recorded in traditional areas of a firm's financial [[balance sheets]].

By incorporating sustainability investment and returns into traditional financial reporting, a clearer picture of the bottom-line impact of a company's actions towards sustainability is made available. In this positive reinforcing loop, greater investor returns and [http://plilend.com/ increased movement towards sustainability] are generated with every cycle.

[[Image:Economic analysis chart of movement towards sustainability.jpg|350px]]<br />''[[Causal loop diagram]] illustrating the strategic sustainable investment''<ref name=""SSI""/>

[[Institutional investor]]s, such as mutual and pension funds, take a longer-term position on investments and are thus ideally suited to incorporate SSI strategies.

==Theory background==
The theoretical foundation of SSI is strongly linked to ''strategic sustainable development'', made popular by [[The Natural Step]] and its founder Dr. [[Karl-Henrik Robèrt]].

This strategy resembles [[socially responsible investing]] (SRI), a growing practice amongst ethical investors. Nevertheless, SSI recognizes the gaps<ref>[http://www.responsibleinvesting.org/database/dokuman/SRI%20Report%2010-04_word.pdf Hawken, P. “How the SRI industry has failed to respond to people who want to invest with conscience and what can be done to change it.” Natural Capital Institute. 2004]</ref> of SRI pointed by several academics and practitioners and presents some alternatives.

''Main differences between traditional investment strategies, SRI and SSI:''<ref name=""SSI""/>
{| class=""wikitable"" border=""1""
|-
!
! '''Traditional'''
! '''SRI'''
! '''SSI'''
|-
|'''Sustainability definition'''
| sustainability is not considered
| Lack of clear definition
| A definition based on scientific consensus<ref name= ""tools and concepts""/>
|-
|'''Primary driver'''
| Maximize Return on Investment
| Ethical values
| Movement towards sustainability
|-
|'''Analysis performed'''
| Financial analysis
| ESG analysis<br /> Financial analysis
| ESG analysis<br /> Financial analysis<br /> Strategy analysis
|-
|'''Sustainability risk exposure'''
| Higher exposure
| Variable exposure
| Lower exposure
|}

==SSI analysis tool==
In order to evolve current SRI and traditional investment practices into Strategic Sustainable Investment, two gaps must be considered:

a.	The recognition of companies with true leading strategies for a sustainable future<br />
b.	A robust and well defined link must be made between movement towards sustainability and higher investment returns

The SSI analysis tool addresses the first gap by measuring a company's strategy for addressing sustainability. It allows investors to recognize which companies are leading the transition in a new direction, and which are most likely to be strong performers in tomorrow's market.

This tool is divided in two main parts: the emerging sustainability issue (esi) chart and the strategy analysis component:

===ESI chart===
[[Image:ESI Chart.jpg|right|thumb|250px|ESI Chart Sample<ref name=""SSI""/>]]
The Sectoral Emerging Sustainability Issue (ESI) chart is used to identify which aspects of a determined market sector will become a socio-environmental problem. In the common sense, an issue is called ‘emergent’ when it gets media exposure. Instead, the Tool relies on scientific [[The Natural Step#System conditions of sustainability|Principles of sustainability]]<ref>Holmberg, J., and K.-H. Robèrt “The Rationale behind the System Conditions”. Department of Physical Resource Theory, Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, 1997</ref><ref>Holmberg, J., K-H. Robèrt, and K-E. Eriksson “Socio-ecological principles for sustainability”. Getting down to earth — Practical applications of ecological economics. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1996</ref> to identify what is emergent.

It exposes which Sustainability Issues present high risks for companies within that sector in the short-term; as well as which Issues will be emerging in the medium and long-terms. Due to differences within a sector, the Sectoral ESI Chart should be made as specific as needed, being flexible to account for various geographical locations and sub-sector subtleties.

The process of composing an ESI chart follows:

Once a sector is selected for an ESI analysis, a list of relevant sustainability issues is assembled. This baseline analysis will result in a list of issues outlining the subject sector's strengths and concerns that impact society and the environment. Next, prioritization colours are assigned to each sustainability issue: red for very high priority; orange for high priority; yellow for medium priority, and green for low priority according to its assessment in each of three categories: urgency, severity, and systematic contribution.

''Urgency'' assesses the time frame pressing each Issue. The ''severity'' assesses the seriousness of the Issue, in terms of its potential consequences for the environment, society, and companies within that sector. The ''systematic contribution'' is used to gauge the sector's contribution to the overall Issue.

[[Image:ESI WF.jpg|none|350px]]<br />''To fill out the Chart, Researchers follow this process flow.''<ref name=""SSI""/>

===Strategy analysis component===
====Strategic plan====
The Strategic Plan element assesses the subject company's planned goals in relation to the emerging sustainability issue (ESI). The qualitative description includes, but is not limited to, information regarding:  public commitments planned operational and business initiatives, political action/ lobbying, and third party partnerships (with NGOs, consultative firms etc.). There is also a comment on the subject company's core business in relation to the ESI; as this will assist in determining the subject company's exposure to the emerging risk.

====Strategic actions====
The strategic actions element looks at assessing the subject company's recent actions taken in relation to the emerging sustainability issue (ESI), thus determining whether the subject company is ‘walking the talk’ in comparison to the vision and goals outlined.
The subject company's actions are seen through the lens of [[strategic sustainable development]], and thus three questions are emphasized as a mental guideline:

a.	Does this action provide a competitive return on investment (ROI)?<br />
b.	Is this action taking the subject company in the right direction?<br />
c.	Is this action a versatile platform?

====Strategy analysis graph====
The strategy analysis graph shows the subject company's planned path for dealing with the ESI, tangible progress made, and if existent, government regulations. The trajectory of the subject company's planned path reveals the extent of their future risk exposure. This graph is placed in the center of the strategy analysis page.

[[Image:Strategy Analysis Graph.jpg|none|thumb|300px|Sample of strategy analysis graph<ref name=""SSI""/>]]

====Assurance assessment====
The assurance assessment provides an overall impression of the validity of the information gathered. This assessment may be applied if the data is verified by an external third party, or if discrepancy is evident between different sources of information used on the report.

==External links==
* [http://www.bth.se/msls Blekinge Tekniska Hogsköla – Home of Masters in Strategic Leadership towards Sustainability Programme]

[[Strategic Sustainable Development]]

==References==
    {{reflist}}

[[Category:Investment management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable business]]
[[Category:Corporate social responsibility]]
[[Category:Finance theories]]"
Sustainability measurement,"{{Short description|Quantitative basis for the informed management of sustainability}}
[[File:Deforestation in Borneo.jpg|thumb|Trees being felled in [[Kalimantan]], the [[Indonesia]]n part of Borneo, in 2013, to make way for a new coal mining project]]
'''Sustainability measurement''' is a set of frameworks or indicators to measure how [[Sustainability|sustainable]] something is. This includes processes, products, services and businesses. Sustainability is difficult to quantify. It may even be impossible to measure.<ref name="":5"" /> To measure sustainability, the indicators consider environmental, social and economic domains. The metrics are still evolving. They include [[Ecological indicator|indicators]], benchmarks and audits. They include [[sustainability standards and certification]] systems like [[Fairtrade]] and [[Organic certification|Organic]]. They also involve indices and accounting. And they can include assessment, appraisal<ref>Dalal-Clayton, Barry and Sadler, Barry 2009. ''Sustainability Appraisal: A Sourcebook and Reference Guide to International Experience''. London: Earthscan. {{ISBN|978-1-84407-357-3}}.{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref> and other reporting systems. These metrics are used over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales.<ref>Hak, T. et al. 2007. ''Sustainability Indicators'', SCOPE 67. Island Press, London. [https://books.google.com/books?id=W4o-qunretMC&dq=Hak,+T.+et+al.+2007.+Sustainability+Indicators,+SCOPE+67.+Island+Press,+London.&pg=PR5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218143417/http://books.google.com/books?hl=en|date=2011-12-18}}</ref><ref name="":5"">Bell, Simon  and Morse, Stephen 2008. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6DOC13cd9c0C Sustainability Indicators]. Measuring the Immeasurable?'' 2nd edn. London: Earthscan. {{ISBN|978-1-84407-299-6}}.</ref> Sustainability measures include corporate [[sustainability reporting]], [[Triple bottom line|Triple Bottom Line accounting]]. They include estimates of the quality of sustainability governance for individual countries. These use the [[Environmental Sustainability Index]] and [[Environmental Performance Index]]. Some methods let us track [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wackernagel |first1=Mathis |last2=Lin |first2=David |last3=Evans |first3=Mikel |last4=Hanscom |first4=Laurel |last5=Raven |first5=Peter |date=2019 |title=Defying the Footprint Oracle: Implications of Country Resource Trends |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=2164 |doi=10.3390/su11072164 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable Development visualized |url=https://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/sustainableDevelopment?cn=all&type=earth&yr=2018 |access-date=24 March 2022 |website=Sustainability concepts}}</ref> These include the UN [[Human Development Index]] and [[Ecological footprint|ecological footprints]].  

Two related concepts to understand if the mode of life of humanity is sustainable, are [[planetary boundaries]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Steffen|first1=Will|date=13 Feb 2015|title=Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet|journal=Science|volume=347|issue=6223|page=1259855|doi=10.1126/science.1259855|pmid=25592418|doi-access=free|s2cid=206561765|hdl=1885/13126|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and [[ecological footprint]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Ecological Footprints|url=https://www.gdrc.org/sustdev/concepts/06-footprints.html|access-date=19 April 2020|website=Sustainability concepts|archive-date=8 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808050255/https://www.gdrc.org/sustdev/concepts/06-footprints.html|url-status=live}}</ref> If the boundaries are not crossed and the ecological footprint is not exceeding the [[carrying capacity]] of the [[biosphere]], the mode of life is regarded as sustainable.

A set of well defined and harmonized indicators can help to make sustainability tangible. Those indicators are expected to be identified and adjusted through empirical observations (trial and error).<ref>{{cite journal | year = 2006 | title = An adaptive learning process for developing and applying sustainability indicators with local communities | url = http://km.fao.org/uploads/media/An%20adaptative%20learning%20process%20for%20developing%20and%20applying%20sustainability%20indicators%20with%20local%20communities.pdf | journal = Ecological Economics | volume = 59 | issue =  4| pages = 406–418 | doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.11.008 | last1 = Reed | first1 = Mark S. | access-date = 18 February 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110726045818/http://km.fao.org/uploads/media/An%20adaptative%20learning%20process%20for%20developing%20and%20applying%20sustainability%20indicators%20with%20local%20communities.pdf | archive-date = 26 July 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The most common critiques are related to issues like data quality, comparability, objective function and the necessary resources.<ref>{{cite web|title=Annette Lang, Ist Nachhaltigkeit messbar?, Uni Hannover, 2003|url=http://www.nse-netz.de/downloads/nachh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110802135133/http://www.nse-netz.de/downloads/nachh.pdf|archive-date=2 August 2011|access-date=28 September 2011|language=de}}</ref> However a more general criticism is coming from the project management community: ""How can a sustainable development be achieved at global level if we cannot monitor it in any single project?"".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.grida.no/publications/et/ep4/page/2653.aspx |title=Do global targets matter?, The Environment Times, Poverty Times #4, UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2010 |publisher=Grida.no |access-date=28 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629043039/http://www.grida.no/publications/et/ep4/page/2653.aspx |archive-date=29 June 2011 }}</ref>

== Sustainability need and framework ==
Sustainable development has become the primary yardstick of improvement for industries and is being integrated into effective government and business strategies. The needs for sustainability measurement include improvement in the operations, benchmarking performances, tracking progress, and evaluating process, among others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Martins|first1=António A.|last2=Mata|first2=Teresa M.|last3=Costa|first3=Carlos A. V.|last4=Sikdar|first4=Subhas K.|date=2007-05-01|title=Framework for Sustainability Metrics|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research|volume=46|issue=10|pages=2962–2973|doi=10.1021/ie060692l|issn=0888-5885}}</ref> For the purposes of building sustainability indicators, frameworks can be developed and the steps are as follows:<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-10/documents/framework-for-sustainability-indicators-at-epa.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2019-03-18 |archive-date=2017-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619214353/https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-10/documents/framework-for-sustainability-indicators-at-epa.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

#'''Defining the system'''- A proper and definite system is defined. A proper system boundary is drawn for further analysis.
#'''Elements of the system'''- The whole input, output of materials, emissions, energy and other auxiliary elements are properly analysed. The working conditions, process parameters and characteristics are defined in this step.
#'''Indicators selection'''- The indicators is selected of which measurement has to be done. This forms the metric for this system whose analysis is done in the further steps.
#'''Assessment and Measurement'''- Proper assessing tools are used and tests or experiments are performed for the pre-defined indicators to give a value for the indicators measurement.
#'''Analysis and reviewing the results'''- Once the results have been obtained, proper analysis and interpretation is done and tools are used to improve and revise the processes present in the system.

==Sustainability indicators and their function==
{{See also|Sustainability metrics and indices}}
The principal objective of sustainability indicators is to inform public policy-making as part of the process of [[sustainability governance]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://sapiens.revues.org/index166.html |last=Boulanger |first=P. M. |title=Sustainable development indicators: a scientific challenge, a democratic issue |journal=S.A.P.I.EN.S |volume=1 |issue=1 |date=2008-11-26 |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2011-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109125624/http://sapiens.revues.org/index166.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Sustainability indicators can provide information on any aspect of the interplay between the environment and socio-economic activities.<ref>Hak, T., Moldan, B. & Dahl, A.L. 2007. SCOPE 67. ''Sustainability indicators''. Island Press, London.</ref> Building strategic indicator sets generally deals with just a few simple questions: what is happening? (descriptive indicators), does it matter and are we reaching targets? (performance indicators), are we improving? (efficiency indicators), are measures working? (policy effectiveness indicators), and are we generally better off? (total welfare indicators).

The [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] and the [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] established the [[Committee on Sustainability Assessment]] (COSA) in 2006 to evaluate sustainability initiatives operating in agriculture and develop indicators for their measurable social, economic and environmental objectives.<ref>{{cite report | vauthors=Giovannucci D, Potts J | year=2007 | publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development | url=https://www.iisd.org/pdf/2007/cosa.pdf | title=The COSA Project | access-date=2020-02-28 | archive-date=2017-01-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102174641/https://www.iisd.org/pdf/2007/cosa.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref>

One popular general framework used by The [[European Environment Agency]] uses a slight modification of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] [[DPSIR]] system.<ref>Stanners, D. et al. 2007. ''Frameworks for environmental assessment and indicators at the EEA.'' In: Hak, T., Moldan, B. & Dahl, A.L. 2007. SCOPE 67. ''Sustainability indicators''. Island Press, London.</ref> This breaks up environmental impact into five stages. Social and economic developments (consumption and production) ''(D)rive'' or initiate environmental ''(P)ressures'' which, in turn, produces a change in the ''(S)tate'' of the environment which leads to ''(I)mpacts'' of various kinds. Societal ''(R)esponses'' (policy guided by sustainability indicators) can be introduced at any stage of this sequence of events.

===Politics===
{{See also|Environmental politics|Environmental governance}}
A study concluded that social indicators and, therefore, sustainable development indicators, are scientific constructs whose principal objective is to inform public policy-making.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Paul-Marie Boulanger |url=http://sapiens.revues.org/index166.html |title=Sustainable development indicators: a scientific challenge, a democratic issue |journal=S.A.P.I.EN.S |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=2008 |access-date=28 September 2011}}</ref> The [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] has similarly developed a political policy framework, linked to a sustainability index for establishing measurable entities and metrics. The framework consists of six core areas:
# International trade and investment
# Economic policy
# Climate change and energy
# Measurement and assessment
# Natural resource management
# Communication technologies.

The [[United Nations Global Compact]] Cities Programme has defined sustainable political development in a way that broadens the usual definition beyond states and governance. The political is defined as the domain of practices and meanings associated with basic issues of social power as they pertain to the organisation, authorisation, legitimation and regulation of a social life held in common. This definition is in accord with the view that political change is important for responding to economic, ecological and cultural challenges. It also means that the politics of economic change can be addressed. They have listed seven subdomains of the domain of politics:<ref name=""citiesprogramme.com"">http://citiesprogramme.com/archives/resource/circles-of-sustainability-urban-profile-process {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112175841/http://citiesprogramme.com/archives/resource/circles-of-sustainability-urban-profile-process|date=12 November 2013}} {{Cite journal|author1=Liam Magee|author2=Andy Scerri|author3=Paul James|author4=James A. Thom|author5=Lin Padgham|author6=Sarah Hickmott|author7=Hepu Deng|author8=Felicity Cahill|year=2013|title=Reframing social sustainability reporting: Towards an engaged approach|url=https://www.academia.edu/4362669|journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability|volume=15|pages=225–243|doi=10.1007/s10668-012-9384-2|s2cid=153452740}}</ref>

#Organization and governance
#Law and justice
#Communication and critique
#Representation and negotiation
#Security and accord
#Dialogue and reconciliation
#Ethics and accountability

==Metrics at the global scale==
{{See also|Sustainability metrics and indices}}

There are numerous indicators which could be used as basis for sustainability measurement. Few commonly used indicators are:

[[Environmental sustainability]] indicators:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dong |first1=Yan |last2=Hauschild |first2=Michael Z. |title=Indicators for Environmental Sustainability |journal=Procedia CIRP |date=2017 |volume=61 |pages=697–702 |doi=10.1016/j.procir.2016.11.173 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*[[Global warming potential]]
* Acidification potential
*[[Ozone depletion potential]]
*[[Aerosol Optical Depth|Aerosol optical depth]]
* Eutrophication potential
* Ionization radiation potential
* Photochemical ozone potential
*[[Waste treatment]]
* Freshwater use
* Energy resources use
* Level of Biodiversity<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Simon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWKsBwAAQBAJ&dq=sustainability+indicators&pg=PA23 |title=Sustainability Indicators: Measuring the Immeasurable? |last2=Morse |first2=Stephen |date=2012-05-04 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-55602-9 |language=en}}</ref>

Economic indicators:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tisdell |first1=Clem |title=Economic indicators to assess the sustainability of conservation farming projects: An evaluation |journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment |date=May 1996 |volume=57 |issue=2–3 |pages=117–131 |doi=10.1016/0167-8809(96)01017-1 }}</ref><ref name=""Labuschagne et al 2005"">{{cite journal |last1=Labuschagne |first1=Carin |last2=Brent |first2=Alan C. |last3=van Erck |first3=Ron P.G. |title=Assessing the sustainability performances of industries |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=March 2005 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=373–385 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2003.10.007 |hdl=2263/4325 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
*[[Gross domestic product]]
*[[Balance of trade|Trade balance]]
* Local government income
* Profit, value and tax
*[[Investment]]s

Social indicators:<ref name=""Labuschagne et al 2005"" />
* Employment generated
*[[Equity (finance)|Equity]]
* Health and safety
*[[Education]]
* Housing/living conditions
*[[Community cohesion]]
*[[Social security]]

Due to the large numbers of various indicators that could be used for sustainability measurement, proper assessment and monitoring is required.<ref name=""Labuschagne et al 2005""/> In order to organize the chaos and disorder in selecting the metrics, specific organizations have been set up which groups the metrics under different categories and defines proper methodology to implement it for measurement. They provide modelling techniques and indexes to compare the measurement and have methods to convert the scientific measurement results into easy to understand terms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr=2013&menu=35|title=Indicators and a Monitoring Framework for the Sustainable Development Goals .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|access-date=2019-02-27|archive-date=2019-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190816061311/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr=2013&menu=35|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== United Nations indicators ===
The United Nations has developed extensive sustainability measurement  tools in relation to sustainable development <ref>[https://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205004433/http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm|date=2009-02-05}} United Nations sustainable development indicators</ref> as well as a [[System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting]].<ref>[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/seea.asp] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331084549/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envAccounting/seea.asp|date=2014-03-31}}, [[International Standard Industrial Classification]] UN System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting</ref>
[[File:United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development.jpg|thumb|United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development|alt=|320x320px]]
The UN [[Commission on Sustainable Development]] (CSD) has published a list of 140 indicators which covers environmental, social, economical and institutional aspects of sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pvsustain.org/dmdocuments/Class%203%20Singh%20Sustainable%20Assessment.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2019-03-18 |archive-date=2020-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922054303/http://www.pvsustain.org/dmdocuments/Class%203%20Singh%20Sustainable%20Assessment.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.===
In the last couple of decades, there has arisen a crowded toolbox of quantitative methods used to assess sustainability — including measures of resource use like [[life cycle assessment]], measures of consumption like the [[ecological footprint]] and measurements of quality of environmental governance like the [[Environmental Performance Index]]. The following is a list of quantitative ""tools"" used by sustainability scientists - the different categories are for convenience only as defining criteria will intergrade. It would be too difficult to list all those methods available at different levels of the organization so those listed here are at the global level only.

* [[Benchmark (surveying)|Benchmarks]]
: A benchmark is a point of reference for a measurement. Once a benchmark is established it is possible to assess trends and measure progress. Baseline global data on a range of sustainability [[parameter]]s is available in the [[list of global sustainability statistics]].

* [[Index (economics)|Indices]]
: A sustainability index is an aggregate sustainability indicator that combines multiple sources of data. There is a ''Consultative Group on Sustainable Development Indices''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iisd.org |title=Consultative Group on Sustainable Development Indices |publisher=[[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] |access-date=2008-06-18 |archive-date=2019-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012193436/http://www.iisd.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
:[[Air quality index]]
:[[Child Development Index]]
:[[Corruption Perceptions Index]]
:[[Democracy Index]]
:[[Environmental Performance Index]]
:[[Energy]] Sustainability Index
:[[Education Index]]
:[[Environmental Sustainability Index]]
:[[Environmental Vulnerability Index]]
{{Col-3}}
:[[GDP per capita]]
: [[Gini coefficient]]
: [[Gender Parity Index]]
: [[Gender-related Development Index]]
: [[Gender Empowerment Measure]]
: [[Gross national happiness]]
:[[Genuine Progress Indicator]]
::(formerly [[Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare]])
: Green Score City Index<ref>{{cite web |url=https://greenscore.eco/greenscore_city_index.html |title=Green Score City Index |publisher=GreenScore.eco |access-date=2022-03-21}} The Green Score City Index: development and application at a municipal scale</ref>
:[[Gross National Product]]
{{Col-3}}
:[[Happy Planet Index]]
:[[Human Development Index]] (see  [[List of countries by HDI]])
:[[Legatum Prosperity Index]]
:[[Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare]]
:[[Life Expectancy Index]]
:[[Sustainable Governance Indicators]]. The Status Index <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sgi-network.org/ |title=SGI – Sustainable Governance Indicators 2011 |publisher=Sgi-network.org |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2011-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719090733/http://www.sgi-network.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ranks 30 OECD countries in terms of sustainable reform performance
:[[Sustainable Society Index]]
:[[SDEWES Centre#SDEWES Index|SDEWES Index]]
:Water Poverty Index <ref>[http://www.ceh.ac.uk/sections/ph/documents/narf_054.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051216114337/http://www.ceh.ac.uk/sections/ph/documents/narf_054.pdf |date=2005-12-16 }} Sullivan, C.A. et al. (eds) 2003. The water poverty index: development and application at the community scale. ''Natural Resources Forum'' 27: 189-199.</ref>
{{Col-end}}

* [[Performance metric|Metrics]] 
:Many environmental problems ultimately relate to the human effect on those global [[biogeochemical cycle]]s that are critical to life. Over the last decade monitoring these cycles have become a more urgent target for research:
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
::* [[water cycle]]
::* [[carbon cycle]]
::* [[phosphorus cycle]]
{{Col-2}}
::* [[nitrogen cycle]]
::* [[sulphur cycle]]
::* [[oxygen cycle]]
{{Col-end}}

* [[Audit]]ing
:Sustainability auditing and reporting are used to evaluate the sustainability performance of a company, organization, or other entity using various performance indicators.<ref>Hill, J. 1992. ''Towards Good Environmental Practice''.  The Institute of Business Ethics, London.</ref> Popular auditing procedures available at the global level include:

:* [[ISO 14000]]
:* [[ISO 14031]]
:* [[The Natural Step]]
:* [[Triple Bottom Line]] Accounting
:* [[input-output analysis]] can be used for any level of organization with a financial budget. It relates environmental impact to expenditure by calculating the [[resource intensity]] of goods and services.

* [[Report]]ing
**[[Global Reporting Initiative]] modelling and monitoring procedures.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalreporting.org/Home |title=Global Reporting Initiative |publisher=Global Reporting Initiative |access-date=2008-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616060215/http://www.globalreporting.org/Home |archive-date=2008-06-16 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epeat.net/Docs/GRI_guidelines.pdf |title=Global Reporting Initiative Guidelines 2002 |access-date=2008-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217063729/http://www.epeat.net/Docs/GRI_guidelines.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.enviroreporting.com/detail_page.phtml?page=resource2 |title=International Corporate Sustainability Reporting |access-date=2008-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121060925/http://www.enviroreporting.com/detail_page.phtml?page=resource2 |archive-date=2007-11-21 }}</ref> Many of these are currently in their developing phase.
** [[State of the Environment]] reporting provides general background information on the environment and is progressively including more indicators.
**European sustainability <ref>[[Eurostat]]. (2007). ""Measuring progress towards a more sustainable Europe. 2007 monitoring report of the EU sustainable development strategy.""[http://passthrough.fw-notify.net/download/360813/http://ec.europa.eu/sustainable/docs/estat_2007_sds_en.pdf]{{Dead link|date=November 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} Retrieved on 2009-04-14.</ref>
* [[Accounting]]
:Some accounting methods attempt to include environmental costs rather than treating them as [[Externality|externalities]]
:* [[Green accounting]]
:* Sustainable value
:* Sustainability economics <ref>[http://www.sustainabilityeconomics.de/publications_vjh.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205215734/http://www.sustainabilityeconomics.de/publications_vjh.html|date=2008-02-05}}|Publications on sustainability measurement used in sustainability economics</ref>

==== Life cycle analysis ====
A [[Life-cycle assessment|life cycle analysis]] is often conducted when assessing the sustainability of a product or prototype.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal|last1=Mestre|first1=Ana|last2=Cooper|first2=Tim|date=2017|title=Circular Product Design. A Multiple Loops Life Cycle Design Approach for the Circular Economy|journal=Design Journal|volume=20|pages=S1620–S1635|doi=10.1080/14606925.2017.1352686|doi-access=free}}</ref> The decision to choose materials is heavily weighted on its longevity, renewability, and efficiency. These factors ensure that researchers are conscious of community values that align with positive environmental, social, and economic impacts.<ref name="":6"" />

===Resource metrics===
Part of this process can relate to resource use such as [[energy accounting]] or to economic metrics or [[price system]] values as compared to [[non-market economics]] potential, for understanding resource use.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Net_energy_analysis |title=Net energy analysis |publisher=Eoearth.org |date=2010-07-23 |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2013-04-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429194936/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Net_energy_analysis |url-status=live }}</ref>
An important task for resource theory ([[energy economics]]) is to develop methods to optimize resource conversion processes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/environ/m3/s3/05account.shtml |title=Environmental Decision Making, Science, and Technology |publisher=Telstar.ote.cmu.edu |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105164509/http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/environ/m3/s3/05account.shtml |archive-date=2010-01-05 }}</ref> These systems are described and analyzed by means of the methods of mathematics and the natural sciences.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://exergy.se/goran/thesis/ |title=Exergy - A Useful Concept.Intro |publisher=Exergy.se |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2012-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716183551/http://exergy.se/goran/thesis/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Human factors, however, have dominated the development of our perspective of the relationship between nature and society since at least the [[Industrial Revolution]], and in particular, have influenced how we describe and measure the economic impacts of changes in resource quality. A balanced view of these issues requires an understanding of the physical framework in which all human ideas, institutions, and aspirations must operate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_and_economic_myths_(historical) |title=Energy and economic myths (historical) |publisher=Eoearth.org |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2013-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606180734/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_and_economic_myths_(historical) |url-status=live }}</ref>[[Image:Oil imports.PNG|thumb|300px|Oil imports by country]]

=== Energy returned on energy invested ===
{{Main|Energy returned on energy invested}}
When oil production first began in the mid-nineteenth century, the largest oil fields recovered fifty barrels of oil for every barrel used in the extraction, transportation, and refining. This ratio is often referred to as the Energy Return on Energy Investment (EROI or [[EROEI]]).  Currently, between one and five barrels of oil are recovered for each barrel-equivalent of energy used in the recovery process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tripathi|first1=Vinay S.|last2=Brandt|first2=Adam R.|date=2017-02-08|title=Estimating decades-long trends in petroleum field energy return on investment (EROI) with an engineering-based model|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=12|issue=2|pages=e0171083|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0171083|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5298284|pmid=28178318|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1271083T|doi-access=free}}</ref>  As the EROEI drops to one, or equivalently the [[net energy gain]] falls to zero, the oil production is no longer a net energy source.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Michaux|first=Simon|title=Appendix D -ERoEI Comparison of Energy Resources |website=Academia |url=https://www.academia.edu/36305455|language=en |access-date=2019-02-25|archive-date=2019-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212132224/https://www.academia.edu/36305455|url-status=live}}</ref>  This happens long before the resource is physically exhausted.

Note that it is important to understand the distinction between a barrel of oil, which is a measure of oil, and a [[barrel of oil equivalent]] (BOE), which is a measure of energy. Many sources of energy, such as fission, solar, wind, and coal, are not subject to the same near-term supply restrictions that oil is. Accordingly, even an oil source with an EROEI of 0.5 can be usefully exploited if the energy required to produce that oil comes from a cheap and plentiful energy source.  Availability of cheap, but hard to transport, natural gas in some oil fields has led to using [[natural gas]] to fuel [[enhanced oil recovery]]. Similarly, natural gas in huge amounts is used to power most [[Athabasca Tar Sands]] plants. Cheap natural gas has also led to [[ethanol fuel]] produced with a net EROEI of less than 1, although figures in this area are controversial because methods to measure EROEI are in debate.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}

===Growth-based economic models===

Insofar as [[economic growth]] is driven by oil consumption growth, post-peak societies must adapt. [[M. King Hubbert]] believed:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/wwf1976/ |title=Exponential Growth as a Transient Phenomenon in Human History |publisher=Hubbertpeak.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2019-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629214750/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/wwf1976/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{cquote|Our principal constraints are cultural.  During the last two centuries we have known nothing but exponential growth and in parallel we have evolved what amounts to an exponential-growth culture, a culture so heavily dependent upon the continuance of exponential growth for its stability that it is incapable of reckoning with problems of nongrowth.}}

Some economists describe the problem as [[uneconomic growth]] or a [[false economy]]. At the political right, [[Fred Ikle]] has warned about ""conservatives addicted to the Utopia of Perpetual Growth"".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dieoff.org/page68.htm |title=Our Perpetual Growth Utopia |publisher=Dieoff.org |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2019-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428120557/http://dieoff.org/page68.htm }}</ref>  Brief oil interruptions in 1973 and 1979 markedly slowed – but did not stop – the growth of world [[GDP]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2006/pdf/050206.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2009-02-05 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171058/http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2006/pdf/050206.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Between 1950 and 1984, as the [[Green Revolution]] transformed [[agriculture]] around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by [[fossil fuels]] in the form of [[fertilizers]] (natural gas), [[pesticides]] (oil), and [[hydrocarbon]] fueled [[irrigation]].<ref>[http://wolf.readinglitho.co.uk/mainpages/agriculture.html How peak oil could lead to starvation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818060558/http://wolf.readinglitho.co.uk/mainpages/agriculture.html |date=2007-08-18 }}</ref>

David Pimentel, professor of ecology and [[agriculture]] at [[Cornell University]], and [[Mario Giampietro]], senior researcher at the National Research Institute on Food and Nutrition (INRAN), place in their study ''Food, Land, Population and the U.S. Economy'' the maximum [[U.S. population]] for a [[sustainability|sustainable economy]] at 200 million. To achieve a sustainable economy [[world population]] will have to be reduced by two-thirds, says the study.<ref>{{cite web |last=Taggart |first=Adam |url=http://www.energybulletin.net/281.html |title=Eating Fossil Fuels |publisher=EnergyBulletin.net |date=2003-10-02 |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611071544/http://www.energybulletin.net/281.html |archive-date=2007-06-11 }}</ref> Without population reduction, this study predicts an agricultural crisis beginning in 2020, becoming critical c. 2050. The [[Peak oil|peaking of global oil]] along with the decline in regional [[natural gas]] production may precipitate this agricultural crisis sooner than generally expected. [[Dale Allen Pfeiffer]] claims that coming decades could see spiraling [[food prices]] without relief and massive [[starvation]] on a global level such as never experienced before.<ref>[http://www.soilassociation.org/peakoil Peak Oil: the threat to our food security] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714220834/http://www.soilassociation.org/peakoil |date=July 14, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=The Oil Drum: Europe |url=http://europe.theoildrum.com/node/2225 |title=Agriculture Meets Peak Oil |publisher=Europe.theoildrum.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2015-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229201243/http://europe.theoildrum.com/node/2225 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Hubbert peaks ===
[[File:Hubbert peak oil plot.svg|thumb|350x350px|Hubbert Peak vs Oil Production]]
There is an active debate about most suitable sustainability indicator's  use and by adopting a thermodynamic approach through the concept of ""[[exergy]]"" and Hubbert peaks, it is possible to incorporate all into a single measure of [[resource depletion]].The exergy analysis of minerals could constitute a universal and transparent tool for the management of the earth's physical stock.<ref>{{cite conference |first1=Alicia |last1=Valero |first2=Antonio |last2=Valero |first3=Gavin M |last3=Mudd |year=2009 |title=Exergy – A Useful Indicator for the Sustainability of Mineral Resources and Mining |conference=Proceedings of SDIMI Conference |location=Gold Coast, QLD |pages=329–38 |isbn=978-1-921522-01-7 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268002763 }}</ref><ref name=""Labuschagne et al 2005""/>

[[Hubbert peak theory|Hubbert peak]] can be used as a metric for sustainability and depletion of non-renewable resources. It can be used as reference for many metrics for non-renewable resources such as:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brecha |first1=Robert |title=Ten Reasons to Take Peak Oil Seriously |journal=Sustainability |date=12 February 2013 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=664–694 |doi=10.3390/su5020664 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

# Stagnating supplies 
# Rising prices
# Individual country peaks
# Decreasing discoveries 
# Finding and development costs
# Spare capacity
# Export capabilities of producing countries
# System inertia and timing
# Reserves-to-production ratio
# Past history of depletion and optimism

Although [[Hubbert peak theory]] receives most attention in relation to [[peak oil|peak oil production]], it has also been applied to other natural resources.

===Natural gas===
{{Main|Peak gas}}
Doug Reynolds predicted in 2005 that the North American peak would occur in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |first=Bill |last=White |url=http://dwb.adn.com/money/industries/oil/v-printer/story/7296501p-7208184c.html |title=State's consultant says nation is primed for using Alaska gas |date=December 17, 2005 |newspaper=Anchorage Daily News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221153321/http://dwb.adn.com/money/industries/oil/v-printer/story/7296501p-7208184c.html |archive-date=February 21, 2009 }}</ref>  Bentley (p.&nbsp;189) predicted a world ""decline in conventional gas production from about 2020"".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Viewpoint - Global oil & gas depletion: an overview |first=R.W. |last=Bentley |journal=Energy Policy |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=189–205 |year=2002 |url=http://www.oilcrisis.com/bentley/depletionOverview.pdf |doi=10.1016/S0301-4215(01)00144-6 |access-date=2009-02-05 |archive-date=2008-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527233844/http://www.oilcrisis.com/bentley/depletionOverview.pdf }}</ref>

===Coal===
{{Main|Peak coal}}
Peak coal is significantly further out than peak oil, but we can observe the example of [[Anthracite coal|anthracite]] in the US, a high grade coal whose production peaked in the 1920s.  Anthracite was studied by Hubbert, and matches a curve closely.<ref>[http://www.geo.umn.edu/courses/3005/resource.html GEO 3005: Earth Resources] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725085800/http://www.geo.umn.edu/courses/3005/resource.html |date=July 25, 2008 }}</ref>  Pennsylvania's coal production also matches Hubbert's curve closely, but this does not mean that coal in Pennsylvania is exhausted—far from it.  If production in Pennsylvania returned at its all-time high, there are reserves for 190 years.  Hubbert had recoverable [[Coal#World coal reserves|coal reserves worldwide]] at 2500 × 10<sup>9</sup> metric tons and peaking around 2150(depending on usage).

More recent estimates suggest an earlier peak. ''Coal: Resources and Future Production'' (PDF 630KB <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.energywatchgroup.org/files/Coalreport.pdf |title=Startseite |publisher=Energy Watch Group |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911224731/http://www.energywatchgroup.org/files/Coalreport.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-11 }}</ref>), published on April 5, 2007 by the Energy Watch Group (EWG), which reports to the German Parliament, found that global coal production could peak in as few as 15 years.<ref name=""Httpwwwenergybulletinnethtml"">{{cite web |last=Hamilton |first=Rosie |url=http://www.energybulletin.net/29919.html |title=Peak coal: sooner than you think |publisher=Energybulletin.net |date=2007-05-21 |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080522155229/http://www.energybulletin.net/29919.html |archive-date=2008-05-22 }}</ref>  Reporting on this Richard Heinberg also notes that the date of peak annual energetic extraction from coal will likely come earlier than the date of peak in quantity of coal (tons  per year) extracted as the most energy-dense types of coal have been mined most extensively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.richardheinberg.com/museletter/179 |title=Museletter |publisher=Richard Heinberg |date=December 2009 |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2012-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806223305/http://richardheinberg.com/museletter/179 |url-status=live }}</ref>  A second study,
''The Future of Coal'' by B. Kavalov and S. D. Peteves of the Institute for Energy (IFE), prepared for European Commission Joint Research Centre, reaches similar conclusions and states that
""""coal might not be so abundant, widely available and reliable as an energy source in the future"".<ref name=""Httpwwwenergybulletinnethtml"" />

Work by [[David Rutledge (engineer)|David Rutledge]] of [[Caltech]] predicts that the total of world coal production will amount to only about 450 [[gigatonne]]s.<ref name=NS>""Coal: Bleak outlook for the black stuff"", by David Strahan, [[New Scientist]], [https://www.newscientist.com/channel/earth/mg19726391.800-coal-bleak-outlook-for-the-black-stuff.html Jan. 19, 2008, pp. 38-41].
</ref> This
implies that coal is running out faster than usually assumed.

Finally, insofar as global [[peak oil]] and peak in natural gas are expected anywhere from imminently to within decades at most, any increase in coal production (mining) per annum to compensate for declines in oil or NG production, would necessarily translate to an earlier date of peak as compared with peak coal under a scenario in which annual production remains constant.

===Fissionable materials===
{{Main|Peak uranium}}
In a paper in 1956,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/1956/1956.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527233843/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/1956/1956.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-27 }}</ref>  after a review of US fissionable reserves, Hubbert notes of nuclear power:

{{cquote|There is promise, however, provided mankind can solve its international problems and not destroy itself with nuclear weapons, and provided world population (which is now expanding at such a rate as to double in less than a century) can somehow be brought under control, that we may at last have found an energy supply adequate for our needs for at least the next few centuries of the ""foreseeable future.""}}

Technologies such as the [[thorium fuel cycle]], [[nuclear reprocessing|reprocessing]] and [[Fast breeder reactor|fast breeders]] can, in theory, considerably extend the life of [[uranium]] reserves. [[Roscoe Bartlett]] claims <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bartlett.house.gov/uploadedfiles/5-2-06%20Oil%20Speech.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025195932/http://www.bartlett.house.gov/uploadedfiles/5-2-06%20Oil%20Speech.pdf |archive-date=2006-10-25 }}</ref>

{{cquote|Our current throwaway nuclear cycle uses up the world reserve of low-cost uranium in about 20 years.}}

Caltech physics professor [[David Goodstein]] has stated<ref>{{cite web|last=Jones|first=Tony|title=Professor Goodstein discusses lowering oil reserves|url=http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2004/s1249211.htm|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=14 April 2013|date=23 November 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509063107/http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2004/s1249211.htm|archive-date=2013-05-09}}</ref> that

{{cquote|... you would have to build 10,000 of the largest power plants that are feasible by engineering standards in order to replace the 10 terawatts of fossil fuel we're burning today ... that's a staggering amount and if you did that, the known reserves of uranium would last for 10 to 20 years at that burn rate. So, it's at best a bridging technology ... You can use the rest of the uranium to breed plutonium 239 then we'd have at least 100 times as much fuel to use. But that means you're making plutonium, which is an extremely dangerous thing to do in the dangerous world that we live in.}}

===Metals===
{{Main|Peak copper}}
Hubbert applied his theory to ""rock containing an abnormally high concentration of a given metal""<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/wwf1976 |title=Exponential Growth as a Transient Phenomenon in Human History |publisher=Hubbertpeak.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2013-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712115025/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/wwf1976/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and reasoned that the peak production for metals such as [[copper]], [[tin]], [[lead]], [[zinc]] and others would occur in the time frame of decades and [[iron]] in the time frame of two centuries like coal. The price of copper rose 500% between 2003 and 2007<ref>[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2008-coppe.pdf http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2008-coppe.pdf Copper Statistics and Information, 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123150944/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2008-coppe.pdf |date=2017-11-23 }}.  [[USGS]]</ref> was by some attributed to [[peak copper]].<ref name=Leonard2006>{{cite web
  |url=http://www.salon.com/tech/htww/2006/03/02/peak_copper/index.html
  |title=Peak copper?
  |publisher=Salon - How the World Works
  |author=Andrew Leonard
  |date=2006-03-02
  |access-date=2008-03-23
  |archive-date=2008-03-07
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307042349/http://www.salon.com/tech/htww/2006/03/02/peak_copper/index.html
  |url-status=live
  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Silver Seek LLC |url=http://news.silverseek.com/CharlestonVoice/1135873932.php |title=Peak Copper Means Peak Silver - SilverSeek.com |publisher=News.silverseek.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104020042/http://news.silverseek.com/CharlestonVoice/1135873932.php |archive-date=2013-11-04 }}</ref> Copper prices later fell, along with many other commodities and stock prices, as demand shrank from fear of a [[Late 2000s recession|global recession]].<ref>[http://uk.reuters.com/article/oilRpt/idUKN2747917920090129 COMMODITIES-Demand fears hit oil, metals prices] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920185939/https://uk.reuters.com/article/oilRpt/idUKN2747917920090129 |date=2020-09-20 }}, Jan 29, 2009.</ref> [[Lithium]] availability is a concern for a fleet of [[Li-ion battery]] using cars but a paper published in 1996 estimated that world reserves are adequate for at least 50 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Will |first1=Fritz G. |title=Impact of lithium abundance and cost on electric vehicle battery applications |journal=Journal of Power Sources |date=November 1996 |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=23–26 |doi=10.1016/S0378-7753(96)02437-8 |id={{INIST|2530187}} |bibcode=1996JPS....63...23W }}</ref>  A similar prediction <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_roads/documents/page/dft_roads_024056-01.hcsp |title=Department for Transport - Inside Government - GOV.UK |publisher=Dft.gov.uk |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2006-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427154306/http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_roads/documents/page/dft_roads_024056-01.hcsp |url-status=live }}</ref> for [[platinum]] use in fuel cells notes that the metal could be easily recycled.

===Phosphorus===
[[Phosphorus]] supplies are essential to farming and depletion of reserves is estimated at somewhere from 60 to 130 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apda.pt/apda_resources/APDA.Biblioteca/eureau%5Cposition%20papers%5Cthe%20reuse%20of%20phosphorus.pdf |title=APDA |publisher=Apda.pt |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2006-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061006120520/http://www.apda.pt/apda_resources/APDA.Biblioteca/eureau%5Cposition%20papers%5Cthe%20reuse%20of%20phosphorus.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>  Individual countries supplies vary widely; without a recycling initiative America's supply <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/phosphate_rock/phospmcs06.pdf|title=Phosphate Rock Statistics and Information|access-date=2009-02-05|archive-date=2009-03-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320104612/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/phosphate_rock/phospmcs06.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> is estimated around 30 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecosanres.org/PDF%20files/Fact_sheets/ESR4lowres.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060805112847/http://ecosanres.org/PDF%20files/Fact_sheets/ESR4lowres.pdf |archive-date=2006-08-05 }}</ref>  Phosphorus supplies affect total agricultural output which in turn limits alternative fuels such as biodiesel and ethanol.

===Peak water===
{{Main|Peak water}}
Hubbert's original analysis did not apply to renewable resources.  However [[over-exploitation]] often results in a Hubbert peak nonetheless.  A modified Hubbert curve applies to any resource that can be harvested faster than it can be replaced.<ref>{{cite web
 |url         = http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch01.pdf
 |title       = The World's Water 2008-2009, Ch 1.
 |publisher   = [[Pacific Institute]]
 |author      = Meena Palaniappan and Peter H. Gleick
 |year        = 2008
 |access-date  = 2009-01-31
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20090320104604/http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch01.pdf
 |archive-date = 2009-03-20
}}</ref>

For example, a reserve such as the [[Ogallala Aquifer]] can be mined at a rate that far exceeds replenishment.  This turns much of the world's underground water <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/6worllarg2.html |title=WorldŐs largest acquifer going dry |publisher=Uswaternews.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209034549/http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/6worllarg2.html |archive-date=2012-12-09 }}</ref> and lakes <ref>[http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2005/Update47_data.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720005108/http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2005/Update47_data.htm|date=July 20, 2008}}</ref> into finite resources with peak usage debates similar to oil.  These debates usually center around agriculture and suburban water usage but generation of electricity <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/water_resource.htm]{{dead link|date=July 2013}}</ref> from nuclear energy or coal and tar sands mining mentioned above is also water resource intensive.  The term [[fossil water]] is sometimes used to describe aquifers whose water is not being recharged.

===Renewable resources===
*Fisheries: At least one researcher has attempted to perform Hubbert linearization ([[Hubbert curve]]) on the [[whaling]] industry, as well as charting the transparently dependent price of caviar on sturgeon depletion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aspoitalia.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=34&Itemid=39 |title=How General is the Hubbert Curve? |publisher=Aspoitalia.net |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2007-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929002232/http://www.aspoitalia.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=34&Itemid=39 |url-status=live }}</ref> Another example is the [[cod]] of the North Sea.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hubbertpeak.com/laherrere/multihub.htm |title=Laherrere: Multi-Hubbert Modeling |publisher=Hubbertpeak.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2013-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028052636/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/laherrere/multihub.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The comparison of the cases of fisheries and of mineral extraction tells us that the human pressure on the environment is causing a wide range of resources to go through a depletion cycle which follows a Hubbert curve.

== Sustainability gaps ==
Sustainability measurements and indicators are part of an ever-evolving and changing process and has various gaps to be filled to achieve an integrated framework and model. The following are some of the breaks in continuity:

* '''Global indicators'''- Due to differences in social, economical, and environmental conditions of countries, each country has its own indicators and indexes to measure sustainability, which can lead to improper and varying interpretation at the global level. Hence, there common indexes and measuring parameters would allow comparisons among countries.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" /> In agriculture, comparable indicators are already in use. Coffee and cocoa studies in twelve countries<ref>{{cite report | vauthors=Allen S, Bennett M, Garcia C, Giovannucci D, Ingersoll C, Kraft K, Potts J, Rue C | veditors=Everage L, Ingersoll C, Mullan J, Salinas L, Childs A | date=2014-01-31 | df=ymd | publisher=Committee on Sustainability Assessment | url=https://thecosa.org/the-cosa-measuring-sustainability-report-2/ | title=The COSA Measuring Sustainability Report | access-date=2020-02-28 | archive-date=2020-02-28 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228201904/https://thecosa.org/the-cosa-measuring-sustainability-report-2/ | url-status=live }}</ref> using common indicators are among the first to report insights from comparing across countries.
* '''Policymaking'''- After the indicators are defined and analysis is done for the measurements from the indicators, proper policymaking methodology can be set up to improve the results achieved. Policymaking would implement changes in the particular inventory list used for measuring, which could lead to better results.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":3"" />
* '''Development of individual indicators'''- Value-based indicators can be developed to measure the efforts by every human being part of the ecosystem. This can affect policymaking, as policy is most effective when there is public participation.<ref name="":0"" />
* '''Data collection'''- Due to a number of factors including inappropriate methodology applied to data collection, dynamics of change in data, lack of adequate time and improper framework in analysis of data, measurements can quickly become outdated, inaccurate, and unpresentable. Data collections built up from the grass-roots level allow context-appropriate frameworks and regulations associated with it. A hierarchy of data collection starts from local zones to state level, to national level and finally contributing to the global level measurements. Data collected can be made easy to understand so that it could be correctly interpreted and presented through graphs, charts, and analysis bars.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":0"" />
* '''Integration across academic disciplines'''- Sustainability involves the whole ecosystem and is intended to have a holistic approach. For this purpose measurements intend to involve data and knowledge from all academic backgrounds. Moreover, these disciplines and insights are intended to align with the societal actions.<ref name="":0"">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.04.032 |title=Achievements and gaps in indicators for sustainability |journal=Ecological Indicators |volume=17 |pages=14–19 |year=2012 |last1=Dahl |first1=Arthur Lyon }}</ref><ref name="":2"">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/sd.349 |title=Bridging the gaps between theory and practice: A service niche approach to urban sustainability indicators |journal=Sustainable Development |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=329–340 |year=2008 |last1=Keirstead |first1=James |last2=Leach |first2=Matt }}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.12.020 |pmid=19500899 |title=Bridging the gaps for global sustainable development: A quantitative analysis |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=90 |issue=12 |pages=3700–3707 |year=2009 |last1=Udo |first1=Victor E. |last2=Jansson |first2=Peter Mark |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2007.08.016|pmid=17997188|title=Mind the sustainability gap|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|volume=22|issue=12|pages=621–624|year=2007|last1=Fischer|first1=Joern|last2=Manning|first2=Adrian D.|last3=Steffen|first3=Will|last4=Rose|first4=Deborah B.|last5=Daniell|first5=Katherine|last6=Felton|first6=Adam|last7=Garnett|first7=Stephen|last8=Gilna|first8=Ben|last9=Heinsohn|first9=Rob|last10=Lindenmayer|first10=David B.|last11=MacDonald|first11=Ben|last12=Mills|first12=Frank|last13=Newell|first13=Barry|last14=Reid|first14=Julian|last15=Robin|first15=Libby|last16=Sherren|first16=Kate|last17=Wade|first17=Alan}}</ref><ref name="":4"">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00279-2 |title=Estimating sustainability gaps: Methods and preliminary applications for the UK and the Netherlands |journal=Ecological Economics |volume=37 |pages=5–22 |year=2001 |last1=Ekins |first1=Paul |last2=Simon |first2=Sandrine |url=http://oro.open.ac.uk/39/1/Simon_Sustainability_Gap.pdf |access-date=2019-07-09 |archive-date=2020-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925135243/http://oro.open.ac.uk/39/1/Simon_Sustainability_Gap.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==

{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Balanced scorecard]]
* [[Carbon accounting]]
* [[Corporate social responsibility]]
* [[Embodied energy]]
* [[Environmental audits]]
* [[Glossary of environmental science]]
* [[Green accounting]]
* [[Helix of sustainability]]
* [[List of sustainability topics]]
* [[Outline of sustainability]]
* [[Social accounting]]
* [[Sustainability science]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://biblio.repec.org/entry/tbc.html Curated bibliography] at [[Research papers in economics|IDEAS/RePEc]]

{{Sustainability}}
{{Social accountability}}

[[Category:Sustainability metrics and indices|*]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Development economics]]
[[Category:Economic data]]
[[Category:Environmental statistics]]"
Manu Learning Centre,"{{Multiple issues|
{{notability|Companies|date=August 2012}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2012}}
}}

{{Infobox protected area
| name = Fundo Mascoitania Reserve
| iucn_category =
| photo =
| photo_caption =
| location = [[Manú Province]], [[Madre de Dios Region]], [[Peru]]
| nearest_city = [[Cusco]]
| coordinates = {{coord|12|47|22|S|71|23|32|W|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| area = 643 ha<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Villacampa|first1=Jaime Ortega|last2=Whitworth|first2=Andrew|last3=Burdekin|first3=Oliver|title=Osteocephalus mimeticus (Melin, 1941) (Amphibia: Anura: Hylidae): New locality, range extension and notes on distribution|journal=Check List|date=2013|volume=9|issue=5|pages=1126–1128|doi=10.15560/9.5.1126 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
| established = September 26, 2002
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body =
}}
The '''Manú Learning Centre''' ('''MLC''') is located within the [[Fundo Mascoitania Reserve]], a 643 hectare private [[nature reserve]], encompassed within the cultural zone of the [[Manú National Park|Manú Biosphere Reserve]], a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage site]] and one of the largest protected areas in [[Peru]]. It is home to a variety of [[tropical rainforest|rainforest types]] including lowland Andean, pre-montane, bamboo and high terrace forests. This geographical complexity creates habitats for a diversity of [[Rainforest#Flora and fauna|flora and fauna]].  The MLC is operated by the [[#CREES|CREES]] group, a non-profit and business collaboration working towards sustainability for the Manú Region.<ref name=UNEP>{{cite web | url = http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/pdf/Manu.pdf | title = Manu National Park | accessdate = 2009-03-19 | last = UNEP | date = 2008-09-20 | publisher = http://www.unep-wcmc.org | pages = 1–8 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090114222734/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/pdf/Manu.pdf | archive-date = 2009-01-14 | url-status = dead }}</ref> The MLC serves local schools and communities as well as international researchers and [[Volunteering|volunteer]]s.  It has hosted workshops for the [[Organization for Tropical Studies]], and on behalf of the Manú National Park Guards, as well as research projects from the [[University of Oxford]], [[Aberdeen University|Aberdeen]], and [[Glasgow University]] in addition to the [[School of Oriental and African Studies|SOAS]].  The MLC has also worked alongside schools from the UK including [[Southbank International School]] and [[Tonbridge School]].

==History==
The MLC was built in 2004 on an abandoned [[hacienda]], the first to be developed in the region.  The initial concept was to demonstrate that it was possible to use novel land use techniques to rehabilitate large areas of degraded land and to empower and educate local communities throughout this process.  There is a large body of work that had been completed at the MLC incorporating aspects of [[biology]], [[geography]], [[zoology]], [[anthropology]], [[tropical agriculture]], [[politics]], and [[art]]. Specific projects have focused on [[reforestation]], mammal behaviour patterns, [[ecological footprint|human impact studies]], environmental management, monitoring of the [[blue headed macaw]] ([[CITES|CITES Red listed]]), [[Agricultural soil science#Soil Preservation|soil & agricultural sustainability]], [[forest dynamics]], carbon offsetting, and the legitimacy of local power structures to name a handful.

In 2017 a new species of frog, [[Ameerega shihuemoy]] was described from the research station, where it was found occurring in SLR (selectively logged rainforest) habitat at the back of the reserve.

==CREES==
CREES (Conservation, Research & Education towards Environmental Sustainability) was established in 2003 prior to the construction of the MLC and the creation of Fundo Mascoitania. It is the only organisation to be in operation within the Manú region of Peru who regularly consults with local populations about their development priorities and leads the consequential local development projects.

==Access==
[[Image:Alto Madre from MLC.jpg|thumb|300px|The Alto Madre de Dios River from the Fundo Mascoitania Reserve]]The MLC is accessible from [[Cusco]] by road until Atalaya and then by [[Launch(boat)|lancha]] until the port at the MLC.  During the [[dry season]] boats may not be able to navigate the river from Atalaya in which case transport is needed up until the Aguanos settlement on the opposite side of the [[Madre de Dios River|Alto Madre de Dios River]].  Crossing is then possible by raft or by lancha.

==Biodiversity and wildlife==
[[Image:Tropical Tree frog MLC.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Dendropsophus leucophyllatus]] frog found in Fundo Mascoitania Reserve]]

'''[[Clay lick#Clay licks|Macaw Collpa]]'''

The MLC reserve attracts an array of parrots and macaws thanks to the spectacular clay mineral lick, or [[Clay lick#Clay licks|Collpa]] carved out by the Alto Madre de Dios river. This collpa is the only one of its type in the zone, and is visited daily by hundreds of colourful and noisy parrots and macaws, the most notable of these being the Blue Headed Macaw. These in turn draw raptors such as the ornate hawk eagle and crested eagle.

'''Mammal Collpa'''

The MLC boasts two large mammal collpas which attracts smaller mammals as well as large groups of white-lipped peccary and their natural Jaguar predators.

'''Wildlife Monitoring Array'''

The MLC's wildlife monitoring array was established in 2005. The array comprises a 1&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> monitoring grid mapped using GPS.  It provides a quantified area in which researchers can complete research on plants, animals and birds.

==Species lists and forest types==

* List of mammal species catalogued within the MLC (by order, family, genus and species definitions)[https://web.archive.org/web/20100712225130/http://www.crees-expeditions.com/mlc_mammals2.htm]
* Lists of the birds catalogued within the MLC Reserve and the common plant species in forest types can be found on this link [https://web.archive.org/web/20091110004944/http://www.crees-expeditions.com/mlc_biodiversity.htm].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official}}

{{Portal|Ecology|Peru}}


{{authority control}}

[[Category:Biological research institutes]]
[[Category:Research institutes in Peru]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Rainforests]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Madre de Dios Region]]

[[es:Amazonía Peruana]]"
Sustainability reporting,"{{Short description|Reporting about ESG sustainability}}
'''Sustainability reporting''' refers to the disclosure, whether voluntary, solicited, or required, of non-financial performance information to outsiders of the organization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Erkens |first1=Michael |last2=Paugam |first2=Luc |last3=Stolowy |first3=Hervé |date=2015-11-18 |title=Non-financial information: State of the art and research perspectives based on a bibliometric study |url=https://doi.org/10.3917/cca.213.0015 |journal=Comptabilité Contrôle Audit |volume=Tome 21 |issue=3 |pages=15–92 |doi=10.3917/cca.213.0015 |s2cid=143001861 |issn=1262-2788}}</ref> Generally speaking, sustainability reporting deals with information concerning environmental, social, economic and governance issues in the broadest sense. These are the criteria gathered under the acronym ESG ([[Environmental, social and corporate governance]]).

The introduction of these non-financial information in published reports is seen as a step forward in corporate communication and considered as an effective way to increase corporate engagement and transparency.<ref>Moravcikova, K., Stefanikova, L., & Rypakova, M. (2015). CSR reporting as an important tool of CSR communication. ''Procedia Economics and Finance, 26'', 332–338.</ref>

Sustainability reports help companies build consumer confidence and improve corporate reputations through social responsibility programs and transparent [[risk management]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=SemiColonWeb |title=Sustainability Reporting |url=https://ccc.bc.edu/content/ccc/research/corporate-citizenship-news-and-topics/sustainability-reporting.html |access-date=2022-03-25 |website=BC CCC |language=en}}</ref> This communication aims at giving stakeholders broader access to relevant information outside the financial sphere that also influences the company's performance.<ref>Arvidsson, S. (2019). ''Challenges in Managing Sustainable Business : Reporting, Taxation, Ethics and Governance''. London : Palgrave Macmillan.</ref>

In the [[European Union|EU]], the mandatory practice of sustainability reporting for certain companies is regulated by the [[Non-Financial Reporting Directive]] (NFRD),<ref name="":23"">{{CELEX|32014L0095|text=Directive 2014/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014 amending Directive 2013/34/EU as regards disclosure of non-financial and diversity information by certain large undertakings and groups}}</ref> recently revised and renamed [[Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive]] (CSRD).<ref>{{CELEX|52021PC0189|text=Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL amending Directive 2013/34/EU, Directive 2004/109/EC, Directive 2006/43/EC and Regulation (EU) No 537/2014, as regards corporate sustainability reporting}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CSRD: A Look at the New ESG Reporting Requirements |url=https://www.mhc.ie/latest/insights/csrd-a-look-at-the-new-esg-reporting-requirements |website=mhc.ie |publisher=Mason Hayes & Curran |access-date=21 November 2023}}</ref> An increasing number of organizations are providing frameworks for sustainability reporting and are issuing [[Sustainability standards and certification|standards]] or similar initiatives to guide companies in this exercise.

There is a wide range of terminology used to qualify this same concept of sustainability reporting: non-financial reporting, extra-financial reporting, social reporting, [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] reporting or even socio-environmental reporting.

== History ==
Corporate sustainability reporting has a history going back to environmental reporting.

This practice is rooted in the multidimensional concept of [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] and in the stakeholders' vision of corporate governance in Europe, which insists on the importance of understanding the company as an entity with relationships with its environment. According to [[R. Edward Freeman|Freeman]]'s theory,<ref>Freeman, R.E. (1984) ''Strategic Management : a Stakeholder Approach''. Boston : Pitman.</ref> the company's shareholders are no longer the only ones to be considered, but also its employees, customers, suppliers, local communities, governments: the society in the broadest sense.

With the emergence of this approach, the first response of many companies has been to expand the communication of their achievements in terms of social responsibility.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last=Quynh Lien |first=Duong |date=2005-01-02 |title=La responsabilité sociale de l'entreprise, pourquoi et comment ça se parle? |url=https://journals.openedition.org/communicationorganisation/3269 |journal=Communication et organisation. Revue scientifique francophone en Communication organisationnelle |language=fr |issue=26 |pages=26–43 |doi=10.4000/communicationorganisation.3269 |issn=1168-5549|doi-access=free }}</ref> Information disclosed by companies themselves are the first indicators that can be received by the public in order to verify whether the decisions taken meet the announced commitments, as well as its own interests.<ref name="":0"" />

The obligation of accountability is therefore often assimilated to reporting and is addressed, in the first place, to the company's stakeholders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boyer-Allirol |first=Béatrice |date=2013-12-28 |title=Faut-il mieux réglementer le reporting extrafinancier ? |url=http://rfg.revuesonline.com/article.jsp?articleId=19126 |journal=Revue française de gestion |volume=39 |issue=237 |pages=73–95 |doi=10.3166/rfg.237.73-95}}</ref> This means that both shareholders and society in general are concerned, while also taking future generations into account.<ref>Ceccarelli, A., Gendron, C. & Morin-Esteves, C. (2016). ''Les rapports de développement durable: Dialogues autour de la définition et de la mesure de la performance extra financière des entreprises'' [Congrés]. RIODD, Saint-Étienne. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01349994/document</ref>

Recently, there has been a growing interest in communications relating to the extra-financial aspects of organizations: [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] performance is now one of the factors considered in investment decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Durand |first1=Rodolphe |last2=Paugam |first2=Luc |last3=Stolowy |first3=Hervé |date=2019-05-09 |title=Do investors actually value sustainability indices? Replication, development, and new evidence on CSR visibility |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.3035 |journal=Strategic Management Journal |volume=40 |issue=9 |pages=1471–1490 |doi=10.1002/smj.3035 |s2cid=169265967 |issn=0143-2095}}</ref> The practice of sustainability reporting has existed in a scattered way since the 1980s but has really expanded over the last twenty years.

This is notably due to the global awareness of the ecological crisis and the common interest in [[sustainable development]], but also to the numerous corporate governance scandals of large companies ([[Enron scandal]], [[Parmalat|Parmalat Financial Fraud]]…) over the last two decades or the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2008|financial crisis of 2008]].

In addition to eroding stakeholder trust, these circumstances have increased their activism for broader transparency and ensuring better information from companies.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Aluchna |first1=Maria |title=Non-financial Reporting. Conceptual Framework, Regulation and Practice |date=2019 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00440-8_14 |work=Corporate Social Responsibility in Poland: Strategies, Opportunities and Challenges |pages=213–236 |editor-last=Długopolska-Mikonowicz |editor-first=Aneta |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-00440-8_14 |isbn=978-3-030-00440-8 |access-date=2022-03-25 |last2=Roszkowska-Menkes |first2=Maria |series=CSR, Sustainability, Ethics & Governance |s2cid=169696670 |editor2-last=Przytuła |editor2-first=Sylwia |editor3-last=Stehr |editor3-first=Christopher}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Amran |first1=Azlan |last2=Keat Ooi |first2=Say |date=2014-06-03 |title=Sustainability reporting: meeting stakeholder demands |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/sd-03-2014-0035 |journal=Strategic Direction |volume=30 |issue=7 |pages=38–41 |doi=10.1108/sd-03-2014-0035 |issn=0258-0543}}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last=Uyar |first=Ali |date=2016-04-15 |title=Evolution of Corporate Reporting and Emerging Trends |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcaf.22157 |journal=Journal of Corporate Accounting & Finance |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=27–30 |doi=10.1002/jcaf.22157 |issn=1044-8136}}</ref>

In this context, the need for sustainability reporting has gradually emerged. It was carried out by companies initially on a voluntary basis, with the aim of mitigating some of the skepticism of users of financial reports and restoring the trust of stakeholders by expressing a willingness to behave responsibly.<ref name="":12"">Persais E. (2003). Le rapport de développement durable (ou stakeholders’ report) : un outil pour une gouvernance sociétale de l’entreprise ? ''Développement durable et entreprise, Actes de la Journée AIMS, ESSCA.''</ref><ref name="":3"" />

The publication of non-financial reports thus began in an ad hoc and rather anecdotal manner, confined to a few subjects deemed worthy of interest by the companies themselves. A copy effect, combined with latent pressure from stakeholders, subsequently contributed to the acceptance and renewal of this approach,<ref name="":12""/> which gradually became more structured. Today, these reports are common: 93% of the world's two hundred and fifty largest companies publish them annually.<ref name="":42"">KPMG. (2020). The time has come : the KPMG Survey of Sustainability Reporting 2020. https://assets.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2020/11/the-time-  has-come.pdf</ref> Indeed, [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] and its concrete implementation are increasingly valued by public opinion.<ref>Lafont, A., Pouget, J. & Rodhain, A. (2017). RSE et réseau des parties prenantes : une norme informationnelle peut-elle émerger ?. ''Revue de l’organisation responsable, 12''(2), 41- 55</ref>

This interest has led to the emergence of reference frameworks, guidelines, standards and regulations in this area. In addition to helping and guiding companies, this range of resources has also allowed for a certain standardization of both the information disclosed and the method of communication.

The objectives of developing guidelines are to provide companies with a concrete methodology and to make the published data understandable, credible and comparable for their users.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Capron |first1=Michel |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3917/dec.capro.2016.01 |title=La responsabilité sociale d'entreprise |last2=Quairel-Lanoizelée |first2=Françoise |date=2016-08-25 |publisher=La Découverte |isbn=978-2-7071-9064-2 |series=Repères|doi=10.3917/dec.capro.2016.01 }}</ref> Reporting guidelines are issued either by private non-governmental organizations (whose adoption by companies is therefore voluntary), or more recently by governments on the basis of mandatory standards. Indeed, for some companies, this disclosure has been made mandatory (''see next section''). In line with these developments, some consulting firms have started [[Environmental, social and corporate governance|ESG]] advisory services and help companies to draft their sustainability reports.

There are a variety of reasons that companies choose to produce these reports, but at their core they are intended to be ""''vessels of transparency and accountability''"" Often, they are also intended to improve internal processes, engage stakeholders and persuade investors.<ref>Rosie Bristow for the Guardian Professional Network (18 April 2011). ""Online discussion: sustainability reporting | Guardian Sustainable Business"". theguardian.com.</ref>

Improved disclosure of non-financial information can have other benefits for reporting companies. In particular, the adoption of sustainability reporting has been found to have a positive impact on company performance and value. [[OECD]] suggests that companies showing sustainable performance on [[Environmental, social and corporate governance|ESG criteria]] and communicating effectively about them seem to enjoy better financial performance.<ref>{{Cite book |first=OECD |last=Publishing |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1010678849 |title=Annual Report on the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises 2011 : a New Agenda for the Future. |date=2012 |publisher=Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) |isbn=978-92-64-11994-9 |oclc=1010678849}}</ref><ref>Baron, R. (2014). The evolution of corporate reporting for integrated performance, background paper for the 30th Round Table on Sustainable Development. https://www.oecd.org/sd-roundtable/papersandpublications/The%20Evolution%20of%20Corporate%20Reporting%20for%20Integrated%20Performance.pdf</ref> These companies generally benefit from a more diversified investor base, for example through their inclusion in actively managed investment portfolios or sustainability indices.<ref>{{CELEX|52019XC0620(01)|text=Communication from the Commission — Guidelines on non-financial reporting: Supplement on reporting climate-related information}}</ref> In addition, companies that effectively communicate their non-financial engagements and have a high performance in this area are more likely to attract and retain talents thanks to their greater social credibility, as this stimulates employees' motivation and meets their values.<ref>Henisz W., Koller T., Nuttall R. (2019) Five Ways that ESG creates value. McKinsey Quarterly. https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/five-ways-that-esg-creates-value</ref>

As a matter of law, in the United States, the [[Materiality (auditing)|materiality principle]] controls whether a publicly traded corporation must disclose certain information, that is: ""''a fact is material if there is a substantial likelihood that the fact would have been viewed by a reasonable investor as having significantly altered the ‘total mix’ of information available''.""<ref>{{Citation |title=TSC Industries, Inc. v. Northway, Inc. |date=2022-03-10 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TSC_Industries,_Inc._v._Northway,_Inc.&oldid=1076296267 |work=Wikipedia |language=en |access-date=2022-03-25}}</ref>

In this case, some authors have examined and applied several factors (including the percentages of managed investment assets that are screened for [[Environmental, social and corporate governance|ESG criteria]], plus the fact that over 90% of large publicly traded companies publish [[Environmental, social and corporate governance|ESG]] data) and concluded that [[Environmental, social and corporate governance|ESG]] data qualifies as being material.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sulkowski |first1=Adam J. |last2=Waddock |first2=Sandra |date=2014-06-18 |title=Beyond Sustainability Reporting: Integrated Reporting is Practiced, Required & More Would Be Better |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2456328 |language=en |location=Rochester, NY |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2456328|ssrn=2456328 }}</ref> It has also been suggested that other organizations that issue securities may also be well-advised to also engage in sustainability reporting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sulkowski |first=Adam J. |date=2016 |title=City Sustainability Reporting: An Emerging and Desirable Legal Necessity |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2789829 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2789829 |s2cid=156369524 |issn=1556-5068}}</ref>

The topic of sustainability reporting has become a recurring theme in recent years and the practice has been increasingly professionalized. However, the framework surrounding such reporting is in constant evolution and companies are increasingly challenged by the form, content and process of their sustainability reporting.  

While this requirement presents multiple opportunities for firms, investors, consumers and all stakeholders, it also creates a number of challenges. Indeed, for sustainability statements to be relevant and useful, the information disclosed must not only be realistic and reliable, but also verifiable and comparable.

Increasingly, governments are introducing regulations to ensure that companies disclose NFR information.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Turzo |first1=Teresa |last2=Marzi |first2=Giacomo |last3=Favino |first3=Christian |last4=Terzani |first4=Simone |date=2022-04-15 |title=Non-financial reporting research and practice: Lessons from the last decade |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652622007867 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=345 |pages=131154 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131154 |s2cid=247177501 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref> In Australia, companies must disclose information on their environmental performance under the Corporations Act 2001 and the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Act 2007. In China, companies must disclose social responsibility information while those listed on the Shanghai and Shenzhen Stock Exchanges must include their corporate social responsibility performance in their annual reports. In South Africa, companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange must publish an integrated report for all financial years ending on or after March 1, 2010. In North America, the Securities and Exchange Commission requires Canadian and US companies to disclose non-financial information in their annual reports. Finally, the European Union Directive 95/2014/EU introduced mandatory NFR practices for large European companies.

As governments and financial regulators continue to issue and update reporting requirements, companies are increasingly obligated to disclose their non-financial information. The increased focus on NFI reporting has been driven, in part, by the rise in ESG investing. ESG investing is a form of investing that focuses on companies with strong ESG practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumay |first=John |date=2016-01-01 |editor-last=Stefano Zambon |editor-first=Dr |title=A critical reflection on the future of intellectual capital: from reporting to disclosure |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/JIC-08-2015-0072 |journal=Journal of Intellectual Capital |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=168–184 |doi=10.1108/JIC-08-2015-0072 |s2cid=156017095 |issn=1469-1930}}</ref>

The [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] - International Standards of Accounting and Reporting (UNCTAD-ISAR) founded the African Regional Partnership for Sustainability and SDG Reporting in 2022. The collaboration has 53 members as of March 2023, including national corporate social responsibility networks and/or ministries from 27 African nations.<ref name="":176"">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230088-finance-in-africa |title=Finance in Africa: Uncertain times, resilient banks: African finance at a crossroads |date=2023-09-27 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5598-7 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=African Regional Partnership meeting on sustainability and SDG reporting {{!}} UNCTAD |url=https://unctad.org/isar/meeting/african-regional-partnership-meeting-sustainability-and-sdg-reporting |access-date=2023-10-31 |website=unctad.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=UNCTAD ANNUAL REPORT 2022 |url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/osg2023d1_en.pdf}}</ref>

== Legal Framework ==

=== European Union ===
In Europe, the legislative framework for sustainability reporting practices is based on Directive 2014/95/EU (Non-Financial Reporting Directive or NFRD), which provides a uniform regulatory framework for non-financial information for EU Member States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alonso Carrillo |first1=María Inmaculada |last2=Priego De La Cruz |first2=Alba María |last3=Nuñez Chicharro |first3=Montserrat |date=2019-11-18 |title=The Impact of Corporate Governance on Corruption Disclosure in European Listed Firms through the Implementation of Directive 2014/95/EU |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=11 |issue=22 |pages=6479 |doi=10.3390/su11226479 |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free |hdl=10272/17589 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This Directive applies to large public interest undertakings with more than 500 employees on average during the financial year, both single undertaking and consolidated groups. Companies falling within the scope of the Directive must also have a balance sheet total exceeding EUR 20 million and/or a turnover exceeding EUR 40 million, where applicable, on a consolidated basis.<ref>Directive 2013/34/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 on the annual financial statements, consolidated financial statements and related reports of certain types of undertakings, amending Directive 2006/43/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Directives 78/660/EEC and 83/349/EEC</ref> By 2021, approximately 11,600 companies in Europe were in its scope of application.

Directive 2014/95/EU of the [[European Parliament]] and of the [[European Council|Council]] of 22 October 2014 amends Directive 2013/34/EU in relation to the disclosure of non-financial and diversity information by certain large undertakings and groups. Two articles (19a and 29a) are inserted into Directive 2013/34/EU, now requiring, for the first time, certain companies to disclose information on how they operate and manage social and environmental challenges. This updated directive applies to all Member States of the [[European Union]]. They must bring into force the laws, regulations and administrative provisions needed to comply with the Directive.<ref name="":23""/>

A revision process of Directive 2014/95/EU was initiated in January 2020 with the aim of improving the quality and reliability of non-financial reporting <ref name="":5"">Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions The European Green Deal COM/2019/640 final. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2019%3A640%3AFIN</ref> and reducing the administrative burden on companies in terms of reporting.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-04-09 |title=Reporting non financier des grandes entreprises : révision de la directive (consultation publique) |url=https://www.citepa.org/fr/2020_04_b01/ |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=Citepa |language=fr-FR}}</ref> A broad public consultation was then organised from February to June 2020 to gather input and opinions from various stakeholders regarding the review of the Directive's provisions. The outcome of this consultation is the [[European Commission]]'s proposal on 21 April 2021 to revise the NFRD by introducing the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD).<ref name="":5"" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Progress on the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive |url=https://www.mhc.ie/latest/insights/progress-on-the-corporate-sustainability-reporting-directive |website=mhc.ie |publisher=Mason Hayes & Curran |access-date=28 November 2023}}</ref>
New EU legislation came into force in December 2023 to introduce changes to the monetary criteria by which company and group sizes are defined in the EU to address the impact of inflation. The changes reduce the number of companies which are subject to the CSRD. <ref>{{cite web |title=The Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive Explained |url=https://www.mhc.ie/hubs/legislation/the-corporate-sustainability-reporting-directive |website=Mason Hayes Curran |access-date=29 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Content/Scope of application ====
Companies that fall within the scope of the EU Directive 2014/95/EU on non-financial reporting, the main [[European Union|EU]]-wide initiative in this area, must publish information on the following areas:

* Environmental protection
* Social responsibility and treatment of employees
* Respect for human rights
* The fight against corruption and bribery
* Diversity on company boards (in terms of age, gender, education and professional experience).

{| class=""wikitable""
|+
!Category
!Subcategory
|-
|Environment
|
* Climate change
* Use of natural resources
* Polluting discharges
* Waste
* Biodiversity and ecosystem conservation
|-
|Employee and social matters
|
* Employees and workforce
* Social matters
|-
|Human rights
|
* General human rights reporting criteria
* Human rights in supply chains
* High risk areas for civil and political rights
* Impacts on indigenous and local communities
* Conflict resources
* Data protection
|-
|Anti-Corruption
|
* Anti-Corruption
* Whistleblowing channels
|-
|General positive impacts
|
* General and sectorial positive impacts by products/sources of opportunity
|}
<ref>An analysis of the sustainability reports of 1 000 companies pursuant to the EU NonFinancial Reporting Directive, The Alliance for Corporate Transparency (2019)</ref>

For each category, the company is also required to briefly describe the group's business model, describe the policies that are applied in these areas, provide the results of these policies, establish the risks related to these areas and finally establish the non-financial KPIs ([[Performance indicator|Key Performance Indicators]]) of these areas. The information should also be published with the objective to understand the development, performance, position and ultimately the impact of the firm's activities.<ref name="":23""/> Under this directive, companies have however no obligation as to how and where they publish this information.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carini |first1=Cristian |last2=Rocca |first2=Laura |last3=Veneziani |first3=Monica |last4=Teodori |first4=Claudio |date=2017-07-12 |title=The Regulation of Sustainability Information–The Contribution of Directive 2014/95 |url=https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/201707.0025/v1|journal=Preprints |language=en |doi=10.20944/preprints201707.0025.v1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They can therefore base themselves on various international or local frameworks depending on their preferences and needs.<ref name="":62"">{{CELEX|52017XC0705(01)|text=Communication from the Commission — Guidelines on non-financial reporting (methodology for reporting non-financial information)}}</ref>

In practice, most companies comply with the requirement to describe in detail the policies they apply, particularly in the social and environmental fields.<ref name="":7"">European Reporting Lab, EFRAG, (2021). Current non-financial reporting formats and practices. https://www.efrag.org/Assets/Download?assetUrl=%2Fsites%2Fwebpublishing%2FSiteAssets%2FEFRAG%2520PTF-NFRS_A6_FINAL.pdf</ref> Due diligence policies and procedures relating to human rights and corruption also appear regularly in organisations' reports, but to a lesser extent than social and environmental policies. The reasons for this divergence in the importance an organisation places on certain areas rather than others stem notably from differences in the maturity of the organisation, the evolution of the areas and their relevance to companies over time, and the place of these areas in relation to a company's [[supply chain]]. The presentation of policies, [[Performance indicator|KPIs]] and risks remains a highly disparate practice.<ref name="":7"" />

== Initiatives ==
Organizations can improve their sustainability performance by measuring ([[EthicalQuote|EthicalQuote (CEQ)]]), monitoring and reporting on it, helping them have a positive impact on society, the economy, and a sustainable future. When it comes to reporting, companies have a certain amount of freedom in the drafting of their statements, given the absence of any binding law on this subject.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite journal |last1=Michalczuk |first1=Grażyna |last2=Konarzewska |first2=Urszula |date=2018 |title=The use of GRI standards in reporting on actions being taken by companies for sustainable development |url=https://repozytorium.uwb.edu.pl/jspui/handle/11320/7530 |journal=Optimum. Economic Studies |volume=4 |language=en |issue=94 |pages=72–86 |doi=10.15290/oes.2018.04.94.07 |issn=1506-7637|doi-access=free }}</ref>

However, various initiatives (national, European or international) are developing standardized methodologies to help companies build their sustainability reports <ref name="":8"" /> which, according to the European Directive 2014/95/UE, have to be cited by the companies using them.<ref name="":23""/> Some of these are mentioned in the same Directive <ref name="":23"" /> and in the Commission's Communication COM (2017) 215/1 setting out guidelines on non-financial information.<ref name="":62""/>

The key drivers for the quality of sustainability reports are the guidelines of the [[Global Reporting Initiative]] (GRI),<ref>{{Cite web |title=GRI - Standards development |url=https://www.globalreporting.org/standards/standards-development/ |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=www.globalreporting.org |language=en}}</ref> because it is the most widely used benchmark by companies worldwide given its reliability.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":4"">KPMG. (2020). The time has come : the KPMG Survey of Sustainability Reporting 2020. https://assets.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2020/11/the-time-  has-come.pdf</ref><ref name="":93"">{{Cite journal |last1=Tsagas |first1=Georgina |last2=Villiers |first2=Charlotte |date=2020-07-01 |title=Why ""Less is More"" in Non-Financial Reporting Initiatives: Concrete Steps Towards Supporting Sustainability |journal=Accounting, Economics, and Law: A Convivium |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |doi=10.1515/ael-2018-0045 |s2cid=219742131 |issn=2152-2820|doi-access=free }}</ref> It provides opportunities for comparison of information related to the economic, environmental, and social impact of undertakings internationally.<ref name="":4"" /> In addition, the [https://sdgcompass.org/ SDG Compass] has been created by [[Global Reporting Initiative|GRI]], the [[United Nations Global Compact|UN Global Compact]] and the [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]] (WBCSD) with the aim of linking the [[Global Reporting Initiative|GRI]] standards to the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref name="":8"" /> This document provides guidance on how to report the company’s contribution to the [[Sustainable Development Goals|SDGs]] by leveraging the [[Global Reporting Initiative|GRI]] standards.<ref>SDG Compass Guide (2015). Retrieved 7 March 2022, from https://sdgcompass.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/019104_SDG_Compass_Guide_2015.pdf</ref>

A series of other initiatives exist among which we can mention the most prominent ones on the sustainability and [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] reporting scene:<ref name="":93""/><ref name="":102"">Tschopp, D., & Huefner, R. J. (2015). Comparing the Evolution of CSR Reporting to that of Financial Reporting. Journal of Business Ethics, 127(3), 565–577</ref>

* The [https://www.integratedreporting.org/the-iirc-2/structure-of-the-iirc/council/ International Integrated Reporting Council] (IIRC): guide the relevant integration of financial and non-financial information in company’s reports.<ref name="":93""/>
* [https://www.accountability.org/standards/aa1000-accountability-principles/ Account Ability's AA1000 Series]: establishes the basic principles to be addressed in a non-financial report without guiding the impact measurement.<ref name="":102""/>
* [[United Nations]] (UN) [https://www.unglobalcompact.org/participation/report/cop Global Compact's Communication on Progress (COP)]: establishes 10 core principles (on human rights, labor/environmental standards and anti-corruption) on which companies measure their performance.<ref name="":102"" />
* [[OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises|Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Guidelines]] (OECD): international standards set by governments for responsible business by multinationals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Guidelines - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |url=http://mneguidelines.oecd.org/guidelines/ |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=mneguidelines.oecd.org}}</ref>
* [https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/introduction-to-international-labour-standards/conventions-and-recommendations/lang--en/index.htm International Labour Organization Conventions] (ILO): concerning right at work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Conventions and Recommendations |url=https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/introduction-to-international-labour-standards/conventions-and-recommendations/lang--en/index.htm |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=www.ilo.org |language=en}}</ref>
* [[International Organization for Standardization]] Standards (ISO): providing non-binding international norms standards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ISO - À propos de l'ISO |url=https://www.iso.org/fr/about-us.html |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISO |language=fr}}</ref>
* The NFRD and the Guidelines Communication of the Commission.<ref name="":93""/>
* The [[Eco-Management and Audit Scheme]] (EMAS): created by the European Commission, it helps companies to improve their environmental efficiency.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EMAS – Environment - European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/emas/index_en.htm |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref>

== Criticism ==
Despite its purpose of having a positive impact on society, sustainability reporting is the subject of various criticisms.

First, while companies can refer to the reporting framework that best fits their industry and organization,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stolowy |first1=Hervé |last2=Paugam |first2=Luc |date=2018-07-29 |title=The expansion of non-financial reporting: an exploratory study |journal=Accounting and Business Research |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=525–548 |doi=10.1080/00014788.2018.1470141 |s2cid=158316417 |issn=0001-4788|doi-access=free }}</ref> this freedom implies a lack of standardization that hinders the effectiveness of the sustainability reporting concept. In fact, the multiplication of reporting frameworks makes published information more difficult to interpret in the markets, taking sustainability reporting away from its main objective of transparency and comparison between firms’ performance.<ref name="":93""/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=La Torre |first1=Matteo |last2=Sabelfeld |first2=Svetlana |last3=Blomkvist |first3=Marita |last4=Dumay |first4=John |date=2020-01-01 |title=Rebuilding trust: sustainability and non-financial reporting and the European Union regulation |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/MEDAR-06-2020-0914 |journal=Meditari Accountancy Research |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=701–725 |doi=10.1108/MEDAR-06-2020-0914 |s2cid=225376264 |issn=2049-372X}}</ref>

One solution to this issue of comparability of non-financial information is proposed by the [[European Commission]] through the creation of European standards built by [[European Financial Reporting Advisory Group|EFRAG]], in the context of the new CSRD. According to the EU, by putting forward a unique standard, this will reduce the costs of disclosure for companies and improve the way investors and stakeholders compare and use the information disclosed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press corner |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=European Commission - European Commission |language=en}}</ref>

Another point of criticism concerns the reasons why companies embark on this process. Indeed, as public opinion increasingly values these initiatives, companies tend to perceive [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] more as a competitive advantage putting aside ethical reasons.<ref>Lafont, A., Pouget, J. & Rodhain, A. (2017). RSE et réseau des parties prenantes : une norme informationnelle peut-elle émerger ?. ''Revue de l’organisation responsable, 12''(2), 41- 55.</ref> Some opportunistic companies can therefore contribute to discrediting the effort by prioritizing their own interests over transparency objectives.<ref name="":12""/><ref>Amran, A. & Ooi, S.K. (2014). Sustainability Reporting : Meeting Stakeholder Demands. Strategic Direction, 30(7), 38-41.</ref> Other firms may go even further by manipulating their sustainability reports in order to present a more attractive corporate image, either by hiding negative information or by over-disclosing positive information regarding environmental data, which may distort reality. Such behaviour can be associated with the practice known as [[greenwashing]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=de Freitas Netto |first1=Sebastião Vieira |last2=Sobral |first2=Marcos Felipe Falcão |last3=Ribeiro |first3=Ana Regina Bezerra |last4=Soares |first4=Gleibson Robert da Luz |date=2020-02-11 |title=Concepts and forms of greenwashing: a systematic review |journal=Environmental Sciences Europe |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=19 |doi=10.1186/s12302-020-0300-3 |s2cid=211108362 |issn=2190-4715|doi-access=free }}</ref>

This tendency towards [[greenwashing]] may also stem from the wide range of private initiatives that can be chosen by companies to report on sustainability. Indeed, a large part of these initiatives are taken by private non-governmental organisations ([[Global Reporting Initiative|GRI]], [https://www.integratedreporting.org/the-iirc-2/structure-of-the-iirc/council/ IIRC], [[Sustainability Accounting Standards Board|SASB]], [[Carbon Disclosure Project|CDP]]...) and it is only recently that some governments or supranational institutions, such as the [[European Commission]], are developing mandatory standards (NFRD/CSRD and the Communication on the Commission's guidelines, [[Eco-Management and Audit Scheme|EMAS]], ...). Companies can therefore choose the initiative that best suits their objectives, whether they are set out of conviction or for performance reasons.  Finally, some doubts are raised as to the real capacity of private sector initiatives to generate radical environmental and social changes necessary for the future of society and to ensure a real legitimacy of the firm's intentions. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karassin |first1=Orr |last2=Perez |first2=Oren |date=2018 |title=Shifting Between Public and Private: The Reconfiguration of Global Environmental Regulation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/indjglolegstu.25.1.0097 |journal=Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=97–129 |doi=10.2979/indjglolegstu.25.1.0097 |jstor=10.2979/indjglolegstu.25.1.0097 |issn=1080-0727}}</ref>

Another alleged pitfall of this practice is that, for the companies that are legally obliged to report in Europe, there are currently no harmonized control rules at the [[European Union|EU]] level. For most of the Member States implementing this directive, the national designed control stops at the simple verification of the production of these sustainability data. As for sanctions in case of non-compliance with the legal obligation to publish information, they are not prescribed at the European level either. This constitutes a disincentive to introduce strong supervision at national level, and to respect it for companies.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Testarmata |first1=Silvia |title=Harmonization of Non-financial Reporting Regulation in Europe: A Study of the Transposition of the Directive 2014/95/EU |date=2020 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31193-3_4 |work=Accountability, Ethics and Sustainability of Organizations: New Theories, Strategies and Tools for Survival and Growth |pages=67–88 |editor-last=Brunelli |editor-first=Sandro |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-31193-3_4 |isbn=978-3-030-31193-3 |access-date=2022-03-24 |last2=Ciaburri |first2=Mirella |last3=Fortuna |first3=Fabio |last4=Sergiacomi |first4=Silvia |series=Accounting, Finance, Sustainability, Governance & Fraud: Theory and Application |editor2-last=Di Carlo |editor2-first=Emiliano |s2cid=213907066}}</ref>

=== Epistemological considerations ===
The difficulty of adapting traditional reporting to the complexity of non-financial information is an additional criticism that can be made of this concept. Indeed, while financial reporting is by nature quantifiable, easy to verify and reliable, non-financial information is struggling to gain legitimacy in the eyes of stakeholders.<ref name="":11"">{{Cite journal |last1=Baret |first1=Pierre |last2=Helfrich |first2=Vincent |date=2019-06-01 |title=The ""trilemma"" of non-financial reporting and its pitfalls |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10997-018-9430-z |journal=Journal of Management and Governance |language=en |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=485–511 |doi=10.1007/s10997-018-9430-z |s2cid=158095401 |issn=1572-963X}}</ref> To remedy this, some companies are using existing financial reporting tools to build new ones adapted to ethical imperatives.<ref>Baret, P., & Helfrich, V. (2016). Vers un reporting RSE structuré et fiabilisé à l’image du reporting financier. In P. Baret & F. Romestant (Eds.), 10 cas de RSE: Etudes de cas de responsabilité sociétale des entreprises. Paris: Dunod.</ref> However, these initiatives are undertaken by companies that demonstrate a certain maturity in terms of [[corporate social responsibility]] and can be overwhelming for smaller companies such as [[Small and medium-sized enterprises|SMEs]]. In this respect, sustainability reporting is divided into three categories:<ref name="":11"" />
{| class=""wikitable""
|+
!Category
!Pros
!Cons
|-
|Idealistic reporting
|
* The complexity of [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] is fully captured through standardization tools
* Provide legitimacy
|
* Little interaction between the company's global strategy and its [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] strategy
|-
|Lay reporting
|
* Helps to educate the company's internal stakeholders
* Adapted for small structures
|
* Not efficient to ensure comparability because of the lack of structure
|-
|Technical reporting
|
* Tailored to fulfill legal requirements (2014/95/EU Directive)
|
* Lack of internal and external dialogue
|}
Moreover, despite attempts by the most motivated and capable companies to make their sustainability reporting as legitimate as the financial one, the qualitative dimensions inherent to it and its predominantly narrative nature persist and make performance assessment difficult.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rutherford |first=Brian A. |date=2003 |title=Obfuscation, textual complexity and the role of regulated narrative accounting disclosure in corporate governance |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1023647615279 |journal=Journal of Management and Governance |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=187–210 |doi=10.1023/a:1023647615279 |s2cid=152731981 |issn=1385-3457}}</ref> According to Baret and Helfrich (2019),<ref name="":11"" /> indicators such as the statement of the company's values or the company vision are simply not measurable or standardizable, while others can be quantified only if the company has a high implementation capacity (for instance the capacity to conduct surveys on a population, ... etc). From this stems that the selection and presentation of important information to be disclosed is often a matter of managerial discretion, generating the risk of manipulation bias in narrative disclosure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leung |first1=Sidney |last2=Parker |first2=Lee |last3=Courtis |first3=John |date=2015 |title=Impression management through minimal narrative disclosure in annual reports |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bar.2015.04.002 |journal=The British Accounting Review |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=275–289 |doi=10.1016/j.bar.2015.04.002 |issn=0890-8389}}</ref>

Quantitative measures such as [[Performance indicator|KPIs]] therefore have a critical role in supporting the quality of narratives.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last1=Bini |first1=Laura |last2=Giunta |first2=Francesco |last3=Miccini |first3=Rebecca |last4=Simoni |first4=Lorenzo |date=2021-11-18 |title=Corporate governance quality and non-financial KPI disclosure comparability: UK evidence |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10997-021-09608-3 |journal=Journal of Management and Governance |volume=27 |pages=43–74 |language=en |doi=10.1007/s10997-021-09608-3 |s2cid=244411233 |issn=1385-3457}}</ref> However, the ability of companies to measure quantitatively their impact depends not only on the availability of objective indicators but also on the control they have over what they measure (for instance, indicators related to suppliers).<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last=Keeble |first=Justin J. |date=2003 |title=Using Indicators to Measure Sustainability Performance at a Corporate and Project Level. |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/A:1023343614973 |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=149–158 |doi=10.1023/A:1023343614973|s2cid=152914849 }}</ref> In addition, many researches raise concerns about the actual reliability of non-financial [[Performance indicator|KPIs]], particularly those related to employee performance, community, environment and innovation. What particularly stands out is that the non-comparability of the measures or formats used compromises the consistent use of quantitative indicators. <ref name="":1"" /> This trend can be observed as much in the different existing ways of measuring the same data, as in the diversity of indicators that one company can choose to illustrate social or environmental disclosures, for example, compared to another.

Finally, while various indicators are necessary for a company to report on the evolution of its sustainable performance, recognized standards (e.g., [[Global Reporting Initiative|GRI]]) can be a good reference for firms.<ref name="":2"" /> Nevertheless, according to some authors, it remains important for businesses to develop their own indicators adapted to their specific characteristics in order to ensure a proper sustainable reporting.<ref name="":2"" />

==See also==
*[[Balanced scorecard]]
*[[Carbon accounting]]
*[[Context-Based Sustainability]]
*[[Integrated reporting|Integrated Reporting]]
*[[Islamic Reporting Initiative]]
*''[[Journal of Accountancy]]''
*[[Life cycle thinking]]
*[[Sustainability accounting]]
*[[Sustainable finance]]
*[[Sustainability metrics and indices]]
*[[World Resources Institute]]

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Further reading ===
* Schaltegger, S.; Bennett, M. & Burritt, R., eds. (2006). ''Sustainability Accounting and Reporting.'' Dordrecht: Springer.

==External links==
* [http://gomarketwise.com/glossary/ GoMarketWise Glossary] – definitions of terms concerning sustainability reporting
*[http://integratedreporting.org/the-iirc-2/ The International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC)] – a global coalition of regulators, investors, companies, standard setters, the accounting profession and NGOs. The coalition is promoting communication about value creation as the next step in the evolution of corporate reporting.

{{Sustainability}}
{{Social accountability}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainability Reporting}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Computational sustainability,"{{Computational_sustainability_sidebar|image=[[File:Ecology Society Economy diagram Environment background.jpg|Ecology Society Economy diagram]]}}
'''Computational sustainability''' is an emerging field that attempts to balance societal, economic, and environmental resources for the future well-being of humanity using methods from [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], and [[information science]] fields.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.computational-sustainability.org/|title=www.computational-sustainability.org|website=www.computational-sustainability.org|access-date=2016-03-25}}</ref><ref name=""GomesCACM"">{{Cite journal |last1=Gomes |first1=Carla |last2=Dietterich |first2=Thomas |last3=Barrett |first3=Christopher |last4=Conrad |first4=Jon |last5=Dilkina |first5=Bistra |last6=Ermon |first6=Stefano |last7=Fang |first7=Fei |last8=Farnsworth |first8=Andrew |last9=Fern |first9=Alan |last10=Fern |first10=Xiaoli |last11=Fink |first11=Daniel |last12=Fisher |first12=Douglas |last13=Flecker |first13=Alexander |last14=Freund |first14=Daniel |last15=Fuller |first15=Angela |date=2019-08-21 |title=Computational sustainability: computing for a better world and a sustainable future |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=56–65 |doi=10.1145/3339399 |issn=0001-0782|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Sustainability]] in this context refers to the world's ability to sustain biological, social, and environmental systems in the long term.
Using the power of computers to process large quantities of information, decision making algorithms allocate resources based on real-time information.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frenkel |first1=Karen A. |title=Computer Science meets environmental science |journal=Communications of the ACM |date=1 September 2009 |volume=52 |issue=9 |page=23 |doi=10.1145/1562164.1562174 |doi-access= }}</ref> Applications advanced by this field are widespread across various areas. For example, artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques are created to promote long-term [[Conservation biology|biodiversity conservation]] and species protection.<ref name="":3"" /><ref name="":4"" /> [[Smart grid]]s implement renewable resources and storage capabilities to control the production and expenditure of energy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.compsust.net/|title=CompSustNet: Home|website=www.compsust.net|access-date=2016-03-25}}</ref> [[Intelligent transportation system]] technologies can analyze road conditions and relay information to drivers so they can make smarter, more environmentally-beneficial decisions based on real-time traffic information.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=Guerrero-ibanez|first1=J. A.|last2=Zeadally|first2=S.|last3=Contreras-Castillo|first3=J.|date=2015-12-01|title=Integration challenges of intelligent transportation systems with connected vehicle, cloud computing, and internet of things technologies|journal=IEEE Wireless Communications|volume=22|issue=6|pages=122–128|doi=10.1109/MWC.2015.7368833|s2cid=23948355 |issn=1536-1284}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barth |first1=Matthew J. |last2=Wu |first2=Guoyuan |last3=Boriboonsomsin |first3=Kanok |date=2015-09-01 |title=Intelligent Transportation Systems and Greenhouse Gas Reductions |journal=Current Sustainable/Renewable Energy Reports |language=en |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=90–97 |doi=10.1007/s40518-015-0032-y |issn=2196-3010|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== History and motivations ==
The field of computational sustainability has been motivated by [[Our Common Future]], a 1987 report from the [[Brundtland Commission|World Commission on Environment and Development]] about the future of humanity.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2021 |title=Reflections on sustainability |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-021-00821-4.pdf |journal=Nature Sustainability, Editorial |volume=4}}</ref> More recently, computational sustainability research has also been driven by [[Sustainable Development Goals|the United Nation's sustainable development goals]], a set of 17 goals for the sustainability of human economic, social, and environmental well-being world-wide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE 17 GOALS {{!}} Sustainable Development |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> Researchers in computational sustainability have primarily focused on addressing problems in areas related to the environment (e.g., [[biodiversity]] conservation), [[sustainable energy]] infrastructure and [[natural resource]]s, and societal aspects (e.g., [[Global Hunger Index|global hunger]] crises).<ref name="":2"" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Artificial intelligence and big data can help preserve wildlife |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/02/220208105313.htm |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref><ref name="":5"">{{Cite web |last=University |first=Oregon State |title=Wildlife migration routes for multiple species can link conservation reserves at lower cost |url=https://phys.org/news/2016-10-wildlife-migration-routes-multiple-species.html |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last1=Hahn |first1=Nathan R. |last2=Bombaci |first2=Sara P. |last3=Wittemyer |first3=George |date=2022-03-21 |title=Identifying conservation technology needs, barriers, and opportunities |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=4802 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-08330-w |pmid=35314713  |pmc=8938523 |issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free }}</ref> The computational aspects of computational sustainability leverage techniques from mathematics and computer science, in the areas of [[artificial intelligence]], [[machine learning]], [[algorithm]]s, [[game theory]], [[mechanism design]], [[information science]], [[Mathematical optimization|optimization]] (including [[combinatorial optimization]]), [[dynamical system]]s, and [[multi-agent system]]s.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last1=Silvestro |first1=Daniele |last2=Goria |first2=Stefano |last3=Sterner |first3=Thomas |last4=Antonelli |first4=Alexandre |date=2022-03-24 |title=Improving biodiversity protection through artificial intelligence |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=5 |issue=5 |language=en |pages=415–424 |doi=10.1038/s41893-022-00851-6 |pmid=35614933 |pmc=7612764 |issn=2398-9629|doi-access=free }}</ref>

While the formal emergence of computational sustainability is often traced back to the years 2008 and 2009, marked by the initiation of an [[NSF Grant|NSF]]-funded award, and specific conferences and workshops, the exploration of computational methods to tackle environmental and societal sustainability issues predates this period. The use of statistical and mathematical models for sustainability-related problems has a long history, paralleling the evolution of computing technology itself. A notable example is the early attempts at climate modeling, which were constrained by the limited computing resources available at the time, necessitating simplified models.

In the realm of artificial intelligence, particularly within machine learning, the 1990s saw research efforts addressing [[ecological modeling]] and [[wastewater management]], among other sustainability issues. This work continued into the 2000s, supported by groups like the ""Machine Learning for the Environment"" working group established by the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis in 2006. Research on optimization to aid sustainability challenges, such as designing wildlife reserves, can be traced back to the 1980s.

The early 2000s also witnessed a growing concern over the environmental impact of computing technology itself, with green information and communications technology (ICT) gaining attention among [[Information and communications technology|ICT companies]]. This interest extended beyond the immediate environmental effects of computing to consider second-order and higher-order impacts, such as the potential of ICT to reduce the carbon footprint of air travel through online conferencing or to optimize delivery routes to lower CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. International policy efforts, particularly by the [[OECD|Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development]] (OECD), have since focused on a framework recognizing these multi-tiered effects of ICT, a focus that continues today.

Before the OECD's 2008 conference, mathematicians proposed using their expertise to combat climate change, signaling a growing recognition of the research community's role in sustainability. This period also saw the establishment of the [[Institute for Computational Sustainability]] in 2008 and the launch of the International Conference on Computational Sustainability in 2009, pivotal moments that significantly advanced the field. The inclusion of sustainability themes in major AI conferences further integrated sustainability into the broader computing and scientific discourse.

The field of computational sustainability has continued to expand, with significant initiatives like the Sustainability-focused Expeditions in Computing award to the [[University of Minnesota]] in 2010, aiming to advance climate understanding through data mining and visualization. The establishment of sustainability-related tracks and awards at various conferences, along with targeted funding by organizations like the NSF, underscores the growing importance of computing in addressing sustainability challenges.

== Sustainability areas ==

=== Balancing environmental and socioeconomic needs ===

=== Policy planning ===

=== Human health ===

=== Biodiversity and conservation ===

=== United Nations' Sustainability Development Goals ===
The United Nations lists seventeen different Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to protect the planet, all of which are important in different ways. Sustainable Development Goal 14 emphasizes protecting life under water. Sustainable Development Goal 15 references protecting life on land. While technology has historically favored profitable sectors, its potential to revolutionize environmental sustainability, particularly in wildlife conservation, remains largely untapped. By examining challenges, contributions, and potential contributions presented by technological advancements in achieving Sustainable Development Goals 14 and 15, computational innovations can be harnessed to protect life under water and on land.

The application of machine learning techniques to address challenges in [[Fire prevention|fire prediction]] and [[fire protection|management]] in Alaska's [[boreal forest]]s. Studies have underscored the importance of adapting existing fire management strategies to the evolving fire landscape, especially considering the impact of climate change on fire frequencies. By incorporating diverse variables such as [[topography]], vegetation, and [[meteorological]] factors, the research aligns with the computational sustainability paradigm, which seeks to leverage computational models for sustainable environmental practices.

There is one novel machine learning framework for fire prediction, which represents a significant contribution to computational sustainability in the field of environmental monitoring. The model, centered on the identification of specific ignitions likely to lead to large fires, provides a more straightforward and interpretable alternative to existing, more complex prediction models. The emphasis on two key variables, [[Vapour-pressure deficit|vapour pressure deficit]] (VPD) and spruce fraction, reflects the paper's commitment to practical and actionable computational approaches in environmental assessment. The assessment of how active fire management influences fire regimes highlights the role of human intervention in shaping environmental outcomes, illustrating the potential of computational sustainability for informed decision-making in environmental monitoring and assessment.

=== Environmental monitoring and assessment ===

=== Species distribution modeling ===

Computational sustainability researchers have advanced techniques to combat the [[biodiversity loss]] facing the world during the current [[Holocene extinction|sixth extinction]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-02-14 |title=The Sixth Extinction by Elizabeth Kolbert – review |url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/feb/14/sixth-extinction-unnatural-history-kolbert-review |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> Researchers have created computational methods for geospatially mapping the distribution, [[Animal migration|migration patterns]], and [[wildlife corridor]]s of species, which enable scientists to quantify conservation efforts and recommend effective policies.<ref name="":2"" /><ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal |last1=Stoudt |first1=Sara |last2=Goldstein |first2=Benjamin R. |last3=de Valpine |first3=Perry |date=2022-04-19 |title=Identifying engaging bird species and traits with community science observations |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=119 |issue=16 |pages=e2110156119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2110156119|pmid=35412904  |pmc=9169790 |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":4"" />

=== Renewable and sustainable energy and materials ===
Using ""affordable and clean energy"" is one of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) worldwide (Gomes et al., 2019).

The Sun, as the only planet-hosting star in the solar system, can provide [[sustainable energy|clean]] and [[renewable energy]] to meet the demands of increasing populations. Unlike [[fossil fuel]]s, the Sun does not generate pollutants or [[greenhouse gas]]es. Therefore, relying on [[solar energy]] can reduce [[carbon footprint]]s, which abates [[global warming]] and ecosystem destruction. The Sun will live for approximately 5 billion years more, which serves as a long-term and stable energy source. If humans can extract and convert energy efficiently, both the environment and the economy can benefit, contributing to sustainability. 

However, [[renewable energy]], including [[Wind power|wind]] and solar energy, is non-dispatchable. Humans cannot control these energy sources or predict energy production in advance. If using renewable energies, scientists need to seek different sources for compensation, which usually links back to fossil fuels that are considered unsustainable. Alternatively, people can store the energy from these renewable sources for the difference, which can be expensive. 

Scientists should consider different factors when designing the storage system, including [[frequency regulation]], energy shifting, peak shifting, and [[backup power]] (Gomes et al., 2019). Deciding whether to utilize diverse energy sources or store energy to prepare for unexpected situations will be hard for scientists. The approaches for each strategy are complicated. Scientists have turned this scenario into an optimization problem that involves the three ""broad sustainability themes""—simulation, machine learning, and [[citizen science]] (Gomes et al., 2019).

Climate change and renewable energy interrelate with each other. Renewable energy sources such as the Sun and wind highly depend on the climate. On a cloudy day, people will acquire less solar energy due to shielding. The [[UV index]] will also impact solar energy production. Reversely, using renewable energy on large scales benefits the environment, reducing global warming and extreme weather. Therefore, constructing an accurate climate model and predicting the weather for renewable energy production becomes essential. 

In Jones' article, he explores the usage of artificial intelligence (AI) in simulating the climate (2018). The major problems of using computers for climate modeling arise from a lack of details and slow simulation. Different computing approaches can also result in different and inaccurate results. For example, one model predicts that the temperature can increase more than three times than the other model if the carbon dioxide level doubles in the atmosphere. Therefore, scientists incorporate machine learning frameworks into the existing climate models. This combination enables the computer to efficiently discern more unnoticeable details than traditional computers, even with slight uncertainties and deviations, to give accurate simulations and predictions (Jones, 2018). Simultaneously, machine learning techniques, including normalizing flows, can infer long-term patterns and behaviors from data from a short period. 

People can take advantage of running small-scale simulations that are more efficient for predictions, especially with characteristic models. For instance, the information on how clouds evolve in a few miles region over a short period will be sufficient for ""Cloud Brain"", a [[deep learning]] code to infer climate change due to increasing carbon dioxide emissions. Then, the framework can figure out the climate model on a large scale and over long periods. This model is more efficient than traditional high-resolution simulations yet gives similar and realistic results (Jones, 2018). Normalizing flows also performed similar functions as the ""Cloud Brain"". After inputting initial and final conditions into the [[neural network (machine learning)|neural network]], the algorithm can figure out a chain of transformations. The given conditions generally come from a short period, while the chain can be universal for long-term scenarios to infer and predict. 

However, developing these machine learning techniques to predict the physical world is still challenging. Machine learning functions ""intuitively"" and may not follow the rules in the world. When predicting and establishing the climate model, AI cannot consider different factors in physics, including [[gravity]] and [[temperature gradient]], for efficiency. Lack of rules in the framework can lead to unrealistic results. These frameworks can be inflexible and do not adapt to a new and diverse environment. ""Cloud Brain"" cannot accurately predict when the temperature is high (Jones, 2018). Like the ""[[Black box|black-box]] function"" in SMART-Invest (Gomes et al., 2019), these machine-learning techniques obtain little transparency. People struggle to recognize and comprehend the models (Jones, 2018). In normalizing flows, learning the exact bijective transformations takes extra effort, and few packages have the functions to express each transformation explicitly. Some particular transformations can disobey the physics laws, but scientists have no way to identify and fix the issue. Therefore, training the model comprehensively with appropriate supervision of physics laws becomes necessary. However, [[heliophysics]] can be complex, and scientists are uncertain about the nuclear fusion process inside the Sun. In such cases, no physics equation is established to describe the energy conversion process, which affects the amount of solar energy humans can extract. Without a ""rulebook"", machine learning is the optimal approach to figure out the pattern and correlation (Jones, 2018). When implementing normalizing flows in solar energy and heliophysics, some [[Degrees of freedom|degree of freedom]] needs to be allowed for the neural network to discover patterns in the unknown solar physics regimes.

=== Agriculture ===

== Spatial planning ==

[[Spatial planning]] refers to the methods and approaches used by the public sector to influence the distribution of people and activities in spaces of various scales. It encompasses a broad spectrum of activities related to the use and management of land and public spaces, aiming to ensure sustainable development and to improve the built and natural environments.

Spatial planning covers a wide range of concerns including urban, suburban, and rural development, land use, transportation systems, infrastructure planning, and environmental protection. It aims to coordinate the various aspects of policy and regulation over land use, housing, public amenities, and transport infrastructure, ensuring that these elements work together to promote economic development, environmental sustainability, and quality of life for communities in all types of areas.

This term is often used in a European context and can be seen as an integrated approach that looks beyond traditional urban planning to address the needs and development strategies of a wider range of environments. It involves strategic decision-making to guide the future development and spatial organization of land use in a way that is efficient, sustainable, and equitable.

=== Urban planning ===

=== Transportation ===

[[Intelligent transportation system]]s (ITS) seek to improve safety and travel times while minimizing [[greenhouse gas emissions]] for all travelers, though focusing mainly on drivers. ITS has two systems: one for data collection/relaying, and another for data processing. [[Data collection]] can be achieved with video cameras over busy areas, sensors that detect various pieces from location of certain vehicles to infrastructure that is breaking down, and even drivers who notice an accident and use a [[mobile app]], like [[Waze]], to report its whereabouts.<ref name="":1""/><ref name="":2"">{{Cite book|title=Transportation Systems: Monitoring, Control, and Security|last1=Timotheou|first1=Stelios|last2=Panayiotou|first2=Christos G.|last3=Polycarpou|first3=Marios M.|date=2015-01-01|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=9783662441596|editor-last=Kyriakides|editor-first=Elias|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|pages=125–166|language=en|editor-last2=Polycarpou|editor-first2=Marios|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-44160-2_5}}</ref>

Advanced public transportation systems (APTS) aim to make [[public transport]]ation more efficient and convenient for its riders. [[E-commerce payment system|Electronic payment method]]s allow users to add money to their [[smart card]]s at stations and online. APTS relay information to transit facilities about current vehicle locations to give riders expected wait times on screens at stations and directly to customers' smart phones  Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS) collect information using cameras and other sensors that gather information regarding how congested roads are. [[Ramp meter]]s regulate the number of cars entering highways to limit backups. Traffic signals use algorithms to optimize travel times depending on the number of cars on the road. Electronic highway signs relay information regarding travel times, detours, and accidents that may affect drivers ability to reach their destination.<ref name="":2"" />

With the rise of consumer connectivity, less infrastructure is needed for these ITS to make informed decisions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thinkwithgoogle.com/articles/shift-to-constant-connectivity.html|title=The Shift to Constant Connectivity|website=Think with Google|access-date=2016-03-31}}</ref> [[Google Maps]] uses smartphone crowdsourcing to get information about real-time traffic conditions allowing motorists to make decisions based on toll roads, travel times, and overall distance traveled.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncta.com/platform/broadband-internet/how-google-tracks-traffic/|title=How Google Tracks Traffic|website=www.ncta.com|access-date=2016-03-31}}</ref> Cars communicate with their manufacturers to remotely install software updates when new features are added or bugs are being patched.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/cars/wireless-updates-to-core-automotive-functions-could-spell-privacy-troubles/|title=Your next car will update itself while you sleep, and maybe watch you too|website=Digital Trends|language=en-US|access-date=2016-03-31|date=2016-01-27}}</ref> [[Tesla Motors]] even uses these updates to increase their cars efficiency and performance.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/11378880/Tesla-software-update-did-your-car-just-get-faster.html|title=Tesla software update: did your car just get faster?|website=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=2016-03-31|date=2015-01-30|last1=Sparkes|first1=Matthew}}</ref> These connections give ITS a means to accurately collect information and even relay that information to drivers with no other infrastructure needed.

Future ITS systems will aid in car communication with not just the infrastructure, but with other cars as well.<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":2"" />

=== Utilities ===

The [[electrical grid]] was designed to send consumers electricity from [[Electric generator|electricity generators]] for a monthly fee based on usage. Homeowners are installing [[solar panel]]s and large batteries to store the power created by these panels. A [[smart grid]] is being created to accommodate the new energy sources.  Rather than just electricity being sent to a household to be consumed by the various appliances in the home, electricity can flow in either direction. Additional sensors along the grid will improve information collection and decreased downtime during power outages. These sensors can also relay information directly to consumers about how much energy they're using and what the costs will be.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ucsusa.org/publications/catalyst/fa14-solar-power-on-the-rise.html#.VwbE4hMrKu4|title=Solar Power on the Rise|website=Union of Concerned Scientists|access-date=2016-04-07}}</ref>

== Computational synergies ==

=== Active information gathering ===
Another way that computational strategies are used is in active information gathering. The use of technology to measure tons of information and sort through them is a powerful tool in many fields of study. For example, [[NASA]] uses satellites to get SAR ([[synthetic aperture radar]]) data in order to map the surface of the earth. They are able to perform active data collection of visible, near-infrared, and short-wave-infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum using their satellites. These findings can help to identify deforestation and rising sea levels and help predict future changes to different ecosystems based on the wavelengths and polarization of the radar. NASA has made this data publicly available beginning with the European Space Agency's (ESA) Sentinel-1a in 2014.<ref> https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/backgrounders/what-is-sar</ref>

=== Sequential decision making ===

=== Stochastic optimization ===

=== Uncertainty ===

=== Probabilistic graphical models ===

=== Ensemble methods ===

=== Spatiotemporal modeling ===

=== Remote sensing ===

=== Information retrieval ===

=== Vision and learning ===
[[Computer vision]] and [[machine learning]] play a crucial role in advancing computational sustainability, offering innovative solutions to complex environmental challenges. By harnessing the power of these technologies, researchers and practitioners are able to analyze vast amounts of data, extract meaningful patterns, and develop sustainable strategies for managing natural resources and ecosystems.

== Applications ==

=== Wildlife conservation ===
Computer vision is used to monitor and track [[endangered species]], such as tracking the movements of animals in their natural habitats or identifying individual animals for population studies. For example, camera traps equipped with computer vision algorithms can automatically detect and identify species, allowing researchers to study their behaviors without disturbing them. Machine learning algorithms can analyze these data to understand animal behavior, habitat preferences, and population dynamics, aiding in conservation efforts.  This is helpful in assessing the effectiveness of conservation measures and identify areas in need of protection.

=== Environmental monitoring ===
[[Remote sensing]] technologies combined with machine learning can monitor air and water quality, detecting pollutants and assessing environmental health. For example, satellite imagery can be used to monitor [[algal bloom]]s in water bodies, which can be harmful to aquatic life and human health. Computer vision techniques can analyze satellite imagery to detect [[deforestation]] and illegal logging activities. By identifying areas at risk, conservationists and authorities can take action to protect forests and biodiversity.

=== Sustainable agriculture ===
Computer vision is used to monitor crop health, detecting diseases and nutrient deficiencies early. For example, drones equipped with [[multispectral camera]]s can capture images of crops, which are then analyzed using machine learning algorithms to identify health issues. Machine learning algorithms can analyze data from sensors and drones to optimize resource allocation in agriculture. By providing insights into soil health, moisture levels, and crop growth, these algorithms help farmers make informed decisions to improve productivity and sustainability.

=== Climate change mitigation ===
Machine learning models can analyze historical climate data to predict future climate patterns. This information is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change, such as planning for extreme weather events and sea level rise. Computer vision techniques can be used to monitor [[renewable energy]] sources, such as solar panels and wind turbines. By analyzing data on energy production and environmental conditions, these techniques help optimize the use of renewable energy and reduce reliance on [[fossil fuel]]s.

== Significance ==

=== Data-driven decision making ===
Computer vision and machine learning enable data-driven decision-making in sustainability efforts. By analyzing large datasets, researchers can identify trends, predict outcomes, and make informed choices to conserve natural resources and protect the environment.

=== Efficiency and accuracy ===
These technologies improve the efficiency and accuracy of environmental monitoring and management. They can process data faster and more accurately than traditional methods, enabling timely interventions to prevent environmental degradation.

=== Conservation impact ===
By enabling more precise monitoring and analysis, computer vision and machine learning enhance conservation efforts, helping to protect endangered species, preserve [[biodiversity]], and mitigate the effects of climate change.

=== Sustainable development ===
Insights from computer vision and machine learning contribute to the development of sustainable practices in agriculture, forestry, and other industries. By optimizing resource use and minimizing environmental impact, these technologies support long-term sustainability.

== Crowdsourced data ==

== Agent-based modeling ==

== Constraint-based reasoning ==

== Game theory and mechanism design ==

== Databases ==

== Mobile apps ==

== See also ==
* [[Carla Gomes]], pioneer of computational sustainability 
* [[Environmental informatics]] 
* [[eBird]]
* [[Green computing]]
* [[Institute for Computational Sustainability]] (ICS)
* [[The Nature Conservancy]]
* [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]]
* [[United States Geological Survey]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{wikibooks|Artificial Intelligence for Computational Sustainability: A Lab Companion}}
* [http://www.computational-sustainability.org/ Computational Sustainability]
* [http://www.cis.cornell.edu/ics Institute for Computational Sustainability (ICS)]

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Computational science]]
[[Category:Computational fields of study]]
[[Category:Environmental technology]]"
Sustainable redevelopment,"'''Sustainable redevelopment''' is the [[doctrine]] within which a state, organization, or individual can work to recreate a [[Socio-economic status|socio-economic position]] attained prior to a deconstructive event while upholding sustainable and environmental practices. The doctrine is based on [[economics]] within [[environmentalism]]. Typically, by providing more upfront capital, one can create a system that is less energy intensive, less wasteful, and generally less expensive to maintain in the long run.<ref name=""DFD"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd/dsd_index.shtml |title=Division for Sustainable Development :: About |author=United Nations |date= |publisher= |accessdate=6 July 2010|author-link=United Nations }}</ref> By redeveloping sustainably, long term [[energy conservation|energy efficiencies]] can be realized, coupled with highly reduced [[greenhouse gas emissions]].

Within the ideals of [[nation-building]], sustainable redevelopment can take up a greater significance. Post-[[disaster]] countries are in a unique situation to deal with these systems of ideals. Within this context, the idea behind initiating post-trauma sustainable redevelopment is that the underlying [[infrastructure]] is destroyed or damaged, therefore the situation is ideal for realizing the opportunities inherent to the situation.

==Background==
[[Sustainable development]] and [[redevelopment]] are closely linked, and several organizations have been implicitly involved with sustainable development. This type of development, in contrast to redevelopment, is not different other than the application to a specified problem. Sustainable development, is a form of development that coexists with existing forms of development.

While the systems for recreation on a small/local level are not universally widespread, there are several institutions which engage in sustainable development, that can theoretically be carried over to redevelopment. The [[Kyoto Protocol]]'s 12th Article<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_development_mechanism/items/2718.php |title=Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)  |author= |date= |publisher= |accessdate=6 July 2010}}</ref>  speaks to ""flexible mechanisms"". These mechanisms allow countries which have ratified the Kyoto Protocol to lower their overall emissions through the most economical means, respective, of course, to that country. Theoretically, these mechanisms could be directed towards post-traumatic redevelopment.

==UN==
The United Nations Division for Sustainable Development ""provides [[leadership]] and is an authoritative source of expertise within the United Nations system on sustainable development"".<ref name=""DFD""/> The Division for Sustainable Development has been essential in the creation of such policies as [[Agenda 21]], and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.<ref name=""DFD""/>

The [[United Nations]] declares that ""Sustainable reconstruction management provides numerous environmental, safety and financial benefits.""<ref name=""DFD""/>

==World Bank==
The [[World Bank]] has been working on sustainable development projects through one of their internal groups, the Sustainable Development Network. These two groups work together to provide key sectors for sustainable development: ""[[agriculture]] and [[rural development]], [[energy]], [[transport]], [[water]], [[Natural environment|environment]], [[urban development]], [[Social change|social development]], [[oil]], [[Natural gas|gas]], [[mining]], and [[chemical]]s, [[Information technology|information]] and [[Communication technology|communication]] technologies, and sub-national activities"".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTSDNET /0,,contentMDK:22113416~menuPK:64885073~pagePK:64885161~piPK:64884432~theSitePK:5929282,00.html |title=Sustainable Development – About Sustainable Development |author= |date= |publisher= |accessdate=6 July 2010}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

==The Natural Hazards Institute==
The Natural Hazards Research and Application Information Center of the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]] produced a work catalyzing the process for post-disaster sustainable redevelopment. In their book, “Holistic Disaster Recovery”, is spelled out the “Six Principles of [[Sustainability]]”

==The Six Principles of Sustainability==
1. Maintain and, if possible, enhance, its residents [[quality of life]].
2. Enhance local economic vitality.
3. Ensure social and [[intergenerational equity]].
4. Maintain and, if possible, enhance, environmental quality.
5. Incorporate disaster resilience and [[Disaster mitigation|mitigation]].
6. Use a consensus-building, participatory process when making
decisions <ref>Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center. ''Holistic Disaster Recovery, Ideas for Building Local Sustainability After a Natural Disaster''. University of Colorado, 2001. Web. 19 March 2010</ref>

==References==
<references>
</references>
*(2)Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme and SKAT, 2007 (pg 3)
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Redevelopment]]"
Sustainable regional development,"{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
'''Sustainable regional development''' is the application of [[sustainable development]] at a [[regional]], rather than local, national or global level.  It differs to [[regional development]] per se, as the latter is a term used more generally to describe economic development that emphasises the alleviation of regional disparities.  While regional development has an economic and equity emphasis, sustainable regional development seeks to incorporate ecological concerns.

Sustainable regional development has particular currency in Australia, where the [[Institute for Sustainable Regional Development]] has been established (1997) for the purpose of developing integrated, multi- and inter-disciplinary strategies for environmental and socio-economic change in regional Australia.<ref>Institute for Sustainable Regional Development: [http://www.isrd.cqu.edu.au/FCWViewer/view.do?page=1191 About Us]</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]
[[Category:Sustainability by subject|Regional]]"
Ecological goods and services,"{{Short description|Economic benefits associated with ecosystems}}
'''Ecological goods and services''' ('''EG&S''') are the economical benefits ([[goods and services]]) arising from the [[ecology|ecological]] functions of [[ecosystems]]. Such benefits accrue to all [[Organism|living organisms]], including animals and plants, rather than to humans alone. However, there is a growing recognition of the importance to society that ecological goods and services provide for health, social, cultural, and economic needs.

==Introduction==
Examples of ecological goods include [[Air pollution|clean air]], and abundant [[fresh water]]. Examples of ecological services include purification of air and water, maintenance of biodiversity, decomposition of wastes, soil and vegetation generation and renewal, pollination of crops and natural vegetation, [[groundwater recharge]] through wetlands, [[Biological dispersal|seed dispersal]], [[greenhouse gas]] mitigation, and aesthetically pleasing landscapes. The products and processes of ecological goods and services are complex and occur over long periods of time. They are a sub-category of [[public goods]].

The concern over ecological goods and services arises because we are losing them at an unsustainable rate, and therefore [[land use]] managers must devise a host of tools to encourage the provision of more ecological goods and services. Rural and suburban settings are especially important, as lands that are developed and converted from their natural state lose their ecological functions. Therefore, ecological goods and services provided by privately held lands become increasingly important.

==Markets==
A market may be created wherein ecological goods and services are demanded by society and supplied by public and private landowners.  Some believe that [[public land]]s alone are not adequate to supply this market, and that privately held lands are needed to close this gap. What has emerged is the notion that rural landowners who provide ecological goods and services to society through good stewardship practices on their land should be duly compensated. The main tool to accomplish this to date has been to pay farmers directly to set-aside portions of their land that would otherwise be in production. This exemplifies a shift in thinking from the ""polluter pays"" to the ""beneficiary pays"".

Financial incentives to landowners is one approach, but provision of EG&S can also be achieved through regulation, stewardship incentives under existing programs such Environmental Farm Plans, [[market-based instruments]], and tax rebates.

==Biodiversity and EGS==
According to the [[Millennium Ecosystem Assessment]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx |title=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |website=www.maweb.org |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423003943/http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx |archive-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> project, [[biodiversity]] is a necessary underlying component of ecological goods and services.  Biodiversity supports ecological goods and services such as [[biological control]] and [[Genetics|genetic]] resources.<ref>[[Robert Costanza|Costanza, R.]], d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O'Neill, R., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P. & van den Belt, M. (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' '''387''':253-260</ref>  However, biodiversity is also sometimes referred to as an actual ecological good or service which can be confusing.

==Policy tools==
The following policy tools can be used to ensure production of ecological goods and services:<ref>[[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Quebec)|Agriculture, Pêcheries et Alimentation]], Quebec. (2005). Remuneration for ecological goods and services produced by agriculture: Elements for a Quebec analysis.{{Clarify|date=January 2012}}</ref> (in French)

*Regulations
*Cross compliance programs
*Environmental marketing schemes (e.g. [[ecolabel|eco-labeling]])
*Voluntary participation programs
*Market based approaches (e.g. offset credits{{Clarify|date=January 2012}})
*One time direct payments
*Ongoing direct payments

==See also==
* [[Ecosystem services]]
* [[Ecosystem valuation]]
* [[Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems|Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS)]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://www.diversitas-international.org/core_ecoserv.html Diversitas], [[Diversitas]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150813135309/http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx Millennium Ecosystem Assessment]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060526042209/http://www.whc.org/NationalSurveyonEcologicalGoodsandServices.htm National Survey on Ecological Goods and Services]
* [http://www.carboncreditreview.com Carbon Credit News and Reviews]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090204054347/http://www.cohabnet.org/ COHAB Initiative, ecosystems and human well-being]

[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]"
Land recycling,"{{Short description|Reuse of abandoned buildings or sites}}
[[File:Marlbrook Landfill Site - Remediation in progress. - geograph.org.uk - 1120733.jpg|thumb|Remediation process in Marlbrook at a former landfill site]]
'''Land recycling''' is the [[reuse]] of abandoned, vacant, or underused properties for [[redevelopment]] or repurposing.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Land recycling and densification — European Environment Agency|url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/land-recycling-and-densification|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.eea.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>

Land recycling aims to ensure the reuse of [[developed land]] as part of: new developments; [[decontamination|cleaning up]] contaminated properties; reuse and/or making use of used land surrounded by development or nearby infrastructure. End-uses from land recycling may include: [[mixed-use development|mixed-use]], residential, commercial, or industrial developments; and/or [[Public space|public open space]] such as [[urban open space]] used by [[urban park]]s, [[community garden]]s; or larger [[open space reserve]]s such as [[regional park]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-09/documents/anat_bf_redev_101106.pdf|title=Anatomy of Brownfields Redevelopment|publisher=EPA|year=2015|pages=1}}</ref>

Since many abandoned and underutilized properties lie within economically distressed and disadvantaged communities, land recycling often benefits and stimulates re-investment in historically under-served areas. However, due to the previous use of these sites, there can be many health hazards when dealing with the land, such as metals, plastics, asbestos, glass shards, gas generation, and radioactive substances.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/181922310|title=Recycling derelict land|date=1991|others=George Fleming, Institution of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford|isbn=0-7277-1318-3|location=London|pages=16|oclc=181922310}}</ref> Such environmentally distressed properties, with site clean-up and mitigation considerations, are commonly referred to as [[brownfield]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OLEM|date=2014-01-08|title=Overview of EPA's Brownfields Program|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref>

== Types ==
=== Adaptive building ===
The most common form of land recycling is the [[redevelopment]] of abandoned or unused building properties.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/adaptive-reuse-repurposing-old-buildings-178242|title=Transforming Old Buildings for New Uses|last=Craven|first=Jackie |website=ThoughtCo|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> Adaptive building is the development of an old abandoned building to repurpose it into a new building design and/or new purpose. Saving the old buildings and [[reuse|reusing]] the materials within the buildings is considered more [[environmentally sustainable]] than building all new structure with new materials.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite journal|last1=Conejos|first1=Sheila|last2=Langston|first2=Craig|last3=Smith|first3=Jim|date=2015-01-01|title=Enhancing sustainability through designing for adaptive reuse from the outset: A comparison of adaptSTAR and Adaptive Reuse Potential (ARP) models|journal=Facilities|volume=33|issue=9/10|pages=531–552|doi=10.1108/F-02-2013-0011|issn=0263-2772}}</ref> This repurposing of materials in the existing adaption or to a different building site could include wood, metals, roofing, brick, etc. and would provide products for new projects to prevent excessive waste. Site disruptions are also decreased due to less destruction and building.

The adaptive process also provides a more sustainable way to promote environmentally friendly infrastructure.<ref name="":9"" /> It also reduces the amount of pollutants that can contaminate the soil and water around the abandoned building.<ref name="":8"" /> This can be particularly beneficial when repurposing buildings which are near schools, residential neighborhoods, or other workplaces by mitigating occupational hazards from such contaminants commonly found in construction.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saleh, Tarek M.|title=Building green via design for deconstruction and adaptive reuse|date=2009|publisher=University of Florida|oclc=665095445}}</ref> This is considered more economically friendly, when accounting for direct and indirect cost savings to the construction company and to the building owner.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite journal|last1=Laefer Debra F.|author-link1=Debra Laefer|last2=Manke Jonathan P.|date=2008-03-01|title=Building Reuse Assessment for Sustainable Urban Reconstruction|journal=Journal of Construction Engineering and Management|volume=134|issue=3|pages=217–227|doi=10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2008)134:3(217)|hdl=10197/2278|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The cost of producing new materials and the services that come with manufacturing these products are much more costly than repurposing existing buildings.

=== Brownfield redevelopment ===
The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] classifies a [[Brownfield land|brownfield]] as ""A brownfield is a property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant.""<ref>{{Cite web|title=EPA Brownfields|date=14 November 2013|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields}}</ref> Currently in the United States there are more than 450,000 brownfields, which when improved have been shown to improve the surrounding environmental stress.<ref name="":10"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program|title=Overview of EPA's Brownfields Program|last=US EPA|first=OLEM|date=2014-01-08|website=US EPA|language=en|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> Funding for these hazardous sites may be obtained through the EPA's Brownfields and Land Revitalization Program which empowers municipalities, landholders, and land developers to safely clean up and repurpose the land.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EPA Brownfields and Land Revitalization Program|date=8 January 2014|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program}}</ref>

=== Non-infrastructure redevelopment ===
Land recycling can also include those spaces that are not within [[urbanization|urbanized]] environments are involve a building. Agricultural reuse is a very important part of land reuse where an existing field might have been abandoned due to nutrient depletion, and can be developed into something else.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hou|first1=Deyi|last2=Ding|first2=Zhenyu|last3=Li|first3=Guanghe|last4=Wu|first4=Longhua|last5=Hu|first5=Pengjie|last6=Guo|first6=Guanlin|last7=Wang|first7=Xingrun|last8=Ma|first8=Yan|last9=O'Connor|first9=David|last10=Wang|first10=Xianghui|date=2018|title=A Sustainability Assessment Framework for Agricultural Land Remediation in China|journal=Land Degradation & Development|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|pages=1005–1018|doi=10.1002/ldr.2748|s2cid=134241797 |issn=1099-145X|doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition to this the redevelopment of underutilized land into parks, community gardens and open space reservoirs are also prominent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nycgovparks.org/about/history/community-gardens/movement|title=History of the Community Garden Movement : NYC Parks|website=www.nycgovparks.org|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref>

=== Other terms ===
[[File:Baulücke in Köln-Weidenpesch (9506).jpg|thumb|Example of a potential site for urban infill development]]
Other commonly used terms can relate to or serve as synonyms of land recycling:
* '''[[Infill|Infill development]]''': development that takes place within existing communities, making maximum use of the existing [[infrastructure]] instead of building on previously undeveloped land;
* '''[[Sustainable development]]''': Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs; and
* '''[[Brownfield land|Brownfield development]]''': development of [[real property]] for which its reuse may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a [[Dangerous goods|hazardous substance]], pollutant or contaminant.

==Benefits==
===Social and economic revitalization===

Land recycling helps clean up and revitalize inner cities by returning abandoned, idle, or underused sites to productive use, bolstering [[community spirit]], creating jobs and boosting local tax-revenues.

The re-use of land revitalizes communities and renews economic activity, particularly in under-served urban areas. Abandoned, idled, and vacant properties often lie in former industrial and commercial areas, typically in urban and historically disadvantaged areas.<ref name="":17"">{{Cite book|last=Geltman|first=Elizabeth Glass|title=Recycling land : understanding the legal landscape of brownfield development|publisher=Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press|year=2000|isbn=9786612765605|location=Ann Arbor|pages=1–11}}</ref> These sites can be community eyesores, negatively impacting social and economic development, and often human and [[environmental health]].<ref name="":17"" /> The failure to redevelop brownfields in particular translates into potentially more exposure to toxins and the loss of economic and housing benefits that can come from appropriate redevelopment.

By putting these properties to new and productive use, land recycling encourages growth of [[business]]es and services in such areas, helping to break up concentrations of [[poverty]], creating jobs, and stimulating additional private investment and local tax-revenue.<ref name="":18"">{{Cite web|title=3. Benefits of Land Recycling {{!}} CCLR - Center for Creative Land Recycling|url=https://www.cclr.org/3-benefits-land-recycling|access-date=2021-04-01|website=www.cclr.org}}</ref> An abandoned, well-situated, factory site can be cleaned up and redeveloped into a much-needed mixed-use development with a grocery store, senior housing, and access to public transportation.<ref name="":18"" /> The addition of neighborhood-serving retail, [[affordable housing]], or a clean public park in a disadvantaged community can boost local spirit and improve overall quality of life.

=== Alternative to sprawl ===
Land recycling increases density in urban areas, by reducing [[urban sprawl]] and unplanned, low-density, [[automobile]]-dependent developments.

Sprawl development scatters housing, public transit, jobs and other amenities farther apart, demanding more frequent use of cars for travel.<ref name="":18"" /> The increase in miles travelled by vehicles causes a range of health and environmental problems, including air pollution, increased greenhouse gas emissions, a larger occurrence of traffic jams, and asthma.<ref name="":18"" /> This results in a lower quality of life for residents, ever-increasing commute times, and the health implications of smog.

By moving new jobs, economic opportunities and community amenities farther from established populations, sprawl development can cripple once-thriving cities. This trend takes a toll on the socio-economic health of urban communities as growth retreats from the urban center.

Rather than take advantage of existing infrastructure such as roads, public transit, and public works, building sprawl projects abandons these resources and demands further consumption of land and resources.

Land recycling offers an alternative to sprawl development. It reuses vital infrastructure and public resources and creates compact, full-service neighborhoods that reduce vehicle use and carbon dependence.<ref name="":18"" /> Rebuilding in urban neighborhoods generates reinvestment in vibrant economic and cultural centers, rather than drawing away much-needed resources{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}. As daily commute times decrease due to proximity to urban centres, quality of life can also be increased.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clark|first1=Ben|last2=Chatterjee|first2=Kiron|last3=Martin|first3=Adam|last4=Davis|first4=Adrian|date=2020-12-01|title=How commuting affects subjective wellbeing|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-019-09983-9|journal=Transportation|language=en|volume=47|issue=6|pages=2777–2805|doi=10.1007/s11116-019-09983-9|s2cid=159234013|issn=1572-9435|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Directing development to urban cores===
Redirecting population growth and growth of businesses to already urbanized areas can help in the fostering of sustainable communities, as buildings are already near existing infrastructure and amenities, not requiring new infrastructure to be built as would be the case in greenfield development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=3. Benefits of Land Recycling {{!}} CCLR - Center for Creative Land Recycling|url=https://www.cclr.org/3-benefits-land-recycling|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.cclr.org}}</ref> Applying sustainable principles to land use and growth management requires that growth be redirected from scattered fringe areas back to our urban cores, where people, services and infrastructure already exist. Building up urban areas positively increases population density, providing the critical mass to support local services from coffee shops to grocery stores, public transit to libraries and symphony halls{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}. Land recycling can also assist in the creation of affordable housing, as it increases housing stocks due to its use of land previously unused for residential purposes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=An introduction to brownfield: the land that's ripe for recycling|url=https://www.cpre.org.uk/explainer/an-introduction-to-brownfield/|access-date=2021-09-22|website=CPRE|language=en-GB}}</ref>

===Addressing climate change===
Land recycling effectively curbs [[greenhouse gas|greenhouse-gas]] emissions by encouraging smart, compact growth that reduces [[vehicle dependence]]. Redevelopment within an urban core reduces commuting distances and therefore average vehicle miles traveled (VMTs) by creating residential, office, and other amenities within close proximity.<ref name="":11"">{{Cite book|title= Encyclopedia of World Climatology|publisher=Springer-Verlag |chapter=Intergovernmental Panel in Climate Change (IPCC)|series=Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series |date=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3266-8_109 |last1=Oliver |first1=John E. |page=429 |isbn=978-1-4020-3264-6 }}</ref><ref name="":12"" /> Since transportation alone accounts for a third of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted in the United States, land recycling offers a key tool in any fight against climate change.<ref name="":11"" /><ref name="":12"" /> A recent Urban Land Institute study found that compact urban developments reduce the number of vehicle miles traveled (VMTs) by 20 to 40 percent<ref name="":12"">Urban Land Institute.  Growing Cooler: The Evidence of Urban Development and Climate Change.  Available at  {{cite web|url=http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/gcindex.html|title=Smart Growth America: Growing Cooler|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224212241/http://smartgrowthamerica.org/gcindex.html|archive-date=2010-12-24|access-date=2014-04-01}}</ref> because users are closer to amenities and can more easily rely on public transportation. Smart urban planning is therefore crucial to maximizing energy savings and overall reduction of greenhouse gases.

=== Leaders in Energy and Environmental Design Certification ===
[[File:LEED Gold 2016 plaque, Serrano 55 Madrid (cropped).jpg|thumb|174x174px|LEED Gold Plaque in a Certified Building]]
{{As of | 2009}} the green movement has started to emphasize the [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] (LEED) Green Building Rating System, a certification system that rewards the design, construction and operation of high-performance green buildings.<ref name="":13"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgbc.org/help/what-leed|title=What is LEED? {{!}} U.S. Green Building Council|website=www.usgbc.org|language=en|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> LEED certification signifies incorporation of smart building design and technology to reduce energy use and minimize waste. However, even if a building is energy-efficient, the energy required to travel to and from a LEED certified site may well exceed the energy saved through energy-efficient features. LEED certified buildings and other developments best benefit climate change when they reuse infill sites and access existing resources.<ref name="":13"" /><ref name="":14"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/leadership-in-energy-and-environmental-design|title=Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref>

LEED Certification can also benefit the occupant of the reused building. As sustainability becomes more prioritized within the building movement, having a LEED certified building becomes more desirable This certification may persuade public opinion and encourage more of the population to seek services by a company that prioritizes sustainability.<ref name="":13"" /><ref name="":14"" /> In addition to this, some governmental bodies provide monetary benefits for prioritizing a sustainable cite such as tax breaks and stipends.

== Sustainability ==
[[Sustainability]] involves meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

By encouraging the recycling rather than the consumption of land, land recycling promotes [[smart growth]] and responsible, sustainable patterns of development. A 2001 study by George Washington University shows that for every acre of brownfield redeveloped, {{convert|4.5|acre|m2}} of undeveloped land is conserved.
[http://www.gwu.edu/~eem/Brownfields/project_report/chapters-html.htm#chapter5 Public Policies and Private Decisions Affecting the Redevelopment of Brownfields: An Analysis of Critical Factors, Relative Weights and Areal Differentials].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eem.seas.gwu.edu/|title=Environmental & Energy Management {{!}} The George Washington University|website=eem.seas.gwu.edu|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> As most brownfields and other abandoned sites are typically situated in urban areas, they tap into existing nearby infrastructure, limiting the need to build new roads, gridlines, and amenities, thereby reducing further [[land consumption]].<ref name="":10"" /><ref name="":16"">Brownfield Redevelopment: Stakeholders Report That EPA's Program Helps to Redevelop Sites, but Additional Measures Could Complement Agency Efforts
GAO-05-94; December 2, 2004</ref> Each infill development prevents sprawl into open space, forests and agricultural land, preserving acres of undeveloped land.

=== Sustainable Land Remediation and Planning ===
[[File:Zetor industrial brownfield before demolition 30.jpg|thumb|ZETOR building before demolition]]
Land development is an aspect of land recycling which involves [[urbanization]] and development of land, by reusing previously abandoned and unused land in commercial areas of larger cities.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cclr.org/3-benefits-land-recycling|title=3. Benefits of Land Recycling {{!}} CCLR - Center for Creative Land Recycling|website=www.cclr.org|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> [[Sustainable remediation|Sustainable Remediation]] is an aspect of land development where there is an increased focus the costs and benefits of certain aspects of land recycling.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last1=Forbes|first1=Rose|last2=Favara|first2=Paul|last3=Lovenburg|first3=John|last4=Downey|first4=Doug|last5=de Groot|first5=Pat|date=2009|title=Sustainable Remediation|journal=The Military Engineer|volume=101|issue=659|pages=69–70|jstor=44530662|issn=0026-3982}}</ref> It aims to look at land remediation holistically considering not just the current environmental implications but also the long term social and economic implications.<ref name="":3"" /> Co-design, is much more intentional and focuses on a multitude solutions by completing cost-benefit analyses, engaging in more inclusive conversations with stakeholders along with environmental impacts like energy and resources which may be consumed during land recycling projects.<ref name="":3"" /> The Society of American Military Engineers have focused on using policy implemented by the American department of defense to ensure more sustainable practices.<ref name="":3"" /> Looking more specifically some efforts being implemented by the S.A.M.E include composition of a sustainability remediation tool which allows for estimates of specific technologies to be considered when analyzing land remediation.<ref name="":3"" /> Planning and design for land development and transformation by using co-design has resulted in better shared information on systems.<ref name="":3"" /> These have worked well on sustainable land development as well as improved communication and handling of barriers, ultimately creating a better integrated program on a global scale.

It has been used in cities in Australia as part of global urban research programs to create land remediation solutions.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal|last1=Webb|first1=Robert|last2=Bai|first2=Xuemei|last3=Smith|first3=Mark Stafford|last4=Costanza|first4=Robert|last5=Griggs|first5=David|last6=Moglia|first6=Magnus|last7=Neuman|first7=Michael|last8=Newman|first8=Peter|last9=Newton|first9=Peter|last10=Norman|first10=Barbara|last11=Ryan|first11=Chris|date=February 2018|title=Sustainable urban systems: Co-design and framing for transformation|journal=Ambio|language=en|volume=47|issue=1|pages=57–77|doi=10.1007/s13280-017-0934-6|issn=0044-7447|pmc=5709263|pmid=28766172}}</ref> The overall process involves four phases which included co-design which resulted in outcomes for policy and practice, research and knowledge and solution development.<ref name="":4"" /> In this case, the sustainable remediation framework was created and used to create better co-design processes starting small scale locally and extending out to global scales.<ref name="":4"" /> The process was split into three components starting with assisting in creating urban goals on each level of the scale which align with world views and influence, the policies which are in place and finally, to local technology and knowledge.<ref name="":4"" /> Then shifting to look at how the urban goals affect urban systems like finances, environmental, and social capital as well as more physical systems like energy and water.<ref name="":4"" /> Allowing better understanding of the costs and benefits of different land remediation goals. Then the process then looks more long term and focuses on the outcomes over time to understand the overarching effects of the implemented land remediation goals.<ref name="":4"" /> Finally, the process looks at the major parts of the framework which need to be improved or need more focus.<ref name="":4"" />
[[File:2018 HLPF conference on sustainable development.jpg|thumb|Striving for sustainable development goals to create more sustainable cities]]
A push for sustainable land remediation can be seen all over the world, when looking at urban planning and can also be connected to large public health scares or changes in social norms.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal|last=Douglas|first=Ian|date=2019-01-02|title=50 years change in urban land use and ecological planning globally in the era of design with nature|journal=Ecosystem Health and Sustainability|volume=5|issue=1|pages=185–198|doi=10.1080/20964129.2019.1656111|issn=2096-4129|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the UK after cholera outbreaks in the 19th century, people started to pay more attention to the way homes were being built and where they were being built.<ref name="":5"" /> Now as urbanization has increased, the push is for using land which has already been partially or completely developed and transforming it into something different. The inclusion of garden cities, which are cities built with the intention of avoiding disrupting previously present natural ecosystems.<ref name="":5"" /> An example is the [[Hampstead Garden Suburb]] which began formulating plans that focused on preservation of natural beauty in the area by avoiding the removal of plant life that was already there and working to build around it.<ref name="":5"" /> This also spread to other countries in Europe with Germany building its first garden city in 1909 and [[Canberra]] in Australia where the main goal was to reestablish and maintain forest cover around the city.<ref name="":5"" /> Later, Design with Nature written by [[Ian McHarg]], influenced a lot of the sustainable development goals which were implemented all over the world.<ref name="":5"" />

In the US, a city beautification movement started in the early 20th century, many cities were redeveloped as part of the movement but Chicago was the most influenced.<ref name="":5"" /> As the city was being physical improved they found that there was a need for more focus on development and its social implications.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"" /> As time went on there were also more conversations about the influence that people have on their environment with more literature about the effects of environmental degradation became more mainstream.<ref name="":5"" /> This allowed more intersectional land development goals to be implemented when looking at the different needs of people in different countries.<ref name="":5"" />

==Challenges==
While land recycling has great economic and environmental benefits, without the right tools, skills, and knowledge, reusing land can produce certain challenges.  Obstacles to redevelopment may include lack of funding and increased scrutiny. These can particularly impede projects on brownfields, which carry the stigma of contamination.

===Market factors===
Because idled and underused infill sites are often located in distressed urban areas concerns arise about crime, safety, and access to quality education and services.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OLEM|date=2020-09-25|title=Brownfields and Public Health|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/brownfields-and-public-health|access-date=2021-09-27|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref> These and other market factors frequently pull development to open land near traditionally desirable communities and away from urban infill sites.

====Greenfields competition====
Brownfields and infill sites must compete with attractive, undeveloped suburban and rural land, also called [[greenfield land]]. When considering the real or perceived risks and costs of land recycling, a greenfield development may seem more economically sensible as the immediate costs are typically less than developing on an infill or brownfield site.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=De Sousa|first=Christopher|date=November 2000|title=Brownfield Redevelopment versus Greenfield Development: A Private Sector Perspective on the Costs and Risks Associated with Brownfield Redevelopment in the Greater Toronto Area|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09640560020001719|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|language=en|volume=43|issue=6|pages=831–853|doi=10.1080/09640560020001719|s2cid=216141628 |issn=0964-0568}}</ref> However, it is important to consider the long-term economic gain of land recycling and the added social and environmental rewards of sustainable development.

===Brownfields===
As defined by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|US Environmental Protection Agency]], a [[brownfield]] site is “real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant”. In other words, brownfield sites comprise abandoned, idled, or underused industrial and commercial facilities where expansion or redevelopment is complicated by real or perceived environmental contamination.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OLEM|date=2014-01-08|title=Overview of EPA's Brownfields Program|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program|access-date=2021-04-01|website=US EPA|language=en}}</ref>

==== Brownfield Remediation ====
Due to differences in regulation, production techniques, and heavy industrial use in the past, it is difficult to attract those willing to tackle the uncertainty and obstacles associated with potential clean up.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trouw|first1=Michael|last2=Weiler|first2=Stephan|last3=Silverstein|first3=Jesse|date=2020-03-06|title=Brownfield Development: Uncertainty, Asymmetric Information, and Risk Premia|journal=Sustainability|volume=12|issue=5|pages=2046|doi=10.3390/su12052046|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref> Sites that are contaminated can cause public health risks, including physical risks like uncovered holes, unsafe structures, and sharp objects. Past industrial activities can leave behind chemical contamination, and people may become exposed to these chemicals when entering the properties.<ref>{{Cite web|date=June 2005|title=Public Health and BrownfieldsIn Wisconsin|url=https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/publications/p4/p44980.pdf}}</ref> Sites that have high levels of land contamination have a high cost of remediation. [[Nature-based solutions]] is an idea being talked about to produce a more environmental space. Nature-based solutions can be looked at as policies and approaches to environmental issues that are in benefit to human health and biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Song|first1=Yinan|last2=Kirkwood|first2=Niall|last3=Maksimović|first3=Čedo|last4=Zheng|first4=Xiaodi|last5=O'Connor|first5=David|last6=Jin|first6=Yuanliang|last7=Hou|first7=Deyi|date=2019-05-01|title=Nature based solutions for contaminated land remediation and brownfield redevelopment in cities: A review|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969719303985|journal=Science of the Total Environment|language=en|volume=663|pages=568–579|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.347|pmid=30726765|bibcode=2019ScTEn.663..568S|s2cid=73433276|issn=0048-9697}}</ref> An example would include developing a permeable green area, from these brownfield sites. [[Phytoremediation]] is another environmentally friendly approach for brownfield remediation.<ref name="":15"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/phytoremediation|title=Phytoremediation - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> Phytoremediation programs reduce contaminants in the soil, water and air through planting different types of plants. Important metals that are harmful to human health, such as [[selenium]], [[zinc]], [[nickel]] and iron, are removed from contaminated soil through this process. These procedures are inexpensive because the plants rely on sunlight and the recycled nutrients in the ground. Although, phytoremediation cannot be used the same way in every destination due to different types of plants being nurtured differently in different types of environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Westphal|first1=Lynne M.|last2=Isebrands|first2=J. G.|date=2001|title=Phytoremediation of Chicago's brownfields: consideration of ecological approaches and social issues.|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/12487|journal=In: Brownfields 2001 Proceedings; Chicago, II.|language=en}}</ref> It depends on the soil, where the plant is placed, if it is getting enough nutrients to thrive, etc. The plants end up being so greatly polluted from heavy metals that they need to be disposed of. Thermal treatment is used as a disposal option. Thermal treatment implicates the combustion of the waste materials through machines that produce high enough temperatures, which decomposes the organic molecules within the plant.  This treatment is typically used in the residential and industrial scale, making it useful for brownfield sites.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kovacs|first1=Helga|last2=Szemmelveisz|first2=Katalin|date=2017-01-01|title=Disposal options for polluted plants grown on heavy metal contaminated brownfield lands – A review|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653516312747|journal=Chemosphere|language=en|volume=166|pages=8–20|doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.09.076|pmid=27681256|bibcode=2017Chmsp.166....8K|issn=0045-6535}}</ref>

====Uncertainty and costs====
Assessing whether or not a site is contaminated can be a costly process that deters land reuse.<ref name="":19"">{{Cite web|title=Brownfields|url=https://www.reading.ac.uk/PeBBu/scope_definition/themes/04_brownfields.htm|access-date=2021-09-26|website=www.reading.ac.uk}}</ref> Potential purchasers are often unwilling or unable to risk an investment in a site assessment for a property that may require cleanup they cannot afford. Even if a site has been purchased, concerns over cleanup costs may further stall redevelopment. Uncertainty over time, cost or a high price for cleanup leaves many brownfield sites in development limbo.

====Project financing====
Obtaining private front-end financing for brownfield cleanup can be a difficult process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wolf|first=Michael Allan|date=1997–1998|title=Dangerous Crossing: State Brownfields Recycling and Federal Enterprise Zoning|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/frdmev9&id=503&div=&collection=|journal=Fordham Environmental Law Journal|volume=9|pages=495}}</ref> Since financing is more readily available for development on greenfields, infill and brownfield sites are often passed over.

==== Environmental Justice ====
The concern for contamination of new occupants of a redeveloped brownfield is a concern. Communities of color and low income are disproportionately affected by pollution and brownfield sites offer a higher risk to the communities surrounding them.<ref name="":19"" /> Many suggest that brownfield programs are a good alternative to the Superfund Act, but the standards of cleanup need to be highly considered in order to avoid future contamination.

===Environmental-liability risks===
Although recent changes in some country's federal laws provide some liability relief to new purchasers of contaminated properties, the law remains very complex and many state laws still have strict liability covering real property. Thus, in many cases, any current or past property owner can potentially be legally and financially liable regardless of who is responsible for contamination. This liability web continues to throw a chill on many brownfield projects even in the presence of regulatory reforms designed to encourage redevelopment. A common belief among many brownfield owners is that it is less risky and cheaper to abandon or “mothball” a facility than to conduct a site assessment that could trigger large cleanup costs and potential liability.

====Regulatory requirements====
The potentially complex process of successfully redeveloping an infill site, particularly a brownfield, can challenge land recycling interest and proposals.  Understanding and complying with federal, state, and local legal and regulatory requirements can be daunting for some property owners and developers. Guidance from legal specialists and environmental cleanup consultants is often needed to design, develop, and guide a project through the process of regulatory requirements and permitting approvals.

=== Gentrification ===
Because most communities with underutilized buildings are those in poverty, an existing company coming in and investing in reimagining it can raise a concern of [[gentrification]]. The new building can lead to wealthier people coming in and causing displacement of existing residents.<ref>{{Cite book|last=(U.S.)|first=National Environmental Justice Advisory Council|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/677017471|title=Unintended impacts of redevelopment and revitalization efforts in five environmental justice communities|date=2006|publisher=[National Environmental Justice Advisory Council]|pages=16|oclc=677017471}}</ref> Depending on the building occupancy, such as a new apartment complex charging a higher rent, this can drive for higher priced services to come in and eventually push out existing residents who can no longer afford to live in the area.

== Implementations ==
=== Land Recycling in the EU ===
An in-depth examination of land recycling in different countries shows many different perspectives on implementations of land recycling.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trefzer|first1=Annette|last2=Jackson|first2=Jeffrey T.|last3=McKee|first3=Kathryn|last4=Dellinger|first4=Kirsten|date=2014|title=Introduction: The Global South and/in the Global North: Interdisciplinary Investigations|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/585671|journal=The Global South|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=1–15|doi=10.2979/globalsouth.8.2.1|s2cid=141973073|issn=1932-8656}}</ref> The general European focus looked at land use in the [[European Union|EU]] and the importance of reducing new land use as well as reducing addition of [[impervious surface]] which disrupts natural ecosystems.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/land-recycling-in-europe|title=Land recycling in Europe|website=European Environment Agency|language=en|access-date=2020-02-28}}</ref> Beginning with research, a database maintained by the [[Copernicus Programme]] is used in the EU to monitor land use changes, its main components are Corine Land Cover (CLC) and Urban Atlas (UA).<ref name="":0"" /> Each of these has its own indicators for measuring increasing land use and increasing urbanization, for Corine Land Cover the flows of land recycling are split based on previously developed and undeveloped land because they each have different potential to produce green urban infrastructure.<ref name="":0"" /> For the Urban Atlas database, the focus is the same but more geographically and theme specific accuracy so it used to test more of the land recycling indicators.<ref name="":0"" /> The indicators were tested in all the countries in Europe from 1990 to 2002 in three sections, the tests were used to compare projections and determine the meaningfulness of land recycling using data from the CLC and UA datasets.<ref name="":0"" /> The results of the data analysis showed little to no trends in land recycling and more variation in between the different European countries.<ref name="":0"" /> The approach of the EU then focused more on the large scale environmental impacts of land recycling by quantification and identification of places where land use could be improved.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Land Recycling in Germany ===
On a smaller scale, Germany focused on limiting the amount of [[land conversion]] specifically for settling and traffic to 30 ha per day starting in 2002 as a part of the National Sustainability Strategy.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=Dillmann|first1=Oliver|last2=Beckmann|first2=Volker|date=2018-12-12|title=Do Administrative Incentives for the Containment of Cities Work? An Analysis of the Accelerated Procedure for Binding Land-Use Plans for Inner Urban Development in Germany|journal=Sustainability|volume=10|issue=12|pages=4745|doi=10.3390/su10124745|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref> They also incentivized urban development and improvement by making it easier for contractors to obtain permits to develop urban areas.<ref name="":1"" /> Studies were done to see the effectiveness of the implementation of this policy by looking at [[Stralsund]].<ref name="":1"" /> The city was chosen for its ability to be developed as a mostly rural part of [[Germany]] as well as for its appeal for not only younger families looking for in expensive places to settle but also for companies looking for places to develop.<ref name="":1"" /> The land development of Stralsund was then monitored from 1992 to 2018, the focus of development started with industrialization of the outskirts of the town, then brownfield transformation and finally, residential development.<ref name="":1"" /> Cost benefit also played a big role in the conversion of pieces of land which hadn't been in use for a long period of time like, a military property.<ref name="":1"" /> As development continued, there was also compensation for interference with ecosystems and natural spaces by addition of green spaces and by planting trees.<ref name="":1"" /> When comparing both the old land use plan and the new land use plan, they found that the cost of the new had the potential to save 55% of costs, but ultimately there wasn't much change between the results of the old and the new land use plans.<ref name="":1"" /> The application of an accelerated inner urban development plan was neither advantageous nor non-advantageous, for Stralsund, Germany, because of the previous structure of the policy.<ref name="":1"" />  The country of Germany also had goals to reach [[land degradation]] neutrality by 2030 by reaching its sustainable development goals specifically based on soil improvement.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=Rong|last2=Wang|first2=Rongyu|last3=Sedlin|first3=Thomas|date=2014-05-28|title=Land-Development Offset Policies in the Quest for Sustainability: What Can China Learn from Germany?|journal=Sustainability|volume=6|issue=6|pages=3400–3430|doi=10.3390/su6063400|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free|hdl=10535/9521|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wunder|first1=Stephanie|last2=Bodle|first2=Ralph|date=February 2019|title=Achieving land degradation neutrality in Germany: Implementation process and design of a land use change based indicator|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=92|pages=46–55|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2018.09.022|s2cid=159012665|issn=1462-9011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/topics/soil-agriculture/land-use-reduction/brownfield-redevelopment-inner-urban-development|title=Brownfield redevelopment and inner urban development|last=Stallmann|first=Martin|date=2014-02-13|website=Umweltbundesamt|language=en|access-date=2020-02-28}}</ref>

Germany has focused a lot on brownfield development as much of Europe with that including not just contaminated land but also land which was previously developed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ganser|first1=Robin|last2=Williams|first2=Katie|date=2007-04-13|title=Brownfield Development: Are We Using the Right Targets? Evidence from England and Germany|journal=European Planning Studies|volume=15|issue=5|pages=603–622|doi=10.1080/09654310600852654|s2cid=154584830|issn=0965-4313}}</ref> The push for target amounts of recycled land stems from status quo influence with other countries development of brownfield mitigation work. In [[Leipzig|Leipzig, Germany]] improvement of land and community quality was done by creating more urban forestry.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal|last1=Rink|first1=Dieter|last2=Arndt|first2=Thomas|date=2016|title=Investigating perception of green structure configuration for afforestation in urban brownfield development by visual methods—A case study in Leipzig, Germany|journal=Urban Forestry & Urban Greening|volume=15|pages=65–74|doi=10.1016/j.ufug.2015.11.010|issn=1618-8667}}</ref> With increased research of the people's response to the improved brownfields generally quality of life was improved.<ref name="":6"" /> Some research shows that the greenspaces though positive needed to be made more usable for improvement of quality of life.<ref name="":6"" /> Mainly stakeholders have a say in the way greenspace is allocated in Germany, so there is more of a push to ensure policy matches with what is beneficial for the people who would be using greenspaces not just in Germany but in other European countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Altherr|first1=Wendy|last2=Blumer|first2=Daniel|last3=Oldörp|first3=Heike|last4=Nagel|first4=Peter|date=2007|title=How do stakeholders and legislation influence the allocation of green space on brownfield redevelopment projects? Five case studies from Switzerland, Germany and the UK|journal=Business Strategy and the Environment|volume=16|issue=7|pages=512–522|doi=10.1002/bse.595|issn=0964-4733}}</ref>

=== Land Recycling Programs in the United States ===

==== Pennsylvania ====
In Pennsylvania a land recycling program was established to promote the voluntary clean up and reuse of contaminated sites. This program was established in 1995 and is also known as the Voluntary Cleanup Program.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Land Recycling Program|url=https://www.dep.pa.gov:443/Business/Land/LandRecycling/Pages/default.aspx|access-date=2021-09-22|website=Department of Environmental Protection|language=en-US}}</ref> This program aims to set four main standards, the first is to set structured standards. This allows for public knowledge of the cost of cleaning up a site, and ensures the protection of the present and future use of the site. The second standard is granted liability relief. The third standard promotes transparency by giving specific time frames for clean ups and routine reporting of what is being done on the site. Lastly, the fourth standard for this land recycling program is providing financial assistance for cleanups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dep.pa.gov:443/Business/Land/LandRecycling/Pages/default.aspx|title=Land Recycling Program|website=Department of Environmental Protection|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-27}}</ref>

==== Examples ====

===== Ghirardelli Square =====
[[Ghirardelli Square]] is in [[San Francisco|San Francisco, California]] and is the center of many examples of land recycling and building reuse. Designed by [[Lawrence Halprin]] and [[William Wurster]] opening in 1964, this was one of the first examples of major land recycling in the United States. Surrounding this square is many buildings and waterfront properties that were originally used for production of local goods as well as transportation through the bay. No longer needed for their original uses, these buildings have been transformed and retrofitted to accommodate the needs of the community and attract tourism.<ref>{{Citation|title=Adaptive reuse|date=2020-02-27|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adaptive_reuse&oldid=942880590|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref>

The inclusion of new retail spaces, offices, and residential properties in these existing abandoned buildings not only put to use otherwise empty spaces but also prevent the erection of new structures and therefore use less materials, energy, and land. In addition to this, Ghirardelli Square also shows the change of building use to reflect the needs of the residents. Churches specifically have changed from predominantly Christian to other religious uses or convert into secular uses such as housing and businesses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghirardelli_Square|title=Ghirardelli Square|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>{{Circular reference|date=October 2020}}

===== Foundation Hotel =====
The Foundation Hotel in [[Detroit|Detroit, Michigan]] is an [[Adaptive reuse]] project designed by local firm McIntosh Poris Associates (MPA) with collaboration with Simone Deary Design group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.architecturalrecord.com/articles/13279-detroit-foundation-hotel-by-mcintosh-poris-associates?v=preview|title=Detroit Foundation Hotel by McIntosh Poris Associates|website=www.architecturalrecord.com|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> This project actually combined two adjacent buildings that were not in use. The main building was built in 1929 and originally housed the city's oldest fire department. The additional building was once home to Pontchartrain Wine Cellars.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.curbed.com/2017/11/2/16598172/adaptive-reuse-architecture-united-states|title=9 projects that reimagine old buildings, from factories to firehouses|last=Barber|first=Megan|date=2017-11-02|website=Curbed|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref>  In 2013 the fire department moved out and the building was left unoccupied for over a year until bought by Aparium Hotel Group.

This project focused on the new needs of the community while still preserving the aesthetic and incorporated [[Historic preservation]] in their work. This is significant because as stated above, gentrification can be a major negative effect during land recycling and the attempt to maintain the existing exterior of the building counteracts this.

===== Wonder Bread Factory =====
[[Washington, D.C.]]’s [[Wonder Bread]] Factory sat in Shaw neighborhood from early 1913 to the mid-1980s in full production. After the company moved out of the space the building was abandoned and vacant for almost 20 years until Douglas Development, founded by [[Douglas Jemal]], bought it in 1997. The building sat vacant for another 15 years until it was redeveloped and converted it into offices in 2013.<ref name="":7"" />

This building also pulled on [[Historic preservation]] by minimizing the level of exterior renovation as much as possible while still creating a new use for a space that was highly needed in the community.  This building is 98,000 square feet and is now [[Loft]] styles offices available to the public.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://douglasdevelopment.com/properties/wonder-bread-factory/|title=Wonder Bread Factory {{!}} Douglas Development|website=douglasdevelopment.com|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Bioremediation]]
*[[Environmental design]]
*[[Green development]]
*[[Green infrastructure]]
*[[Green urbanism]]
*[[Land banking]]
*[[Land development]]
*[[Land reclamation]]
*[[Land rehabilitation]]
*[[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]]
*[[New Urbanism]]
*[[Superfund]]
*[[Sustainable architecture]]
*[[Sustainable city]]
*[[Sustainable design]]
*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Urban planning]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.cclr.org Center for Creative Land Recycling]
* {{cite book
|editor-last=Fleming
|editor-first=George
|title= Recycling derelict land
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IEKC60pckAQC
|access-date= 2009-11-08
|year= 1991
|publisher= Thomas Telford
|isbn= 978-0-7277-1318-6
}}

{{recycling|state=expanded}}

[[Category:Land use]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:New Urbanism]]
[[Category:Urban studies and planning terminology]]
[[Category:Environmental issues with soil]]
[[Category:Redevelopment]]
[[Category:Recycling]]"
Systemic development,"'''Systemic development''' is a process of thinking about development which uses a [[systems thinking]] approach to create a solution to a social, environmental, and economic stress which the world is suffering from.

== Overview ==
[[File:Sustainable development.svg|thumb|Development can be a combination of multiple disciplines. Sustainable development focuses on a balance of environmental, economic, and social.]]
The core approach of systemic development is a process for thinking holistically while addressing complex issues and progressing towards a mutual goal with high participation rates.<ref name="":3"" /> The process encompasses comprehension of current activities and future needs from a holistic perspective. For success, it is essential that the process moves from an integrated assessment to a sustainable assessment. The perspective must consider the many facets of the current and proposed development including the economic, social, environmental, political and ecological aspects. The idea behind a systemic development approach can be applied to many disciplines, similar to [[sustainable development]]. Systemic development is practice rather than [[sustainability]], which is an end state.<ref name="":0"" />

== History ==
[[Systems theory|General Systems Theory]] (GST) laid the foundation to systemic thinking. [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy|Ludwig Von Bertalanffy]] was known as the founder of the original principles of GST.<ref name="":3"">Cruz, Ivonne, Andri Stahel, and Manfred Max-Neef. ""Towards a Systemic Development Approach: Building on the Human-Scale Development Paradigm."" ''Ecological Economics'' 68.7 (2009): 2021-030. ''Elsevier''. Web. 20 Apr. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.02.004 .</ref> Prior to 1968, when GST was introduced in Bertalanffy’s book, ''General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications'', the traditional approach to development used linear thinking or cause-and-effect thinking. GST was influenced by many different types of theories such as “Chaos theory, complexity theory, catastrophe theory, cybernetics, fuzzy set theory, and learning matrices” <ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last=Spruill|first=Nina|last2=Kenney|first2=Con|last3=Kaplan|first3=Laura|date=2001-03-01|title=Community Development and Systems Thinking: Theory and Practice|journal=National Civic Review|language=en|volume=90|issue=1|pages=105–116|doi=10.1002/ncr.90110|issn=1542-7811}}</ref>  In 1990, [[Peter Senge]], author of ''[[The Fifth Discipline]]'', wove systemic thinking approach into development.<ref name="":0"" />

== Concepts ==
The integration of ontology, methodology, epistemology, and axiology has formed an outline for GST. Together, these concepts and philosophies contribute to the theory of systemic development.<ref>Sedlacko, Michal, Andre Martinuzzi, Inge Røpke, Nuno Videira, and Paula Antunes. ""Participatory Systems Mapping for Sustainable Consumption: Discussion of a Method Promoting Systemic Insights."" ''Ecological Economics'' 106 (2014): 33-43. ''Elsevier''. Web. 05 Mar. 2017. http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0921800914002043/1-s2.0-S0921800914002043-main.pdf?_tid=9d75173e-4500-11e7-b416-00000aacb361&acdnat=1496125640_f44c0f82766115a9b6be398ef056d52f .</ref>

=== Ontological ===
[[Ontology]] is the most basic fundamental tool. In a systemic development approach, the first step is to define the boundaries, thresholds, and stakeholders.<ref name="":1"">Sala, Serenella, Biagio Ciuffo, and Peter Nijkamp. ""A Systemic Framework for Sustainability Assessment."" ''Ecological Economics'' 119 (2015): 314-25. ''Elsevier''. Web. 05 Mar. 2017. http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0921800915003821/1-s2.0-S0921800915003821-main.pdf?_tid=24da3502-4500-11e7-951c-00000aacb35d&acdnat=1496125438_401becd0b4afcc87524ef4bc3b8de9af .</ref>  Understanding what is, is crucial to understand the layers of complexity of the development needs.

=== Methodological ===
[[Methodology]] in systemic development must consider all variables, values, and sustainability principles, and aim to ensure that no elements have been neglected. It is important to ensure completeness, comprehensiveness, and transparency of the assessment.<ref name="":1"" />  Mutual feedback and interactions between stakeholders should be modeled and assessed using carefully designed specific methodologies.

=== Epistemological ===
[[Epistemology]] stresses how dialogue and communication by the stakeholders are the key tools to systemic development. This is when the verification and confirmation of the facets of the development process are discovered. Insight from each stakeholder is important to enhance and broaden the perspective of all involved. It is essential to take these viewpoints into consideration because they influence the process, the trends, the drivers of change, and the interactions between the parts.<ref name="":1"" /> It is during this phase that learning is accomplished.

=== Axiological ===
Axiologology emphasizes the ethical and aesthetic responsibility during the development process. It is important because the solution manifested by the systemic development process needs to represent the values of the represented stakeholders.

==Framework ==
=== Holistic Thinking ===
To successfully achieve development through a [[systems approach]], holistic thinking is necessary. A holistic approach to a system thinks about each variable, the space between the variables and what defines the variable. “It’s the sum of the interaction of its parts”<ref name="":3"" /> In this process each individual must learn from each other to understand the whole system in a [[multidimensional]] way to find a solution. To think about development with a systemic lens, one needs to be able to see the whole instead of parts and understand the relationship between the parts, the way the parts move, what drives the behavior of the parts, what influences the flow or direction, and to understand why there are no more or no fewer parts.<ref name="":2"">Flander, Katleen De, and Jeb Brugmann. ""Pressure-Point Strategy: Leverages for Urban Systemic Transformation."" ''Sustainability'' 9.1 (2017): 99. ''Sustainability''. Web. 15 May 2017. http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/9/1/99 .</ref> The many factors that make up the whole can be a complex system.

=== Stakeholders ===
Including many diverse stakeholders helps each individual to grow their own perspective, gain an understanding of others and to increase their creativity. Systemic involvement must strive for a [[Transdisciplinarity|transdisciplinary]] approach instead of a [[Multidisciplinary approach|multidisciplinary]] or [[interdisciplinary]] approach to achieve successful development.<ref name="":1"" /> Transdisciplinary allows for the integration of methodologies and epistemologies through collaboration of the different stakeholders. Including more perspectives in the loop will increase the chance of a successful solution.

=== Communication and Learning ===
The foundation of systemic development, systems thinking, when applied, creates knowledge which leads to expanded knowledge, which leads to success.<ref name="":0"" /> Dialog is an essential tool for sharing knowledge and translating it into action. Communication can provide feedback and insight about “system, culture, practices, and artifacts and about the objectives and values of the project sponsor, client, and other stakeholders.”<ref name="":0"" />  Learning happens during the dialog process as each stakeholder comes to observe other stakeholder’s values and ideas about what successful development would encompass.

''The Fifth Element'', by Peter Senge, emphasizes the importance of learning to improve lives using systems thinking. Individuals who acquire information, knowledge, and skills from other stakeholders and the environment tend to experience a change in their own lives and livelihood.<ref name="":3"" /> They themselves then become the agents of change by sharing their knowledge with others.<ref>Work Bank. Knowledge for Development. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p, 4.</ref>

=== Complex loop ===
A feedback loop, closed loop, or systems complex model is a tool to help cope with complexity<ref name="":1"" /> and understand the system as a whole. The tool will help to visualize the direction, velocity, delay time, long term and short term effects, and to help see the dynamic process. Feedback is necessary to learn about each other, including objectives and values of stakeholders and officials. A systemic approach to development is change oriented. The approach must encourage humans to communicate through interpersonal interactions, address the values of each stakeholder, and take part in developing and understanding the complex loop.<ref name="":2"" />

== Goals ==
[[File:Systems_thinking_about_the_society.svg|thumb|Parts, society, needs, means, individuals, and bigger picture are pieces of the puzzle that must be accounted for to make systemic development successful.]]
Systemic development is based on the principle that one must understand the complexity of the whole system to develop a solution. This can be accomplished by learning different elements in the system and applying them to their existing knowledge. We must learn about the past suggested solutions, the balance of the system, influx of the system, the challenges within the system, the best timing for each element, learning about uncertainty of cause-and-effect, the best leverage points in the system, the system does not work unless every piece is functioning at its prime, and there is no one individual at fault if everyone is working together.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Systemic development : local solutions in a global environment|author=Sheffield, Jim|last2=Emergence.|first2=Institute for the Study of Coherence and|last3=N.Z.)|first3=ANZSYS Conference (13th : 2007 : Auckland|date=2009|publisher=Isce Publishing|isbn=9780981703275|oclc=314017669}}</ref>

The goal of systemic development is to have community participants shift from being reactors to viewing themselves “as active participants in shaping their reality [to move] from reacting to the present to creating the future”<ref name="":1"" />

The non-linear processes must coincide, be fluid and strive to benefit all parties involved.

==See also==
* [[Soft systems methodology]] 
* [[Systems philosophy]] 
* [[Sustainable Development]] 
* [[Community Development]] 
* [[Social Systems Theory]] 
* [[Developmental Systems Theory]] 
* [[Economic Development]] 
* [[Ecology Systems Theory]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Systemic Development}}
[[Category:Systems thinking]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Harmony with nature,"The term ""Harmony with Nature"" refers to a principle of amicable and holistic co-existence between [[Human|humanity]] and [[nature]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dancer |first=Helen |date=2021-01-02 |title=Harmony with Nature: towards a new deep legal pluralism |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/07329113.2020.1845503 |journal=The Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=21–41 |doi=10.1080/07329113.2020.1845503 |s2cid=229424714 |issn=0732-9113|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is used in several contexts, most prominently in relation to [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Zu |first=Liangrong |title=Sustainable Development: Harmony with Nature |date=2022 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91117-1_17 |work=Responsible and Sustainable Business: The Taoism's Perspective |pages=263–275 |editor-last=Zu |editor-first=Liangrong |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-91117-1_17 |isbn=978-3-030-91117-1 |s2cid=246915866 |access-date=2022-10-19}}</ref> and the [[rights of nature]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Putzer |first1=Alex |last2=Lambooy |first2=Tineke |last3=Jeurissen |first3=Ronald |last4=Kim |first4=Eunsu |date=2022-06-13 |title=Putting the rights of nature on the map. A quantitative analysis of rights of nature initiatives across the world |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2022.2079432 |journal=Journal of Maps |volume=18 |pages=89–96 |doi=10.1080/17445647.2022.2079432|s2cid=249692556 |hdl=11382/550531 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> both aimed at addressing [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic environmental crises]]. In 2009, the [[United Nations]] created a program of the same name.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Harmony With Nature - UN Docs |url=http://www.harmonywithnatureun.org/unDocs/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=www.harmonywithnatureun.org}}</ref> Following support from the [[Politics of Bolivia|Bolivian Government]], the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] approved further resolutions on the topic.<ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Rights of Mother Earth « Bolivia UN |url=http://boliviaun.net/cms/?cat=136 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812002048/http://boliviaun.net/cms/?cat=136 |archive-date=2011-08-12 |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Boliviaun.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Initiatives of the President of the 65th Session - General Assembly of the United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/president/65/initiatives/HarmonywithNature.html |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Un.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2009-12-22 |title=The United Nations approved the resolution ""Harmony with Nature"" proposed by Bolivia « Mother Earth |url=http://motherearthrights.org/2009/12/22/the-united-nations-approved-the-resolution-%E2%80%9Charmony-with-nature%E2%80%9D-proposed-by-bolivia/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320012142/http://motherearthrights.org/2009/12/22/the-united-nations-approved-the-resolution-%E2%80%9Charmony-with-nature%E2%80%9D-proposed-by-bolivia/ |archive-date=2012-03-20 |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Motherearthrights.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2010-12-23 |title=UN Approves Two More Resolutions by Bolivia / ONU aprueba dos resoluciones más propuestas por Bolivia « Bolivia UN |url=http://boliviaun.net/cms/?p=1975 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113003059/http://boliviaun.net/cms/?p=1975 |archive-date=2011-11-13 |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Boliviaun.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2011-04-20 |title=UN General Assembly Debates Harmony With Nature « Bolivia UN |url=http://boliviaun.net/cms/?p=2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830040423/http://boliviaun.net/cms/?p=2016 |archive-date=2011-08-30 |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Boliviaun.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2011-04-20 |title=Speech by Bolivia at UN Dialogue on Harmony with Nature « World People's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth |url=http://pwccc.wordpress.com/2011/04/20/speech-by-bolivia-at-un-dialogue-on-harmony-with-nature/ |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Pwccc.wordpress.com}}</ref> Events like the [[United Nations Earth Summit 2012]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthsummit2012.org/ |title=Earth Summit 2012 |publisher=[[Earth Summit 2012]] |date= |accessdate=2011-10-15}}</ref> have provided a platform for exchange between different stakeholders. Below is the text of the proposal.

==Text of the proposal==
{{Cleanup|section|reason=This section needs to be summarized to be in conformity with wikipedia editing policies. Long, verbatim-copied texts may be placed in Wikisource instead, when their copyright allows for it.|date=June 2022}}

'''Preliminary Proposal of the Plurinational State of Bolivia for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20)'''

The achievement of [[sustainable development]] in the 21st Century requires a Social and Ecological Contract among human beings and our Mother Earth that brings together and builds upon the progress made in the [[World Charter for Nature]] (1982),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm |title=A/RES/37/7. World Charter for Nature |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=2011-10-15}}</ref> the [[Rio Declaration]] (1992),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_sids/sids_pdfs/BPOA.pdf|title=Report of the Global Conference on the sustainable Development of small island developing States|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-11-05}}</ref> the [[Earth Charter]] (2000),<ref>{{cite web |author=ECI Sec 3 |url=http://www.earthcharterinaction.org/content/pages/Read-the-Charter.html |title=Read the Charter |publisher=Earthcharterinaction.org |date= |accessdate=2011-10-15 |archive-date=2010-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100426121433/http://www.earthcharterinaction.org/content/pages/Read-the-Charter.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the [[World People’s Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth|World People's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth]] (2010).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwccc.wordpress.com/ |title=World People's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth |publisher=Pwccc.wordpress.com |date= |accessdate=2011-10-15}}</ref>

It would include the following premises:

'''I. WE ARE BREAKING THE BALANCE OF THE EARTH SYSTEM'''

1. Twenty years after the ""Rio Declaration,"" it is necessary to update its First Principle such that it would state: ""Human beings and nature are at the center of concerns for sustainable development."" It is essential to get beyond this [[anthropocentric]] vision. Not only do human beings ""have the right to a healthy life,"" but so too does nature, which is the basis of survival for all species including humans.

2. Nature is not just a set of resources that can be exploited, modified, altered, privatized, commercialized and transformed without any consequences. Earth is the only home we have. The Earth does not belong to us; we belong to the Earth.

3. The Earth is a living system. It is an indivisible, interdependent and interrelated community {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} human beings, nature, the atmosphere, the [[hydrosphere]], and the [[geosphere]]. Any substantive alteration of one of its components can affect other areas and the entire system. The Earth is the source of life. It is a system that coordinates physical, chemical, biological and ecological elements in a manner that makes life possible. Through the term ''[[wikt:Mother Earth|Mother Earth]]'', we express this relationship of belonging to a system and respect for our home.

4. Human activity is altering the dynamics and functioning of the Earth system to a degree never before seen. We have exceeded the limits of our system. We have broken harmony with nature. We are living through a series of rising crises that could cause the collapse of the system. It is essential to restore, affirm and guarantee the existence, integrity, interrelation, interaction and regeneration of the Earth system as a whole and of all of its components.

'''II. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY'''

5. In this century, the two central challenges of sustainable development are to overcome poverty and inequality, and to reestablish balance within the Earth system. Both objectives are intrinsically linked, and one cannot be achieved without the other.

6. It is essential to recognize and affirm that growth has limits. The pursuit of unending development on a finite planet is unsustainable and impossible. It is unsustainable and impossible. The limit to development is defined by the regenerative capacity of the Earth's vital cycles. When growth begins to break that balance, as we see with global warming, we can no longer speak of it as development, but rather, the deterioration and destruction of our home. A certain level of growth and industrialization is needed to satisfy basic needs and guarantee the human rights of a population, but this level of ""necessary development"" is not about permanent growth, but rather, balance among humans and with nature.

7. Sustainable development seeks to [[eradicate poverty]] in order to live well, not generate wealthy people who live at the expense of the poor. The goal is the satisfaction of basic human needs in order to allow for the development of human capabilities and human happiness, strengthening community among human beings and with Mother Earth. In a world in which 1% of the population controls 50% of the wealth of the planet, it will not be possible to eradicate poverty or restore harmony with nature.

8. To end poverty and achieve an equitable distribution of well being, the basic resources and firms should be in the hands of the public sector and society. Only a society that controls its principal sources of income can aspire to a just distribution of the benefits needed to eliminate poverty.

9. The so-called ""developed"" countries must reduce their levels of over-consumption to reestablish harmony among human beings and with nature, allowing for the sustainable development of all developing countries. The [[ecological footprint]] of the developed countries is between 3 and 5 times larger than the average ecological footprint that the Earth system can sustain without an impact on its vital cycles.

10. The developing countries should follow new paradigms different from those used by developed countries in order to attend to the basic needs of their populations and reestablish harmony with nature. It is not sustainable or viable for all countries to follow the example of developed countries without causing our system to collapse.

11. Sustainable development cannot happen only at the national level. The well being of a country is only sustainable if it contributes to the well being of the entire system. The pillar of sustainable development can only be achieved from a global perspective. The so-called developed countries are still far from reaching sustainable development.

'''III. TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT'''

12. In an interdependent and interconnected system like that of Earth, we cannot recognize the rights of the human part of the system without affecting the rest of the system. To reestablish balance with nature, we must acknowledge its intrinsic value and clearly establish the obligations of humans toward nature, and also recognize that nature has rights that should be respected, promoted, and defended. Just as human beings have rights, the Mother Earth also has the right to exist, the right to maintain its vital cycles, the right to regeneration, the right to be free from structural alteration, and the right to relate to the other parts of the Earth system. Without respecting and guaranteeing the rights of nature, it is not possible to guarantee human rights and achieve sustainable development.

13. We have to end the system of consumption, waste and luxury. Millions of people are dying of hunger in the poorest parts of the globe, while in the richest areas, millions of dollars are spent to combat obesity. We must change the unsustainable patterns of consumption, production, and waste through public policy, regulations, and the conscious and active participation of society. This includes promoting ethics that value human beings for what they are, not what they have.

14. To guarantee the human right to water, education, health, communication, transportation, energy and sanitation, above all in the very poor and marginalized sectors, the provision of these services must be essentially public and based on efficient social management, not private business.

15. States should ensure the right of their populations to proper nutrition by strengthening food sovereignty policies that promote: a) food production by farmers, indigenous peoples and small agricultural producers; b) access to land, water, seeds, credit and other resources for family and community producers; c) the development of social and public enterprises for food production, distribution, and sale that prevent hoarding and contribute to the stability of food prices in domestic markets, thus halting speculative practices and the destruction of local production; d) the right of citizens to define what goods they wish to consume, the origins of those goods and how they are produced; e) consumption of what is necessary and the prioritization of local production; f) practices that contribute to reestablishing harmony with nature, avoiding greater desertification, deforestation, and destruction of biological diversity; g) the promotion of the use of indigenous seeds and traditional knowledge. Food production and commercialization must be socially regulated and cannot be left to free market forces.

16. Without water, there is no life. Humans and all living things have the [[right to water]], but water also has rights. All States and peoples worldwide should work together in solidarity to ensure that loss of vegetation, deforestation, the pollution of the atmosphere and contamination are prevented from continuing to alter the hydrological cycle. These cause [[desertification]], lack of food, temperature increase, [[sea level rise]], migrations, [[acid rain]], and physical-chemical changes that can cause ecosystems to die.

17. Forests are essential to the balance and integrity of planet Earth and a key element in the proper functioning of its ecosystems and the broader system of which we are a part. Thus we cannot consider them as simple providers of goods and services for human beings. The protection, preservation and recuperation of forests is required to reestablish the balance of the Earth system. Forests are not plantations that can be reduced to their capacity to capture carbon and provide environmental services. The maintenance of native forests and woodlands is essential for the water cycle, the atmosphere, biodiversity, the prevention of flooding, and the preservation of ecosystems. Forests are also home to indigenous peoples and communities. The preservation of forests should be pursued through integral and participatory management plans financed with public funding from developed countries.

18. It is essential to guarantee a real and effective reduction of [[greenhouse gases]], particularly on the part of the developed countries historically responsible for climate change, in order to stabilize the increase in temperature to 1&nbsp;°C during this century. We must therefore strengthen the [[Kyoto Protocol]], not replace it with a more flexible voluntary agreement in which each country does what it chooses. It is necessary to eliminate carbon market mechanisms and offsets so that real domestic reductions are made within the countries with said obligations.

19. All forms of violence against women are incompatible with sustainable development, including violence done to women in militarily occupied territories and domestic or sexual violence that treats women as objects.

20. In order for sustainable development to exist, is essential to guarantee the full application of the [[United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples]].

21. Under the framework of common but differentiated responsibilities established in the 1992 Rio Declaration, the so-called developed countries must assume and pay their historical [[ecological debt]] for having contributed the most to the deterioration of the Earth system. The payment of this ecological debt to developing countries and the sectors most affected among their own populations consists of the transfer financial resources from public sources and also the effective transfer of appropriate technologies required by developing countries.

22. The resources developed countries dedicate to their defense, security and war budgets should be used to address the effects of climate change and the imbalance with nature. It is inexcusable that 1.5 trillion dollars in public funding are used on these budgets, while, to address the impacts of climate change in developing countries, they want to dedicate just 100 billion dollars from public and private funds as well as market sources by 2020.

23. To address the challenge of achieving sustainable development in the so-called developing countries, a [[financial transaction tax]] should be created to help build a Sustainable Development Fund that would be managed by developing countries.

24. Sustainable development requires a new international financial architecture to replace the [[World Bank]] and the [[IMF]] with entities that are democratic and transparent, that refrain from imposing conditions or structural adjustments, are controlled by the developing countries, and are based on the principles of solidarity and complementarity rather than commercialization and privatization.

25. It is essential to promote the exchange of scientific and technical knowledge and to remove intellectual property barriers to allow a true transfer of environmentally friendly technologies from developed countries to developing countries. An effective Technology Transfer Mechanism should be created based on the need for socially, culturally, and ecologically appropriate technologies in the countries of the South. This mechanism should not be a showcase for the sale of technologies by rich countries.

26. [[Intellectual property rights]] over genes, microorganisms and other forms of life are a threat to [[food sovereignty]], [[biodiversity]], access to medicine and other basic elements of the survival of low-income populations. All forms of [[intellectual property over life]] should be abolished.

27. [[Gross Domestic Product]] is not an adequate means of measuring the development and well being of a society. Thus it is necessary to create indicators for measuring the environmental destruction caused by certain economic activities in order to advance toward sustainable development in harmony with nature, integrating social and environmental aspects that are not aimed at the commercialization of nature and its functions.

28. Respect for the [[sovereignty of States]] is essential in the management and protection of nature under the framework of cooperation among States.

29. There is no single solution for all peoples. Human beings are diverse. Our peoples have their own unique cultures and identities. To destroy a culture is to threaten the identity of an entire people. Capitalism attempts to homogenize us all to convert us into consumers. There has not been, nor will there ever be, a single model for life that can save the world. We live and act in a pluralistic world, and a pluralistic world should respect diversity, which is itself synonymous with life. Respect for peaceful and harmonious complementarity among the diverse cultures and economies, without exploitation or discrimination against any single one, is essential for saving the planet, humanity, and life.

30. Peace is essential for sustainable development. There is no worse aggression against humanity and Mother Earth than war and violence. War destroys life. Nobody and nothing is safe from war. Those that fight suffer, as do those that are forced to go without bread in order to feed the war. Wars squander life and natural resources.

31. An International Tribunal of [[Environmental justice|Environmental]] and [[Climate Justice]] must be established to judge and sanction crimes against nature that transcend national borders, violating the rights of nature and affecting humanity.

32. The problems affecting humanity and nature are global in nature, and to address them requires the exercise of global democracy through the development of mechanisms of consultation and decision-making such as referendums, plebiscites, or popular consultations so that the citizens of the world as a whole may speak.

33. Sustainable development is incompatible with all forms of imperialism and [[neocolonialism]]. It is essential to end the imposition of conditionalities, military interventions, coups and different forms of blackmail in order to stop imperialism and neocolonialism.

34. The collective global response needed to confront the crisis we face requires structural changes. We must change the system, not the climate or the Earth system. In the hands of capitalism, everything is converted into merchandise: water, earth genomes, ancestral cultures, justice, ethics, life. It is essential to develop a pluralistic system based on the culture of life and harmony among human beings and with nature; a system that promotes sustainable development in the framework of solidarity, complementarity, equity, social and economic justice, social participation, respect for diversity, and peace.

'''IV. DANGEROUS AND FALSE SOLUTIONS'''

35. Not all that glitters is gold. Not all that is labeled ""green"" is environmentally friendly. We must use the precautionary principle and deeply analyze the different ""green"" alternatives that are presented before proceeding with their experimentation and implementation.

36. Nature cannot be subject to manipulation by new technologies without consequences in the future. History shows us that many dangerous technologies have been released in the market before their environmental or health impacts are known, or before their social and economic impacts on poor people and developing countries are understood. This is currently the case with genetically modified organisms, agrochemicals, biofuels, nanotechnology, and synthetic biology. These technologies should be avoided.

37. [[Climate engineering|Geoengineering]] and all forms of artificial manipulation of the climate should be prohibited, for they bring the enormous risk of further destabilizing the climate, biodiversity and nature.

38. It is necessary to create public and multilateral mechanisms within the United Nations to evaluate in an independent manner and without conflict of interest the potential environmental, health, social, and economic impacts of new technologies before they are spread. This mechanism must involve transparency and social participation by potentially affected groups.

39. The current ecological and climate crisis has put in jeopardy all of life on planet Earth, and thus it requires deep solutions based on the real causes of the climate crisis. It cannot be reduced to a simple market failure, which is a reductionist and narrow view.

40. The solution is not to put a price on nature. Nature is not a form of capital. The green economy should not distort the fundamental principles of sustainable development. It is wrong to say that we only value that which has a price, an owner, and brings profits. The market mechanisms that permit exchange among human beings and nations have proven incapable of contributing to an equitable distribution of wealth. To use an approach based on market principles and private appropriation to try to resolve the problem of inequality – itself a product of capitalism – is like trying to put out a fire with gasoline.

41. It is wrong to fragment nature into ""environmental services"" with a monetary value for market exchange. It is wrong to put a price on the capacity of forests to act as [[carbon sinks]], and worse to promote their commercialization as does [[REDD]] (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation). The market for carbon credits based on forests will lead to: a) noncompliance with effective emission reduction commitments by developed countries; b) the bulk of resources being appropriated by intermediaries and financial entities and rarely benefiting countries, indigenous peoples and forests themselves; c) the generation of speculative bubbles based on the sale and purchase of said certificates; and d) the establishment of new property rights over the capacity of forests to capture carbon dioxide, which will clash with the sovereign rights of States and the indigenous peoples that live in forests. To promote market mechanisms based on the economic needs of developing countries is a new form of neocolonialism.

42. [[“Green” capitalism|""Green"" capitalism]] will bring about natural resource grabbing, displacing humanity and nature from the essential elements needed for their survival. The drive for profit, instead of reestablishing harmony within the system, will provoke even greater imbalances, [[wealth condensation|concentrations of wealth]], and speculative processes.

'''V. GLOBAL GOVERNMENT AND SOCIAL PARTICIPATION'''

43. It is necessary to establish a United Nations organization to promote sustainable development in harmony with nature. This organization should articulate and unite the different authorities involved in order to avoid overlapping efforts and achieve effective coordination. Developing countries should have majority representation in said organization, and its functioning should be democratic, transparent, and accountable.

44. This organization should articulate all of the conventions regarding nature without leaving aside issues central to the United Nations, such as water.

45. Social participation is essential in this new organization. Workers, women, farmers, indigenous peoples, young people, scientists, and all sectors of society should be represented. The private sector cannot have the same amount of influence as the social sectors, given that, by definition, its goal is to create profit rather than social wellbeing. Effective mechanisms for interaction among all social actors are required.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/index.php?page=view&nr=212&type=12&menu=23&template=435 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402182458/http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/index.php?page=view&nr=212&type=12&menu=23&template=435 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-04-02 |title=Rio+20 - United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development |publisher=Uncsd2012.org |date=2011-04-20 |accessdate=2011-10-15}} </ref>

==See also==
* [[Rights of nature]]
* [[Naturales quaestiones#Subject|Naturales quaestiones]]
* [[Sumak Kawsay]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Rights of nature law}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:United Nations documents]]
[[Category:Sustainability in South America]]
[[Category:Rights of nature]]"
The Hartwell Paper,"{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
The '''Hartwell Paper''' called for a reorientation of [[Politics of climate change|climate policy]] after the perceived failure in [[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2009 of the UNFCCC climate conference in Copenhagen]]. It was a response to the [[United Nations]]' [[Kyoto Protocol]], a previous international agreement meant to reduce [[greenhouse gas emissions]]. The paper was published in May 2010 by the [[London School of Economics]] in cooperation with the [[University of Oxford]]. The authors are 14 natural and social scientists from Asia, Europe and North America, including [[Mike Hulme]], [[Roger A. Pielke (Jr)]], [[Nico Stehr]] and [[Steve Rayner]], who met under the [[Chatham House Rule]].<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/27939/1/HartwellPaper_English_version.pdf|title=The Hartwell Paper}}</ref>

The authors saw the [[Great Recession|2009 economic crisis]] as an opportunity to re-evaluate global priorities. They argued that ""decarbonisation will only be achieved successfully as a benefit contingent upon other goals which are politically attractive and relentlessly pragmatic.""

[[File:Hartwell House, Bucks.jpg| thumb | right | 200px | [[Hartwell House, Buckinghamshire|Hartwell House]], where the meetings took place.]]

They emphasize [[human dignity]] as a necessary guiding principle for climate [[Politics of climate change|policy]]: ""To reframe the climate issue around matters of human dignity is not just noble or necessary. It is also likely to be more effective than the approach of framing around human sinfulness – which has failed and will continue to fail.""<ref>[http://www.europeanbusinessreview.com/?p=2303 EU Climate Policy after the Crash of 09.] The European Business Review, September 2010 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325063036/http://www.europeanbusinessreview.com/?p=2303 |date=25 March 2014 }}</ref>

This principle of human dignity is expanded to three main objectives:
* 1. Energy access for all – the paper advocates taking investments in the innovations of renewable energy to decrease energy costs and to make them more affordable to society. Only this diversification of energy could extend the access to energy, especially in undeveloped countries.<ref name="":0"" />
* 2. Development that does not interfere with essential Earth systems.
* 3. Societies well equipped to withstand climate-related dangers.

Their ultimate goal is ""to develop non-carbon energy supplies at unsubsidised costs less than those using [[fossil fuels]].""<ref name="":0"">[http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/mackinderProgramme/theHartwellPaper The Hartwell Paper.] [[London School of Economics]], May 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=16099521 Oblique strategies], [[The Economist]], 11 May 2010</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8673828.stm After the crash – a new direction for climate policy.] BBC News, 11 May 2010</ref>

The Hartwell Paper recommends that they are to achieve this goal by introducing low [[carbon]] [[Carbon tax|taxes]]. However, this money is able to be used to develop a {{CO2}} free energy supply.<ref name="":0"" />

== Kyoto and Climate Change Misconceptions ==

""The previous 'Kyoto' model has dangerously narrowed the option space for thinking seriously and realistically about energy and environmental policies. The Hartwell Paper wishes to contribute to a new pragmatism in the policy discourse surrounding climate change. To this end, we gathered at Hartwell House in Buckinghamshire in February 2010 and this paper is the base of our work"".

The Hartwell Paper argues that, although we should attempt to reduce climate change, we must also prepare to adapt if necessary. According to the authors, the Kyoto principles implied that adaptation to the environment should be seen as a failure to halt climate change. Those at the Hartwell meeting proposed that these strategies; mitigation, and adaptation, should both be employed. This is to keep in mind the dignity of those who would be most affected while simultaneously slowing global warming.

The following are climate myths presented in the paper:
* '''Climate change is a problem that must be solved''' – ""Rather than being a discrete problem to be solved. Climate change is better understood as a persistent condition that must be coped with and can only be partially managed more – or less – well. It is just one part of a larger complex of such conditions encompassing population, technology, wealth disparities, resource use, etc.""<ref name="":1"" />
* '''The ""deficit model"" of science''' – The idea that the lack of information hinders the making of environmental progress. Once the science is understood by all, an agreement can be reached. The Hartwell authors call this a myth, saying that it doesn't address the varying political and religious ideologies that can result in differing interpretations of scientific data. ""In turn, this error has led to the common and flawed assumption that the solutions to climate change should be 'science driven' as if a shared understanding of science will lead to a political consensus.""<ref name="":1"" />

== Key Features of Hartwell Plan ==

The authors propose a holistic model of environmental practice. They believe there has been too much emphasis placed on carbon dioxide as if it is our only problematic emission. They state that while the {{CO2}} reduction is central to the plan, smaller changes in a variety of practices and industries are also important.
* Diversification and moving away from fossil fuels
* Eradication of ""Black Carbon"" – Black Carbon is simply soot, which can come from burning wood or coal within the home. This has an environmental effect far greater (per ton) than simple {{CO2}}. According to the authors, this is an important step to take, as it should be much easier than phasing out gasoline.
* Reduce Tropospheric Ozone
* Protect Tropical Forests
* The ""Kaya Identity"" – these are four primary factors when it comes to a region's environmental footprint. They are population, wealth, energy intensity, and carbon intensity. Nations face different environmental issues, and the solution for one is not the solution for all.

== Reception and Criticism ==

The Hartwell Paper has received both praise and criticism. According to The Economist, the Hartwell approach to decarbonisation has been a source of controversy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/16099521|title=Oblique strategies|date=11 May 2010|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=4 December 2017|issn=0013-0613}}</ref> Because large, rapidly industrializing nations are driven by fossil fuels, the authors claim that slowing this process just isn't politically feasible. ''The Economist'' article argues that Hartwell's ""oblique strategies"" may be more difficult to turn into policy than a more direct attack on carbon dioxide emissions.

==See also==
*[[Hartwell House, Buckinghamshire]]
*[[Kyoto Protocol]]
*[[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/mackinderProgramme/theHartwellPaper/ Official Homepage]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hartwell Paper, The}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Economics and climate change]]"
Saltire Prize,"{{Short description|Scottish technology prize for wave and tidal energy}}
{{distinguish|text=awards presented by the [[Saltire Society]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}{{En-GB|date=February 2024}}

The '''Saltire Prize''', named after the [[flag of Scotland]], was a national award for advances in the commercial development of [[marine energy]]. 

Announced in 2014, to be considered for the £10 million award, teams had to demonstrate, in [[Scottish waters]], a commercially viable [[Wave energy|wave]] or [[tidal stream energy]] technology ""that achieves the greatest volume of electrical output over the set minimum hurdle of 100&nbsp;GWh over a continuous 2-year period using only the power of the sea.""

The Saltire Prize was open to any individual, team or organisation from across the world who believed they had wave or tidal energy technology capable of fulfilling the challenge. Applications could be submitted between March 2010 and January 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saltireprize.com/challenge |title=The Challenge | publisher=saltireprize.com |accessdate=27 October 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224031443/http://www.saltireprize.com/challenge |archivedate=24 December 2014}}</ref>

The funding was later allocated to the '''Saltire Tidal Energy Challenge Fund''' as there were no eligible entries for the original prize. 

==Additional prizes==

* The '''Saltire Prize Lecture''' — delivered at the Scottish Renewables Marine Conference every September, it focused on the challenges in converting our world lead in wave and tidal energy to an industry of commercial scale, and in securing the economic, environmental and social benefits that this industry can bring. The lecture was designed to promote knowledge exchange between academics, industry, financiers and government.
* The '''Saltire Prize Medal''' — created to recognise outstanding contributions to the development of marine renewable energy. The Medal was awarded every March at the Scottish Renewables Annual Conference, Exhibition and Dinner.
* The '''Junior Saltire Prize''' — launched in 2011, this was aimed at primary and secondary school pupils and was designed to help raise awareness of the opportunities that Scotland has to exploit its marine renewables potential. It was sponsored by Skills Development Scotland and awards are presented to teams in three age groups: Primary 5-7 (age 8-12), Secondary 1-3 (age 11-15), and Secondary 4-6 (age 14-18).
* A '''Saltire Prize-sponsored doctorate''' — in collaboration with the Energy Technology Partnership (ETP). This was announced in August 2012. The research would consider how marine energy projects can be designed to maximise economic energy production while protecting the environment.
* '''Power of the Sea''' — a one-off junior photography competition sponsored by the Saltire Prize, aimed at raising awareness of the natural environment and its potential for marine energy. In December 2012, four young photographers from Scottish primary schools were selected by renowned Scottish photographer, David Eustace, as the national winners.

The Junior Saltire Prize and the sponsored doctorate were discontinued in 2016, having cost £60,000 and £48,418 respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Green |first=Chris |date=2018-05-08 |title=Lost at sea: Scottish taxpayers foot bill for unclaimed Saltire Prize |url=https://inews.co.uk/news/scotland/lost-at-sea-taxpayers-saltire-prize-decade-later-152258 |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=inews.co.uk |language=en}}</ref>

=== Saltire Prize Medal ===
In 2011 the inaugural Saltire Prize Medal was awarded to [[Stephen Salter|Professor Stephen Salter]], who led the team which designed the [[Salter's Duck]] device in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-12831298 |title=Inventor of 'Duck' technology wins Saltire Prize medal |work=BBC News |date=23 March 2011 |accessdate=22 September 2014}}</ref> [[Richard Yemm]], inventor of the [[Pelamis Wave Energy Converter]], was awarded the medal in 2012.<ref>{{cite web  |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-17526389 |title=Saltire Prize medal for inventor of Pelamis wave 'sea snake' |publisher=BBC News |date=28 March 2012 |accessdate=22 September 2014}}</ref> Professor [[Peter Fraenkel (marine engineer)|Peter Fraenkel]], MBE, a pioneer for the development of marine turbines, won the 2013 medal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saltireprize.com/news-events/saltire-prize-medal-2013|title=Saltire Prize Medal 2013|date=18 March 2013|accessdate=23 December 2014}}</ref>  The 2014 medal went to Allan Thomson, founder of [[Aquamarine Power]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saltireprize.com/news-events/saltire-prize-medal-2014-winner|title=Saltire Prize Medal 2014 Winner!|date=19 March 2014|accessdate=23 December 2014}}</ref> No further medals have been awarded.

==History==
When it was first announced in 2008 by then First Minister of Scotland [[Alex Salmond]] it was the world's largest ever single prize for innovation in marine renewable energy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2008/04/02151533 |title=World to compete for Saltire Prize| publisher=[[Scottish Government]] |date=4 April 2008 |accessdate=22 September 2014}}</ref> The prize was overseen by the Challenge Committee. Saltire Prize policy was the responsibility of the Offshore Renewables Policy Team in the Scottish Government's Energy and Climate Change Directorate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saltireprize.com/about-us |title=About us| publisher=saltireprize.com |accessdate=22 September 2014}}</ref>

When it launched, the criteria included:<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |title=Saltire Prize Competition Guidelines |url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/318534/0101611.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203110610/http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/318534/0101611.pdf |archive-date=2013-02-03 |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Scottish Government}}</ref>

* Open to any individual, team, or organsisation, from anywhere in the world, however projects had to be located in Scottish waters.
* Using the energy from waves and/or tidal streams to provide electrical output. Tidal barrages, offshore wind, osmotic power, ocean thermal energy conversion, and marine biomass were all excluded.
* Individual devices or arrays of multiple devices (comprising one or more technology) could be used, provided they were part of a discrete project with a single electricity connection point.

Registration was open between June 2012 and January 2015. The winner would be whoever generated the most electricity within a continuous 2-year period before the deadline of June 2017, subject to a minimum hurdle of 100&nbsp;GW. The winner was to be announced in July 2017.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Competitors ===
There were five entrants for the Saltire Prize, in a phase of the contest that ran until 2017, two wave energy and three tidal-stream:<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-19393023 |title=Renewables firms to compete for £10m Saltire Prize |work=[[BBC News]] |date=28 August 2012 |accessdate=22 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |last=Energy |first=Marine |date=2015-03-02 |title=Saltire Prize to remain unclaimed |url=https://www.offshore-energy.biz/saltire-prize-to-remain-unclaimed/ |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Offshore Energy |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="":2"">{{Cite news |date=2018-02-03 |title=Whatever happened to the Saltire Prize? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-business-42832168 |access-date=2024-02-10 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

* [[Pelamis Wave Power]], although the company went into administration in November 2014.
* [[Aquamarine Power]] secured a 40&nbsp;MW lease off the north-west coast of [[Isle of Lewis|Lewis]] for their Oyster wave energy device, although this company also went into administration in 2015 before deploying any devices there.
* [[Scottish Power|ScottishPower Renewables]] planned to deploy a 95&nbsp;MW tidal array at the Ness of Duncansby site, in the [[Pentland Firth]], however this project never progressed.
* West Islay Tidal was a proposed 30&nbsp;MW project by DP Energy in the [[Sound of Islay]], but again this project never progressed.
* The [[MeyGen]] tidal array developed by Atlantis Resources (now [[SIMEC Atlantis Energy]]) successfully installed phase 1a comprising four 1.5&nbsp;MW turbines by February 2017 and was operational by April 2018.<ref>{{cite news |last=White |first=Matthew |date=2008-04-12 |title=Meygen Starts 25 year operations phase |url=http://www.4coffshore.com/windfarms/meygen-starts-25-years-operations-phase-nid7458.html |work=4c Offshore}}</ref>

By March 2015, it was clear that the prize was not going to be claimed,<ref name="":1"" /> however the Saltire Prize Challenge Committee considered other options to drive innovation in the wave and tidal power sectors in Scotland.<ref name="":2"" /> In February 2015, the Saltire Tidal Energy Challenge Fund was announced.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite magazine |last=Ibbetson |first=Connor |date=2019-02-12 |title=Scottish Government eyes new tidal power schemes |url=https://www.newcivilengineer.com/latest/scottish-government-eyes-new-tidal-power-schemes-12-02-2019/ |access-date=2024-02-10 |magazine=New Civil Engineer |language=en}}</ref>

== Saltire Tidal Energy Challenge Fund ==
The '''Saltire Tidal Energy Challenge Fund''' was set up in February 2015 to provide support to the Scottish tidal power sector, complementing the funding for [[Wave Energy Scotland]]. The fund was to support capital cost of developing innovations to reduce the cost of tidal energy, for projects to be deployed in Scotland before March 2020. These had to demonstrate value and the potential for positive social and economic benefit to Scotland.<ref name="":3"" />

In August 2019, Orbital Marine Power was the first recipient of the fund, and awarded £3.4 million towards developing the [[Orbital O2]] turbine.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2019-08-26 |title=Orbital Lands £3.4M Saltire Prize |url=https://www.offshore-energy.biz/orbital-lands-3-4m-saltire-prize/ |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Offshore Energy |language=}}</ref>

In March 2020, [[SIMEC Atlantis Energy]] was awarded £1.5 million towards developing a sub-sea hub to connect multiple turbines at the [[MeyGen]] project.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McPhee |first=David |date=2020-03-25 |title=Simec Atlantis Energy wins £1.5m Scot Gov grant for Meygen project |url=https://www.energyvoice.com/renewables-energy-transition/230572/simec-atlantis-energy-wins-1-5m-scot-gov-grant-for-meygen-project/ |url-access=registration |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Energy Voice |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[List of engineering awards]]
* [[Crown Estate]]
* [[Marine Scotland]]
* [[Renewables Obligation]]
* [[Scottish Adjacent Waters Boundaries Order 1999]]
* [[Tidal stream generator]]
* [[Wave farm]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141018053308/http://www.saltireprize.com/ Official website]

{{Sustainable development in Scotland}}

[[Category:2007 establishments in Scotland]]
[[Category:2007 in science]]
[[Category:Awards established in 2007]]
[[Category:British science and technology awards]]
[[Category:Business and industry awards]]
[[Category:Electrical engineering awards]]
[[Category:Renewable energy in Scotland]]
[[Category:Renewable energy technology]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Scotland]]
[[Category:Scottish awards]]
[[Category:Scottish coast]]
[[Category:Scottish Government]]
[[Category:Sustainability in Scotland]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Tidal power]]
[[Category:Wave power]]"
Centre for Appropriate Rural Technology,"{{primary sources|date=July 2012}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Centre for Appropriate Rural Technology
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| type = [[Sustainability]], [[Technology]]
| tax_id =           <!-- or | vat_id = (for non-profit org) -->
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| purpose = Research and application of sustainable village
| headquarters = 
| location =  Sicambeni Village, Port St Johns, [[OR Tambo District Municipality]], [[Eastern Cape]], [[South Africa]]
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The '''Centre for Appropriate Rural Technology''' (CART) is a community-driven [[sustainable development]] project located in the [[Eastern Cape]] of [[South Africa]]. It functions as a life skills centre in the heart of Sicambeni Village, a rural village near Port St Johns.

==Background==
[[Image:theview.jpg|right|500px]]
The Eastern Cape is South Africa’s poorest region and has for many years been a victim of massive skill loss due to the [[rural exodus|migration]] of workers to the larger cities in seek of work.  Invariably these migrants find themselves living in the already overcrowded [[Township (South Africa)]] compounding South Africa’s desperate slum culture.
Having accrued 15 years of experience working in several African Countries, building communities with the homeless, CART was formed as a centre to tackle poverty in a more holistic way. CART aims to give the local population the skills and technology to allow them to live self-sustainably without the need to seek work outside of their own villages, ultimately allowing the migrants to return to their homelands.

==Goals==
[[Image:AllofCART.jpg|right|500px]]
CART’s primary goal is to complete the self sustainable model, serving as the epicentre to the surrounding village of over four hundred families. Technology developed here is being taught to and implemented within the community to produce a fully sustainable village. CART ensures that any technology implemented can be replicated in other rural environments, allowing this sustainable village to become a living example to other communities around South Africa and Globally. 

CART operates numerous other initiatives, including innovative farming techniques, to provide much needed nutritional enrichment and a HIV support group offering nutritional, physical and spiritual healing. 

==Technologies==
[[Image:Aeratedbed.JPG|right|200 px]]
[[Image:Lotsofbricks.JPG|right|200 px]]
One of the primary goals of CART is to experiment with and implement technologies that can be used sustainably in a rural environment. This includes effective water, waste, energy and building systems.

===Aerated beds===
[[Image:Brickpit.JPG|right|200 px]]
[[Image:Education centre.JPG|right|200 px]]
The aerated, raised beds can be implemented anywhere but are ideally suited to areas that have high [[clay]] content in the soil structure. Though clay-rich soil is ideal for keeping nutrients in the soil, it can also retain too much water. The raised structure design allows better [[drainage]], minimizes the threat of [[root rot]], and enables rooting vegetables (carrots, beets, onions, etc.) to grow significantly larger than when planted in the ground. The structure's unique shape also makes monitoring the fertility easier and the overall planting surface is greatly improved.

The garden resembles a [[compost heap]] with green matter placed on the very bottom of the structure, which is made from lengths of thin poles (latte). Decomposed material (wood chips, leaves, etc.) is layered on top of the green matter, followed by a mix of soil and compost. Seedlings are planted and mulched on top of the bed while herbs are planted on the sides, creating a network of strong roots to help contain the soil in the garden structure.

===Brick machine===
[[Image:Thedam.JPG|right|200 px]]
A hand-operated mechanical press creates stabilised bricks. Clay based soil mixed with five percent cement is used to form the base of the bricks.

===Dams===
[[Image:Biodigester.JPG|right|200 px]]
[[Image:Insidethatchedroof.JPG|right|200 px]]
Water management problems mean that only one crop per year is grown. Sometime the community has little choice but to drink from [[water contamination|contaminated rivers]]. The project aims to improve on this by using year round planting and more effective water management techniques.

===Biodigester===
[[Image:Small Garden Prototype Complete.png|right|200 px]]
[[Image:Sustainable.jpg|right|200 px]]
One of the most common problems facing rural communities around the world is that of waste disposal.  The incorrect disposal of animal and human waste can lead to the poisoning of waterways, render land un-farmable and cause numerous fatal diseases such as [[Cholera]], [[Typhoid]] and [[Diphtheria]].  CART needed a way to not only dispose of its waste but also to find a way of actually making this waste useful.  After much research it was decided that a [[Biodigester]] could provide the solution to this problem, however no design existed that could be cheaply replicated in rural areas – so CART made one.   Conventional Biodigesters cost in the region of US$30,000, CART’s costs about US$500.

The simple design consists of a hole 7m x 1.5m x 1.5m into which a reinforced PVC cylindrical black bag is placed.  At one end is the ‘inlet’ situated at the bottom of the bag, a pipe from the toilet block brings all human waste into the bag together with a hatch for animal and kitchen waste.  Two outlet pipes are situated at the other end of the bag, one at the top for gas removal the other is 1/3 of the way up for liquid removal.  The design incorporates a black colour so as to attract solar heat to accelerate decomposition.  The placement of the outlet pipe is important as it is necessary to maintain 1/3 liquids : 2/3 gas.

Due to the sealed nature of the bag all this waste begins to decompose anaerobically releasing [[methane]] gas, water and sludge waste whilst also killing harmful [[pathogens]] such as [[E-Coli]].  The methane gas is released and captured using the valve at the top of the outlet end of the bag, this gas can be used for cooking, lighting and heating  (although CART currently intend to use the gas solely for cooking.)  The water is released through the outlet pipe, this water is known as ‘High nutrient’ or ‘Black’ water.  Less than 10% of the products are solids and therefore only need removing from the bag every few years, these solids can be used as a high nutrient fertiliser for fruit trees or for plants where the fertiliser does not come into direct contact with the crop.  The black water is mixed with grey waters, such as shower or washing water (N.B CART only uses organic, [[bio-degradable]] washing products to ensure no toxins are introduced to the cycle.)  This water is filtered through sand and charcoal and used to irrigate the food gardens.  Excess water, together with runoff from the gardens is collected in the Dam, from which it can be used to water gardens in the dry season or filtered further making it safe for drinking (see [[water cycle]]).

===Indoor gardens===
The indoor garden is a conceptual design for a compact, portable garden that can be put in almost any living space. Ideally, the garden would be put under a south-facing window (in the northern hemisphere), and would provide enough food to sustain a family.

==See also==
*[[Appropriate technology]]
*[[Centre for Alternative Technology]]
*[[Sicambeni Rural University]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cartsa.co.za Centre for Appropriate Rural Technology]

[[Category:Appropriate technology organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in South Africa]]
[[Category:Non-profit organisations based in South Africa]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Appropriate technology advocates]]
[[Category:OR Tambo District Municipality]]"
Scottish government economy directorates,"{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2017}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2016}}
The '''Scottish government economy directorates''' were a set of [[:wikt:directorate|directorates]] within the [[Scottish government]], the executive arm of the devolved government of [[Scotland]].  The directorates were headed by Dr [[Andrew Goudie (economist)|Andrew Goudie]], who also acted as the chief economic adviser to the Scottish government (Goudie retired in 2011 and joined [[University of Strathclyde|Strathclyde University]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-14268157|title=Andrew Goudie to take up Strathclyde University role|work=BBC News|date=24 July 2011|access-date=2016-05-18}}</ref>). The directorates were responsible for transport, [[sustainable development]] and planning. In 2010, the transport directorate merged with [[Transport Scotland]], an [[List of Scottish Executive agencies|Executive Agency]] of the [[Scottish Government]] and accountable to [[Scottish Ministers]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.audit-scotland.gov.uk/docs/central/2010/fa_0910_transport_scotland.pdf|title=Report on the 2009/10 audit to Transport Scotland and the Auditor General for Scotland |last=|first=|date=November 2010|website=Audit Scotland|publisher=Transport Scotland|access-date=18 May 2016}}</ref>

==References==

{{Reflist}}

{{Scottish Government Departments}}

[[Category:Defunct departments of the Scottish Government|Economy]]
[[Category:Subnational economy ministries]]
[[Category:Economy of Scotland]]
[[Category:Transport in Scotland]]
[[Category:Town and country planning in Scotland]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environment of Scotland]]


{{Scotland-gov-stub}}
{{economy-stub}}
{{UK-transport-stub}}
{{planning-stub}}"
Circles of Sustainability,"{{Short description|Method for assessing sustainability}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
[[File:Circles of Sustainability image (assessment - Melbourne 2011).jpg|thumb|A Circles of Sustainability representation – in this case for [[Melbourne]] in 2011.]]
[[File:Johannesburg Profile, Level 2, 2013.jpg|thumb|Johannesburg Profile, Level 2, 2013]]
[[File:Sao Paulo Profile, Level 1, 2012.jpg|thumb|São Paulo Profile, Level 1, 2012]]
[[File:Delhi Profile, Level 1, 2012.jpg|thumb|Delhi Profile, Level 1, 2012]]
[[File:Hyderabad Urban Profile, Level 1, 2012.jpg|thumb|Hyderabad Urban Profile, Level 1, 2012]]
[[File:Port Moresby Profile, Level 2, 2013.jpg|thumb|Port Moresby Profile, Level 2, 2013]]
[[File:Tehran Profile, Level 1, 2012.jpg|thumb|Tehran Profile, Level 1, 2012]]

'''Circles of Sustainability''' is a method for understanding and assessing [[sustainability]], and for [[project management]] directed towards socially sustainable outcomes.<ref>{{Cite book | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= with Magee | first2= Liam | last3= Scerri | first3= Andy | last4= Steger | first4= Manfred B. | title= Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability | url= https://www.academia.edu/9294719 | year= 2015 | publisher= Routledge | location= London| isbn= 9781315765747 }}</ref> It is intended to handle 'seemingly intractable problems'<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citiesprogramme.com/cities |title=CITIES - The Cities Programme |work=citiesprogramme.com |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818002423/http://citiesprogramme.com/cities |archive-date=18 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> such as outlined in [[sustainable development]] debates. The method is mostly used for cities and urban settlements.

The style of the charts themselves could be described as a mixture of [[radar chart]] and [[bar chart]].

==Outline==
Circles of Sustainability, and its treatment of the social domains of ecology, economics, politics and culture, provides the empirical dimension of an approach called '[[engaged theory]]'. Developing Circles of Sustainability is part of larger project called 'Circles of Social Life', using the same four-domain model to analyze questions of resilience, adaptation, security, reconciliation. It is also being used in relation to thematics such as 'Circles of Child Wellbeing' (with World Vision).

As evidenced by [[Rio+20]] and the [[UN Habitat]] [[World Urban Forum]] in Napoli (2012) and Medellin (2014), [[sustainability assessment]] is on the global agenda.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhabitat.org/categories.asp?catid=672|access-date=September 9, 2012|title=UN-HABITAT.:. World Urban Forum 6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120911065400/http://www.unhabitat.org/categories.asp?catid=672#|archive-date=11 September 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> However, the more complex the problems, the less useful current sustainability assessment tools seem to be for assessing across different domains: economics, ecology, politics and culture.<ref>Liam Magee, Paul James, Andy Scerri, 'Measuring Social Sustainability: A Community-Centred Approach', Applied Research in the Quality of Life, vol. 7, no. 3., 2012, pp. 239–61.</ref> For example, the [[Triple Bottom Line]] approach tends to take the economy as its primary point of focus with the domain of the environmental as the key externality. Secondly, the one-dimensional quantitative basis of many such methods means that they have limited purchase on complex qualitative issues. Thirdly, the size, scope and sheer number of indicators included within many such methods means that they are often unwieldy and resist effective implementation. Fourthly, the restricted focus of current indicator sets means that they do not work across different organizational and social settings—corporations and other institutions, cities, and communities.<ref>Liam Magee, Andy Scerri, Paul James, Lin Padgham, James Thom, Hepu Deng, Sarah Hickmott, and Felicity Cahill, 'Reframing Sustainability Reporting: Towards an Engaged Approach', Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 1, 2013, pp. 225–43.</ref> Most indicator approaches, such as the [[Global Reporting Initiative]] or ISO14031, have been limited to large corporate organizations with easily definable legal and economic boundaries. Circles of Sustainability was developed to respond to those limitations.

==History==
The method began with a fundamental dissatisfaction with current approaches to [[sustainability]] and [[sustainable development]], which tended to treat economics as the core domain and ecology as an externality. Two concurrent developments provided impetus: a major project in Porto Alegre, and a United Nations' paper called ''Accounting for Sustainability'', Briefing Paper, No. 1, 2008. The researchers developed a method and an integrated set of tools for assessing and monitoring issues of sustainability while providing guidance for project development.<ref>Stephanie McCarthy, Paul James and Carolines Bayliss, eds, ''Sustainable Cities, Vol. 1'', United Nations Global Compact, Cities Programme, New York and Melbourne, 2010, 134pp.</ref> The method was then further refined through projects in Melbourne and Milwaukee, and through an ARC-funded cross-disciplinary project<ref>'Semantic Technologies to Help Machines Understand Us: Fuji Xerox leads RMIT to $1.4m Grant for Real-Time Green Reports', ''IT Business'', 30 October 2009.
Mary-Lou Considine, 'UN-RMIT Relationship Tackles Problems in the Pacific', ''Ecos Magazine'', August–September 2009, p. 150.</ref> that partnered with various organizations including Microsoft Australia, Fuji Xerox Australia, the City of Melbourne, World Vision, UN-Habitat and most crucially Metropolis.<ref>Andy Scerri and Paul James, 'Communities of Citizens and ""Indicators"" of Sustainability', ''Community Development Journal'', vol. 45, no. 2, 2010, pp. 219–36.
Andy Scerri and Paul James, 'Accounting for Sustainability: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research in Developing 'Indicators' of Sustainability', ''International Journal of Social Research Methodology'', vol. 13, no. 1, 2010, pp. 41–53.
Paul James and Andy Scerri, 'Auditing Cities through Circles of Sustainability', Mark Amen, Noah J. Toly, Patricia L. Carney and Klaus Segbers, eds, ''Cities and Global Governance'', Ashgate, Farnham, 2011, pp. 111–36.
Andy Scerri, 'Ends in View: The capabilities approach in ecological/sustainability economics', Ecological Economics 77, 2012, pp. 7–10.</ref> In Canada, the ''Green Score City Index''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://greenscore.ca/greenscore-city-index.html |title=GreenScore City Index |work=greenscore.ca |year=2014 |access-date=April 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904070553/http://greenscore.ca/greenscore-city-index.html |archive-date=4 September 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> was inspired by studying the UN Circles of Sustainability. However, unlike this system, the Canadian index data-sets are focused on measuring the physical footprints of human activity and greenspace footprints which are less subjectivity than cultural and economic<ref>'Subjectivity in Economics', ''SSRN'', June 1, 2012. Matthew T. Clements, 'Abstract: Economics cannot claim to be absolutely objective...',''St. Edward's University'',</ref> indicators.

==Use of the method==
The method is used by a number of cities across the world, and was at different times central to the work of a series of global organizations including the [[United Nations Global Compact]] Cities Programme, The World Association of Major Metropolises,<ref>The methodology was used by Metropolis for Commission 2, 2012, Managing Urban Growth. This Commission, which met across the period 2009–2011, was asked to make recommendations for use by Metropolis's 120 member cities on the theme of managing growth. The Commission Report using the 'Circles of Sustainability' methodology was published on the web in three languages—English, French and Spanish—and is used by member cities as a guide to practice. (See http://www.metropolis.org/publications/commissions {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819002102/http://www.metropolis.org/publications/commissions# |date=19 August 2012 }})</ref> and [[World Vision]] to support their engagement in cities. Cities that have used the Circles method in different ways to manage major projects or to provide feedback on their sustainability profiles include the following: Berlin, Broadmeadows, Christchurch, Hobart, Hyderabad, Johannesburg, Maryborough, Melbourne, New Delhi, Punta Arenas, São Paulo, and Tehran. It is a method for understanding [[urban politics]] and [[urban planning]], as well as for conducting [[sustainability]] analysis and profiling [[sustainable development]].

===Global Compact Cities Programme===
The methodology was made available by [[UN Global Compact]] Cities Programme from 2009 to 2014 for its engagement with its more than 80 Signatory Cities. In particular, some of the 14 Innovating Cities in the programme have influenced the development of the Circles of Sustainability method through their management of major projects, some with intensity and others as a background feature. They use a cross-sectoral and holistic approach for developing a response to self-defined problems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citiesprogramme.com/cities |title=CITIES – The Cities Programme |work=citiesprogramme.com |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818002423/http://citiesprogramme.com/cities |archive-date=18 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Porto Alegre, Vila Chocolatão project====

The Vila Chocolatão project refers to the 2011 resettlement of approximately 1,000 residents of the inner-city Vila Chocolatão [[slum]] in [[Porto Alegre]], Brazil. The resettlement project of Vila Chocolatão commenced in 2000 in response to an imminent eviction of the community, with community members seeking resources and support to resettle through the city of Porto Alegre's renown [[participatory budgeting]] system. The lengthy preparation to resettle was led by a local cross-sectoral network group, the Vila Chocolatão Sustainability Network. The group was initially instigated by the Regional Court, TRF4 and consisted of the Vila Chocolatão Residents Association, local government departments, federal agencies, non-government organisations and the corporate sector. The project was supported by the City of Porto Alegre through the municipality's Local Solidarity Governance Scheme. In 2006, the Vila Chocolatao resettlement project was recognised as a pilot project for the then new Cities Programme model with City Hall assembling a Critical Reference Group to identify critical issues and joint solutions to those issues involved in the resettlement.

This long-standing collaborative project has been successful in rehousing a whole community of slum dwellers, it has also effected a restructuring of how the city approaches slums. The project ensured sustainability was built into the relocation through changes such as setting up of recycling depots next to existing slums and developing a formal recycling sorting facility in the new site, Residencial Nova Chocolatão, linked to the garbage-collection process of the city (an example of linking the sub-domains of 'emission and waste' and 'organization and governance'); and establishing a fully resourced early childhood centre in the new community. The Vila Chocolatão Sustainability Network group continues to meet and work with the community post the resettlement.  This network-led model is now being utilized by the City of Porto Alegre with other informal settlements.

====Milwaukee, water sustainability project====

In 2009, [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], wanted to address the issue of water quality in the city.<ref>''Milwaukee Business Journal'', 29 April 2009; John Schmid, ''Milwaukee Journal Sentinel'', 27 April 2009.</ref> The Circles of Sustainability methodology became the basis for an integrated city project. In the period of the application of the method (2009–present) there has been a rediscovery of the value of water from an industry and broader community perspective.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citiesprogramme.com/cities/americas/usa/milwaukee |title=Milwaukee – The Cities Programme |work=citiesprogramme.com |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907233043/http://citiesprogramme.com/cities/americas/usa/milwaukee |archive-date=7 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2011, Milwaukee won the United States Water Prize given by the Clean Water America Alliance,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.idealist.org/en/nonprofit/0d706279ecf446afa7869d47b06e82b1-clean-water-america-alliance-washington | title=Clean Water America Alliance }}</ref> as well as a prize from IBM Better Cities program worth $500,000. The community has also attracted some leading water treatment innovators and is establishing a graduate School of Freshwater Sciences at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thewatercouncil.com/temp2/un-global-compact/ |title=UN Global Compact &#124; Milwaukee Water Council |work=thewatercouncil.com |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815005612/http://www.thewatercouncil.com/temp2/un-global-compact/# |archive-date=15 August 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===Metropolis (World  Association of the Major Metropolises)===
The methodology was first used by Metropolis for ''Commission 2, 2012, Managing Urban Growth''. This commission, which met across the period 2009–2011, was asked to make recommendations for use by Metropolis's 120 member cities on the theme of managing [[urban growth|growth]]. The Commission Report using the Circles of Sustainability methodology was published on the web in three languages—English, French and Spanish—and is used by member cities as a guide to practice.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metropolis.org/publications/commissions |title=Publications / Commissions &#124; Metropolis |work=metropolis.org |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819002102/http://www.metropolis.org/publications/commissions# |archive-date=19 August 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

In 2011, the research team were invited by Metropolis to work with the Victorian Government and the Cities Programme on one of their major initiatives. The methodology was central to the approach used by the 'Integrated Strategic Planning and Public-Private Partnerships Initiative' organized by Metropolis, 2012–2013 for Indian, Brazilian and Iranian cities. A workshop was held in New Delhi, 26–27 July 2012, and senior planners from New Delhi, Hyderabad and Kolkata used the two of the assessment tools in the Circles of Sustainability toolbox to map the sustainability of their cities as part of developing their urban-regional plans. Other cities to use the same tools have been Tehran (in relation to their mega-projects plan) and São Paulo (in relation to their macro-metropolitan plan).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metropolis.org/news/metropolis-initiative-integrated--1 |title=Metropolis Initiative ""Integrated Strategic Planning and Public Private Partnerships"" meets in New Delhi &#124; Metropolis |work=metropolis.org |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006063749/http://www.metropolis.org/news/metropolis-initiative-integrated--1 |archive-date=6 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

From 2012 to 2014, the Cities Programme and Metropolis worked together to refine the 'Circles of Sustainability' method for use with their respective member cities. After the Cities Programme changed direction, a Metropolis Taskforce was charged with further developing the method. The method became central to work until the COVID period made international travel more difficult.

===''The Economist''===
In 2011, ''The Economist'' invited [[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]] (Director of the [[United Nations Global Compact]] Cities Programme) and Chetan Vedya (Director, National Institute of Urban Affairs, India) into a debate around the question of urban sustainability and metropolitan growth. It led to over 200 letters to the editor in direct response as well as numerous linked citations on other websites.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.economist.com/debate/overview/192 |title=Economist Debates: Cities |work=economist.com |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012}}</ref>

===World Vision===
In 2011, recognising how much the two processes of urbanization and globalization were changing the landscape of poverty, [[World Vision]] decided to shift its orientation towards urban settings. Previously 80 per cent of its projects had been in small rural communities. The Circles of Sustainability method now underpins that reorientation and pilot studies are being conducted in India, South Africa, Lebanon, Indonesia and elsewhere, to refine the methodology for aid delivery in complex urban settings.

==Domains and subdomains==
The Circles of Sustainability approach is explicitly critical of other domain models such as the [[triple bottom line]] that treat economics as if it is outside the social, or that treat the environment as an externality. It uses a four-domain model – economics, ecology, politics and culture. In each of these domains there are 7 subdomains.

===Economics===
The economic domain is defined as the practices and meanings associated with the production, use, and management of resources, where the concept of 'resources' is used in the broadest sense of that word.
# Production and resourcing
# Exchange and transfer
# Accounting and regulation
# Consumption and use
# Labour and welfare
# Technology and infrastructure
# Wealth and distribution

===Ecology===
The ecological domain is defined as the practices and meanings that occur across the intersection between the social and the natural realms, focusing on the important dimension of human engagement with and within nature, but also including the built-environment.
# Materials and energy
# Water and air
# Flora and fauna
# Habitat and settlements
# Built-form and transport
# Embodiment and sustenance
# Emission and waste
'''Environmental'''

Environmental variables measure how optimally was natural resources used, in its complete cycle. The cycle starts from identifying of source, procurement/ extraction from raw source, processing to obtain required material, production of production and waste discharge during the entire process.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Borah |first=Michael |date=2018-05-13 |title=Sustainability measure: What is it and how do we measure it? |url=https://mikehumanbydesign.medium.com/sustainability-measure-what-is-it-and-how-do-we-measure-it-ccc5231d284e |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=Medium |language=en}}</ref>

# Sulphur dioxide concentration
# Concentration of nitrogen oxides
# Selected priority pollutants
# Excessive nutrients
# Electricity consumption

===Politics===
The political is defined as the practices and meanings associated with basic issues of social power, such as organization, authorization, legitimation and regulation. The parameters of this area extend beyond the conventional sense of politics to include not only issues of public and private governance but more broadly social relations in general.
# Organization and governance
# Law and justice
# Communication and critique
# Representation and negotiation
# Security and accord
# Dialogue and reconciliation
# Ethics and accountability

===Culture===
The cultural domain is defined as the practices, discourses, and material expressions, which, over time, express continuities and discontinuities of social meaning.
# Identity and engagement
# Creativity and recreation
# Memory and projection
# Belief and ideas
# Gender and generations
# Enquiry and learning
# Wellbeing and health

==See also==

* [[Engaged theory]]
* [[Sustainability]]
** [[Applied sustainability]]
** [[Social sustainability]]
** [[Sustainable development]]
*** [[Ecologically sustainable development]]
*** ''[[Sustainable Development Goals]]''
* [[Urban design]]
* [[Urban planning]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Borah, Michael (13 May 2018). ""Sustainability measure: What is it and how do we measure it?"". ''Medium''. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
* {{Cite book | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= with Magee | first2= Liam | last3= Scerri | first3= Andy | last4= Steger | first4= Manfred B. | title= Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability | url= https://www.academia.edu/9294719 | year= 2015 | publisher= Routledge | location= London| isbn= 9781315765747 }}
* {{Cite book | year=2013 | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink1= Paul James (academic) | last2= Holden | first2=Meg | last3= Lewin | first3= Mary | last4= Neilson | first4= Lyndsay | last5= Oakley | first5= Christine | last6= Truter | first6= Art | last7= Wilmoth | first7= David | chapter= Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban Growth | title= Institutional and Social Innovation for Sustainable Urban Development | editor= Harald Mieg and Klaus Töpfer | url=https://www.academia.edu/7207756 | publisher= Routledge}}
* {{Cite journal | year=2013 |author1=Liam Magee |author2=Andy Scerri |author3=Paul James |author4=James A. Thom |author5=Lin Padgham |author6=Sarah Hickmott |author7=Hepu Deng |author8=Felicity Cahill | title= Reframing social sustainability reporting: Towards an engaged approach | url= https://www.academia.edu/4362669 | journal= Environment, Development and Sustainability
}}
* {{Cite journal | year = 2012 |author1=Magee, Liam  |author2=Scerri, Andy | title= From Issues to Indicators: A Response to Grosskurth and Rotmans | journal= Local Environment | volume= 17 | issue= 8 | pages= 915–933 | doi=10.1080/13549839.2012.714755|s2cid=153340355 }}
* {{Cite journal | year=2010 | last1= Scerri | first1= Andy | last2= James | first2= Paul | authorlink2= Paul James (academic) | title= Accounting for sustainability: Combining qualitative and quantitative research in developing 'indicators' of sustainability | url= https://www.academia.edu/3230887 | journal= International Journal of Social Research Methodology | volume= 13 | issue= 1 | pages= 41–53 | doi=10.1080/13645570902864145| s2cid= 145391691 }}

==External links==
* [http://circlesofsustainability.com circlesofsustainability.com] Circles of Sustainability website
* [https://greenscore.eco/city-index-scoreboard.html GreenScore.eco] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316005511/https://greenscore.eco/city-index-scoreboard.html |date=16 March 2022 }} Green Score City Index website

[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]
[[Category:Impact assessment]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:United Nations Environment Programme]]
[[Category:Environmental impact assessment]]
[[Category:Sustainability metrics and indices]]"
Ecoweek,"{{Short description|Greek brandname}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Advert|date=November 2022}}
{{COI|date=November 2022}}
}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = ECOWEEK
| image = Ecoweek logo.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| type = Environment and Sustainability.
| founded_date = Established 2005.
| location = [[Aegina]], [[Greece]] (Based also in [[Athens]], [[Jerusalem]], and [[Thessaloniki]]).
| area_served = Europe, Middle East and International.
| focus = Environmental awareness, Sustainable design, [[Green Buildings]], [[Sustainability]], [[Placemaking]], [[Urban Intervention]].
| method = Design Workshops, hands-on, [[placemaking]], design build, education, training, cooperation, empowerment.
| Associates = In 17 countries
| Members = In 56 countries
| homepage = 
| footnotes = ECOWEEK over the years has developed programs in [[Cyprus]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[India]], [[Italy]], [[Israel]], [[Netherlands]], [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]], [[Turkey]], [[United Kingdom]] and [[West Bank]].
}}

'''ECOWEEK''' ''Εβδομάδα Οικολογίας'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]) and ''אקוויק שנה הרגלים שנה אקלים'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) is a private, non-profit initiative to change people's habits. Its mission is to raise  awareness about the environment, [[climate change]] and to promote the principles of [[sustainability]]. 

ECOWEEK organizes platforms of activity towards empowerment, networking, education, and training of young professionals and students. They include [[architects]], [[designers]], [[engineers]], [[landscape architects]], [[industrial designers]], [[visual communication]] designers. Through workshops and other activities, they engage in innovative, sustainable, urban, and public interventions and [[placemaking]], in cooperation with local authorities, organizations, academic and research institutions, and leaders.

== Mission ==
ECOWEEK's mission is to raise environmental and [[climate change]] awareness and to promote the principles of [[sustainability]].

== History ==
ECOWEEK was first established in [[Aegina|Aegina, Greece]] in 2005, as a community event – ''Ecological Week in Aegina'' – to raise environmental awareness of the local community of 14,000. At the time [[Aegina]] was challenged by unresolved waste management,<ref>Ζουμπουλάκης, Γ. (7-08-2005). ''Χωρίς νερό αλλά με σκουπίδια - Αίγινα''. ΤΟ ΒΗΜΑ - http://www.tovima.gr/relatedarticles/article/?aid=167683</ref> illegal burning of waste, inexistent waste recycling program, water shortages,<ref>Χριστοδουλίδου, Π. (9-08-2005). ''Άρχισε ξανά η μεταφορά νερού στην Αίγινα''. ΤΟ ΕΘΝΟΣ - http://www.ethnos.gr/article.asp?catid=22733&subid=2&pubid=11058</ref> energy shortages, and a partially unregulated, speculative construction market for [[Summer house|summer houses]]. These factors put pressure on protected areas to be developed and constructed.<ref>Petropoulos, Thracy. (1-06-2007). ''Concrete plans unsettled''. ATHENS NEWS - http://www.aeginagreece.com/main/aegina_eco/cementfactory.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214629/http://www.aeginagreece.com/main/aegina_eco/cementfactory.htm |date=2016-03-03 }}</ref> Summer home construction also contributed to the illegal disposal of [[construction waste]] in natural preserves and increased prussure on the capacity of the existing infrastructure of the island.

In 2007, responding to an increase demand for environmental awareness beyond Aegina, ECOWEEK co-organized activity throughout Greece, and initiated free-admission screenings of award-winning documentary on climate change by Davis Guggenheim, ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]'' with [[Al Gore]], in schools, army bases, and public fora in [[Athens]], [[Thessaloniki]], [[Patras]], [[Lamia (city)|Lamia]], [[Corfu]], and [[Crete]]. Within this activity, in June 2007, ECOWEEK held a public free-admission keynote lecture and slide show on climate change with Al Gore<ref>Πολιτισμός. (22-5-2007). ''Ο Αλ Γκορ στο Μέγαρο Μουσικής''. ΤΟ ΕΘΝΟΣ - http://www.ethnos.gr/article.asp?catid=22784&subid=2&pubid=110309</ref> at the [[Athens Concert Hall]]. In 2007 ECOWEEK was also established in [[Jerusalem|Jerusalem, Israel]] and in 2008 ECOWEEK initiated the first Ecological Week in [[Larnaca]], [[Cyprus]], in cooperation with the Municipality of Larnaka, involving schools, universities, professional organizations, and the general public.

== Programs ==
Since 2005, ECOWEEK developed its outreach activity towards raising awareness to a variety of population groups, age-groups and interests. For example, from children activity, cleaning of beaches, lottery of composters and solar chargers, to academic and colloquial lectures, site visits, design workshops, and film screenings.

Since 2008, ECOWEEK activities focus more on sustainable design and ecological building, social design, and [[placemaking]]. Its activity involved primarily one-week-long design workshops and international conferences for young and established professionals – primarily architects, designers, landscape architects and engineers. ECOWEEK has developed and expanded its activity through close collaboration with cultural institutions, such as the [[American Institute of Architects]] Continental Europe, the [[British Council]], [[Goethe Institute]], academic institutions, municipalities and governments. ECOWEEK has initiated and organized activities in [[Agios Nikolaos, Crete|Ag. Nikolaos]] ([[Crete]]), [[Athens]], [[Bethany (biblical village)|Azaryia]] ([[Bethany (biblical village)|Bethany]]), [[Belgrade]], [[Bucharest]], [[Cairns]], [[Copenhagen]], [[Istanbul]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Kraków]], [[London]], [[Milan]]o, [[Mumbai]], [[Sarajevo]], [[Tel Aviv]], [[Thessaloniki]], [[Tilburg]], [[Pristina|Prishtina]], and [[Rome]].

In 2017 ECOWEEK published its first book titled [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweekbook ECOWEEK Book#1: 50 Voices for Sustainability], featuring fifty articles by leading architects, designers, professionals, academics and environmentalists from around the world. Among them are award-winning architects [[Kengo Kuma]], [[Bjarke Ingels|BIG]], [[MVRDV]], [[Françoise-Hélène Jourda|Francoise-Helene Jourda]], [[Diébédo Francis Kéré|Diebedo Francis Kere]], [[Michael Sorkin]], Prof. David Orr and Antarctica explorer [[Robert Swan]]. The same year ECOWEEK also issued [https://issuu.com/ecoweek/docs/ecoweek_catalogue_2016 ECOWEEK: The Workshops] a publication with a collection of ideas and projects from the ECOWEEK workshops (2009-2016).

In 2021 ECOWEEK published its second book titled [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweekbook ECOWEEK Book#2: 15 Paths to Sustainability: from Innovation to Social Design], featuring articles by leading architects and designers on sustainable design, innovation, circular design, social and participatory design, and public participation. The same year ECOWEEK also issued [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweekbook ECOWEEK Workshops (2009-2021)] a publication with a collection of ideas and projects from the ECOWEEK workshops in 17 countries.

== Hassan Fathy ==
In 1989 ECOWEEK co-founder architect [[Elias Messinas]] met the late Egyptian architect [[Hassan Fathy]] – author of Architecture for the Poor – in [[Cairo]]. In that meeting, Fathy conveyed to Elias how problems in Egypt – among them is housing for the poor – could be solved. Among others Fathy challenged Messinas when he emphasized the need for young professionals to be more aware of their own community; and instead of imitating architecture in international magazines, to reach out, learn about and be creative while benefiting with their work their own community.

Inspired by Fathy, ECOWEEK workshops have gradually developed a more hands-on approach that links between academia and the community, and between professionals and students since 2010. Aiming to both empower and train young professionals to address urban public space, placemaking, urban communities through interventions in design and hands-on workshops in urban public context, ECOWEEK and its partners have developed a model of close collaboration with local authorities, local organizations and leaders. Through this collaboration, the ECOWEEK workshops are assigned projects that are real, support them with professional consultants and see that some of the projects are implemented. Students' ideas are heard and cities, neighborhoods and communities benefit from the innovative and creative ideas of students and the professional guidance of the workshop leaders. The ECOWEEK workshops have developed sustainable proposals for Copenhagen,<ref>''Oxgren, Dorthe. (15-05-2013).'' Studerende skal gore Nordvest gronnere. NORREBRO NORVEST BLADET p.6 - http://www.e-pages.dk/bgmonline_nv/310/</ref> Thessaloniki,<ref>(11-5-2011). ''Ecoweek Proposals for Thessaloniki''. in DETAIL Online - http://www.detail-online.com/architecture/topics/ecoweek-proposals-for-thessaloniki-007305.html</ref> Rome,<ref>Palumbo, Marialuisa. (28-11-2012). ''Form of Energy #16''. in DOMUSWEB - http://www.domusweb.it/it/architettura/2012/11/28/forms-of-energy-16.html</ref> Belgrade,<ref>Uzelac Fillipendin, Mirjana. (04-2013). ''ECOWEEK 2012 in Belgrade Event''. ARCHINTENTION - {{cite web |url=http://ambijenti.rs/wp-content/uploads/ambijent-upload-desktop/ambijenti/ArchIntetntion%20ECOWEEK%20BG%202012%20html/ |title=ArchIntention - Belgrade ECOWEEK 2012 |accessdate=2013-05-24 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606225958/http://ambijenti.rs/wp-content/uploads/ambijent-upload-desktop/ambijenti/ArchIntetntion%20ECOWEEK%20BG%202012%20html/ |archivedate=2013-06-06 }}</ref> Kraków,<ref>(05-2012). ''Strzelnica na nowo'' SZTUKA ARCHITECTURY - http://www.sztuka-architektury.pl/index.php?ID_PAGE=35275</ref> Jerusalem,<ref>Meyer, Ulf. (15-03-2012). ''Jerusalem soll gruner weden''. JUDISCHE ALLGEMEINE - http://www.juedische-allgemeine.de/article/view/id/12556/highlight/ulf&meyer</ref> and Azaryia,<ref>Udasin, Sharon. (24-04-2013). ''Ecological corridors vital to pilgrimage routes''. JERUSALEM POST - http://www.jpost.com/Enviro-Tech/Ecological-corridors-vital-to-pilgrimage-routes-310977</ref> and [[placamaking]] interventions at the Neot Shoshanim community center in [[Holon]].<ref>(8-10-2019). ''A Small Group of students makes BIG transformations at Ecoweek 2019 in Israel''. in DETAIL Online - https://www.detail-online.com/article/a-small-group-of-students-makes-big-transformations-at-ecoweek-2019-in-israel-34779/</ref>

== The GREENHOUSE ==
[[File:Ecoweek greenhouse.jpg|thumb|right]]
Aiming to establish a permanent platform and not just one-week-long activity, ECOWEEK established the GREENHOUSE in 2011 in Athens, Greece. The GREENHOUSE is a platform for innovation and entrepreneurship for society and the environment, engaging young architects, designers, landscape architects and students in real design assignments for real non-profit organizations and local authorities. The GREENHOUSE teams, under the guidance of experienced professionals, have developed sustainable solutions for schools, community centers, [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ghath2017 welfare institutions] and the urban public space in Athens and Thessaloniki in Greece and Holon,<ref>(20-05-2013). ''סטודנטים של המכון הטכומוגי מציגים פרוייקטים ירוקים בקהילה''. HOLON MUNICIPALITY - http://www.holon.muni.il/Lists/List6/DispForm.aspx?ID=1109</ref> Bat Yam and Jaffa in Israel.

== Online Challenge ==
Answering the [[COVID-19]] challenge of travel restrictions and confinement, and seeing the opportunity to raise the environmental agenda through virtual platforms, ECOWEEK has initiated a series of online challenge events, to engage young professionals and students worldwide. The first such event took place in [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweek2020 May 2020] attracting more than 350 participants from 20 countries. The second took place in [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweek15 October 2020]. More online events took place in Rome [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweek21rome] and Greece [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweekaegina2021] in 2021.

== References ==
<!--- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes on how to create references using <ref></ref> tags which will then appear here automatically -->
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|http://www.ecoweek.org/}}

[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in Greece]]
[[Category:Architectural design]]
[[Category:Architectural education]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in Greece]]
[[Category:Climate change organizations]]"
Sust'n'Able,"{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox organization
| name   = Sust'n'Able
| logo   =  sustnable.jpg
| type   =  
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| founded_date      = <!-- {{start date and age|df=yes|1998}} -->
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| homepage          = {{official |http://www.woodcraft.org.uk}}
| dissolved         =
}}
'''Sust 'n' Able''' is the [[Woodcraft Folk]]'s programme of education for [[sustainable development]].

The project was the theme of the Woodcraft Folk's 2001 international camp in [[Nottinghamshire]] where 4,000 young people attended. The camp focused on sustainable development education and ran activates for children from five to twenty five around the themes.

At the camp a simulation game took place called 'World on a Tight Rope'. The game ran for the duration of the camp and involved people working for credits to create a more sustainable world. The simulation included two 'Earth Summits' held at the camp to come up with a declaration to the world's leaders at the [[World Summit on Sustainable Development]] (WSSD). The Earth Summit had ""action stations"" where people debated the issues to be included in the declaration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sust'n'Able |url=http://sustnable.woodcraft.org.uk/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030603084410/http://sustnable.woodcraft.org.uk/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2003-06-03 |website=International Camp |publisher=Woodcraft Folk}}</ref>

==The declaration and delegation==

The Declaration created as part of the simulation game was presented by a delegation of 11 young people. The delegation attended the [[United Nations]]' [[World Summit on Sustainable Development]] including both the civil society and the official political areas of the summit. The group worked with the [[International Falcon Movement - Socialist Education International]] delegation attending the summit.

Delegations from Woodcraft Folk attend all the [[Commission on Sustainable Development]] meetings in [[New York City]] which are follow-up meetings to the annual WSSD, with thematic cycles changing every two years.

==External links==
* {{official | url = http://www.woodcraft.org.uk |Woodcraft Folk Official website}}
==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sust'N'Able}}
[[Category:The Woodcraft Folk]]
[[Category:Co-operatives in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:2001 establishments in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability in the United Kingdom]]"
Energy for Sustainable Development,"{{Italic title}}
'''''Energy for Sustainable Development''''' is a [[peer-reviewed]] [[academic journal]] covering research on [[energy]]-related aspects of [[sustainable development]]. It is published by [[Elsevier]] and the [[editor-in-chief]] is Daniel B. Jones. According to the ''[[Journal Citation Reports]]'', the journal has a 2018 [[impact factor]] of 3.307, and a five-year impact factor (from 2018 backwards) of 3.691.<ref>{{cite web |title=Journal Metrics |url=https://www.journals.elsevier.com/energy-for-sustainable-development/ |website=Energy for Sustainable Development |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |accessdate=2 December 2019}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|http://www.journals.elsevier.com/energy-for-sustainable-development/}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Elsevier academic journals]]
[[Category:Academic journals established in 1993]]
[[Category:English-language journals]]
[[Category:Energy and fuel journals]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]


{{energy-journal-stub}}
{{environment-journal-stub}}"
Green consumption,"'''Green consumption''' is related to [[sustainable development]] or [[sustainable consumer behaviour]]. It is a form of [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] that safeguards the [[Environmental movement|environment]] for the present and for future generations. It ascribes to consumers responsibility or co-responsibility for addressing environmental problems through the adoption of [[environmentally friendly]] behaviors, such as the use of [[organic products]], clean and [[renewable energy]], and the choice of goods produced by companies with zero, or almost zero, impact ([[zero waste]], [[zero-emissions vehicle]], [[zero-energy building]], etc.).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Connolly |first1=John |last2=Prothero |first2=Andrea |title=Green Consumption: Life-politics, risk and contradictions |journal=Journal of Consumer Culture |date=March 2008 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=117–145 |doi=10.1177/1469540507086422 |s2cid=146265463 }}</ref>

In [[Western societies]], green consumption emerged during the 1960s and the early 1970s, with the increased awareness of the necessity to [[environmental protection|protect the environment]] and people's health from the effects caused by [[Industrial waste|industrial pollutants]] and by economic and population growth. In the 1980s, the first American [[green brand|""green"" brands]] began to appear and exploded on the American market. During the 1990s, green products grew slowly, remaining a niche phenomenon. American interest in green products started to increase again in the early 2000s and have continued to grow.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=Rebecca |title=The taste for green: The possibilities and dynamics of status differentiation through 'green' consumption |journal=Poetics |date=June 2013 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=294–322 |doi=10.1016/j.poetic.2013.03.003 }}</ref>

== Origin and development ==
After the [[1973 oil crisis|oil crisis of 1973]], people in western countries began to consider the use of [[green  energy]] as an alternative to [[fossil fuel]]s. Now green consumption is considered a basic point of environmental reform and it is also guaranteed by supra-national organizations like the [[European Union]]. Some [[Sociology|sociologists]]{{who|date=March 2022}} argue that increasing [[globalization]] led people to feel more interconnected with others and the environment, which led to an increasing awareness of global [[environmental problems]], especially in western countries.

The main forums in which the issue has been discussed, and which have provided guidelines to orient national governments are: [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment|Stockholm 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment]]; [[International Union for Conservation of Nature#The World Conservation Strategy 1975–1985|IUCN 1980 World Conservation Strategy]]; [[Brundtland Commission|World Commission on Environment and Development in 1983 and 1987 Brundtland Report]]; Italy 1993 National Plan for Sustainable Development; Aalborg 1994, 1st European Conference on Sustainable Cities; [[Lisbon]] 1996, 2nd European Conference on Sustainable Cities; [[Hanover|Hannover]] 2000, 3rd Conference on Sustainable Cities; [[European Union]] in 2001, VI Environmental Action Plan 2002/2010; Aalborg +10; and the [[Aalborg]] Commitments in 2004.

== Pro-environmental behavior ==
Green [[Consumer behaviour|consumer behavior]] is a form of pro-environmental behavior, a form of consumption that harms the [[Natural environment|environment]] as little as possible or even benefits the environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steg |first1=Linda |last2=Vlek |first2=Charles |title=Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review and research agenda |journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology |date=September 2009 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=309–317 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.10.004 |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/168780972/1_s2.0_S0272494408000959_main.pdf |hdl=11370/7581b727-854c-41c2-a8af-e055e6224240 |s2cid=9264684 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Research provides [[Empirical evidence|empirical support]] to the claim that green or pro-environmental consumer behavior is composed of:<ref name=""Ertz et al 2016"">{{cite journal |last1=Ertz |first1=Myriam |last2=Karakas |first2=Fahri |last3=Sarigöllü |first3=Emine |title=Exploring pro-environmental behaviors of consumers: An analysis of contextual factors, attitude, and behaviors |journal=Journal of Business Research |date=October 2016 |volume=69 |issue=10 |pages=3971–3980 |doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.06.010 |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/59480/1/Manuscript.pdf }}</ref>

* ""Private-sphere behavior"" — the purchase, use, and disposal of personal and household products that have environmental impact,<ref name=Stern2000>{{cite journal |last1=Stern |first1=Paul C. |title=New Environmental Theories: Toward a Coherent Theory of Environmentally Significant Behavior |journal=Journal of Social Issues |date=January 2000 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=407–424 |doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00175 |s2cid=5018908 }}</ref> such as [[Car|automobiles]], public transportation, or recycling<ref name=""Ertz et al 2016""/>
* ""Public-sphere behavior"" — behavior that affects the environment directly through committed environmental activism or indirectly by influencing public policies,<ref name=Stern2000/> such as active involvement in environmental organizations and demonstrations (direct impact) or petitioning on [[environmental issues]] (indirect impact)<ref name=""Ertz et al 2016""/>

Contextual factors like monetary incentives, costs, regulations, and public policy norms, as well as subjectively perceived factors such as perceived resources available<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olli |first1=Eero |last2=Grendstad |first2=Gunnar |last3=Wollebaek |first3=Dag |title=Correlates of Environmental Behaviors: Bringing Back Social Context |journal=Environment and Behavior |date=March 2001 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=181–208 |doi=10.1177/0013916501332002 |s2cid=38386910 }}</ref> influence consumer pro-environmental behavior and thus green consumption through the mediating effect of attitudes.<ref name=""Ertz et al 2016""/> It is through attitude that subjectively perceived contextual factors such as the extent to which consumers perceive having more or less time, money, and power available, modulate pro-environmental behavior in general, and green consumption in particular.

== Green consumer behavior ==
Green consumer behavior has the following characteristics:
* ""purchase choice, product use and post-use, household management, collective, and consumer activism behaviors, reflecting some degree of environmental-related motivation"";<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peattie |first1=Ken |title=Green Consumption: Behavior and Norms |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |date=21 November 2010 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=195–228 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-032609-094328 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* ""purchase and use of products with lower [[Natural environment|environmental]] impacts, such as biodegradable products, recycled or reduced packaging, and low energy usage"";<ref name=""Costa Pinto et al 2014"">{{cite journal |last1=Costa Pinto |first1=Diego |last2=Herter |first2=Márcia M. |last3=Rossi |first3=Patricia |last4=Borges |first4=Adilson |title=Going green for self or for others? Gender and identity salience effects on sustainable consumption: Gender, identities and sustainable consumption |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |date=September 2014 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=540–549 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12114 }}</ref>
* use of [[organic product]]s, made with processes that provide [[energy saving]]s, then by the action of [[recycling]].

A green consumer is ""one who purchase products and services perceived to have a positive (or less negative) influence on the environment…""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haws |first1=Kelly L. |last2=Winterich |first2=Karen Page |last3=Naylor |first3=Rebecca Walker |title=Seeing the world through GREEN-tinted glasses: Green consumption values and responses to environmentally friendly products |journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology |date=July 2014 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=336–354 |doi=10.1016/j.jcps.2013.11.002 |s2cid=154557555 }}</ref>
Green consumers act ethically, motivated not only by their personal needs, but also by the respect and preservation of the welfare of entire society, because they take into account the environmental consequences (costs and benefits) of their private consumption. Green consumers are more conscientious in their use of assets, for example by using their goods without wasting resources. 
However the Eurobarometer's survey of consumers’ behavior (2013) showed that consumers seem not to place importance on adopting a set of new behaviors that are more environmentally-friendly. That report{{cn|date=March 2022}} stated that even though a very high proportion of citizens buy [[green products]] (80%), more than half are classified as occasional maintenance{{clarify|reason=what does that mean?|date=March 2022}} (54%), and only a quarter are regular buyer of green products (26%).
This suggests that most people do not behave like green consumers continuously, probably because of social and economic constraints, such as the fact that green products can be more expensive than non-green ones, or because it is not always easy to find green goods for each category, and green retailers are not so widespread. Some researchers{{who|date=March 2022}} find that personal values are influential determinants of consumption and that pro-environmental behavior might serve as a signal of [[personality]] dimension{{clarify|reason=what is personality dimension?|date=March 2022}}. There are two types of consumers:

# prevention-type consumers, who feel a moral duty towards a greener lifestyle
# promotion-type, who are more focused on their aspirations and their dreams and don't strongly feel the pressure to quickly adjust their behavior in the direction of becoming more environmentally-friendly<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miniero |first1=Giulia |last2=Codini |first2=Anna |last3=Bonera |first3=Michelle |last4=Corvi |first4=Elisabetta |last5=Bertoli |first5=Giuseppe |title=Being green: from attitude to actual consumption: Being green |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |date=September 2014 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=521–528 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12128 |s2cid=143158022 }}</ref>

Another researcher finds an effect of gender and [[social identity]] on green consumption: {{clarify|reason=missing end-quote|date=March 2022}}""female declared higher levels of sustainable consumption compared with male participants; however when social identity is salient, male increased their [[sustainable consumption]] intentions to the same level as female.<ref name=""Costa Pinto et al 2014""/> In this research are identified two kind of people, that have more:

# self-transcendent values, like women, that are more willing to engage in [[sustainable consumption]]
# self-enhanced values, like men, that are less interested in green behavior{{clarify|reason=confusing as-written|date=March 2022}}

Sustainable consumption is, for men, a way to reinforce their social image, showing to others that they care about environment, whereas for women sustainable consumption is intrinsically important. The evidence is that green consumers are mainly female, aged between 30 and 44 years old, well educated, in a household with a high annual income.<ref name=""Costa Pinto et al 2014""/>

== Principal areas of developed green consumption ==
=== Green energy ===
[[Green energy]] includes natural energetic processes that can be harnessed with little pollution.

=== Green food ===
Demand for less environmentally-damaging food production leads people to buy more [[organic food|organic]] and [[local food|local]] food. 
[[Organic food]] is produced through agriculture that does not use artificial chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and animals reared in more natural conditions, without the routine use of drugs, antibiotics, and dewormers common in intensive livestock farming. 
Consumers can also choose to buy local food in order to reduce the social and environmental impacts of ""food miles"" – the distance food travels between being produced and being consumed. This behavior can create a new sense of connection with the land, through a concern for the authenticity and provenience of the food eaten, operating as a social as much as a technological innovation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seyfang |first1=Gill |title=Growing sustainable consumption communities: The case of local organic food networks |journal=International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy |date=May 2007 |volume=27 |issue=3/4 |pages=120–134 |doi=10.1108/01443330710741066 }}</ref> Taste, health, and safety concerns can be other reasons behind this consumption practices.

=== Green fashion ===
{{Main|Sustainable fashion}}
: Ethical clothing refers to clothing that takes into consideration the impact of production and trade on the [[Natural environment|environment]] and on the people behind the clothes we wear. Eco clothing refers to all clothing that has been manufactured using environmentally friendly processes. It includes organic textiles and sustainable materials such as [[hemp]] and non-textiles such as [[bamboo]] or [[recycled plastic]] bottles. It also includes recycled products (clothes made from recycled clothing including vintage, textile and other materials and can also be termed re-used) and is not necessarily made from organic fibers. Organic clothing means clothes that have been made with a minimum use of chemicals and with minimum damage to the environment and fair-trade is intended to achieve better prices, decent working conditions, local sustainability and fair terms for farmers and workers in the developing world.<ref name=""Cervellon et al 2010"">{{cite web |last1=Cervellon |first1=Marie-Cécile |last2=Hjerth |first2=Helena |last3=Ricard |first3=Sandrine |last4=Carey |first4=Lindsey |title=Green in fashion? An exploratory study of national differences in consumers concern for eco-fashion |date=2010 |url=https://www.compromisorse.com/upload/estudios/000/114/GreenFashion.pdf }}</ref>

Three reasons that motivate the purchase of organic cloths are:
* Environmentally-friendly protection;
* Health impact;
* Ethical concerns.

The textile and [[clothing industry]] generates much pollution and consumes many [[resource]]s. Improper use and disposal of clothing products make the problems much more severe. 
Consumers who are concerned about these (environmental) issues, are best motivated to change their behaviors via [[philanthropic]] or environmental-friendly actions that adapt with their financial and sustainability interests. 
An intuitive and sustainable strategy is clothing reuse. [[Textile recycling]] is a method of reprocessing used clothing, fibrous material, and clothing scraps from the manufacturing process. This can reduce manufacturing pollution and [[resource consumption]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Zhi-Hua |last2=Li |first2=Qing |last3=Chen |first3=Xian-Juan |last4=Wang |first4=Yan-Feng |title=Sustainable Rent-Based Closed-Loop Supply Chain for Fashion Products |journal=Sustainability |date=16 October 2014 |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=7063–7088 |doi=10.3390/su6107063 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Consumers may pay attention to the origin and the materials of the clothes they buy and whether they are harmful to the environment.<ref>Cotton incorporated: http://www.cottoninc.com/corporate/Market-Data/SupplyChainInsights/consumer-perspectives-on-green-apparel/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314185235/http://www.cottoninc.com/corporate/Market-Data/SupplyChainInsights/consumer-perspectives-on-green-apparel/ |date=2015-03-14 }}{{rs|date=July 2021}}</ref>
Consumers often have a lack of information of [[green fashion]] or are unaware of the existence of green fashion alternatives to traditional adult fashion. 
{{or|date=July 2021}}

== See also==
{{Portal|Ecology|Environment}}
* [[Cultured meat]]
* [[Eco-capitalism]]
* [[Environmental vegetarianism]]
* [[Ethical consumerism]]
* [[Green infrastructure]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Banbury |first1=Catherine |last2=Stinerock |first2=Robert |last3=Subrahmanyan |first3=Saroja |title=Sustainable consumption: Introspecting across multiple lived cultures |journal=Journal of Business Research |date=April 2012 |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=497–503 |doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.02.028 }}
* A. Bayley, T. Strange,2008, Sustainable development. Linking economy, society, environment, OECD INSIGHT
* {{cite journal |last1=Miniero |first1=Giulia |last2=Codini |first2=Anna |last3=Bonera |first3=Michelle |last4=Corvi |first4=Elisabetta |last5=Bertoli |first5=Giuseppe |title=Being green: from attitude to actual consumption: Being green |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |date=September 2014 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=521–528 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12128 |s2cid=143158022 }}
* G. Bologna, Natura in bancarotta: verso le nuove regole dell’economia nell’era dell’Antropocene, http://www.greenreport.it/rubriche/natura-in-bancarotta-verso-nuove-regole-delleconomia-nellera-dellantropocene/#prettyPhoto[videospot]/0/
* {{cite journal |last1=Costa Pinto |first1=Diego |last2=Herter |first2=Márcia M. |last3=Rossi |first3=Patricia |last4=Borges |first4=Adilson |title=Going green for self or for others? Gender and identity salience effects on sustainable consumption: Gender, identities and sustainable consumption |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |date=September 2014 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=540–549 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12114 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calef |first1=David |last2=Goble |first2=Robert |title=The allure of technology: How France and California promoted electric and hybrid vehicles to reduce urban air pollution |journal=Policy Sciences |date=1 March 2007 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–34 |doi=10.1007/s11077-006-9022-7 |s2cid=154438981 |hdl=10.1007/s11077-006-9022-7 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Connolly |first1=John |last2=Prothero |first2=Andrea |title=Green Consumption: Life-politics, risk and contradictions |journal=Journal of Consumer Culture |date=March 2008 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=117–145 |doi=10.1177/1469540507086422 |s2cid=146265463 }}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1109/ICRTIT.2014.6996212 |chapter=Efficient energy consumption in green cloud |title=2014 International Conference on Recent Trends in Information Technology |year=2014 |last1=Valliyammai c |last2=Uma s |last3=Dhivya Bharathi k |last4=Surya p |pages=1–4 |s2cid=16191822 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=A. Greening |first1=Lorna |last2=Greene |first2=David L. |last3=Difiglio |first3=Carmen |title=Energy efficiency and consumption — the rebound effect — a survey |journal=Energy Policy |date=June 2000 |volume=28 |issue=6–7 |pages=389–401 |doi=10.1016/S0301-4215(00)00021-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=Rebecca |title=The taste for green: The possibilities and dynamics of status differentiation through 'green' consumption |journal=Poetics |date=June 2013 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=294–322 |doi=10.1016/j.poetic.2013.03.003 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ertz |first1=Myriam |last2=Karakas |first2=Fahri |last3=Sarigöllü |first3=Emine |title=Exploring pro-environmental behaviors of consumers: An analysis of contextual factors, attitude, and behaviors |journal=Journal of Business Research |date=October 2016 |volume=69 |issue=10 |pages=3971–3980 |doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.06.010 |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/59480/1/Manuscript.pdf }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Farbotko |first1=Carol |last2=Head |first2=Lesley |title=Gifts, sustainable consumption and giving up green anxieties at Christmas |journal=Geoforum |date=December 2013 |volume=50 |pages=88–96 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.08.004 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/smhpapers/1102 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goworek |first1=Helen |title=Social and environmental sustainability in the clothing industry: a case study of a fair trade retailer |journal=Social Responsibility Journal |date=8 March 2011 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=74–86 |doi=10.1108/17471111111114558 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Haws |first1=Kelly L. |last2=Winterich |first2=Karen Page |last3=Naylor |first3=Rebecca Walker |title=Seeing the world through GREEN-tinted glasses: Green consumption values and responses to environmentally friendly products |journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology |date=July 2014 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=336–354 |doi=10.1016/j.jcps.2013.11.002 |s2cid=154557555 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Heiskanen |first1=Eva |last2=Pantzar |first2=Mika |title=Toward Sustainable Consumption: Two New Perspectives |journal=Journal of Consumer Policy |date=1 December 1997 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=409–442 |doi=10.1023/A:1006862631698 |s2cid=153749071 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Jim |first1=C. Y. |title=Sustainable urban greening strategies for compact cities in developing and developed economies |journal=Urban Ecosystems |date=1 December 2013 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=741–761 |doi=10.1007/s11252-012-0268-x |s2cid=16554727 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Saxena |first1=Ravindra P. |last2=Khandelwal |first2=Pradeep K. |title=Greening of industries for sustainable growth: An exploratory study on durable, non‐durable and services industries |journal=International Journal of Social Economics |date=29 June 2012 |volume=39 |issue=8 |pages=551–586 |doi=10.1108/03068291211238437 }}
* {{cite news |title=Green: The Latest Fashion in Building for 2008 |url=https://www.buildings.com/articles/34628/green-latest-fashion-building-2008 |work=Buildings }}
* A. Magnani, 2014, Moda green più competitiva, nòva, IL SOLE 24ORE
* {{cite book |last1=Micheletti |first1=Michele |title=Political Virtue and Shopping: Individuals, Consumerism, and Collective Action |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4039-7376-4 |doi=10.1057/9781403973764 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Moisander |first1=Johanna |last2=Pesonen |first2=Sinikka |title=Narratives of sustainable ways of living: constructing the self and the other as a green consumer |journal=Management Decision |date=May 2002 |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=329–342 |doi=10.1108/00251740210426321 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Spaargaren |first1=G |last2=Mol |first2=A |title=Greening global consumption: Redefining politics and authority |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=August 2008 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=350–359 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.04.010 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Olli |first1=Eero |last2=Grendstad |first2=Gunnar |last3=Wollebaek |first3=Dag |title=Correlates of Environmental Behaviors: Bringing Back Social Context |journal=Environment and Behavior |date=March 2001 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=181–208 |doi=10.1177/0013916501332002 |s2cid=38386910 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Peattie |first1=Ken |title=Green Consumption: Behavior and Norms |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |date=21 November 2010 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=195–228 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-032609-094328 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |title=The Greening of Wal-Mart - Jonathan Rowe |date=April 2011 |url=https://jonathanrowe.org/the-greening-of-wal-mart }}
* R. Sassatelli, 2007, Consumer culture. History, theory and politics, SAGE Publications
* {{cite journal |last1=Seyfang |first1=Gill |title=Growing sustainable consumption communities: The case of local organic food networks |journal=International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy |date=May 2007 |volume=27 |issue=3/4 |pages=120–134 |doi=10.1108/01443330710741066 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Steg |first1=Linda |last2=Vlek |first2=Charles |title=Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review and research agenda |journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology |date=September 2009 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=309–317 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.10.004 |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/168780972/1_s2.0_S0272494408000959_main.pdf |hdl=11370/7581b727-854c-41c2-a8af-e055e6224240 |s2cid=9264684 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Thongplew |first1=Natapol |last2=van Koppen |first2=C.S.A. (Kris) |last3=Spaargaren |first3=Gert |title=Companies contributing to the greening of consumption: findings from the dairy and appliance industries in Thailand |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=July 2014 |volume=75 |pages=96–105 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.03.076 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barendregt |first1=Bart |last2=Jaffe |first2=Rivke |title=Green Consumption: The Global Rise of Eco-Chic |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-85785-798-9 |doi=10.4324/9781003085508 |s2cid=241764140 }}

== External links ==
* [http://webecoist.momtastic.com/2008/09/15/going-green-smart-consumption-25-tip/ Going Green: Smart Consumption (24 Tips)]

{{Sustainability}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Consumption]]
[[Category:Ethical consumerism]]"
Sustainable markets,"{{Short description|Sustainable exchange of goods and services}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{essay-like|date=June 2015}}
{{tone|date=June 2015}}
}}

'''Sustainable markets''' are defined as systems or institutions where the exchange of goods and services occurs with a [[sustainable]], ethical, and [[Environmentalism|environmentalist]] mindset. Sustainable markets differ from traditional economic markets as they aim to diminish the effects of [[natural resource]] [[Environmental degradation|degradation]], [[environmental pollution]], and [[Occupational safety and health|promote safe labor]] practices.<ref name="":0"">Skoll Foundation (2015) ‘Sustainable Markets page’ http://www.skollfoundation.org/issue/sustainable-markets/</ref>

== Transition to sustainable markets ==

In order to transition to sustainable markets, the use of [[market governance mechanism]]s (MGMs) to change the behavior of economic actors has been considered. Examples of sustainable market MGMs include [[Fair trade certification|fair trade certifications]], sustainable production reporting, [[Carbon tax|carbon taxes]], pollution control subsidies,<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OP|date=2014-04-20|title=Economic Incentives|url=https://www.epa.gov/environmental-economics/economic-incentives|access-date=2022-01-04|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref> and payments for [[ecosystem services]]. 

== History ==
In the past, the sustainable market discussion was limited only to theorizing how to best reach sustainability goals like [[carbon neutrality]]. However, in 2022 [[California]] governor Gavin Newsom signed The California Climate Commitment which promised to make California Carbon Neutral by 2045.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-16 |title=Governor Newsom Signs Sweeping Climate Measures, Ushering in New Era of World-Leading Climate Action |url=https://www.gov.ca.gov/2022/09/16/governor-newsom-signs-sweeping-climate-measures-ushering-in-new-era-of-world-leading-climate-action/ |access-date=2022-10-12 |website=California Governor |language=en}}</ref> Over the next two decades, the [[Climate commitment|Climate Commitment]] aims to:

* Create 4 million new jobs
* Cut air pollution by 60%
* Reduce state oil consumption by 91%
* Save California $23 billion by avoiding the damages of pollution
* Reduce fossil fuel use in buildings and transportation by 92%
* Cut refinery pollution by 94%

However, much of the world has dealt with issues in implementing these goals as of 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ro |first=Christine |title=Second Year Of Stalled Progress On The Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/christinero/2022/09/27/second-year-of-stalled-progress-on-the-sustainable-development-goals/ |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> 

== Debates ==
As more legislation such as the California Climate Commitment becomes commonplace, there are also questions of whether it is ethical to impose market restrictions on developing countries. Many developing countries experience greater negative impacts from climate change<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change and the Developing World: A Disproportionate Impact |url=https://www.usglc.org/blog/climate-change-and-the-developing-world-a-disproportionate-impact/ |access-date=2022-10-12 |website=USGLC |language=en-US}}</ref> but are also more harshly impacted by economic restrictions. Furthermore, there are unresolved debates over how much regulation or [[economic interventionism|government intervention]] is appropriate in order to govern sustainable markets, including the use of [[Ecotax|ecotaxes]].

Broader questions remain over the ability of sustainable markets to fully account for environmental costs, such as pollution and [[ecosystem collapse]]. Debates about the main focus of economic models, such as [[GDP]] or social [[well-being]], also exist. There have been suggestions that a move away from a GDP focus is required for environmental prosperity.

== Organizations ==

A number of organizations are working in the sustainable markets field.

* The [[International Institute for Environment and Development]]'s Sustainable Markets Group develops research and analysis towards sustainable markets and the debates and innovations shaping markets.<ref>International Institute for Environment and Development (2015) http://www.iied.org/group/sustainable-markets</ref> This research also includes a database of market governance mechanisms. 
* The U.S-based [[Skoll Foundation]] runs a program on sustainable markets which focuses on areas such as responsible supply chains, access to finance for sustainable small and medium enterprises, and work on environmental standards and certification.<ref name="":0"" />
* The [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] runs the Sustainable Markets and Responsible Trade initiative.<ref>International Institute for Sustainable Development (2013) ‘Sustainable Markets and Responsible Trade’ https://www.iisd.org/markets/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401033500/https://www.iisd.org/markets/ |date=2015-04-01 }}</ref> This focuses on the sustainability of international trade, the design, and implementation of supply chains.
* The Mistra Center for Sustainable Markets (Misum), based at [[Stockholm School of Economics]], aims to provide policy research and advice to Swedish and international actors. Misum is a cross-disciplinary and multi-stakeholder knowledge center dedicated to sustainability and sustainable markets and contains three research platforms: Sustainability in Financial Markets, Sustainability in Production, and Consumption & Sustainable Socio-Economic Development.<ref>Mistra Center for Sustainable Markets (2015) http://www.hhs.se/misum</ref>

{{Sustainability}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainable business|Markets]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]"
Environmental impact assessment,"{{abbreviations|date=October 2016}}
{{short description|Assessment of the environmental consequences of a decision before action}}
{{Environmental law}}
'''Environmental Impact assessment''' ('''EIA''') is the assessment of the [[environmental impact|environmental consequences]] of a plan, policy, program, or actual projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. In this context, the term ""environmental impact assessment"" is usually used when applied to actual projects by individuals or companies and the term ""[[strategic environmental assessment]]"" (SEA) applies to policies, plans and programmes most often proposed by organs of state.<ref>MacKinnon, A. J., Duinker, P. N., Walker, T. R. (2018). The Application of Science in Environmental Impact Assessment. Routledge.</ref><ref>Eccleston, Charles H. (2011). [https://www.amazon.com/Environmental-Impact-Assessment-Professional-Practices/dp/1439828733/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1486945778&sr=8-2&keywords=charles+eccleston Environmental Impact Assessment: A Guide to Best Professional Practices]. Chapter 5. {{ISBN|978-1439828731}}</ref> It is a tool of [[Environmental management system|environmental management]] forming a part of project approval and decision-making.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the City|last=Caves|first=R. W.|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|pages=227}}</ref>  Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of [[Administrative law|administrative procedure]] regarding public participation and documentation of decision making, and may be subject to judicial review.

The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-makers consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The [[International Association for Impact Assessment]] (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as ""the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the [[Biophysics|biophysical]], social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made"".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iaia.org/pdf/IAIAMemberDocuments/Publications/Guidelines_Principles/Principles%20of%20IA.PDF |title=Principle of Environmental Impact Assessment Best Practice |publisher=[[International Association for Impact Assessment]] |date=1999 |url-status=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507084339/http://www.iaia.org/publicdocuments/special-publications/Principles%20of%20IA_web.pdf |archivedate=May 7, 2012|access-date=September 15, 2020}}</ref> EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision-makers to [[environmental full-cost accounting|account for environmental values]] in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed [[environmental studies]] and public comments on the potential environmental impacts.<ref>Holder, J., (2004), Environmental Assessment: The Regulation of Decision Making, Oxford University Press, New York; For a comparative discussion of the elements of various domestic EIA systems, see Christopher Wood Environmental Impact Assessment: A Comparative Review (2 ed, Prentice Hall, Harlow, 2002).</ref>

{{TOC limit|4}}

== History ==

Environmental Impact Assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing [[environmental awareness]].<ref>''See,'' for example, [[Environmental movement in the United States]].</ref> An EIA is prepared to estimate the effects of a proposed development or construction project. EIA provides technical evaluations that are intended to contribute to more objective decision making. In the United States, EIA obtained formal status in 1969, with the enactment of the [[National Environmental Policy Act]] (NEPA). EIAs have been used increasingly around the world. The number of environmental assessments filed every year ""has vastly overtaken the number of more rigorous [[Environmental Impact Statement]]s (EIS).""{{sfn|Clark|Canter|1997|p=199}} An environmental assessment is a ""mini-Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) designed to provide sufficient information to allow the agency to decide whether the preparation of a full-blown Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is necessary.""{{sfn|Rychlak|Case|2010|p=111-120}}{{sfn|Kershner|2011}}

== Methods ==
General and industry specific assessment methods are available including:
* ''Industrial products'' – Product environmental [[life cycle analysis]] (LCA) is used for identifying and measuring the impact of industrial products on the environment. These EIAs consider activities related to extraction of raw materials, ancillary materials, equipment; production, use, disposal and ancillary equipment.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1470160X04000160 |last1=Daniel |first1=Stavros E |last2=Tsoulfas |first2=Giannis T |last3=Pappis |first3=Costas P |last4=Rachaniotis |first4=Nikos P |title=Aggregating and evaluating the results of different Environmental Impact Assessment methods|journal=Ecological Indicators|volume=4|issue=2|year=2004|pages=125–138|doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2004.01.003}}</ref>
* ''Genetically modified plants'' – Specific methods available to perform EIAs of [[genetically modified organisms]] include GMP-RAM and INOVA.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195925509000444|author1=Hitzschky, K. |author2=Silviera, J.|year=2009|title=A proposed impact assessment method for genetically modified plants (As-GMP method)|journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review|volume=29|issue=6|pages=348–368|doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2009.02.006}}</ref>
* ''[[Fuzzy logic]]'' – EIA methods need measurement data to estimate values of impact indicators. However, many of the environment impacts cannot be quantified, e.g. landscape quality, lifestyle quality and [[social acceptance]]. Instead, information from similar EIAs, expert judgment and community sentiment are employed. Approximate reasoning methods known as fuzzy logic can be used.<ref>Peche, R., & Rodriguez, E., (2009) Environmental impact Assessment procedure: A new approach based on Fuzzy logic Environmental Impact Assessment review 29:275–283</ref> A fuzzy arithmetic approach has also been proposed<ref>Duarte O. (2000) Técnicas Difusas en la Evaluación de Impacto Ambiental. Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad de Granada</ref> and implemented using a software tool (TDEIA).<ref>ARAI Research Group, Granada, Spain. [http://arai.ugr.es/eiadifusa/ ""Environmental Impact Assessment at University of Granada.""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025165732/http://arai.ugr.es/eiadifusa/ |date=2014-10-25 }}</ref>

== Follow-up ==
At the end of the project, an audit evaluates the accuracy of the EIA by comparing actual to predicted impacts. The objective is to make future EIAs more valid and effective. Two primary considerations are:
* ''Scientific'' – to examine the accuracy of predictions and explain errors{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
* ''Management'' – to assess the success of mitigation in reducing impacts{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Audits can be performed either as a rigorous assessment of the [[null hypothesis]] or with a simpler approach comparing what actually occurred against the predictions in the EIA document.<ref>Wilson, L., (1998), A Practical Method for Environmental Impact Assessment Audits Environ Impact Assess Rev 18: 59–71</ref>

After an EIA, the [[Precautionary principle|precautionary]] and [[polluter pays principle]]s may be applied to decide whether to reject, modify or require [[strict liability]] or [[insurance]] coverage to a project, based on predicted harms.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The [[Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol]] is a sector-specific method for checking the quality of Environmental and Social assessments and management plans.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

== Around the world ==

=== Australia ===
The history of EIA in Australia could be linked to the enactment of the [[National Environmental Policy Act|U.S. National Environment Policy Act]] (NEPA) in 1970, which made the preparation of environmental impact statements a requirement. In Australia, one might say that the EIA procedures were introduced at a State Level prior to that of the Commonwealth (Federal), with a majority of the states having divergent views to the Commonwealth. One of the pioneering states was New South Wales, whose State Pollution Control Commission issued EIA guidelines in 1974. At a Commonwealth (i.e. Federal) level, this was followed by passing of the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 (Cth) in 1974. The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) (EPBC Act) superseded the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 (Cth) and is the current central piece for EIA in Australia on a Commonwealth (i.e. Federal) level. An important point to note is that this federal legislation does not override the validity of the States or Territories environmental and development assessments and approvals; rather the EPBC Act runs as a parallel to the State/Territory Systems.<ref name=""Elliott"">Elliott, M. & Thomas, I. (2009), ""Environment Impact Assessment in Australia: Theory and Practice, 5th Edn, Federation Press, Sydney""</ref> Overlap between federal and state requirements is addressed via bilateral agreements or one-off accreditation of state processes, as provided for in the EPBC Act.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

==== The Commonwealth Level ====
The EPBC Act provides a legal framework to protect and manage nationally and internationally important flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places. It defines this as matters of ""national environmental significance"". The following are the nine matters of such significance:<ref name=""department"" />
* World Heritage properties;
* National Heritage places;
* Wetlands of international importance (listed under the Ramsar Convention);
* Listed threatened species and ecological communities;
* Migratory species protected under international agreements;
* Commonwealth marine areas;
* the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]];
* Nuclear actions (including uranium mining); and
* Water resources, in relation with coal seam gas development and large coal mining development.

In addition to this, the EPBC Act aims at providing a streamlined national assessment and approval process for activities. These activities could be by the Commonwealth, or its agents, anywhere in the world or activities on Commonwealth land; and activities that are listed as having a 'significant impact' on matters of 'national environment significance'.<ref name=""department"">{{citation|publisher=The Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|location=Australia|title=The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/|access-date=9 September 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007230525/http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/|archive-date=7 October 2013}}</ref>

The EPBC Act comes into play when a person (a proponent) wants an action (often called ""a proposal"" or ""a project"") assessed for environmental impacts under the EPBC Act, he or she must refer the project to the Department of the Environment and Energy (Commonwealth). This referral is then released to the public and the relevant state, territory and Commonwealth ministers, for comment on whether the project is likely to have a significant impact on matters of national environmental significance.<ref name=""department"" /> The Department of the Environment and Energy assess the process and makes recommendation to the minister or the delegate for the feasibility. The final discretion on the decision remains of the minister, which is not solely based on matters of national environmental significance but also on the consideration of social and economic impact of the project.<ref name=""department"" />

The Australian Government Minister for the Environment and Energy cannot intervene in a proposal if it has no significant impact on one of the eight matters of national environmental significance, regardless of any other undesirable environmental impacts.<ref name=""department"" /> This is primarily due to the division of powers between the states and the Federal government, and the Australian Government environment minister not being able to overturn a state decision.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

There are strict civil and criminal penalties for the breach of EPBC Act. Depending on the kind of breach, civil penalty (maximum) may go up to $550,000 for an individual and $5.5 million for a body corporate, or for criminal penalty (maximum) of seven years imprisonment and/or penalty of $46,200.<ref name=""department"" />

==== The State and Territory Level ====
===== Australian Capital Territory (ACT) =====
EIA provisions within Ministerial Authorities in the ACT are found in the Chapters 7 and 8 of the ''Planning and Development Act 2007'' (ACT). EIA in ACT was previously administered with the help of Part 4 of the Land (Planning and Environment) Act 1991 (Land Act) and Territory Plan (plan for land-use).<ref name=""Elliott"" />
Note that some EIA may occur in the ACT on Commonwealth land under the EPBC Act (Cth). Further provisions of the ''Australian Capital Territory (Planning and Land Management) Act 1988'' (Cth) may also be applicable particularly to national land and ""designated areas"".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===== New South Wales (NSW) =====
In New South Wales, the ''Environment Planning and Assessment Act 1979'' (EP&A Act) establishes two pathways for EIA. The first is under Division 5.2 of the EP&A Act, which provides for EIA of 'State Significant Infrastructure' projects (from June 2011, this Part replaced the previous Part 3A, which previously covered EIA of major projects). The second is under Part 4 of the EP&A Act dealing with development assessments for local, regional, and State Significant Developments (other than State Significant Infrastructure).<ref name=""Elliott"" />

===== Northern Territory (NT) =====
The EIA process in Northern Territory is chiefly administered under the Environmental Assessment Act (EAA).<ref>The Northern Territory Government, viewed 10 September 2010,</ref> Although EAA is the primary tool for EIA in Northern Territory, there are further provisions for proposals in the Inquiries Act 1985 (NT).<ref name=""Elliott"" />

=====Queensland (QLD)=====
There are four main EIA processes in Queensland.<ref name=Defenders>The Environment Defenders, viewed 10 September 2010, [http://www.edo.org.au/edoqld/edoqld/factsheets/factsheet11%2009.07.pdf EDO factsheet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716023121/http://www.edo.org.au/edoqld/edoqld/factsheets/factsheet11%2009.07.pdf |date=2011-07-16 }}</ref> Firstly, under the Integrated Planning Act 1997 (IPA) for development projects other than mining. Secondly, under the Chapter 3 of the ''Environmental Protection Act 1994'' (Qld) (EP Act) for some mining and petroleum activities. Thirdly, under the ''State Development and Public Works Organisation Act 1971'' (Qld) (State Development Act) for 'significant projects'. Finally, under the ''Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999'' (Cth) for 'controlled actions'.<ref name=""Defenders"" />

'''South Australia (SA)'''

The local governing tool for EIA in South Australia is the ''Development Act 1993'' (SA). There are three levels of assessment possible under the Act in the form of an environment impact statement (EIS), a public environmental report (PER) or a Development Report (DR).<ref name=""Elliott"" />

=====Tasmania (TAS)=====
In Tasmania, an integrated system of legislation is used to govern development and approval process, this system is a mixture of the ''Environmental Management and Pollution Control Act 1994'' (Tas) (EMPC Act), ''Land Use Planning and Approvals Act 1993'' (Tas) (LUPA Act), ''State Policies and Projects Act 1993'' (Tas) (SPPA), and ''Resource Management and Planning Appeals Tribunal Act 1993'' (Tas).<ref name=""Elliott"" />

=====Victoria (VIC)=====
The EIA process in Victoria is intertwined with the ''[[Environment Effects Act 1978]]'' (Vic) and the Ministerial Guidelines for Assessment of Environmental Effects (made under the s 10 of the EE Act).<ref>The Law Handbook, viewed 9 September 2010,</ref>

=====Western Australia (WA)=====
Part 4 of the ''Environmental Protection Act 1986'' (WA) provides the legislative framework for the EIA process in Western Australia.<ref>The Government of Western Australia, viewed 9 September 2010,</ref> The EPA Act oversees the planning and development proposals and assesses their likely impacts on the environment.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===Canada===
In ''Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transportation)'',{{harv|SCC|1992}} [[Gérard La Forest|La Forest J]] of the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] described environmental impact assessment in terms of the proper scope of federal jurisdiction with respect to environments matters,{{quotation|""Environmental impact assessment is, in its simplest form, a planning tool that is now generally regarded as an integral component of sound decision-making.""{{sfn|SCC|1992}}}}
[[Gérard La Forest|Supreme Court Justice La Forest]] cited {{harv|Cotton|Emond|1981|p=245}}, ""The basic concepts behind environmental assessment are simply stated: (1) early identification and evaluation of all potential environmental consequences of a proposed undertaking; (2) decision making that both guarantees the adequacy of this process and reconciles, to the greatest extent possible, the proponent's development desires with environmental protection and preservation.""<ref name=""Cotton1981"">{{cite book|first1=Roger |last1=Cotton|first2=D. Paul |last2=Emond|title=Environmental Impact Assessment|editor=John Swaigen|series=Environmental Rights in Canada|location=Toronto, Ontario|publisher=Butterworths|year=1981 }}</ref>

La Forest referred to {{harv|Jeffery|1989|loc= 1.2,1.4}} and {{harv|Emond|1978|p=5}} who described ""...environmental assessments as a planning tool with both an information-gathering and a decision-making component"" that provide ""...an objective basis for granting or denying approval for a proposed development.""<ref name=""Jeffrey1989"">{{cite book|last=Jeffery |first=Michael I.|title=Environmental Approvals in Canada|location=Toronto, Ontario|publisher=Butterworths|year=1989 }}</ref><ref name=""Emond1978"">{{cite book|last=Emond |first=D. P.|title=Environmental Assessment Law in Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/environmentalass0000emon |url-access=registration |location=Toronto, Ontario|publisher=Emond‑Montgomery Ltd.|year=1978 |isbn=9780920722008}}</ref>

Justice La Forest addressed his concerns about the implications of Bill C-45 regarding public navigation rights on lakes and rivers that would contradict previous cases.{{harv|La Forest|1973|pp=178–80}}<ref name=""LaForest1973"">{{cite book|last=La Forest |first=Gérard V.|title=Water Law in Canada|location=Ottawa|publisher=Information Canada|year=1973 }}</ref>

The ''[[Canadian Environmental Assessment Act|Canadian Environmental Assessment Act 2012]]'' (CEAA 2012)<ref name=""CanLII18july2012"">{{cite CanLII|url=http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2012/2012-07-18/html/sor-dors147-eng.html|title=Regulations|date=18 July 2012|author=Gazette}}</ref> ""and its regulations establish the legislative basis for the federal practice of environmental assessment in most regions of Canada.""<ref name=""canliiCEAAlatest"">{{cite CanLII|url=http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/sc-2012-c-19-s-52/latest/sc-2012-c-19-s-52.html|title=Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, 2012|publisher=GC|year=2012|number=SC 2012, c 19, s 52}}</ref><ref name=""canliiCEAA2012"">{{cite CanLII|url=http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=B053F859-1#ceaa01}}</ref><ref name=""CEAA2012"">{{cite web |publisher=Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency|series=Basics of Environmental Assessment|title=What is the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, 2012? |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/impact-assessment-agency/services/environmental-assessments/basics-environmental-assessment.html |year=2012 |last=CEAA }}</ref> CEAA 2012 came into force July 6, 2012 and replaces the former ''Canadian Environmental Assessment Act'' (1995). EA is defined as a planning tool to identify, understand, assess and mitigate, where possible, the environmental effects of a project.

{{Quote box
| quote =
""The purposes of this Act are:
(a) to protect the components of the environment that are within the legislative authority of Parliament from significant adverse environmental effects caused by a designated project;
(b) to ensure that designated projects that require the exercise of a power or performance of a duty or function by a federal authority under any Act of Parliament other than this Act to be carried out, are considered in a careful and precautionary manner to avoid significant adverse environmental effects;
(c) to promote cooperation and coordinated action between federal and provincial governments with respect to environmental assessments;
(d) to promote communication and cooperation with aboriginal peoples with respect to environmental assessments;
(e) to ensure that opportunities are provided for meaningful public participation during an environmental assessment;
(f) to ensure that an environmental assessment is completed in a timely manner;
(g) to ensure that projects, as defined in section 66, that are to be carried out on federal lands, or those that are outside Canada and that are to be carried out or financially supported by a federal authority, are considered in a careful and precautionary manner to avoid significant adverse environmental effects;
(h) to encourage federal authorities to take actions that promote sustainable development in order to achieve or maintain a healthy environment and a healthy economy; and
(i) to encourage the study of the cumulative effects of physical activities in a region and the consideration of those study results in environmental assessments.""{{sfn|CEAA|2012}}
 |source = [[Canadian Environmental Assessment Act]] |width = 85% |align = center }}

====Opposition====
Environmental Lawyer Dianne Saxe argued that the CEAA 2012 ""allows the federal government to create mandatory timelines for assessments of even the largest and most important projects, regardless of public opposition.""<ref name=""Saxe9aug2012"">{{cite web|url=http://envirolaw.com/short-federal-environmental-assessments/|series=Environmental Law and Litigation|first=Dianne|last=Saxe|title=Federal environmental assessments will be rushed|date=9 August 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124010723/http://envirolaw.com/short-federal-environmental-assessments/|archive-date=24 November 2012}}</ref>

{{Quote box
 |quote =""Now that federal environmental assessments are gone, the federal government will only assess very large, very important projects. But it's going to do them in a hurry.""
 |source = Dianne Saxe<ref name=""Saxe9aug2012"" />
 |width = 50%
 |align = right}}On 3 August 2012 the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency designated nine projects:
* [[Enbridge]] [[Northern Gateway Pipeline]] Joint Review Panel (JRP) 18 months;
* [[Marathon Platinum Group]] Metals and Copper Mine Project (JRP):<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/050/details-eng.cfm?evaluation=54755|title=Marathon Platinum Group Metals and Copper Mine Project|first=Canadian Environmental Assessment|last=Agency|website=www.ceaa.gc.ca|date=19 July 2010}}</ref> 13 months;
* [[Site C dam|Site C]] Clean Energy Project (JRP) 8.5 months; Deep Geologic Repository Project (JRP) 17 months;
* [[Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines|Enbridge Northern Gateway Project]] (JRP) 18 months;
* Jackpine Mine Expansion Project (JRP) 11.5 months;
* [[Pierre River Mine]] Project:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/050/details-eng.cfm?evaluation=59539|title=Pierre River Mine Project|first=Canadian Environmental Assessment|last=Agency|website=www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca|date=13 December 2010}}</ref> 8 months;
* [[New Prosperity]] Gold-Copper Mine Project (JRP) 7.5 months;
* Frontier Oil Sands Mine Project (JRP)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/050/details-eng.cfm?evaluation=65505|title=Frontier Oil Sands Mine Project|first=Canadian Environmental Assessment|last=Agency|website=www.ceaa.gc.ca|date=19 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://majorprojects.alberta.ca/details/Frontier-Oil-Sands-Mine|title=Frontier Oil Sands Mine|first=Government of|last=Alberta|website=majorprojects.alberta.ca|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308221345/http://majorprojects.alberta.ca/details/Frontier-Oil-Sands-Mine|archive-date=2017-03-08}}</ref> 8.5 months;
* [[EnCana]]/[[Cenovus]] Shallow Gas Infill Project (JRP) 5 months.{{sfn|Saxe|2012}}

Saxe compares these timelines with environmental assessments for the [[Mackenzie Valley Pipeline]]. [[Thomas R. Berger]], [[Royal Commissioner]] of the [[Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry]] (9 May 1977), worked extremely hard to ensure that [[industrial development]] on [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal people]]'s land resulted in benefits to those [[indigenous people]].<ref name=""archives.cbc.ca1"">{{Cite episode|title=The Berger Report is released|url=http://archives.cbc.ca/society/native_issues/topics/295-1552/|access-date=9 December 2011|series=As It Happens|credits=Host:[[Allan McFee]]|network=[[CBC Radio]]|station=[[CBC Radio 1]]|location=[[Toronto]]|airdate=9 May 1977|transcript=transcript|transcript-url=http://ms.radio-canada.ca/archives_new/2002/en/wma/berger19770509er1.wma|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130116013223/http://archives.cbc.ca/society/native_issues/topics/295-1552/|archive-date=16 January 2013}}</ref>

On 22 April 2013, NDP MP [[Megan Leslie]] issued a statement claiming that the [[Harper government]]'s recent changes to ""fish habitat protection, the ''[[Navigable Waters Protection Act]]'' and the ''Canadian Environmental Assessment Act''"", along with gutting existing laws and making cuts to science and research, ""will be disastrous, not only for the environment but also for Canadians' health and economic prosperity.""<ref name=""NDP22apr2013"">{{cite news|date=22 April 2013|title=Statement by Official Opposition Environment critic Megan Leslie on Earth Day|url=https://www.ndp.ca/news/statement-official-opposition-environment-critic-megan-leslie-earth-day|publisher=NDP|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621121734/http://www.ndp.ca/news/statement-official-opposition-environment-critic-megan-leslie-earth-day|archive-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> On 26 September 2012, Leslie argued that with the changes to the ''Canadian Environmental Assessment Act'' that came into effect 6 July 2012, ""[[Exploration geophysics|seismic testing]], dams, wind farms and power plants"" no longer required any federal environmental assessment. She also claimed that because the CEAA 2012—which she claimed was rushed through Parliament—dismantled the CEAA 1995, the Oshawa ethanol plant project would no longer have a full federal environmental assessment.<ref name=""Leslie26sep2012"">{{cite parl|date=26 September 2012|title=Question period|location=Ottawa, ON|author=Megan Leslie|url=http://openparliament.ca/debates/2012/9/26/megan-leslie-1/|publisher=Open Parliament}}</ref> Mr. Peter Kent (Minister of the Environment) explained that the CEAA 2012 ""provides for the Government of Canada and the Environmental Assessment Agency to focus on the large and most significant projects that are being proposed across the country."" The 2,000 to 3,000-plus smaller screenings that were in effect under CEAA 1995 became the ""responsibility of lower levels of government but are still subject to the same strict federal [[environmental law]]s.""<ref name=""Leslie26sep2012"" /> Anne Minh-Thu Quach, MP for Beauharnois—Salaberry, QC, argued that the mammoth budget bill dismantled 50 years of environmental protection without consulting Canadians about the ""colossal changes they are making to environmental assessments."" She claimed that the federal government is entering into ""limited consultations, by invitation only, months after the damage was done.""<ref name=""Leslie26sep2012"" />

===China===
The Environmental Impact Assessment Law (EIA Law) requires that an environmental impact assessment be completed prior to project construction. However, if a developer completely ignores this requirement and builds a project without submitting an environmental impact statement, the only penalty is that the environmental protection bureau (EPB) may require the developer to do a make-up environmental assessment. If the developer does not complete this make-up assessment within the designated time, only then is the EPB authorized to fine the developer. Even so, the possible fine is capped at a maximum of about US$25,000, a fraction of the overall cost of most major projects. The lack of more stringent enforcement mechanisms has resulted in a significant percentage of projects not completing legally required environmental impact assessments prior to construction.<ref>{{cite web| last=Wang| first=Alex| title=Environmental protection in China: the role of law| date=2007-02-05| url=http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/745-Environmental-protection-in-China-the-role-of-law| url-status=live| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516123917/http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/745-Environmental-protection-in-China-the-role-of-law| archive-date=2012-05-16}}</ref>

China's [[State Environmental Protection Administration]] (SEPA) used the legislation to halt 30 projects in 2004, including three hydro-power plants under the [[Three Gorges]] Project Company. Although one month later (Note as a point of reference, that the typical EIA for a major project in the USA takes one to two years.), most of the 30 halted projects resumed their construction, reportedly having passed the environmental assessment, the fact that these key projects' construction was ever suspended was notable.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

A joint investigation by SEPA and the Ministry of Land and Resources in 2004 showed that 30–40% of the mining [[construction project]]s went through the procedure of environment impact assessment as required, while in some areas only 6–7% did so. This partly explains why China has witnessed so many mining accidents in recent years.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

SEPA alone cannot guarantee the full enforcement of environmental laws and regulations, observed Professor [[Wang Canfa]], director of the centre to help environmental victims at [[China University of Political Science and Law]]. In fact, according to Wang, the rate of China's environmental laws and regulations that are actually enforced is estimated at barely 10%.<ref>{{cite web
 |last        = Gu
 |first       = Lin
 |title       = China Improves Enforcement of Environmental Laws
 |publisher   = China Features
 |date        = 2005-09-29
 |url         = http://www.chinese-embassy.org.uk/eng/zt/Features/t214565.htm
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070204023542/http://www.chinese-embassy.org.uk/eng/zt/Features/t214565.htm
 |archive-date = 2007-02-04
}}</ref>

=== Egypt ===
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
EIA is implemented in Egypt under the umbrella of the Ministry of state for environmental affairs. The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) is responsible for the EIA services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Environment - EEAA > Services > EIA |url=https://www.eeaa.gov.eg/en-us/services/eia.aspx |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=www.eeaa.gov.eg}}</ref>

In June 1997, the responsibility of Egypt's first full-time Minister of State for Environmental Affairs was assigned as stated in the Presidential Decree no.275/1997. From thereon, the new ministry has focused, in close collaboration with the national and international development partners, on defining environmental policies, setting priorities and implementing initiatives within a context of sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Environment - EEAA > Services > EIA |url=https://www.eeaa.gov.eg/en-us/services/eia.aspx |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=www.eeaa.gov.eg}}</ref>

According to the Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) was restructured with the new mandate to substitute the institution initially established in 1982. At the central level, EEAA represents the executive arm of the Ministry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Environment - EEAA > Services > EIA |url=https://www.eeaa.gov.eg/en-us/services/eia.aspx |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=www.eeaa.gov.eg}}</ref>

The purpose of EIA is to ensure the protection and conservation of the environment and natural resources including human health aspects against uncontrolled development. The long-term objective is to ensure a sustainable economic development that meets present needs without compromising future generations ability to meet their own needs. EIA is an important tool in the integrated environmental management approach.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Environment - EEAA > Services > EIA |url=https://www.eeaa.gov.eg/en-us/services/eia.aspx |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=www.eeaa.gov.eg}}</ref>

EIA must be performed for new establishments or projects and for expansions or renovations of existing establishments according to the Law for the Environment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/English/main/about.asp |title=About MSEA |publisher=EEAA |access-date=2013-01-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101221459/http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/english/main/about.asp |archive-date=2013-01-01 }}</ref>

===EU===
A wide range of instruments exist in the [[Environmental policy of the European Union]]. Among them the [[European Union]] has established a mix of mandatory and discretionary procedures to assess environmental impacts.<ref name=""watson"">{{cite web
 |last=Watson
 |first=Michael
 |title=Environmental Impact Assessment and European Community Law
 |publisher=XIV International Conference ""Danube-River of Cooperation""
 |date=November 13–15, 2003
 |url=http://www.members.tripod.com/~danubedita/library/2003watson2.htm
 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070328084514/http://www.members.tripod.com/~danubedita/library/2003watson2.htm
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-date=March 28, 2007
}}</ref> [[European Union Directive|Directive]] (85/337/EEC) on Environmental Impact Assessments (known as the ''EIA Directive'')<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31985L0337:EN:HTML|title=EUR-Lex - 31985L0337 – EN|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref> was first introduced in 1985, amended in 1997, amended again in 2003 following EU signature of the 1998 [[Aarhus Convention]], and once more in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Impact Assessment - EIA - Environment - European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/eia/eia-legalcontext.htm |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref>

The initial Directive of 1985 and its three amendments have been codified in Directive 2011/92/EU of 13 December 2011.<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:026:0001:0021:EN:PDF DIRECTIVE 2011/92/EU OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 13 December 2011 on the assessment of the effects of some public and private projects on the environment] from [http://eur-lex.europa.eu Eur-Lex] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907140138/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/ |date=2017-09-07 }}</ref>

In 2001, the issue was enlarged to include the assessment of plans and programmes by the so-called ''[[Strategic Environmental Assessment|Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)]] Directive'' (2001/42/EC), which was amended by Directive 2014/52/EU of 16 April 2014.<ref>[https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32014L0052 Directive 2014/52/EU amending Directive 2011/92/EU on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment], 16 April 2014</ref><ref name=""watson"" /> Under the EU directive, a compliant EIA must provide certain information in seven key areas:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32001L0042:EN:HTML|title=EUR-Lex – 32001L0042 – EN|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref>
# Description of the project
#* Description of actual project and site description
#* Break the project down into its key components, i.e. construction, operations, decommissioning
#* For each component list all of the sources of environmental disturbance
#* For each component all the inputs and outputs must be listed, e.g., [[air pollution]], noise, [[hydrology]]
# Alternatives that have been considered
#* Examine alternatives that have been considered
#* Example: in a [[biomass]] power station, will the fuel be sourced locally or nationally?
# Description of the environment
#* List of all aspects of the environment that may be affected by the development
#* Example: populations, [[fauna]], flora, air, soil, water, humans, landscape, cultural heritage
#* This section is best carried out with the help of local experts, e.g. the [[RSPB]] in the UK
# Description of the significant effects on the environment
#* The word significant is crucial here as the definition can vary
#* 'Significant' must be defined
#* The most frequent method used here is use of the [[Leopold matrix]]
#* The matrix is a tool used in the systematic examination of potential interactions
#* Example: in a windfarm development a significant impact may be collisions with birds
# Mitigation
#* This is where EIA is most useful
#* Once section 4 is complete, it is obvious where impacts are greatest
#* Using this information in ways to avoid negative impacts should be developed
#* Best working with the developer with this section as they know the project best
#* Using the windfarm example again, construction might take place outside of bird nesting seasons, or removal of hardstanding on a potentially contaminated land site might take place outside of the [[rainy season]].
# Non-technical summary (EIS)
#* The EIA is in the public domain and be used in the decision-making process
#* It is important that the information is available to the public
#* This section is a summary that does not include jargon or complicated diagrams
#* It should be understood by the informed lay-person
# Lack of know-how/technical difficulties
#* This section is to advise any areas of weakness in knowledge
#* It can be used to focus areas of future research
#* Some developers see the EIA as a starting block for poor environmental management
In 2021, ESG reporting requirements changed in the EU and UK. The EU started enforcing the Sustainable Finance Disclosures Regulation (SFDR), which was created with the purpose of unifying climate risk disclosures across the private sector by 2023. It also requires businesses to report on ""principal adverse impacts"" for society and the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Survey: 9 in 10 investors do not trust corporate ESG claims|url=https://www.edie.net/news/7/Survey--9-in-10-investors-do-not-trust-corporate-ESG-claims/|access-date=2021-08-18|website=edie.net|language=en}}</ref>

====Annexed projects====
All projects are either classified as Annex 1 or Annex 2 projects. Those lying in Annex 1 are large scale developments such as motorways, chemical works, bridges, power stations, etc. These always require an EIA under the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (85,337,EEC as amended). Annex 2 projects are smaller in scale than those referred to in Annex 1. Member States must determine whether these project shall be made subject to an assessment subject to a set of criteria set out in Annex 3 of codified Directive 2011/92/EU.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

====The Netherlands====
EIA was [[Transposition (law)|implemented]] in [[Dutch Law|Dutch legislation]] on September 1, 1987. The categories of projects which require an EIA are summarised in Dutch legislation, the Wet milieubeheer. The use of thresholds for activities makes sure that EIA is obligatory for those activities that may have considerable impacts on the environment.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

For projects and plans which fit these criteria, an EIA report is required. The EIA report defines a.o. the proposed initiative, it makes clear the impact of that initiative on the environment and compares this with the impact of possible alternatives with less a negative impact.<ref>[http://docs1.eia.nl/cms/engelse_c-d-lijsten.pdf List of criteria for EIA/SEA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724151830/http://docs1.eia.nl/cms/engelse_c-d-lijsten.pdf |date=2011-07-24 }}</ref>

====United Kingdom====
The EU Directives concerning environmental impact assessment are implemented in [[England]] through the Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations 2017, which also apply to projects serving national defence purposes in [[Northern Ireland]], Scotland and [[Wales]].<ref>UK Government, [https://www.gov.uk/guidance/environmental-impact-assessment Environmental Impact Assessment], updated 15 March 2019, accessed 22 October 2019</ref>

===Hong Kong===
EIA in Hong Kong is regulated by the ''Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance 1997'', which became effective in 1998.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The original proposal to construct the [[Lok Ma Chau Spur Line]] overground across the [[Long Valley, Hong Kong|Long Valley]] failed to get through EIA, and the [[Kowloon–Canton Railway Corporation]] had to change its plan and build the railway underground. In April 2011, the EIA of the Hong Kong section of the [[Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge]] was found to have breached the ordinance, and was declared unlawful. The appeal by the government was allowed in September 2011. However, it was estimated that this EIA court case had increased the construction cost of the Hong Kong section of the bridge by HK$6.5 billion in money-of-the-day prices.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201110/26/P201110260238.htm |title=LCQ1: Judicial review case regarding the Environmental Impact Assessment reports of the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge |date=October 26, 2011 |work=Press Releases |publisher=www.info.gov.hk |access-date=October 27, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119072107/http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201110/26/P201110260238.htm |archive-date=January 19, 2012 }}</ref>

=== Iraq ===
The Ministry of Environment (MOE) of the [[federal government of Iraq]] is in charge of issuing environmental compliance certificates based on an EIA report prepared by professional consultant and thoroughly reviewed by the MOE. Any project or activity prior to its establishment or even already existing project has to be approved and obtain such certificate from the MOE. Projects are classified into 3 categories; “A”, “B” and “C”. EIA reporting is usually obligatory for those projects and activities falling under categories “A” (large-scale) and “B” (small-scale) that may have considerable impacts on environment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/eia/documents/WG14_MOS3_nov2010/Diagram_EIA_process_in_Iraq.pdf|title=EIA process in Iraq|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831221814/https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/eia/documents/WG14_MOS3_nov2010/Diagram_EIA_process_in_Iraq.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-31}}</ref>

Examples of “A” category activities include dams and reservoirs, forestry production projects, industrial plants, irrigation, drainage and flood control, land clearance and leveling, port and harbor development, river basin development, thermal power and hydro-power development, manufacture, transportation and use of pesticides or other hazardous materials, hazardous waste management and disposal... etc. Examples of “B” category activities include agro-industries, electrical transmission, renewable energy, rural electrification, tourism, rehabilitation or maintenance of highway or rural roads, rehabilitation or modification of existing industrial facilities... etc. Preparation of an EIA report is usually exempt for projects falling under category “C” which may have low to no impact on environment, such as small fish breeding ponds, institutional development, most human resources projects...etc.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The main environmental legislation in Iraq is: Law No.64 for cities and land use (1965), Law No.21 for noise prevention (1966), Law No.25 for system of rivers and other water resources protection (1967), Law No.99 for ionized radiation (1980), Law No.89 for public health (drinking water provision, sanitation and [[environmental monitoring]] (1981), Law No.79 for protection and improvement of environment (1986), Environmental criteria for agricultural, industrial and public service projects (1990), Law No.3 for protection and improvement of environment (1997), Law No.2 for water systems protection (2001), Law No.44 for creation of Ministry of Environment instead of the council of protection and improvement of environment (2003), Law No.27 for environmental protection and improvement (2009),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/irq100188E.pdf|title=Law No.27 of 2009 for protection and improvement of environment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901160232/http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/irq100188E.pdf|archive-date=2017-09-01}}</ref> Law No.4 for protection of ambient air system (2012).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Meanwhile, Environmental Protection and Improvement Board in the regional government of Kurdistan in the northern Iraq (Erbil, Duhok, Sulaimany and Garmyan) is responsible of issuing Environmental compliance certificate, the board was established according to law No.3 Environmental protection and improvement board in Iraqi Kurdistan Region (2010).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.natureiraq.org/uploads/5/2/9/9/52997379/english.pdf|title=Environmental Legislation guides in Kurdistan Region-Iraq|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110130412/http://www.natureiraq.org/uploads/5/2/9/9/52997379/english.pdf|archive-date=2017-01-10}}</ref> The board is responsible of issuing such certificate for all projects and activities except of petroleum operation which EIA process is organized and implemented by the Ministry of Natural Resources of Kurdistan Regional government.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mnr.krg.org/images/pdfs/MNR%20-%20EIA%20Instructions%20Draft%20for%20consultation%20-%201%20December%202013.pdf|title=INSTRUCTIONS (NO. 1) OF 2013 ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF PETROLEUM OPERATIONS}}</ref> The same Iraqi environmental legislation mentioned is adopted but the procedure for EIA in Iraqi-Kurdistan region government may differ from the one in the Federal government of Iraq.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

=== India ===
The [[Ministry of Environment and Forests (India)|Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change]] (MoEFCC) of India has been in a great effort in Environmental Impact Assessment in India. The main laws in action are the Water Act(1974), the Indian [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972|Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972)]], the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) and the Environment (Protection) Act (1986), Biological Diversity Act(2002).<ref>Shibani Ghosh, [http://www.nujslawreview.org/pdf/articles/2013_3/03shibanighosh.pdf ""Demystifying the Environmental Clearance Process in India""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221023322/http://nujslawreview.org/pdf/articles/2013_3/03shibanighosh.pdf |date=2015-02-21 }}, ''NUJS LAW REVIEW'', January 2, 2015</ref> The responsible body for this is the Central Pollution Control Board.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies need a significant amount of primary and secondary environmental data. Primary data are those collected in the field to define the status of the environment (like air quality data, water quality data etc.). Secondary data are those collected over the years that can be used to understand the existing environmental scenario of the study area. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies are conducted over a short period of time and therefore the understanding of the environmental trends, based on a few months of primary data, has limitations. Ideally, the primary data must be considered along with the secondary data for complete understanding of the existing environmental status of the area. In many EIA studies, the secondary data needs could be as high as 80% of the total data requirement. EIC is the repository of one-stop secondary data source for environmental impact assessment in India.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) experience in India indicates that the lack of timely availability of reliable and authentic environmental data has been a major bottleneck in achieving the full benefits of EIA. The environment being a multi-disciplinary subject, a multitude of agencies are involved in collection of environmental data. However, no single organization in India tracks available data from these agencies and makes it available in one place in a form required by environmental impact assessment practitioners. Further, environmental data is not available in enhanced forms that improve the quality of the EIA. This makes it harder and more time-consuming to generate environmental impact assessments and receive timely environmental clearances from regulators. With this background, the Environmental Information Centre (EIC) has been set up to serve as a professionally managed clearinghouse of environmental information that can be used by MoEF, project proponents, consultants, NGOs and other stakeholders involved in the process of environmental impact assessment in India. EIC caters to the need of creating and disseminating of organized environmental data for various developmental initiatives all over the country.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

EIC stores data in GIS format and makes it available to all environmental impact assessment studies and to EIA stakeholders.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

In 2020, the Government of India proposed a new EIA 2020 Draft, which was widely criticized for heavily diluting the EIA.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why EIA 2020 is a sure-shot recipe for more environmental disasters |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/trends/expert-columns-2/why-eia-2020-is-a-sure-shot-recipe-for-more-environmental-disasters-5534021.html |website=Money Control |access-date=15 July 2020}}</ref> Many Environmental groups started a campaign demanding the withdrawal of the Draft, in face of these campaigns, the Government of India resorted to banning/blocking the websites of these groups.<ref>{{cite web |title=Environmental Websites Leading The Movement Against India's Controversial New Proposal Are Blocked |url=https://www.vice.com/en_in/article/v7gzxb/environmental-websites-leading-the-movement-against-indias-controversial-eia-notification-2020-are-blocked |website=Vice India |date=14 July 2020 |publisher=Vice |access-date=15 July 2020}}</ref>

===Malaysia===
In Malaysia, Section 34A, Environmental Quality Act, 1974<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doe.gov.my/portal/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Appendix_1.pdf |title=Environmental quality act, 1974 (amendment, 1985) section 34A |access-date=2011-02-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721014734/http://www.doe.gov.my/portal/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Appendix_1.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-21 }}</ref> requires developments that have significant impact to the environment are required to conduct the Environmental impact assessment.<ref>LAWS OF MALAYSIA

ACT A636

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (AMENDMENT) ACT 1985</ref>

=== Nepal ===
In Nepal, EIA has been integrated in major development projects since the early 1980s. In the planning history of Nepal, the sixth plan (1980–85), for the first time, recognized the need for EIA with the establishment of Environmental Impact Study Project (EISP) under the Department of Soil Conservation in 1982 to develop necessary instruments for integration of EIA in infrastructure development projects. However, the government of Nepal enunciated environment conservation-related policies in the seventh plan (NPC, 1985–1990). To enforce this policy and make necessary arrangements, a series of guidelines were developed, thereby incorporating the elements of environmental factors right from the project formulation stage of the development plans
and projects and to avoid or minimize adverse effects on the ecological system. In addition, it has also emphasized that EIAs of industry, tourism, water resources, transportation, urbanization, agriculture, forest and other developmental projects be conducted.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

In Nepal, the government's Environmental Impact Assessment Guideline of 1993 inspired the enactment of the Environment Protection Act (EPA) of 1997 and the Environment Protection Rules (EPR) of 1997 (EPA and EPR have been enforced since 24 and 26 June 1997 respectively in Nepal) to internalizing the environmental assessment system. The process institutionalized the EIA process in development proposals and enactment, which makes the integration of IEE and EIA legally binding to the prescribed projects. The projects, requiring EIA or IEE, are included in Schedules 1 and 2 of the EPR, 1997 (GoN/MoLJPA 1997).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

=== New Zealand ===
In New Zealand, EIA is usually referred to as ''Assessment of Environmental Effects'' (AEE). The first use of EIA's dates back to a Cabinet minute passed in 1974 called Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures. This had no legal force and only related to the activities of government departments. When the [[Resource Management Act 1991|Resource Management Act]]<nowiki> was passed in 1991, an EIA was required as part of a resource consent application. Section 88 of the Act specifies that the AEE must include ""such detail as corresponds with the scale and significance of the effects that the activity may have on the environment"". While there is no duty to consult any person when making a resource consent application (Sections 36A and Schedule 4), proof of consultation is almost certain required by local councils when they decide whether or not to publicly notify the consent application under Section 93.</nowiki><ref>{{Cite web |title=Assessing the Application and Assessment of Environmental Effects {{!}} Quality Planning |url=https://www.qualityplanning.org.nz/node/564 |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=www.qualityplanning.org.nz}}</ref><nowiki></nowiki>

=== Pakistan ===
The [[Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency]] is an [[Cabinet Secretariat (Pakistan)|executive]] agency of the [[Government of Pakistan]] managed by the [[Ministry of Climate Change (Pakistan)|Ministry of Climate Change]]. The agency is charged with protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Parliament. The Directorate of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) is tasked with implementing the Pakistan Environment Protection Act (PEPA) - 1997, specifically Section 12 and Review of IEE/EIA Regulations 2000. This Directorate comprises two sections namely EIA or Monitoring and Environment Engineering And Technology Transfer. All public and private sector developmental projects that fall under any of the Schedules of Regulations have to obtain environmental approval in respect of their projects. The  EIA/Monitoring Section also conducts post-environmental approval monitoring to ascertain the compliance status of the Environment Management Plan (EMP).<ref>{{cite web |title=DIRECTORATE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT / MONITORING |url=https://environment.gov.pk/Detail/YTU5ZmVjNWItZmRkNS00YjdjLTk1ZTctNmFkOWM2ZmRhMDli |website=Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref>

=== Russian Federation ===
{{As of|2004}}, the state authority responsible for conducting the State EIA in Russia has been split between two Federal bodies: 1) Federal service for monitoring the use of natural resources – a part of the Russian Ministry for Natural Resources and Environment and 2) Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Nuclear Control. The two main pieces of environmental legislation in Russia are the Federal Law 'On Ecological Expertise', 1995 and the 'Regulations on Assessment of Impact from Intended Business and Other Activity on Environment in the Russian Federation', 2000.<ref>Department of Environmental Protection, Russia</ref>

;Federal Service for monitoring the use of natural resources
In 2006, the parliament committee on ecology in conjunction with the Ministry for Natural Resources and Environment, created a working group to prepare a number of amendments to existing legislation to cover such topics as stringent project documentation for building of potentially environmentally damaging objects as well as building of projects on the territory of protected areas. There has been some success in this area, as evidenced from abandonment of plans to construct a gas pipe-line through the only remaining habitat of the critically [[Endangered species|endangered]] [[Amur leopard]] in the [[Russian Far East]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

;Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Nuclear Control
The government's decision to hand over control over several important procedures, including state EIA in the field of all types of energy projects, to the Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Nuclear Control has caused major controversy and elicited criticism from environmental groups, which have blamed the government for giving nuclear power industry control over the state EIA.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The main problem concerning State EIA in Russia is the clear differentiation of jurisdiction between the two above-mentioned Federal bodies.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

=== Sri Lanka ===
The National Environmental Act, 1998 requires environmental impact assessment for large scale projects in sensitive areas. It is enforced by the Central Environmental Authority.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Central Environmental Authority|title=Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Procedure in Sri Lanka|url=http://www.cea.lk/web/index.php/en/environmental-impact-assessment-eia-procedure-in-sri-lanka|website=Central Environmental Authority|access-date=1 November 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103215340/http://www.cea.lk/web/index.php/en/environmental-impact-assessment-eia-procedure-in-sri-lanka|archive-date=3 November 2016}}</ref>

=== Ukraine ===
The new law of Ukraine on evaluation of impact on surroundings prescribes the requirements of environmental safety, rational use of national resources, minimizing of harmful impact on surroundings in the process of making managerial decisions about planned activity. The designing of the conclusion of evaluation of impact is a result of its conducting. The key moment of the law on evaluation of impact on surroundings is a substitution of conclusion of state environmental expertise on the conclusion of evaluation of impact on surroundings. Business entity is forbidden to conduct or to start its planned activity without the conclusion of impact on surroundings.<ref>{{cite web|last1=MCL LLC|title=Evaluation of impact on surroundings|url=http://www.mcl.kiev.ua/en/evaluation-of-impact-on-surroundings-2/|website=MCL LLC|publisher=Eric Firado|access-date=1 November 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201043929/http://www.mcl.kiev.ua/en/evaluation-of-impact-on-surroundings-2/|archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref>

=== United States ===
{{Main|National Environmental Policy Act}}
The [[National Environmental Policy Act]] of 1969 (NEPA), enacted in 1970, established a policy of environmental impact assessment for federal agency actions, federally funded activities or federally permitted/licensed activities that in the U. S. is termed ""environmental review"" or simply ""the NEPA process.""<ref>United States. National Environmental Policy Act, [http://www.usinfo.org/enus/government/branches/nepaeqia.htm P.L. 91-190] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516090600/http://www.usinfo.org/enus/government/branches/nepaeqia.htm |date=2013-05-16 }}, {{USStat|83|852|1969}}, {{USC|42|4321}} ''et seq.'' Approved January 1, 1970.</ref> The law also created the [[Council on Environmental Quality]], which promulgated regulations to codify the law's requirements.<ref>U.S. Council on Environmental Quality. ""NEPA and Agency Planning."" ''Code of Federal Regulations,'' {{USCFR|40|1501}}.</ref> Under [[United States environmental law]] an Environmental Assessment (EA) is compiled to determine the need for an ''[[Environmental Impact Statement]]'' (EIS). Federal or federalized actions expected to subject or be subject to significant environmental impacts will publish a Notice of Intent to Prepare an EIS as soon as significance is known. Certain actions of [[federal government of the United States|federal]] [[government agency|agencies]] must be preceded by the NEPA process. Contrary to a widespread misconception, NEPA does not prohibit the federal government or its licensees/permittees from harming the environment, nor does it specify any penalty if an environmental impact assessment turns out to be inaccurate, intentionally or otherwise. NEPA requires that plausible statements as to the prospective impacts be disclosed in advance. The purpose of NEPA process is to ensure that the decision maker is fully informed of the environmental aspects and consequences prior to making the final decision.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

==== Environmental assessment ====
An '''environmental assessment''' (EA) is an environmental analysis prepared pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act to determine whether a federal action would significantly affect the environment and thus require a more detailed ''Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)''. The certified release of an Environmental Assessment results in either a ''Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI)'' or an [[Environmental Impact Statement|EIS]].<ref>Eccleston, Charles H. and J. Peyton Doub (2010). [https://www.amazon.com/Preparing-NEPA-Environmental-Assessments-Professional/dp/1439808821/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&qid=1486949351&sr=8-3&keywords=charles+eccleston Preparing NEPA Environmental Assessments: A User's Guide to Best Professional Practices]. {{ISBN|978-1439808825}}.</ref>

The [[Council on Environmental Quality]] (CEQ), which oversees the administration of NEPA, issued regulations for implementing the NEPA in 1979. Eccleston reports that the NEPA regulations barely mention preparation of EAs. This is because the EA was originally intended to be a simple document used in relatively rare instances where an agency was not sure if the potential significance of an action would be sufficient to trigger preparation of an EIS. But today, because EISs are so much longer and complicated to prepare, federal agencies are going to great effort to avoid preparing EISs by using EAs, even in cases where the use of EAs may be inappropriate. The ratio of EAs that are being issued compared to EISs is about 100 to 1.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eccleston |first1=Charles |last2=Doub |first2=J. Peyton |year=2012 |title=Preparing NEPA Environmental Assessments: A User's Guide to Best Professional Practices |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781439808825}}</ref>

In July 2020, President [[Donald Trump]] moved to significantly weaken NEPA. CEQ published a final rule which limits the duration of EAs to 1 year and EISs to 2 years. The rule also exempts a number of projects from review entirely and prevents the consideration of cumulative environmental impacts, including those caused by climate change. The rule went into effect on September 14, 2020 and is the first update to the CEQ regulations since their promulgation in 1978.<ref>CEQ (2020-07-16). ""Update to the Regulations Implementing the Procedural Provisions of the National Environmental Policy Act; Final rule."" ''Federal Register,'' {{USFR|85|43304}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/15/climate/trump-environment-nepa.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |title=Trump Weakens Major Conservation Law to Speed Construction Permits |date=2020-07-15 |first=Lisa |last=Friedman}}</ref>

===== Content =====
The Environmental Assessment is a concise public document prepared by the federal action agency that serves to:
# briefly provide sufficient evidence and analysis for determining whether to prepare an EIS or a Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI)
# Demonstrate compliance with the act when no EIS is required
# facilitate the preparation of an EIS when a FONSI cannot be demonstrated

The Environmental Assessment includes a brief discussion of the purpose and need of the proposal and of its alternatives as required by NEPA 102(2)(E), and of the human environmental impacts resulting from and occurring to the proposed actions and alternatives considered practicable, plus a listing of studies conducted and agencies and stakeholders consulted to reach these conclusions.  The action agency must approve an EA before it is made available to the public. The EA is made public through notices of availability by local, state, or regional clearing houses, often triggered by the purchase of a public notice advertisement in a newspaper of general circulation in the proposed activity area.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===== Structure =====
The structure of a generic Environmental Assessment is as follows:
# Summary
# Introduction
#* Background
#* Purpose and Need for Action
#* Proposed Action
#* Decision Framework
#* Public Involvement
#* Issues
# Alternatives, including the Proposed Action
#* Alternatives
#* Mitigation Common to All Alternatives
#* Comparison of Alternatives
# Environmental Consequences
# Consultation and Coordination

===== Procedure =====
The EA becomes a draft public document when notice of it is published, usually in a newspaper of general circulation in the area affected by the proposal. There is a 15-day review period required for an Environmental Assessment (30 days if exceptional circumstances) while the document is made available for public commentary, and a similar time for any objection to improper process. Commenting on the Draft EA is typically done in writing or email, submitted to the lead action agency as published in the notice of availability. An EA does not require a public hearing for verbal comments.  Following the mandated public comment period, the lead action agency responds to any comments, and certifies either a FONSI or a Notice of Intent (NOI) to prepare an EIS in its public environmental review record.  The preparation of an EIS then generates a similar but more lengthy, involved and expensive process.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

==== Environmental impact statement ====
{{main|Environmental impact statement}}
The adequacy of an environmental impact statement (EIS) can be challenged in [[United States federal courts|federal court]].  Major proposed projects have been blocked because of an agency's failure to prepare an acceptable EIS.  One prominent example was the [[Westway (New York)|Westway]] landfill and highway development in and along the [[Hudson River]] in [[New York, New York|New York City]].<ref>[http://www.elr.info/litigation/vol13/13.20326.htm ''Sierra Club v. United States Army Corps of Engineers,''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040328074514/http://www.elr.info/litigation/vol13/13.20326.htm |date=2004-03-28 }}
701 F.2d 1011, 18 ERC 1748. (2d Cir., 02/25/1983)</ref> Another prominent case involved the [[Sierra Club]] suing the [[Nevada Department of Transportation]] over its denial of the club's request to issue a supplemental EIS addressing air emissions of [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulate matter]] and hazardous [[air pollutants]] in the case of widening [[U.S. Route 95 in Nevada|U.S. Route 95]] through [[Las Vegas]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Ritter |first=John |title=Lawsuit pits risks and roads |publisher=USA Today |date=2003-06-03 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-03-06-vegas-highway-usat_x.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629064153/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-03-06-vegas-highway-usat_x.htm |archive-date=2011-06-29 }}</ref> The case reached the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]], which led to construction on the highway being halted until the court's final decision. The case was settled prior to the court's final decision.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Several [[State governments of the United States|state governments]] that have adopted ""little NEPAs,"" [[state law]]s imposing EIS requirements for particular state actions. Some of those state laws such as the [[California Environmental Quality Act]] refer to the required environmental impact study as an '''environmental impact report'''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sprlaw.com/pdf/spr_little_nepa_ali_aba_0605.pdf |title=Sive, D. & Chertok, M., ""Little NEPAs"" and Environmental Impact Assessment Procedures |access-date=2013-01-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004091103/http://www.sprlaw.com/pdf/spr_little_nepa_ali_aba_0605.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-04 }}</ref>

This variety of state requirements produces voluminous data not just upon impacts of individual projects, but also in insufficiently researched scientific domains. For example, in a seemingly routine ''Environmental Impact Report'' for the city of [[Monterey, California]], information came to light that led to the official federal endangered species listing of [[Hickman's potentilla]], a rare coastal [[wildflower]].<ref>C.M. Hogan, G. Deghi, M. Papineau et al., ''Environmental Impact Report for the Pebble Beach Properties project by Del Monte Forest'', Earth Metrics Inc. Prepared for the city of Monterey and State of California Clearinghouse (1992)</ref><ref>U.S. [[Federal Register]]: August 2, 1995 (Volume 60, Number 148, Pages 39326-39337)</ref>

== Transboundary application ==
Environmental threats do not respect national borders. International pollution can have detrimental effects on the atmosphere, oceans, rivers, [[aquifer]]s, farmland, the weather and biodiversity. Global climate change is transnational. Specific pollution threats include [[acid rain]], [[radioactive contamination]], [[Space debris|debris in outer space]], [[Stratosphere|stratospheric]] [[ozone depletion]] and toxic [[oil spill]]s. The [[Chernobyl disaster]], precipitated by a [[Nuclear and radiation accidents|nuclear accident]] on April 26, 1986, is a stark reminder of the devastating effects of transboundary nuclear pollution.<ref>Sands, P., (1989), The Environment, Community and International Law, Harvard International Law Lournal, 393, p402</ref>

Environmental protection is inherently a cross-border issue and has led to the creation of transnational regulation via multilateral and bilateral treaties. The [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] (UNCHE or Stockholm Conference) held in [[Stockholm]] in 1972 and the [[Earth Summit|United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development]] (UNCED or Rio Summit, Rio Conference, or Earth Summit) held in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in 1992 were key in the creation of about 1,000 international instruments that include at least some provisions related to the environment and its protection.<ref>Weiss, E., (1999), Understanding Compliance with International Environmental Agreements: The Bakers Dozen Myths, Univ Richmond L.R. 32, 1555</ref>

The [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|United Nations Economic Commission for Europe's]] [[Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context]] (Espoo Convention) was negotiated to provide an international legal framework for transboundary EIA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unece.org/env/eia/welcome.html |title=Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo, 1991) |publisher=Unece.org |access-date=2013-01-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126142541/http://www.unece.org/env/eia/welcome.html |archive-date=2013-01-26 }}</ref>

However, as there is no universal legislature or administration with a comprehensive mandate, most international treaties exist parallel to one another and are further developed without the benefit of consideration being given to potential conflicts with other agreements. There is also the issue of international enforcement.<ref>Wolfrum, R., & Matz, N., (2003), Conflicts in International Environmental Law, Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches Öffentliches Recht und Völkerrech</ref> This has led to duplications and failures, in part due to an inability to enforce agreements. An example is the failure of many international fisheries regimes to restrict harvesting practises.<ref>Young, O., (1999), The Effectiveness of International Environmental Regimes, [[MIT Press]]</ref>

== Criticism ==
According to Jay ''et al.'', EIA is used as a decision-aiding tool rather than decision-making tool. There is growing dissent about them as their influence on decisions is limited. Improved training for practitioners, guidance on bestpractice and continuing research have all been proposed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jay |first1=S. |last2=Jones |first2=C. |last3=Slinn |first3=P. |last4=Wood |first4=C. |year=2007 |title=Environmental Impact Assessment: Retrospect and Prospect |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |publisher=Elsevier |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=289–300 |doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2006.12.001}}</ref>

EIAs have been criticized for excessively limiting their scope in space and time. No accepted procedure exists for determining such boundaries. The boundary refers to 'the spatial and temporal boundary of the proposal's effects'. This boundary is determined by the applicant and the lead assessor, but in practice, almost all EIAs address only direct and immediate on-site effects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lenzen |first1=M. |last2=Murray |first2=S. |last3=Korte |first3=B. |last4=Dey |first4=C. |year=2003 |title=Environmental impact assessment including indirect effects—a case study using input-output analysis |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |publisher=Elsevier |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=263–282 |doi=10.1016/S0195-9255(02)00104-X}}</ref>

Development causes both direct and indirect effects. Consumption of goods and services, production, use and disposal of building materials and machinery, additional land use for activities of manufacturing and services, mining and refining, etc., all have environmental impacts. The indirect effects of development can be much higher than the direct effects examined by an EIA. Proposals such as [[airports]] or [[shipyards]] cause wide-ranging national and international effects, which should be covered in EIAs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shepherd |first1=A. |last2=Ortolano |first2=L. |year=1996 |title=Strategic environmental assessment for sustainable urban development |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |publisher=Elsevier |volume=16 |issue=4–6 |pages=321–335 |doi=10.1016/S0195-9255(96)00071-6}}</ref>

Broadening the scope of EIA can benefit the conservation of threatened species. Instead of concentrating on the project site, some EIAs employed a [[habitat]]-based approach that focused on much broader relationships among humans and the environment. As a result, alternatives that reduce the negative effects to the population of whole species, rather than local subpopulations, can be assessed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fernandes |first1=João P. |year=2000 |title=EIA procedure, Landscape ecology and conservation management—Evaluation of alternatives in a highway EIA process |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |publisher=Elsevier |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=665–680 |doi=10.1016/S0195-9255(00)00060-3}}</ref>

Thissen and Agusdinata<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thissen |first1=WIH |last2=Agusdinata |first2=DB |year=2008 |title=Handling deep uncertainties in impact assessment|journal=In Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference of the IAIA May 5–9, 2008, Perth, Australia. |publisher=IAIA }}</ref> have argued that little attention is given to the systematic identification and assessment of uncertainties in environmental studies which is critical in situations where uncertainty cannot be easily reduced by doing more research. In line with this, Maier et al.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maier |first1=HR |last2=Ascough |first2=JC |last3=Wattenbach |first3=M |last4=Renschler |first4=CS |last5=Labiosa |first5=WB |year=2008 |title=Uncertainty in Environmental Decision Making: Issues, Challenges and Future Directions |journal=Publications from USDA-ARS/UNL Faculty. Paper 399.|publisher=USDA-ARS/UNL Faculty }}</ref> have concluded on the need to consider uncertainty at all stages of the decision-making process. In such a way decisions can be made with confidence or known uncertainty. These proposals are justified on data that shows that environmental assessments fail to predict accurately the impacts observed. Tenney et al.<ref name=""ReferenceA"">{{cite journal |last1=Tenney |first1=A |last2=Kværner |first2=J |last3=Gjerstad |first3=KI |year=2006 |title=Uncertainty in environmental impact assessment predictions: the need for better communication and more transparency|journal=Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal|volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=45–56|doi=10.3152/147154606781765345|doi-access=free }}</ref> and Wood et al.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=C |last2=Dipper |first2=B |last3= Jones |first3=C |year=2000 |title=Auditing the assessments of the environmental impacts of planning projects|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=23–47|doi=10.1080/09640560010757|s2cid=134202298 }}</ref> have reported evidence of the intrinsic uncertainty attached to EIAs predictions from a number of case studies worldwide. The gathered evidence consisted of comparisons between predictions in EIAs and the impacts measured during, or following project implementation. In explaining this trend, Tenney et al.<ref name=""ReferenceA""/> have highlighted major causes such as project changes, modelling errors, errors in data and assumptions taken and bias introduced by people in the projects analyzed. Some approaches to deal with uncertainty in EIA have been reviewed in.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cardenas |first1=IC |last2=Halman |first2=JIM |year=2016 |title=Coping with uncertainty in environmental impact assessments: Open techniques|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195925516300610 |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review|volume=60 |pages=24–39|doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2016.02.006}}</ref>

There has also been criticism on the EIAs in the United States not addressing [[environmental justice]] concerns sufficiently. Yakuba writes ""However, environmental history provides evidence that political process and special interests govern the attainment of the EJ goal by way of inadequate adherence to the NEPA provisions. Public participation (PP) is a principal requirement for achieving environmental justice and constitutes a pivotal determinant of EIA outcome.""<ref>Yakuba, O. (2018). Delivering Environmental Justice through Environmental Impact Assessment in the United States: The Challenge of Public Participation. ''MDPI''.</ref>

Most recent analyses indicated that the persistent problem may have its roots in socio-cultural settings, and environment-nurturing cultural value should be regarded as one among major progressive cultures, and its implementation will need to engage the corporate sector.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Vuong, Q.-H.|date=2021|title=The semiconducting principle of monetary and environmental values exchange |url=https://reunido.uniovi.es/index.php/EBL/article/view/15872|journal=Economics and Business Letters|volume=10|issue=3|pages=284–290|doi=10.17811/ebl.10.3.2021.284-290|s2cid=239719169|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{colbegin}}
* {{Annotated link |Economic impact analysis}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental good}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental impact design}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental indicator}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental policy of the European Union}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental, social and corporate governance}}
* {{Annotated link |Equator Principles}}
* {{Annotated link |Global environmental analysis}}
* {{Annotated link |Healthy development measurement tool}}
* {{Annotated link |Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol}}
* {{Annotated link |Leopold matrix}}
* {{Annotated link |List of international environmental agreements}}
* {{Annotated link |Natural landscape}}
* {{Annotated link |Phase I environmental site assessment}}
* {{Annotated link |Risk assessment}}
* {{Annotated link |Social impact assessment}}
* {{Annotated link |Strategic environmental assessment}}
* {{Annotated link |Sustainability appraisal}}
* {{Annotated link |True cost accounting}}
* {{Annotated link |United Nations Environment Programme}}


{{colend}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|title=Environmental Policy and NEPA: Past, Present and Future|publisher=St. Lucie Press|year=1997|location=Boca Raton, Florida|editor1-first=Ray|editor1-last=Clark|editor2-first=Larry|editor2-last=Canter}}
* {{cite book|title=Environmental Law: Oceana's Legal Almanac Series|last2=Case|first2=David W.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|location=New York|pages=111–120|first1=Ronald J.|last1=Rychlak}}
* {{cite web|url=http://HistoryLink.org|title=NEPA, the National Environmental Policy Act|last=Kershner|first=Jim|date=27 August 2011|number=9903}}
* {{cite CanLII|litigants=Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transport)|link=|year=1992|court=scc|num=110|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=[1992] 1 SCR 3|date=23 January 1992|courtname=Supreme Court of Canada|juris=Canada|last=SCC}}
{{Refend}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=notes}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* Carroll, B. and Turpin T. (2009). ''Environmental impact assessment handbook,'' 2nd ed. [http://www.thomastelford.com/ Thomas Telford Ltd], {{ISBN|978-0-7277-3509-6}}
* Fischer, T. B. (ed., 2016). Environmental Assessment. Critical Concepts of the Built Environment, Routledge, New York. {{ISBN|978-1-138-77776-7}}
* Glasson, J; Therivel, R; Chadwick A. (2005). ''Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment''. London: Routledge
* Hanna, K. (2009). ''Environmental Impact Assessment: Practice and Participation,'' 2nd ed. Oxford
* Petts, J. (ed.), ''Handbook of Environmental Impact Assessment,'' Vols 1 & 2. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. {{ISBN|0-632-04772-0}}
* {{Cite journal|last2 = Hilty|first2 = L. M.|year = 2008|title = Impact assessment and policy learning in the European Commission|journal = Environmental Impact Assessment Review|volume = 28|issue = 2–3|pages = 90|doi = 10.1016/j.eiar.2007.05.001|last1 = Ruddy|first1 = T. F.}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eia/home.htm European Commission - EIA website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120119193844/http://www.sustainabilitya-test.net/ European Commission-funded project on Impact Assessment Tools]
* [http://www.isa.org.usyd.edu.au/research/eia.shtml Environmental Impact Assessment at the University of Sydney]
* [http://www.iaia.org/ International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA)]
* [http://www.eia.nl Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170827122218/http://eia.unu.edu/ UNU Open Educational Resource on EIA: A Course Module, Wiki and Instructional Guide]
* [https://www.elaw.org/elm ELM EIA Law Matrix ~ Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide]

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[[Category:Environmental impact assessment| ]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Ecotoxicology]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]
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[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
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Positive Development,"‘Net positive’, from '''Positive Development''' (PD) theory, is a paradigm in [[sustainable development]] and design. PD theory (taught and published from 2003)<ref name="":0"">Birkeland, J. (2003) ‘Retrofitting: Beyond Zero Waste’, in ''KLM-UC International Conference Proceedings'', University of Canberra, ACT, Australia; Birkeland, J. (2004) ‘Building Assessment Systems: Reversing Environmental Impacts’, Nature and Society Forum, ACT, Australia, http://www.naf.org.au/naf-forum/birkeland (accessed 2005); Birkeland, J. (2005) ‘Reversing Negative Impacts by Design’, in ''Sustainability for the ACT: the Future’s in our Hands'', Office of Sustainability, ACT, Australia.</ref> was first detailed in ''Positive Development'' (2008).<ref name="":1"">Birkeland, J. (2008) ''Positive Development: From Vicious Circles to Virtuous Cycles through Built Environment Design’'', Earthscan, London. (A two volume book updating net positive theory is forthcoming.)</ref> A net positive system/structure would ‘give back to nature and society more than it takes’ over its life cycle.<ref name="":2"">Eco-positive impacts of development must keep pace with human consumption (or [[ecological footprint]]) and offset past losses of nature, as defined in ''Positive Development'' ''(Ibid)'' p. 6.</ref> In contrast, [[sustainable development]] - in the real-world context of [[population growth]], [[biodiversity loss]], cumulative [[pollution]], [[wealth disparities]] and [[social inequities]] - closes off future options. To reverse direction, development must, among other sustainability criteria, increase nature beyond pre-human conditions.<ref name="":3"">A [[sustainable building]] should aim to be better for nature/society than no building at all, as well as increase nature beyond native conditions. A rule of reason would be applied as to whether the baseline is [[pre-industrial]] or pre-historic, depending on the location and circumstances.</ref> PD develops the tools to enable net positive design and development.

== Net Positive Sustainability ==
According to PD, the original precepts of [[sustainability]] ([[nature preservation]] and equity among current/future generations)<ref name="":4"">These principles are common to most early definitions of sustainability and were endorsed at a national level as early as 1969 in the preamble to the [[National Environmental Policy Act]] (NEPA) in the United States. Among the first international documents to define sustainability was the IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1980) ''World Conservation Strategy'', re-published in 1991 as ''Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living'', The World Conservation Union, United Nations Environment Program and World Wide Fund for Nature, Earthscan, London, UK. Here it meant improving life quality within the earth’s ecological carrying capacity. See also COAG (1992) The National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development (NSESD), Council of Australian Governments, Canberra, Australia. For historical context, see Commoner, B. (1971) ''The Closing Circle: Nature, Man And Technology'', Knopf, New York and Porritt, J. (1985) ''Seeing Green: The Politics of Ecology Explained'', Blackwell Publishers, UK.</ref> require increasing future options.<ref name="":5"">Social options do not mean more consumer products but rather substantive and positive life choices which requires increasing the ecological base and public estate.</ref> This, in turn, requires that development increase the life support system (nature).<ref name="":6"">The idea that sustainability requires maintaining or increasing future option was discussed in Birkeland, J. (1993) ''Planning for a Sustainable Society: Institutional Reform and Social Transformation'', University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania. See also Norton, B.G. (2005) ''Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management'', University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois for a comprehensive discussion on this point.</ref> [[Green design]] always aimed for [[ecological restoration]], social regeneration and economic revitalization.<ref name="":7"">For a typology of green building design, see Birkeland, J. (2013) ‘Business Opportunities through Positive Development’, in ''A New Dynamic: Effective Business in a Circular Economy'', in K. Webster, J. Bleriot, and C. Johnston (Eds), Ellen MacArthur Foundation Publishing, Isle of Wight, UK, pp. 87-110.</ref> However, these essentially ‘add value’ relative to ''current'' sites, buildings or practices.<ref name="":8"">For a discussion of contemporary sustainable building design approaches, see Hes, D. and du Plessus, D. (2015) ''Designing for Hope: Pathways to Regenerative Sustainability'', Taylor & Francis, New York. USA.</ref> They do not increase nature in absolute terms. Positive development is defined as structures that increase universal life quality and future options by expanding the ‘ecological base’ (ecosystems, ecological [[carrying capacity]], biodiversity) and the ‘public estate’ (universal access to means of survival/wellbeing and [[social capital]]).<ref name="":9"">Birkeland, J. (2007) ‘GEN 4: ‘Positive Development’, ''BEDP (Built Environment Design Professions) Environmental Design Guide of the Australian Institute of Architects'', ACT, Australia. http://www.environmentdesignguide.com.au/ Assessed June 2008.</ref>

== Terminology Clarification ==
The term net positive<ref name="":10"">The term also appears as ‘net-positive’ or ‘netpositive’. A special issue was dedicated to net-positive design. See Cole, R. (2015) ‘Net-zero and Net-positive Design: a question of value’, in ''Building Research & Information'' 43(1), pp. 1-6.</ref> is increasingly used by green designers, developers and businesses.<ref name="":11"">For example, see Forum for the Future, WWF, and The Climate Group (2015) ''Net Positive: A New Way of Doing Business''. Available at http://www.theclimategroup.org/what-we-do/publications/net-positive-a-new-way-of-doing-business/ Accessed June 2015.</ref> However, in context, it usually means just ‘giving back’ - that is, without fixed baselines<ref name="":12"">Benchmarks are relative to the present, so eco-restoration is seen by some as net positive, yet this does not account for past biodiversity losses and increased human consumption.</ref> - by optimizing material resources, energy and stakeholder benefits, etc. This was the aim of 20th Century green building design.<ref name="":13"">There are a wide range of 20th Century green design books, including: Papanek, V. (1971) ''Design for the Real World: human ecology and social change'', Pantheon Books, New York; Johnson, R. (1979) ''The Green City'', MacMillan: S. Melbourne, Australia; Todd, N. and J. Todd (1994) ''From Eco-Cities to Living Machines'', N. Atlantic Books, Berkeley, CA.; Vale, B. and R. Vale (1975) ''The Autonomous House: Design and Planning for self-''sufficiency, Thames and Hudson Ltd, London; Wann, D. (1996) ''Deep Design: Pathways to a Liveable Future'', Island Press, Washington, DC.; Lyle, J.T. (1994) ''Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development'', Wiley & Sons, New York; van der Ryn, S, and Cowan, D. (1996) ''Ecological Design'', Island Press, Washington, DC. Mackenzie, D. (1991), ''Green Design: Design for the Environment'', Lawrence King, London; Girardet, H. (1992), ''The Gaia Atlas of Cities: New Directions for Sustainable Urban Living'', Gaia books Ltd, London; and Yeang, K. (1999) ''The Green Skyscraper: The Basis for Designing Sustainable Intensive Buildings'', Prestel Verlag, Munich, Germany [Yeang has written numerous books on green design].</ref> Although [[environmental ethics]] and social justice remain central concerns in PD,<ref name="":14"">Social factors have always been a part of sustainable design paradigms, but the focus is generally on the (psychological, social, physiological, experiential, etc.) needs of building users, and less on using a building project to solve social inequities in the wider community.</ref> therefore, ‘eco-positive’ is increasingly used to underscore the ecological dimension. The term ‘net’ also causes some confusion.<ref name="":15"">See for example, Baggs, D. (2015) Buildings Alone will Never be Regenerative, in ''Sourceable - Industry News and Analysis'' https://sourceable.net/buildings-alone-will-never-be-regenerative/ June 29. Accessed July 2015. This claims net positive design only concerns resource balances and does not use a life cycle perspective, but this has no basis in PD literature.</ref> In PD, ‘net’ means public benefits ''beyond'' neutral impacts - not just reducing the total negative impacts to zero by, for example, making tradeoffs.<ref name="":16"">For an overview of [[zero-energy building]], see Kibert, C.J. and Fard, M.M. (2012) Differentiating among Low-energy, Low-carbon and Net Zero-energy Building Strategies for Policy Formulation, ''Building Research & Information'', 40(5), pp. 625-637.</ref>

== Theory Origins ==
PD theory built on eco-philosophies that emerged in the 1980s.<ref name="":17"">See for example, Merchant, C. (1980) ''The Death of Nature: Women, ecology, and the scientific revolution'', HarperCollins, New York; Warren, K. (1997), ''Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana; Naess, A. (1989) ''Ecology, community, and lifestyle'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, UK; Warren, K. and Wells-Howe, B. (1994) ''Ecological Feminism'', Routledge, New York; Salleh, A. (1997) ''Ecofeminism as Politics: Nature, Marx and the Postmodern'', Zed Books, London; Shiva, V. (1988) ''Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development'', Zed Books, London.</ref> Calling for social transformation, they deconstructed the hierarchical cultures, dualistic thought patterns and linear-reductionist analyses of modernity. PD added a positive/negative overlay to explain why these theories did not contemplate increasing nature to offset consumption. Later, sustainability was absorbed into the dominant paradigm (DP) which assumed that current institutions could resolve the problems they fostered.<ref name="":18"">See WCED (1987) ''Our Common Future'', Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. This seminal report couched sustainability within the dominant economic and policy making frameworks and did not engage with the sustainability literature critical of the dominant paradigm.</ref> According to PD, existing institutional and physical structures reduce future options and are thus terminal.<ref name="":19"">''Planning for Sustainability, Ibid.'' Birkeland, J. (2008) ''Positive Development, Ibid.''</ref> The hypothesis was that, by converting negative systems into positive ones, genuinely sustainable planning, decision and design frameworks would materialize.

=== Design-decision Distinction ===
The distinction between decision-making and design is central to PD.<ref name="":20"">See Birkeland, J. (2012) ‘Design blindness in Sustainable Development: From Closed to Open Systems Design Thinking’, in ''The Journal of Urban Design'', 17(2), pp. 163-187.</ref> Decision-making processes/tools divide, compare and choose. They use bounded or ‘closed system’ thinking which excludes considerations that are difficult to quantify. Essentially, decision methods simplify issues and options to facilitate finding the best path from the present position or desired future. Back-casting and scenario planning, while powerful tools, presume the future can be predicted and selected.<ref name="":21"">''Positive Development, Ibid,'' pp. 165-179</ref> Such methods decide now how future citizens must live. They also reduce future options by narrowing resources, adaptability, space and biodiversity over time. Sustainability therefore requires rethinking decision-making and design tools from first principles.

=== Decision-making (reducing costs) ===
The reduction of the ecological base and public estate continues, PD argues, because new sustainability goals were spliced onto the old (anti-ecological) closed system models, methods and metrics of the DP.<ref name="":22"">''Positive Development, Ibid.''</ref> Given escalating [[consumption (economics)|human consumption]], even global [[depopulation]] and [[ecological regeneration]] would not counterbalance total negative resource flows and ecological impacts. PD maintains that closed system models created and institutionalized zero-sum decision and measurement frameworks such as [[cost-benefit]]/[[risk-benefit]] analyses.<ref name="":23"">''Positive Development, Ibid,'' pp. 117-130.</ref> It identifies and ‘reverses’ over a hundred systemic biases in governance, planning, decision and design frameworks by converting them into open system and design-based frameworks to facilitate eco-positive planning and design.<ref name="":24"">Birkeland, J. (2014) ‘Positive Development and Assessment’, in ''Smart and Sustainable Built Environments'', 3(1), pp. 4-22; Birkeland, J. (2015) ‘Planning for Positive Development’, in J. Byrne, J. Dodson and N. Sipe (Eds), ''Australian Environmental Planning: Challenges and Future Prospects'', Routledge, pp. 246-257.</ref>

=== Design (multiplying benefits) ===
Whereas the internal logic of decision frameworks (choosing) tend to diminish ecosystems and land eco-productivity, eco-logical design (creating) can multiply functions and public benefits synergistically. Eco-positive design involves open systems thinking (i.e. with transparent/permeable boundaries). For example, building rating tools are based on limits or thresholds (borders) and do not contemplate net public gains. Perhaps because of the deeply-embedded historic elevation of rationalist decision-making over design, green building design templates and rating tools are decision-based. Being reductionist, they encourage tradeoffs between costs and benefits or nature and society in physical development. Hence, they tend to reduce adaptability, diversity and reversibility.<ref name="":25"">There are many critiques of green building rating tools. Brandon, P.S., and Lombardi, P.L. (2011) ''Evaluating Sustainable Development in the Built Environment'' (2nd ed.) Chichester, West Sussex, Ames, Iowa, Wiley-Blackwell; Gu, Z., Wennersten, R., and Assefa, G. (2006) ‘Analysis of the Most Widely Used Building Environmental Assessment Methods’, ''Environmental Sciences,'' 3(3), pp. 175-192; Birkeland, J. (2004) ‘Building Assessment Systems: Reversing Environmental Impacts’, Nature and Society Forum, ACT, Australia http://www.naf.org.au/naf-forum/birkeland (accessed 2005).</ref>

== Governance ==
Decision systems in governance (i.e. legislative, executive and judicial) resolve conflict by allocating rights and resources - not by increasing the ecological base and/or public estate. Hence PD suggests different frameworks for environmental governance.<ref name="":26"">Birkeland, J. (1996) ‘The Case for a New Public Forum’, in Furnass, B., Whyte, J., Harris, J., and Baker, A. (Eds), ''Survival, Health and Wellbeing into the 21st Century'', Nature and Society Forum, pp. 111-114. Birkeland, J. (1995) ‘Ethics-Based Planning’, ''Australian Planner'' 33(1), pp. 47-49.</ref> These include a modified constitution with a new decision sphere to deal with the unique ethical dimensions of biophysical development, planning and design.<ref name="":27"">Birkeland, J. (1993) ‘Towards a New System of Environmental Governance’, in ''The Environmentalist'', 13(1), pp. 19-32; Birkeland, J. (1993) ''Planning for a Sustainable Society, Ibid''; Birkeland, J. (2008) ''Positive Development, Ibid,'' pp. 220-233.</ref> Given real-world political barriers to change, PD also suggests default strategies to enable incremental reform by changing institutions from within. PD contends that gaps can be avoided in new governance and planning systems by simply reversing each ecologically terminal convention into eco-positive ones.

== Planning ==
SMARTmode (systems mapping and redesign thinking) is a PD planning process<ref name="":28"">''Positive Development, Ibid,'' pp. 251-173.</ref> that includes two dozen environment gap analyses to highlight sustainability issues that are almost never assessed in planning or design.<ref>Birkeland, J. (2015) ‘Planning for Positive Development’, in J. Byrne, J. Dodson and N. Sipe (Eds), ''Australian Environmental Planning: Challenges and Future Prospects'', Routledge, pp. 246-257.</ref> Some of these are forensic ‘flows analyses’ that identify (local/regional) social and ecological deficits that developments could ameliorate by design. They can be undertaken scientifically using emerging multi-dimensional digital mapping tools,<ref>Jackson, D. and Simpson, R., eds. (2012) ''D_City: Digital Earth, Virtual Nations, Data Cities'', D_City, Sydney, Australia.</ref> more pragmatically by design teams,<ref>Birkeland, J. (1996) ‘Improving the Design Review Process’, ''CIB Commission Conference Proceedings'', RMIT, Melbourne, pp. 150-155; Birkeland, J. (2014) ‘Systems and Social Change for Sustainable and Resilient Cities’, L. Pearson, P. Newton and P. Roberts (Eds), ''Resilient Sustainable Cities'', Routledge, UK, pp. 66-82.</ref> or more subjectively in community ‘charrettes’ (aka working bees) for workshopping planning criteria and design briefs.<ref>Sarkissian, W. (2002) ‘Pros and cons of design charrettes’, in J. Birkeland (Ed) ''Design for Sustainability: A Sourcebook of Integrated Eco-logical Solutions'', Earthscan, London, p. 113.</ref> Until planners perform these analyses routinely, therefore, they can serve as design thinking exercises, guidelines and/or criteria.

== Design ==
While improved systems of governance, decision-making and planning can assist, biophysical sustainability is ultimately a design problem. To compensate for past system design errors, fundamental reforms of design methods and processes are required. PD proposes means to reduce material flows without tradeoffs by, for example, creating mutual gains and ‘low-impact luxury’ environments.<ref>Aesthetics or design quality does not equal high production costs, whereas high-tech equipment usually has high [[embodied energy]].</ref> PD contends that eco-positive design is already possible, partly through the integration of natural systems with building structures, spaces and surfaces (e.g. ‘[[living machines]]’,<ref>Todd, N.J. and Todd J. (1994) ''From Eco-Cities to Living Machines'', Atlantic Books, Berkeley, California; J. Todd (2002) ‘Living Technologies’, in Birkeland J. (Ed) ''Design for Sustainability: A sourcebook of Integrated Eco-logical Solutions'', Earthscan, London, pp. 114-117.</ref> [[mycology]],<ref>Stamets, P. (2005) ''Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World'', Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA.</ref> ‘algaetecture’<ref>Algae Industry Magazine (2011), Algaeindustry.com. Accessed August 2011.</ref>). PD contributes other design concepts (e.g. ‘design for eco-services’,<ref>Birkeland, J. (2009) ‘Design for Eco-services’, Part A - Environmental Services, ''Environment Design Guide 77'', and Part B - Building Services, ''Environmental Design Guide 78'', Canberra, Architects Institute of Australia, Canberra, Architects Institute of Australia, pp. 1-13 and pp. 1-9.</ref> ‘green scaffolding’<ref>Birkeland, J. (2014) ‘Resilient and Sustainable Buildings’, Pearson, L., Newton P., and Roberts P. (Eds), ''Resilient Sustainable Cities'', Routledge, UK, pp. 146-159.</ref> ‘green space walls’,<ref>Birkeland, J. (2008) ‘Space Frame Walls: Facilitating Positive Development’, in ''Proceedings of the 2008 World Sustainable Building Conference''. Melbourne, Australia, September 22–25. See also www.sustainability.org.au.</ref> ‘solar core’ and ‘piggyback roof,<ref>Paten C., Birkeland, J. and Pears A. (2005) ‘Greening the Built Environment’, in Hargroves, C. and Smith, M.H. (Eds) ''The Natural Advantage of Nations'', London, Earthscan, pp. 367-8</ref> ‘playgardens’<ref>Birkeland, J. (2002) Playgardens and Community in ''Design for Sustainability; a Sourcebook of Eco-logical Solutions,'' Earthscan, London, pp. 109-112; Birkeland, J. (1994) ‘Ecofeminist Playgardens’, International Play Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 49-59.</ref>).Digital sustainability can stimulate empirical advances in entrepreneurship, innovation and strategy and has the potential to have a positive impact on society.

=== Design for Eco-services ===
The term ‘[[ecosystem service]]s’ generally applies only to human benefits, which are usually valued by units (e.g. money, carbon or energy.<ref>Costanza, R. et al. (1997) ‘The Value of the World’sEcosystem Services and Natural Capital’, ''Nature'', vol 387, pp. 253–260; Heal, G. (2000) ''Nature and the Marketplace: Capturing the Value of Ecosystem Services'', Island Press, Washington, DC; Folke, C. Jansson, Å., Larsson, J. and Costanza, R. (1997) ‘Ecosystem Appropriation by Cities, Ambio Vol 26, pp. 167-172; Daily, G. and K. Ellison (2002) ''The New Economy of Nature'', Island Press, Washington, DC.</ref> PD uses the term ‘eco-services’ to include not only nature's instrumental (pragmatic) values like ecosystem goods and services, but its intrinsic (priceless) and ‘biophilic’ values.<ref>Wilson, E.O. (1993) ''The Biophilia Hypothesis'', in S. Kellert (Ed) Island Press, Washington DC.</ref> PD considers the value of nature to be ‘infinite’ as it is not only the basis of the economy, but essential to human existence itself. To counteract the ecological footprint of existing development,<ref>Wackernagel, M. and Rees W. E. (1996) ''Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing the Human Impact on the Earth'', New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia.</ref> ‘surplus’ natural and social capital<ref>Surplus in PD means ‘giving back more than it takes’ from a life cycle and whole system perspective, not sending energy or water back to the grid or mains.</ref> - assessed from fixed biophysical baselines - must be created both off-site and on-site by design.

=== Carbon-neutral Design ===
Net positive energy is barred by the laws of physics. Moreover, calculations of ‘net energy’ seldom include the embodied energy - let alone ecological impacts incurred during resource extraction, production and transportation. With substantial passive solar design and renewable energy, buildings can send unused energy back to the grid, but it might be used for unsustainable purposes elsewhere. Nonetheless, a building could sequester more carbon than it emits over its life cycle with substantial building-integrated vegetation, using PD design principles. A case study (conducted by a cross-disciplinary team) showed this would within under twelve years, well under its life span.<ref>Renger, C., Birkeland, J. and Midmore, D. (2015) ‘Net Positive Building Carbon Sequestration: A Case Study in Brisbane’, in ''Building Research and Information: Special issue'' on net positive design 43(1), pp. 11-24. See also Birkeland, J.L. (2008) ‘Space Frame Walls: Facilitating Positive Development’, in ''Proceedings of the 2008 World Sustainable Building Conference''. Melbourne, Australia, September 22–25, http://trove.nla.gov.au/ accessed June 2009.</ref>

=== Design Reporting ===
The PD eco-positive design reporting process (EDR)<ref>Birkeland, J. (1996) ‘Improving the Design Review Process’, ''CIB Commission Conference Proceedings'', RMIT, Melbourne, pp. 150-155; Birkeland, J. (2014) ‘Systems and Social Change for Sustainable and resilient Cities’, L. Pearson, P. Newton and P. Roberts (Eds), ''Resilient Sustainable Cities'', Routledge, UK, pp. 66-82.</ref> aims to avoid many shortcomings of decision-based approaches to design.<ref>Birkeland, J. (2008) ''Positive Development'', ''Ibid,'' pp. 83-96. Rating tools often give credits for things that have financial gains like energy and water savings or worker health and productivity but do not increase the ecology, let alone offset biodiversity impacts. They do not credit actual net positive impacts.</ref> In contrast to green building rating tools, the EDR aims to uncover opportunities to create net public gains. Design teams answer questions based on PD design criteria<ref>''Positive Development'', ''Ibid,'' pp. 257-258.</ref> and SMARTmode analyses.<ref>Birkeland, J. (2015) ‘Planning for Positive Development’, in J. Byrne, J. Dodson and N. Sipe (Eds), ''Australian Environmental Planning: Challenges and Future Prospects'', Routledge, pp. 246-257; ''Positive Development'', ''Ibid,'' pp. 251-273.</ref> This forces education, collaboration and ‘frontloading’ design (i.e. investing more in preliminary design stages).<ref>See Weizacker, E. van, Lovins, A. and Lovins, H. (1997) ''Factor 4: Doubling Wealth – Halving Resource Use'', Earthscan, London, UK. Hawken, P., Lovins, A and Lovins, H. (1999) ''Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution'', Earthscan, London, UK. It is a widely cited claim that design is only about one percent of the total cost of the building, yet can save fifty to ninety percent of the total operating cost of a building.</ref> Exposing the research and reasoning behind decision and design concepts facilitates input from community, assessors and independent experts, and should therefore occur be undertaken in development project. Being affordable and flexible, it is also easily adapted to developing nations.<ref>An example EDR process was created for Bogota based on a study of cultural, economic, social, ecological and other special needs. This is not yet published.</ref>

=== Design Strategies ===
Eco-positive retrofitting is a priority PD strategy.<ref>Birkeland, J. (2009) ‘Eco-Retrofitting with Building Integrated Living’, in ''Smart and Sustainable Built Environment Conference Proceedings''. Delft, Netherlands. www.sasbe2009.com/ accessed May 2011; ''Positive Development'', ''Ibid,'' pp. 23-41.</ref> Due to the massive ongoing impacts of buildings, biophysical sustainability is impossible without retrofitting cities.<ref>UNEP (2013) ''Buildings and Climate Change: Summary for Decision Makers'', United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi (by United Nations organizations and national building institutes). UN-HABITAT (2011) ''Cities and Climate Change: Global Report on Human Settlements''. http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS2011_Full.pdf/ accessed July 2012</ref> Replacing buildings with greener ones costs too much in materials, money, energy and time, as new buildings represent only 1-3% of the building stock. It is now accepted that retrofitting can be profitable in resource, energy, health savings and worker productivity.<ref>Romm, J. (1999) ''Cool Companies: How the Best Businesses Boost Profits and Productivity by Cutting Greenhouse Emissions'', Island Press, Washington, DC.; EPA (1998) Market Values for Home Energy Efficiency (study by Nevin and Watson for the USA Environmental Protection Agency), Washington DC.</ref> It can happen quickly and simultaneously, or when buildings are repurposed or refurbished anyway. Green buildings may last a hundred years but few are designed for upgrading/adaptability, so they will soon need retrofitting to a higher standard.

== Design Assessment ==
Most rating tools prioritize resource efficiency and treat ‘reductions in negative impacts’ as if positive. Their baselines and benchmarks preclude net-positive impacts. Some provisions consider respective rights/responsibilities, but not broader ethical issues like improving human-nature relationships, reducing total resource flows or increasing social capital in the vicinity. Also, innovation is often valued for its own sake, not outcomes, and eco-efficiency saves owners money anyway. PD's ‘hierarchy of eco-innovation’ analysis instead prioritizes positive system-wide outcomes and net public benefits.<ref>The PD ‘hierarchy of eco-innovation’ is summarized in Birkeland, J. (2008) ''Positive Development'', ''Ibid,'' pp. 240-242.</ref> Being non-numerical, it allows self-assessment during design when scientific data is unavailable, time and ego has vested or irreversible decisions are made.

=== PD Starfish ===
The PD ‘starfish’ design and rating tool enables quantification while assisting designers to consider more dimensions of sustainability.<ref>Birkeland, J. (2010) ‘Starfish Tool for Net Positive Design’, Presentation at ''Positive Communities'', DEEDI (Queensland Government), Brisbane; Birkeland, J. (2012) ‘Design blindness in Sustainable Development: From Closed to Open Systems Design Thinking’, in ''The Journal of Urban Design'', 17(2), 163-187. (Note the tool is elaborated in a forthcoming book).</ref> It is a modified radar diagram with added layers and satellite diagrams.<ref>Radar diagrams are standard spreadsheet tools.</ref> Since most [[life-cycle assessment]] tools estimate impacts between ‘-1’ (bad) to ‘0’ (best) or zero impact, eco-positive public benefits are excluded. Unlike rating tools, benchmarks for different sustainability factors are based on fixed biophysical conditions - not typical buildings, sites or practices.<ref>Jackson, D and R. Simpson (2012) ''D_City: Digital Earth/Virtual Nations/Data Cities - Connecting Global Futures for Environmental Planning'', D. Jackson and R. Simpson, E-book, http://dcitynetwork.net/manifesto/; Birkeland, J. (2012) ‘The Eco-Positive Design Tool’, in ''Solar Progress'', Journal of the Australian Solar Energy Society.</ref> The starfish uses one scale to assess impacts in relation to fixed benchmarks (from ‘-1’ to ‘+1’) and a linear scale on another layer for scoring/comparison purposes.

== References ==
<references group=""https://uci.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CDL_IRV_INST/u4evf/cdi_proquest_journals_2560018488"" />

== External links ==
* [https://sourceable.net/buildings-alone-will-never-be-regenerative/ https://sourceable.net/buildings-alone-will-never-be-regenerative]
* http://www.naf.org.au/naf-forum/birkeland
* http://www.environmentdesignguide.com.au/
* http://www.theclimategroup.org/what-we-do/publications/net-positive-a-new-way-of-doing-business/
* https://sourceable.net/buildings-alone-will-never-be-regenerative/
* http://trove.nla.gov.au/
* http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS2011_Full.pdf/

[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Resource justice,"'''Resource justice''' (also referred to as ""'''resource equity'''"" or ""'''resource governance'''"") is a term in [[environmentalism]] and in [[environmental ethics]]. It combines elements of [[distributive justice]] and [[environmental justice]] and is based on the observation that many countries rich in [[natural resource]]s such as [[mineral]]s and other [[raw material]]s nevertheless experience high levels of poverty. This [[resource curse]] is one of the main ethical reasons to demand resource justice, that is, a globally fair distribution of all natural resources.

== Factors leading to resource injustice ==
[[File:GINI index World Bank up to 2018.png|alt=|thumb|500x500px|Countries' income inequality according to their [[Gini coefficient]] as of 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?view=map|access-date=2020-07-23|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>]]
The term resource justice as a subcategory of distributive justice was first developed following the repeated observation that natural resources that, supposedly, are a blessing for local populations, turn out to be a curse. This can manifest itself in a number of ways – and for a number of reasons, some of which occur in isolation but more often arise together. Some examples are:
* [[Surface mining|Mining]] or [[Oil well|oil drilling]] result in severe damage to the environment, for example through [[oil spill]]s, [[environmental degradation]], or [[Pollution|contamination]].
* The extraction of resources leads to extreme forms of [[exploitation of labour]] and / or creates very [[Work accident|hazardous working conditions]].
* Resources are being controlled by a small elite that makes or embezzles all the profits. This often goes along with [[corruption]].
* People are forced off their land to make place for resource extraction or for large [[Monoculture|monocultural]] plantations.
* Resources in the developing world are being extracted by companies from industrialised countries, with most of the profits going to the latter.
* Companies extract genetic material, which is then commercially farmed or bred – and often [[Biological patent|patented]].

== Approaches towards greater resource justice ==

[[Capacity building]] and external support in order to empower ""communities affected by oil, gas, and mining operations"" so that they themselves  are able to determine how local resources are being used.<ref>[http://www.oxfamamerica.org/take-action/campaign/natural-resource-justice/ Natural Resource Justice], [[Oxfam]]</ref><ref>[https://namati.org/lawyers-for-resource-justice/ Lawyers for Resource Justice]</ref> In addition, mechanisms have to be developed to make sure that finite resources are distributed in an equitable way so that poor nations' right to development is not denied.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_l9U7olOSA0C Wolfgang Sachs, Tilman Santarius, Fair Future: Limited Resources and Global Justice]</ref> 
The memorandum Resource Politics for a Fair Future, published by the [[Heinrich Böll Foundation]] lists three criteria for a ""fair and sustainable Resource Politics"", namely:
* to ""secure the rights of people and nature over markets and profits"" and empower them to demand their rights;
* to return the ""control over natural resources, financial capital and technologies (...) into the hands of the people;
* to ""transform production, consumption and livelihoods"" in ways that enable people to live in a world of global equity.<ref>[https://www.boell.de/sites/default/files/resource-politics_for-a-fair_future.pdf Resource Politics for a Fair Future, p.12-13], PDF, Berlin 2014</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Climate justice]]
* [[Distributive justice]]
* [[Environmental ethics]]
* [[Environmental racism]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* Wolfgang Sachs, Tilman Santarius, Fair Future: Limited Resources and Global Justice, Zed Books, London & New York, 2007
* [[Heinrich Böll Foundation]], [https://www.boell.de/sites/default/files/resource-politics_for-a-fair_future.pdf Resource Politics for a Fair Future], PDF, Berlin 2014

== External links ==
* [https://www.boell.de/en/memorandum-resource-politics-fair-future Dossier – Resource Politics for a Fair Future], Heinrich Böll Foundation

{{Types of justice}}

[[Category:Environmental justice|.]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Resource economics]]
[[Category:Resource extraction]]
[[Category:Social justice]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Value (ethics)]]"
Social metabolism,"{{Short description|Study of materials and energy flows between nature and society}}
{{Ecological economics|Concepts}}
'''Social metabolism''' or '''socioeconomic metabolism''' is the set of [[Stock and flow|flow]]s of [[material flow|material]]s and [[energy flow (ecology)|energy]] that occur between [[nature]] and [[society]], between different societies, and within societies. These human-controlled material and energy flows are a basic feature of all societies but their magnitude and diversity largely depend on specific [[culture]]s, or sociometabolic regimes.<ref name= ""Metabolism"">{{cite book |last1= Manuel |last2= Toledo |first2= Víctor M. |year= 2014|title= The Social Metabolism: A Socio-Ecological Theory of Historical Change|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JwzvAwAAQBAJ| publisher= Springer |isbn= 978-3-319-06357-7 }}
</ref><ref name= ""metabolismo"">{{in lang|es}}[http://www.scielo.org.mx/pdf/rz/v34n136/v34n136a4.pdf El metabolismo social: una nueva teoría socioecológica.] Relaciones. 2013.</ref>
Social or socioeconomic metabolism is also described as ""the [[self-replication|self-reproduction]] and evolution of the [[biophysical]] structures of human society. It comprises those biophysical transformation processes, distribution processes, and flows, which are controlled by humans for their purposes. The biophysical structures of society (‘in use stocks’) and socioeconomic metabolism together form the biophysical basis of society.""<ref name=""Pauliuk Hertwich 2015 pp. 83–93"">{{cite journal | last1=Pauliuk | first1=Stefan | last2=Hertwich | first2=Edgar G. | title=Socioeconomic metabolism as paradigm for studying the biophysical basis of human societies | journal=Ecological Economics | volume=119 | year=2015 | issn=0921-8009 | doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.08.012 | pages=83–93}}</ref>

Social metabolic processes begin with the [[human]] ''appropriation'' of materials and energy from nature. These can be ''transformed'' and ''circulated'' to be ''[[resource consumption|consumed]]'' and ''excreted'' finally back to nature itself. Each of these processes has a different [[environmental impact]] depending on how it is performed, the amount of materials and energy involved in the process, the area where it occurs, the time available or nature's regenerative capacity.<ref name= ""Metabolism""/><ref name= ""metabolismo""/>

Social metabolism represents an extension of the metabolism concept from biological organisms like human bodies to the biophysical basis of society. In [[Capitalism|capitalist]] societies, humans build and operate [[mining|mine]]s and [[farming|farms]], [[oil refineries]] and [[power station]]s, [[factories]] and [[infrastructure]] to [[energy supply|supply the energy]] and material flows needed for the physical reproduction of a specific culture. In-use stocks, which comprise [[building]]s, [[vehicle]]s, appliances, infrastructure, etc., are built up and maintained by the different industrial processes that are part of social metabolism. These stocks then provide services to people in the form of shelter, [[transportation]], or [[communication]]. [[Karl Marx]] understood these aspects of the specifically [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] to be [[Alienated labor|alienated]], as they reflect a [[Marx's theory of alienation|socially and economically mediated]] form of social metabolism, reducing the amount of energy regenerated for both the human beings involved and their natural environment, only to displace it to the interests of capital. [[John Bellamy Foster]] has thus developed the concept of [[metabolic rift]] to develop Marx's understanding of the deleterious effect of capitalism on [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]].

Society and its metabolism together form an [[Autopoiesis|autopoietic]] system, a complex system that reproduces itself. Neither culture nor social metabolism can reproduce themselves in isolation. Humans need food and shelter, which is delivered by social metabolism, and the latter needs humans to operate it.

Social or socioeconomic metabolism stipulates that human society and its interaction with nature form a [[complex system|complex]] self-reproducing system, and it can therefore be seen as [[paradigm]] for studying the biophysical basis of human societies under the aspect of self-reproduction. ""A common paradigm can facilitate model combination and integration, which can lead to more robust and comprehensive interdisciplinary assessments of sustainable development strategies. ... The use of social or socioeconomic metabolism as paradigm can help to justify alternative economic concepts.""<ref name=""Pauliuk Hertwich 2015 pp. 83–93""/>

== Origins of the concept ==
The concept of social metabolism emerged in the [[19th century|nineteenth century]], which was a time of scientific integration and reciprocity among naturalists and social scholars. The evolutionary perspective, particularly [[analogical reasoning]], provided crossties between natural and social sciences.<ref name="":0"">{{Citation |last1=González de Molina |first1=Manuel |title=Social Metabolism: Origins, History, Approaches, and Main Publications |date=2014 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06358-4_3 |work=The Social Metabolism: A Socio-Ecological Theory of Historical Change |pages=43–58 |editor-last=González de Molina |editor-first=Manuel |access-date=2023-03-12 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-06358-4_3 |isbn=978-3-319-06358-4 |last2=Toledo |first2=Víctor M. |series=Environmental History |volume=3 |editor2-last=Toledo |editor2-first=Víctor M.}}</ref>

It was only in the late 1970s that the [[Human exceptionalism|human exceptionalism paradigm]] was rigorously questioned, leading to the birth of [[environmental sociology]].<ref name="":0"" />

== Social metabolism as a proxy for human development<ref>{{Citation |last1=Fischer-Kowalski |first1=Marina |title=Social metabolism: a metric for biophysical growth and degrowth |date=September 2015 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781783471416.00009 |work=Handbook of Ecological Economics |pages=100–138 |access-date=2023-04-26 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |last2=Haberl |first2=Helmut|doi=10.4337/9781783471416.00009 |isbn=9781783471416 }}</ref> ==
The concept of social metabolism has been used in historical research as a framework to describe the development of human societies over time. Particularly important in this field is the work done by the German historian [[Rolf Peter Sieferle|Rolf Sieferle]] on the socio-ecological patterns of societies. Focusing on the energy dimension of social metabolism (i.e. the energetic metabolism), Sieferle suggested that it is possible to classify different ""socio-ecological patterns"", or regimes, of human societies over time, according to the main source of energy and the dominant energy conversion technology that these use. Sieferle identified three main regimes that characterised human history: hunting-gathering, agrarian and industrial. The hunting-gathering regime relied on ""passive solar energy utilization"", as in this configuration humans relied mainly on products of recent photosynthesis, namely plants and animals for food and firewood for heat. This resulted in highly nomadic societies and low population density. Eventually, the [[Neolithic Revolution|Neolithic revolution]] allowed societies to switch to an agrarian regime based on ""active solar energy utilization"". Humans started to modify their environment more systematically through deforestation in order maximise the exploitation of land and sun for farming to produce food for humans and for livestock. This led to sedentary societies, increased human labour burden and to higher population growth, which in turn boosted the development of more structured social hierarchies and dynamics. Finally, the invention of the [[steam engine]] in the 16th century triggered the emergence of the industrial regime, that relies on fossil fuels as its main energy source. This led to the industrial socio-ecological pattern that regulates human society as we now it today.

Following Sieferle's footsteps, other social scientists eventually tried to reconstruct human history through social metabolism, also through quantitative analyses and indicators. Among them it is worth mentioning the [[Primary energy|Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES)]], the Domestic Energy Consumption (DEC), the [[Primary production|Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production (HANPP)]] and others.

Using energetic metabolism as a proxy for human development has important implications not only for historical analysis, but also for the elaboration of future scenarios. According to many studies, [[peak fossil fuel (disambiguation)|peak fossil fuel]] (i.e. the maximum rate of fossil fuels extraction on a global scale) has already been reached or is likely to be reached soon. Understanding what will be the next main energy source and conversion technology of human societies in the future has important policy and societal implications.

== Accounting Methods ==
Studies of social metabolism can be carried out at different levels of system aggregation, see [[material flow analysis]]. In material flow accounting, for example, the [[Factor of production|inputs]] and [[Output (economics)|outputs]] of materials and energy of a particular [[State (polity)|state]] or region, as well as [[import]]s and [[export]]s, are analysed. Such studies are facilitated by the ease of [[access to information]] about [[commercial transaction]]s.<ref>{{cite book |year= 2000|title= The Weight of Nations: Material Outflows from Industrial Economies |url= http://pdf.wri.org/weight_of_nations.pdf |publisher= World Resources Institute |isbn=978-1-56973-439-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Carpintero Redondo |first= Óscar |year= 2005|title= El metabolismo de la economía española: recursos naturales y huella ecológica (1955-2000) |url= http://www.fcmanrique.org/recursos/publicacion/elmetabolismo.pdf|language= Spanish|publisher= Fundación César Manrique |isbn=978-84-88550-60-6 }}</ref>

There are different schools of thought concerning social metabolism, each with its own accounting method. The two that can be identified have their roots in two different schools of research, the Material and Energy Flow Analyses ([[MEFA]]) which is related to the ""Vienna School"", not to be confused with the [[Austrian School]], and the Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis of Societal and Ecosystem Metabolism ([[MuSIASEM]]), which finds its roots in the ""Barcelona school"", connected to the [[Autonomous University of Barcelona]]. The scholar who laid the foundations for MEFA is [[Marina Fischer-Kowalski]], while MuSIASEM developed around [[Mario Giampietro]] and [[Kozo Mayumi]].<ref name=""GerberScheidel"">{{cite journal |last1=Gerber |first1=Julien-François |last2=Scheidel |first2=Arnim |title=In Search of Substantive Economics: Comparing Today's Two Major Socio-metabolic Approaches to the Economy – MEFA and MuSIASEM |journal=Ecological Economics |date=February 2018 |volume=144 |pages=186–194 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.08.012|url=https://pure.eur.nl/en/publications/d2dc7644-4614-4ca6-a8e0-a8c876cfce1a }}</ref>

While MEFA, primarily focusses its research on [[national economies]] across time and space, MuSIASEM primarily focusses its research on contemporary economies, herein they focus on specific [[subsectors]] of the economy.<ref name=""GerberScheidel""/>{{rp|190}} This brings with it some [[methodological]] differences as well, in the MEFA school of thought, researchers have been more geared toward [[standardizing]] [[data collection]] as much as possible, which would result in an easier comparison between a wide range of cases and data. On the other hand, in the MuSIASEM school, scholars have been more reluctant to do this, they prefer to have a tailor-made form of accounting for every case, operating within a predetermined '[[grammar]]'.<ref name=""GerberScheidel""/>{{rp|191}}

== See also ==

{{Portal|Business and economics|Communism|Society|Ecology|Environment}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Anthropogenic metabolism]]
* [[Balance of nature]]
* [[Carbon rift]]
* [[Circular economy]]
* [[Degrowth]]
* [[Dematerialization (economics)]]
* [[Ecological economics]]
* [[Ecological footprint]]
* [[Energy crisis]]
* [[Energy economics]]
* [[Energy returned on energy invested]]
* [[Ecological civilization]]
* [[Earth jurisprudence]]
* [[Scale (analytical tool)]]
* [[Global hectare]]
* [[Industrial metabolism]]
* [[Land (economics)]]
* [[Material flow analysis]]
* [[Metabolic rift]]
* [[MuSIASEM]]
* [[Natural resource economics]]
* [[Urban metabolism]]
* [[Water footprint]]
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Cultural economics]]
[[Category:Ecological economics]]
[[Category:Degrowth]]
[[Category:Social ecology]]
[[Category:Economic theories]]
[[Category:Economics and climate change]]
[[Category:Energy economics]]
[[Category:Environmental economics]]
[[Category:Interdisciplinary subfields of sociology]]
[[Category:Marxist terminology]]
[[Category:Political economy]]
[[Category:Resource extraction]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Development aid,"{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{short description|Financial aid given to support the development of developing countries}}
[[File:Development-assistance-as-share-of-government-expense.png|thumb|right|300px|In some countries there is more development aid than government spending. (Image from World in Data)]]
'''Development aid''' is a type of [[aid|foreign/international/overseas aid]] given by governments and other agencies to support the economic, environmental, social, and political [[International development|development]] of [[developing countries]].<ref name="":19"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2009/wp09118.pdf|title=Development Aid and Economic Growth: A Positive Long-Run Relation|access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> Closely related concepts include: '''developmental aid''', '''development assistance''', '''[[official development assistance]]''', '''development policy''', '''development cooperation''' and '''technical assistance'''. It is distinguished from [[humanitarian aid]] by aiming at a sustained improvement in the conditions in a developing country, rather than short-term relief. Development aid is thus widely seen as a major way to meet [[Sustainable Development Goal 1]] (end poverty in all its forms everywhere) for the developing nations.

Aid may be '''bilateral''': given from one country directly to another; or it may be '''multilateral''': given by the donor country to an international organisation such as the [[World Bank]] or the United Nations Agencies ([[UNDP]], [[UNICEF]], [[UNAIDS]], etc.) which then distributes it among the developing countries. The proportion is currently about 70% bilateral 30% multilateral.<ref name="":24"">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Total flows by donor (ODA+OOF+Private) [DAC1]|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TABLE1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611033345/http://stats.oecd.org:80/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TABLE1 |archive-date=11 June 2009 |access-date=|website=OECD}}</ref>

About 80% of the aid measured by the [[OECD]] comes from government sources as [[official development assistance]] (ODA). The remaining 20% or so comes from individuals, businesses, [[Foundation (nonprofit)|charitable foundations]] or [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] (e.g.,&nbsp;[[Oxfam]]).<ref name="":23"">OECD, DAC1 Official and Private Flows (''op. cit.''). The calculation is Net Private Grants / ODA.</ref> Most development aid comes from the Western industrialised countries but some poorer countries also contribute aid.

Development aid is not usually understood as including [[remittance]]s received from migrants working or living in [[diaspora]]—even though these form a significant amount of international transfer—as the recipients of remittances are usually individuals and families rather than formal projects and programmes. Some governments also include military assistance in the notion of ""foreign aid"", although the international community does not usually regard military aid as development aid.

{{TOC limit|3}}

== Related terms ==

There are various terms that are interchangeable with ""development aid"" in some contexts but possess significantly different meanings in others.

; [[Aid]]: is a more general concept which can include [[humanitarian aid]] (emergency relief) and other voluntary transfers not specifically aimed at development. Other expressions that relate to aid in general include ""foreign aid"", ""international aid"", and ""overseas aid"".

; Developmental aid: is an expression sometimes used to indicate aid that is more genuinely or effectively oriented to development than what is commonly regarded as development aid.<ref name=Foot02/>

; Development assistance: is a synonym of ""development aid"" often used in international forums such as the UN and the OECD. '''[[official development assistance]]''' ('''ODA''') is aid given by OECD-member governments that specifically targets the economic development and welfare of countries with the lowest per capita incomes.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Official Development Assistance (ODA)|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/official-development-assistance.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422122947/http://www.oecd.org:80/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/official-development-assistance.htm |archive-date=22 April 2019 |access-date=26 January 2021|website=OECD}}</ref> It includes humanitarian aid as well as development aid in the strict sense.

; Development cooperation: despite apparently suggesting a potentially wide range of co-ordinated action, has often been used synonymously with ""development aid"".<ref name=Foot01/> In the early 21st century, ""development cooperation"" has become a key term in a discourse associated with the Global Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation. In this context it encompasses activities that may not be directly related to aid, such as domestic and global policy changes, co-ordination with profit-making and civil society entities, and exchanges between less-developed countries.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=1 December 2016|title=Nairobi outcome document|url=https://www.effectivecooperation.org/system/files/2020-05/Nairobi-Outcome-Document-English.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424043257/https://www.effectivecooperation.org/system/files/2020-05/Nairobi-Outcome-Document-English.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2021 |access-date=16 January 2021|website=Global Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation}}</ref>

== Types of development aid by source, channel and recipient ==

=== Non-ODA development aid ===
Analyses of development aid often focus on ODA, as ODA is measured systematically and appears to cover most of what people regard as development aid. However, there are some significant categories of development aid that fall outside ODA, notably: private aid, remittances, aid to less-poor countries and aid from other donor states.

==== Private development aid ====
A distinction is often made between development aid that is '''governmental''' (""official"") on the one hand, and '''private''' (originating from individuals, businesses and the investments of [[Foundation (nonprofit)|charitable foundations]], and often channeled through religious organisations and other [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]]) on the other. Official aid may be government-to-government, or it may be channeled through intermediary bodies such as [[United Nations System|UN agencies]], [[international financial institutions]], NGOs or other contractors. NGOs thus commonly handle both official and private aid. Of aid reported to the OECD, about 80% is official and 20% private.<ref name="":23"" />

==== Remittances ====
[[Remittances]]—money sent home by foreign workers—might be considered a form of development aid, although it is not usually regarded as such. [[World Bank]] estimates for remittance flows to ""developing countries"" in 2016 totalled $422&nbsp;billion,<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=April 2018|title=Migration and Remittances: Recent Developments and Outlook|url=http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/805161524552566695/pdf/125632-WP-PUBLIC-MigrationandDevelopmentBrief.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200829144249/http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/805161524552566695/pdf/125632-WP-PUBLIC-MigrationandDevelopmentBrief.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2020 |access-date=5 February 2021|website=World Bank}}</ref> which was far greater than total ODA. The exact nature and effects of remittance money remain contested.<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2003/wp03189.pdf Are Immigrant Remittance Flows a Source of Capital for Development? - WP/03/189<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The [[International Monetary Fund]] has reported that private remittances may have a negative impact on economic growth, as they are often used for private consumption of individuals and families, not for economic development of the region or country.<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.cfm?sk=16801.0 Are Immigrant Remittance Flows a Source of Capital for Development<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

==== Aid to less-poor countries ====
ODA only includes aid to countries which are on the [http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/daclist.htm DAC List of ODA Recipients] which includes most countries classified by the World Bank as of low and middle income.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=DAC List of ODA Recipients|url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/daclist.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424061342/http://www.oecd.org:80/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/daclist.htm |archive-date=24 April 2017 |access-date=8 February 2021|website=OECD}}</ref>

==== Weakly-concessional loans ====
Loans from one state to another may be counted as ODA only if their terms are substantially more favourable than market terms. The exact rules for this have varied from time to time. Less-concessional loans therefore would not be counted as ODA but might be considered as including an element of development aid.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Official development assistance – definition and coverage|url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719055510/http://www.oecd.org:80/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm |archive-date=19 July 2016 |access-date=8 February 2021|website=OECD}}</ref>

==== Aid from other donor states ====
Some states provide development aid without reporting to the OECD using standard definitions, categories and systems. Notable examples are China and India. For 2018, the OECD estimated that, while total ODA was about $150 billion,<ref name="":25"" />  an additional six to seven billion dollars of ODA-like development aid was given by ten other states.<ref name="":26"" /> (These amounts include aid that is humanitarian in character as well as purely developmental aid.)

==== TOSSD ====
Recognizing that ODA does not capture all the expenditures that promote development, the OECD in 2014 started establishing a wider statistical framework called TOSSD (Total Official Support for Sustainable Development) that would count spending on ""international public goods"". In March 2022, TOSSD was adopted as a data source for indicator 17.3.1 of the SDGs global indicator framework to measure development support. The TOSSD data for 2020 shows more than USD 355 billion disbursed to support for sustainable development, from almost 100 provider countries and institutions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Total Official Support for Sustainable Development (TOSSD)|url=https://www.tossd.org/}}</ref> The [[Commitment to Development Index]] published annually by the [[Center for Global Development]] is another attempt to look at broader donor country policies toward the developing world. These types of activity could be formulated and understood as a kind of development aid although commonly they are not.

=== Bilateral v multilateral ===
Official aid may be '''bilateral''': given from one country directly to another; or it may be '''multilateral''': given by the donor country to pooled funds administered by an international organisation such as the [[World Bank]] or a UN Agency ([[UNDP]], [[UNICEF]], [[UNAIDS]], etc.) which then uses its funds for work in developing countries. To qualify as multilateral, the funding must lose its identity as originating from a particular source.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gulrajani|first=Nilima|title=Bilateral versus multilateral aid channels: Strategic choices for donors|publisher=Overseas Development Institute|date=March 2016|isbn=|location=|pages=7}}</ref> The proportion of multilateral aid in ODA was 28% in 2019.<ref name="":24"" />

=== Trilateral ===
Trilateral development cooperation (also called triangular development cooperation) is a type of development cooperation, wherein OECD DAC member states or multilateral institutions provide development assistance to emergent development actors, with the aim of assisting them in carrying out development projects in other developing countries.<ref>United Nations Economic and Social Council (2008), page 8. Trends in South-South and Triangular Development Cooperation. url: http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/pdfs/south-south_cooperation.pdf.</ref>

The purpose of trilateral development cooperation is to combine the strengths of both OECD DAC member states and the new development actors in delivering more effective aid to recipient countries.<ref>OECD (2016), page 9. Dispelling the myths of triangular co-operation - Evidence from the 2015 OECD survey on triangular co-operation. url: https://www.oecd.org/dac/dacglobal- relations/OECD_Triangular_co-operation_survey_report_2016.pdf.</ref> The OECD DAC member states and multilateral institutions participate in trilateral development cooperation with the aimed goal of increasing aid effectiveness and efficiency, phasing out bilateral aid, transferring good practices, and capacity building.<ref>Ashoff, Guido (2010). Triangular Cooperation: Opportunities, risks, and conditions for effectiveness. Tech. rep. January 2010, pp. 22–24. url: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/8917388a-5ef3-5a1c-9412-6aacae567900/content</ref>

==History==

===Britain's development funding for its colonies===
The concept of development aid goes back to the [[British Empire|colonial era]] at the turn of the twentieth century, in particular to the British policy of colonial development that emerged during that period. The traditional government policy had tended to favor [[laissez-faire]] style economics, with the free market for capital and goods dictating the economic role that colonies played in the [[British Empire]].

[[Image:British Political Personalities 1936-1945 CH4432.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne|Lord Moyne]], as [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] presided over a Development Committee for the colonies. He is pictured entertaining [[Jamaica]]n recruits for the [[RAF]].]]
Changes in attitudes towards the moral purpose of the Empire, and the role that government could play in the promotion of welfare slowly led to a more proactive policy of economic and developmental assistance towards poor colonies. The first challenge to Britain was the [[economic crisis]] that occurred after [[World War I]]. Prior to the passage of the 1929 Colonial Development Act, the doctrine that governed Britain (and other European colonizers) with their territories was that of financial self-sufficiency. What this simply meant was that the colonies were responsible for themselves.<ref>Joseph Hodge, Gerald Hodl, & Martin Kopf (edi) Developing Africa: Concepts and Practices in Twentieth-Century Colonialism, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2014, p.12.</ref>

Britain was not going to use the money that belongs to the [[metropole]] to pay for things in the colonies. The colonies did not only have to pay for infrastructural development but they also were responsible for the salaries of British officials that worked in the colonies. The colonies generated the revenues to pay for these through different forms of taxations. The standard taxation was the import and export taxes. Goods going out of the colonies were taxed and those coming in were also taxed. These generated significant revenues. Apart from these taxes, the colonizers introduced two other forms of taxes: hut tax and labor tax. The hut tax is akin to a property tax today. Every grown up adult male had their own hut. Each of these had to pay a tax. Labor tax was the work that the people had to do without any remunerations or with meager stipends.<ref>Bekeh Utietiang, Planning Development: International Experts, Agricultural Policy, and the Modernization of Nigeria, 1945-1967 (Ph.D Thesis), West Virginia University, Morgantown, 2014, p. 38.</ref> As the [[Financial crisis|economic crisis]] widened and had significant impact on the colonies, revenues generated from taxes continued to decline, having a significant impact on the colonies. While this was going on, Britain experienced major unemployment rates. The parliament began to discuss ways in which they could deal with Britain's unemployment rates and at the same time respond to some of the urgent needs of the colonies.<ref>[[Stephen Constantine (historian)|Stephen Constantine]], ''The Making of British Colonial Development Policy, 1914-1940'', London: Frank Cass, 1984, p.183.</ref> This process culminated in the passage of the Colonial Development Act in 1929, which established a Colonial Development Advisory Committee under the authority of the [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]], then [[Sidney Webb, 1st Baron Passfield|Lord Passfield]]. Its initial annual budget of £1 million was spent on schemes designed to develop the [[infrastructure]] of [[transport]], [[electrical power]] and [[water supply]] in colonies and [[dominion]]s abroad for the furtherance of imperial trade.<ref name=""Kanbur"">{{Citation | last1 = Kanbur | first1 = Ravi | author-link1 = Ravi Kanbur | contribution = The economics of international aid | editor-last1 = Kolm | editor-first1 = Serge-Christophe | editor-last2 = Ythier | editor-first2 = Jean Mercier | editor-link1 = Serge-Christophe Kolm | title = Handbook of the economics of giving, altruism and reciprocity: foundations, volume 1 | publisher = Elsevier | location = Amsterdam London | year = 2006 | isbn = 9780444506979  | postscript = .}}</ref> The 1929 Act, though meager in the resources it made available for development, was a significant Act because it opened the door for Britain to make future investments in the colonies. It was a major shift in colonial development. The doctrine of financial self-sufficiency was abandoned and Britain could now use metropolitan funds to develop the colonies.

By the late 1930s, especially after the [[British West Indian labour unrest of 1934–1939]], it was clear that this initial scheme was far too limited in scope. A [[Royal Commission]] under [[Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne|Lord Moyne]] was sent to investigate the living conditions in the [[British West Indies]] and it published its [[Report of West India Royal Commission (Moyne Report)|Report]] in 1940 which exposed the horrendous living conditions there.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fraser|first=Cary|title=The Twilight of Colonial Rule in the British West Indies: Nationalist Assertion vs. Imperial Hubris in the 1930s|journal=Journal of Caribbean History|year=1996|volume=30|issue=1/2|page=2|url=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/45526514}}{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Basdeo|first=Sahadeo|title=Walter Citrine and the British Caribbean Worker's Movement during the Commission Hearing|journal=Journal of Caribbean History|year=1983|volume=18|issue=2|page=46|url=http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/results?sid=2784e56a-6ebf-4f20-9439-1158ddf4d76c%40sessionmgr4&vid=11&hid=28&bquery=(AU+(basdeo))+AND+(citrine)&bdata=JmRiPWFobCZkYj1oaWEmdHlwZT0xJnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Amidst increasing criticism of Britain's colonial policies from abroad and at home,<ref>{{cite book|last=Thomas|title=The Trinidad Labour Riots of 1937|page=229}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Kelvin|title=Race and Class Struggles in a Colonial State|year=1994|publisher=University of Calgary Press|location=Calgary|page=186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iWAYAAAAYAAJ|isbn=9781895176438}}</ref> the commission was a performance to showcase Britain's ""benevolent"" attitude towards its colonial subjects.<ref name=Thomas267>{{cite book|editor-last=Thomas|editor-first=Roy Darrow|title=The Trinidad Labour Riots of 1937|year=1987|publisher=University of West Indies Press|location=St. Augustine|page=267|isbn=9789766200022|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Re3TAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> The commission's recommendations urged health and education initiatives along with increased sugar subsidies to stave off a complete and total economic meltdown.<ref>{{cite book|last=Parker|page=23}}</ref> The [[Colonial Office]], eager to prevent instability while the country was at [[World War II|war]], began funneling large sums of cash into the region.<ref name=Thomas283>{{cite book|title=The Trinidad Labour Riots of 1937|last=Thomas|pages=283}}</ref>

The Colonial Development and Welfare Act was passed in 1940 to organize and allocate a sum of £5 million per year to the [[British West Indies]] for the purpose of long-term development. Some £10 million in loans was cancelled in the same Act.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bolland|title=The Politics of Labour in the British Caribbean|page=383}}</ref> The Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1945 increased the level of aid to £120m over a twenty-year period. Further Acts followed in 1948, 1959 and 1963, dramatically increasing the scope of monetary assistance, favourable [[interest rate|interest-free]] [[loan]]s and development assistance programs.

===Postwar expansion===
[[File:Marshall Plan poster.JPG|thumb|A poster promoting the [[Marshall Plan]] in Europe, the first large scale development program. It was designed to boost European economies shattered by [[World War II|war]] and prevent the growth of [[communism|communist]] influence.]]

{{Image frame 
 | caption=Chart: Annual levels of ODA<ref>Although ODA was only officially instituted in 1969, the OECD provides data for ODA equivalent aid going back to 1960.</ref> from USA and all other OECD-DAC donors<br />Constant (2018) prices<br />Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat]
 | align=right
 | content = {{Graph:Chart  
   | width = 200
   | height = 150
   | type = stackedarea
   | yAxisTitle = US$ billions 
   | x = 1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
 |xAxisAngle = -90   
| y1 = 18.4,20.3,19.6,18.4,18.8,19.5,20.3,23.1,22.8,25.0,25.2,27.0,27.6,28.2,31.5,33.3,31.9,33.5,37.2,41.8,42.5,45.1,47.8,48.1,52.2,52.6,54.3,54.3,58.6,61.5,61.1,64.7,65.7,62.2,62.8,59.0,56.2,55.4,59.0,59.4,61.7,62.2,65.6,66.0,67.4,87.4,87.1,80.9,88.3,87.7,93.8,91.9,88.1,94.4,95.0,105.8,117.8,117.8,116.3,117.0
| y2 = 18.3,19.9,21.5,23.0,22.8,25.0,23.1,19.3,21.6,18.1,16.1,15.1,18.4,11.7,14.8,15.4,15.3,15.5,17.5,13.3,18.6,13.8,18.4,17.5,18.2,19.0,19.0,17.6,19.0,13.8,19.8,18.9,19.2,16.2,15.6,11.3,14.1,10.2,12.9,13.2,14.1,15.8,18.1,21.8,25.7,35.3,28.8,26.0,31.0,33.5,34.1,34.8,33.8,33.9,35.3,32.7,35.9,35.6,33.8,32.4
 |legend=Legend
 |y2title=USA
 |y1title=All other donors
  }}
}}

The beginning of modern development aid is rooted in the context of Post-[[World War&nbsp;II]] and the [[Cold War]]. Launched as a large-scale aid program by the United States in 1948, the European Recovery Program, or [[Marshall Plan]], was concerned with strengthening the ties to the [[West Europe]]an states to contain the influence of the [[USSR]]. Implemented by the [[Economic Cooperation Administration]] (ECA), the Marshall Plan also expanded its reconstruction finance to strategic parts of the Middle East and Asia.<ref name=""Httpwwwusaidgovabout_usaidusaidhisthtml"">{{cite web |url=http://www.usaid.gov/about_usaid/usaidhist.html |title=USAID: USAID History |publisher=Usaid.gov |access-date=12 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009131110/http://www.usaid.gov/about_usaid/usaidhist.html |archive-date=9 October 2011 }}</ref>

Although Marshall aid was initially offered to Europe in general, the Soviet Union forbade its neighbouring states from accepting it. This has been described as ""the moment of truth"" in the post-[[World War II]] division of Europe.<ref name=""bideleaux"">Bideleux, Robert and Ian Jeffries, ''A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change'', Routledge, 1998, {{ISBN|0-415-16111-8}}</ref> The Soviet Union provided aid to countries in the communist bloc; for instance, on Poland's abstention from the Marshall Plan, [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] promised a $450 million credit and 200,000 tons of grain.<ref>{{cite news|date=9 February 1948|title=Carnations|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,855998,00.html|url-status=live|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114182613/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,855998,00.html|archive-date=14 January 2009}}</ref>

In January 1949 the inaugural address of U.S. president [[Harry Truman]] announced an extension of aid to ""underdeveloped areas"" in the form of technical assistance.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Truman|first=Harry S.|title=Inaugural address of Harry S. Truman|url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/truman.asp|url-status=live|access-date=2 March 2021|website=The Avalon Project|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081027211730/http://avalon.law.yale.edu:80/20th_century/truman.asp |archive-date=27 October 2008 }}</ref> While the main theme of the speech was strengthening the free world against communism, in his [[Point Four Program|fourth point]] Truman also appealed to the motives of compassion and pride in civilization. ""For the first time in history, humanity possesses the knowledge and skill to relieve the suffering of these people.""<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres53.html Transcript of the speech]</ref> The United Nations followed up the US initiative later that year by setting up an Extended Programme of Technical Assistance (EPTA) to help pool international donor funds for technical assistance and distribute them through UN agencies.<ref name="":27"">{{Cite web|title=United Nations. Extended Programme of Technical Assistance - UNESCO Archives AtoM catalogue|url=https://atom.archives.unesco.org/united-nations-extended-programme-of-technical-assistance|access-date=6 March 2021|website=atom.archives.unesco.org}}</ref> EPTA was a precursor of [[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]].<ref name="":27"" />

U.S. aid for development in the 1950s came to include grants and concessional loans as well as technical assistance. This development aid was administered alongside military aid within the framework of the [[Mutual Security Act]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haviland|first=H. Field|date=September 1958|title=Foreign Aid and the Policy Process: 1957|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/foreign-aid-and-the-policy-process-1957/0AF9B1AF4123FFF21DF8E06791A51269|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=52|issue=3|pages=689–724|doi=10.2307/1951900|jstor=1951900|s2cid=144564474 |issn=1537-5943}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morgner|first=Aurelius|date=1967|title=The American Foreign Aid Program: Costs, Accomplishments, Alternatives?|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1405813|journal=The Review of Politics|volume=29|issue=1|pages=65–75|doi=10.1017/S0034670500023731|jstor=1405813|s2cid=145492668 |issn=0034-6705}}</ref> But for most of the decade there was no major multilateral body to provide concessional loans. An initiative to create such a body under the UN met with resistance from the U.S. on the grounds that it was premature. Accordingly, when the UN's ""Special Fund"" was created at the end of 1958, its remit was only for technical assistance not loans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Manzer|first=Ronald A.|date=1964|title=The United Nations Special Fund|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2705530|journal=International Organization|volume=18|issue=4|pages=766–789|doi=10.1017/S0020818300025315|jstor=2705530|s2cid=153645652 |issn=0020-8183}}</ref> (The Special Fund was differentiated from EPTA by assisting public infrastructure rather than industrial projects.)

In 1959, a significant annual amendment to the Mutual Security Act declared that it was ""a primary objective of the United States"" to assist ""the peoples of other lands who are striving to establish and develop politically independent and economically viable units"".<ref name="":28"">{{Cite web|title=Public Law 86-108, July 24,1959|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-73/pdf/STATUTE-73-Pg246.pdf#page=1|url-status=live|access-date=9 March 2021|website=www.govinfo.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712130032/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-73/pdf/STATUTE-73-Pg246.pdf |archive-date=12 July 2020 }}</ref> This shifted the emphasis of U.S. economic aid away from immediate Cold War security needs, towards supporting the process of dismantling the empires of the UK, France and other European colonial powers. The amendment also made clear that Congress expected those industrialized nations which had been helped by U.S. aid to rebuild after the war would now share more of the burden of helping less-developed countries.<ref name="":28"" />

Following on, the U.S. encouraged the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) to set up a Development Assistance Group (DAG) composed of the main donor states, in order to help coordinate their aid. This was done in January 1960. The following year the DAG adopted a ""Resolution of the common aid effort"", vowing to increase the volume of aid, and to share the task equitably. Shortly after this, the OEEC was succeeded by the [[OECD]], expanding its scope from Europe to the world, and embracing a particular concern with less-developed countries. The DAG became the [[Development Assistance Committee]] (DAC).<ref name="":29"">{{Cite web|last=Führer|first=Helmut|date=1994|title=The story of Official Development Assistance|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/1896816.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=9 March 2021|website=[[OECD]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526011653/http://www.oecd.org/dac/1896816.pdf |archive-date=26 May 2013 }}</ref>

1960 also saw the creation of a multilateral institution to provide soft loans for development finance. The [[International Development Association]] (IDA) was created as part of the World Bank (over which the U.S. and other Western countries exerted more influence than they did over the UN).<ref>{{Cite web|title=History|url=https://ida.worldbank.org/about/history|url-status=live|access-date=6 March 2021|website=[[International Development Association]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422003753/http://ida.worldbank.org:80/about/history |archive-date=22 April 2016 }}</ref>

In 1961 several Western states established government departments or agencies to administer aid, including [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]] in the United States.<ref name="":29"" />

In 1960 the USA was providing half of all aid counted by the OECD. This proportion increased to 56% by 1965, but from 1965 to 1973 (the year of the [[1973 oil crisis|oil price crisis]]), the volume of U.S. aid generally declined in real terms (though it increased in nominal terms, due to inflation). The other OECD-DAC members meanwhile generally increased their aid, so that the total volume of OECD aid was fairly constant up to 1973.<ref>See chart on the right. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat].</ref>

=== After the Cold War ===
The quantity of ODA dropped sharply in the seven or eight years after the fall of the Berlin wall (1999-2007).<ref name="":30"">{{Cite web|last1=Severino|first1=Jean-Michel|last2=Olivier|first2=Ray|date=1999|title=The End of ODA: Death and Rebirth of a Global Public Policy|url=http://www.cosv.org/download/centrodocumentazione/End_of_ODA_FINAL.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=15 April 2021|website=Center for Global Development|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416032310/http://www.cosv.org/download/centrodocumentazione/End_of_ODA_FINAL.pdf |archive-date=16 April 2021 }}</ref>

The turn of the 21st century saw a significant proliferation and diversification in aid donors and non-governmental actors. The traditional donors in the DAC have been joined by [[emerging economies]] (China, India, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Brazil, Venezuela, etc.), some of which are still receiving aid from Western countries. Many of these new donors do not feel compelled to conform to traditional donors' norms.<ref>Park, K., ""New Development Partners and a Global Development Partnership"". In Kharas, H., Makino, K., Jung, W. ''Catalizing Development'', Brooking Institution Press, Washington D.C. 2011.</ref> Generally demanding [[conditionality]] in return for assistance, which means tying aid to the procurement of goods and services, they are challenging traditional development aid standards.<ref>Kragelund, P. ""The Potential Role of Non-Traditional Donors' Aid in Africa"", International Center for Trade and Sustainable Development, 2010.</ref>

Multinational corporations, philanthropists, international NGOs and civil society have matured into major players as well. Even though the rise of new development partners had the positive effect of bringing an increased variety of financing, know-how and skills to the development community, at the same time it has shaken up the existing aid system.<ref name="":30"" />

== Extent of development aid ==
{{Development economics sidebar}}
Most development aid is counted as part of the official development assistance (ODA) reported by governments to the OECD. The total amount of ODA in 2018 was about $150 billion.<ref name="":25"">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Development aid drops in 2018, especially to neediest countries|url=http://www.oecd.org/development/development-aid-drops-in-2018-especially-to-neediest-countries.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410230451/http://www.oecd.org/development/development-aid-drops-in-2018-especially-to-neediest-countries.htm |archive-date=10 April 2019 |access-date=29 January 2021|website=OECD}}</ref> For the same year, the OECD estimated that six to seven billion dollars of aid was given by ten other states, including China and India.<ref name="":26"">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Other official providers not reporting to the OECD|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/18b00a44-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/18b00a44-en#chapter-d1e45724|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210025747/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/18b00a44-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/18b00a44-en |archive-date=10 February 2021 |access-date=29 January 2021|website=OECD}}</ref> However, these amounts include aid that is humanitarian in character as well as purely developmental aid. The proportion of development aid within ODA was about 80%.<ref name="":23"" />

=== Top recipient countries ===
{{Main list|List of countries by Official Development Assistance received
}}

{| class=""wikitable""
|+ [[Official development assistance|ODA]] received, total for nine years, 2010-2018<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stats.oecd.org/qwids/#?x=2&y=6&f=3:51,4:1,1:2,5:3,7:1&q=3:51+4:1+1:2+5:3+7:1+2:1,262,263,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,189,25,27,28,31,29,30,287,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,89,40,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,166,59,273,62,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,90,274,91,92,93,95,96,97,98,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,63,130,131,132,133,135,136,137,138,139,141,144,159,160,161,162,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,154,155,156,157,275,158,163,164,165,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,190,134,191,192,193,216,217,218,220,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,195,196,233,197,238,198,200,234,235,201,202,271,203,204,208,205,237,236,270,267,265,266,272,209,210,211,212,213,215,G1+6:2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019 |title=QWIDS Query Wizard for International Development Statistics |website=OECD |access-date=29 January 2021}}</ref>
|-
! Country !! [[US$]], billions
|-
| {{flag|Afghanistan}}|| 37.6
|-
| {{flag|India}}||18.1
|-
| {{flag|Ethiopia}}||17.6
|-
| {{flag|Vietnam}}||17.4
|-
| {{flag|Pakistan}}||15.8
|-
| {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}||15.6
|-
| {{flag|Iraq}}||14.7
|-
| {{flag|Tanzania}}||14.3
|-
| {{flag|Kenya}}||13.9
|-
| {{flag|Syria}}||13.3
|}

=== Top donor countries ===
{{Main list|List of development aid country donors
}}

{| class=""wikitable""
|+ Total [[Official development assistance|ODA]] disbursed in decade 2010-2019<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stats.oecd.org/qwids/#?x=1&y=6&f=4:1,2:1,3:51,5:3,7:1&q=4:1+2:1+3:51+5:3+7:1+1:2,3,4,5,6,58,7,8,9,10,11,59,60,12,13,14,61,15,16,17,18,62,19,63,75,20,21,22,23,24,36,G2+6:2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019 (current US$) |title=QWIDS Query Wizard for International Development Statistics|website=OECD |access-date=29 January 2021}}</ref>
|-
! Country !! [[US$]], billions
|-
| {{flag|United States}}||323
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}||188
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}||171
|-
| {{flag|France}}||115
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}||107
|-
| {{flag|Sweden}}||56
|-
| {{flag|Netherlands}}||56
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}||47
|-
| {{flag|Norway}}||46
|-
| {{flag|Italy}}||42
|}

The OECD also lists countries by the amount of ODA they give ''as a percentage of their [[gross national income]]''. The top 10 DAC countries in 2020 were as follows. Six countries met the longstanding UN target for an ODA/GNI ratio of 0.7% in 2020:<ref name=""OECD-2020"">{{cite web|title=Development co-operation during the COVID-19 pandemic: An analysis of 2020 figures and 2021 trends to watch|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org//sites/e4b3142a-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/5e331623-en&_csp_=b14d4f60505d057b456dd1730d8fcea3&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=chapter#annex-d1e2951|publisher=OECD|access-date=12 June 2021|date=16 June 2021}}</ref>

# {{flag|Sweden}} – 1.14%
# {{flag|Norway}} – 1.11%
# {{flag|Luxembourg}} – 1.02%
# {{flag|Denmark}} and {{flag|Germany}} – 0.73%
# {{flag|United Kingdom}} – 0.7%
# {{flag|Netherlands}} – 0.59%
# {{flag|France}} – 0.53%
# {{flag|Switzerland}} – 0.48%
# {{flag|Belgium}} and {{flag|Finland}} – 0.47%
# {{flag|Canada}}, {{flag|Ireland}} and {{flag|Japan}}– 0.31%

[[European Union]] countries that are members of the [[Development Assistance Committee]] gave 0.42% of GNI (excluding the US$19.4 billion given by EU Institutions).<ref name=""OECD-2020"" />

===By type of project===
<gallery widths=""320px"" heights=""200px"">
File:Total official flows for infrastructure, by recipient, OWID.svg|Total official development assistance (ODA) and other official flows from all donors in support of infrastructure in 2017
File:Total official flows commitments for Aid for Trade, by recipient, OWID.svg|Total official flows commitments for aid for trade in 2017
File:Total official financial flows for water supply and sanitation, by recipient, OWID.svg|Total water and sanitation-related Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements that are included in the government budget in 2015
File:Total official development assistance for biodiversity, by recipient, OWID.svg|Total official development assistance (ODA) transferred for use in biodiversity conservation and protection efforts 2017
File:Total official development assistance for biodiversity, by donor, OWID.svg|Total official development assistance for biodiversity, by donor in 2017
File:Total official flows commitments for Aid for Trade, by donor, OWID.svg|Total official flows commitments for Aid for Trade, by donor in 2015
</gallery>

== Debated effectiveness and impacts ==
[[File:Urban blight at the Michenzani housing project, Zanzibar town, Tanzania.JPG|thumb|The 1968 [[Michenzani]] apartment blocks in [[Zanzibar]] were part of East German development assistance and brought a Soviet-style of living to rural Africa. The apartments were unpopular and only 1,102 out of the 9,992 planned buildings were built (see [[Ng'ambo]]). Still used today, they stand as a failed relic of donor-driven (supply-driven) development aid.]]

{{See also|Aid effectiveness|Aid#Criticism}}

There are many debates about the effectiveness and possible unfavourable impacts of development aid.

Dissident economists such as [[Peter Thomas Bauer|Peter Bauer]] and [[Milton Friedman]] argued in the 1960s that aid is ineffective:<ref>{{Cite web|title=The sad loss of Lord Bauer|url=http://www.la-articles.org.uk/bauer.htm}}</ref>

{{Blockquote | an excellent method for transferring money from poor people in rich countries to rich people in poor countries. | Peter Bauer}}

In economics, there are two competing positions on aid. A view pro aid, supported by [[Jeffrey Sachs]] and the United Nations, which argues that foreign aid will give the big push to break the low-income [[poverty trap]] poorer countries are trapped in. From this perspective, aid serves to finance  ""the core inputs to development – teachers, health centers, roads, wells, medicine, to name a few"". (United Nations 2004).<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last=Qian|first=Nancy|date=3 August 2015|title=Making Progress on Foreign Aid|journal=Annual Review of Economics|language=en|volume=7|pages=277–308|doi=10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115553|s2cid=33135898}}</ref> And a view that is skeptic about the impacts of aid, supported by William Easterly, that points out that aid has not proven to work after 40 years of large investments in Africa.<ref name="":0"" />

===Reducing recipient government accountability and national democracy===

Foreign aid may hinder the development of democracy in recipient states, by reducing governments' need to raise taxes from citizens, thus making those governments more autonomous and less sensitive to citizen demands, while citizens, on their part, have less necessity to make demands on the government.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clark|first1=William Roberts|last2=Golder|first2=Matt|last3=Golder|first3=Sona N.|date=October 2017|title=The British Academy Brian Barry Prize Essay: An Exit, Voice and Loyalty Model of Politics|journal=British Journal of Political Science|language=en|volume=47|issue=4|pages=719–748|doi=10.1017/S0007123416000442|issn=0007-1234|doi-access=free}}</ref> Although international aid has done far-reaching things with respect to increasing access to improved medical care, [[Sdg 4|improving education]], and decreasing poverty and hunger, only in 1997 did the [[World Bank]] began to rethink its aid policy structure and begin using parts of it specifically for building up the state capability of the aid-receiving nations.<ref>World Bank. 1997. World Development Report 1997 : The State in a Changing World. New York: Oxford University Press. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/5980 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.</ref> In 2004, the USA set up the [[Millennium Challenge Corporation]], to provide development aid in a way that fostered recipient country ownership, and only to countries with good systems of governance.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=About the MCA|url=https://www.cgdev.org/page/about-mca|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412102344/http://www.cgdev.org/page/about-mca |archive-date=12 April 2013 |access-date=|website=Center for Global Development}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=About MC|url=https://www.mcc.gov/about|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607051615/http://www.mcc.gov/about/ |archive-date=7 June 2007 |access-date=30 January 2021|website=Millennium Challenge Corporation}}</ref>

=== Corruption ===
{{Main|Political corruption|Aid#Support of corrupt state structures}}
Foreign aid encourages [[rent-seeking]], which is when government officials and leaders use their position and authority to increase their personal wealth without creating additional wealth, at the expense of the citizens.<ref name="":42"" /> Most African leaders and officials are able to amass huge sums of personal wealth for themselves from the foreign aid received—they enrich themselves and do not use the aid provided for its intended purpose.<ref name="":42"" />

It has been argued{{By whom|date=September 2010}} that much government-to-government aid was ineffective because it was merely a way to support strategically important leaders (Alesino and Dollar, 2000). A good example of this is the former dictator of [[Zaire]], [[Mobuto Sese Seko]], who lost support from the West after the Cold War had ended. Mobuto, at the time of his death, had a sufficient personal fortune (particularly in Swiss banks) to pay off the entire external debt of Zaire.<ref name=""brookings.edu"" />

=== Promoting neopatrimonialism and poor governance ===
American political scientist and professor [[Nicolas van de Walle]] has also argued that despite more than two decades of donor-supported reform in Africa, the continent continues to be plagued by economic crises due to the combination of state generated factors and to the counter productivity of international development aid to Africa. Van de Walle first attributes the failure to implement economic policy reform to factors within the African state:

# Neopatrimonial tendencies of state elites that serve to preserve and centralize power, maintain limited access orders, and create political obstacles to reform.
# Ideological obstacles that have been biased by two decades of failed economic policy reform and in turn, create a hostile environment for reform.
# Low [[state capacity]] that reinforces and that in turn, is reinforced by the neopatrimonial tendencies of the state.

Van de Walle later argues that these state generated factors that have obstructed the effective implementation of economic policy reform are further exacerbated by foreign aid. Aid, therefore, makes policy reform less likely, rather than more likely. Van de Walle posits that international aid has sustained economic stagnation in Africa by:

# Pacifying Africa's neopatrimonial tendencies, thereby lessening the incentives for state elites to undertake reform and preserving the status quo.
# Sustaining poorly managed bureaucratic structures and policies that would be otherwise rectified by market forces.
# Allowing state capacities to deteriorate through externalizing many state functions and responsibilities.

In order for aid to be productive and for economic policy reform to be successfully implemented in Africa, the relationship between donors and governments must change. Van de Walle argues that aid must be made more conditional and selective to incentivize states to take on reform and to generate the much needed accountability and capacity in African governments.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Van de Walle|first=Nicolas|title=Democratic Reform in Africa: The Quality of Progress|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.|year=2004|isbn=1588262464|editor-last=Gyimah-Boadi|editor-first=Emmanuel|location=1800 30th Street, Boulder, Colorado 80301|pages=29–63|chapter=Economic Reform: Patterns and Constraints}}</ref>

Additionally, information asymmetries often hinder the appropriate allocation of aid; Blum et al. (2016) note that both South Sudan and Liberia struggle tremendously with paying employees and controlling the flow of money - South Sudan had a significant number of ghosts on its payroll, while Liberia's Civil Service Agency could not adequately pay civil servants because there was minimal communication from the Ministries of Health and Education regarding their respective payrolls.<ref>Blum, Jurgen, [[Fotini Christia]], and Daniel Rogger. 2016. ""Public Service Reform in Post-Conflict Societies"". World Bank: Fragile and Conflict State Impact Evaluation Research Program paper.
</ref>

Besides some instances that only the president (and/or his close entourage) receives the money resulting from development aid, the money obtained is often badly spent as well. For example, in Chad, the [http://www.esso.com/Chad-English/PA/Files/suppvol1ch1.pdf Chad Export Project], an oil production project supported by the World Bank, was set up. The earnings of this project (6.5 million dollars per year and rising) were used to obtain arms. The government defended this purchase by stating that ""development was not possible without safety"". However, the [[Military of Chad]] is notorious for severe misconduct against the population (abuse, rape, claiming of supplies and cars) and did not even defend the population in distress (e.g. in the [[War in Darfur|Darfur conflict]]). In 2008, the World Bank retreated from the project that thus increased environmental pollution and human suffering.<ref name=""Tsjaad by Dorrit van Dalen"">Tsjaad by Dorrit van Dalen</ref>

The [https://www.cgdev.org/ Center for Global Development] have published a review<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moss, Petterson and van de Walle|date=January 2006|title=An Aid-Institutions Paradox? A Review Essay on Aid Dependency and State Building in Sub-Saharan Africa|url=http://www.cgdev.org|journal=Center for Global Development|volume=Working Paper Number 74}}</ref> essay of the existing literature studying the relationship between Aid and public institutions. In this review,  they concluded that a large and sustained Aid can have a negative effect in the development of good public institutions in low income countries. They also mention some of the arguments exhibited in this article as possible mechanism for this negative effect, for instance, they considered the [[Dutch Disease]], the discourage of revenue collections and the effect on the state capacity among others.

=== Effects of development aid in Africa ===
[[Dambisa Moyo]] argues that aid does not lead to development, but rather creates problems including corruption, dependency, limitations on exports and [[Dutch disease]], which negatively affect the economic growth and development of most African countries and other poor countries across the globe.<ref name="":42"">Moyo, D. (2009). ''Dead aid: Why aid is not working and how there is a better way for Africa''. Macmillan.</ref><ref name="":62"">{{Cite web|url=https://web2.uconn.edu/ahking/Why%20Foreign%20Aid%20Is%20Hurting%20...pdf|title=Why Foreign Aid Is Hurting Africa|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123002232/http://web2.uconn.edu/ahking/Why%20Foreign%20Aid%20Is%20Hurting%20...pdf|archive-date=23 November 2015|access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> Moyo devotes a section of her book, ''Dead Aid'' to rethinking the aid dependency model. She cautions that although ""weaning governments off aid won't be easy"",<ref>{{cite web|last=Dambisa|first=Moyo|title=Dambisa Moyo on why aid has been a disaster for Africa|website=[[YouTube]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dyf2Cf5GkTY |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422195930/http://www.youtube.com//watch?v=dyf2Cf5GkTY |archive-date=22 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> it is necessary. Primary among her prescriptions is a ""capital solution"" where African countries must enter the bond market to raise their capital for development, the interconnectedness that globalization has provided, will turn other ""pools of money toward African markets in form of mutual funds, hedge funds, pension schemes"" etc.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moyo|first=Dambisa|title=Dead Aid: Why Aid Is Not Working and How There Is a Better Way for Africa.|publisher=Douglas & Mcintyre|year=2009|pages=79}}</ref>

Other research has shown that development aid has a strong and favorable effect on economic growth and development through promoting investments in infrastructure and human capital.<ref name="":19"" /> According to a study conducted among 36 sub-saharan African countries in 2013, 27 out of these 36 countries have experienced strong and favorable effects of aid on GDP and investments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Juselius|first1=Katarina|last2=Møller|first2=Niels Framroze|last3=Tarp|first3=Finn|date=2013|title=The Long-Run Impact of Foreign Aid in 36 African Countries: Insights from Multivariate Time Series Analysis*: Long-run impact of foreign aid in African countries|journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics|language=en|volume=76|issue=2|pages=153–184|doi=10.1111/obes.12012|hdl-access=free|hdl=10.1111/obes.12012|s2cid=53685791|url=http://www.wider.unu.edu/sites/default/files/wp2011-051.pdf }}</ref> Another study showed that aid per capita supports economic growth for low income African countries such as Tanzania, Mozambique and Ethiopia, while aid per capita does not have a significant effect on the economic growth of middle income African countries such as Botswana and Morocco.<ref name="":20"">{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Jin-Sang|last2=Alemu|first2=Aye Mengistu|date=27 November 2015|title=Foreign aid on economic growth in Africa: A comparison of low and middle-income countries|journal=South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences|language=en|volume=18|issue=4|pages=449–462|doi=10.4102/sajems.v18i4.737|issn=2222-3436|doi-access=free}}</ref> Aid is most beneficial to low income countries because such countries use aid received for to provide education and healthcare for citizens, which eventually improves economic growth in the long run.<ref name="":20"" />

=== Effects depend on geography ===
[[Jeffery Sachs]] and his collaborators argue that in order for foreign aid to be successful, policy makers should ""pay more attention to the developmental barriers associated with geography specifically, poor health, low agricultural productivity, and high transportation costs"".<ref name="":10"">{{Cite web|title=The Geography of Poverty and Wealth|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-geography-of-poverty-and-wealth/|access-date=30 January 2021|website=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref>  The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund are two organizations that Sachs argues are currently instrumental in advising and directing foreign aid; however, he argues that these two organizations focus too much on ""institutional reforms"".<ref name="":10"" /> Foreign aid is especially multifaceted in countries within Sub-Saharan Africa due to geographic barriers. Most macro foreign aid efforts fail to recognize these issues and, as Sachs argues, cause insufficient international aid and policy improvement. Sachs argues that unless foreign aid provides mechanisms that overcome geographic barriers, pandemics such as HIV and AIDS that cause traumatic casualties within regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa will continue to cause millions of fatalities.<ref name="":10"" />

=== Death of local industries ===
Foreign aid kills local industries in developing countries.<ref name="":72"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/dougbandow/2011/02/22/foreign-aid-or-foreign-hindrance/|title=Foreign Aid, Or Foreign Hindrance|last=Bandow|first=Doug|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=5 April 2019}}</ref> Foreign aid in the form of food aid that is given to poor countries or underdeveloped countries is responsible for the death of local farm industries in poor countries.<ref name="":72"" /> Local farmers end up going out of business because they cannot compete with the abundance of cheap imported aid food, that is brought into poor countries as a response to humanitarian crisis and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cei.org/blog/foreign-aid-kills|title=Foreign Aid Kills|last1=NW|first1=1310 L. Street|last2=Washington|first2=7th Floor|date=16 August 2007|website=Competitive Enterprise Institute|language=en|access-date=2 January 2020|last3=Fax: 202-331-0640|first3=DC 20005 Phone: 202-331-1010}}</ref> Large inflows of money that come into developing countries, from the developed world, in a foreign aid, increases the price of locally produced goods and products.<ref name="":62"" /> Due to their high prices, export of local goods reduces.<ref name="":62"" /> As a result, local industries and producers are forced to go out of business.

=== Neocolonialism ===
[[Neocolonialism]] is where a state is ""in theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside"".<ref name="":82"">Nkrumah, K. (1966). Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism. 1965. Introduction. ''New York: International''. <br /></ref> The political and economic affairs of a state under neocolonialism, is directly controlled by external powers and nations from the Global North, who offer aid or assistance to countries in the Global South or developing countries.<ref name="":82"" /> Neocolonialism is the new face of colonialism, which is made possible by foreign aid.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://affinitymagazine.us/2016/11/27/neocolonialism-the-new-face-of-imperialism-and-why-it-shouldve-gone-for-a-nicer-one/|title=Neocolonialism: The New Face Of Imperialism (And Why It Should've Gone For A Nicer One)|date=27 November 2016|website=Affinity Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=5 April 2019}}</ref><ref>Markovits, D., Strange, A., & Tingley, D. (2017). Foreign Aid and the Status Quo: Evidence from Pre-Marshall Plan Aid. p.5 ''Harvard School of Government''.</ref> Donor countries offer foreign aid to poor countries while bargaining for economic influence &nbsp;of the poor or receiving countries, and policy standards that allow donor countries to control economic systems of poor countries, for the benefit of the donor countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Asongu|first1=Simplice A.|last2=Nwachukwu|first2=Jacinta C.|date=2 January 2016|title=Foreign aid and governance in Africa|journal=International Review of Applied Economics|volume=30|issue=1|pages=69–88|doi=10.1080/02692171.2015.1074164|s2cid=53065201|issn=0269-2171|url=http://www.afridev.org/RePEc/agd/agd-wpaper/Foreign-aid-and-governance-in-Africa.pdf}}</ref> &nbsp;

Foreign aid creates a system of dependency where developing or poor countries become heavily dependent on western or developed countries for economic growth and development.<ref>Vengroff, R. (1975). Neo-colonialism and policy outputs in Africa. ''Comparative Political Studies'', ''8''(2), 234-250.<br /></ref> As less developed countries become dependent on developed countries, the poor countries are easily exploited by the developed countries such that the developed world are able to directly control the economic activities of poor countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327847826|title=Is Foreign Aid a facilitator of Neo-Colonialism in Africa?}}</ref>

=== Aid dependency ===
Aid dependence is defined as the ""situation in which a country cannot perform many of the core functions of government, such as operations and maintenance, or the delivery of basic public services, without foreign aid funding and expertise"".<ref name="":21"">{{Cite web|url=https://deborahbrautigam.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/2000-aid-dependence-and-governance.pdf|title=Aid Dependenceand Governance|access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> Aid has made many African countries and other poor regions incapable of achieving economic growth and development without foreign assistance. Most African economies have become dependent on aid and this is because foreign aid has become a significant norm of systems of international relations between high and low income countries across the globe.<ref name="":21"" />

Foreign aid makes African countries dependent on aid because it is regarded by policy makers as regular income, thus they do not have any incentive to make policies and decisions that will enable their countries to independently finance their economic growth and development.<ref name="":42"" /> Additionally, aid does not incentivize the government to tax citizens, due to the constant inflow of foreign aid, and as a result, the citizens do not have any obligation to demand the provision of goods and services geared towards development.<ref name="":42"" />

=== Econometric studies ===
Many [[econometric]] studies in recent years have supported the view that development aid has no clear average effect on the speed with which countries develop. Negative side effects of aid can include an unbalanced [[Currency appreciation and depreciation|appreciation]] of the recipient's currency (known as [[Dutch Disease]]), increasing corruption, and adverse political effects such as postponements of necessary economic and democratic reforms.<ref name=""brookings.edu"">[http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/0317_aid_governance_kaufmann.aspx Aid Effectiveness and Governance: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009071531/http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/0317_aid_governance_kaufmann.aspx |date=9 October 2009 }}</ref><ref name="":52"">Rahnama, M. & Fawaz, F. & Gittings, K. (2017). The effects of foreign aid on economic growth in developing countries. ''The Journal of Developing Areas'' 51(3), 153-171. Tennessee State University College of Business.</ref>

Other econometric studies suggest that development aid effectively reduces poverty in developing countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=poverty reduction|first=foreign aid|title=Foreign aid and poverty reduction|journal=Cogent Social Sciences |date=January 2019 |volume=5 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/23311886.2019.1625741|s2cid=189994202|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Promoting or easing conflict ===
Furthermore, the effect of Aid on conflict intensity and onset have been proved to have different impacts in different countries and situations. For instance, for the case of Colombia Dube and Naidu (2015)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dube and Naidu|date=6 January 2015|title=Bases, Bullets, and Ballots: The Effect of US Military Aid on Political Conflict in Colombia|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume= 77| issue = 1|pages=249–267|doi=10.1086/679021|s2cid=220454361|url=http://www.cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/1423498}}</ref> showed that Aid from the US seems to have been diverted to paramilitary groups, increasing political violence. Moreover, Nunn and Qian (2014)<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last=Nunn and Qian|date=June 2014|title=US Food Aid and Civil Conflict|jstor=42920861|journal=American Economic Review|volume=1630-1666|issue=6|pages=1630–1666|doi=10.1257/aer.104.6.1630|s2cid=12935268 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:30410811}}</ref> have found that an increase in U.S. food aid increases conflict intensity; they claim that the main mechanism driving this result is predation of the aid by the rebel groups. In fact, they note that aid can have the unintentional consequence of actually improving rebel groups' ability to continue conflict, as vehicles and communications equipment usually accompany the aid that is stolen.<ref name="":2"" /> These tools improve the ability of rebel groups to organize and give them assets to trade for arms, possibly increasing the length of the fighting. Finally, Crost, Felter and Johnston (2014)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Crost, Felter and Johnston|date=June 2014|title=Aid Under Fire: Development Projects and Civil Conflict|journal=American Economic Review|volume=1833–1856|issue=6|pages=1833–1856|doi=10.1257/aer.104.6.1833}}</ref> have showed that a development program in the Philippines have had the unintended effect of increasing conflict because of a strategic retaliation from the rebel group, on where they tried to prevent that the development program increases support to the government.

=== Imposition of inappropriate strategies and technologies ===
According to [[James Ferguson (anthropologist)|James Ferguson]], these issues might be caused by deficient diagnostics of the development agencies. In his book [[The Anti-Politics Machine]], Ferguson uses the example of the [[Thaba-Tseka District|Thaba-Tseka]] project in [[Lesotho]] to illustrate how a bad diagnostic on the economic activity of the population and the desire to stay away from local politics, caused a livestock project to fail.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ferguson|first=James|date=1994|title=The anti-politics machine: 'development' and bureaucratic power in Lesotho|url=http://www.colorado.edu/geography/class_homepages/geog_3682_f08/Articles/Ferguson%20-%20The%20Anti%20Politics%20Machine.pdf|journal=The Ecologist|volume=24|issue=5|access-date=12 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129094236/http://www.colorado.edu/geography/class_homepages/geog_3682_f08/Articles/Ferguson%20-%20The%20Anti%20Politics%20Machine.pdf|archive-date=29 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

According to Martijn Nitzsche, another problem is the way on how development projects are sometimes constructed and how they are maintained by the local population. Often, projects are made with technology that is hard to understand and too difficult to repair, resulting in unavoidable failure over time. Also, in some cases the local population is not very interested in seeing the project to succeed and may revert to disassembling it to retain valuable source materials. Finally, villagers do not always maintain a project as they believe the original development workers or others in the surroundings will repair it when it fails (which is not always so).<ref name=""momentum-media.nl"">{{Cite web |url=http://www.momentum-media.nl/files/_articles/31/Gestrand_Ontwikkelingswerk.pdf |title=''Kijk Magazine''; October 2008, Gestrand Ontwikkelingswerk |access-date=22 April 2009 |archive-date=24 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724161438/http://www.momentum-media.nl/files/_articles/31/Gestrand_Ontwikkelingswerk.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

A common criticism in recent years is that rich countries have put so many conditions on aid that it has reduced aid effectiveness. In the example of [[tied aid]], donor countries often require the recipient to purchase goods and services from the donor, even if these are cheaper elsewhere. Other conditions include opening up the country to foreign investment, even if it might not be ready to do so.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.globalissues.org/TradeRelated/Debt/USAid.asp|title=US and Foreign Aid Assistance|publisher=Global Issues|year=2007|access-date=21 February 2008}}</ref>

== Other criticisms of development aid ==
[[File:Cartoon, Warren Buffett wants African children to have more Coke - and healthier teeth.gif|thumb|Warren Buffett is considered one of the world's leading philanthropists, yet he is also the biggest investor in Coca-Cola, which aggressively seeks to expand into poorer countries. This cartoon, from an organization critical of the true motives of international aid, calls attention to what it perceives as a contradiction.]]Besides questions of effects and effectiveness, other criticisms have been made of development aid.

=== Inappropriate behaviour by aid workers ===
Development aid is often provided by means of supporting local development aid projects. In these projects, it sometimes occurs that no strict code of conduct is in force. In some projects, the development aid workers do not respect the local [[code of conduct]]. For example, the local [[dress code]] as well as [[Human communication|social interaction]]. In developing countries, these matters are regarded highly important and not respecting it may cause severe offense, and thus significant problems and delay of the projects.

=== Tied aid ===
There is also much debate about evaluating the quality of development aid, rather than simply the quantity.  For instance, [[tied aid]] is often criticized, as the aid given must be spent in the donor country or in a group of selected countries. According to a 1991 report for the OECD, tied aid can increase development aid project costs by up to 20 or 30 percent.<ref name="":18"">{{Cite web|last=Jepma|first=Catrinus J.|date=1991|title=The tying of aid|url=http://www.oecd.org/dev/pgd/29412505.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413105346/https://www.oecd.org/dev/pgd/29412505.pdf |archive-date=13 April 2016 |access-date=26 January 2021|website=OECD}}</ref>

=== Contradictions between aid and other donor policies ===
There is also criticism because donors may give with one hand, through large amounts of development aid, yet take away with the other, through strict trade or migration policies, or by getting a foothold for foreign corporations. The [[Commitment to Development Index]] measures the overall policies of donors and evaluates the quality of their development aid, instead of just comparing the quantity of [[official development assistance]] given.

At the development level, anthropologist and researcher [[Jason Hickel]] has challenged the narrative that the rich countries of the OECD help the poor countries develop their economies and eradicate poverty. Hickel states that the rich countries ""aren't developing poor countries; poor countries are developing rich ones.""<ref>{{cite web|last=Hickel|first=Jason|date=14 January 2017|title=Aid in Reverse: How Poor Countries Develop Rich Countries|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2017/jan/14/aid-in-reverse-how-poor-countries-develop-rich-countries|work=The Guardian}}</ref>

=== Imposition of Western values and agendas ===
Another criticism has been that Western countries often project their own needs and solutions onto other societies and cultures. In response, western help in some cases has become more 'endogenous', which means that needs as well as solutions are being devised in accordance with local cultures.<ref>[http://commons.globalintegrity.org/2008/12/future-of-anti-corruption-movement.html The Future of The Anti-Corruption Movement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409153824/http://commons.globalintegrity.org/2008/12/future-of-anti-corruption-movement.html|date=9 April 2009}}, Nathaniel Heller, Global Integrity</ref> For example, sometimes projects are set up which wish to make several [[ethnic group]]s cooperate. While this is a noble goal, most of these projects fail because of this intent.<ref name=""Tsjaad by Dorrit van Dalen"" /> Additionally, although the goal in utility to provide a larger social benefit may be justified as worthy, a more ethically sourced incentive would be projects not looking for an opportunity to impose a social hierarchy through cooperation, but more-so for the sake of truly assisting recipients. The intent of cooperation is not necessarily a reason for failure, but the very nature of different aspirations towards defining virtues which exist in direct context with respective societies. In this way a disconnect may be perceived among those imposing their virtues onto ethnic groups interpreting them.

=== Political bias in aid allocation ===
The practice of extending aid to politically aligned parties in recipient nations continues today; Faye and Niehaus (2012) are able to establish a causal relationship between politics and aid in recipient nations.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=Faye|first1=Michael|last2=Niehaus|first2=Paul|date=1 December 2012|title=Political Aid Cycles|url=http://www.aeaweb.org/aer/data/dec2012/20100239_app.pdf|journal=American Economic Review|language=en|volume=102|issue=7|pages=3516–3530|doi=10.1257/AER.102.7.3516|issn=0002-8282|s2cid=154408829}}</ref> In their analysis of the competitive 2006 Palestinian elections, they note that USAID provided funding for development programs in Palestine to support the Palestinian Authority, the US backed entity running for reelection. Faye and Niehaus discovered that the greater the degree of alignment the recipient party has with the donor entity, the more aid it receives on average during an election year.<ref name="":1"" /> In an analysis of the 3 biggest donor nations (Japan, France, and the US), Alesina and Dollar (2000) discovered that each has its own distortions to the aid it gives out.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last1=Alesina|first1=Alberto|last2=Dollar|first2=David|date=2000|title=Who Gives Foreign Aid to Whom and Why?|url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4553020|journal=Journal of Economic Growth|volume=5|issue=1|pages=33–63|doi=10.1023/A:1009874203400|jstor=40216022|s2cid=154808291}}</ref> Japan appears to prioritize giving aid nations that exercise similar voting preferences in the United Nations, France mostly sends aid to its former colonies, and the U.S. disproportionately provides aid to Israel and Egypt.<ref name="":3"" /> These allocations are often powerful tools for maintaining the strategic interests of the donor country in the recipient country.

== Proposed good practices ==
The following proposals have been made about good practice in development aid.

For aid to work well, donors need to invest heavily in staff who maintain sustained relationships with counterparts in recipient countries, in order to deal intelligently and flexibly with the complex difficulties involved.<ref name="":22"">[http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/news/putting-relationships-first-for-aid-effectiveness 'Putting Relationships First for Aid Effectiveness'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604103939/http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/news/putting-relationships-first-for-aid-effectiveness|date=4 June 2011}} Evidence Submission to the APPG Inquiry on Aid Effectiveness, Institute of Development Studies (IDS)</ref>

Public accountability of aid is important, both for the sake of democratic citizenship in recipient countries, and for realistic and sustainable attitudes to aid in donor countries.<ref name="":22"" />

== Types of development aid by activity and aim ==
The OECD classifies ODA development aid by sector, the main sectors being: education, health (including population policies, water supply and sanitation), government & civil society, economic infrastructure (including transport and energy), and production (including agriculture). Additionally, there are ""cross-cutting"" aims; for instance, environmental protection, gender equality, urban and rural development concerns.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Aid (ODA) by sector and donor [DAC5]|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?datasetcode=TABLE5|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611033350/http://stats.oecd.org:80/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TABLE5 |archive-date=11 June 2009 |access-date=6 February 2021|website=OECD}}</ref>

Some governments include military assistance in the notion of ""foreign aid"", although the international community does not usually regard military aid as development aid.

=== Aid for gender equality ===
Starting at the beginning of the UN Decade for Women in 1975, the [[women in development]] (WID) approach to international development began to inform the provision of development aid.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal|last=Charlesworth|first=Hillary|title=Not Waving But Drowning Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United nations|journal=Harvard Human Rights Journal|volume=18|pages=2}}</ref> Some academics criticized the WID approach for relying on integrating women into existing development aid paradigms instead of promulgating specific aid to encourage gender equality.<ref name="":4"" /> The [[gender and development]] approach was created in response, to discuss international development in terms of societal gender roles and to challenge these gender roles within development policy.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal|last=Debusscher|first=Petra|title=Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?|journal=Latin American Perspectives|volume=39|pages=182}}</ref> Women in Development predominated as the approach to gender in development aid through the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=Robert|last2=Swiss|first2=Liam|date=September 2014|title=Gendered Leadership: The Effects of Female Development Agency Leaders on Foreign Aid Spending|journal=Sociological Forum|volume=29|issue=3|pages=574|doi=10.1111/socf.12104}}</ref> Starting in the early 1990s Gender and Development's influence encouraged [[gender mainstreaming]] within international development aid.<ref name="":11""/>

The [[World Conference on Women, 1995]] promulgated gender mainstreaming on all policy levels for the [[United Nations]].<ref>Charlesworth, Hilary. [https://harvardhrj.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2020/06/18HHRJ1-Charlesworth.pdf ""Not Waving But Drowning Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United Nations""]. ''Harvard Human Rights Journal''. 18: 3.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/gopher-data/conf/fwcw/off/a--20.en|title=Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women}}</ref> Gender Mainstreaming has been adopted by nearly all units of the UN with the UN Economic and Social Council adopting a definition which indicated an ""ultimate goal&nbsp;... to achieve gender equality"".<ref>Charlesworth, Hillary. ""Not Waving But Drowning Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United nations"". ''Harvard Human Rights Journal''. 18: 4-5.</ref> The UN included  promoting gender equality and empowering women as one of eight [[Millennium Development Goals]] for developing countries.

The EU integrated women in development thinking into its aid policy starting with the Lomé Convention in 1984.<ref name="":15"">{{Cite journal|last1=Debusscher|first1=Petra|last2=Hulse|first2=Merran|s2cid=145495201|title=Including Women's Voices? Gender Mainstreaming in EU and SADC Development Strategies for Southern Africa|journal=Journal of Southern African Studies|volume=40|issue=3|pages=561–562|doi=10.1080/03057070.2014.909255|year=2014|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8707481|hdl=1854/LU-8707481|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 1992 the EU's Latin American and Asian development policy first clearly said that development programs should not have detrimental effects on the position and role of women.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Debusscher|first=Petra|title=Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?|journal=Latin American Perspectives|volume=39|pages=181|doi=10.1177/0094582x12458423|s2cid=146621788}}</ref> Since then the EU has continued the policy of including gender equality within development aid and programs.<ref name="":5"" /> Within the EU gender equality is increasingly introduced in programmatic ways.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal|last=Debusscher|first=Petra|title=Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?|journal=Latin American Perspectives|volume=39|pages=187–189|doi=10.1177/0094582x12458423|s2cid=146621788}}</ref> The bulk of the EU's aid for gender equality seeks to increase women's access to education, employment and reproductive health services. However, some areas of gender inequality are targeted according to region, such as land reform and counteracting the effects of gangs on women in Latin America.<ref name="":6"" />

[[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]] first established a women in development office in 1974 and in 1996 promulgated its Gender Plan of Action to further integrate gender equality into aid programs.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/GenderEqualityPolicy_0.pdf|title=Gender Equality and Female Empowerment Policy|publisher=USAID}}</ref> In 2012 USAID released a Gender Equality and Female Empowerment Policy to guide its aid programs in making gender equality a central goal.<ref name="":7"" /> USAID saw increased solicitations from aid programs which integrated gender equality from 1995 to 2010.<ref name="":7"" /> As part of their increased aid provision, USAID developed PROMOTE to target gender inequality in Afghanistan with $216 million in aid coming directly from USAID and $200 million coming from other donors.<ref name="":7"" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/promote/|title=Promote|publisher=USAID|access-date=27 May 2017|archive-date=1 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601103611/https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/promote/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Many NGOs have also incorporated gender equality into their programs. Within the Netherlands, NGOs including Oxfam Netherlands Organization for Development Assistance, the Humanist Institute for Cooperation with Developing Countries, Interchurch Organization for Development Cooperation, and Catholic Organization for Relief and Development Aid have included certain targets for their aid programs with regards to gender equality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Eerdewijk|first=Anouka|title=The Micropolitics of Evaporation: Gender Mainstreaming Instruments in Practice|journal=Journal of International Development|volume=26|issue=3|pages=348–349|doi=10.1002/jid.2951|year=2014}}</ref> NGOs which receive aid dollars through the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Norway)|Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] or which partner with the Norwegian government on aid projects must ""demonstrate that they take women and gender equality seriously"".<ref name="":8"">{{Cite journal|last1=Østebo|first1=Marit|last2=Haukanes|first2=Haldis|last3=Blystad|first3=Astrid|title=Strong State Policies on Gender and Aid: Threats and Opportunities for Norwegian Faith-Based Organisations|journal=Forum for Development Studies|volume=40|issue=2|pages=194}}</ref> In response to this requirement organizations like the Norwegian Christian charity Digni have initiated projects which target gender equality.<ref name="":8"" />

[[Private foundation]]s provide the majority of their gender related aid to health programs and have relatively neglected other areas of gender inequality.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite book|title=Non-traditional aid and gender equity evidence from million dollar donations|last=Okonkwo|first=Osili, Una|date=2013|publisher=WIDER|isbn=9789292306533|pages=4–5|oclc=931344632}}</ref> Foundations, such as the [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation|Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation]], have partnered with governmental aid organizations to provide funds for gender equality, but increasingly aid is provided through partnerships with local organizations and NGOS.<ref name="":9"" /> Corporations also participate in providing gender equality aid through their [[Corporate social responsibility|Corporate Social Responsibility]] programs. [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] helped to create the [[Girl Effect]] to provide aid programs targeted towards adolescent girls.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Non-traditional aid and gender equity evidence from million dollar donations|last=Okonkwo|first=Osili, Una|date=2013|publisher=WIDER|isbn=9789292306533|pages=6|oclc=931344632}}</ref> Using publicly available data Una Osili an economist at the [[Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis|Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis]] found that between 2000 and 2010 $1.15 billion in private aid grants over $1 million from the United States targeted gender equality.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Non-traditional aid and gender equity evidence from million dollar donations|last=Okonkwo|first=Osili, Una|date=2013|publisher=WIDER|isbn=9789292306533|pages=8|oclc=931344632}}</ref>

The [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] provides detailed analysis of the extent of aid for gender equality. OECD member countries tag their aid programs with gender markers when a program is designed to advanced gender equality.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Non-traditional aid and gender equity evidence from million dollar donations|last=Okonkwo|first=Osili, Una|date=2013|publisher=WIDER|isbn=9789292306533|pages=3|oclc=931344632}}</ref> In 2019-20 OECD DAC members committed almost $56.5 billion to aid for gender equality, with $6.3 billion of that committed to programs where gender equality is a principal programmatic goal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/development/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-topics/development-finance-for-gender-equality-and-women-s-empowerment.htm|title=Gender-related aid data at a glance|publisher=OECD}}</ref>

==== Effectiveness of aid for gender equality ====
Three main measures of [[gender inequality]] are used in calculating gender equality and testing programs for the purposes of development aid. In the 1995 Human Development Report the [[United Nations Development Programme|United Nations Development Program]] introduced the [[Gender Development Index]] and [[Gender Empowerment Measure]].<ref name="":11"">{{Cite web|url=https://editorialexpress.com/cgi-bin/conference/download.cgi?db_name=IAFFE2016&paper_id=66&file_type=slides|title=Does Foreign Aid Improve Gender Performance of Recipient Countries? Results from Structural Equation Analysis|access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> The Gender Empowerment Measure is calculated based on three measures, proportion of women in national parliaments, percentage of women in economic decision making positions and female share of income. The Gender Development Index uses the Human Development Index and corrects its results in life expectancy, income, and education for gender imbalances.<ref name="":11""/> Due to criticisms of these two indexes the United Nations Development Program in its 2010 Human Development Report introduced the [[Gender Inequality Index]]. The Gender Inequality Index uses more metrics and attempts to show the losses from gender inequality.<ref name="":11""/>

Even with these indexes, Ranjula Swain of the [[Stockholm School of Economics]] and Supriya Garikipati of the [[University of Liverpool]] found that, compared to the effectiveness of health, economic, and education targeted aid, foreign aid for gender equality remains understudied.<ref name="":11""/> Swain and Garikipati found in an analysis of Gender Equality Aid that on a country and region-wide level gender equality aid was not significant in its effect. Swain and Garikipati blame this on the relative lack of aid with gender equality as a primary motivation.<ref name="":11""/>

In 2005, the Interagency Gender Working Group of the [[World Health Organization]] released the ""So What? Report"" on the effectiveness of gender mainstreaming in NGO reproductive health programs. The report found these programs effective, but had trouble finding clear gender outcomes because most programs did not measure this data.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gender-equity-rights/knowledge/so-what-report.pdf|title=A Summary of the ""So What?"" Report|publisher=WHO}}</ref> When gender outcomes were measured, the report found positive programmatic effects, but the report did not look at whether these results were from increased access to services or increasing gender equality.<ref name="":12"" /><ref name="":13"">{{Cite journal|last1=Ravindran|first1=TKS|last2=Kelkar-Khambete|first2=A.|title=Gender Mainstreaming in Health: Looking Back, Looking Forward|journal=Global Public Health|volume=3|pages=127–129|doi=10.1080/17441690801900761|pmid=19288347|year=2008|s2cid=5215387}}</ref>

Even when gender equality is identified as a goal of aid, other factors will often be the primary focus of the aid.<ref name="":11"" /> In some instances the nature of aid's gender equality component can fail to be implemented at the level of individual projects when it is a secondary aspect of a project.<ref>Charlesworth, Hilary. ""Not Waving But Drowning Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United Nations"". ''Harvard Human Rights Journal''. 18: 12.</ref> Gender equality is often put forward as a policy goal for the organization but program staff have differing commitment and training with regards to this goal.<ref name="":14"">Van Eerdewijk, Anouka. ""The Micropolitics of Evaporation: Gender Mainstreaming Instruments in Practice"". Journal of International Development. 26: 353.</ref> When gender equality is a secondary aspect, development aid which has funds required to impact gender equality can be used to meet quotas of women receiving aid, without effecting the changes in gender roles that Gender Mainstreaming was meant to promote.<ref name="":14"" /> Programs can also fail to provide lasting effects, with local organizations removing gender equality aspects of programs after international aid dollars are no longer funding them.<ref name="":13"" />

Robert C. Jones of [[McGill University]] and Liam Swiss of [[Memorial University of Newfoundland|Memorial University]] argue that women leaders of governmental aid organizations and NGOs are more effective at Gender Mainstreaming than their male counterparts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Robert|last2=Swiss|first2=Liam|title=Gendered Leadership: The Effects of Female Development Agency Leaders on Foreign Aid Spending|journal=Sociological Forum|volume=29|issue=3}}</ref> They found in a literature review that NGOs headed by women were more likely to have Gender Mainstreaming programs and that women were often the heads of Gender Mainstreaming programs within organizations.<ref>Jones, Robert; Swiss, Liam (September 2014). ""Gendered Leadership: The Effects of Female Development Agency Leaders on Foreign Aid Spending"". ''Sociological Forum''. '''29''' (3): 578.</ref> By breaking down gender equality programs into two categories, gender mainstreamed programs and gender-focused programs which do not mainstream gender, Jones and Swiss found that female leaders of governmental aid organizations provided more financial support to gender mainstreamed programs and slightly more support to gender aware programs overall.<ref>Jones, Robert; Swiss, Liam (September 2014). ""Gendered Leadership: The Effects of Female Development Agency Leaders on Foreign Aid Spending"". ''Sociological Forum''. '''29''' (3): 582-583.</ref>

==== Criticism of aid for gender equality ====
Petra Debusscher of [[Ghent University]] has criticized EU aid agencies for following an ""integrationist approach"" to gender mainstreaming, where gender mainstreaming is used to achieve existing policy goals, as opposed to a ""transformative approach"" which seeks to change policy priorities and programs fundamentally to achieve gender equality.<ref name="":15"" /> She finds that this approach more closely follows a Women in Development model than a Gender and Development one. Debussher criticized the EU's development policy in Latin America for focusing too much attention on gender inequality as a problem to be solved for women.<ref name="":16"">Debusscher, Petra. ""Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?"". ''Latin American Perspectives''. '''39''': 190.</ref> She found that the language used represented more of a Woman in Development approach than a Gender and Development Approach.<ref>Debusscher, Petra. ""Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?"". ''Latin American Perspectives''. '''39''': 192-194.</ref> She notes that men's role in domestic violence is insufficiently brought forward, with program and policy instead targeting removing women from victimhood.<ref name="":16"" /> Rather than discussing the role of men and women relative to each other, women are discussed as needing to ""catch up with an implicit male norm"".<ref name="":16"" /> Debussher also criticized EU's development aid to [[Southern Africa]] as too narrow in its scope and too reliant on integrating women and gender into existing aid paradigms.<ref name="":17"">Debusscher, Petra; Hulse, Merran. ""Including Women's Voices? Gender Mainstreaming in EU and SADC Development Strategies for Southern Africa"". ''Journal of Southern African Studies''. '''40''' (3): 571-572.</ref> Debusscher notes that women's organizations in the region are often concerned with different social constructions of gender, as opposed to the economic growth structure favored by the EU.<ref>Debusscher, Petra; Hulse, Merran. ""Including Women's Voices? Gender Mainstreaming in EU and SADC Development Strategies for Southern Africa"". ''Journal of Southern African Studies''. '''40''' (3): 566-567.</ref> For EU development aid to Europe and surrounding countries, Debsusscher argued that programs to encourage education of women were designed primarily to encourage overall economic growth, not to target familial and social inequalities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Debusscher|first=Petra|s2cid=143826318|date=1 October 2012|title=Mainstreaming Gender in European Union Development Policy in the European Neighborhood|journal=Journal of Women, Politics & Policy|volume=33|issue=4|pages=333|doi=10.1080/1554477X.2012.722427|issn=1554-477X}}</ref>

Some criticism of gender equality development aid discusses a lack of voices of women's organizations in developing aid programs. Debusscher argued that feminist and women's organizations were not represented enough in EU aid.<ref>Debusscher, Petra. ""Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?"". ''Latin American Perspectives''. '''39''': 191-192.
</ref> and that while feminist and women's organizations were represented in implementing policy programs they were not sufficiently involved in their development in EU aid to [[Southern Africa]].<ref name="":17"" /> Similarly, Jones and Swiss argue that more women need to be in leadership positions of aid organizations and that these organizations need to be ""demasculinized"" in order to better gender mainstream.<ref>Jones, Robert; Swiss, Liam (September 2014). ""Gendered Leadership: The Effects of Female Development Agency Leaders on Foreign Aid Spending"". ''Sociological Forum''. '''29''' (3): 583-584.</ref> T.K.S. Ravindran and A. Kelkar-Khambete criticized the Millennium Development Goals for insufficiently integrating gender into all development goals, instead creating its own development goal, as limiting the level of aid provided to promote gender equality.<ref>Ravindran, TKS; Kelkar-Khambete, A. ""Gender Mainstreaming in Health: Looking Back, Looking Forward"". ''Global Public Health''. '''3''': 139.</ref>

== National development aid programs ==
{{Further|List of development aid agencies}}
* [[Australian Agency for International Development]]
* [[Aid for Trade]]
* [[China foreign aid]]
* [[Department for International Development]] (United Kingdom)
* [[International economic cooperation policy of Japan]]
* [[Saudi foreign assistance]]
* [[Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency]]
* [[United States foreign aid]]
* [[United Arab Emirates foreign aid]]
*[[Deutsche Gesellschaft für internationale Zusammenarbeit]]

==See also==
{{Portal|Society}}
* [[International development]]
* [[Development economics]]
* ''[[Global South Development Magazine]]''

'''Effectiveness and anti-corruption measures:'''
* [[Conditionality]]
* [[Aid effectiveness]]
* [[Tied aid]]
* [[International Health Partnership]]

'''General:'''
* [[Development economics]]
* [[Development studies]]

'''Tools and stories:'''
* [[File:Wikibooks-logo.svg|14px|Wikibooks]] ''[[B:Development Cooperation Handbook|Development Cooperation Handbook]]''

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=Foot01>See, for example, {{cite report |author=Mariella Di Ciommo |date=2014 |title=Development cooperation for the future:The increasing role of emerging providers |url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Development-cooperation-for-the-future1.pdf |publisher=Development Initiatives |access-date=16 January 2021}}</ref>
<ref name=Foot02>See, for example, {{cite report |author=Camelia Minoiu and Sanjay G. Reddy |date=2009 |title=Development Aid and Economic Growth: A Positive Long-Run Relation |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2009/wp09118.pdf |publisher=IMF |access-date=16 January 2021}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
* Georgeou, Nichole, ''Neoliberalism, Development, and Aid Volunteering'', New York: Routledge, 2012. {{ISBN|9780415809153}}.
* Gilbert Rist, ''The History of Development: From Western Origins to Global Faith'', Zed Books, New Exp. Edition, 2002, {{ISBN|1-84277-181-7}}
* Perspectives on European Development Co-operation by O. Stokke
* European development cooperation and the poor by A. Cox, J. Healy and T. Voipio {{ISBN|0-333-74476-4}}
* Rethinking Poverty: Comparative perspectives from below. by W. Pansters, G. Dijkstra, E. Snel {{ISBN|90-232-3598-3}}
* European aid for poverty reduction in Tanzania by T. Voipio London, [[Overseas Development Institute]], {{ISBN|0-85003-415-9}}
* The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It by Paul Collier
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120513022729/http://upers.kuleuven.be/en/titel/9789058679024 ''How Do We Help? The Free Market in Development Aid''] by Patrick Develtere, 2012, Leuven University Press, {{ISBN|978-90-5867-902-4}}

==External links==
* [http://www.openaidregister.org/ Open Aid Register]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140116104608/http://www.openaidsearch.org/ IATI search engine (Beta). Find any development aid activity around the world. Using the IATI registry as access point.]
* {{curlie|Society/Philanthropy/International_Aid_and_Development|Aid and Development}}
* [http://www.aiddata.org/ AidData: Tracking Development Finance]
* [http://www.openaiddata.org/ Open Aid Data] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606214917/http://www.openaiddata.org/ |date=6 June 2014 }} Provides detailed developing aid finance data from around the world.
* [http://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/cid/about-cid Center for International Development] at Harvard University
* [http://www.odi.org.uk/work/programmes/aid-public-expenditure/default.asp The Centre for Aid and Public Expenditure, Overseas Development Institute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414160517/http://www.odi.org.uk/work/programmes/aid-public-expenditure/default.asp |date=14 April 2011 }}
* [http://www.cgdev.org/Publications/MillionsSaved/ Millions Saved] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011090756/http://www.cgdev.org/Publications/millionssaved/ |date=11 October 2008 }} A compilation of case studies of successful foreign assistance by the [http://www.cgdev.org/ Center for Global Development].
* [http://www.die-gdi.de/ German Development Institute] - the German think tank of development aid
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100919071431/http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/browse-by-subject/all-subjects/aid Work on Development Aid by the Institute of Development Studies (IDS)]
;Articles
* Abhijit Baerjee [https://web.archive.org/web/20070704000147/http://bostonreview.net/BR31.4/banerjee.html ""Making Aid Work""]. Boston Review, March/April 2007.
* ''[http://www.kakanien.ac.at/beitr/fallstudie/TNarozhna1.pdf Failed Expectations, Or What Is Behind the Marshall Plan for Post-Socialist Reconstruction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102121528/http://www.kakanien.ac.at/beitr/fallstudie/TNarozhna1.pdf |date=2 November 2012 }}'', by Tanya Narozhna
* Håkan Malmqvist (February 2000), ""[https://web.archive.org/web/20050408215759/http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No46/Develop.html Development Aid, Humanitarian Assistance and Emergency Relief]"", Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Monograph No 46, Sweden
* Andrew Rogerson with Adrian Hewitt and David Waldenberg (2004), ""[http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=1375&title=international-aid-system-2005-2010-forces-against-change The International Aid System 2005–2010 Forces For and Against Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100224214354/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=1375&title=international-aid-system-2005-2010-forces-against-change |date=2010-02-24 }}"", [[Overseas Development Institute]] Working Paper 235
* ""[https://web.archive.org/web/20100113103123/http://saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197906/arab.aid-an.introduction.htm Arab Aid]"" from ''Saudi Aramco World'' (1979)
;Videos
* [[File:Ardhanarishwara-TheVrindaProject-Logo.jpg|14px]]  ⇒   [https://www.youtube.com/eugadproject The Vrinda Project Channel]  - videos on the work in progress for the achievement of the MDGs connected to the Wikibook [[File:Wikibooks-logo.svg|14px|Wikibooks]]  ⇒ [[B:Development Cooperation Handbook|Development Cooperation Handbook]]
* [[B:Development Cooperation Handbook/Stories|Development Cooperation Stories]]
* [[B:Development Cooperation Handbook/Testimonials|Development Cooperation Testimonials]]

{{Globalization}}
{{Diplomacy}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Development Aid}}
[[Category:Aid]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Ecologically sustainable development,"'''Ecologically sustainable development''' is the environmental component of [[sustainable development]]. It can be achieved partially through the use of the [[precautionary principle]]; if there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent [[environmental degradation]].
Also important is the principle of [[intergenerational equity]]; the present generation should ensure that the health, diversity and productivity of the environment is maintained or enhanced for the benefit of [[future generations]]. In order for this movement to flourish, environmental factors should be more heavily weighed in the valuation of assets and services to provide more incentive for the conservation of [[Biodiversity|biological diversity]] and ecological integrity.

== Biodiversity Considerations ==
When trying to integrate ecologically sustainable developments into a region, it is important to take [[biodiversity]] into consideration before moving forward with developments. Specifically, how a [[sustainable development]] impacts the biodiversity of its area and how they can be used to facilitate biodiversity. Recognizing and conserving biodiversity is essential for maintaining the [[Resilience (engineering and construction)|resilience]] and functionality of ecosystems which humans greatly depend.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aronson |first=Myla FJ |last2=Lepczyk |first2=Christopher A |last3=Evans |first3=Karl L |last4=Goddard |first4=Mark A |last5=Lerman |first5=Susannah B |last6=MacIvor |first6=J Scott |last7=Nilon |first7=Charles H |last8=Vargo |first8=Timothy |date=May 2017 |title=Biodiversity in the city: key challenges for urban green space management |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.1480 |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=189–196 |doi=10.1002/fee.1480 |issn=1540-9295}}</ref>

Although [[urbanization]] can have negative effects on certain flora and fauna species, if urban planning is carried out in a way that does consider biodiversity, some urban areas can provide habitats and foster biodiversity which can be facilitated with the help of ecologically sustainable developments.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last=Lopez |first=C. X. Garzon |last2=Savickytė |first2=Gabija |date=2023-07-01 |title=Biodiversity in cities: the impact of biodiversity data across spatial scales on diversity estimates |url=https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/foecol-2023-0012 |journal=Folia Oecologica |language=en |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=134–146 |doi=10.2478/foecol-2023-0012}}</ref> Cities provide important habitats for many types of [[Plant|plants]] and [[Fungus|fungi]] and can also act as a refuge for certain animal species as well. This can be assisted even more with the use of ecologically sustainable developments which play a large role in being able to provide habitats for those species.<ref name="":0"" /> In addition to sustainable developments in cities, green areas, such as parks and open spaces, or [[Wildlife corridor|green corridors]], provide species with food and breeding habitats.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last=Beninde |first=Joscha |last2=Veith |first2=Michael |last3=Hochkirch |first3=Axel |date=June 2015 |editor-last=Haddad |editor-first=Nick |title=Biodiversity in cities needs space: a meta‐analysis of factors determining intra‐urban biodiversity variation |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.12427 |journal=Ecology Letters |language=en |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=581–592 |doi=10.1111/ele.12427 |issn=1461-023X}}</ref> Specifically increasing the size of green areas and developing a network of green corridors is a successful way to maintain high levels of urban biodiversity.<ref name="":2"" /> An additional aspect that can be influenced by ecologically sustainable developments and is connected to green areas are [[Urban forest|urban forests]]. Urban forests have often been included in cities whether through landscapes, parks, or street trees and can affect the biodiversity of a city.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last=Pregitzer |first=Clara C. |last2=Charlop‐Powers |first2=Sarah |last3=Bibbo |first3=Silvia |last4=Forgione |first4=Helen M. |last5=Gunther |first5=Bram |last6=Hallett |first6=Richard A. |last7=Bradford |first7=Mark A. |date=January 2019 |title=A city‐scale assessment reveals that native forest types and overstory species dominate New York City forests |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.1819 |journal=Ecological Applications |language=en |volume=29 |issue=1 |doi=10.1002/eap.1819 |issn=1051-0761}}</ref>Depending on the type of urban forest and the way it is managed, urban forests can provide a space where native tree species are able to thrive and provide strong biodiveristy efforts for the city it is in.<ref name="":4"" />

A feature that can be included in an ecological sustainable development is a [[green roof]]. The incorporation of a green roof on a sustainable development can facilitate urban biodiversity from different types of vegetation that can be installed on a green roof, thus increasing the overall biodiversity of an area. The installation of green roofs can also help improve biodiversity specifically for species that need extra assistance and are not as migratory as other species.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last=Sushinsky |first=Jessica R. |last2=Rhodes |first2=Jonathan R. |last3=Possingham |first3=Hugh P. |last4=Gill |first4=Tony K. |last5=Fuller |first5=Richard A. |date=February 2013 |title=How should we grow cities to minimize their biodiversity impacts? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12055 |journal=Global Change Biology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=401–410 |doi=10.1111/gcb.12055 |issn=1354-1013}}</ref> They can provide species a safe, natural, undisturbed habitat, depending on the setup and conditions of the green roof/space, where they can develop and grow.<ref name="":1"" />

The density and compactness of a city can also affect the biodiversity conditions which influences the types and number of ecologically sustainable developments that should be implemented to meet the goal of increasing biodiversity. It has been studied that if high density urban areas are well managed, they can preserve large intact green spaces and create a more ecologically heterogeneous area that has the ability to support both urban-adapted and urban sensitive species.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last=Sushinsky |first=Jessica R. |last2=Rhodes |first2=Jonathan R. |last3=Possingham |first3=Hugh P. |last4=Gill |first4=Tony K. |last5=Fuller |first5=Richard A. |date=February 2013 |title=How should we grow cities to minimize their biodiversity impacts? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12055 |journal=Global Change Biology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=401–410 |doi=10.1111/gcb.12055 |issn=1354-1013}}</ref> However, there is a specific critical threshold that most cities have where if residential density reaches that point, all species would decline as there would not be enough vegetation to maintain them.<ref name="":3"" />

Overall, strategic urban planning with the implementation of ecologically sustainable development and the preservation of green areas and a network of corridors between these areas should be utilized in order to have an efficient use of land.<ref name="":2"" /> This thus reduces the impact of humans on the city's biodiversity and allows for opportunities for people to interact with the local biodiversity. 
__TOC__

==Political considerations==
Effective political support is necessary for ecologically sustainable development. The mobilization of governments can be translated into action plans that are crucial to [[Sustainable development#Politics|sustainable development]]. Development efforts can be influenced by patterns of family arrangements, work attitudes, [[Morality|social morality]]—particularly interpersonal responsibilities, hierarchy of authority, quality of scientific education and implementation, and degree of domestic stability—especially, freedom from [[social conflict]].<ref>Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. ""Globalization and Sustainable Development: False Twins?."" New Global Studies 7.3: 23-56. ISSN (Online) 1940-0004, ISSN (Print) 2194-6566, DOI: 10.1515/ngs-2013-021, November 2013</ref> National policy and development planning requires three conditions to permit ecological [[sustainability]]: action-oriented values to which individuals are committed, political authorities that favour long-term ecological benefits over immediate economic gains, and a policy with a politically competent [[constituency]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Caldwell|first=Lynton K.|title=Political Aspects of Ecologically Sustainable Development|journal=Environmental Conservation|year=1984|volume=11|issue=4|pages=299–308|doi=10.1017/S037689290001465X|s2cid=85770572 }}</ref>

Canada has taken an evidence based approach to sustainability development by using Environmental [[Sustainability measurement|Sustainability Indicators]]<ref>{{cite web |author=Government of Canada |title=Environmental Sustainability Indicators |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators.html |accessdate=24 January 2024}}</ref> as guiding tool for policy development. At the municipal level, many cities also use evidence based indicators<ref>{{cite web |author=City of Surrey |title=Sustainability Charter |url=https://www.surrey.ca/about-surrey/sustainability-energy-services/sustainability-charter |accessdate=24 January 2024}}
</ref> and Ecological Indexes<ref>{{cite web |title=Economic Update, 20 January 2016 |url=https://m.stjohns.ca/sites/default/files/files/publication/2016_Economic%20Update_Jan%20to%20Dec.pdf |accessdate=24 January 2024 |publisher=City of St. Johns}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://greenscore.ca/greenscore-city-index.html|title=Study of 50 Canadian Municipalities|publisher=GreenScore Canada|accessdate=20 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904070553/http://greenscore.ca/greenscore-city-index.html|archive-date=4 September 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> as a tools for [[Policy|policy development]].

==Forums for ecologically sustainable development==
The World Conservation Strategy was published in 1980, becoming one of the most encouraging developments that uses a goal-oriented programme for political change concerning ecological sustainability.<ref>{{cite book|last=Allen|first=Robert P.|title=How to Save the World: Strategy for World Conservation|url=https://archive.org/details/howtosaveworldst0000pres|url-access=registration|year=1980|publisher=Barnes and Noble Books|isbn=978-0-389-20011-6}}</ref>  The publication marked a fundamental policy shift for the global [[conservation movement]]. The traditional focus became cure rather than [[Prevention Science|Prevention]], confirming the growing trend on the assimilation of preservation and development aims that are key to an ecologically sustainable society. Specifically, the concentration on [[wildlife conservation]] drifted into a concern for wider strains degrading the natural environment.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McCormick|first=John|title=The Origins of the World Conservation Strategy|journal=Environmental Review|year=1986|volume=10|issue=3|pages=177–187|doi=10.2307/3984544 |jstor=3984544|s2cid=156040310 }}</ref>
It promotes the principles of sustainable development and addresses the environmental concerns introduced by [[economic development]] decisions with a format that targets a wide audience. There are three chief conservation objectives:
#Maintaining essential [[biogeochemical cycle]]s and life-support systems
#Preserving [[genetic diversity]]
#Establishing a sustainable use of [[species]] and [[ecosystem]]s<ref>{{cite journal|last=Smith|first=Susan L.|title=Ecologically Sustainable Development: Integrating Economics, Ecology, and Law|journal=Willamette Law Review|year=1995|volume=31|issue=2|pages=261–306|url=https://litigation-essentials.lexisnexis.com/webcd/app?action=DocumentDisplay&crawlid=1&doctype=cite&docid=31+Willamette+L.+Rev.+261&srctype=smi&srcid=3B15&key=118207f62b4908b2ee0eb7a21f829a93|accessdate=29 March 2013}}</ref>
Other efforts such as the World Campaign for the Biosphere present environmental obstacles constantly before governmental and scientific authorities. Nicholas Polunin, former president of the Foundation for Environmental Conservation, believed the starting point for the World Campaign effort occurred in 1966 at an [[UNESCO]] conference in Finland.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Polunin|first=Nicholas|title=Our Global Environment and the World Campaign for the Biosphere|journal=Environmental Conservation|year=1982|volume=9|issue=2|pages=115–121|doi=10.1017/S0376892900020002|s2cid=84262473 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/291547/files/S0376892900020002.pdf}}<!--|accessdate=4 April 2013--></ref>  The conference examined conditions that hinder ecologically sustainable development such as rapid [[population growth]], proliferation of [[nuclear weapon]]s, and depletion of [[natural resource]]s. Similarly, the [[The Global 2000 Report to the President|Global 2000 Report to the President]], presents environmental prospective conditions that are likely to worsen if public policies, institutions, and rates of technologic advancement do not change. Findings of this type prompted [[environmentalist]]s and the Foundation for Environmental Conservation to initiate the World Campaign project and have included the following suggestions:
:*Publication and broadcast of [[environmental issue]]s
:*Use of traditional [[Media (communication)|communication mediums]] such as posters and automobile stickers
:*Distribution of increasing basic and applied environmental research results
:*Information about [[family planning]] and the necessity to control population growth
:*Designating more area as [[national park]]s or [[wilderness area]]s, including the ocean
:*Organization of local, state, national, and international conferences to discuss environmental issues
:*Encouraging sustainable uses of our natural resources
:*Establishment of [[common law]]s for the Earth and mankind
:*Obtaining support form [[nongovernmental organization]]s and [[institution]]s for the World Campaign
:*Attaining recognition such as ""Guardians of the Biosphere Awards,"" for persons and/or groups that demonstrate actions to preserve the environment<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barman|first=Charles R.|title=The World Campaign for the Biosphere|journal=The American Biology Teacher|volume=46|issue=5|pages=269–271|doi=10.2307/4447840|jstor=4447840|year=1984}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Permaculture]]
*[[Greenhouse debt]]
*[[Sustainability]]
*[[Environmental remediation|Environmental regeneration]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.environment.gov.au/esd/ Australian Government - Department of Environment and Water Resources]

[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Greenhouse debt,"'''Greenhouse debt''' is the measure to which an individual person, incorporated association, business enterprise, government instrumentality or / [and] (per Neb., USA) geographic community exceeds its permitted [[carbon footprint|greenhouse footprint]] and [[greenhouse gas emissions|emits greenhouse gas]]es that contribute to [[global warming]] and [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mann|first=Roberta|date=2007|title=Another Day Older and Deeper in Debt: How Tax Incentives Encourage Burning Coal and the Consequences for Global Warming|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tranl20&id=113&div=&collection=|journal=Pacific McGeorge Global Business & Development Law Journal|volume=20|pages=111}}</ref>

[[Friends of the Earth]] and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries' past and present policies.<ref>Friends of the Earth International. 2000. ''[http://www.foei.org/en/publications/link/92/e92greenhouse_debt.html Greenhouse debt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612052902/http://www.foei.org/en/publications/link/92/e92greenhouse_debt.html |date=2008-06-12 }}''.  ''Link'' (20):</ref> Some governments, at least the Australian [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] leadership, have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning.<ref>Hamilton, Clive. ''[http://www.crikey.com.au/Politics/20071214-Howards-Hidden-Greenhouse-Debt-.html?CurrentDate=14+%2F+01+%2F+2008 We will all pay for Howard's hidden greenhouse debt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605094823/http://www.crikey.com.au/Politics/20071214-Howards-Hidden-Greenhouse-Debt-.html?CurrentDate=14+%2F+01+%2F+2008 |date=2008-06-05 }}'', Crikey, Friday, 14 December 2007: .</ref> The concept, however, makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted [[greenhouse gas|greenhouse]] [[ecological footprint|footprint]], which is not easily defined or estimated.

The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an [[ecological footprint]] analysis, but can be used separately. Taken conjointly with a 'water debt' [[needs assessment|analysis]] and an [[environmental impact assessment|ecological impact assessment]], greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals, organisations, governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia]], [[life]], and [[global warming]].{{cn|date=December 2022}}

Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving [[ecologically sustainable development]] or a [[sustainable retreat]]. Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and [[non-human]] lifeforms.

There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt.{{cn|date=December 2022}}

#''[[Mitigation of global warming|Mitigation]]:'' finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised
#''[[Adaptation]]:'' finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change
#''[[Suffering]]:'' having one's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences

==See also==
*[[Ecological debt]]
*[[Ecological deficit]]
*[[Ecological footprint]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Greenhouse Debt}}
[[Category:Climate change assessment and attribution]]
[[Category:Greenhouse gas emissions]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Micro-sustainability,"{{Short description|Individual or small scale sustainability efforts}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2012}}
[[File:Utilizando el contenedor de Ecovidrio.JPG|thumb|A person recycling a glass bottle into a bin.]]
'''Micro-sustainability''' is the portion of [[sustainability]] centered around small scale environmental measures that ultimately affect the environment through a larger cumulative impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ibrahim|first=Mohamed Mohsen|date=2016-11-09|title=EcoBIM for micro-sustainability|journal=Qscience Proceedings|url=https://www.qscience.com/content/papers/10.5339/qproc.2016.qgbc.28|language=en|publisher=Hamad bin Khalifa University Press (HBKU Press)|volume=2016|issue=3|pages=28|doi=10.5339/qproc.2016.qgbc.28}}</ref> Micro-sustainability centers on individual efforts, [[behavior modification]], education and creating attitudinal changes, which result in an environmentally conscious individual.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hobson |first=Kersty |title=Chapter 11 - Sustainable Lifestyles: Rethinking Barriers and Behaviour Change |date=2001-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080439204500148 |work=Exploring Sustainable Consumption |pages=191–209 |editor-last=Cohen |editor-first=Maurie J. |access-date=2023-04-19 |place=Oxford |publisher=Pergamon |language=en |isbn=978-0-08-043920-4 |editor2-last=Murphy |editor2-first=Joseph}}</ref> Micro-sustainability encourages sustainable changes through ""change agents""—individuals who foster positive environmental action locally and inside their [[sphere of influence]]. Examples of micro-sustainability include [[recycling]], [[power saving]] by turning off unused lights, programming [[thermostat]]s for efficient [[energy use|use of energy]], reducing [[water usage]], changing commuting habits to use less fossil fuels or modifying buying habits to reduce [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] and waste.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Klug |first1=Katharina |last2=Niemand |first2=Thomas |date=2021-05-15 |title=The lifestyle of sustainability: Testing a behavioral measure of precycling |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652621009197 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=297 |pages=126699 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126699 |s2cid=233619438 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref><ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last1=Barr |first1=Stewart |last2=Gilg |first2=Andrew |date=2006-11-01 |title=Sustainable lifestyles: Framing environmental action in and around the home |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016718506000583 |journal=Geoforum |language=en |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=906–920 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.05.002 |issn=0016-7185}}</ref> The emphasis of micro-sustainability is on an individual's actions, rather than organizational or institutional practices at the systemic level.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Young|first1=William|last2=Hwang|first2=Kumju|last3=McDonald|first3=Seonaidh|last4=Oates|first4=Caroline J.|date=2010|title=Sustainable consumption: green consumer behaviour when purchasing products|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sd.394|journal=Sustainable Development|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=20–31|doi=10.1002/sd.394|issn=1099-1719|hdl=10059/1015|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal |last1=Gilg |first1=Andrew |last2=Barr |first2=Stewart |last3=Ford |first3=Nicholas |date=2005-08-01 |title=Green consumption or sustainable lifestyles? Identifying the sustainable consumer |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016328704001569 |journal=Futures |language=en |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=481–504 |doi=10.1016/j.futures.2004.10.016 |issn=0016-3287}}</ref> These small local level actions have immediate community benefits if undertaken on a widespread scale and if imitated, they can have a cumulative<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-02-03|title=How personal actions can kick-start a sustainability revolution|url=https://grist.org/article/2010-02-01-how-personal-actions-can-kick-start-a-sustainability-revolution/|access-date=2021-08-31|website=Grist|language=en-us}}</ref> broad impact.<ref name="":2"" />
==History==
* 1960s - The ""[[back-to-the-land movement]]"" promoted self-sufficiency and local community growth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.utne.com/environment/back-to-the-land-movement-ze0z1609zfis|title=The ""Back to the Land"" Movement|last=Daloz|first=Kate|year=2016}}</ref>
* 2007 - The [[transition town]] network was formed to reduce dependency on oil in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name = ""Seyfang Transitions"">{{Cite journal|title=Growing grassroots innovations: exploring the role of community-based initiatives in governing sustainable energy transitions|journal=Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy|last1=Seyfang|first1=Gill|last2=Haxeltine|first2=Alex|doi=10.1068/c10222|year=2011|volume=30|issue=3|pages=381–400|orig-year=2010|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* 2007 - The [[United Nations]] published ''Sustainable Consumption Patterns'', which outlined small scale sustainability actions.<ref name=""UN SC patterns"">{{Cite journal|title=Sustainable Consumption and Production: Promoting Climate-Friendly Household Consumption Patterns|journal=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|year=2007}}</ref>
* 2009 - Jesse Stallone coined the term micro and macro sustainability based on the ideas of [[microeconomics]] and [[macroeconomics]].<ref name = ""Stallone""/>
==Individual actions==
Micro-sustainability is the result of individuals and communities practicing [[sustainable living]]. Sustainable living is a lifestyle that attempts to conserve natural resources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hagbert |first1=Pernilla |last2=Bradley |first2=Karin |date=2017-09-01 |title=Transitions on the home front: A story of sustainable living beyond eco-efficiency |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |series=Narratives and Storytelling in Energy and Climate Change Research |language=en |volume=31 |pages=240–248 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2017.05.002 |issn=2214-6296|doi-access=free }}</ref> Within an individual household, this can include reducing the [[water footprint]] and [[domestic energy consumption]] of the building.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Waitt |first1=Gordon |last2=Caputi |first2=Peter |last3=Gibson |first3=Chris |last4=Farbotko |first4=Carol |last5=Head |first5=Lesley |last6=Gill |first6=Nick |last7=Stanes |first7=Elyse |date=2012-03-01 |title=Sustainable Household Capability: which households are doing the work of environmental sustainability? |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00049182.2012.649519 |journal=Australian Geographer |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=51–74 |doi=10.1080/00049182.2012.649519 |bibcode=2012AuGeo..43...51W |s2cid=145112743 |issn=0004-9182}}</ref>
===Water footprint===
[[File:World Water Footprint.png|thumb|The Global Water Footprint, averages of how much water is used around the world]]
Like the common concept of the [[carbon footprint]], people can also have a water footprint. [[Water footprint]] helps with determining how much fresh water is used and polluted by a given person.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hogeboom |first=Rick J. |date=2020-03-20 |title=The Water Footprint Concept and Water's Grand Environmental Challenges |journal=One Earth |language=en |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=218–222 |doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2020.02.010 |bibcode=2020OEart...2..218H |s2cid=216486954 |issn=2590-3322|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Kaile |last2=Yang |first2=Shanlin |date=2016-04-01 |title=Understanding household energy consumption behavior: The contribution of energy big data analytics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032115013817 |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=56 |pages=810–819 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.001 |issn=1364-0321}}</ref> With a typical American single-family home using 70 US gallons (260 L) per person per day indoors, [[household appliances]] such as toilets, showers, dishwashers, and washing machines can be upgraded to reduce water usage.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution|last1=Hawken|first1=Paul|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|year=1999|location=New York City|last2=Lovins|first2=Amory|last3=Lovins|first3=L. Hunter}}</ref> 
===Energy consumption===
[[File:Energy Star logo.svg|thumb|The Energy Star logo can be found on certified energy-efficient appliances.]]
The residential sector accounts of 21% of total U.S. energy usage, with approximately 40% of the energy used in homes being used for heating. Individuals can reduce their heating loads by improving their [[building insulation]], improving [[building airtightness]] and installing [[smart thermostat]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Use of energy in homes - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)|url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/use-of-energy/homes.php|access-date=2021-08-31|website=www.eia.gov}}</ref> Other measures outside of reducing the heating load include purchasing [[energy-efficient appliances]] and recycling energy intensive materials.<ref name= ""UN SC patterns""/>
===Consumer preferences===
As individuals become more aware of environmental problems that exist, their consumption decisions can promote [[Green design|green designs]] and ultimately affect the types of products on the market.<ref name="":6"" /><ref name=""Bask Mobile Phones"">{{Cite journal|title=Consumer Preferences for Sustainability and their Impact on Supply Chain Management: The Case of Mobile Phones|journal=International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management|last1=Bask|first1=Anu|volume=43|last2=Halme|first2=Merja|issue=5/6|doi=10.1108/IJPDLM-03-2012-0081|last3=Kallio|first3=Markku}}</ref> In a study that looked at [[consumer]] preferences for sustainability with respect to [[Mobile phone|mobile phones]], it found that consumers are not only interested in the physical product but also [[raw material]] sourcing and [[End-of-life (product)|end of life]] product disposal.<ref name = ""Bask Mobile Phones""/> As a result, the study found that major manufacturers consider sustainability in their marketing and products.<ref name = ""Bask Mobile Phones""/>

Other studies have looked at consumer preferences regarding sustainably sourced food. Food sustainability can reduce the use of natural resources and limit waste.<ref name = ""Gracia Spain Consumerism""/> These improvements in food sustainability can have larger, global benefits such as reducing [[greenhouse gas emissions]], water usage, and waste.<ref name = ""Gracia Spain Consumerism"">{{Cite journal|title=Food Sustainability and Waste Reduction in Spain: Consumer Preferences for Local, Suboptimal, And/Or Unwashed Fresh Food Products|journal=Sustainability|last1=Gracia|first1=Azucena|volume=12|last2=Gomez|first2=Miguel|doi=10.3390/su12104148|year=2020|issue=10|page=4148|doi-access=free|hdl=10532/5012|hdl-access=free}}</ref> One study found that consumers who spent more time looking at the sustainability labels were individuals who cared more about sustainably sourced food, and who were more likely to select products with this labeling.<ref name= ""Loo Coffee"">{{Cite journal|title=Sustainability labels on coffee: Consumer preferences, willingness-to-pay and visual attention to attributes|journal=Ecological Economics|last=Van Loo|first=Ellen J.|volume=118|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.07.011|year=2015|pages=215–225}}</ref> Another study showed that not only does sustainable labeling cause consumers to look at the product for longer, but that the [[consumer choice]]s as a result of that labeling is significant and positive.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Consumer attitudes and preferences towards pangasius and tilapia: The role of sustainability certification and the country of origin|journal=Appetite|last1=Hinkes|first1=Cordula|volume=127|last2=Schulze-Ehlers|first2=Birgit|year=2018|pages=171–181|doi=10.1016/j.appet.2018.05.001|pmid=29733863|s2cid=13687911}}</ref> This means that if consumers value sustainable products that are verified through labeling and are more likely to purchase these products, then food producers and marketers can use this information to provide products that consumer is interested in.<ref name = ""Loo Coffee""/> Additionally, if consumers are buying more of a product, they are also incentivizing and rewarding producers that are willing to responsibly source food.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Consumer choices for quality and sustainability labelled seafood products in the UK|journal=Food Policy|last1=Jaffry|first1=Shabbar|volume=29|last2=Pickering|first2=Helen|issue=3|doi=10.1016/j.foodpol.2004.04.001|year=2004|pages=215–228}}</ref> 
==Group and community actions==
A [[community]] in the context of micro-sustainability is a group of people in the same geographic location that interact with one another.<ref name = ""Haggar Green Communities"">{{Cite book|title=Roadmap for Global Sustainability - Rise of the Green Communities|last1=El-Haggar|first1=Salah|publisher=Springer|year=2019|last2=Samaha|first2=Aliaa|series=Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-14584-2|isbn=978-3-030-14583-5|s2cid=182585383|issn=2522-8722}}</ref> These can range from rural communities with low population density to highly dense urban communities.<ref name = ""Haggar Green Communities""/> These communities are able to tackle a wider range of initiatives that range in scale from unaligned, independent affairs to organized networks.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/> While small community initiatives can take many forms, they can be generalized as an organized collective bundle of actions stretching several years or decades intended to transform a community into a sustainable state.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/> 
===Rural communities===
Although there is no exact population size to define a rural community, they are typically seen as areas with lower population density.<ref name = ""Haggar Green Communities""/> Green rural communities are places where people value a supportive social network and a low-impact, ecologically sustainable life.<ref name = ""Haggar Green Communities""/> These can be defined as [[transition towns]], [[Low Carbon Communities]], or [[eco-villages]]. 
===Urban communities===
Urban communities do not necessarily mean a larger population than rural communities, but that they are more densely populated and more influenced by the effects of [[urbanization]].<ref name = ""Haggar Green Communities""/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |last2=Roser |first2=Max |date=2018-06-13 |title=Urbanization |url=https://ourworldindata.org/urbanization |journal=Our World in Data}}</ref>

Especially with transition towns and low carbon communities, the goal is to see if fundamental changes to society in these niches can lead to a wider acceptance of the innovation.<ref name = ""Seyfang Transitions""/> This can occur by replicating, scaling, and translating successful practices.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/> Although the goal is to see if changes on micro scale can ultimately lead to a successful macro-level change, 89% of transition towns were created by individual citizens coming together—not governments or larger organizations.<ref name = ""Seyfang Transitions""/>
===Types of work===
Depending on the size, wealth, and organization of a community, a variety of sustainable actions can be achieved. These can be broken down into following categories:
====Land use====
Sustainable land use can be achieved when communities reduce greenhouse gas emissions by limiting development of roads, parking lots, etc., and focus on promoting green building design technologies and green spaces.<ref name = ""Dizdaroglu Indicators"">{{Cite journal|title=Developing micro-level urban ecosystem indicators for sustainability assessment|journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review|last=Dizdaroglu|first=D.|year=2015|volume=54|pages=119–124|doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2015.06.004|hdl=11693/21092|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
====Transportation====
{{main|Sustainable transport}}{{see|Micromobility}}
The amount of greenhouse gases being released into the atmosphere due to the number of cars on the roads can be minimized by increasing the number of safe bike lanes and pedestrian walkways, and making public transportation easily accessible.<ref name = ""Dizdaroglu Indicators""/>

====Green spaces====
[[File:High Point community garden.jpg|thumb|High Point Community Garden in Seattle, Washington]]
Green spaces within a community protect the habitats of the wildlife in the area. These spaces can be gardens, parks, green alleys, [[green roof]]s, and green [[buffer zone]]s.<ref name = ""Dizdaroglu Indicators""/> They can exist successfully when a community provides resources such as land, equipment, knowledge and standards regarding care of the green space, and some sort of governance to ensure that the space is well kept.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/>
====Renewable energy and waste management====
Renewable energy can include hydropower, biomass energy, geothermal energy, wind power, and solar energy.<ref name = ""Dizdaroglu Indicators""/> Additionally, communities can educate and promote individual sustainable practices mentioned in part 2. This can be in the form of providing information such as directions to resources and household energy performance feedback, monitoring performance like annual surveys of energy usage, or initializing community challenges such as a goal to reach [[carbon neutrality]].<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/> Communities can practice sustainable waste management such as [[incineration]], biological treatment, zero waste, and recycling.<ref name = ""Dizdaroglu Indicators""/>
===Methods for success===
The following are themes seen across micro-sustainable groups that have resulted in increased success:
====Community learning====
Effective sustainable intervention occurs in small communities because these spaces allow for greater learning opportunities.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/> One study showed that socialization encouraged learning and innovation which lead to 20% reduction in energy usage sustained over four years.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/> With community gardening, it was found that it transformed an isolated, private task into one that was social, educational, and had a positive impact on the town.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/> They claim that having a group of people in charge of the garden required social interaction and cooperation, and having many members resulted in a collective responsibility that promoted skill sharing and cohesion.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/> 
====Goal setting====
Another key factor was the community working together around a clear, well defined goal as group members are willing to participate when they know they are contributing to the good of the community.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/> Towns that would offer similar goals such as a community gardens achieved very different levels of success based on the level of structure, goals, and plans that can unite a community and gain interest.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors""/>
==Criticisms==
There have been concerns about the effectiveness of micro-sustainability. Much of the research into individual and small community practices are only able to analyze a limited amount of data and cannot fully conclude if the small community changes will result in changes at a larger scale.<ref name =""Forrest Success Factors"">{{Cite journal|title=Success factors and strategies for sustainability transitions of small-scale communities - Evidence from a cross case analysis|journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions|last1=Forrest|first1=Nigel|volume=17|last2=Wiek|first2=Arnim|doi=10.1016/j.eist.2015.05.005|year=2015|pages=22–40}}</ref> Additionally, due to its complex nature, it is almost impossible to model or keep track of all aspects of sustainability, and studies that do attempt to model this found that successful situations at a micro level will either not work, or will worsen environmental impacts at a larger scale.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Eco-efficiency guiding micro-level actions towards sustainability: Ten basic steps for analysis|journal=Ecological Economics|last1=Huppes|first1=G.|last2=Ishikawa|first2=M.|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.01.007|year=2009|volume=68|issue=6|pages=1687–1700|s2cid=153424574 |url=http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/repository/90001031.pdf}}</ref>

Additionally, some raise questions about the magnitude of change that needs to occur. In the book ''Sustainable Energy - Without the Hot Air'' authored by British physicist and mathematician [[David J.C. MacKay]], MacKay advocates against small changes with respect to sustainability and gives the example that if everyone unplugged their chargers from the outlet, this would save enough energy to power 66,000 homes for one year.<ref name = ""Without the hot air"">{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Energy - Without the Hot Air|last=MacKay|first=David|publisher=UIT Cambridge|year=2009}}</ref> MacKay warns that these types of statements can be misleading, as 66,000 homes out of approximately 25 million homes participating in this action is a quarter of one percent.<ref name = ""Without the hot air""/> In other words, each household is only saving one quarter of one percent by unplugging their phones.<ref name = ""Without the hot air""/>

A study that surveyed transition towns across the UK found that 76% of them struggle to grow after initial interest fades.<ref name = ""Seyfang Transitions""/> This indicates that scaling up beyond committed environmentalists may not be the best approach.<ref name = ""Seyfang Transitions""/>
==Macro-sustainability==
In contrast to micro-sustainability, the remaining large-scale plans for [[sustainability]], are categorized under the term ''macro-sustainability''.<ref name = ""Stallone"">{{Cite news|url=https://jessestallone.com/2009/12/29/micro-vs-macro-sustainability/|title=Micro vs Macro Sustainability|date=2009-12-29|work=Jesse Stallone|access-date=2018-08-06|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Macro-economics of mineral and water resources.|last = Kisor|first = Kaulir|publisher = Capital Publishing Company|year = 2015|location = India}}</ref> Macro-sustainability is a large systematic addressing of sustainability in most cases by the United Nations, governments, multi-national corporations or smaller companies. They discuss global issues including [[climate change]], and reliance upon fossil fuel hydrocarbon based energy sources. Global organizations like the United Nations have included sustainable development goals (SDGs) to set a standard of 17 goals for countries around the world to take action on climate change and other related issues.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE 17 GOALS {{!}} Sustainable Development |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |access-date=2023-04-19 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> Businesses primarily focus on the return of investment of changes such as their source of energy, consumption patterns or how they transport or manufacture products. Governments confront these larger issues through regulation of natural resources, improved practices, providing subsidies and directly investing in new technologies and renewable energy sources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ba |first1=Yuhao |last2=Galik |first2=Christopher S. |date=2023-03-01 |title=Historical industrial transitions influence local sustainability planning, capability, and performance |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210422422001216 |journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions |language=en |volume=46 |pages=100690 |doi=10.1016/j.eist.2022.100690 |s2cid=255653001 |issn=2210-4224}}</ref> 

=== Fashion Industry ===
[[File:Landfill face.JPG|thumb|Landfill, where a majority of discarded clothing ends up]]
The fashion sector is a major contributor to air, land, and water pollution. This industry accounts for 10% of carbon emissions.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1147258468|title=Sustainability in the textile and apparel industries : consumerism and fashion sustainability|date=2020|publisher=Springer|others=Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, Miguel Ángel Gardetti|isbn=978-3-030-38532-3|location=Cham|oclc=1147258468}}</ref> In [[textile]] production, there is a high use of chemicals and water, which then find their way back into waterways.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=Rafi-Ul-Shan|first1=Piyya Muhammad|last2=Grant|first2=David B.|last3=Perry|first3=Patsy|last4=Ahmed|first4=Shehzad|date=2018-05-14|title=Relationship between sustainability and risk management in fashion supply chains: A systematic literature review|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJRDM-04-2017-0092/full/html|journal=International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management|language=en|volume=46|issue=5|pages=466–486|doi=10.1108/IJRDM-04-2017-0092|issn=0959-0552}}</ref> In the US, over 85% of discarded clothes end up in landfills.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1147258468|title=Sustainability in the textile and apparel industries : consumerism and fashion sustainability|date=2020|publisher=Springer|others=Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, Miguel Ángel Gardetti|isbn=978-3-030-38532-3|location=Cham|oclc=1147258468}}</ref>

The industry's main goal is [[obsolescence]]:<ref name="":5"">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1041931248|title=Fast fashion, fashion brands and sustainable consumption|date=2019|others=Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu|isbn=978-981-13-1268-7|location=Singapore|oclc=1041931248}}</ref> new trends are constantly being put out to encourage consumption. [[Fast fashion]] has become increasingly popular, as it allows consumers to keep up with and then discard these trends at a low cost.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zamani |first1=Bahareh |last2=Sandin |first2=Gustav |last3=Peters |first3=Greg M. |date=2017-09-20 |title=Life cycle assessment of clothing libraries: can collaborative consumption reduce the environmental impact of fast fashion? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652617312982 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=162 |pages=1368–1375 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.128 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref>

Companies often [[Outsourcing|outsource]] their manufacturing to less developed countries to further reduce costs for consumers, which has led to the exploitation of workers, a complex supply chain, and pollution due to transportation.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite journal|last1=Rafi-Ul-Shan|first1=Piyya Muhammad|last2=Grant|first2=David B.|last3=Perry|first3=Patsy|last4=Ahmed|first4=Shehzad|date=2018-05-14|title=Relationship between sustainability and risk management in fashion supply chains: A systematic literature review|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJRDM-04-2017-0092/full/html|journal=International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management|language=en|volume=46|issue=5|pages=466–486|doi=10.1108/IJRDM-04-2017-0092|issn=0959-0552}}</ref> [[Insourcing]] products to their own facilities that they can maintain a strict standard over would lessen these issues. 

Textile waste can be reduced by making higher quality garments that are built to last. A general rule of thumb for fast fashion companies is a ""10 wash mark"", in which clothes are made to last about ten cycles through a washer and dryer.<ref name="":52"">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1041931248|title=Fast fashion, fashion brands and sustainable consumption|date=2019|others=Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu|isbn=978-981-13-1268-7|location=Singapore|oclc=1041931248}}</ref> By extending the practical life of a garment, people can use their clothes for longer periods of time before having to discard them, and thus consume and waste less. Textile waste may also be reduced through [[recycling]] and [[upcycling]] textile initiatives.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956376348|title=Textiles and clothing sustainability : recycled and upcycled textiles and fashion|date=2016|others=Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu|isbn=978-981-10-2146-6|location=Singapore|oclc=956376348}}</ref>

Research and development can also be invested into more eco-friendly dyeing methods. ColorZen, for example, has developed a process of dyeing cotton using 75% less energy and 90% less water.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-06-18|title=Better way to dye|url=https://www.crainsnewyork.com/article/20180618/FEATURES/180619908/better-way-to-dye|access-date=2021-03-01|website=Crain's New York Business|language=en}}</ref>

=== Agricultural Sector ===
The agricultural sector is a major source of [[food waste]], and also contributes to air, land, and water pollution. Food waste is a major component of landfills, which are in turn a major source of [[Methane emissions|methane]] (a major global warming contributor).<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last1=Yevich|first1=Rosemarie|last2=Logan|first2=Jennifer A.|author-link2=Jennifer Logan|date=2003|title=An assessment of biofuel use and burning of agricultural waste in the developing world|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=n/a|doi=10.1029/2002GB001952|bibcode=2003GBioC..17.1095Y|s2cid=15112465 |issn=1944-9224|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Implementing a variety of sustainability measures would allow for the redistribution of edible food that would have otherwise been wasted, the reduction of competition for limited resources, and the reduction of pollution.<ref name="":32"">{{Cite journal|last1=Yevich|first1=Rosemarie|last2=Logan|first2=Jennifer A.|date=2003|title=An assessment of biofuel use and burning of agricultural waste in the developing world|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=n/a|doi=10.1029/2002GB001952|bibcode=2003GBioC..17.1095Y|s2cid=15112465 |issn=1944-9224|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Crop diversification]] and [[crop rotation]] are more sustainable farming practices. They allow for healthier soil, which in turn reduces the need for fertilizers, which then reduces the amount of fertilizer [[Surface runoff|runoff]]. It also helps in reducing the amount of insects and weeds, which would reduce the use of pesticides. Fertilizer runoff and pesticides both have the potential to disrupt and harm ecosystems. Having multiple crops, as opposed to [[monoculture]], reduces the potential of entire crop yields failing- particularly in a time of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roesch-McNally|first1=Gabrielle E.|last2=Arbuckle|first2=J. G.|last3=Tyndall|first3=John C.|date=2018-01-01|title=Barriers to implementing climate resilient agricultural strategies: The case of crop diversification in the U.S. Corn Belt|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378017306702|journal=Global Environmental Change|language=en|volume=48|pages=206–215|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.12.002|s2cid=158821915 |issn=0959-3780}}</ref>
[[File:Pesticide spraying in spring.jpg|thumb|Pesticides being sprayed over crops]]
Alternative forms of [[Pesticide|pesticides]] also contribute to sustainability. Birds, for example, play an important ecological role in the reduction of insect populations; using birds as a natural way of getting rid of insects could decrease the amount of pesticides used.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gale - Institution Finder|url=https://galeapps.gale.com/apps/auth?userGroupName=&origURL=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DAONE%26u%3D%26id%3DGALE%257Ca535300673%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr&prodId=AONE|access-date=2021-03-01|website=galeapps.gale.com}}</ref>

Water usage in agriculture can also be reduced, which would allow for the resource to be redistributed elsewhere. One method of this is [[drip irrigation]], in which water is delivered directly to the roots of crops. This allows for less water to be used, since less water is lost to evaporation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Laib|first1=K.|last2=Hartani|first2=T.|last3=Bouarfa|first3=S.|last4=Kuper|first4=M.|last5=Mailhol|first5=J. C.|date=2018|title=Connecting Drip Irrigation Performance to Farmers' Practices: The Case of Greenhouse Horticulture in the Algerian Sahara|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ird.2228|journal=Irrigation and Drainage|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=392–403|doi=10.1002/ird.2228|s2cid=116781424 |issn=1531-0361}}</ref>

Although some food waste is unavoidable, such as bones or peels, there is a large component of avoidable waste. This is due to issues with over purchasing, poor preparation, and inadequate storage.<ref name="":33"">{{Cite journal|last1=Yevich|first1=Rosemarie|last2=Logan|first2=Jennifer A.|date=2003|title=An assessment of biofuel use and burning of agricultural waste in the developing world|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=n/a|doi=10.1029/2002GB001952|bibcode=2003GBioC..17.1095Y|s2cid=15112465 |issn=1944-9224|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the US, ""10.1 million tons [of food] are left unused on farms and in packing facilities each year.""<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|date=2019-06-26|title=Food and Tech: Solutions to Recover and Redistribute Food Waste|url=https://www.nycfoodpolicy.org/food-and-tech-solutions-to-recover-redistribute-food-waste/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=NYC Food Policy Center|language=en-US}}</ref> Implementing government [[Tax deduction|tax deductions]] may provide an incentive for those in the agricultural sector to donate food that would have otherwise been wasted.<ref name="":42"">{{Cite web|date=2019-06-26|title=Food and Tech: Solutions to Recover and Redistribute Food Waste|url=https://www.nycfoodpolicy.org/food-and-tech-solutions-to-recover-redistribute-food-waste/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=NYC Food Policy Center|language=en-US}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Additional sources===
*{{cite web | url=http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/243 | title=Strategies for Finding and Building Local Support for Your Program: Collected Training Supplements and Materials from the MRC Web Seminar on Microsustainability | publisher=Mentoring Resource Center | date=2007 | access-date=January 12, 2012 | author=MacRae, Patti |author2=Garringer, Michael |display-authors=etal | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720105430/http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/243 | archive-date=July 20, 2012 }}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.skynewswire.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid=12049&keywords=sky|title=Carbon Manna Unlimited announces ""The Micro Sustainability Prizes"" for Innovations in Markets-based ""Micro"" Paradigms|publisher=Skynewswire|date=January 18, 2010|access-date=January 12, 2012}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

==External links==
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344022975_Micro-Macro_Measurements_of_Sustainability Micro-macro measurements of sustainability]

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]"
Natural resource management,"{{Short description|Management of natural resources}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}

[[File:Tongass national forest juneau img 7501.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|right|The [[Tongass National Forest]] in [[Alaska]] is managed by the [[United States Forest Service]]]]

'''Natural resource management''' ('''NRM''') is the management of [[natural resource]]s such as [[Land (economics)|land]], [[water]], [[soil]], [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s, with a particular focus on how management affects the [[quality of life]] for both present and [[future generations]] ([[stewardship]]).

Natural resource management deals with managing the way in which people and natural [[landscapes]] interact. It brings together [[natural heritage]] management, land use planning, water management, [[Conservation biology|bio-diversity conservation]], and the future sustainability of industries like [[agriculture]], [[mining]], [[tourism]], [[fisheries]] and [[forestry]]. It  recognizes that people and their livelihoods rely on the health and productivity of our landscapes, and their actions as stewards of the land play a critical role in maintaining this health and productivity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Brochure%20-%20Resilient%20landscapes.pdf|title=Resilient landscapes and communities managing natural resources in New South Wales|publisher=Nrc.nsw.gov.au|access-date=27 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208173746/http://www.nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Brochure%20-%20Resilient%20landscapes.pdf|archive-date=8 February 2012}}</ref>

Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of resources and [[ecology]] and the Life-supporting capacity of those resources.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Massey University|url=http://study.massey.ac.nz/massey/students/studymassey/programme.cfm?major_code=2261&prog_code=93013|title=Bachelor of Applied Science (Natural Resource Management)|access-date=27 October 2014}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Environmental management]] is similar to natural resource management. In academic contexts, the [[Rural sociology|sociology of natural resources]] is closely related to, but distinct from, natural resource management.

==History==
[[File:Logo of the United States Bureau of Land Management.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|The [[Bureau of Land Management]] in the United States manages America's [[public land]]s, totaling approximately 264 million acres (1,070,000 km2) or one-eighth of the landmass of the country.]]

The emphasis on a sustainability can be traced back to early attempts to understand the ecological nature of [[North America]]n [[rangeland]]s in the late 19th century, and the [[Conservation movement|resource conservation]] movement of the same time.<ref>Berkeley University of California: Geography: [http://geography.berkeley.edu/programcourses/CoursePagesSP2006/Geog175Rangelands/Geog175syllabus.pdf Geog 175: Topics in the History of Natural Resource Management: Spring 2006: Rangelands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611112307/http://geography.berkeley.edu/ProgramCourses/CoursePagesSP2006/Geog175Rangelands/Geog175syllabus.pdf |date=11 June 2007 }}</ref><ref>San Francisco State University: Department of Geography: GEOG 657/ENVS 657:  Natural Resource Management:  Biotic Resources: [http://bss.sfsu.edu/holzman/courses/GEOG%20657/env%20history%20lecture.pdf Natural Resource Management and Environmental History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217101744/http://bss.sfsu.edu/holzman/courses/GEOG%20657/env%20history%20lecture.pdf |date=17 December 2008 }}</ref>  This type of analysis coalesced in the 20th century with recognition that preservationist [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]] strategies had not been effective in halting the decline of natural resources. A more integrated approach was implemented recognising the intertwined social, cultural, economic and political aspects of resource management.<ref name=""Thakadu2005"">{{cite journal |last=Thakadu |first=O. T. |year=2005 |title=Success factors in community based natural resources management in northern Botswana: Lessons from practice |journal=Natural Resources Forum |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=199–212 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-8947.2005.00130.x |bibcode=2005NRF....29..199T }}</ref> A more holistic, national and even global form evolved, from the [[Brundtland Commission]] and the advocacy of [[sustainable development]].

In 2005 the government of [[New South Wales]], Australia established a ''Standard for Quality Natural Resource Management'',<ref name=""ReferenceA"">NSW Government 2005, Standard for Quality Natural Resource Management, NSW Natural Resources Commission, Sydney</ref> to improve the consistency of practice, based on an [[adaptive management]] approach.

In the United States, the most active areas of natural resource management are [[fisheries management]],<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Hubert |editor1-first=Wayne A. |editor2-last=Quist |editor2-first=Michael C. |title=Inland Fisheries Management in North America |date=2010 |publisher=American Fisheries Society |location=Bethesda, MD |isbn=978-1-934874-16-5 |page=736 |edition=Third}}</ref> [[wildlife management]],<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bolen |editor1-first=Eric G. |editor2-last=Robinson |editor2-first=William L. |title=Wildlife Ecology and Management |date=2002 |publisher=Pearson |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |isbn=013066250X |page=634 |edition=5th}}</ref> often associated with [[ecotourism]] and [[rangeland management]], and [[forest management]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bettinger |editor1-first=Pete |editor2-last=Boston |editor2-first=Kevin |editor3-last=Siry |editor3-first=Jacek |editor4-last=Grebner |editor4-first=Donald |title=Forest Management and Planning |date=2017 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=9780128094761 |page=362 |edition=Second}}</ref> In Australia, water sharing, such as the [[Murray Darling Basin|Murray Darling Basin Plan]] and [[catchment management]] are also significant.

==Ownership regimes==

Natural resource management approaches <ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.12.032 | title=Property Rights Regimes and Natural Resources: A Conceptual Analysis Revisited | year=2017 | last1=Sikor | first1=Thomas | last2=He | first2=Jun | last3=Lestrelin | first3=Guillaume | journal=World Development | volume=93 | pages=337–349 | doi-access=free }}</ref> can be categorised according to the kind and right of [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]], natural resources:

* State property: Ownership and control over the use of resources is in hands of the state. Individuals or groups may be able to make use of the resources, but only at the permission of the state. National forest, National parks and military reservations are some US examples.
* Private property: Any property owned by a defined individual or corporate entity. Both the benefit and duties to the resources fall to the owner(s). Private land is the most common example.
* Common property: It is a private property of a group. The group may vary in size, nature and internal structure e.g. indigenous neighbours of village. Some examples of common property are community forests.
* Non-property (open access): There is no definite owner of these properties. Each potential user has equal ability to use it as they wish. These areas are the most exploited. It is said that ""Nobody's property is Everybody's property"". An example is a lake fishery. [[Common land]] may exist without ownership, in which case in the UK it is vested in a local authority.

* Hybrid: Many ownership regimes governing natural resources will contain parts of more than one of the regimes described above, so natural resource managers need to consider the impact of hybrid regimes. An example of such a hybrid is native vegetation management in NSW, Australia, where legislation recognises a public interest in the preservation of native vegetation, but where most native vegetation exists on private land.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/vegetation/nvact.htm|title=Native Vegetation Act 2003|publisher=NSW Environment & Heritage |date=27 March 2014 |access-date=27 October 2014|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141027171431/http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/vegetation/nvact.htm |archive-date=  27 October 2014 }}</ref>

==Stakeholder analysis==

[[Stakeholder analysis]] originated from business management practices and has been incorporated into [[natural resource]] management in ever growing popularity. Stakeholder analysis in the context of natural resource management identifies distinctive interest groups affected in the utilisation and conservation of natural resources.<ref name=""Dandy"">Dandy, N. et al. (2009) ""Who's in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management"", ''Journal of Environmental Management'', vol. 90, pp. 1933–1949</ref>

There is no definitive definition of a stakeholder as illustrated in the table below. Especially in natural resource management as it is difficult to determine who has a stake and this will differ according to each potential stakeholder.<ref name=""Billgrena"">Billgrena, C., Holme, H. (2008) ""Approaching reality: Comparing stakeholder analysis and cultural theory in the context of natural resource management"", ''Land Use Policy'', vol. 25, pp. 550–562</ref>

'''Different approaches to who is a stakeholder:'''<ref name=""Billgrena"" />
{| class=""wikitable""
|-
! Source !! Who is a stakeholder !! Kind of research
|-
| Freeman.<ref>Freeman, E.R. (1999) ""The politics of stakeholder theory: some further research directions"", Business Ethics Quartley, vol. 4, Issue. 4, pp. 409–421</ref>|| ""can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization's objectives"" || Business Management
|-
| Bowie<ref>Bowie, N. (1988) The moral obligations of multinational corporations. In: Luper-Foy (Ed.), Problems of International Justice. Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 97–113.</ref> || ""without whose support the organization would cease to exist"" || Business Management
|-
| Clarkson<ref>Clarkson, M.B.E. (1995) ""A stakeholder framework for analyzing and evaluating corporate social performance"", Academy of Management Review, vol. 20, Issue. 1, pp. 92–117</ref> || ""... persons or groups that have, or claim, ownership, rights, or interests in a corporation and its activities, past, present, or future."" || Business Management
|-
| Grimble and Wellard<ref name=""GrimbleWellard"">Grimble, R., Wellard, K. (1997) ""Stakeholder methodologies in natural resource management: a review of principles, contexts, experiences and opportunities"". Agricultural Systems, vol. 55, Issue. 2, pp. 173–193</ref> || ""...any group of people, organized or unorganized, who share a common interest or stake in a particular issue or system..."" || Natural resource management
|-
| Gass et al.<ref>Gass, G., Biggs, S., Kelly, A. (1997) ""Stakeholders, science and decision making for poverty-focused rural mechanization research and development"", World Development, vol. 25, Issue. 1, pp. 115–126</ref> || ""... any individual, group and institution who would potentially be affected, whether positively or negatively, by a specified event, process or change."" || Natural resource management
|-
| Buanes et al<ref>Buanes, A., et al. (2004) ""In whose interest? An exploratory analysis of stakeholders in Norwegian coastal zone planning"", Ocean & Coastal Management, vol. 47, pp. 207–223</ref> || ""... any group or individual who may directly or indirectly affect—or be affected—...planning to be at least potential stakeholders."" || Natural resource management
|-
| Brugha and Varvasovszky<ref>{{cite journal|title=Stakeholder analysis: a review|first1=Ruairí|last1=Brugha|first2=Zsuzsa|last2=Varvasovszky|journal=Health Policy and Planning|volume=15|issue=3|date=September 2000|pages=239–246|doi= 10.1093/heapol/15.3.239|pmid=11012397|doi-access=free}}</ref> || ""... stakeholders (individuals, groups and organizations) who have an interest (stake) and the potential to influence the actions and aims of an organization, project or policy direction."" || Health policy
|-
| ODA<ref>{{cite web|author=ODA|date=July 1995|title=Guidance note on how to do stakeholder analysis of aid projects and programmes|publisher=Overseas Development Administration, Social Development Department|access-date=2020-04-29|url= https://sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/ODA%201995%20Guidance%20Note%20on%20how%20to%20do%20a%20Stakeholder%20Analysis.pdf}}</ref> || ""... persons, groups or institutions with interests in a project or programme."" || Development
|}

Therefore, it is dependent upon the circumstances of the stakeholders involved with natural resource as to which definition and subsequent theory is utilised.

Billgrena and Holme<ref name=""Billgrena"" /> identified the aims of stakeholder analysis in natural resource management:

*Identify and categorise the stakeholders that may have influence
*Develop an understanding of why changes occur
*Establish who can make changes happen
*How to best manage natural resources

This gives transparency and clarity to policy making allowing stakeholders to recognise conflicts of interest and facilitate resolutions.<ref name=""Billgrena"" /><ref name=""Grimble"">{{cite book|author=Grimble, R|date=1998|title=Stakeholder methodologies in natural resource management, Socioeconomic Methodologies|publisher=Chatham: Natural Resources Institute|pages=1–12|url=http://www.nri.org/old/publications/bpg/bpg02.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014}}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
There are numerous stakeholder theories such as Mitchell et al.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mitchell, R. K.|date=1997|title=TOWARD A THEORY OF STAKEHOLDER IDENTIFICATION AND SALIENCE: DEFINING THE PRINCIPLE OF WHO AND WHAT REALLY COUNTS|publisher=Academy of Management Review|volume=22|number=4|pages=853–886|display-authors=etal}}</ref> however Grimble<ref name=""Grimble"" /> created a framework of stages for a Stakeholder Analysis in natural resource management. Grimble<ref name=""Grimble"" /> designed this framework to ensure that the analysis is specific to the essential aspects of natural resource management.

'''Stages in Stakeholder analysis:'''<ref name=""Grimble"" />
#        Clarify objectives of the analysis
#       Place issues in a systems context
#        Identify decision-makers and stakeholders
#         Investigate stakeholder interests and agendas
#           Investigate patterns of inter-action and dependence (e.g. conflicts and compatibilities, trade-offs and synergies)

'''Application:'''

Grimble and Wellard<ref name=""GrimbleWellard"" /> established that Stakeholder analysis in natural resource management is most relevant where issued can be characterised as;

*	Cross-cutting systems and stakeholder interests
*	Multiple uses and users of the resource.
*	[[Market failure]]
*	Subtractability and temporal trade-offs
*	Unclear or [[open-access]] [[property rights]]
*	Untraded products and services
*	[[Poverty]] and under-representation<ref name=""GrimbleWellard"" /><ref name=""Grimble"" />

'''Case studies:'''

In the case of the [[Bwindi Impenetrable National Park]], a comprehensive stakeholder analysis would have been relevant and the Batwa people would have potentially been acknowledged as stakeholders preventing the loss of people's livelihoods and loss of life.<ref name=""GrimbleWellard"" /><ref name=""Grimble"" />

[[File:Natural Resource Management in Wales - 5 May 2015.webm|thumb|Short video on Natural Resource Management in Wales by the [[Welsh Government]]]]
In [[Wales]], [[Natural Resources Wales]], a [[Welsh Government]] sponsored body ""pursues sustainable management of natural resources"" and ""applies the principles of sustainable management of natural resources"" as stated in the Environment (Wales) Act 2016.<ref name=EnvironmentActSection5>{{cite web
  |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/anaw/2016/3/section/5/enacted
  |title=Environment (Wales) Act 2016. Part 1, Section 5
  |publisher=The National Archives
  |access-date=24 August 2017}}</ref> 
NRW is responsible for more than 40 different types of regulatory regime across a wide range of activities.

Nepal, Indonesia and Koreas' [[community forestry#5Best Practices|community forestry]] are successful examples of how stakeholder analysis can be incorporated into the management of natural resources. This allowed the stakeholders to identify their needs and level of involvement with the forests.

'''Criticisms:'''

*	Natural resource management stakeholder analysis tends to include too many stakeholders which can create problems in of its self as suggested by Clarkson. ""Stakeholder theory should not be used to weave a basket big enough to hold the world's misery.""<ref>Clarkson, M.B.E. (1994) A risk based model of stakeholder theory. Toronto: Working Paper, University of Toronto, pp.10</ref>
*	Starik<ref>Starik, M. (1995) ""Should trees have managerial standing? Toward stakeholder status for non-human nature"", ''Journal of Business Ethics'', vol. 14, pp. 207–217</ref> proposed that nature needs to be represented as stakeholder. However this has been rejected by many scholars as it would be difficult to find appropriate representation and this representation could also be disputed by other stakeholders causing further issues.<ref name=""Billgrena"" />
*	Stakeholder analysis can be used exploited and abused in order to marginalise other stakeholders.<ref name=""Dandy"" />
*	Identifying the relevant stakeholders for participatory processes is complex as certain stakeholder groups may have been excluded from previous decisions.<ref name=""Prell"">Prell, C., et al. (2007) Stakeholder Analysis and Social Network Analysis in Natural Resource Management. Leeds: Sustainability Research Institute, University of Leeds, pp. 1-21</ref>
*	On-going conflicts and lack of trust between stakeholders can prevent compromise and resolutions.<ref name=""Prell"" />

'''Alternatives/ Complementary forms of analysis:'''

*	[[Social network analysis]]
*	[[Common pool resource]]

==Management of the resources==

Natural resource management issues are inherently complex and contentious. First, they involve the ecological cycles, hydrological cycles, climate, animals, plants and geography, etc. All these are dynamic and inter-related. A change in one of them may have far reaching and/or long term impacts which may even be irreversible. Second, in addition to the complexity of the natural systems, managers also have to consider various stakeholders and their interests, policies, politics, geographical boundaries and economic implications. It is impossible to fully satisfy all aspects at the same time. Therefore, between the scientific complexity and the diverse stakeholders, natural resource management is typically contentious.

After the United Nations Conference for the Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/rio1992 | title=United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3-14 June 1992 }}</ref> most nations subscribed to new principles for the integrated management of land, water, and forests. Although program names vary from nation to nation, all express similar aims.

The various approaches applied to natural resource management include:

* Top-down (command and control)
* Community-based natural resource management
* [[Adaptive management]]
* Precautionary approach
* Integrated natural resource management
* [[Ecosystem management]]

=== Community-based natural resource management ===

The '''community-based natural resource management''' ('''CBNRM''') approach combines conservation objectives with the generation of economic benefits for rural communities. The three key assumptions being that: locals are better placed to conserve natural resources, people will conserve a resource only if benefits exceed the costs of conservation, and people will conserve a resource that is linked directly to their quality of life.<ref name=""Thakadu2005"" /> When a local people's quality of life is enhanced, their efforts and commitment to ensure the future well-being of the resource are also enhanced.<ref>Ostrom, E,  Schroeder, L and Wynne, S 1993. Institutional incentives and sustainable development: infrastructure policies in perspective. Westview Press. Oxford, UK. 266 pp.</ref> Regional and community based natural resource management is also based on the principle of [[subsidiarity]].
The United Nations advocates CBNRM in the Convention on Biodiversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification. Unless clearly defined, decentralised NRM can result in an ambiguous socio-legal environment with local communities racing to exploit natural resources while they can, such as the forest communities in central Kalimantan (Indonesia).<ref>Bartley, T Andersson, K, Jager P and Van Laerhoven 2008 The contribution of Institutional Theories for explaining [[Decentralization]] of Natural Resource Governance. Society and Natural Resources, 21:160-174 {{doi|10.1080/08941920701617973}}</ref>

A problem of CBNRM is the difficulty of reconciling and harmonising the objectives of socioeconomic development, biodiversity protection and sustainable resource utilisation.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kellert, S|author2=Mehta, J|author3=Ebbin, S|author4=Litchtenfeld, L.|date=2000|title=Community natural resource management: promise, rhetoric, and reality|publisher=Society and Natural Resources, 13:705-715|url=http://biologicalcapital.com/art/Article-%20Community%20Natural%20Resource%20Management.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014}}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The concept and conflicting interests of CBNRM,<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Brosius, J.|author2=Peter Tsing|author3=Anna Lowenhaupt|author4=Zerner, Charles|date=1998 |title=Representing communities: Histories and politics of community-based natural resource management |journal=Society & Natural Resources|volume=11 |issue=2|pages=157–168|doi=10.1080/08941929809381069|bibcode=1998SNatR..11..157B }}</ref><ref>Twyman, C 2000. Participatory Conservation? Community-based Natural Resource Management in Botswana. The Geographical Journal, Vol 166, No.4, December 2000, pp 323-335 {{doi|10.1111/j.1475-4959.2000.tb00034.x}}</ref> show how the motives behind the participation are differentiated as either people-centred (active or participatory results that are truly empowering)<ref>Measham TG (2007) Building capacity for environmental management: local knowledge and rehabilitation on the Gippsland red gum plains, ''[[Australian Geographer]]'', Vol 38 issue 2, pp 145–159 {{doi|10.1080/00049180701392758}}</ref> or planner-centred (nominal and results in passive recipients). Understanding power relations is crucial to the success of community based NRM. Locals may be reluctant to challenge government recommendations for fear of losing promised benefits.

CBNRM is based particularly on advocacy by nongovernmental organizations working with local groups and communities, on the one hand, and national and transnational organizations, on the other, to build and extend new versions of environmental and social advocacy that link social justice and environmental management agendas<ref>{{cite book|author1=Shackleton, S|author2=Campbell, B|author3=Wollenberg, E|author4=Edmunds, D.|date=March 2002|title=Devolution and community-based natural resource management: creating space for local people to participate and benefit? |publisher=ODI, Natural Resource Perspectives|number=76|url=http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/3646/76-devolution-community-based-natural-resource-management.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014}}</ref> with both direct and indirect benefits observed including a share of revenues, employment, diversification of livelihoods and increased pride and identity. Ecological and societal successes and failures of CBNRM projects have been documented.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=Jeremy S.|last2=Waylen|first2=Kerry A.|last3=Mulder|first3=Monique Borgerhoff|date=2012-12-26|title=How national context, project design, and local community characteristics influence success in community-based conservation projects|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=109|issue=52|pages=21265–21270|doi=10.1073/pnas.1207141110|issn=0027-8424|pmid=23236173|pmc=3535631|bibcode=2012PNAS..10921265B|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Derek E.|last2=Bond|first2=Monica L.|title=Quantifying the ecological success of a community-based wildlife conservation area in Tanzania|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=99|issue=2|pages=459–464|language=en|doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyy014|pmid=29867255|date=2018-04-03|pmc=5965405}}</ref> CBNRM has raised new challenges, as concepts of community, territory, conservation, and indigenous are worked into politically varied plans and programs in disparate sites. Warner and Jones<ref>{{cite book|author1=Warner, M|author2=Jones, P|date=July 1998|title=Assessing the need to manage conflict in community-based natural resource projects|publisher=ODI Natural Resource Perspectives|number=35|url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2117.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014|archive-date=5 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205024159/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2117.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> address strategies for effectively managing conflict in CBNRM.

The capacity of [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous]] communities, led by [[Indigenous Australian traditional custodianship|traditional custodians]], to conserve natural resources has been acknowledged by the Australian Government with the [[Caring for Country]]<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Australian Government|title=Caring for Country Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|url=http://www.nrm.gov.au/nrm/index.html|access-date=27 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928132125/http://www.nrm.gov.au/nrm/index.html|archive-date=28 September 2011}}</ref> Program. Caring for our Country is an Australian Government initiative jointly administered by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry and the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. These Departments share responsibility for delivery of the Australian Government's environment and sustainable agriculture programs, which have traditionally been broadly referred to under the banner of 'natural resource management'. These programs have been delivered regionally, through 56 State government bodies, successfully allowing regional communities to decide the natural resource priorities for their regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/2010%20Progress%20report.pdf|title=PROGRESS TOWARDS HEALTHY RESILIENT LANDSCAPES IMPLEMENTING THE STANDARD, TARGETS AND CATCHMENT ACTION PLANS|publisher=Nrc.nsw.gov.au|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217095859/http://nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/2010%20Progress%20report.pdf|archive-date=17 February 2011|url-status=dead|access-date=27 October 2014}}</ref>

More broadly, a research study based in Tanzania and the Pacific researched what motivates communities to adopt CBNRM's and found that aspects of the specific CBNRM program, of the community that has adopted the program, and of the broader social-ecological context together shape the why CBNRM's are adopted.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last1=Mascia|first1=Michael B.|last2=Mills|first2=Morena|title=When conservation goes viral: The diffusion of innovative biodiversity conservation policies and practices|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=11|issue=3|language=en|doi=10.1111/conl.12442|issn=1755-263X|year=2018|pages=e12442|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018ConL...11E2442M |hdl=10044/1/76315|hdl-access=free}}</ref> However, overall, program adoption seemed to mirror the relative advantage of CBNRM programs to local villagers and villager access to external technical assistance.<ref name="":0"" /> There have been socioeconomic critiques of CBNRM in Africa,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bluwstein|first1=Jevgeniy|last2=Moyo|first2=Francis|last3=Kicheleri|first3=Rose Peter|date=2016-07-01|title=Austere Conservation: Understanding Conflicts over Resource Governance in Tanzanian Wildlife Management Areas|url=http://www.conservationandsociety.org/article.asp?issn=0972-4923;year=2016;volume=14;issue=3;spage=218;epage=231;aulast=Bluwstein|journal=Conservation and Society|language=en|volume=14|issue=3|page=218|doi=10.4103/0972-4923.191156|doi-access=free}}</ref> but ecological effectiveness of CBNRM measured by wildlife population densities has been shown repeatedly in Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Derek E.|date=2018-08-10|title=Evaluating conservation effectiveness in a Tanzanian community wildlife management area|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=82|issue=8|pages=1767–1774|language=en|doi=10.1002/jwmg.21549|bibcode=2018JWMan..82.1767L |s2cid=91251633|issn=0022-541X|url=https://scholarsphere.psu.edu/resources/1910e1d7-35d1-4ae3-ae78-48c5c58f99aa }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Derek E|last2=Bond|first2=Monica L|date=2018-02-26|title=Quantifying the ecological success of a community-based wildlife conservation area in Tanzania|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|language=en|volume=99|issue=2|pages=459–464|doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyy014|pmid=29867255|issn=0022-2372|pmc=5965405}}</ref>

Governance is seen as a key consideration for delivering community-based or regional natural resource management. In the State of NSW, the 13 [[Catchment Management Authority (New South Wales)|catchment management authorities]] (CMAs) are overseen by the [http://nrc.nsw.gov.au/ Natural Resources Commission] (NRC), responsible for undertaking audits of the effectiveness of regional natural resource management programs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/viewtop/inforce/act+102+2003+cd+0+N/?autoquery=%28Content%3D%28%28%22natural%22%20OR%20%22resources%22%20OR%20%22commission%22%29%29%29%20AND%20%28%28Type%3D%22act%22%20AND%20Repealed%3D%22N%22%29%20OR%20%28Type%3D%22subordleg%22%20AND%20Repealed%3D%22N%22%29%29&dq=Document%20Types%3D%22Acts,%20Regs%22,%20Any%20Words%3D%22natural%20resources%20commission%22,%20Search%20In%3D%22Text%22&fullquery=%28%28%28%22natural%22%20OR%20%22resources%22%20OR%20%22commission%22%29%29%29|title=NSW Legislation|publisher=Legislation.nsw.gov.au|access-date=27 October 2014}}</ref>

==== Criticisms of Community-Based Natural Resource Management ====
Though presenting a transformative approach to resource management that recognizes and involves local communities rather than displacing them, Community-Based Natural Resource Management strategies have faced scrutiny from both scholars and advocates for indigenous communities. Tania Murray, in her examination of CBNRM in Upland Southeast Asia,<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last=Murray |first=Tania |date=2002 |title=Engaging Simplifications: Community-Based Resource Management, Market Processes and State Agendas in Upland Southeast Asia |journal=World Development |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=265–283|doi=10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00103-6 |hdl=1807/67588 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> discovered certain limitations associated with the strategy, primarily stemming from her observation of an idealistic perspective of the communities held by external entities implementing CBNRM programs.

Murray's findings revealed that, in the Uplands, CBNRM as a legal strategy imposed constraints on the communities. One significant limitation was the necessity for communities to fulfill discriminatory and enforceable prerequisites in order to obtain legal entitlements to resources. Murray contends that such legal practices, grounded in specific distinguishing identities or practices, pose a risk of perpetuating and strengthening discriminatory norms in the region.<ref name="":1"" />

Furthermore, adopting a Marxist perspective centered on class struggle, some have criticized CBNRM as an empowerment tool, asserting that its focus on state-community alliances may limit its effectiveness, particularly for communities facing challenges from ""vicious states,"" thereby restricting the empowerment potential of the programs.<ref name="":1"" />

=== Gender-based natural resource management ===
Social capital and gender are factors that impact community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), including conservation strategies and collaborations between community members and staff. Through three months of participant observation in a fishing camp in San Evaristo, Mexico, Ben Siegelman learned that the fishermen build trust through jokes and fabrications. He emphasizes social capital as a process because it is built and accumulated through practice of intricate social norms. Siegelman notes that playful joking is connected to masculinity and often excludes women. He stresses that both gender and social capital are performed. Furthermore, in San Evaristo, the gendered network of fishermen is simultaneously a social network. Nearly all fishermen in San Evaristo are men and most families have lived there for generations. Men form intimate relationships by spending 14 hour work days together, while women spend time with the family managing domestic caretaking. Siegelman observes three categories of lies amongst the fishermen: exaggerations, deceptions, and jokes. For example a fisherman may exaggerate his success fishing at a particular spot to mislead friends, place his hand on the scale to turn a larger profit, or make a sexual joke to earn respect. As Siegelman puts it, ""lies build trust."" Siegelman saw that this division of labor was reproduced, at least in part, to do with the fact that the culture of lying and trust was a masculine activity unique to the fisherman. Similar to the ways in which the culture of lying excluded women from the social sphere of fishing, conservationists were also excluded from this social arrangement and, thus, were not able to obtain the trust needed to do their work of regulating fishing practices. As outsiders, conservationists, even male conservationists, were not able to fit the ideal of masculinity that was considered ""trustable"" by the fishermen and could convince them to implement or participate in conservation practices. In one instance, the researcher replied jokingly ""in the sea"" when a fisherman asked where the others were fishing that day. This vague response earned him trust. Women are excluded from this form of social capital because many of the jokes center around ""masculine exploits"". Siegelman finishes by asking: how can female conservationists act when they are excluded through social capital? What role should men play in this situation?<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegelman|first=Ben |display-authors=etal|date=2019|title=""Lies Build Trust"": Social capital, masculinity, and community-based resource management in a Mexican fishery.|journal=World Development |volume=123 |page=104601 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.05.031 |s2cid=198667036 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Adaptive Management===
The primary methodological approach adopted by [[Catchment Management Authority (New South Wales)|catchment management authorities]] (CMAs) for regional natural resource management in Australia is [[adaptive management]].<ref name=""ReferenceA""/>

This approach includes recognition that adaption occurs through a process of 'plan-do-review-act'. It also recognises seven key components that should be considered for quality natural resource management practice:
*	Determination of scale
*	Collection and use of knowledge
*	[[Information management]]
*	Monitoring and evaluation
*	[[Risk management]]
*	[[Community engagement]]
*	Opportunities for [[collaboration]].<ref name=""ReferenceA""/>

=== Integrated natural resource management ===
Integrated natural resource management (INRM) is the process of managing natural resources in a systematic way, which includes multiple aspects of natural resource use (biophysical, socio-political, and economic) meet production goals of producers and other direct users (e.g., food security, profitability, risk aversion) as well as goals of the wider community (e.g., poverty alleviation, welfare of future generations, environmental conservation). It focuses on sustainability and at the same time tries to incorporate all possible stakeholders from the planning level itself, reducing possible future conflicts. The conceptual basis of INRM has evolved in recent years through the convergence of research in diverse areas such as sustainable land use, participatory planning, integrated watershed management, and adaptive management.<ref name=""Conservation Ecology 52: 25"">{{cite journal|author1=Lovell, C.|author2=Mandondo A.|author3=Moriarty P.|date=2002|title=The question of scale in integrated natural resource management|journal=Conservation Ecology|volume=5|issue=2|doi=10.5751/ES-00347-050225|hdl=10535/2766|s2cid=38897019 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=""Holling C.S pages 328"">Holling C.S. and Meffe, G. K. 2002 'Command and control and the Pathology of Natural Resource Management. Conservation Biology. vol.10. issue 2. pages 328–337, April 1996</ref> INRM is being used extensively and been successful in regional and community based natural management.<ref name=""ReferenceB"">ICARDA 2005, Sustainable agricultural development for marginal dry areas, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syria</ref>

==Frameworks and modelling==
There are various frameworks and computer models developed to assist natural resource management.

'''Geographic Information Systems (GIS)'''

[[GIS]] is a powerful analytical tool as it is capable of overlaying datasets to identify links. A bush regeneration scheme can be informed by the overlay of rainfall, cleared land and erosion.<ref>Harding R., 1998, Environmental Decision-Making: The Role of Scientists, Engineers and the Public, Federation Press, Leichhardt. pp366.</ref> In Australia, Metadata Directories such as NDAR provide data on Australian natural resources such as vegetation, fisheries, soils and water.<ref>Hamilton, C and Attwater, R (1996) Usage of, and demand for Environmental Statistics in Australia, in Tracking Progress: Linking Environment and Economy Through Indicators and Accounting Systems Conference Papers, 1996 Australian Academy of Science Fenner Conference on the Environment, Institute of Environmental Studies, UNSW, Sydney, 30 September to 3 October 1996.</ref> These are limited by the potential for subjective input and data manipulation.

'''Natural Resources Management Audit Frameworks'''

The NSW Government in Australia has published an audit framework<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Audit%20framework.pdf|title=Framework for Auditing the Implementation of Catchment Action Plans|publisher=Nrc.nsw.gov.au|access-date=27 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140621122515/http://www.nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Audit%20framework.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2014}}</ref> for natural resource management, to assist the establishment of a performance audit role in the governance of regional natural resource management. This audit framework builds from other established audit methodologies, including [[performance audit]], [[environmental audit]] and [[internal audit]]. Audits undertaken using this framework have provided confidence to stakeholders, identified areas for improvement and described policy expectations for the general public.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Audit%20report%20-%20Murray%202010.pdf|title=MURRAY CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY : Audit Report|publisher=Nrc.nsw.gov.au|access-date=27 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140621120858/http://www.nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Audit%20report%20-%20Murray%202010.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://riskaudit.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Nature-audit-NZ-Accountants-Journal-March-2010.pdf|title=Nature Audit|publisher=Nrc.nsw.gov.au|access-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227085948/http://riskaudit.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Nature-audit-NZ-Accountants-Journal-March-2010.pdf|archive-date=27 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Australian Government has established a framework for auditing [[greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse emissions]] and energy reporting, which closely follows Australian Standards for Assurance Engagements.

The Australian Government is also currently preparing an audit framework for auditing water management, focussing on the implementation of the Murray Darling Basin Plan.

==Other elements==
;Biodiversity Conservation

The issue of biodiversity conservation is regarded as an important element in natural resource management. What is biodiversity? Biodiversity is a comprehensive concept, which is a description of the extent of natural diversity. Gaston and Spicer<ref>Gaston, KJ & Spicer, JI 2004, Biodiversity: An Introduction, Blackwell Publishing Company, Malden.</ref> (p.&nbsp;3) point out that biodiversity is ""the variety of life"" and relate to different kinds of ""biodiversity organization"". According to Gray<ref>{{cite book|author=Gray, JS|date=1997|title=Marine biodiversity: patterns, threats and conservation needs|url=http://bolt.lakeheadu.ca/~bpaynewww/CMR/marinebiod.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721172744/http://bolt.lakeheadu.ca/~bpaynewww/CMR/marinebiod.pdf|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> (p.&nbsp;154), the first widespread use of the definition of biodiversity, was put forward by the United Nations in 1992, involving different aspects of biological diversity.

;Precautionary Biodiversity Management

The ""threats"" wreaking havoc on biodiversity include; [[habitat fragmentation]], putting a strain on the already stretched biological resources; forest deterioration and deforestation; the invasion of ""alien species"" and ""climate change""<ref>{{cite book|author=Cooney, R|date=2004|title=The Precautionary Principle in Biodiversity Conservation and Natural Resource Management|publisher=IUCN Policy and Global Change Series|number=2|url=http://pprinciple.net/publications/PrecautionaryPrincipleissuespaper.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509063720/http://www.pprinciple.net/publications/PrecautionaryPrincipleissuespaper.pdf|archive-date=9 May 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>( p.&nbsp;2). Since these threats have received increasing attention from environmentalists and the public, the precautionary management of biodiversity becomes an important part of natural resources management. According to Cooney, there are material measures to carry out precautionary management of biodiversity in natural resource management.

;Concrete ""policy tools""

Cooney claims that the policy making is dependent on ""evidences"", relating to ""high standard of proof"", the forbidding of special ""activities"" and ""information and monitoring requirements"". Before making the policy of precaution, categorical evidence is needed. When the potential menace of ""activities"" is regarded as a critical and ""irreversible"" endangerment, these ""activities"" should be forbidden. For example, since explosives and toxicants will have serious consequences to endanger human and natural environment, the South Africa Marine Living Resources Act promulgated a series of policies on completely forbidding to ""catch fish"" by using explosives and toxicants.

;Administration and guidelines

According to Cooney, there are four methods to manage the precaution of biodiversity in natural resources management;

# ""[[Ecosystem-based management]]"" including ""more risk-averse and precautionary management"", where ""given prevailing uncertainty regarding ecosystem structure, function, and inter-specific interactions, precaution demands an ecosystem rather than single-species approach to management"".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lackey|first1=Robert|title=Seven pillars of ecosystem management|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning|date=1998|volume=40|issue=1–3|pages=21–30|doi=10.1016/S0169-2046(97)00095-9|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1259923}}</ref>
# ""[[Adaptive management]]"" is ""a management approach that expressly tackles the uncertainty and dynamism of complex systems"".
# ""[[Environmental impact assessment]]"" and exposure ratings decrease the ""uncertainties"" of precaution, even though it has deficiencies, and
# ""Protectionist approaches"", which ""most frequently links to"" biodiversity conservation in natural resources management.

;Land management

In order to have a sustainable environment, understanding and using appropriate management strategies is important. In terms of understanding, Young<ref>Young, A 1998, Land resources: now and for the future, Cambridge University Press, UK</ref> emphasises some important points of land management:

* Comprehending the processes of nature including ecosystem, water, soils
* Using appropriate and adapting management systems in local situations
* Cooperation between scientists who have knowledge and resources and local people who have knowledge and skills

Dale et al. (2000)<ref>Dale, VH, Brown, S, Hawuber, RA, Hobbs, NT, Huntly, Nj Naiman, RJ, Riebsame, WE, Turner, MG & Valone, TJ 2000, ""Ecological guidelines for land use and management"", in Dale, VH & Hawuber, RA (eds), Applying ecological principles to land management, Springer-Verlag, NY</ref> study has shown that there are five fundamental and helpful ecological principles for the land manager and people who need them. The ecological principles relate to time, place, species, disturbance and the landscape and they interact in many ways. It is suggested that land managers could follow these guidelines:

* Examine impacts of local decisions in a regional context, and the effects on natural resources.
* Plan for long-term change and unexpected events.
* Preserve rare landscape elements and associated species.
* Avoid land uses that deplete natural resources.
* Retain large contiguous or connected areas that contain critical habitats.
* Minimize the introduction and spread of non-native species.
* Avoid or compensate for the effects of development on ecological processes.
* Implement land-use and land-management practices that are compatible with the natural potential of the area.

==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|

* [[Agriculture]]
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Bioregion]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation movement]]
* [[Conservation reliant species]]
* [[Cultural resource management]]
* [[Deep ecology]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Ecosystem management]]
* [[Ecology movement]]
* [[Ecosystem]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Environmental organizations]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Environmental resources management]]
* [[Forestry]]
* [[Global warming]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[Holistic management]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[Natural capital]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Natural heritage]]
* [[Natural resource]]
* [[Nature]]
* [[Recycling]]
* [[Renewable energy]]
* [[Renewable resource]]
* [[Stewardship]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Sustainable management]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Environmental science}}
{{Environmental social science}}
{{Natural resources}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Natural Resource Management}}
[[Category:Natural resource management| ]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental planning]]"
Substitution principle (sustainability),"{{Update|date=August 2023}}

The '''substitution principle''' in [[sustainability]] is the maxim of how processes, services, and products should be replaced with alternatives that result in a lower environmental impact. An example of a strong, hazard-based interpretation of the substitution principle in application regarding [[chemical]]s considers the overall impact: ""hazardous chemicals should be substituted by less hazardous alternatives or preferably alternatives that mitigates identifiable hazards impacts"".<ref>Greenpeace, (2003, 2005). Safer Chemicals Within Reach: Using the Substitution Principle to drive Green Chemistry. London. p.7 [http://www.cleanproduction.org/library/SafeChem.pdf (PDF)]</ref>

==Overview==
The principle has historically been promoted by [[environmental group]]s. This concept is becoming increasingly mainstream, being a key concept in [[green chemistry]] and a central element of EU [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals|REACH]] regulation.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/reach/reach_intro.htm European Commission website on REACH]</ref> Critics of the principle claim it is very difficult to implement in reality, especially in terms of [[legislation]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}

Nonetheless, the concept is an important one and a key driver behind identifying ""Substances of Very High Concern"" in REACH and the development of hazardous substance lists such as the [http://www.sinlist.org/ SIN List] and the [http://www.etuc.org/a/6023 ETUC Trade Union Priority List]. EU-funded projects such as SubsPort are under development to aid the identification and development of safer substitutes for hazardous chemicals.<ref>Lissner L, Romano D. Substitution for Hazardous Chemicals on an International Level-The Approach of the European Project ""SUBSPORT"". New Solut. 2011 Jan 1;21(3):477-97. PubMed {{PMID|22001043}}.</ref>

==See also==
* [[100,000,000 Guinea Pigs]]
* [[Dashboard of Sustainability]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[https://www.emission-index.com/ Sustainability Data]
*[https://www.cuttingthecarbon.co.uk/ Cutting The Carbon]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Substitution Principle (Sustainability)}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]

{{Sustainability-stub}}"
Sustainability and environmental management,"{{short description|Managing nature and resources according to sustainability principles}}
{{Main|Sustainability}}
At the global scale '''sustainability and environmental management''' involves managing the [[ocean]]s, [[freshwater]] systems, [[Terrestrial ecoregion|land]] and [[atmosphere]], according to [[sustainability]] principles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economics.noaa.gov/?goal=ecosystems&file=users/|title=The Economics and Social Benefits of NOAA Ecosystems Data and Products Table of Contents Data Users|publisher=NOAA|access-date=2009-10-13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325190416/http://www.economics.noaa.gov/?goal=ecosystems|archive-date=2010-03-25}}</ref><ref>Buchenrieder, G., und A.R. Göltenboth: Sustainable freshwater resource management in the Tropics: The myth of effective indicators, 25th International Conference of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) on “Reshaping Agriculture’s Contributions to Society” in Durban, South Africa, 2003.</ref>

[[Land use]] change is fundamental to the operations of the [[biosphere]] because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to [[urbanisation]], [[agriculture]], [[forest]], [[woodland]], [[grassland]] and [[pasture]] have a marked effect on the global water, carbon and nitrogen [[biogeochemical cycle]]s.<ref name=""Krebs 2001 pp. 560–582"">Krebs (2001) pp. 560–582.</ref> Management of the [[Earth's atmosphere]] involves assessment of all aspects of the [[carbon cycle]] to identify opportunities to address human-induced [[climate change]] and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on [[biodiversity]] and human communities. [[Ocean circulation]] patterns have a strong influence on [[climate]] and [[weather]] and, in turn, the [[food supply]] of both humans and other organisms.

==Atmosphere==
{{See|Earth's atmosphere|Climate change|}}
In March 2009, at a meeting of the [[Copenhagen Climate Council]], 2,500 climate experts from 80 countries issued a keynote statement that there is now ""no excuse"" for failing to act on global warming and without strong carbon reduction targets ""abrupt or irreversible"" shifts in climate may occur that ""will be very difficult for contemporary societies to cope with"".<ref>University of Copenhagen (March 2009) [http://climatecongress.ku.dk/newsroom/congress_key_messages/ ""Key Messages from the Congress""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316181631/http://climatecongress.ku.dk/newsroom/congress_key_messages/ |date=2009-03-16 }} News item on Copenhagen Climate Congress in March 2009. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref><ref>Adams, D. (March 2009) [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/mar/13/stern-attacks-politicians-climate-change ""Stern attacks politicians over climate 'devastation'"".] ''The Guardian''. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref> Management of the global atmosphere now involves assessment of all aspects of the [[carbon cycle]] to identify opportunities to address human-induced [[climate change]] and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities.

Other human impacts on the atmosphere include the [[air pollution]] in cities, the [[pollutants]] including toxic chemicals like [[nitrogen oxides]], [[Sulfur oxide|sulphur oxides]], [[volatile organic compounds]] and [[Atmospheric particulate matter|airborne particulate matter]] that produce [[photochemical smog]] and [[acid rain]], and the [[chlorofluorocarbon]]s that degrade the [[ozone layer]]. [[human impact on the environment|Anthropogenic]] [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulates]] such as [[sulfate aerosols]] in the atmosphere reduce the direct [[irradiance]] and reflectance ([[albedo]]) of the [[Earth]]'s surface. Known as [[global dimming]] the decrease is estimated to have been about 4% between 1960 and 1990 although the trend has subsequently reversed. Global dimming may have disturbed the global [[water cycle]] by reducing evaporation and rainfall in some areas. It also creates a [[Thermal energy|cooling]] effect and this may have partially masked the effect of [[greenhouse gases]] on [[global warming]].<ref>Hegerl, G.C. et al. (2007). ""Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis."" [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter9.pdf Chapter 9, ""Understanding and Attributing Climate Change.""] Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. p. 676. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Full report at: [http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg1.htm] IPCC Report. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref>

==Oceans==
{{See|Coastal management|Overfishing|}}
[[File:Pieni 2 0139.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Display of about ten well-known saltwater fish|A selection of the world's saltwater fish]] [[Ocean]] circulation patterns have a strong influence on [[climate]] and [[weather]] and, in turn, the food supply of both humans and other organisms. Scientists have warned of the possibility, under the influence of climate change, of a sudden alteration in circulation patterns of [[ocean current]]s that could drastically alter the climate in some regions of the globe.<ref>Kerr, R.A. (2004). ""A slowing cog in the North Atlantic ocean's climate machine."" ''Science'' '''304''': 371–372.[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/304/5669/371a] Retrieved on: 2009-04-19.</ref> Major human environmental impacts occur in the more habitable regions of the ocean fringes – the [[estuaries]], [[coastline]] and [[bay]]s. Eight point five of the world's population – about 600 million people – live in low-lying areas vulnerable to [[sea level rise]]. Trends of concern that require management include: [[over-fishing]] (beyond sustainable levels);<ref>Black, R. (November 2006). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6108414.stm ""'Only 50 years left' for sea fish"".] BBC News, UK.</ref> [[coral bleaching]] due to [[ocean warming]], and [[ocean acidification]] due to increasing levels of dissolved carbon dioxide;<ref>Harrabin, R. (March 2009). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7936137.stm ""'Coral lab' offers acidity insight"".] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref> and sea level rise due to climate change. Because of their vastness oceans also act as a convenient [[Marine pollution|dumping ground]] for human waste.<ref>Schukman, D. (March 2009). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7935159.stm ""Sea rise 'to exceed expectations'"".] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref> Remedial strategies include: more careful waste management, statutory control of overfishing by adoption of [[sustainable fishing]] practices and the use of environmentally sensitive and sustainable [[aquaculture]] and [[fish farming]], reduction of fossil fuel emissions and restoration of coastal and other marine habitats.<ref>Lindenmayer & Burgman (2005).</ref>

==Freshwater==
{{See|Water security|Water scarcity}}

Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the [[ocean]]s and only 2.5% [[freshwater]], most of which is locked up in the [[Antarctic ice sheet]]. The remaining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply.<ref name=""Atlas"">Clarke & King (2006) pp.&nbsp;20–21.</ref>  Awareness of the global importance of preserving [[water]] for [[ecosystem services]] has only recently emerged as: during the 20th century, more than half the world's [[wetlands]] have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. [[Biodiversity]]-rich [[freshwater]] ecosystems are currently declining faster than [[marine (ocean)|marine]] or land [[ecosystem]]s<ref name=""water"">Hoekstra, A.Y. (2006). [http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report_20_Global_Water_Governance.pdf ""The Global Dimension of Water Governance: Nine Reasons for Global Arrangements in Order to Cope with Local Problems.""] ''Value of Water Research Report Series'' No. 20 [[UNESCO-IHE]] Institute for Water Education. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref> making them the world's most vulnerable habitats.<ref name=LPR>World Wide Fund for Nature (2008). [http://assets.panda.org/downloads/living_planet_report_2008.pdf ''Living Planet Report 2008'']. Retrieved on: 2009-03-29.</ref>  Increasing [[urbanization]] pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe [[water]].<ref name=""Atlas""/> In the industrial world [[demand management]] has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry [[Water desalination|desalination]] is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.<ref name=""water"" />

==Land==
{{See|Land use}}
[[Loss of biodiversity]] originates largely from the habitat loss and fragmentation produced by artificial land development, forestry and agriculture as [[natural capital]] is progressively converted to man-made capital. [[Land-use change]] is fundamental to the operations of the [[biosphere]] because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to [[urbanisation]], [[agriculture]], [[forest]], [[woodland]], [[grassland]] and [[pasture]] have a marked effect on the global water, carbon and nitrogen [[biogeochemical cycle]]s and this can negatively impact both natural and human systems.<ref name=""Krebs 2001 pp. 560–582""/> At the local human scale major sustainability benefits accrue from the pursuit of [[green cities]] and [[sustainable gardening|sustainable parks and gardens]].<ref>[http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6220 Organic Gardening Techniques], ''Missouri University Extension''. October 2004. Retrieved June 17, 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.dbrl.org/reference/subject-guides/sustainable-gardening-food-production Sustainable Gardening & Food Production] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621044435/http://dbrl.org/reference/subject-guides/sustainable-gardening-food-production |date=2010-06-21 }}, ''Daniel Boone Regional Library''. Retrieved June 17, 2009</ref>

==Forests==
{{See|Forestry|Ecoforestry}}
[[File:Grib skov.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Beech forest – Grib Skov, Denmark|Beech forest – Grib Skov, Denmark]]

Since the [[Neolithic Revolution]], human consumption has reduced the world's forest cover by about 47%. Present-day forests occupy about a quarter of the world's ice-free land with about half of these occurring in the tropics.<ref>World Resources Institute (1998). ''World Resources 1998–1999.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-521408-0}}.</ref> In temperate and [[boreal forest|boreal]] regions forest area is gradually increasing (with the exception of Siberia), but [[deforestation]] in the tropics is of major concern.<ref>Groombridge & Jenkins (2002).</ref>

Forests moderate the local climate and the global water cycle through their light reflectance ([[albedo]]) and [[evapotranspiration]]. They also conserve [[biodiversity]], protect [[water quality]], preserve soil and [[soil quality]], provide fuel and [[pharmaceuticals]], and purify the air. These free [[ecosystem services]] are not given a market value under most current economic systems, and so forest conservation has little appeal when compared with the economic benefits of [[logging]] and clearance which, through [[soil degradation]] and organic [[decomposition]] returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.<ref name = FAO1>Food and Agriculture Organisation (2006). [http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra2005/en ""Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005: Progress Towards Sustainable Forest Management.""] ''Forestry paper'' 147. Rome: FAO. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17.</ref> The United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) estimates that about 90% of the carbon stored in land vegetation is locked up in trees and that they sequester about 50% more carbon than is present in the atmosphere. Changes in land use currently contribute about 20% of total global carbon emissions (heavily logged Indonesia and Brazil are a major source of emissions).<ref name = FAO1/> [[Climate change]] can be mitigated by [[Carbon sequestration|sequestering carbon]] in [[reafforestation]] schemes, plantations and timber products. Also wood biomass can be utilized as a renewable [[carbon-neutral]] fuel. The FAO has suggested that, over the period 2005–2050, effective use of tree planting could absorb about 10–20% of man-made emissions – so monitoring the condition of the world's forests must be part of a global strategy to mitigate emissions and protect ecosystem services.<ref>IPCC (2006).'' IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Inventories, Vol.4, Agriculture, Forestry, and other Land Uses.'' Japan: Institute for Global Environment Strategies.</ref> However, climate change may preempt this FAO scenario as a study by the [[International Union of Forest Research Organizations]] in 2009 concluded that the stress of a {{convert|2.5|C}} temperature rise above pre-industrial levels could result in the release of vast amounts of carbon<ref>Kinver, M. (April 2009). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8004517.stm ""Key role of forests 'may be lost'""] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-04-19.</ref> so the potential of forests to act as carbon ""sinks"" is ""at risk of being lost entirely"".<ref>Dold, M. (April 2009). [http://www.iufro.org/news/article/2009/04/17/iufro-press-release/ ""New Study Warns Damage to Forests from Climate Change Could Cost the Planet Its Major Keeper of Greenhouse Gases.""]. IUFRO News. Retrieved on: 2009-04-20.</ref>

==Cultivated land==
{{Main|Sustainable agriculture}}
[[File:Rice Field.jpg|right|thumb|alt=A farmer working in a rice paddy|A rice paddy. Rice, wheat, corn and potatoes make up more than half the world's food supply]]
Feeding more than seven billion human bodies takes a heavy toll on the Earth's resources. This begins with the appropriation of about 38% of the Earth's land surface<ref>Food and Agriculture Organization (June 2006). [http://faostat.fao.org/Portals/_Faostat/documents/pdf/world.pdf ""Food and Agriculture Statistics Global Outlook.""] Rome: FAO Statistics Division. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref> and about 20% of its net primary productivity.<ref>Imhoff, M.L. et al. (2004). ""Global Patterns in Human Consumption of Net Primary Production."" ''Nature'' '''429''': 870–873.</ref> Added to this are the resource-hungry activities of industrial agribusiness – everything from the crop need for irrigation water, synthetic [[fertilizer]]s and [[pesticide]]s to the resource costs of [[food packaging]], [[transport]] (now a major part of global trade) and retail. [[Food]] is essential to life. But the list of environmental costs of [[food production]] is a long one: topsoil depletion, [[erosion]] and conversion to desert from constant tillage of annual crops; overgrazing; [[Soil salinity|salinization]]; [[sodification]]; [[waterlogging (agriculture)|waterlogging]]; high levels of [[fossil fuel]] use; reliance on inorganic fertilisers and synthetic organic [[pesticides]]; reductions in [[genetic diversity]] by the mass use of [[monoculture]]s; water [[resource depletion]]; [[pollution]] of waterbodies by run-off and [[groundwater contamination]]; social problems including the decline of family farms and weakening of [[rural communities]].<ref>Tudge (2004).</ref>

All of these environmental problems associated with [[industrial agriculture]] and [[agribusiness]] are now being addressed through such movements as [[sustainable agriculture]], [[organic farming]] and more sustainable business practices.<ref>[http://www.wbcsd.org/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?MenuID=1 World Business Council for Sustainable Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410074308/http://www.wbcsd.org/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?MenuID=1 |date=2009-04-10 }} This web site has multiple articles on [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development|WBCSD]] contributions to sustainable development. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07.</ref>

==Extinctions==
{{See|Extinction|}}
[[File:ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg|thumb|left|150px|alt=Picture of the now extinct bird the dodo|The extinct [[dodo]] (''Raphus cucullatus'')]]

Although [[biodiversity loss]] can be monitored simply as loss of species, effective conservation demands the protection of species within their natural habitats and ecosystems. Following human migration and population growth, species [[extinctions]] have progressively increased to a rate unprecedented since the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]].{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} Known as the [[Holocene extinction event]] this current human-induced extinction of species ranks as one of the world's six mass [[extinction event]]s. Some scientific estimates indicate that up to half of presently existing species may become extinct by 2100.<ref>Wilson (2002)</ref><ref>Leakey & Lewin (1995)</ref> Current extinction rates are 100 to 1000 times their prehuman levels with more than 10% birds and mammals threatened, about 8% of plants, 5% of fish and more than 20% of freshwater species.<ref>Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, pp. 42–47.</ref>

The 2008 [[IUCN Red List]] warns that long-term droughts and extreme weather put additional stress on key habitats and, for example, lists 1,226 bird species as threatened with extinction, which is one eighth of all bird species.<ref>Kinver, M. (May 2008). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7409034.stm ''Climate 'accelerating bird loss.''] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17/</ref><ref>BBC News (March 2009) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7921936.stm ""Climate 'hitting Europe's birds'.""] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17.</ref> The [[Red List Index]] also identifies 44 tree species in Central Asia as under threat of extinction due to [[over-exploitation]] and human development and threatening the region's forests which are home to more than 300 wild ancestors of modern domesticated fruit and nut cultivars.<ref>Gill, V.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8036785.stm ''""The wild ancestors of common domestic fruit trees are in danger of becoming extinct, scientists have warned.""''] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-05-09.</ref>

==Biological invasions==
{{See|Introduced species}}
[[File:Kudzu on trees in Atlanta, Georgia.jpg|right|thumb|alt=Trees infested with Kudzu (''Pueraria lobata'')|[[Kudzu]] (''Pueraria lobata'') infesting trees in [[Atlanta]], Georgia, USA]]
In many parts of the industrial world land clearing for agriculture has diminished and here the greatest threat to biodiversity, after [[climate change]], has become the destructive effect of [[invasive species]].<ref>Randall (2002).</ref>  Increasingly efficient global transport has facilitated the spread of [[organism]]s across the planet. The potential danger of this aspect of [[globalization]] is starkly illustrated through the spread of human diseases like [[HIV]] [[AIDS]], [[mad cow disease]], [[Avian influenza|bird flu]] and [[swine flu]], but invasive plants and animals are also having a devastating impact on native [[biodiversity]]. Non-indigenous organisms can quickly occupy disturbed land and natural areas where, in the absence of their natural [[predator]]s, they are able to thrive.<ref>Krebs (2001) pp. 190–205.</ref> At the global scale this issue is being addressed through the [[Global Invasive Species Information Network]] but there is improved international [[biosecurity]] legislation to minimise the transmission of pathogens and invasive organisms. Also, through [[CITES]] legislation there is control the trade in rare and threatened species. Increasingly at the local level public awareness programs are alerting communities, gardeners, the nursery industry, collectors, and the pet and aquarium industries, to the harmful effects of potentially invasive species.<ref>Blood (2001).</ref>

==Resistance to change==
{{Main|Sustainability and systemic change resistance}}
The [[environmental sustainability]] problem has proven difficult to solve. The modern [[environmental movement]] has attempted to solve the problem in a large variety of ways. But little progress has been made, as shown by severe [[ecological footprint]] overshoot and lack of sufficient progress on the [[climate change]] problem. Something within the human system in preventing change to a sustainable mode of behavior. That system trait is systemic change resistance. Change resistance is also known as organizational resistance, barriers to change, or policy resistance.<ref>John Sterman, ""Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, 2000, pp 5-10.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Environmental management]]
*[[Integrated landscape management]]
*[[Natural resource management]]
*[[Planetary management]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Sources==
* Blood, K. (2001). ''Environmental Weeds''. Mt Waverley, Victoria: C.H. Jerram & Associates. {{ISBN|0-9579086-0-1}}. An example of a local guide to invasive plants.
* Clarke, R. & King, J. (2006). ''The Atlas of Water.'' London: [[Earthscan]]. {{ISBN|978-1-84407-133-3}}.
* Groombridge, B. & Jenkins, M.D. (2002). ''World Atlas of Biodiversity''. Berkeley: [[University of California Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-520-23668-4}}.
* Krebs, C.J. (2001). ''Ecology: the Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance''. Sydney: Benjamin Cummings. {{ISBN|0-321-04289-1}}.
* [[Richard Leakey|Leakey, R.]] & Lewin, R. (1995). ''The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind''. New York: Bantam Dell Publishing Group. {{ISBN|0-385-46809-1}}
* Lindenmayer, D. & [[Mark Burgman|Burgman, M.]] (2005). ''Practical Conservation Biology''. Collingwood, Victoria: [[CSIRO Publishing]]. {{ISBN|0-643-09089-4}}.
* E, Huttmanová.  The Possibilities of Sustainable Development Evaluation in the European Union Area. [https://ecsdev.org/ojs/index.php/ejsd/article/view/502 European Journal of Sustainable Development] ISSN 2239-5938. 
* Randall, R. (2002). ''A Global Compendium of Weeds.'' Meredith, Victoria, Australia: R.G. & F.J. Richardson. {{ISBN|978-0-9587439-8-3}}.
* [[Colin Tudge|Tudge, C.]] (2004). ''So Shall We Reap''. London: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-14-100950-0}}.
* [[E. O. Wilson|Wilson, E.O.]] (2002). ''The Future of Life''. New York: Knopf. {{ISBN|0-679-45078-5}}.

==External links==
*[http://www.environmentalmanagement.aau.dk/ Master education in Environmental Management & Sustainability Science] at [[Aalborg University]] in [[Denmark]]

{{Sustainability}}

[[Category:Sustainability and environmental management| ]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]"
Sustainability and systemic change resistance,"{{essay-like|date=April 2019}}
The environmental '''[[sustainability]]''' problem has proven difficult to solve. The modern [[environmental movement]] has attempted to solve the problem in a large variety of ways. But little progress has been made, as shown by severe [[ecological footprint]] overshoot and lack of sufficient progress on the [[climate change]] problem. Something within the human system is preventing change to a sustainable mode of behavior. That system trait is '''systemic change resistance'''. Change resistance is also known as organizational resistance, barriers to change, or policy resistance.<ref>John Sterman, ""Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, 2000, pp 5-10.</ref>

==Overview of resistance to solving the sustainability problem==

While environmentalism had long been a minor force in political change, the movement strengthened significantly in the 1970s with the first [[Earth Day]] in 1970, in which over 20 million people participated, with publication of ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'' in 1972, and with the first [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] in Stockholm in 1972. Early expectations the problem could be solved ran high. 114 out of 132 members of the United Nations attended the Stockholm conference. The conference was widely seen at the time as a harbinger of success:<ref>Environmental Encyclopedia, Second Edition, W. P. Cunningham et al., editors, 1998, page 1054.</ref>

: ""Many believe the most important result of the conference was the precedent it set for international cooperation in addressing [[environmental degradation]]. The nations attending agreed they shared responsibility for the quality of the environment, particularly the oceans and the atmosphere, and they signed a declaration of principles, after extensive negotiations, concerning their obligations. The conference also approved an environmental fund and an 'action program,' which involved 200 specific recommendations for addressing such problems as global climate change, [[marine pollution]], population growth, the dumping of toxic wastes, and the preservation of biodiversity. A permanent environment unit was established for coordinating these and other international efforts. [This later became] the United Nations Environmental Program [which was] was formally approved by the General Assembly later that same year and its base established in Nairobi, Kenya. This organization not only coordinated action but monitored research, collecting and disseminating information, and it has played an ongoing role in international negotiations about environmental issues.

:""The conference in Stockholm accomplished almost everything the preparatory committed had planned. It was widely considered successful, and many observers were almost euphoric about the extent of agreement.""

However, despite the work of a worldwide [[environmental movement]], many national environmental protection agencies, creation of the [[United Nations Environment Programme]], and many international environmental treaties, the sustainability problem continues to grow worse. The latest [[ecological footprint]] data shows the world's footprint increased from about 50% ''undershoot'' in 1961 to 50% ''overshoot'' in 2007, the last year data is available.<ref>John Talbert et al., The Genuine Progress Indicator 2006, A Tool for Sustainable Development, Redefining Progress, The Nature of Economics, 2006, available at [http://www.rprogress.org/publications/2007/GPI%202006.pdf].</ref>

In 1972 the first edition of ''The Limits to Growth'' analyzed the [[environmental sustainability]] problem using a [[system dynamics]] model. The widely influential book predicted that:<ref>""The Limits to Growth"", Meadows et al., 1972, p23.</ref>

:""If the present trends in world population, industrialization, pollution, food production, and [[resource depletion]] continue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next one hundred years. The most probable result will be a rather sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and industrial capacity some time in the 21st century.""

Yet thirty-two years later in 2004 the third edition reported that:<ref>""Limits to Growth"", Meadows et al., 2004, p xvi.</ref>

:""[The second edition of Limits to Growth] was published in 1992, the year of the global summit on environment and development in Rio de Janeiro. The advent of the summit seemed to prove that global society had decided to deal seriously with the important environmental problems. But we now know that humanity failed to achieve the goals of Rio. The Rio plus 10 conference in Johannesburg in 2002 produced even less; it was almost paralyzed by a variety of ideological and economic disputes, [due to] the efforts of those pursuing their narrow national, corporate, or individual self-interests.

:""...humanity has largely squandered the past 30 years.""

Change resistance runs so high that the world's top two greenhouse gas emitters, [[China]] and the [[United States]], have never adopted the [[Kyoto Protocol]] treaty. In the US resistance was so strong that in 1999 the US Senate voted 95 to zero against the treaty by passing the [[Byrd–Hagel Resolution]], despite the fact [[Al Gore]] was vice-president at the time. Not a single senator could be persuaded to support the treaty, which has not been brought back to the floor since.

Due to prolonged change resistance, the climate change problem has escalated to the climate change crisis. [[Greenhouse gas emissions]] are rising much faster than [[IPCC]] models expected: ""The growth rate of [fossil fuel] emissions was 3.5% per year for 2000-2007, an almost four fold increase from 0.9% per year in 1990-1999. … This makes current trends in emissions higher than the worst case IPCC-SRES scenario.""<ref>""Emissions rising faster this decade than last"", CISIRO Media Release, September 25, 2008, available at [http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/global/pdf/Press%20Release_CSIRO_Australia_final.pdf].</ref>

The [[Copenhagen Climate Summit]] of December 2009 ended in failure.<ref name=""Hartwell"">""The Hartwell Paper"", Prins, Gwrn et al., May 2010, available at [http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/27939/1/HartwellPaper_English_version.pdf].</ref> No agreement on binding targets was reached. The [[Cancun climate summit|Cancun Climate Summit]] in December 2010 did not break the deadlock. The best it could do was another non-binding agreement:<ref>Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention, 2010, available at [http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_16/application/pdf/cop16_lca.pdf].</ref>

:""Recognizing that climate change represents an urgent and potentially irreversible threat to human societies and the planet, and thus requires to be urgently addressed by all Parties.""

This indicates no progress at all since 1992, when the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] was created at the [[Earth Summit]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]]. The 2010 Cancun agreement was the functional equivalent of what the 1992 agreement said:<ref>''United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change'', United Nations, 1992, p2-4, available at [http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf].</ref>

:""The Parties to this Convention... [acknowledge] that the global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate international response.... [thus the parties recognize] that States should enact effective environmental legislation... [to] protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations of humankind....""

Negotiations have bogged down so pervasively that: ""Climate policy is gridlocked, and there's virtually no chance of a breakthrough.""<ref>“Disaster at the Top of the World”, Thomas Homer-Dixon, New York Times, August 22, 2010, available at [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/23/opinion/23homer-dixon.html?_r=1&hp=&pagewanted=all].</ref> ""Climate policy, as it has been understood and practised by many governments of the world under the Kyoto Protocol approach, has failed to produce any discernible real world reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases in fifteen years.""<ref name=""Hartwell"" />

These events suggest that change resistance to solving the sustainability problem is so high the problem is currently unsolvable.

==The change resistance and proper coupling subproblems==

Understanding change resistance requires seeing it as a distinct and separate part of the sustainability problem. Tanya Markvart's 2009 thesis on ''Understanding Institutional Change and Resistance to Change Towards Sustainability'' stated that:<ref name=""Markvart"">Tanya I. Markvart, ''Understanding Institutional Change and Resistance to Change Towards Sustainability: An Interdisciplinary Theoretical Framework and Illustrative Application to Provincial-Municipal Aggregates Policy'', 2009, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, pages 4, iii, and 157. Available at [http://www.environment.uwaterloo.ca/research/biosphere/Documents/Markvart_Tanya_000.pdf].</ref>

:""It has also been demonstrated that ecologically destructive and inequitable institutional systems can be highly resilient and resistant to change, even in the face of social-ecological degradation and/or collapse (e.g., Berkes & Folke, 2002; Allison & Hobbs, 2004; Brown, 2005; Runnalls, 2008; Finley, 2009; Walker et al., 2009).""

The thesis focuses specifically on developing ""an interdisciplinary theoretical framework for understanding institutional change and resistance to change towards sustainability.""

Jack Harich's 2010 paper on ''Change Resistance as the Crux of the Environmental Sustainability Problem'' argues there are two separate problems to solve.<ref name=""Harich"">Jack Harich, [http://www.thwink.org/sustain/articles/009/ChangeResistanceAsCrux.htm “Change Resistance as the Crux of the Environmental Sustainability Problem”], ''System Dynamics Review'', January 2010.</ref> A [[root cause analysis]] and a [[system dynamics]] model were used to explain how:

:""...difficult social problems [like sustainability must be decomposed] into two sequential subproblems: (1) ''How to overcome change resistance'' and then (2) ''How to achieve proper coupling''. This is the timeless strategy of divide and conquer. By cleaving one big problem into two, the problem becomes an order of magnitude easier to solve, because we can approach the two subproblems differently and much more appropriately. We are no longer unknowingly attempting to solve two very different problems simultaneously.""

The paper discussed the two subproblems:

: ""''Change resistance'' is the tendency for a system to continue its current behavior, despite the application of force to change that behavior.

: ""''Proper coupling'' occurs when the behavior of one system affects the behavior of other systems in a desirable manner, using the appropriate [[feedback loops]], so the systems work together in harmony in accordance with design objectives. … In the environmental sustainability problem the human system has become improperly coupled to the greater system it lives within: the environment.

:""Change resistance versus proper coupling allows a crucial distinction. Society is aware of the proper practices required to live sustainably and the need to do so. But society has a strong aversion to adopting these practices. As a result, problem solvers have created thousands of effective (and often ingenious) proper practices. But they are stymied in their attempts to have them taken up by enough of the system to solve the problem because an 'implicit system goal' is causing insurmountable change resistance. ''Therefore systemic change resistance is the crux of the problem and must be solved first.''""
 
The proper coupling subproblem is what most people consider as ""the"" problem to solve. It is called [[Decoupling (organizational studies)|decoupling]] in economic and environmental fields, where the term refers to economic growth without additional environmental degradation. Solving the proper coupling problem is the goal of environmentalism and in particular [[ecological economics]]: ""Ecological economics is the study of the interactions and co-evolution in time and space of human economies and the ecosystems in which human economies are embedded.""<ref>The New Pelgrave Dictionary of Economics Online, [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_E000221&edition=current&q=ecological%20economics&topicid=&result_number=1/ abstract].</ref>

Change resistance is also called barriers to change. Hoffman and Bazerman, in a chapter on ""Understanding and overcoming the organizational and psychological barriers to action"", concluded that:<ref>""[https://books.google.com/books?id=zjNmAwAAQBAJ Organizations and the Sustainability Mosaic: Crafting Long-Term Ecological and Societal Solutions]"", Sharma, S. et al., (Ed), 2007. Chapter 4, Hoffman, A. J., and Bazerman, M. H., ""Changing practice on sustainability: Understanding and overcoming the organizational and psychological barriers to action,"" p85.</ref>

:""In this chapter, we argue that the change in thinking required of the sustainability agenda will never come to fruition within practical domains unless proper attention is given to the sources of individual and social resistance to such change. The implementation of wise management practices cannot be accomplished without a concurrent set of strategies for surmounting these barriers.""

[[John Sterman]], current leader of the system dynamics school of thought, came to the same conclusion:<ref>John Sterman, 2008. ""[http://www.precaution.org/lib/mit_students_clueless.081024.pdf Risk Communication on Climate Change: Mental Models and Mass Balance]."" ''Science'', October 2008, vol. 322, no. 5901, pp 532-533.</ref>

:""The civil rights movement provides a better analogy for the climate challenge. Then, as now, entrenched special interests vigorously opposed change. … Of course, we need more research and technical innovation—money and genius are always in short supply. But there is no purely technical solution for climate change. For public policy to be grounded in the hard-won results of climate science, we must now turn our attention to the dynamics of social and political change.""

These findings indicate there are at least two subproblems to be solved: change resistance and proper coupling. Given the human system's long history of unsuccessful attempts to self-correct to a sustainable mode, it appears that high change resistance is preventing proper coupling. This may be expressed as an emerging principle: systemic change resistance is the crux of the sustainability problem and must be solved first, before the human system can be properly coupled to the greater system it lives within, the environment.

==Systemic versus individual change resistance==

Systemic change resistance differs significantly from individual change resistance. ""Systemic means originating from the system in such a manner as to affect the behavior of most or all social agents of certain types, as opposed to originating from individual agents.""<ref name=""Harich"" /> Individual change resistance originates from individual people and organizations. How the two differ may be seen in this passage:<ref>Dent, Eric and Goldberg, Susan. 1999. ''Challenging Resistance to Change'', The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 35, No. 1, 25-41.</ref>

:""The notion of resistance to change is credited to Kurt Lewin. His conceptualization of the phrase, however, is very different from today's usage. [which treats resistance to change as a psychological concept, where resistance or support of change comes from values, habits, mental models, and so on residing within the individual] For Lewin, resistance to change could occur, but that resistance could be anywhere in the system. As Kotter (1995) found, ''it is possible for the resistance to be sited within the individual, but it is much more likely to be found elsewhere in the system. ''

:""Systems of social roles, with their associated patterns of attitudes, expectations, and behavior norms, share with biological systems the characteristic of homeostasis—i.e., tendencies to resist change, to restore the previous state after a disturbance.

:""Lewin had been working on this idea, that the status quo represented an equilibrium between the barriers to change and the forces favoring change, since 1928 as part of his field theory. He believed that some difference in these forces—weakening of the barriers or strengthening of the driving forces—was required to produce the unfreezing that began a change.""

If sources of systemic change resistance are present, they are the principal cause of individual change resistance. According to the [[fundamental attribution error]] it is crucial to address systemic change resistance when present and avoid assuming that change resistance can be overcome by bargaining, reasoning, inspirational appeals, and so on. This is because:<ref>John Sterman, ""Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, 2000, p28.</ref>

:""A fundamental principle of system dynamics states that the structure of the system gives rise to its behavior. However, people have a strong tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional rather than situational factors, that is, to character and especially character flaws rather than the system in which these people are acting. The tendency to blame the person rather than the system is so strong psychologists call it the 'fundamental attribution error.' ""

[[Peter Senge]], a thought leader of [[systems thinking]] for the business world, describes the structural source of systemic change resistance as being due to an ""implicit system goal:"" <ref>Peter Senge, ''The Fifth Discipline'', 1990, p88.</ref>

:""In general, balancing loops are more difficult to see than reinforcing loops because it often looks like nothing is happening. There's no dramatic growth of sales and marketing expenditures, or nuclear arms, or lily pads. Instead, the balancing process maintains the status quo, even when all participants want change. The feeling, as Lewis Carroll's Queen of Hearts put it, of needing 'all the running you can do to keep in the same place' is a clue that a balancing loop may exist nearby.

:""Leaders who attempt organizational change often find themselves unwittingly caught in balancing processes. To the leaders, it looks as though their efforts are clashing with sudden resistance that seems to come from nowhere. In fact, as my friend found when he tried to reduce burnout, the resistance is a response by the system, trying to maintain an ''implicit system goal''. Until this goal is recognized, the change effort is ''doomed to failure.''""

Senge's insight applies to the sustainability problem. Until the ""implicit system goal"" causing systemic change resistance is found and resolved, change efforts to solve the proper coupling part of the sustainability problem may be, as Senge argues, ""doomed to failure"".

==Focus is on proper coupling==

Presently environmentalism is focused on solving the proper coupling subproblem. For example, the following are all proper coupling solutions. They attempt to solve the direct cause of the sustainability problem's symptoms:
* The [[Kyoto Protocol]]
* The [[Waste hierarchy|Three Rs]] of reduce, reuse, recycle
* More use of [[renewable energy]]
* Better [[pollution control]] of many kinds
* Collective management of [[common-pool resources]]
* Certification programs to reduce [[deforestation]] such as [[Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification|PEFC]] and [[Forest Stewardship Council|FSC]]
* [[Contour farming]] to reduce [[soil erosion]]
* The [[green revolution]]
* [[Zero population growth]]

The direct cause of environmental impact is the three factors on the right side of the [[I PAT|I=PAT equation]] where '''I'''mpact equals '''P'''opulation times '''A'''ffluence (consumption per person) times '''T'''echnology (environmental impact per unit of consumption). It is these three factors that solutions like those listed above seek to reduce.

The top environmental organization in the world, the [[United Nations Environmental Programme]] (UNEP), focuses exclusively on proper coupling solutions:<ref>UNEP 2010 Annual Report, p8, Available at [http://www.unep.org/annualreport/2010/pdfs/UNEP-AR-2010-FULL-REPORT.pdf].</ref>

:""2010 marked the beginning of a period of new, strategic and transformational direction for UNEP as it began implementing its Medium Term Strategy (MTS) for 2010-2013 across six areas: Climate change; Disasters and conflicts; [[Ecosystem management]]; Environmental governance; Harmful substances and hazardous waste; [[Resource efficiency]], Sustainable consumption and production.""

The six areas are all direct practices to reduce the three factors of the I=PAT equation.
 
[[Al Gore]]'s 2006 documentary film ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]'' described the climate change problem and the urgency of solving it. The film concluded with Gore saying:

:""Each one of us is a cause of [[global warming]], but each one of us can make choices to change that with the things we buy, the electricity we use, the cars we drive; we can make choices to bring our individual carbon emissions to zero. The solutions are in our hands, we just have to have the determination to make it happen. We have everything that we need to reduce carbon emissions, everything but political will.  But in America, the will to act is a renewable resource.""

The four solutions Gore mentions are proper coupling practices. There is, however, a hint of acknowledgement that overcoming systemic change resistance is the real challenge, when Gore says ""...we just have to have the determination to make it happen. We have everything that we need to reduce carbon emissions, everything but political will.""

The twenty-seven solutions that appear during the film's closing credits are mostly proper coupling solutions. The first nine are:<ref>''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]'': Closing Credits, available at [http://www.folklib.net/index/wi/ait_closing_credits.shtml].</ref>

* Go to [http://www.climatecrisis.net www.climatecrisis.net]
* You can reduce your carbon emissions. In fact, you can even reduce your carbon emissions to zero.
* Buy energy efficient appliances & light bulbs.
* Change your [[thermostat]] (and use clock thermostats) to reduce energy for heating & cooling.
* Weatherize your house, increase [[building insulation|insulation]], get an energy audit.
* Recycle.
* If you can, buy a [[hybrid car]].
* When you can, [[walk]] or [[Cycling|ride a bicycle]].
* Where you can, use light rail & [[mass transit]].

Some solutions are attempts to overcome individual change resistance, such as:

* Tell your parents not to ruin the world that you will live in.
* If you are a parent, join with your children to save the world they will live in.
* Vote for leaders who pledge to solve this crisis.
* Write to congress. If they don't listen, run for congress.
* Speak up in your community.

However none of the 27 solutions deal with overcoming systemic change resistance.

==Overcoming systemic change resistance==

Efforts here are sparse because environmentalism is currently not oriented toward treating systemic change resistance as a distinct and separate problem to solve.

On how to specifically overcome the change resistance subproblem, Markvart examined two leading theories that seemed to offer insight into change resistance, [[Panarchy (ecology)|Panarchy]] theory and [[New institutionalism|New Institutionalism]], and concluded that:<ref name=""Markvart"" />

:""...neither theory devotes significant attention to understanding the dynamics of resilient and resistant but inefficient and/or unproductive institutional and ecological systems. Overall, more research is required....""

Taking a [[root cause analysis]] and [[system dynamics]] modeling approach, Harich carefully defined the three characteristics of a root cause and then found a main systemic root cause for both the change resistance and proper coupling subproblems.<ref name=""Harich"" /> Several sample solution elements for resolving the root causes were suggested. The point was made that the exact solution policies chosen do not matter nearly as much as finding the correct systemic root causes. Once these are found, how to resolve them is relatively obvious because once a root cause is found by structural modeling, the high leverage point for resolving it follows easily. Solutions may then push on specific structural points in the social system, which due to careful modeling will have fairly predictable effects.

This reaffirms the work of [[Donella Meadows]], as expressed in her classic essay on [[Twelve leverage points|Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System]]. The final page stated that:

:""The higher the leverage point, the more the system will resist changing it.""

Here Meadows refers to the leverage point for resolving the proper coupling subproblem rather than the leverage point for overcoming change resistance. This is because the current focus of environmentalism is on proper coupling.

However, if the leverage points associated with the root causes of change resistance exist and can be found, the system will not resist changing them. This is an important principle of social system behavior.

For example, Harich found the main root cause of successful systemic change resistance to be high ""deception effectiveness."" The source was special interests, particularly large for-profit corporations. The high leverage point was raising ""general ability to detect manipulative deception."" This can be done with a variety of solution elements, such as ""The Truth Test."" This effectively increases truth literacy, just as conventional education raises reading and writing [[literacy]]. Few citizens resist literacy education because its benefits have become so obvious.

Promotion of [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) has been used to try to overcome change resistance to solving social problems, including environmental sustainability. This solution strategy has not worked well because it is voluntary and does not resolve root causes. [[Milton Friedman]] explained why CSR fails: ""The social responsibility of business is to increase profits.""<ref>""The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits"", Milton Friedman, September 13, 1970, ''[[The New York Times Magazine]]'', available at [http://www.colorado.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/issues/friedman-soc-resp-business.html].</ref> Business cannot be responsible to society. It can only be responsible to its shareholders.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== See also ==
* [[The Corporation (2003 film)|''The Corporation'']]
* [http://www.thwink.org/sustain/articles/021_WorldChangeModel/index.htm WorldChange Model]. This adds a change resistance subsystem to the [[World3]] model of [[Limits to Growth]] in order to more correctly analyze and simulate why [[sustainability science]] has so far been unable to solve the [[sustainability]] problem.

{{Sustainability}}

[[Category:Change management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Sustainability standards and certification,"{{Short description|Voluntary guidelines to show good practices}}
{{Tone|date=May 2017}}

'''Sustainability standards and certifications''' are [[Voluntary compliance|voluntary]] guidelines used by producers, manufacturers, traders, retailers, and service providers to demonstrate their commitment to good environmental, social, ethical, and food safety practices. There are over 400 such [[technical standard|standards]] across the world.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Market Coverage|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/market-coverage/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-02-10|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives|language=en-CA}}</ref>

The trend started in the late 1980s and 1990s with the introduction of [[Ecolabel]]s and [[technical standard|standards]] for [[organic food]] and other products.  Most standards refer to the [[triple bottom line]] of environmental quality, social equity, and economic prosperity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf|title=The Brundtland Report: Our Common Future|last=World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)|date=1987|access-date=July 18, 2019}}</ref> A [[technical standard|standard]] is normally developed by a broad range of stakeholders and experts in a particular sector and includes a set of practices or criteria for how a crop should be sustainably grown or a resource should be ethically harvested.

This might cover, for instance, responsible fishing practices that do not endanger marine biodiversity or respect for human rights, and the payment of fair wages on a coffee or tea plantation. Normally sustainability standards are accompanied by a verification process – often referred to as ""[[certification]]"" – to evaluate that an enterprise complies with a standard, as well as a traceability process for [https://www.epa.gov/greenerproducts certified products] to be sold along the [[supply chain]], often resulting in a consumer-facing label.

[[Certification]] programs also focus on capacity building and working with partners and other organizations to support smallholders or disadvantaged producers to make the social and environmental improvements needed to meet the [[technical standard|standard]].

The basic premise of sustainability standards is two-fold:
# Weak legislation and strong demand for action: Sustainability standards emerged in areas where weak national and global legislation existed but where the consumer and [[NGO]] movements around the globe demanded action. For example, campaigns by Global Exchange<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030618203029/http://www.globalexchange.org/campaigns/sweatshops/nike/ Global Exchange Campaign - Nike]</ref> and other NGOs against the purchase of goods from ""[[sweatshop]]"" factories by companies like [[Nike, Inc.]], [[Levi Strauss & Co.]], and other leading brands led to the emergence of social welfare standards like the [[SA8000]] and others.
# Environmental Merits - Leading brands who sold to both consumers and to the [[Business-to-business|B2B]] supply chain, and wished to demonstrate the environmental or organic merits of their products led to the emergence of hundreds of eco-labels, organic and other [[technical standard|standards]].

A leading example of a consumer standard is the [[Fairtrade]] movement, administered by [[FLO International]] and exhibiting huge sales growth around the world for ethically sourced produce.<ref>[http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/jun_2009/global_fairtrade_sales_increase_by_22.aspx Fairtrade Growth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225094221/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/jun_2009/global_fairtrade_sales_increase_by_22.aspx |date=2010-12-25 }}</ref>  An example of a [[Business-to-business|B2B]] standard that has grown tremendously in the last few years is the [[Forest Stewardship Council]]’s standard (FSC) for forest products made from sustainably harvested trees.

The line between consumer and B2B sustainability standards is becoming blurred, with leading trade buyers increasingly demanding [[Fair trade certification|Fairtrade certification]], for example, and consumers increasingly recognizing the FSC mark. In recent years{{when|date=April 2022}}, the business-to-business focus of sustainability standards has risen as it has become clear that consumer demand alone cannot drive the transformation of major sectors and industries{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. In [[commodities]] such as [[palm oil industry|palm oil]], [[soy industry|soy]], farmed [[seafood industry|seafood]], and [[sugar industry|sugar]], [[certification]] initiatives are targeting the mainstream adoption of better practices and pre-competitive industry collaboration. Major brands and retailers are also starting to make commitments to [[certification]] in their whole supply chain or product offering, rather than a single product line or ingredient.{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}

The number of Sustainability Standards has continued to grow; currently, there are around 264 active VSS (according to the [[International Trade Centre|International Trade Center]] Standards Map) in 194 countries and 15 sectors,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainability Map|url=https://www.standardsmap.org/standards?q=eyJzZWxlY3RlZENsaWVudCI6Ik5PIEFGRklMSUFUSU9OIn0=|access-date=2021-03-03|website=www.standardsmap.org}}</ref> and about 457 [[ecolabels]] (according to Ecolabel Index) in 199 countries, and 25 industry sectors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ecolabel Index {{!}} Who's deciding what's green?|url=http://www.ecolabelindex.com/|access-date=2021-03-03|website=www.ecolabelindex.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Trade Impact of Voluntary Sustainability Standards: A review of empirical evidence|url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ser-rp-2020d9_en.pdf}}</ref>

== International and private standards supporting sustainability ==

Sustainability standards can be categorized as either [[Technical standard|voluntary consensus standards]] or [[Technical standard|private standards]]. [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) is an example of an [[standards organization]] who develop [[international standards]] following a [[Standardization|voluntary consensus]] process for sustainability under Technical Committee 207, Environmental management and Technical Committee 268, Sustainable cities and communities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Developing sustainably |url=https://www.iso.org/developing-sustainably.html |website=iso.org |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |access-date=20 February 2023}}</ref> These Committees connect with Technical Committee 61, Plastics working on mandates such standards for eliminating plastic pollution.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Birkbeck |first1=Carolyn Deere |last2=Sugathan |first2=Mahesh |last3=Boinnard |first3=Sophie |last4=Grekova |first4=Valeriia |last5=Cleeland |first5=Belinda |title=Standards and Related Initiatives in International Cooperation to End Plastic Pollution: Mapping and State of Play |date=September 2023 |publisher=Forum on Trade, Environment, & the SDGs (TESS) |location=Geneva, Switzerland |pages=https://tessforum.org/latest/standards-and-related-initiatives-in-international-cooperation-to-end-plastic-pollution-mapping-and-state-of-play}}</ref> In September 2023, ISO and the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) signed a  Statement of Intent, as a joint commitment to the role of International Standards in addressing sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISO and UNDP announce partnership to enhance sustainability action |url=https://www.iso.org/news/am23/iso-and-undp-announce-partnership-to-enhance-sustainability-action |website=iso.org |publisher=The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) |access-date=10 October 2023}}</ref>

Many of the [[international standards]] developed to help guide sustainability goals and certification schemes originate from the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO).<ref>[//www.fao.org/home/en/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]</ref>  The FAO has promulgated several standards for certifying bodies to adhere to.  In particular, the FAO has issued guidelines and standards designed to make agriculture, fisheries, and forestry more sustainable.

Some of the sustainability standards were initiated by [[social movements]] in particular countries, such as [[Rainforest Alliance]] in the United States and [[Fairtrade|Fairtrade certification]] in the Netherlands{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. Standards were initiated by individual companies, using [[technical standard|private standards]], such as [[UTZ Certified|Utz Certified]] (Ahold), C.A.F.E. Practices (Starbucks), and Nespresso AAA ([[Nespresso]]).

With the objective of [[Harmonization (standards)|standard harmonization]], some [[technical standard|standards]] were launched by coalitions of private firms (also referred to as [[multistakeholder governance]], development agencies, NGOs, and other stakeholders, such as the [[Marine Stewardship Council]], or MSC standard, developed as a collaboration between [[Unilever]] and the [[World Wildlife Fund]]. For example, the [[Sustainable coffee|Common Code for the Coffee Community]] (4C) was initiated by an alliance of large American coffee roasters, including [[Kraft Foods]], [[Sara Lee Corporation|Sara Lee]], and [[Nestle]], assisted by the German Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development ([[Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit|GIZ]]).

One important facilitator of the development of most global [[technical standard|standards]] was a series of local development projects involving NGOs, coffee roasters, and producers in different developing countries. For example, the Fairtrade [[technical standard|private standard]] was developed based on pilot projects with Mexican farmers. 4C builds on development projects in Peru, Colombia, and Vietnam, involving GIZ, major coffee roasters, and local producers.<ref>[https://ssrn.com/abstract=1668888 Article on the Development of the Common Code for the Coffee Community]</ref>

The most widely established and adopted standards are in agriculture, with 40% of global [[coffee production]] certified to one of the main schemes, and approximately 15–20% of [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]] and [[tea production]] being compliant with major [[international standards]]. Forestry and [[Sustainable seafood|wild seafood]] are also sectors in which standards have been influential, with certified production pushing past 10% of the global share. Cotton, [[palm oil]], [[soy]], [[biofuel]]s and farmed seafood are some of the commodities in which [[certification]] is growing the fastest, due in part to major roundtables that have been set up to bring the whole industry together. More recently, standards have started to emerge for [[mining]] and the [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/metal-extraction#:~:text=Commercial%20extraction%20of%20metals%20from,low%20grade)%20of%20desired%20elements. extraction of metals] – including gold, silver, aluminium, and oil and gas – as well as for cattle, electronics, plastics and tourism.

Evidence suggests that [[Corporate Social Responsibility]] (CSR) adopted willingly by firms can be more effective than government-regulated CSR so global standards by private companies show promise for effective social impact.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Armstrong|first1=J. Scott|last2=Green|first2=Kesten C.|title=Effects of corporate social responsibility and irresponsibility policies|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=66|issue=10|pages=1922–1927|date=2013|url=http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/43007/1/MPRA_paper_43007.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.02.014|citeseerx=10.1.1.663.508|s2cid=145059055}}</ref> Counter-arguments are discussed which express concerns around private sector, corporation-led, [[multistakeholder governance]] who adopt ""weak or narrow standards"" that ""better serve corporate interests than rights holder interests"" for self-regulation in the absence of government regulation.<ref>{{cite book |title=Not Fit-for-Purpose The Grand Experiment of Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives in Corporate Accountability, Human Rights and Global Governance |date=July 2020 |publisher=MSI Integrity |location=San Francisco: Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity |url=https://www.msi-integrity.org/not-fit-for-purpose/ }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=Multistakeholderism: a critical look |url=https://www.tni.org/en/publication/multistakeholderism-a-critical-look |website=tni.org |publisher=Transnational Institute}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=Who's Tipping the Scales? |url=http://www.ipes-food.org/pages/tippingthescales |website=ipes-food.org |publisher=IPES-Food}}</ref>

The creation of the [[Ecolabel|ISEAL Alliance]] as a private organization in 2002 was the first collaborative effort amongst a group of sustainability standards organizations to agree to follow common good practices for [[Harmonization (standards)|harmonized standards]] implementation and also to work together to drive up the use of [[technical standards|private standards]] and [[certification]] globally. In 2022, ISEAL reported 42% of their funding came from government grants. With generous
support from organizations such as The [[Walmart]] Foundation, [[Fairtrade]] USA and [[Rainforest Alliance]].<ref>{{cite web |title=ISEAL Annual Report 2022 |url=https://www.isealalliance.org/get-involved/resources/annual-report-2022 |website=isealalliance.org |publisher=ISEAL Alliance |access-date=16 August 2023}}</ref>

== Sustainability standards ==

Numerous sustainability standards have been developed to address issues of environmental quality, [[social equity]], and [[economic prosperity]] in global production and trade practices. Despite similarities in major goals and [[certification]] procedures, there are some significant differences in terms of their historical development, target groups of adopters, geographical diffusion, and emphasis on environmental, social, or economic issues.<ref>[https://ssrn.com/abstract=1678472 Introduction to different standards]</ref>

One of the major differences is based on the level of strictness of the [[technical standard|standard]]. Some standards set the bar high for a sector, promoting strong social and environmental practices and working with the top performers to constantly push up sustainability expectations{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. Other standards are more focused on eliminating the worst practices and operate at more of an entry-level to get a large proportion of an industry working incrementally towards better practices. Often there are strategies between standards to move producers along this performance ladder of sustainability{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. Another important distinction is that some standards can be applied internationally (usually with mechanisms to ensure local relevance and appropriateness), in contrast other standards are developed entirely with a regional or national focus{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.

Additional differences between [[technical standard|standards]] might relate to the [[certification]] process and whether it is conducted by a first, second or third party; the traceability system in place and whether it allows for the segregation or mixing of certified and non-certified materials; and the types of sustainability claims that are made on products.

=== Fairtrade ===

The [[Fairtrade]] label was developed in the late 1980s by a Dutch development agency in collaboration with Mexican farmers{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. The initiative performs development work and promotes its political vision of an alternative economy, seeing its main objective in empowering small producers and providing these with access to and improving their position on global markets{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.

The ''most distinguishing'' feature of the Fairtrade label is the guarantee of a minimum price and a social premium that goes to the cooperative and not to the producers directly. Recently{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}, Fairtrade also adopted environmental objectives as part of their [[certification]] system.

In 2020, [[Fairtrade International]] issued a position statement,<ref>{{cite web |title=Fit for purpose? |url=https://www.fairtrade.net/issue/fit-for-purpose |website=fairtrade.net |publisher=Fairtrade International |date=2020}}</ref> defending their use of [[technical standard|private standards]], in response to a report from The Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity (MSI Integrity).

=== Rainforest Alliance ===
The [[Rainforest Alliance]] was created in the late 1980s from a social movement and is committed to conserving rainforests and their biodiversity. One key element of the standard is the compulsory elaboration and implementation of a detailed plan for the development of a sustainable farm management system to assist wildlife conservation.

Another objective is to improve workers’ welfare by establishing and securing ''sustainable'' livelihoods. Producer prices may carry a premium. Yet instead of guaranteeing a fixed [[floor price]], the standard seeks to improve the economic situation of producers through higher yields and enhanced [[cost efficiency]]{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.

=== UTZ Certified ===

[[UTZ Certified]] (formerly Utz Kapeh) was co-founded by the Dutch coffee roaster Ahold Coffee Company in 1997. It aims to create an open and transparent marketplace for socially and environmentally responsible agricultural products. ''Instruments'' include the UTZ Traceability System and the UTZ Code of Conduct.

The traceability system makes certified products traceable from producer to final buyer and has ''stringent'' chains of custody requirements. The UTZ Code of Conduct emphasizes both environmental practices (e.g. biodiversity conservation, waste handling, and water use) and social benefits (e.g. access to medical care, access to sanitary facilities at work).

=== Organic ===
The [[Organic farming|Organic]] standard was developed in the 1970s and is based on [[IFOAM]] Basic Standards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luttikholt |first=L. W. M. |date=2007-01-01 |title=Principles of organic agriculture as formulated by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements |journal=NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences |language=en |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=347–360 |doi=10.1016/S1573-5214(07)80008-X |s2cid=62898220 |issn=1573-5214|doi-access=free }}</ref> IFOAM stands for International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements and is the leading global umbrella organization for the organic farming movement. The IFOAM Basic Standards provide a framework of minimum requirements, including the omission of agrochemicals such as pesticides and chemical-synthetic fertilizers. The use of animal feeds is also strictly regulated. Genetic engineering and the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are forbidden{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.

=== Sustainable Tourism ===
With increasing awareness, The [[tourism]] industry has a variety of sustainability standards for different subsectors. This includes standards for [[Eco hotel|sustainable hotels]], sustainable tour operators, sustainable events and conferences, sustainable destinations, and so on.

===LEED===
The [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] standards were developed by the US [[Green Building Council]] in an effort to propel green building design in the United States. LEED certification can be attained through ""compliance with all environmental laws and regulations, occupancy scenarios, building permanence and pre-rating completion, site boundaries and area-to-site ratios, and obligatory five-year sharing of whole building [[energy use|energy]] and [[water use]] data from the start of occupancy (for new construction) or date of [[certification]] (for existing buildings)"".<ref name=""test"">{{cite web |url=http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=6715 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-12-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205123305/http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=6715 |archive-date=2011-12-05 }}, additional text.</ref>

===Other examples===
Other types of standards include sector-specific schemes such as the [[Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil]] (RSPO); standards for climate and development interventions like the Gold Standard, retailer-led sustainability [[certification]] initiatives such as [[GlobalGAP]];
Corporate own-brand sustainability initiatives such as [[Starbucks#Coffee and Farmer Equity .28C.A.F.E..29 practices|Starbucks' C.A.F.E. Practices]]; and national programs such as the [[Bord Bia|Irish Food Board]]'s 'Origin Green' scheme.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://agritrade.cta.int/Agriculture/Topics/Product-differentiation/Special-report-Implications-of-sustainability-certification-schemes-for-the-ACP| title=Implications of sustainability certification schemes for the ACP| date=16 November 2013| website=Agritrade| archive-date=July 5, 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705030734/http://agritrade.cta.int/Agriculture/Topics/Product-differentiation/Special-report-Implications-of-sustainability-certification-schemes-for-the-ACP}}</ref>

The [[United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards]] (UNFSS) is a joint initiative of FAO, UNEP, ITC, UNCTAD, and UNIDO on Sustainability Standards.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards|url=https://unfss.org|website=UNFSS|publisher=United Nations|access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref> UNFSS is a neutral and credible platform to maximize the potential of Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS) as a means to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through:<ref>{{Cite web|title=About UNFSS|url=https://unfss.org/home/about-unfss/|access-date=2021-03-03|website=UNFSS|language=en-US}}</ref> Facilitating emerging economies' access to lucrative markets, stimulating well-informed dialogue among key stakeholders at the national and international level, and building capacities for producers and SMEs, to enhance opportunities in international trade.

== See also ==
*[[Certification]]
*[[Circles of Sustainability]]
*[[Ecolabel]]
*[[Harmonization (standards)]] 
*[[List of sustainability topics]]
*[[International Standard]]
*[[Standards organization]]
*[[Sustainability]]
*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Sustainable sourcing]]
*[[Technical Standard]]
*[[United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Recommended readings ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Baue|first1=Bill |year=2023
  |title=The Lost Decade: Sustainability Standards Sabotage Sustainability
  |journal= r3.0 (Redesign for Resilience & Regeneration)
  |url=https://www.r3-0.org/the-lost-decade/ }}
*{{cite book |first1=Emma |last1=Blackmore |first2=James |last2=Keeley |first3=Rhiannon |last3=Pyburn |first4=Ellen |last4=Mangus |first5=Lu |last5=Chen |first6=Qiao |last6=Yuhui |title=Pro-poor certification: Assessing the benefits of sustainability certification for small-scale farmers in Asia |date=March 2012 |publisher=IIED |isbn=978-1-84369-843-2 |url=https://pubs.iied.org/14604IIED/ }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Brunsson |first1=N. |author1-link=Nils Brunsson |last2=Rasche |first2=A. |last3=Seidl |first3=D. |year=2012
  |ssrn=2089976 |title=The Dynamics of Standardisation: Three Perspectives on Standards in Organization Studies
  |journal=[[Organization Studies (journal)|Organization Studies]] |volume=33 |number=5–6 |pages=613–633 |doi=10.1177/0170840612450120 |s2cid=45252880 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/73434/1/OS_Standards_Brunsson-Seidl-Rasche.pdf }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Gilbert |first1=D.U. |last2=Rasche |first2=A. |last3=Waddock |first3=S. |year=2011
  |ssrn=1709011
  |title=Accountability in a Global Economy: The Emergence of International Accountability Standards
  |journal=[[Business Ethics Quarterly]] |volume=21 |number=1 |pages=23–44 |doi=10.5840/beq20112112|s2cid=43387391 }} 
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Gilbert |first1=D.U. |last2=Rasche |first2=A. |year=2007
  |ssrn=1652151
  |title=Discourse Ethics and Social Accountability: The Ethics of SA 8000
  |journal=Business Ethics Quarterly |volume=17 |number=2 |pages=187–216 |doi=10.5840/beq200717230|s2cid=145330990 }} 
*{{cite web |last1=Giovannucci |first1=Daniele |title=Sustainable Coffee Survey of the North American Specialty Coffee Industry |url=http://www3.cec.org/islandora/en/item/1700-sustainable-coffee-survey-north-american-specialty-coffee-industry |date=2001 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Giovannucci |first1=Daniele |last2=Potts |first2=Jason |last3=Killian |first3=B. |last4=Wunderlich |first4=C. |last5=Schuller |first5=S. |last6=Soto |first6=G. |last7=Schroeder |first7=K. |last8=Vagneron |first8=I. |last9=Pinard |first9=F. |title=Seeking Sustainability: COSA preliminary analysis of sustainability initiatives in the coffee sector |date=2008 |url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/eprint/13401 |ssrn=1338582 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Gulbrandsen |first1=Lars H. |title=Accountability Arrangements in Non-State Standards Organizations: Instrumental Design and Imitation |journal=Organization |date=July 2008 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=563–583 |doi=10.1177/1350508408091007 |s2cid=145407056 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Kolk |first1=Ans |title=Corporate Social Responsibility in the Coffee Sector |journal=European Management Journal |date=April 2005 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=228–236 |doi=10.1016/j.emj.2005.02.003 |citeseerx=10.1.1.204.3754 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Manning |first1=S. |last2=Boons |first2=F. |last3=Von Hagen |first3=O. |last4=Reinecke |first4=J
  |ssrn=1752655 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.08.029
  |title=National Contexts Matter: The Co-Evolution of Sustainability Standards in Global Value Chains
  |journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]] |year=2012 |volume=83 |pages=197–209 |s2cid=54715286 |url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/86263/1/RA14WP%202012%20EE%20National%20Contexts%20Matter.pdf }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Manning |first1=S. |last2=von Hagen |first2=O |year=2010
  |ssrn=1668888
  |title=Linking Local Experiments to Global Standards: How Project Networks Promote Global Institution-Building
  |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Management |volume=26 |number=4 |pages=398–416 |doi=10.1016/j.scaman.2010.09.003|s2cid=144234235 |url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/86270/1/RA8WP%202010%20SJM%20Global%20Project%20Networks.pdf }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Muradian |first1=Roldan |last2=Pelupessy |first2=Wim |title=Governing the coffee chain: The role of voluntary regulatory Systems |journal=World Development |date=December 2005 |volume=33 |issue=12 |pages=2029–2044 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.06.007 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Rasche |first1=A. |year=2012 |ssrn=2129694
  |title=Global Policies and Local Practice: Loose and Tight Couplings in Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives
  |journal=Business Ethics Quarterly |volume=22 |number=4 |pages=679–708 |doi=10.5840/beq201222444|s2cid=144816840 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Rasche |first1=A. |year=2010 |ssrn=1684763
  |title=Collaborative Governance 2.0 |journal=Corporate Governance |volume=10 |number=4 |pages=500–511 |doi=10.1108/14720701011069713|s2cid=154959736 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Rasche |first1=A. |year=2009 |ssrn=1658503
  |title=Toward a Model to Compare and Analyze Accountability Standards
  |journal=Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management |volume=16 |number=4 |pages=192–205 |doi=10.1002/csr.202|s2cid=62898416 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Reinecke |first1=J. |year=2010 |journal=Organization |volume=17 |number=5 |pages=1–19
  |title=Beyond a subjective theory of value and towards a 'fair price': an organizational perspective on Fairtrade minimum price setting |doi=10.1177/1350508410372622|s2cid=145741555 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Reinecke |first1=J. |last2=Manning |first2=S. |last3=Von Hagen |first3=O 
  |ssrn=1970343
  |title=The Emergence of a Standards Market: Multiplicity of Sustainability Standards in the Global Coffee Industry
  |journal=Organization Studies |date=2012 |volume=33 |number=5/6 |pages=789–812 |doi=10.1177/0170840612443629|s2cid=38006629 |url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/86265/1/RA12WP%202012%20OS%20Emergence%20of%20a%20Standards%20Market.pdf }}
*{{cite book
  |last1=Vogt |first1=M. |year=2019 |title=Variance in approach to a sustainable coffee industry in Costa Rica perspectives from within: lessons and insights|publisher=Ubiquity Press |doi=10.5334/bce|isbn=9781911529767 |doi-access=free }} 
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
*[https://www.fairtrade.net/ Fairtrade International's main website]
*[http://www.fsc.org/ FSC International]
*[https://www.isealalliance.org/ ISEAL Alliance initiative on sustainability standards]
*[http://www.standardsmap.org/ Standards Map from the International Trade Center]
*[http://www.coffeehabitat.com/certification-guide/ Referenced guide to major coffee certifications]

{{Sustainability}}

{{Social accountability}}

[[Category:Environmental standards]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Triple top line,"{{confusing|date=June 2015|reason=I'm not sure what this article is talking about?  An alternative accounting framework? Something that advocates recycling and sustainability issues?  What IS TTL?}}

'''Triple top line''' (abbreviated as '''TTL''' or '''3TL''') is first mentioned by McDonough and Braungart (2002).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McDonough|first1=William|last2=Braungart|first2=Michael|title=Design for the Triple Top Line: New Tools for Sustainable Commerce|journal=Corporate Environmental Strategy|date=2002|volume=9|issue=3|page=251}}</ref> The [[triple bottom line]], an accounting framework coined by [[John Elkington (business author)|John Elkington]] in 1994,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/14301663|title=Triple Bottom Line|date=November 17, 2009|accessdate=14 August 2014|publisher=The Economist}}</ref> focuses on aligning sustainability and the intentions of a business when it comes to profit, whereas triple top line is a focus to align sustainability and business profitability from the inception of a product.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.mcdonough.com/writings/design-triple-top-line/|title=Design for the Triple Top Line (2002) {{!}} William McDonough|work=William McDonough|access-date=2017-10-23|language=en-US}}</ref> The TTL approach is an integral part of the process from the beginning of a product's development through its future development and marketing strategic planning.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]


{{Accounting-stub}}"
Choice editing,"'''Choice editing''' refers to the active process of controlling or limiting the choices available to consumers so as to drive to an end goal, specifically by [[ban (law)|banning things]] or imposing [[pigovian tax|punitive taxation]].  The term has gained currency in discussions about [[sustainability]].

==Definition==
The [[Sustainable Development Commission]] defined ""choice editing"" as ""...shifting the field of choice for mainstream consumers: cutting out unnecessarily damaging products and getting real sustainable choices on the shelves.""<ref name=SDC2006>{{cite report
  |publisher=[[Sustainable Development Commission]]
  |url=http://www.sd-commission.org.uk/data/files/publications/Looking_back_SCR.pdf
  |title=Looking Back, Looking Forward: Lessons in Choice Editing for Sustainability
  |date=May 2006
  |page=2
  |access-date=2011-06-30
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928155907/http://www.sd-commission.org.uk/data/files/publications/Looking_back_SCR.pdf
  |archive-date=2011-09-28
  |url-status=dead
  }}</ref> The process involves ""...[removing] environmentally offensive products from commercial consideration or [making] such products expensive to use.""<ref name=Maniates>{{cite web
  |url=http://webpub.allegheny.edu/employee/m/mmaniate/choice_editing_Maniates.pdf
  |first=Michael
  |last=Maniates
  |title=Editing out Unsustainable Behavior
  |access-date=2011-06-30
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928083942/http://webpub.allegheny.edu/employee/m/mmaniate/choice_editing_Maniates.pdf
  |archive-date=2011-09-28
  |url-status=dead
  }}</ref> Choice editing is a direct control of the impact from consumption and aims to only provide sustainable products in the market. Not only products can be edited out or replaced, but also product components, processes and business models.<ref name=WBCSD>
{{cite report
  |publisher=World Business Council for Sustainable Development
  |title=Sustainable consumption facts and trends: from a business perspective
  |year=2008
}}</ref>

==History==
Choice editing is nothing new. It has been around through standards, [[tax]]es, [[tariff]]s and [[subsidy|subsidies]] that made certain products more desirable for consumers than others. The Sustainable Development Roundtable in 2006 announced that in the past choice editing was a major driver of “green” innovations, which suggests its potential to increase [[sustainable consumption]].<ref name=WorldWatch2010>
{{cite web
  |url=http://blogs.worldwatch.org/transformingcultures/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/SOW10-ChoiceEditing.pdf
  |title=State of the World: Transforming Cultures from Consumerism to Sustainability
  |publisher=The Worldwatch Institute
  |year=2010
}}</ref>

==Actors==
Governments and policy makers can edit citizens’ choices through laws, taxes, subsidies and voluntary bans. Businesses can edit choice by removing products from their range that might have negative impact on health or environment. Additionally, they can control their value chain and together with suppliers, processors and retailers develop solutions for more sustainable products and processes. A close collaboration along the value chain is important as the product’s environmental and social performance reflects the whole [[life-cycle assessment]]. 

Retailers can actively ""edit out"" choices by not stocking products that they, or the state, consider to have an unacceptable environmental impact, thus being unsustainable options. Moreover, retailers can edit choice by requiring their suppliers to meet certain criteria.<ref name=WBCSD/><ref>{{cite web
  |publisher=The Danish Environmental Protection Agency
  |title=Choice Editing
  |date=20 January 2011
  |url=http://www.mst.dk/English/SustainableConsumptionandProductionintheNordicRetailSector/WhatCanRetailersDo/Upstream/ChoiceEditing/
  |access-date=30 June 2011
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928023258/http://www.mst.dk/English/SustainableConsumptionandProductionintheNordicRetailSector/WhatCanRetailersDo/Upstream/ChoiceEditing/
  |archive-date=28 September 2011
  |url-status=dead
  }}</ref>

==Examples==
; Editing by policy makers - light bulb ban
The [[Australia]]n government phased out [[incandescent light bulb]]s by 2010 as a step towards preventing possible electricity shortages and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. They were replaced by [[compact fluorescent lamp]]s (CFLs) and [[LED lamp]]s. The expected consequences are reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 4 million tons per year from 2012. The [[European Union]] is following Australia’s example by removing all incandescent bulbs by 2012. Many other countries such as [[Canada]], the [[United States]] and [[Indonesia]] will do so as well.<ref name=WorldWatch2010/>

; Banning a product component – Henkel
[[Henkel]] took over the [[Brazil]]ian company Alba in 2006. Some of the company’s adhesive products contained toluene, which was misused by young people for [[Inhalant abuse|glue sniffing]]. After the takeover, Henkel developed a toluene-free formula and by 2007 introduced the toluene-free brand Cascola. 

; Editing the supply chain – Adidas
[[Adidas]] supports its suppliers in order to reduce their environmental impact by developing training materials, technical guidelines and workshop tailored to each supplier’s special need. 

This way Adidas actively edits the environmental impact of its supply chain.<ref name=WBCSD/>

; Editing processes – Tijin
Tijin is a Japanese company operating in the chemical industry. They edited their business processes by developing a recycling system for polyester. This reduces energy and resource use, {{CO2}} emission and waste. Tijin established a global network with companies that collect polyester garments for recycling and support the expansion of products containing recycled polyester.<ref name=WBCSD/>

; Editing the corporate behavior - Hipp
As assessed by Belz and Peattie (2009), Prof. Dr Claus Hipp's philosophy of appropriate corporate behavior covering market, employees, the state and nature makes his baby foods company highly coveted by consumers. The company's ethics commission believes in economic fair play that can match the consumer's willingness to pay while processing the highest quality of organic raw materials that are sustainably grown. While many manufacturing companies' sustainability goals are towards the nature and the environment, Hipp takes a long-term ambition to survive in nature, as a part of it.<ref>
{{cite book
  |first1=Frank-Martin|last1=Belz
  |first2=Ken|last2=Peattie
  |title=Sustainability Marketing: A Global Perspective
  |location=UK|publisher=John Wiley & Sons
  |year=2009
}}</ref>

==Controversy==
An often raised ethical question in this matter is, whether consumers should choose freely or not. Should items be simply removed from their choices? Who decides what is removed and why? Some argue that instead of choice editing, labeling should provide information about the social and environmental performance of a product. Based on that, consumers are free to choose between sustainable and unsustainable products themselves.<ref name=Maniates/>

The opposite opinion is held by [[Tim Lang (professor)|Tim Lang]], professor of food policy at [[City University London]] and a prominent figure in Britain's food industry. In an interview with ''[[The Guardian]]'' journalist Leo Hickman, Lang argues that the consumer need not be bothered in the supermarket aisle to agonise over complex issues such as animal welfare, carbon footprints, workers' rights and excessive packaging, often without any meaningful data on the label to inform their decision-making. Lang instead suggested that the manufacturers and retailers should take more responsibility by making most of these decisions on consumer's behalf before the product even reaches the shelves. This would in turn allow the consumer to avoid endorsing products that are damaging to the environment as well as the society.<ref>
{{cite news
  |first=L.|last=Hickman
  |title=Does the consumer really know?
  |work=The Guardian
  |date=25 October 2007
  |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/oct/25/ethicalliving.lifeandhealth1
  |access-date=30 June 2011
}}</ref>  

Furthermore, there is still no agreement on who defines if a product is sustainable or unsustainable. Therefore, decisions made about the availability of a product can cause conflicts between the different actors like government, policy makers, businesses and consumers as they might have varying views concerning the sustainable or unsustainable nature of a product.<ref name=WBCSD/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}


[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Category:Biodegradable waste management,"{{Commons}}

The following page contains articles linked to the management of [[biodegradable waste]]s. Biodegradable wastes are important as when [[landfill]]ed they break down anaerobically to produce [[biogas]]. If uncaptured this escapes into the atmosphere and becomes a contributor to [[global warming]]. 

[[Category:Biodegradation|Waste management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Waste]]
[[Category:Waste management]]"
Category:Climate change mitigation,"{{Commons category|Climate change mitigation}}
{{Cat main}}

[[Category:Climate change|Mitigation]]
[[Category:Environmental mitigation]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Climate forcing]]"
Category:Industrial ecology,"{{Cat main|Industrial ecology}}

[[Category:Environmental engineering]]
[[Category:Industrial engineering]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Economy and the environment]]"
Category:Sustainable technologies,"{{commons category}}
This category is for articles relating to [[sustainable technology|sustainable technologies]] including:
* [[Renewable energy]]
* [[Sustainable living]]
* [[Organic agriculture]]
* [[Environmental economics]]
* [[Environmental technology]]

[[Category:Sustainable development|Tech]]
[[Category:Environmental technology]]
{{CatAutoTOC}}"
Category:Waste minimisation,"{{Catmore}}
See also [[:Category:Energy conservation]].

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Waste management]]
[[Category:Environmental mitigation]]
<!-- having little or no waste -->

{{CatTrack}}"
Category:Renewable resources,"{{Commons category|Renewable resources}}
{{catmain}}

{{JEL code|Q2}}

[[Category:Natural resources]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Category:Self-sustainability,"{{Cat main|Self-sustainability}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Simple living]]
[[Category:Social movements]]
[[Category:Preparedness]]
[[Category:Individualism]]
[[Category:Economic systems]]"
Category:Sustainable communities,"{{Commons}}
{{Cat main|Sustainable community}}

[[Category:Sustainable development|Communities]]
[[Category:Intentional communities]]"
Category:Sustainable design,"{{Commons category|Sustainable environmental design}}
{{cat main|Sustainable design}}

[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development|Design]]"
Category:International sustainable development,"{{Commons category|International sustainable development}}
[[Category:International development|Sustainable]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Global natural environment|Sustainable]]"
Product lifetime,"{{Short description|Length of time a product is owned and used}}
[[File:S1 BWH10-8-02.JPG|thumb|''[[Festiniog Railway 0-4-0TT|Prince]]'' was built 1863 and operated 1864–1936, 1955–1968, 1980-present, a product life of over 150 years, a service life of around 125 years]]
'''Product lifetime''' or '''product lifespan''' is the time interval from when a product is sold to when it is discarded.<ref name="":6"" />

Product lifetime is slightly different from [[service life]] because the latter considers only the effective time the product is used.<ref name="":6"" /> It is also different from product economic life which refers to the point where maintaining a product is more expensive than replacing it;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heiskanen|first=E.|title=Conditions for product lifetime extension|journal=National Consumption Research Center|language=en|volume=22}}</ref> from product technical life which refers to the maximum period during which a product has the physical capacity to function;<ref name="":0""/> and from the functional life which is the time a product should last regardless of external intervention to increase its lifespan.<ref name=""Cox 2013 21–29"">{{Cite journal|last1=Cox|first1=Jayne|last2=Griffith|first2=Sarah|last3=Giorgi|first3=Sara|last4=King|first4=Geoff|title=Consumer understanding of product lifetimes|journal=Resources, Conservation & Recycling|year=2013|language=en|volume=79|pages=21–29|doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.05.003|issn=0921-3449}}</ref>

Product lifetime represent an important area of enquiry with regards to [[product design]], the [[circular economy]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/579000/IPOL_STU(2016)579000_EN.pdf|title=A longer lifetime for products: benefits for consumers and companies|last=Montalvo, C., Peck, D. and Rietveld, E.|publisher=European Parliament's Committee on Internal Market and Consumer Protection (IMCO)|year=2016|location=Brussels}}</ref> and [[sustainable development]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|title=Longer Lasting Products: alternatives to the throwaway society|last=Cooper|first=T|publisher=Gower|year=2010|editor-last=Cooper, T.|location=Farnham|pages=3–36|chapter=The significance of product longevity}}</ref> This is because products, with the materials involved in their design, production, distribution, use and disposal (across their [[Life Cycle Thinking|life cycle]]), embody carbon due to the energy involved in these processes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ciemap.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/CIEMAP-Report.pdf|title=A whole system analysis of how industrial energy and material demand reduction can contribute to a low carbon future for the UK.|last=Norman, J.B., Serrenho, A.C., Cooper, S.J.G., Owen, A., Sakai, M., Scott, K., Brockway, P.E., Cooper, S., Giesekam, J., Salvia, G., Cullen, J.M., Barrett, J.R., Cooper, T., Hammond, G.P. and Allwood, J.M.|publisher=CIE-MAP|year=2016}}</ref> Therefore, if product lifetimes can be extended, the [[Embodied energy|use of energy]], [[Embodied carbon emissions|embodied in carbon]], can be reduced and progress can be made towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Bocken et al.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bocken|first1=Nancy M. P.|last2=Pauw|first2=Ingrid de|last3=Bakker|first3=Conny|last4=Grinten|first4=Bram van der|title=Product design and business model strategies for a circular economy|journal=Journal of Industrial and Production Engineering|volume=33|issue=5|pages=308–320|doi=10.1080/21681015.2016.1172124|issn=2168-1015|year=2016|doi-access=free}}</ref> term this ""''Slowing resource loops''"" (309, ''their emphasis''). In addition, excessive waste generation has been attributed to short-lived goods and a throwaway society.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Waste Makers|last=Packard|first=Vance|publisher=Penguin|year=1963|location=Harmondsworth}}</ref>

In recent years, there has been a growth in academic and policy discussions around product lifetimes. For example, discussion of product lifetimes are an integral part of the European Commission's action plan for the circular economy<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:8a8ef5e8-99a0-11e5-b3b7-01aa75ed71a1.0012.02/DOC_1&format=PDF|title=Closing the loop - An EU action plan for the Circular Economy|last=European Commission|year=2015|location=Brussels}}</ref>''.'' In academia, the PLATE (Product Lifetimes and the Environment) Consortium hosts regular conferences and seminars around the topic of product lifetimes and the environment (see: http://www.plateconference.org/). In the business world, the Canadian Kijiji platform's Secondhand Economy Index examines how consumers extend product lifetime through secondhand marketplaces, swapping, donating and renting/leasing/lending/pooling (see: https://www.kijiji.ca/kijijicentral/second-hand-economy/).

This article examines how product lifetimes are defined in the academic literature and discusses how product lifetimes can be measured. A distinction is made between the definition and measurement of ''actual'' and ''expected'' product lifetimes.

== Defining product lifetimes ==

Definitions of product lifetimes vary depending on what aspects those conducting research are interested in. Generally, actual product lifetimes refer to the actual time that a product exists in a particular state.<ref name="":6"" /> In contrast, expected product lifetimes refer to users' expectations for the lifetime of a product.<ref name="":1"" /> Additionally, actual and expected product lifetimes are influenced by durability and longevity; these concepts are briefly outlined below.

[[Durability]] is described by Cooper<ref name="":5"">{{Cite book|title=Beyond recycling: the longer life option|last=Cooper, T.|publisher=New Economics Foundation|year=1994|location=London}}</ref> as ""the ability of a product to perform its required function over a lengthy period under normal use conditions of use without excessive expenditure on maintenance or repair"" (p.&nbsp;5). In contrast, longevity encompasses more than just the material properties of the product.<ref name="":0"" /> Cooper<ref name="":0"" /> notes that user behaviour, and broader social and cultural trends play important roles in the product's longevity. The paragraphs below outline the definitions of actual and expected product lifetimes.

=== Actual product lifetimes ===
Exhaustive work has been undertaken by Murakami et al.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal|last1=Murakami|first1=Shinsuke|last2=Oguchi|first2=Masahiro|last3=Tasaki|first3=Tomohiro|last4=Daigo|first4=Ichiro|last5=Hashimoto|first5=Seiji|date=2010-08-01|title=Lifespan of Commodities, Part I|journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=598–612|doi=10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00250.x|s2cid=157493536|issn=1530-9290}}</ref> and Oguchi et al.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite journal|last1=Oguchi|first1=Masahiro|last2=Murakami|first2=Shinsuke|last3=Tasaki|first3=Tomohiro|last4=Daigo|first4=Ichiro|last5=Hashimoto|first5=Seiji|date=2010-08-01|title=Lifespan of Commodities, Part II|journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=613–626|doi=10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00251.x|s2cid=154898164|issn=1530-9290}}</ref> and to outline several definitions and discuss methods for identifying actual product lifetimes. Murkami et al.<ref name="":6"" /> identify the following overarching concepts in product lifetime definitions which are discussed below: Age, Residential time, Service life, Possession span and Duration of use.

==== Age ====
A product's age is the time from when the product was created to either the present or ""the time of interest"" (:<ref name="":6"" /> 600) for the researchers.

==== Residential time ====
Residential time is considered to be time in which a product, its constituent materials and parts, exists in society.<ref name="":6"" /> Residential time includes the time in which a product may be broken and/ or discarded.<ref name="":6"" />

==== Service life ====
{{Main|Service life}}

According to Murkami et al.,<ref name="":6"" /> the service life of a product refers to the duration of time for which products continue to work and can be used.

==== Possession span ====
The possession span is the period of time that a user has possession of the product.<ref name="":6"" />

==== Duration of use ====
The duration of use indicates how long a user uses the product for.<ref name="":6"" /> Murkami et al.<ref name="":6"" /> distinguish duration of use from [[Service life]] by noting that duration of use is measured for a specific user, whereas [[Service life]] describes the total in-service use of the product for all its users (accounting for transfers of ownership e.g. reuse). Additionally, possession span is distinguished from duration of use, as possession span includes ""dead storage"" (:<ref name="":6"" /> 601) time, where a product is owned by a user but not in use (i.e. in storage).

== Product lifetime extension ==
===Product lifetime extension business models (PLEBM)===
PLE is enacted through various entities that can be generically denominated as product lifetime extension business models (PLEBM) and which aim at improving product design (nature strategies)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bakker|first1=Conny|last2=Wang|first2=Feng|last3=Huisman|first3=Jacob|last4=den Hollander|first4=Marcel|title=Products that go round: exploring product life extension through design|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|year=2014|language=en|volume=69|pages=10–16|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.028|issn=0959-6526}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van Nes|first1=Nicole|last2=Cramer|first2=Jacqueline|title=Design strategies for the lifetime optimisation of products|journal=The Journal of Sustainable Product Design|year=2003|language=en|volume=3|issue=3–4|pages=101–107|doi=10.1007/s10970-005-2144-8|s2cid=111300945}}</ref> or increase the lifetime of the product during post-production phases (nurture strategies).<ref name=""Cox 2013 21–29""/> Any organization could constitute a PLEBM for as long as it contributes to increase product lifetime. The Product lifetime extension business model (PLEBM) framework is a typology of PLE business models based on Osterwalder and Pigneur's (2010) framework.

===Expected product lifetimes===
{{main|Design life}}
A conference paper by Oguchi et al.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/28621/|title=Electronics Goes Green 2016+ Conference|last=Oguchi, M., Tasaki, T., Daigo, I., Cooper, T., Cole, C. and Gnanapragasam, A.|year=2016|location=Berlin|chapter=Consumers' expectations for product lifetimes of consumer durables.}}</ref> sought to identify and test differences in definitions of product lifetime expectations. Oguchi et al.<ref name="":1"" /> illustrated that previous research into expected product lifetimes has been inconsistent in its use of the term expected product lifetimes. For example, Cooper<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cooper|first=Tim|title=Inadequate Life? Evidence of Consumer Attitudes to Product Obsolescence|journal=Journal of Consumer Policy|language=en|volume=27|issue=4|pages=421–449|doi=10.1007/s10603-004-2284-6|issn=0168-7034|year=2004|s2cid=56161987|url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/13899/1/NPS1082a_Cooper.pdf}}</ref> enquires about ""reasonable"" expected lifetimes, while Brook Lyndhurst<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.brooklyndhurst.co.uk/public-understanding-of-product-lifetimes-and-durability-_156.html|title=Public understanding of product lifetimes and durability (1)|last=Brook Lyndhurst|publisher=Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs|year=2011|location=London}}</ref><ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal|last1=Cox|first1=Jayne|last2=Griffith|first2=Sarah|last3=Giorgi|first3=Sara|last4=King|first4=Geoff|date=2013-10-01|title=Consumer understanding of product lifetimes|journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling|series=SI: Resourceful Behaviours|volume=79|pages=21–29|doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.05.003}}</ref>  discusses ""normal"" expected lifetimes. Wieser et al.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www4.ntu.ac.uk/plate_conference/proceedings/index.html|title=Product Lifetimes and The Environment|last=Wieser, H., Tröger, N. and Hübner, R.|publisher=Nottingham Trent University|location=Nottingham|pages=388–393|chapter=The consumers’ desired and expected product lifetimes}}</ref> identified the tension between everyday expectations and desires, distinguishing between these expectations in his study of 21 products. In addition, earlier work by Tasaki et al.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=智宏|first1=田崎|last2=淳|first2=寺園|last3=祐一|first3=森口|date=2004-01-01|title=長期使用とリュース促進のための家電製品・パソコンの廃棄行動実態とその行動要因の調査|journal=廃棄物学会論文誌|volume=15|issue=4|pages=310–319|doi=10.3985/jswme.15.310|doi-access=free}}</ref> and more recent work by WRAP<ref name="":2"">{{Cite book|url=http://www.wrap.org.uk/content/clothing-longevity-measuring-active-use|title=Clothing longevity and measuring active use|last=Langley, E., Durkacz, S. and Tanase, S.|publisher=WRAP|year=2013|location=Banbury}}</ref> have asked users to report both how long they have owned an item for, and how long they expect to use the item for in future: WRAP<ref name="":2"" /> term this ""active use"". Building on these previous studies (''described above''), Oguchi et al.<ref name="":1"" /> identified and tested three distinct definitions of expected product lifetimes, these are outlined below.

==== Intended lifetime ====
Oguchi et al.<ref name="":1"" /> define the intended lifetime as the length of time for which a user intends to use the product in question.

==== Ideal lifetime ====
The ideal length of time for which a user expects their product to last. Oguchi et al.<ref name="":1"" /> describe this as ""the highest preference of consumers"".

==== Predicted lifetime ====
The realist prediction by the user of how long a product will last. The user is thought to make this prediction based on their previous experiences and ""other relevant factors"" (Oguhci et al.<ref name="":1"" />).

== Measuring product lifetimes ==
Academic enquiry into the product lifetimes of electrical and electronic equipment was undertaken in 2000 by Cooper and Mayers<ref name="":4"">{{Cite book|url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/6671/|title=Prospects for household appliances|author1=Cooper, T.  |author2=Mayers, K.|publisher=Sheffield Hallam University for E-SCOPE|year=2000|location=Sheffield}}</ref> who conducted household interviews and focus groups to establish the age at discard (actual product lifetime) and expected lifetimes for 17 products. Since this study, work has been undertaken by other academics into measuring actual and expected product lifetimes; the methods employed are outlined below.

=== Actual product lifetimes ===
{{main|Service life}}
Actual product lifetimes can be measured using a variety of methods which include: product testing, discard surveys, user interviews and modelling. These are discussed below.

==== Product testing ====
Products can be tested under laboratory conditions to assess their lifetime under different conditions of use.<ref name="":0"" />

==== Discard surveys ====
Oguchi et al.<ref name="":8"" /> identify that surveys of waste treatment and recycling facilities can provide information on the age of the appliance at break or discard. Identifying information such as the product serial and/ or batch number can be used to find out a date of manufacturer from which the age of the appliance at break or discard can be calculated.

==== User interviews ====
Cooper and Mayers<ref name="":4"" /> conducted household [[interview]]s to establish the age of 17 electrical and electronic items at discard and break. However it has been noted that user interviews are subject to the accuracy of [[memory]], and that reviews of products which have failed in the past only provides information on ""a historical situation"" (:<ref name="":0"" /> p.&nbsp;10), not taking into account the features and lifetime of extant products.

==== Modelling ====
Product lifetimes can be modelled using extant data from surveys with the application of [[probability]] and other [[Statistics|statistical concepts]] (e.g. [[Distribution (mathematics)|distributions]]).<ref name="":8"" /><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www4.ntu.ac.uk/plate_conference/proceedings/index.html|title=Product Lifetimes and The Environment|last=Oguchi, M.|publisher=Nottingham Trent University|year=2015|location=Nottingham|pages=388–393|chapter=Methodologies for estimating actual lifetime distribution of products}}</ref> One of the earliest attempts to estimate product lifetimes was undertaken by Pennock and Jaeger<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pennock|first1=Jean L.|last2=Jaeger|first2=Carol M.|date=1957-06-01|title=Estimating the Service Life of Household Goods by Actuarial Methods|journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association|volume=52|issue=278|pages=175–185|doi=10.1080/01621459.1957.10501377|issn=0162-1459}}</ref> who utilised actuarial methods to measure the [[Service life]] of household goods for one owner. In the 1990s, Bayus<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bayus|first=Barry L.|date=1991-01-01|title=The Consumer Durable Replacement Buyer|jstor=1252202|journal=Journal of Marketing|volume=55|issue=1|pages=42–51|doi=10.2307/1252202}}</ref> modelled car replacement rates and Bayus and Gupta<ref name="":9"">{{Cite journal|last1=Bayus|first1=Barry L.|last2=Gupta|first2=Sachin|date=1992-08-01|title=An empirical analysis of consumer durable replacement intentions|journal=International Journal of Research in Marketing|volume=9|issue=3|pages=257–267|doi=10.1016/0167-8116(92)90021-C}}</ref> evaluated the user decision-making process and factors around replacement car purchases.<ref name="":9"" /> In 2010, Oguchi et al.<ref name="":8"" /> proposed modelling product lifetimes factoring the total number of products shipped and discarded in a year. Oguchi et al.<ref name="":8"" /> outlined a series of equations which represent lifespan distributions for a given product at a particular point in time.

=== Expected product lifetimes ===
{{main|Design life}}
Expected product lifetimes are measured at the individual level using survey methods and collectively using focus groups. With the exception of Oguchi et al.<ref name="":1"" /> and Wieser et al.,<ref name="":3"" /> many studies into expected product lifetimes have not distinguished between the different definitions (outlined above). The methods for measuring expected product lifetimes are outlined below.

==== Survey methods ====
Survey methods into expected product lifetimes encompass [[Online Questionnaires|online questionnaires]],<ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":3"" /> household<ref name="":4"" /> and telephone<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Echegaray|first=Fabián|date=2016-10-15|title=Consumers' reactions to product obsolescence in emerging markets: the case of Brazil|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|series=Special Volume: Transitions to Sustainable Consumption and Production in Cities|volume=134, Part A|pages=191–203|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.119|s2cid=153477681}}</ref>  [[interview]]s. These studies asked individual participants to report their expectations for product lifetimes in units of time. Survey methods (such as Oguchi et al.<ref name="":1"" />) can also use [[Likert scale|Likert items]] to evaluate if current products meet users expectations with regards to durability and longevity.

==== Focus groups ====
[[Focus group]]s can be convened where participants take part in discussions to reach a group consensus on product lifetime expectations.<ref name="":7"" />

==See also==
* [[Circular economy]]
* [[Design life]]
* [[Durability]]
* [[Durable good]]
* [[Maintainability]]
* [[Planned obsolescence]]
* [[Repairability]]
* [[Product stewardship]]
* [[Sustainable products]]
* [[Throwaway society]]
* [[Waste minimization]]
* [[Whole-life cost]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Product lifetimes}}
[[Category:Product design]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Ecoplanet Bamboo Group,"{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2017}}
{{multiple issues|
{{primary sources|date=January 2017}}
{{COI|date=October 2019}}
}}

Winner of the [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]]'s 2014 Award for Corporate Excellence,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/e/eb/ace |title=Archived copy |access-date=January 5, 2017 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> founded in 2010 by Troy Wiseman and Camille Rebelo, EcoPlanet Bamboo has pioneered the industrialization of bamboo as an alternative fiber for timber manufacturing industries. To date the Company has 37,250 acres of bamboo farms under ownership, in Central American, Western and Southern Africa, with larger scale [[plantation]]s underway.

EcoPlanet Bamboo is a privately owned United States Company, registered in Delaware and with corporate headquarters located outside of Chicago, Illinois. It is a US Series LLC allowing each geographic region and individual bamboo plantation to be funded and operated separately but under the same umbrella.

The Company has been recognized for its social impact<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20131017005822/en/EcoPlanet-Bamboo-Wins-IAIR-Award-Sustainability|title=EcoPlanet Bamboo Wins IAIR Award for Sustainability|website=Businesswire.com|date=October 17, 2013 |accessdate=November 14, 2017}}</ref> created more than 750 jobs and operates in some of the poorest parts of the world in [[Nicaragua]], South Africa and [[Ghana]].

EcoPlanet Bamboo plants species of tropical clumping ([[sympodial]]) bamboos, using only highly degraded<ref>''EcoPlanet Bamboo uses the UNFCCC tool for the Identification of Degraded Land.''</ref> and marginal land to produce a tree free, [[deforestation]] free fiber. The Company has developed a framework for what sustainability means in respect to [[bamboo]]. Farms reach maturity in 5–7 years and the fiber is targeted towards [[Fortune 500|Fortune 500 companies]] dependent on wood and fiber as their raw resource.

The company is highly decentralized with individual bamboo plantations operating under EcoPlanet Bamboo Groups standardized operational framework to achieve [[Forest restoration|Forest Landscape Restoration]].<ref>{{cite web |title=4.6 Commercial bamboo plantations as a tool for restoring landscapes |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/478515978/Commercial-bamboo-plantations-as-a-tool-for-restoring-landscapes |accessdate=14 November 2017}}</ref> A full set of qualified managerial staff exists on each farm and is overseen by a core managerial team.

==Bamboo in China==
Although bamboo is a plant that has been grown and harvested in China for generations, it occurs only within a smallholder model. There are few commercial or large scale managed plantations. The majority of area under bamboo comprises plots of a few Mu in size, owned by individual farmers or families, and managed as part of a [[Crop diversity|diverse]] mix of livelihood crops. Throughout China bamboo has been planted only in areas not suitable for agriculture, which generally mean mountainous land that is often inaccessible. Most of China's bamboo industry is focused on a single iconic species – [[Phyllostachys edulis|Moso (''Phyllostachys edulis'')]]

The processing of bamboo in China is dominated by low and medium level processing, with a large focus on two very different markets (1) the global handicraft industry and (2) the production of [[Bamboo shoot|edible bamboo shoots]] for the food industry. In recent years there has been an increase in the production of [[bamboo floor]]ing.

EcoPlanet Bamboo is working in a different manner growing certified bamboo fiber for the [[pulp and paper industry]], textiles and [[Engineered wood|engineered timber]].

==Historical barriers to industrialization==
EcoPlanet Bamboo claims to have overcome many barriers to industrialize bamboo as a commercial crop:
# A lack of planting material.  See “[[Bamboo#Mass flowering|bamboo mass flowering]]"".
# Lack of knowledge on the growth, ecology and yields of bamboos other than Moso.
# High investment required to take bamboo through the 6–7 years required to reach maturity.
# Difficulty of operating in remote parts of the developing world.

==Bamboo sustainability==
EcoPlanet Bamboo is a triple bottom line company promoting the concept of conscious capitalism. The company has pioneered the concept of sustainability certification for commercially produced bamboo. Nicaraguan farms are certified under the [[Forest Stewardship Council]] (FSC), the [[Verified Carbon Standard]] (VCS) and have gold level Climate Community Biodiversity Alliance (CCBA) stamp of approval. EcoPlanet Bamboo is the first entity to have received these certifications for application to bamboo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20121115006752/en/EcoPlanet-Bamboo-Acquires-FSC-Certification-Enabling-Supply|title=EcoPlanet Bamboo Acquires FSC Certification, Enabling Supply of a Sustainable Alternative Fiber to US &amp;&nbsp;Multinational&nbsp;Manufacturing Industries|website=Bsinesswire.com|date=November 15, 2012 |accessdate=November 14, 2017}}</ref>

The Company has been insured by the [[Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency|World Bank's Multilateral Insurance Guarantee Agency (MIGA)]], holding a $48&nbsp;million policy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.agriinvestor.com/miga-increases-ecoplanet-bamboo-guarantee/|title=MIGA increases EcoPlanet Bamboo guarantee - Agri Investor|date=June 25, 2015|website=Agriinvestor.com|accessdate=November 14, 2017}}</ref> MIGA has featured EcoPlanet Bamboo for strong social and environmental impact.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.miga.org/Lists/General/CustomDisp.aspx?ID=1488|title=General|website=Miga.org|accessdate=November 14, 2017}}</ref>

EcoPlanet Bamboo's farms are examples of private [[Forest restoration#Forest landscape restoration|sector forest landscape restoration]], with planted bamboo [[Habitat conservation|conserving]] and reconnecting remnant forest patches and scattered native vegetation, restoring soil functioning, water tables and carbon sinks.

==US Department of State ACE Award==
This annual award was presented to EcoPlanet Bamboo by [[John Kerry|Secretary Kerry]] at the US State Department in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/12/234839.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=June 24, 2017 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> EcoPlanet Bamboo was honored alongside the [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca Cola company]] for trendsetting good business practices in its countries of operation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pronicaragua.gob.ni/en/press-releases/1434-ecoplanet-bamboo-earns-award-for-corporate-excelle/|title=EcoPlanet Bamboo earns Award for Corporate Excellence|website=PRONicaragua.gob.ni|accessdate=November 14, 2017}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.bambuskomfort.com/bambusparkett/ Bamboo Parquet Plank]

[[Category:Bamboo]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
African Centre for Technology Studies,"{{Infobox organization
| name                = African Centre for Technology Studies
| native_name         = 
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| abbreviation        = ACTS
| predecessor         = 
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| formation           = 1988<ref name=""who_when"">{{citation |url=http://www.acts-net.org/about-us/who-we-are |title=Who we are |work=ACTS |date=nd |accessdate=December 23, 2016 |archive-date=December 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204043321/http://www.acts-net.org/about-us/who-we-are |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| founder             = [[Calestous Juma]] {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|commas=true}}<ref name=""Juma_Harvard_2012"" />
| founding_location   = [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]
| extinction          = <!-- use {{end date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} -->
| merger              = 
| type                = [[Think Tank]]
| tax_id              = <!-- or | vat_id = (for European organizations) -->
| registration_id     = <!-- for non-profit org -->
| status              = 
| purpose             = ''To strengthen the capacity and policies of African countries and institutions to harness science, technology and innovation for sustainable development.'' | headquarters        = 
| location            = United Nations Cres, Nairobi, Kenya
| coords              = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LON|display=inline, title}} -->
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| board_of_directors  = 
| key_people          =  Cosmas Milton Obote Ochieng PhD., Director<ref name=""Ochieng_stakeholder_capitalism_2008"">{{cite journal |title=Comparative capitalism and sustainable development: Stakeholder capitalism and co-management in the Kenyan fisheries sub sector |author=Cosmas Milton Obote Ochieng |year=2008 |journal=[[Natural Resources Forum]] |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=64–76 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-8947.2008.00168.x}} Ochieng examines the Kenyan fisheries sub sector - using the production of''Obamo'' made from [[tilapia]], a [[dried fish]], as an example of sustainable development</ref>
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}}

'''African Centre for Technology Studies''' (ACTS) is an intergovernmental non-profit organization, founded in 1988 by [[Calestous Juma]]  {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|commas=true}}<ref name=""Juma_Harvard_2012"" /> in Nairobi, Kenya, promoting policy-oriented research on science and technology in development that is sustainable in terms of the economy, society, and the environment.<ref name=""who_when"" /> It was the first African non-profit organization to combine policy research, science and technology.<ref name=""Juma_Harvard_2012"" />{{rp|6}}

==History==
Founded in 1988, ACTS was a pioneer in development research on innovative development policies related to applied science, technology, and innovation.<ref name=""who_when"" /><ref name=""Juma_Harvard_2012"" />

ACTS research influenced policies on industrial property legislation and policy in Kenya, environmental impact assessment standards in Eastern and Southern Africa,  [[biofuels]] and [[bio-energy]] in Kenya, Eastern and West Africa. ACTS has also influenced policies across Africa on issues such as [[climate change adaptation]] and [[climate change mitigation|mitigation]], agriculture, biotechnology, [[biodiplomacy]], and [[biosafety]].<ref name=""who_when"" />

==Affiliations==
ACTS is a member of the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data (GPSDD),  which includes 150 data producers and users working towards sustainable development focusing on data that informs research ending extreme poverty and addressing climate change. The Canadian, Colombian, French, Ghanaian, Italian, Mexican, Moroccan, Nigerian, Philippine, Senegalese, United Kingdom and United States' governments are member-states of the network.<ref name=""sustainabledevelopment_UN"">{{citation |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=9691 |title=Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data |publisher=United Nations |date=2016 |accessdate=December 23, 2016}}</ref>

==Awards==
In 2013, ACTS was named as one of the top Environment Think Tanks globally.<ref name=""who_when"" /> In 1991 the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa ([[CODESRIA]]) honored ACTS for its contribution to expanding the knowledge base for development in Africa with the Justinian Rweyemamu Prize, named after Tanzania's first major economics scholar, [[Justinian Rweyemamu]].<ref name=""who_when"" /><ref name=""Juma_Harvard_2012"" />{{rp|6}}

==Community-based actions==
ACTS policy researchers engage with local communities to encourage communities to reflect on and learn from their own coping mechanisms when faced with flood-prone areas. They then choose best practice adaptations and develop long-term proactive strategies for flood mitigation which might include crop diversification.<ref>{{citation |url=http://cdkn.org/resource/in-conversation-with-elvin-nyukuri-african-centre-for-technology-studies-2/?loclang=en_gb |title=In conversation with… Elvin Nyukuri, African Centre for Technology Studies |publisher=African Centre for Technology Studies |date=May 16, 2011 |accessdate=January 22, 2017}}</ref>

==Selected publications==
ACTS published the groundbreaking study by Harvard professor, Calestous Juma<ref name=""List of Fellows"">{{cite web|title=List of Fellows|url=http://www.raeng.org.uk/about-us/people-council-committees/the-fellowship/list-of-fellows|access-date=2017-01-23|archive-date=2016-06-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608094405/http://www.raeng.org.uk/about-us/people-council-committees/the-fellowship/list-of-fellows|url-status=dead}}</ref> and J. B. Ojwang entitled ''Innovation and Sovereignty: The Patent Debate in African Development.''<ref name=""Juma_1989"">{{cite book |date=1989 |title=Innovation and Sovereignty: The Patent Debate in African Development |publisher=African Centre for Technology Studies |location=Nairobi |author1=Calestous Juma |author2=J. B. Ojwang |isbn=9966410007}}</ref> Juma directs the  Harvard Kennedy School's (HKS) Agricultural Innovation in Africa Project funded by the [[Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation]].<ref name=""Juma_Harvard_2012"">{{citation |url=https://apps.hks.harvard.edu/faculty/cv/calestousjuma.pdf |format=PDF |date=November 2012|title=Calestous Juma |pages=27 |accessdate=January 22, 2017}}</ref>

In his 1993 article, in which he examined legal processes regarding access and tenurial issues in regards to group and individual pastoral natural resource management in Turkana in Kenya, focusing on tree rights, Edmund G.C. Barrow made a case for indigenous property rights.<ref name=""Barrow_1993_Tree_rights"">{{citation |publisher=Biopolicy International, African Centre for Technology Studies via Bioline International |number=8 |date=1993 |pages=1–23 |title=Tree Rights in Kenya: The Case of the Turkana (Part 1) |author=Edmund G.C. Barrow |isbn=9966-41-046-5|url=http://www.bioline.org.br/request?bp93008 |location=Nairobi, Kenya |editor=Calestous Juma |editor2=John Mugabe |editor3=Norman Clark |editor4=Walter Reid |accessdate=January 22, 2017}}""This issue of Biopolicy International was published in conjunction with the [[World Resources Institute]] (WRI). Financial support included the Finnish International Development Agency (FINNIDA), the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA), the [[Danish International Development Agency]] (DANIDA), Initiatives Ltd., the [[International Development Research Centre]] (IDRC), The World Conservation Union (IUCN), [[Stockholm Environment Institute]] (SEI), Swedish Society for the Conservation of Nature (SSCN), and the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP).</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[https://web.archive.org/web/20161107062137/http://www.positivedeviance.org/pdf/evaluation/Agricultural%20Development%20in%20Kenya.pdf Ochieng, C. (2007). Development through positive deviance and its implications for economic policy making and public administration in Africa: the case of Kenya agricultural development, 1930-2004. World Development 35: (3) 454–479.]

Ochieng, C. (2007) Re-vitalizing African agriculture through innovative business and organizational arrangements: promising developments in the traditional crops sector. Journal of Modern African Studies 45 :( 1) 143–169.

Ochieng, C. (2007) The EU-ACP economic partnership agreements and the development question: opportunities and constraints posed by Article XXIV and special and differential treatment provisions of the WTO. Journal of International Economic Law 10: (2) 363–395.

Ochieng, C & Houdet, J. (2015) eds. Responsible Exploitation of Natural Resources for African Development. ACTS Special Issue Paper Series 001. ACTS Press, Nairobi

== External links ==
* [http://www.acts-net.org/ ACTS website]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Non-profit organisations based in Kenya]]
[[Category:International development in Africa]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability and environmental management]]"
Programme for Economic Advancement and Community Empowerment,"'''Programme for Economic Advancement and Community Empowerment (PEACE)''', is a four-year project funded by the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Tar Patar finds light at the end of the tunnel|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/903573/power-woes-tar-patar-finds-light-at-the-end-of-the-tunnel/|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=15 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=PTI-led KPK govt inaugurates micro hydro project in Kalam|url=http://www.thenewsteller.com/local/pti-led-kpk-govt-inaugurates-micro-hydro-project-in-kalam/16523/|newspaper=The Newsteller|date=28 May 2015}}</ref> and implemented by the [[Sarhad Rural Support Programme]] (SRSP).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/168759-EU-to-continue-support-for-development-of-marginalised-areas-ambassador|title=EU to continue support for development of marginalised areas: Ambassador|last=Khankhel|first=Essa|date=30 November 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobbs|first=Ellen|last2=Wheldon|first2=Anne|last3=Sharma|first3=Chhavi|date=2016-10-07|title=15 years of development in access to off-grid renewable electricity: insights from the Ashden Awards|url=https://factsreports.revues.org/4214|journal=Field Actions Science Reports. The Journal of Field Actions|language=en|issue=Special Issue 15|pages=150–159|issn=1867-139X}}</ref> It was launched in 2013 in all districts of [[Malakand Division]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], [[Pakistan]], namely, [[Swat, Pakistan|Swat]], [[Shangla]], [[Buner]], [[Lower Dir]], [[Upper Dir]], [[Chitral]] and [[Malakand Agency]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Empowering local communities: Olive trees spell greener days for Lower Dir's farmers|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/861345/empowering-local-communities-olive-trees-spell-greener-days-for-lower-dirs-farmers/|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=31 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/142320-KP-govt-implementing-reform-agenda-Khattak|title=KP govt implementing reform agenda: Khattak|date=14 August 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref>

== Project details ==
The Programme for Economic Advancement and Community Empowerment (PEACE) commenced after an agreement worth '''[[Euro sign|€]]''' 40 million was signed between the [[Sarhad Rural Support Programme]] (SRSP) and the [[European Union]] (EU).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.heis.com.ba/?opcija=pregled_vijest&jezik=eng&vid=167|title=Technical Appraisal and Monitoring of a Micro-Hydel Programme in Pakistan|date=4 January 2014|publisher=Hydro Engineering Institute Sarajevo}}</ref> The project runs under the principles of financial sustainability and equitable sharing of benefits with the community for [[Social development theory|social development]] purposes.<ref>{{cite news|title=Work on EU-funded power project launched|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/print/29855-work-on-eu-funded-power-project-launched|newspaper=The News International|date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Use of electric dryers brings dividend for Swat fruit farmers|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1221639|newspaper=DAWN|date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://arynews.tv/en/150-kv-micro-hydro-power-house-inaugurated-in-chitral/|title=150 KV Micro Hydro Power House inaugurated in Chitral|last=Farooqui|first=Gul Hammad|date=26 July 2016|publisher=ARY News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1242263|title=Villagers happy as they get a bridge|last=Khaliq|first=Fazal|date=27 February 2016|newspaper=DAWN|language=en}}</ref>

=== Hydro electricity ===

Under the PEACE project 62% of the funding is utilised for generation of community run [[Micro hydro|micro-hydro]] power units in the project areas.<ref>{{cite news|title=CM reiterates commitment to community development|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/print/72693-cm-reiterates-commitment-to-community-development|newspaper=The News International|date=12 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/145312-3-micro-power-projects-completed-in-far-off-Chitral-villages|title=3 micro-power projects completed in far-off Chitral villages|date=26 August 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref> Hydro power stations under the project are primarily built in areas where there is no active [[Electrical grid|national grid]] or where such grid stands disrupted.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1299805/eu-ambassador-inaugurates-power-station-in-swat|title=EU ambassador inaugurates power station in Swat|date=1 December 2016|newspaper=DAWN}}</ref> Communities contribute time and labour, known as ""[[sweat equity]]"", which creates a [[Ownership (psychology)|sense of ownership]] and helps sustain the projects.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1245011|title=Women benefit most from 'smart villages' in Pakistan's Hindu Kush|last=Cheema|first=Abdur Rehman|date=2016-03-11|newspaper=DAWN}}</ref> The MHPs are run as a [[social enterprise]] and its earnings are spent on the welfare of local communities,<ref>{{cite news|title=Power up: Hydro project to light up 13,000 houses in Chitral |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/854756/power-up-hydro-project-to-light-up-13000-houses-in-chitral/|newspaper=The Express Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=New initiatives: PTI chairman promises a ""different"" LG system|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/595546/new-initiatives-pti-chairman-promises-a-different-lg-system/|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=27 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/161140-Ashuran-Power-House-starts-production-in-Kalam|title=Ashuran Power House starts production in Kalam|date=31 October 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref> particularly women.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/168929-Project-good-example-of-govt-donor-collaboration-Ambassador-Cautain|title=Project good example of govt-donor collaboration: Ambassador Cautain|date=1 December 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref> [[Electricity]] is generated harnessing the small [[Meltwater|glacier-meltwater]] rivers that drop steeply off soaring mountains.<ref>{{cite news|title=Son, you brought electricity to the village and added 15 years to my life|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jun/12/pakistan-electricity-village-micro-hydro-ashden-award|newspaper=The Guardian|date=12 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pakistanherald.com/news/10888/24-may-2016/power-plant-inaugurated-in-upper-dir|title=Power plant inaugurated in Upper Dir|date=24 May 2016|newspaper=Pakistan Herald}}</ref>

The European Union under the PEACE project has funded the Sarhad Rural Support Programme (SRSP) to set up 240 [[Micro hydro|micro hydropower plants]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Make your own electricity: A tale of Swat's restless heroes|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1186944 |newspaper=DAWN|date=10 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/146090-KP-to-generate-100MW-micro-hydropower-projects|title=KP to generate 100MW micro-hydropower projects|date=29 August 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/732027/at-long-last-kalam-gets-electricity-after-six-years/|title=At long last: Kalam gets electricity after six years.|date=2014-07-07|newspaper=The Express Tribune|language=en-US}}</ref> in the [[Malakand Division]]. In general, [[Pakistani rupee|PKR]] 4/unit is charged for [[Domestic energy consumption|domestic]] and [[Pakistani rupee|PKR]] 7-10/unit is charged for commercial use.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bringing hydro power to the rural areas of Pakistan |url=http://energy-access.gnesd.org/cases/48-sarhad-rural-support-programme.html|publisher=GNESD Energy Access Knowledge Based}}</ref>

=== Community infrastructure ===

A significant portion of the funds are allocated to the building or restoration of basic [[infrastructure]] such as road, bridges, water channels etc.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1142648|title=Road link to Chitral village restored after four years.|date=6 November 2014|newspaper=DAWN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/archive/print/535043-bridge-brings-joy-to-remote-villages-in-chitral|title=Bridge brings joy to remote villages in Chitral.|date=6 November 2014|website=The News International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1004653/timely-assistance-solar-plants-provided-to-chitral-hospitals/|title=Timely assistance: Solar plants provided to Chitral hospitals|date=6 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/678598/lowari-tunnel-chitral-left-out-in-the-cold/|title=Lowari Tunnel: Chitral left out in the cold - The Express Tribune|date=2014-03-04|newspaper=The Express Tribune|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Environmental aspect ==
Electricity from hydro schemes cuts down the use of [[Wood fuel|wood]] for [[cooking]], [[heating]] and [[light]]ing, consequently reducing [[deforestation]] which is a huge problem in the [[Deforestation by region|region]]. The hydro schemes also cut [[greenhouse gas emissions]], by virtually eliminating the use of [[kerosene]] [[Kerosene lamp|lighting]], cutting the use of [[diesel engine|diesel]] [[Diesel generator|generators]], and also reducing the use of unsustainable wood. A detailed breakdown has not been made of [[Fossil fuel|fuels]] replaced, but an indication of the significance can be made by assuming that the estimated 110,000 [[Kilowatt hour|MWh]] of electricity generated each year replaces diesel generation producing around 0.8 [[tonne]]s of [[carbon dioxide]] per MWh. This suggests a substantial greenhouse gas saving of around 88,000 tonnes of [[carbon dioxide]] per year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ashden.org/files/case_studies/SRSP%20Pakistan.pdf|title=Winner case study summary: Sarhad Rural Support Programme, Pakistan.|date=2015|publisher=Ashden Award for Increasing Energy Access, supported by the IKEA Foundation Award}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ashden.org/winners/SRSP15|title=The power of water brings new life to mountain villages|date=2015-06-05|newspaper=Ashden Awards, sustainable and renewable energy in the UK and developing world}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://webwidemedia.net/rspn/index.php/about-us/awards-recognition|title=Awards & Recognitions {{!}} RSPN|website=Rural Support Programmes Network (RSPN)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/804936/what-the-smart-villages-of-pakistan-can-teach-us-about-energy|title=What the 'smart villages' of Pakistan can teach us about energy|last=Cheema|first=Abdur Rehman|date=12 March 2016|newspaper=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref>

Pakistan is only producing 128 out of a potential of 3,100 [[Watt|MW]] of electricity from small hydropower projects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thethirdpole.net/2016/03/10/the-smart-villages-of-northern-pakistan/|title=The ""smart villages"" of northern Pakistan|last=Cheema|first=Abdur Rehman|date=2016-03-10|website=The Third Pole}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://earthjournalism.net/stories/hurry-up-with-the-micro-hydro|title=Hurry up with the micro hydro|last=Cheema|first=Abdur Rehman|date=21 July 2015|website=Earth Journalism Network}}</ref>

== Recognition ==
In 2015 the Programme for Economic Advancement and Community Empowerment (PEACE) project earned the [[Sarhad Rural Support Programme]] (SRSP) an [[Ashden|Ashden Award]] for Increasing Energy Access.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.unep.org/ourplanet/december-2015/articles/blazing-trail|title=Blazing the Trail : Our Planet|last=Butler Sloss|first=Sarah|date=2015|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eco-business.com/press-releases/green-energy-awards-seek-sustainable-energy-pioneers-in-asia/|title=Green energy awards seek sustainable energy pioneers in Asia|date=8 September 2015|publisher=Eco-Business}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Ashden Award Ceremony|date=2016-09-06|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-utaxWJujQ}}</ref> In 2017 the project attracted the National Award given out by the [[Energy Globe Award]] in Pakistan for supplying electricity to [[Off-the-grid|off-grid]] areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.energyglobe.info/pakistan2017?cl=en|title=National Energy Globe Award Pakistan 2017|website=Energy Globe}}</ref> 

==See also==
* [[European Union]]
* [[Hydro power]]
* [[Pico hydro]]
* [[Small hydro]]
* [[Renewable energy]]
* [[Sustainable energy]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Renewable energy]]
[[Category:Electricity]]
[[Category:Rural community development]]
[[Category:Development organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Rural development in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pakistan–European Union relations]]"
Peter Jacobs (landscape architect),"{{Short description|Canadian landscape architect}}
{{Other people|Peter Jacobs}}
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'''Peter Daniel Alexander Jacobs''' {{Post-nominals|country=CAN|CM|RCA|size=100%}} (born 3 December 1939) is a Canadian [[landscape architect]] specializing in the conservation and development of rural and northern landscapes and in urban landscape design.<ref name="":8"">{{Cite web|url=http://amenagement.umontreal.ca/amenagement/la-faculte/nouvelles/nouvelle/article/luniversite-honore-11-professeurs-emerites/|title=Nouvelle – Université de Montréal – Faculté de l'aménagement|last=Montréal|first=Université de|website=amenagement.umontreal.ca|language=fr|access-date=2017-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816200859/http://amenagement.umontreal.ca/amenagement/la-faculte/nouvelles/nouvelle/article/luniversite-honore-11-professeurs-emerites/|archive-date=2017-08-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> He is [[Emeritus Professor|Emeritus professor]] of the School of Planning and Landscape Architecture of the [[Université de Montréal|Universite de Montreal]], Emeritus Chair of the Commission on Environmental Planning of the International Union for the conservation of nature ([[IUCN protected area categories|IUCN]]), Past President of the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects (CSLA), Chair of the Kativik Environmental Quality Commission (from 1979) and a Member of the Royal Canadian Academy of the Arts.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite web|url=http://ville.montreal.qc.ca/portal/page?_pageid=6377,52473581&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL|title=Ville de Montréal – Conseil du patrimoine de Montréal – Membres|website=ville.montreal.qc.ca|language=fr-ca|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|url=http://amenagement.umontreal.ca/amenagement/la-faculte/nouvelles/nouvelle/article/peter-jacobs-recu-a-lacademie-royale-des-arts-du-canada/|title=Nouvelle – Université de Montréal – Faculté de l'aménagement|last=Montréal|first=Université de|website=amenagement.umontreal.ca|language=fr|access-date=2017-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807232717/http://amenagement.umontreal.ca/amenagement/la-faculte/nouvelles/nouvelle/article/peter-jacobs-recu-a-lacademie-royale-des-arts-du-canada/|archive-date=2017-08-07|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Biography ==

Jacobs was born in Montreal on 3 December 1939. His parents were both natives of [[New York City]]: Jacob Joseph Jacobs graduated from New York University as a chemical engineer and Francis Alexander graduated from Barnard College in ancient languages. His interest in nature and the landscape was nurtured during summer family trips to the ocean and others in the northern boreal forest. His commitment to the urban landscape was derived from his experience of the cultural diversity and convivial social energy of Montreal. He is married to Ellen Vineberg Jacobs, distinguished professor emerita of Concordia University in Montreal.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.recherche.umontreal.ca/la-recherche-a-ludem/la-vitrine-des-professeurs/informations/chercheur/495/pid/16/|title=Portail de la recherche: Informations|website=www.recherche.umontreal.ca|language=fr-FR|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref>

Jacobs graduated from Antioch College with a bachelor's degree (1961) in engineering and fine arts. He continued his studies at the [[Harvard Graduate School of Design]], where he obtained a Masters of Architecture degree (1964) followed by a Master of Landscape Architecture degree (1968).<ref name="":0""/> He then pursued a program of special studies in human ecology at Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archiv.umontreal.ca/P0000/P0397.html|title=P0397 Fonds Peter Jacobs- Université de Montréal – Division de la gestion de documents et des archives|website=www.archiv.umontreal.ca|language=fr|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref>

Following his studies, Jacobs pursued both an academic and professional career. After first practicing architecture, he concentrated on landscape planning and urban design. In 1971 he was promoted to associate professor and in 1979 to full professor in the School of Landscape Architecture, Universite de Montreal. He was the school's first director (1978) and the first associate dean of research of the Faculte de l’Amenagement (1977–1984).<ref name="":2"">{{cite web |title=P0397 Fonds Peter Jacobs- Université de Montréal – Division de la gestion de documents et des archives|url=http://www.archiv.umontreal.ca/P0000/P0397.html|last=Udem|first=Archives|website=www.archiv.umontreal.ca}}</ref><ref name="":8""/> He was named Emeritus professor in 2016.<ref name="":8"" />

Peter Jacobs is Fellow and past president of the [[Canadian Society of Landscape Architects]] (CSLA) (1978–1980), Fellow of the [[American Society of Landscape Architects]] (ASLA), and served as the Canadian delegate to the [[International Federation of Landscape Architects]] (IFLA) (1986–1995). In 2016, he was named Chair of the Montreal Heritage Council  and member of the Order of Canada .<ref name="":9"" /><ref name="":10"">{{Cite news|url=http://nouvelles.umontreal.ca/article/2016/12/02/peter-jacobs-nomme-a-la-presidence-du-conseil-du-patrimoine-de-montreal/|title=Peter Jacobs nommé à la présidence du Conseil du patrimoine de Montréal|date=2017-03-17|access-date=2017-04-03|language=fr}}</ref>

== Main achievements and contributions ==

=== Pedagogical development of a new field of studies ===
Jacobs' teaching is based on the structure and meaning of the urban and rural landscape as well as the use of criteria such as belonging, equity, and integrity in the design of landscape form. Due to his expertise, Peter Jacobs has been invited to evaluate numerous academic programs in Canada, Israel, Columbia, France, China and Spain. He has also given intensive courses and design studios in more than 50 universities around the world.<ref name="":8"" /><ref name="":10"" />

His research and community activities have focused on the sustainable and equitable development and conservation of the landscape in association with the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), with the Kativik Environmental Quality Commission as Chair of the commission (KEQC) since 1979,<ref name="":11"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mddelcc.gouv.qc.ca/evaluations/cqek.htm|title=Commission de la qualité de l'environnement Kativik (CQEK)|website=www.mddelcc.gouv.qc.ca|language=fr|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref> and as Chair of the Public Advisory Council for the Canadian State of the Environment Report (1991).<ref>{{Cite book|title=The State of Canada's Environment|publisher=Government of Canada, Canada Communication Group|year=1991|isbn=0-660-14237-6|location=the University of California|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/stateofcanadasen0000unse}}</ref>

=== Early stages of environmental evaluation ===
Jacobs was one of the early participants in a variety of environmental evaluation formats related to urban development and the North, both as a chair and a member of numerous public commissions. He chaired the public consultation process on the future of Lancaster Sound in the Canadian arctic (1980) and has Chaired the Kativik Environmental Quality Commission in [[Nunavik]] (since 1981).<ref name="":11"" /> He also co-Chaired the public hearings related to the environmental impacts of the [[James Bay Hydroelectric Project|Great Whale Hydoelectric Project]] flowing into [[James Bay]], Quebec (1992–1994).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nunavik : un environnement en évolution|last1=Jacobs|first1=Peter|last2=Berrouard|first2=Daniel|last3=Paul|first3=Mireille|year=2009|editor-last=Commission de la qualité de l’environnement Kativik}}</ref>

In the urban context, he has participated as a commissioner for the Bureau de consultation de Montreal and the Office de consultation Publique de Montreal on files related to the development of urban neighborhoods, urban infrastructure, and the planning and design of large metropolitan parks and nature reserves.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ocpm.qc.ca/commissaire/peter-jacobs|title=Peter Jacobs|date=2015-12-14|work=OCPM|access-date=2017-04-03|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":10"" />

In 1990, as a member of the Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council (CEARC), he co-edited and was one of the chief architects of a research report on ''Sustainable Development and Environmental Assessment : Perspectives on Planning for a Common Future''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Development and Environmental Assessment : Perspectives on Planning for a Common Future|last1=Jacobs|first1=Peter|last2=Sadler|first2=Barry|publisher=Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council|year=1988|location=Hull, Quebec}}</ref> Internationally, he has served as a consultant for programs sponsored by [[UNESCO]], MAB, UNU, and [[IUCN protected area categories|IUCN]].

=== Relationship of landscape and culture ===
One of the principal research fields developed by Jacobs is linked to the impact of culture and cultural values to the perception and management of landscapes. Numerous international missions in Africa, Latin America, Australia, and Europe as well as the arctic landscapes of Northern Quebec have provided a rich array of conditions and experiences that contribute to a diversity of cultural perspectives as to how the landscape is perceived and managed.

His prolonged research visits to Dumbarton Oaks as chair of the Senior Fellows of the Landscape and Garden Studies program<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.doaks.org/research/garden-landscape|title=Garden and Landscape Studies — Dumbarton Oaks|last=admin|website=www.doaks.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref>  and subsequently as Beatrix Farrand Distinguished Fellow provided further material with which to evaluate the diverse cultural visions of the landscape.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.doaks.org/library-archives/dumbarton-oaks-archives/historical-records/oral-history-project/peter-jacobs|title=Peter Jacobs — Dumbarton Oaks|last=gabrielas|website=www.doaks.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212092038/http://www.doaks.org/library-archives/dumbarton-oaks-archives/historical-records/oral-history-project/peter-jacobs|archive-date=2017-02-12|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Community service ===
Jacobs' commitment to the community is marked by his desire to integrate professional practice with academic research in the service of community growth and development. As chair of the Environmental Planning Commission<ref name="":10"" /> from 1978 to 1990, he helped formulate nature conservation programs and action plans for numerous countries. His environmental activities have focused on nature conservancy, the preservation of [[urban green space|urban open space]], and the development of policy, programs, and plans in support of equitable and sustainable development.

He has served as vice-president of the Solomon Schecter Academy (1973–1976), advisor to the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, member of the intercultural advisory committee of the City of Montreal, and president of the Jewish Public Library of Montreal(1996–2000)<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|last=Jacobs|first=Peter|date=|title=Board of Trustees - Congregation Shaar Hashomayim|url=https://www.shaarhashomayim.org/board-trustees|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-22|website=www.shaarhashomayim.org}}</ref> He has also served as Chair of the community planning and allocations committee and as a Director of the Federation of Jewish Community Agencies, the United Israel Agencies of Canada and the Canadian Jewish National Fund and is an Officer of the Shaar Hashomayim Synagogue, Westmount, Quebec.<ref name="":3"" />

== Prizes and distinctions ==
* 2020 : Appointed as a member of the [[Order of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gg.ca/en/activities/2020/governor-general-announces-114-new-appointments-order-canada|title=Governor General Announces 114 New Appointments to the Order of Canada }}</ref>
*2020 : Governor General’s Medal in Landscape Architecture

This list comes from the research portal of the Université de Montréal<ref name="":0"" />
* 2016 : Emeritus professor, Université de Montreal, Faculté de l’aménagement<ref name="":8"" />
* 2015 : Member, Royal Canadian Academy of the Arts<ref name="":1"" />
* 2013 : Frederick G. Todd Prize, Quebec association of landscape architects<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|url=https://aapq.org/laureats/2013|title=Lauréats 2013 {{!}} Association des architectes paysagistes du Québec|website=aapq.org|language=fr|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref>
* 2013 : Key stone Prize, Founder, Heritage Montreal{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 2010 : A Story Garden, Design Prize, The arts and the city, City of Montreal<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bulletiname.umontreal.ca/rubrique.php?id=8&rid=86&an=1|title=Bulletin d'activités de la Faculté de l'aménagement|website=www.bulletiname.umontreal.ca|access-date=2017-04-06}}</ref>
* 2009 : The Mont-Royal Prize, Friends of the Mountain and City of Montreal{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 2008 : Inaugural Beatrix Farrand Distinguished Fellow, Dunbarton Oaks, Harvard University, Washington DC, Landscape and Garden design<ref name="":5"" />
* 2008 : Teaching Award, Canadian Society of landscape architects{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 2007 : Distinguished service award, Federation CJA, Montreal{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1998 : Honorary member, Columbian society of landscape architects{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1994 : President's prize, Canadian society of landscape architects{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1994 : Regional Award, design excellence, Faubourg Quebec, CSLA, in association with P. Poullaouec-Gonidec and Bernard St. Denis{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1993 : Gouvenor General of Canada Prize commemorating the 125th Anniversary of Confederation{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1993 : Regional Award, design excellence, Place Berri, Montreal. CSLA, in association with P. Poullaouec-Gonidec and Bernard St. Denis{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1992 : Special Prize, Order of Architects of Quebec, Place Berri, Montreal{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1990 : Elected Fellow, American Society of Landscape Architects{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1988 : A.H. Tammsaare Prize, Eastern European Committee, IUCN{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1986 : Elected Fellow of the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

== Selected publications ==

This list comes from the research portal of the Université de Montréal<ref name="":0"" />

=== Books et collections ===
* 2009 : Jacobs, Peter; Nunavik : ''Un environnement en évolution'' : Une évaluation environnementale et sociale du développement nordique 1979–2009; Commission de la qualité de l’environnement Kativik, Kuujjuaq. Avec Daniel Berrouard et Mireille Paul
* 2000 : Jacobs, Peter et Foisy Oswald (2000); ''Les Quatre Saisons du Mont Royal'' ; Méridien, Montréal; 140 p.
* 1987  : Jacobs, Peter & Munro, David, eds. ''Conservation with Equity: Strategies for Sustainable Development'' ; Proceedings of the Ottawa Conference on Implementing the World Conservation Strategy, IUCN. 466 p.
* 1986 : Jacobs, Peter & Châtignier, Hervé. Ed. ''Proceedings of the Kativik Environment Conference'', Kujuuak, QC. Kativik Regional Government; Editions Boulard; 319 p.
* 1985 : Jacobs, Peter, ed.. ""Environmental Planning and Management for Sustainable Development""; Special Issue of ''Landscape Planning''. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1985, 110 p.
* 1983 : Jacobs, Peter et Robert, Francine, éd. ''Stratégie de conservation de l'eau'', Colloque international tenu à la Ville de Québec,  juin 1981, mars 1983, 418 p.
* 1981 : Jacobs, Peter, ''Environmental Strategy and Action: The Challenge of the World Conservation Strategy'', University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, 99 p.
* 1981: Jacobs, Peter, ""Population, ressources et environnement, Étude régionale du Détroit de Lancaster, Affaires indiennes et du Nord Canada, 69 p.
* 1979 : Jacobs, Peter, ed. ""Canada:  Landscape Planning for People"". ''Landscape Planning'', Vol. 6, no. 2, August, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, Amsterdam, 153 p.

=== Book chapters ===
* 2013 : Jacobs, Peter; ''Modern Garden Types''; in: ''A Cultural History of Gardens in the Modern Age''; John Dixon Hunt and Michael Leslie, eds. Bloomsbury Publishing; London
* 2007 : Jacobs, Peter; Echoes, F. Parade : Fernando Chacel's Gardens in the coastal Plain of Jacarepaguà; ''Contemporary Garden Aesthetics, Creations and Interpretations'' ; Harvard Press and Dumbarton Oaks, Spring
* 2007 : Heyes, S. and Jacobs, P.; ""{{sic|?|Loo|sing}} Place : Diminishing Knowledge of the Arctic Coastal Landscape"";  in : ''Different Takes on Place'' ; F. Vaudary, J. Malpas, M. Higgins eds.; The National Museum of Canberra, Australia, Spring
* 1994 : Jacobs, Peter; Bouchard, Michel and Lépine, Brigitte. ''To leave as much and as good''; in ''Keeping Ahead : the inclusion of long term futures in Environmental Impact Assessment'', R.E. Munn, Editor; Institute of Environmental Studies, Toronto
* 1990 Sadler, Barry and Jacobs, Peter; ''A Key to Tomorrow: on the relationship of environmental assessment and sustainable development''; in: ''Sustainable Development and environmental assessment'' ; CCEARC, Ottawa
* 1989 : Jacobs, Peter; The magic mountain; An urban landscape for the next millennium; in: ''Grass roots, Greystones, and Glass Towers'' ; Brian Demchinsky, ed.; Vehicle Press, Montreal
* 1988 : Jacobs, Peter. ''Towards a network of knowing and of planning in the Canadian North''; In: ''Knowing the North'', William Wonders, ed., Boreal Institute for Northern Studies; Edmonton, Alberta
* 1984 : Jacobs, Peter. ''The Lancaster Sound Regional Study'', in ''Culture and Conservation'' :  ''The Human Dimensionin Environmental Planning,'' J.A. McNeely and D. Pitt, Editors, Croom Helm; London, 65-80
* 1984 : Jacobs, Peter. ''Environmental Planning and Rational Use''; in : ''Sustaining Tomorrow:  A Strategy for World Conservation and Development'', Thibodeau & Field Ed; U. Press of New England, Hanover and London, 77-85

=== Professional commissions and exhibitions ===
* 2012 : Landscape Theory and Practice: An online course developed for the Royal Architecture Institute of Canada in collaboration with the University of Athabasca.
* 2000 : Re-imaging Champlain Boulevard, A landscape strategy for the Ministry of Transport and the National Capital Commission of Quebec.
* 1996 : An evaluation and strategic development plan for the Botanical Gardens, Parks and Scientific equipment Service of Montreal
* 1994 : Consultant, Berri Metro station, Montreal, Transportation Commission In collaboration with Jacques Rousseau and P. Poullaouec-Gonidec
* 1993 : Member, Expert committee for the redesign of the Expo 67 Islands Parks Service, City of Montreal
* 1993 : Consultant for the redesign of Rene-Levesque Boulevard and Dufferin, City of Quebec, National Capital Commission of Quebec
* 1992 : Concept, program and initial design, Place Berri, Parks service of Montreal.
* 1991 : Consultant, Design criteria for a new Haute Etudes Commercial complex, Universite de Montreal, in association with Jean-Claude Marsan, John MacLeod, P. Poullaoeuc-Gonidec and Bernard St. Denis

== References ==
<references />

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jacobs, Peter}}
[[Category:1939 births]]
[[Category:Canadian landscape architects]]
[[Category:Landscape architects]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Université de Montréal]]
[[Category:Architects from Montreal]]
[[Category:Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Antioch College alumni]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Canada]]
[[Category:People from Westmount, Quebec]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts]]"
VinylPlus,"{{Short description|Vinyl research programme}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = VinylPlus®     <!-- defaults to {{PAGENAME}} if not provided -->
| image = 
| image_size = 
| alt = <!-- see [[WP:ALT]] -->
| caption = 
| predecessor = Vinyl 2010
| formation = 22 June 2011
| founder = <!-- or: | founders = --> ECVM, EuPC, ESPA, European Plasticisers 
| type = Sustainability programme
| status = <!-- Organization's legal status and/or description (company, charity, foundation, etc) -->
| purpose = <!-- or: | focus = -->       <!--(humanitarian, activism, peacekeeping, etc)-->
| professional_title = <!-- for professional associations -->
| headquarters = [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]
| location = 
| coords = <!-- location's {{coord}}s -->
| region = [[EU28]] + [[Norway]] & [[Switzerland]]         <!-- or: | region_served = --> <!--Any particular region or regions associated with or served by the organization-->
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| sec_gen = <!-- Name of the organization's Secretary General (if post exists) -->
| leader_title = General Manager    <!-- defaults to ""Leader"" -->
| leader_name = Dr. Brigitte Dero
| leader_title2 = Chairman
| leader_name2 = Stefan Sommer
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'''VinylPlus''' was founded by the European Council of Vinyl Manufacturers (ECVM), the European Stabiliser Producers Association (ESPA), European Plasticisers and the European Plastics Converters (EuPC) in 2011 when the [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] industry renewed a previous initiative called Vinyl 2010. VinylPlus is a ten-year, industry-wide voluntary commitment to develop more ecologically responsible ways to produce, use and recycle PVC. The programme aligns with the principles and targets of the [[United Nations|UN]]’s [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) and the [[circular economy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=91|title=VinylPlus - United Nations Partnerships for SDGs platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|access-date=2018-11-20}}</ref>

VinylPlus includes all European PVC industry sectors: resin and additives producers, as well as plastics converters and recyclers. It covers the EU-28 plus Norway and Switzerland.

VinylPlus is included in the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|Rio+20]] Registry of Commitments, and is a member of the Green Industry Platform, the global partnership led by the [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)]] and the United Nations Environment Platform Programme (UNEP). VinylPlus is also registered as a partner on the UN Partnerships for SDGs platform where it is recognised as fulfilling the SMART criteria.

== History ==
VinylPlus succeeded Vinyl 2010, which was the European PVC industry's first voluntary commitment. Vinyl 2010 was set up in 2000 around the principles of [[Responsible Care]] adopted by the European chemicals industry in the 1980s . Its programme aimed to shift the PVC industry to a more sustainable model by improving recycling and substituting hazardous additives.

At the same time, the [[European Union]] also started addressing environmental concerns about plastics, notably developing the [[Waste framework directive|Waste Framework Directive]] (EU Directive 2008/98/EC), which laid down key EU recycling rules.

Vinyl 2010 also set up a monitoring committee, which was kept upon the creation of VinylPlus. The committee was designed as an independent verification of the programme's activities, and includes representatives from the [[European Commission]], the [[European Parliament]], trade unions, consumer associations and academia.

== Recycling ==
One aspect of the programme is to improve recycling figures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/recycling/circular-economy|title=VinylPlus - The Circular Economy|website=vinylplus.eu|language=en|access-date=2018-11-13}}</ref> VinylPlus sets public recycling targets that it publishes online and in an annual progress report.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/progress/external-verification|title=VinylPlus - External verification|website=vinylplus.eu|access-date=2019-01-10}}</ref> VinylPlus accredits Recovinyl to helping with recycling.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/recycling/recovinyl|title=VinylPlus - Recovinyl|last=|first=|date=|website=vinylplus.eu|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-01-10}}</ref> Recovinyl was set up by VinylPlus in 2003, and is an industry-wide platform that gathers European recyclers and converters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/uploads/Modules/Documents/recovinyl-web.pdf|title=PVC Recycling in Action|last=VInylPlus|first=|date=10 January 2019|website=VinylPlus|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>

== The VinylPlus Sustainability Forum ==
VinylPlus organises an annual forum: The VinylPlus Sustainability Forum. The first one took place in Istanbul in 2013. The event aims to encourage dialogue on sustainability by assembling representatives from the PVC industry, policy makers, consumer groups, retailers, architects, designers, recyclers and NGOs.  The themes from past forums have been:

* 2013: Smart, Sustainable and Inclusive Growth for Europe and Beyond
* 2014: Enhancing the Value of Partnerships
* 2015: More Vinyl, Less Carbon
* 2016: Smart Vinyl For Our Cities
* 2017: Towards Circular Economy
* 2018: Meeting Societal Needs
*2019: Accelerating Innovation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/community/vinyl-sustainability-forum|title=VinylPlus - The VinylPlus Sustainability Forum 2019|website=vinylplus.eu|access-date=2019-02-20}}</ref>

== Governance ==
VinylPlus's management Board represents all European PVC industry sectors: resin and additives producers, as well as plastics converters. The Monitoring Committee offers guidance and advice, while ensuring an independent evaluation of the initiatives undertaken in the Voluntary Commitment. The Monitoring Committee currently includes representatives from the European Commission, the European Parliament, trade unions, consumer associations and academia, as well as representatives from the European PVC industry. The Monitoring Committee's stated goal is to ensure VinylPlus's transparency, participation and accountability.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Plastic recycling]]"
Climate-friendly school,"{{Multiple issues|
{{POV|date=June 2023}}
{{Essay-like|date=June 2023}}
}}
[[File:Climate change adaptation icon.png|thumb|Climate change adaption icon]]
A '''climate-friendly school''', or eco-school,<ref name="":3"" /> encourages the education of sustainable developments, especially by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide produced in order to decrease the effects of [[climate change]]. <ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|title=CLIMATE-FRIENDLY {{!}} meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/climate-friendly|access-date=2020-11-11|website=dictionary.cambridge.org|language=en}}</ref> The term ""climate-friendly school"" arose and was promoted by the [[United Nations]]' [[education for sustainable development]] program (ESD).<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|date=2013-05-10|title=Education for Sustainable Development|url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development|access-date=2020-11-11|website=UNESCO|language=en}}</ref>

The scientific [[Scientific consensus on climate change|consensus]] on the warming of the climate system and growing [[Climate change#Public awareness|public]] concern about its effects, as well as the increased [[:Category:Climate change treaties|international commitments]] by countries to reduce global emissions, has accelerated investment into climate-friendly technologies in recent years.<ref name="":1"" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Climate Change Evidence: How Do We Know?|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence|access-date=2020-11-11|website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet}}</ref>

== Climate-friendly initiatives ==
International initiatives such as the [[United Nations|United Nation's]] [[education for sustainable development]] program (ESD), supported by the [[Foundation for Environmental Education]] [[Eco-Schools|eco-schools]] program and the [[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP's]] [[Global Universities Partnership on Environment and Sustainability|global universities partnership on environment and sustainability]] have led the development of climate-friendly schools.<ref name="":2"" /> In order to minimise the production of carbon dioxide, these initiatives have encouraged the calculation and reduction of carbon footprints, the reduction of waste (through composting, purchasing policies, litter-less lunches), alternative transport options and increased education of climate change issues.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What your school can do {{!}} Climate Change Connection|url=https://climatechangeconnection.org/resources/climate-friendly-schools/what-to-do/|access-date=2020-11-11|website=climatechangeconnection.org}}</ref>

=== Education for sustainable development (ESD) ===
The education for sustainable development (ESD) was developed through broad consultations with stakeholders from 2016 to 2018 with the aim of contributing to the achievement of 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development goals]]. The United Nations introduced a ""whole-school"" approach, surrounding a situation where students learn about climate change is further improved by formal and informal messages promoted by the school's values and actions. The ""whole-school"" approach to climate change means that an educational institution encourages action for reducing climate change in every aspect of school life.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Implementing a Whole-School Approach to Climate Change|url=https://aspnet.unesco.org/en-us/whole-school-approach-to-climate-change|access-date=2020-10-26|website=aspnet.unesco.org}}</ref> This includes school governance, teaching content and methodology, campus and facilities management as well as cooperation with partners and the broader communities. This actively involves all internal and external school stakeholders, namely students, teachers, principals, school staff at all levels and the wider school community such as families and community members in reflecting and acting on climate change is key to a whole-school approach.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|last=Gibb|first=Natalie|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002467/246740e.pdf|title=Getting Climate-Ready: A Guide for Schools on Climate Action|publisher=Paris, UNESCO|year=2016|isbn=978-92-3-100193-2|pages=5, 7–8, 10, 15, 18–19}}</ref>

=== Eco-schools ===
The [[Eco-Schools|eco-schools]] program was developed in 1994 with the support of the European Commission and identified as model initiative for the [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] program by the United Nations. The aim of the program is to promote sustainable development issues in schools through the introduction of a seven-step methodology and eleven-subject theme encouragement.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|title=Eco Schools|url=https://www.ecoschools.global/|access-date=2020-11-11|website=Eco Schools|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Global Universities Partnership on Environment and Sustainability ===
The [[Global Universities Partnership on Environment and Sustainability|global universities partnership on environment and sustainability]] was launched in 2012 at the UNEP in Shanghai, China. In accordance with the [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] program it aims to increase the mainstreaming of sustainability practises and education into universities worldwide. The program pays special attention to enabling individual transformation, societal transformation and technological advancement.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Environment|first=U. N.|date=2017-10-12|title=Global Universities Partnership on Environment for Sustainability|url=http://www.unenvironment.org/es/node/10655|access-date=2020-11-11|website=UNEP - UN Environment Programme|language=es}}</ref>

== Climate-friendly schools ==
According to a UNESCO report, the following schools situated around the world have implemented the system of a ""climate-friendly school"", with respect to climate agreements.

=== Greece ===
[[File:Teaching climate change adaptation icon.png|thumb|225x225px|Teaching climate change adaption icon]]
As an experimental school, the Athens-Gennadeio in Greece was encouraged to introduce innovative programmes.<ref>Gkaras, Georgios & Yiatas, Dimitris. (2017). 'Teaching ""emergence"" with NetLogo in a High School project about Complex Systems and Climate Change'</ref> In 2013, the school introduced systems into biology and chemistry courses for 157 senior secondary students. In this systems unit, students worked in groups to investigate climate change, virus transmission, and ecosystem dynamics with the help of computer simulations. Through their investigations, students discovered the properties of complex systems, such as positive and negative [[Feedback|feedback loops]]. A group of students measured the energy sustainability of the school building, to find its weaknesses and construct an action plan to improve it.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Lebanon ===
The Al-Kawthar Secondary School in Beirut, Lebanon works to raise awareness of climate change within their school. So far, 2,421 students, 310 teachers, and 110 families have been involved in projects including [[Tree planting|tree-planting]], making handicrafts from recycled materials, visiting national forests, recycling, and conserving water. The school also hosted film nights and workshops where students, families and teachers suggested ways to save the planet. Following the ISO-26000 guidelines for socially responsible institutions, the school has committed to a continuous process of improvement. At the beginning of the school year, the environmental committee develops an action plan based on what was learned and achieved the previous year. The committee keeps a record of their activities, so the school can identify high-impact activities and activities that could be scaled up. Teachers and students deepen their learning by sharing their experiences with other schools in [[Lebanon]] and around the world.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Côte d’Ivoire ===
[[File:Childrens Movement for Civic Awareness.jpg|thumb|245x245px|Children's movement for civic awareness]]
In [[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]], [[UNESCO ASPNet|ASPnet]] schools implemented initiatives, with the consultation university researchers and medical practitioners, that aimed to preserve the biodiversity of forests. The biodiversity of forests was acknowledged to be under threat due to the widespread uses of forest resources as a culturally important practise in [[traditional medicine]]. The schools promote visits to botanical gardens where parents and traditional medicine practitioners teach students about traditional medicinal plant cultivation and methods of sustainable conservation. In collaboration with the experts and researchers, the ASPnet schools are now considering creating a genebank as well as replanting endangered species.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Brazil ===
In Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, the Colégio Israelita Brasileiro A. Liessen's environment team has developed initiatives to teach janitors, teachers, students and engineers about sustainable practices in experiential, non-formal learning activities. The team built a [[green roof]], [[Solar cooker|solar ovens]], bamboo bicycle racks and planted spices, flowers, and meditation gardens that could be converted into [[biodiesel]] cooking oils. The team has also offered trainings for school community members in order to secure buy-ins for the projects. For example, training on waste sorting and cooking oil collection was offered to employees and a gardening workshop was organized for student volunteers, so they could assist maintenance staff in caring for the expanding school gardens.<ref name="":0"" />

[[File:Nagoya City Sengoku Elementary School.jpg|thumb|Nagoya City Sengoku Elementary School]]

=== Japan ===
The [[Nagoya International School]] in Japan is committed to developing a school culture of sustainability, as expressed in their school mission statement. The institution aims to “nurture in its students the capacity to objectively define what is truly needed in the global society, to take action on their own, and to become active agents for [[sustainable development]].”<ref name="":0"" />

== See also ==
* [[UNESCO ASPNet|UNESCO ASPnet]]
* [[Education for sustainable development]]
* [[Global citizenship education|Global Citizenship Education]]
* [[Climate change education (CCE)|Climate Change Education (CCE)]]

== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = Getting Climate Ready: A Guide for Schools on Climate Action
| author = Gibb, Natalie
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 5, 7-8, 10, 15, 18-19
| source = UNESCO
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002467/246740e.pdf
| license statement URL = http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=246740&set=0058D7D42B_3_16&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1
| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Free content from UNESCO]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental education]]
[[Category:Meteorology and climate education]]"
Climate change education,"{{Short description|Education that aims to address and develop effective responses to climate change}}
[[File:Figure 1 Whole school approach to climate change Getting Climate-Ready.svg|thumb|A [[UNESCO]] diagram visualising a ""whole school approach"" to climate change]]
'''Climate change education''' (CCE) is [[education]] that aims to address and develop effective responses to [[climate change]]. It helps learners understand the causes and consequences of climate change, prepares them to live with the [[effects of global warming|impacts of climate change]] and empowers learners to take appropriate actions to adopt more [[Sustainable living|sustainable lifestyles]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002330/233083e.pdf|title=Not Just Hot Air: Putting Climate Change Education into Practice|last=UNESCO|publisher=Paris, UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100101-7|pages=6, 8, 10, 32, 40, 44, 46, 48, 58}}</ref> Climate change and climate change education are global challenges that can be anchored in the curriculum in order to provide local learning and widen up mindset shits on how climate change can be mitigated. In such as case CCE is more than climate change literacy but understanding ways of dealing with climate<ref>{{Cite web |title=UNSSC {{!}} United Nations System Staff College |url=https://www.unssc.org/ |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=www.unssc.org |language=en}}</ref>

CCE helps policymakers understand the urgency and importance of putting mechanisms into place to [[climate change mitigation|combat climate change]] on a national and global scale. Communities learn about how climate change will affect them, what they can do to protect themselves from negative consequences, and how they can reduce their own [[carbon footprint]]. In particular, CCE helps increase the resilience of already vulnerable communities who are the most likely to be adversely affected by climate change.<ref name="":0"" />

CCE is rooted in [[Education for sustainable development]] (ESD).<ref name="":0"" />

== UNESCO Climate Change Education for Sustainable Development programme ==
Established in 2010, the [[UNESCO]] Climate Change Education for Sustainable Development programme (CCESD) aims to help people understand climate change by expanding CCE activities in [[Nonformal learning|nonformal education]] through the media, networking and partnerships. With the help of organizations and individuals, UNESCO is able to host the World Higher Education Conference (in Barcelona 2022).<ref group=""1"">{{cite web |title=UNESCO World Higher Education Conference 2022 |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-world-higher-education-conference-2022 |website=unesco |access-date=19 October 2022}}</ref> It is grounded in the [[Holism|holistic]] approach of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) which incorporates key sustainable development issues such as climate change, [[disaster risk reduction]] and others into education, in a way that addresses the interdependence of [[environmental sustainability]], economic viability and social justice. It promotes participatory teaching and learning methods that motivate and empower learners to change their behaviour and take action for sustainable development. The programme seeks to help people understand the impact of global warming today and increase 'climate literacy', especially among young people, and aims to make education a more central part of the international response to climate change. UNESCO works with national governments to integrate CCE into national [[Curriculum|curricula]] and to develop innovative teaching and learning approaches for doing so.<ref name="":0"" />

== Selected country profiles regarding CCE and ESD ==

=== Australia ===
Australia has been at the forefront of [[Education for sustainable development|education for sustainability]], adopting in 2000 a national plan entitled Environmental Education for a Sustainable Future. A number of initiatives and bodies were created to implement the national plan, including the Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative and [[Australian Research Institute for Environment and Sustainability]]. These provided a strong foundation for Australia's strategy, launched in 2006, to respond to the [[Education for sustainable development#United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development .28DESD.29|UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development]]. The strategy set out the goal to mainstream sustainability through a holistic approach that engages the community through education and [[lifelong learning]]. Whereas climate change was referred to as one of a number of environmental concerns in the first national plan, a new plan launched in 2009, entitled Living Sustainably: the Australian Government's National Action Plan for Education for Sustainability, had a greater focus on climate change and its impacts on other natural resources within a wider global context. The new plan incorporated climate change within education for sustainability, rather than establishing a new and potentially competing field of Climate Change Education. Australia introduced its first-ever national curriculum in 2014, including sustainability as one of three cross-curriculum subjects.<ref name="":0"" />

Since 2009, Climate Change Education has been most evident in the [[TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training)|VET sector]]. [[Council of Australian Governments|COAG]] endorsed the Green Skills Agreement in 2009, and the Ministerial Council for Vocational and Technical Education published the National VET Sector Sustainability Policy and Action Plan (2009-2012). These initiatives aimed to provide workers with the skills needed to transition to a low-carbon economy and VET teachers with suitable training packages to promote education for sustainability.<ref name="":0"" />

=== China ===
China introduced [[environmental education]] in the late 1970s as a result of increased attention to sustainable development and the need to protect the environment. Following the [[Earth Summit|United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]] (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), environmental education moved towards environment, population and development, and finally education for sustainable development.<ref name="":0"" />

The Chinese government has produced a number of policy documents identifying environmental education and ESD as key to quality education. In 2003, the Ministry of Education issued the first guiding policy - the Guidelines for Implementing Environmental Education in Elementary and Secondary School - on environmental education in China. ESD was formally incorporated into the national education policy in 2010 in The National Education Outline 2010-2020, and further integrated in some local education policies. National climate change policies and plans in China refer to education but do not specifically address CCE. This has resulted in limited institutional support to date. There is no national ESD or CCE action plan or official policy to inform its implementation.<ref name="":0"" />

In China, ESD mainly refers to providing individuals with the scientific knowledge, learning capacity, values and lifestyle choices to meet the country's sustainable development objectives. CCE is most commonly implemented as a component of ESD. A number of educational approaches have been adopted to facilitate the implementation of ESD. These include integrating ESD values into school philosophy, [[curriculum development]], capacity-building of teachers and educators, ESD pedagogical approaches and ESD and CCE thematic activities.<ref name="":0"" />

ESD is a component of compulsory education, but is limited in higher education, VET and adult education. The Ministry of Education has recently issued a guidance document that identified the VET sector in particular as needing to be reformed to meet the sustainable development objectives of the Chinese economy.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Denmark ===
Denmark and its neighbouring countries began working together in the 1990s to formulate a policy for ESD. While Denmark signed the [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] (UNECE) declaration on ESD in 2005, it did not adopt a strategy until 2009, just before the half-way point of the DESD. The Ministry of Education, which was made responsible for the DESD, organised a consultation process on how to promote ESD before adopting its strategy in 2009.<ref name="":0"" />

The UN Climate Summit (COP15) held in Denmark in December 2009 provided the impetus to develop of a number of national ESD policy initiatives. A national strategy on ESD was developed with a substantial climate change component. The aim of the strategy is to make citizens more responsible for their actions by improving their scientific knowledge. The ESD strategy notes that climate change should not be the sole focus of ESD, though the concrete initiatives that are part of the strategy mostly support the CCE projects and activities that were part of COP15 preparations.<ref name="":0"" />

A new national school curriculum adopted in 2009 included elements of ESD and CCE. The concept of sustainability was embedded in the goals describing the interrelationships between nature and society. CCE is mostly approached as teaching climate science, but it was also included in subjects such as geography and social studies, where the interrelationships between human behaviour, consumption and climate are examined.<ref name="":0"" />

There has been no explicit policy change in the TVET sector to upgrade skills to respond to climate change and environmental issues. However, it is important to note that the Danish TVET sector had previously reflected skills related to ecological modernisation in areas such as energy generation, [[waste management]] and agriculture. While the new government identified the economic and environmental climate change crises as important, education is only referred to in relation to the economic crisis. There is no mention of climate change or sustainability with regard to education, and the platform documentation on 'green transition' does not mention education. Overall, no policy strategy has been set to promote ESD, CCE, or the 'greening' of TVET as part of the government's sustainable development and climate change policies. Government initiatives support NGO-led projects to raise community awareness of climate change. A national network on ESD was established with funding through to 2013.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Dominican Republic ===
The Dominican Republic has taken a lead role in promoting ESD. Environmental education was made mandatory for all schools in 1998 and this has since evolved into ESD. In 2000, the General Law of Environment and Natural Resources changed the way environmental education was taught, moving from a subject matter to a cross-cutting and interdisciplinary theme. Risk management is also an important aspect of MINERD's strategic plan, and has been integrated into the school curriculum as a cross-cutting subject. In 2004, the Environmental Education Strategy for Sustainable Development was adopted, which fosters formal and non-formal ESD. It is based on constructivism and uses a variety of pedagogical techniques that promote participatory learning.<ref name="":0"" />

The Ten-year 2008-2018 Education Plan (PDE) addresses the issue of quality education, including sustainable development and a culture of peace. It also established a process for periodic review of the curriculum. Climate change is also being introduced into the curriculum. The National Teacher Training Institute (INAFOCAM) and the Salomé Ureña Higher Institute for Teacher Training (ISFODOSU) provide support for environmental education through teacher training and curriculum support. The Ten-year 2008-2018 Higher Education Plan (PDES) includes environmental issues in the curricula and establishes a research programme to promote sustainable development.<ref name="":0"" />

The Dominican Republic has been involved in a number of ESD and CCE initiatives that have helped build local capacity, including:
* formal, non-formal and informal projects on ESD led by governmental agencies, civil society organizations, young leaders and local communities;
* UN: CC Learn Project, which supports the design and implementation of results-oriented and sustainable learning to address climate change (see the detailed case study in this Report);
* National Strategy to Strengthen Human Resource Capacities to Advance Green, Low Emission and Climate Resilient Development (ENDVBERC);
* teacher training supported by the UN: CC Learn-UNITAR, and the UNESCO-CCESD pilot programme.<ref name="":0"" />

===UK===
In the United Kingdom, the [[Teach the Future|Teach the Future campaign]] aims to rapidly repurpose the education system around the climate emergency and [[ecological crisis]];<ref>{{Cite web|title=Who we are|url=https://www.teachthefuture.uk/about|website=Teach the Future|language=en|access-date=2020-05-29}}</ref> they are cohosted by the [[UK Student Climate Network]] and [[National Union of Students (United Kingdom)|SOS-UK]] and are in the process of devolving their campaign to Scotland and Northern Ireland from England.

They have 3 asks of the Government<ref>{{Cite web|title=Digital Hub|url=https://www.teachthefuture.uk/hub/44e33423-98c7-4882-9e7f-81c8fd450722|website=Teach the Future|language=en|access-date=2020-05-29|archive-date=2020-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701225243/https://www.teachthefuture.uk/hub/44e33423-98c7-4882-9e7f-81c8fd450722}}</ref>

* A government commissioned review into how the English formal education system is preparing students for the climate emergency and ecological crisis
* The inclusion of the climate emergency and ecological crisis in English teaching standards and training
* The enactment of an English Climate Emergency Education Act - the first student written bill in history

====England====
Environmental and development education have been present in England since the 1970s, when civil society organizations took the lead. From the late 1990s, the UK government promoted sustainable development and ESD at the local, regional and national levels. However, while a number of strategic government reports addressed CCE, government policy has focused less on ESD since 2010.<ref name="":0"" />

The 2008 report Brighter Futures – Greener Lives: Sustainable Development Action Plan 2008-2010 outlined a number of specific initiatives related to Climate Change Education using an ESD approach. This included empowering youth with the skills, knowledge and freedom to voice their opinions and make a difference. The same year, CCE was introduced into the [[Key Stage 3]] (11 to 14 year-olds) geography curriculum.<ref name="":0"" />

The report '' Education for Sustainable Development in the UK 2010'' noted that there were signs of substantial progress in embedding ESD-related policies and developing practices in the UK across a wide range of sectors in 2008 and 2009. For example, documents in 2009 highlighted the 'Sustainable Schools' project that aims to empower youth to cope with the future challenges facing the planet. The aim is for all schools to be 'Sustainable Schools' by 2020.<ref name="":0"" />

====Scotland====
The Scottish Government commissioned a
climate change TV advert,<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/3Smb3jZUPHA Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508195451/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Smb3jZUPHA&spf=navigate Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Smb3jZUPHA| title = Climate Change TV Advert - 30 Second | website=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> possibly as part of public awareness program.{{Original research inline|date=November 2019}}

=== Republic of Korea ===
The Republic of Korea has a number of policies and initiatives supporting environmental education. In 2008, the Environmental Education Promotion Act encouraged the development of environmental education. It aimed to raise national environmental awareness, to encourage people to develop research and inquiry skills, and to put what they learn into action.<ref name="":0"" />

The Ministry of Environment, in its 2011-2015 Environmental Education Master Plan, proposed a policy agenda for environmental education to be implemented through formal education, social environmental education and educational infrastructure approaches. The various approaches in the formal education area include:
* 'Environment and Green Growth' as an elective subject in middle and high school curricula, and classes in elementary school designed to integrate environmental education; 
* the establishment of the Natural Environmental Studies Institute that offers interactive youth programmes for environmental studies;
* Environment Model Schools, designed to demonstrate best-practice;
* 'Low Carbon Challenge' involving ten universities;
* in-service training for teachers to upskill, specializing in environmental education.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Vietnam ===
The development of ESD in Vietnam took place in the most recent decades. The National Council of Sustainable Development was formed in 2006 to acknowledge the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD).<ref name="":04"">{{Cite web|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000190101|title=Climate change education for sustainable development: the UNESCO climate change initiative|website=unesdoc.unesco.org|access-date=2020-02-29}}</ref> A committee consisting of high-ranking leaders such as government leaders and ministers were appointed to develop an education for sustainability guideline.

The Ministry for Education and Training (MOET) played an important role to push forward establishment goals for ESD and CCE. Furthermore, they were also able to recognize the climate change impacts overall in Vietnam such as increase in average temperature and sea rise level. From 1951-2000, Vietnam's global average temperature increased about 0.5-0.7 Celsius, and sea level had risen about 20&nbsp;cm.<ref name="":12"">{{Cite journal|date=2014|editor-last=Shaw|editor-first=Rajib|editor2-last=Oikawa|editor2-first=Yukihiko|title=Education for Sustainable Development and Disaster Risk Reduction|journal=Disaster Risk Reduction|doi=10.1007/978-4-431-55090-7|isbn=978-4-431-55089-1|s2cid=126680026|issn=2196-4106}}</ref> These two factors had put a hold on the growing socioeconomic achievements; therefore, MOET acted on the development education aspects to mitigate climate change in the future.<ref name="":12"" /> The first key steps MOET promoted toward ESD and CCE were ''the National Action Plan of Education for Sustainable Development of Viet Nam in 2010 and the Action Plan for Response to Climate Change of the Education Sector for the period of 2011-2015''.<ref name="":04"" />

''Action Plan of Education for Sustainable Development''

In 2016, Vietnam, Costa Rica, and Kenya started their partnership with UNESCO to establish high standard ESD policies at a regional and global level.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.html|title=UNESCO Global Action Programme On Education For Sustainable Development|date=10 February 2020|website=UNESCO Digital library}}</ref> Through UNESCO, there were four main projects that the countries can get involved in different socioeconomic levels such as ''Advancing ESD policy development,  A whole-institution approach to climate change through the UNESCO Associated Schools Network (ASPnet), Sustainability starts with teachers, Empower youth ESD leaders as change agents, and Community for ESD.''

''Climate Change Education''

  In 2009, MOET was able to develop and implement environmental education (EE) and CCE education into formal education curriculum. This gained approval from ESD standpoints,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development|title=Education for Sustainable Development|date=2013-05-10|website=UNESCO|language=en|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.html|title=Proposal for Sustainable Development Goals .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|language=EN|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref> however it was still not considered to count towards all ESD approaches.<ref name="":04"" /><ref name="":22"">{{Cite journal|last=Nguyen|first=Thao Phuong|date=2019-07-03|title=Searching for education for sustainable development in Vietnam|journal=Environmental Education Research|language=en|volume=25|issue=7|pages=991–1003|doi=10.1080/13504622.2019.1569202|s2cid=150247389|issn=1350-4622}}</ref> Furthermore, one of the main challenges MOET was facing during this time was an increase of materials on top the regular curriculum, resulted in overloading students with knowledge.<ref name="":22"" />

=== United States of America ===
Since the year 2013, over 20 states and the District of Columbia have adopted the Next Generation Science Standards which encourages ""climate literacy"" in order to better educate students of Earth's current climate crisis with updated scientific information around climate change.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jaffee |first=Lucy |title=Why don't more U.S. schools teach about climate change? |url=https://news-decoder.com/why-dont-more-u-s-schools-teach-about-climate-change/ |access-date=2022-08-23 |work=News Decoder |language=en-US}}</ref> According to the Yale Program on Climate Change Communication, Americans in all 50 states support the education of climate change to children in schools.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Americans Support Teaching Children about Global Warming |url=https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/publications/americans-support-teaching-children-global-warming/ |access-date=2022-08-23 |website=Yale Program on Climate Change Communication |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2020, the New Jersey State Board of Education adopted new learning standards which integrate climate change across all content areas;<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Jersey Student Learning Standards |url=https://www.nj.gov/education/cccs/2020/ |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=www.nj.gov}}</ref> the standards came into effect with the 2022-23 school year,<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Jersey first state to introduce climate change curriculum in schools |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/jersey-state-introduce-climate-change-curriculum-schools/story?id=90322277 |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=ABC News |language=en}}</ref> making New Jersey the first state to do so.

== See also ==
* [[UNESCO ASPNet|UNESCO ASPnet]]
* [[Global citizenship education|Global Citizenship Education]]
* [[Climate-friendly school]]
* [[Environmental education]]
* [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)]]

== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = Not Just Hot Air: Putting Climate Change Education into Practice
| author = UNESCO
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 6, 8, 10, 32, 40, 44, 46, 48, 58
| source = UNESCO
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002330/233083e.pdf
| license statement URL = http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=233083&set=0058DD2731_2_73&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1
| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=1}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Climate change}}

[[Category:Free content from UNESCO]]
[[Category:Environmental education]]
[[Category:Climate change and society]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Climate communication| ]]
[[Category:Meteorology and climate education]]"
Integrated modification methodology,"{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}

'''Integrated modification methodology''' ('''IMM''') is a procedure encompassing an open set of scientific techniques for morphologically analyzing the [[built environment]] in a multiscale manner and evaluating its performance in actual states or under specific design scenarios.

The methodology is structured around a nonlinear phasing process aiming for delivering a systemic understanding of any given urban settlement, formulating the modification set-ups for improving its performance, and examining the modification strategies to transform that system. The basic assumption in IMM is the recognition of the built environment as a [[Complex adaptive system|Complex Adaptive System]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brownlee|first=J|date=2007|title=Complex Adaptive Systems|journal=CIS Technical Report|pages=1–6}}</ref>

IMM has been developed by IMMdesignlab, a research lab based at [[Polytechnic University of Milan|Politecnico di Milano]] at the Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction Engineering (DABC).

==History==

IMM began in 2010 as an academic research at Politecnico di Milano. That research criticized the analytical approach frequently used to study and evaluate the built environment by most of the sustainable development methods. By Recognizing the built environment as a [[Complex Adaptive System]] (CAS), IMM is urged towards a holistic simulation rather than simplifying the complex mechanisms within the cities with [[reductionism]].

In 2013, Massimo Tadi established the ''IMMdesignlab'' at the Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction Engineering (DABC) of the Politecnico di Milano. The purpose of the mentioned laboratory is to develop IMM through research and education.

IN 2015, ''Integrated Modification Methodology for the Sustainable Built Environment'' has been approved as an academic course in the curriculum of the ''Architectural Engineering'', an International Master Program in Politecnico di Milano.

==Background==

At its theoretical background, Integrated Modification Methodology refers to the contemporary urban development as a highly paradoxical context arisen from the social and economic significance of the cities on the one hand and their arguably negative environmental impacts on the other. Asserting the inevitably of [[urbanization]], IMM declares that the only way to overcome that paradox for the cities is to develop in a profound integration with the [[ecology]]. According to IMM, the fundamental prerequisite of ecologically [[sustainable development]] is to have a comprehensive systemic understanding of the built environment.

IMM suggests that the advancement in construction techniques, building materials quality and transportation technologies alone have not solved the complex problems of the urban life simply because such improvements are not necessarily dealing with the systemic integration. The core argument of IMM is that the performance of the city is being chiefly driven by the complex relationships subsystems rather than the independent qualities of the urban elements. Thus, it aims at portraying the systemic structure of the built environment by introducing a logical framework for modeling the linkage between the city's static and dynamic elements.

== Methodology ==

Integrated Modification Methodology is based on an iterative process involving the following four major phases:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tadi|first=Massimo|last2=Vahabzadeh Manesh|first2=S|date=2014|title=Transformation of an urban complex system into a more sustainable form via integrated modification methodology (I.M.M)|journal=The International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning|volume=9}}</ref>
# Investigation
# Formulation
# Modification
# Retrofitting and Optimization 
The first phase, Investigation, is a synthesis-based inquiry into the systemic structure of the urban form. It begins with ''Horizontal Investigation'' in which the area under study is being dismantled into its morphology-generator elements, namely Urban Built-ups, Urban Voids, Types of Uses, and Links. It follows with ''Vertical Investigation'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vahabzadeh Manesh|first=S|last2=Tadi|first2=Massimo|date=2011|title=, Sustainable urban morphology emergence via Complex Adaptive System analysis|journal=Procedia Engineering|pages=89–97}}</ref> that is a study of integral relationships between the mentioned elements. The output of Vertical Investigation is a set of quantitative descriptions and qualitative illustrations of certain attributes named ''[[Key Categories]]''. In a nutshell they are types of [[emergence]] that show how elements come to self-organize or to synchronize their states into forming a new level of organization. Hence in IMM, Key Categories are the result of an emergence process of interaction between elementary parts (Urban Built-ups, Urban Voids, Types of Uses, and Links) to form a synergy able to add value to the combined organization. Key categories are the products of the synergy between elementary parts, a new organization that emerge not (simply as) an additive result of the proprieties of the elementary parts. 
IMM declares that the city's functioning manner is chiefly driven from the Key Categories, hence, they have the most fundamental role in understanding the architecture of the city as a Complex Adaptive System. The Investigation phase concludes with the ''Evaluation'' step which is basically an examination of the system's performance by referring to a list of verified indicators associated with ecological sustainability. The same indicators are later used in the CAS retrofitting process necessary for the final evaluation of the system performance, after the transformation design process occurred.

The Formulation phase is a technical assumption of the most critical Key Category and the urban element within the  area deduced from the Investigation phase. These critical attributes are being interpreted as the Catalysts of transformation and are to come to the designer's use to set a contextual priority list of ''[[Design Ordering Principals]]''.

The third phase is the introduction of the modification/design scenarios to the project and advances with examining them by the exact procedure of the Investigation phase in a repetitive manner until the transformed context is predicted to be acceptable in arrangement and evaluation.

The fourth phase, Retrofitting and Optimization, is a testing process of the outcomes of the modification phase, then a local optimization by technical strategies (e.g. installing photovoltaic panels, designing green roofs, studying building orientations etc.) is initiated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tadi|first=Massimo|last2=Mohammad Zadeh|first2=Hadi|date=2014|others=Naraghi, Vahabzadeh Manesh|title=Environmental and energy performance optimization of a neighborhood in Tehran, via IMM methodology|journal=International Journal of Engineering Science and Innovative Technology (IJESIT)|pages=409–428}}</ref>

== See also ==

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[wiktionary:Analysis|Analysis]]
*[[Center for the Built Environment]]
*[[Chaos theory]]
*[[Circles of Sustainability]]
*[[Cognitive science]]
*[[Collaboration]]
*[[Complex system]]
*Design
*[[Design education]]
*[[Design Impact Measures]]
*[[Design research]]
*[[Design strategy]]
*[[Design thinking]]
*[[Ecology]]
*[[Ecological footprint]]
*[[Energy conservation]]
*[[Conceptual framework]]
*[[Heuristic]]
*[[Holistic]]
*[[Innovation]]
*[[Interaction design]]
*[[Intuition (knowledge)]]
*[[Method (software engineering)|Method]]
*[[Observation]]
*[[Participatory design]]
*[[Principles of intelligent urbanism]]
*[[Programming paradigm]]
*[[Renewable energy]]
*[[Simulation]]
*[[Sustainable architecture]]
*[[Sustainable design]]
*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Sustainable landscape architecture]]
*[[Sustainable preservation]]
*[[Sustainable refurbishment]]
*[[Wicked problem]]
*[[World Green Building Council]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==

*Ahern, J. (2006). ""Green Infrastructure for Cities: The spatial Dimension"". In Cities of the Future Towards Integrated Sustainable Water and Landscape Management, edited by Vladimir Novotny and Paul Brown, 267–283. London: WA publishing.
* Anderson, P. (1999). Complexity Theory and Organization Science Organization Science. 10(3): 216–232.
* Batty, M. (2009). Cities as Complex Systems: Scaling, Interaction,Networks, Dynamics and Urban Morphologies. In Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science. Springer.
* Bennett, S., (2009), A Case of Complex Adaptive Systems Theory- Sustainable Global Governance: The Singular Challenge of the Twenty-first Century. RISC-Research Paper No.5: p.&nbsp;38
* Brownlee, J., (2007), Complex Adaptive Systems. CIS Technical Report: p.&nbsp;1–6.
* Backlund, A. (2000), ""The definition of system"". In: ''Kybernetes'' Vol. 29 nr. 4, pp.&nbsp;444–451.
* Clarke, C. and P. Anzalone,  Architectural Applications of Complex Adaptive Systems, XO (eXtended Office). p.&nbsp;19.
* Crotti, S., (1991), Metafora, Morfogenesi e Progetto, E.D'alfonso and E.Franzini, Editors. 1991: Milano.
* Hildebrand, F. (1999), Designing the city towards a more sustainable urban form. Routledge.
* Hough, Micheal. (2004). Cities and Natural Processes: a Basis for Sustainability. London: Routledge.
* Jenks, M., E. Burton, and K. Williams, (1996), The compact city, a sustainable form?: F a FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall. 288
* Ratti C., Baker N., (2005) Steemers K., Energy consumption and urban texture, Energy and buildings, Elsevier.
* Salat, S. and L. Bourdic, Urban complexity, scale hierarchy, energy efficiency and economic value creation. WIT Transactions on Ecology and The Environment, 2012. Vol 155: p.&nbsp;11.
* Steel, C. (2009), Hungry City: How Food Shapes Our Lives, Random House UK.
* Tadi, M. Vahabzadeh Manesh, S. A.Daysh, G. Kahraman, I. Ursu (2013) The case study of Timișoara (Romania). IMM design for a more sustainable, livable and responsible city. AST Management Pty Ltd, Nerang, QLD, Australia.
*Tadi, M. & Bogunovich, D. (2017). New Lynn - Auckland IMM Case Study: Low-density urban morphology and energy performance optimisation. Auckland, New Zealand. Retrieved from http://unitec.ac.nz/epress/
* Thom, R., (1975), Stabilite Structurelle et Morphogenese. Massachusetts: W.A.Benjamin, Inc. 348.
* Vahabzadeh Manesh, S. M. Tadi, (2013) Neighborhood Design and Urban Morphological Transformation through Integrated Modification Methodology (IMM) part 1. The Designer Architectural Magazine Vol.8. IRAN.

==External links==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/air European Environment Agency – Air Pollution]
* [https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/sustainability-transitions European Environment Agency – Sustainability Transition]
* [http://www.energyrecoverycouncil.org Energy Recovery Council]
* [http://www.tod.org Transit Oriented Development Institute]
* [https://unhabitat.org UNHabitat for a better Urban Future]
* [http://www.worldgbc.org World Green Building Council]
*  [http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS Urban population (% of total)] – World Bank website based on UN data.
* [https://www.statista.com/statistics/270860/urbanization-by-continent/ Degree of urbanization (percentage of urban population in total population) by continent in 2016] – [[Statista]], based on [[Population Reference Bureau]] data.
{{div col end}}

{{Design}}
{{Environmental technology}}
{{Environmental humanities}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Land-use planning}}

[[Category:Sustainable architecture]]
[[Category:Sustainable building]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:Academic disciplines]]"
Sustainable development reserve (Brazil),"A '''sustainable development reserve''' ({{lang-pt|Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável}}, RDS) in Brazil is a type of [[Protected areas of Brazil|protected area]] inhabited by a traditional population that seeks to preserve nature while maintaining and improving the life of the population through [[sustainable development]].

==Background==

The concept of Sustainable Development Reserves originated in the Projeto Mamirauá launched in the early 1990s by the Sociedade Civil Mamirauá.
The project followed the principle of management based on scientific research and controlled use of natural resources.
The local population participates actively in the planning process and in responsible for managing and monitoring the area.
Key aspects are that the strategy can adapt to changes in the market, private property is maintained, plans are implemented to improve living conditions, and the local people partner with government agencies and NGOs to develop proposals for sustainable use.{{sfn|Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável – Sociedade Civil Mamirauá}}

The [[Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve]] was established in 1996, the first such reserve in Brazil.{{sfn|Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável – Sociedade Civil Mamirauá}}
The adjacent [[Amanã Sustainable Development Reserve]] was established in 1998 after the successful implementation of the Mamirauá reserve, and was fully supported by the local people.
They already recognized the importance of preserving the vegetation and animals that they depend upon for their livelihood.{{sfn|Luiz Claudio Marigo|1999}}
The new category of protected area was included in the National Protected Areas System (SNUG), which defined types of [[Protected areas of Brazil|protected area of Brazil]] in 2000.{{sfn|Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável – Sociedade Civil Mamirauá}}

==Structure==

A Sustainable Development Reserve (RDS) holds traditional populations that live by sustainable [[exploitation of natural resources]], developed over generations and adapted to the local ecology, and that protect nature and maintain biological diversity.
The goals are to preserve nature while preserving and improving the quality of life of the traditional populations, and to advance scientific knowledge and understanding of traditional techniques for managing the environment.{{sfn|Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentáve – ISA}}

The land in an RDS is in the public domain, and may be expropriated.
Land use is regulated according to Law 9985 article 23 (2000) and in specific regulations.
A board of directors is chaired by the administrative agency and includes representatives of public bodies, civil society organizations and traditional populations living in the area.{{sfn|Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentáve – ISA}}
A management plan is created by the administrative agency, which recognises the dynamic balance between conservation goals and the size of the population.
Natural ecosystems may be exploited sustainably, and cultivation of introduced species is allowed, subject to the management plan.
The plan defines areas where the ecology is fully protected, buffer zones, zones of sustainable use and ecological corridors.
Public visits to the RDS are allowed and encouraged where compatible with local interests and the management plan.
Scientific research and education with focus on conservation of nature are also encouraged.{{sfn|Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentáve – ISA}}

==Selected reserves==

{|class=""wikitable sortable""
|-
!Conservation Unit !! Level !! State !! Area (ha) !! Created !! Biome
|-
| [[Alcobaça Sustainable Development Reserve|Alcobaça]] || State || [[Pará]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 36,128|| 2002 ||
|-
| [[Amanã Sustainable Development Reserve|Amanã]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 2,350,000 || 1998 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Aripuanã Sustainable Development Reserve|Aripuanã]] || State ||  [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 224,291|| 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Aventureiro Sustainable Development Reserve|Aventureiro]] || State || [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 1,312 || 2014 || Coastal Marine
|-
| [[Bararati Sustainable Development Reserve|Bararati]] || State ||  [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 113,606|| 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Barra do Una Sustainable Development Reserve|Barra do Una]] || State ||  [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]  ||style=""text-align:right;""| 1,487 || 2006 || Coastal Marine
|-
| [[Barreiro/Anhemas Sustainable Development Reserve|Barreiro/Anhemas]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]  ||style=""text-align:right;""| 3,175 || 2008 ||  [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Canumã Sustainable Development Reserve|Canumã]] || State ||  [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 22,355|| 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Concha D'Ostra Sustainable Development Reserve|Concha D'Ostra]] || State || Espírito Santo ||style=""text-align:right;""| 953 || 2003 ||  [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Cujubim Sustainable Development Reserve|Cujubim]] || State ||  [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 2,450,380|| 2003 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Despraiado Sustainable Development Reserve|Despraiado]] || State ||  [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]  ||style=""text-align:right;""| 3,953 || 2006 ||  [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Igapó-Açu Sustainable Development Reserve|Igapó-Açu]] || State ||  [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 397,557|| 2009 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Itapanhapima Sustainable Development Reserve|Itapanhapima]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]  ||style=""text-align:right;""| 1,243 || 2008 ||  [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Itatupã-Baquiá Sustainable Development Reserve|Itatupã-Baquiá]] || Federal || [[Pará]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 64,735|| 2005 ||
|-
| [[Juma Sustainable Development Reserve|Juma]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 589,611|| 2006 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Lavras Sustainable Development Reserve|Lavras]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]  ||style=""text-align:right;""| 890 || 2008 ||  [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve|Mamirauá]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 1,124,000 || 1990 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Matupiri Sustainable Development Reserve|Matupiri]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 179,083|| 2009 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Nascentes Geraizeiras Sustainable Development Reserve|Nascentes Geraizeiras]] || Federal || [[Minas Gerais]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 38,177|| 2014 || [[Cerrado]]
|-
| [[Piagaçu-Purus Sustainable Development Reserve|Piagaçu-Purus]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 1,008,167|| 2003 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Pinheirinhos Sustainable Development Reserve|Pinheirinhos]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]  ||style=""text-align:right;""| 1,531 || 2008 ||  [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Pucuruí-Ararão Sustainable Development Reserve|Pucuruí-Ararão]] || State || [[Pará]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 29,049|| 2002 ||
|-
| [[Puranga Conquista Sustainable Development Reserve|Puranga Conquista]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 76,936|| 2014 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Quilombos de Barra do Turvo Sustainable Development Reserve|Quilombos de Barra do Turvo]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]  ||style=""text-align:right;""| 5,826 || 2008 ||  [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Rio Amapá Sustainable Development Reserve|Rio Amapá]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 216,109|| 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Rio Iratapuru Sustainable Development Reserve|Rio Iratapuru]] || State || [[Amapá]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 806,184 || 1997 ||
|-
| [[Rio Madeira Sustainable Development Reserve|Rio Madeira]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 283,117|| 2006 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Rio Negro Sustainable Development Reserve|Rio Negro]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 103,086|| 2008 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Tupé Sustainable Development Reserve|Tupé]] || Municipal ||  [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 11,930 || 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Uacari Sustainable Development Reserve|Uacari]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 632,949|| 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Uatumã Sustainable Development Reserve|Uatumã]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 424,430|| 2004 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Urariá Sustainable Development Reserve|Urariá]] || Municipal || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style=""text-align:right;""| 59,137 || 2001 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{citation|journal=AO|issue=87|date=January–February 1999|title=Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Amanã
 |author=Luiz Claudio Marigo |location=Rio de Janeiro|language=Portuguese |url=http://www.ao.com.br/ao87_8.htm|accessdate=2016-05-05}}
*{{citation|ref={{harvid|Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentáve – ISA}}|language=Portuguese
 |title=Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentáve|publisher=ISA: Instituto Socioambiental
 |url=https://uc.socioambiental.org/uso-sustent%C3%A1vel/reserva-de-desenvolvimento-sustent%C3%A1vel|accessdate=2016-05-04}}
*{{citation|ref={{harvid|Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável – Sociedade Civil Mamirauá}}|language=Portuguese
 |title=Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável|publisher=Sociedade Civil Mamirauá
 |url=http://www.mamiraua.org.br/pt-br/reservas/|accessdate=2016-05-05}}
{{refend}}


{{Protected areas of Brazil}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Development Reserve, Brazil}}
[[Category:Sustainable development reserves of Brazil| ]]
[[Category:Indigenous politics in Brazil]]
[[Category:Sustainability in Brazil]]
[[Category:Sustainable communities]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Types of protected area of Brazil]]"
Engineers Without Borders (Ireland),"{{Short description|Irish international development organization}}
{{primary sources|date=December 2016}}
'''Engineers Without Borders Ireland''' is an [[international development]] organisation for students and professionals from [[Ireland]] who share a common interest in [[sustainable development]] through engineering and [[appropriate technologies]].

The organisation was initially founded in 2007, and partook in a two-week project in the Sonairte: The National Ecology Centre in Co. Meath, Ireland. After a lull in activities, a small group of engineers began discussions on reviving EWB-Ireland in 2009. These discussions led to the formation of EWB-Ireland's first ever national committee in January 2010. The committee is a small group of engineers from numerous disciplines, located throughout the country.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ewb-ireland.org/history |title=EWB-Ireland Website - History |access-date=2011-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726042858/http://www.ewb-ireland.org/history |archive-date=2011-07-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Currently, EWB-Ireland has branches in [[University College Dublin]] and [[Queen's University Belfast]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ewb-ireland.org/branches |title=EWB Ireland Website - Branches |access-date=2011-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726043316/http://www.ewb-ireland.org/branches |archive-date=2011-07-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://ewb-ireland.org/ EWB-Ireland Website]
* [https://sonairte.ie/ Sonairte: The National Ecology Centre] 

{{Engineers Without Borders}}
{{Sansfrontieres}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Development charities based in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Appropriate technology organizations]]
[[Category:Engineers Without Borders|Ireland]]
[[Category:All-Ireland organisations]]"
Green gross domestic product,"{{Short description|Gross domestic product with environmental consequences factored in}}
The '''green gross domestic product''' ('''green GDP''' or '''GGDP''') is an index of [[economic growth]] with the environmental consequences of that growth factored into a country's conventional [[GDP]]. Green GDP monetizes the [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]], and accounts for costs caused by [[climate change]]. Some environmental experts prefer physical indicators (such as ""[[waste]] [[per capita]]"" or ""[[carbon dioxide emissions]] per year""), which may be aggregated to indices such as the ""[[Sustainable Development Index]]"".

==Calculation==

=== Formula ===
The environmental and related social costs to develop the economy are taken into consideration when calculating the green GDP, which can be expressed as:

'''Green GDP = GDP − Environmental Costs − Social Costs'''<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last=Chi |first=Ying F. |last2=Rauch |first2=Jason N. |date=2010 |title=The Plight of Green GDP in China |url=https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8FX794J |doi=10.7916/D8FX794J |issn=1948-3074|journal = Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development}}</ref>

where the environmental cost typically qualifies:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Xuanjian |last2=Gui |first2=Ya |date=2020 |editor-last=Weerasinghe |editor-first=R. |editor2-last=Wu |editor2-first=J. |editor3-last=Weng |editor3-first=C.-H. |title=An Empirical Study on Green Investment and Economic Growth in China |url=https://www.e3s-conferences.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202019405058 |journal=E3S Web of Conferences |volume=194 |pages=05058 |doi=10.1051/e3sconf/202019405058 |issn=2267-1242|doi-access=free }}</ref>

* Depletion value of [[natural resource]]s, e.g. oil, coal, natural gas, wood, and metals;
* [[Environmental degradation|Degradation]] cost of ecological environment, e.g. underground water pollution, topsoil erosion, and extinction of wildlife;
* [[Restoration ecology|Restoration]] cost of natural resources, e.g. waste recycling, wetland restoration, and afforestation;

and the social costs typically include:

* Poverty caused by degradation of environment, e.g. shortage of natural resources after exploitation;
* Extra healthcare expenditure coming with the degradation of ecological environment;

Above calculations can also be applied to [[net domestic product]] (NDP), which deducts the depreciation of produced capital from GDP.

=== Valuation methodology ===
Since the indicators of environment are generally expressed in national accounts, the conversion of the resource activity into a monetary value is necessary. A common procedure to evaluate, proposed by United Nations in its [[System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting]] handbook, applies following steps:<ref>{{Cite ebook|date=2014-12-31 |title=System of Environmental Economic Accounting 2012 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789210562850-en |doi=10.1787/9789210562850-en|isbn=9789210562850}}</ref>
{| class=""wikitable""
|+
!No.
!SEEA Steps
|-
|1
|Compilation of the supply and use accounts (GDP accounting)
|-
|2
|Identification and compilation of environmental protection expenditures
|-
|3
|Compilation of produced resource asset accounts
|-
|4
|Compilation of physical resource accounts
|-
|5
|Valuation of the resource: compiling the monetary accounts
|-
|6
|Compilation of physical environmental accounts (non-economic assets)
|-
|7
|Compilation of emissions by economic sector
|-
|8
|Maintenance costing of environmental degradation
|}
If current values of resources are non-existent or non-explicit, the next option is to value the resource based upon the present value of expected net returns from future commercial use. That is, the sum of present values for future expected income minus expected future expenditures (the cash flow CF), for each future time point (t), is termed the net present value (NPV).

==Rationale==

The motivation for creating a green GDP originates from the inherent limitations of GDP as an indicator of [[economic performance]] and [[social progress]]. GDP assesses gross output alone, without identifying the wealth and assets that underlie output.<ref name=""WAVES""/> GDP does not account for significant or permanent depletion, or replenishment, of these assets. Ultimately, GDP has no capacity to identify whether the level of [[income]] generated in a country is [[sustainable]]. Richard Stone, one of the creators of the original GDP index, suggested that, while ""the three pillars on which an analysis of society ought to rest are studies of economic, socio-[[demographic]], and environmental phenomenon"", he had done little work in the area of [[environmental issues]].<ref>Richard Stone, [https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1984/stone-lecture.pdf ""The Accounts of Society""], ""The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1984"", 8 December 1984</ref>

[[Natural capital]] is poorly represented in GDP. Resources are not adequately considered as economic assets.<ref>[http://www.ihdp.unu.edu/article/read/iwr-policy ""Policy Recommendations""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420075450/http://www.ihdp.unu.edu/article/read/iwr-policy |date=2013-04-20 }}, ""[[International Human Dimensions Programme]] on Global Environmental Change"", 2012</ref> Relative to their costs, companies and policymakers also do not give sufficient weight to the future benefits generated by restorative or protective environmental projects. As well, the important positive externalities that arise from forests, wetlands, and agriculture are unaccounted for, or otherwise hidden, because of practical difficulties around measuring and pricing these assets.<ref name=""WAVES"">[http://www.wavespartnership.org/waves/natural-capital-accounting?active=1 ""Natural Capital Accounting""], ""Wealth Accounting and the Valuation of Ecosystem Services"", 2013</ref> Similarly, the impact that the [[depletion of natural resources]] or increases in [[pollution]] can and do have on the future productive capacity of a nation are unaccounted for in traditional GDP estimates.<ref name=""WAVES"" />

The need for a more comprehensive macroeconomic indicator is consistent with the conception of sustainable development as a desirable phenomenon.<ref>[http://www.sesric.org/files/article/52.pdf ""Environmental Accounting for Sustainable Growth and Development with Special Reference to a System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting (SEEA): The Indonesian Experience""], ""Statistical, Economic and Social Research and Training Centre for Islamic Countries""</ref> GDP is mistakenly appropriated as a primary indicator of well-being, and as a result, it is used heavily in the analysis of political and economic policy. Green GDP would arguably be a more accurate indicator or measure of societal well-being. Therefore, the integration of [[environmental statistics]] into national accounts, and by extension, the generation of a green GDP figure, would improve countries' abilities to manage their economies and resources.

==History==
Many economists, scientists, and other scholars have theorized about adjusting [[macroeconomic]] [[economic indicator|indicator]]s to account for [[environmental change]]. The idea was developed early on through the work of Nordhaus and Tobin (1972), Ahmad et al. (1989), Repetto et al. (1989), and Hartwick (1990).<ref>John Asafu-Adjaye, [http://www.unescap.org/pdd/publications/dp25/dp25_ch4.pdf ""Green National Accounting and the Measurement of Genuine (Extended) Saving""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811080135/http://www.unescap.org/pdd/publications/dp25/dp25_ch4.pdf |date=2007-08-11 }}, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 2004</ref>

In 1972, William Nordhaus and James Tobin introduced the first model to measure the annual real consumption of households, called the [[Measure of Economic Welfare]] (MEW).<ref name=""MEW"">William Nordhaus and James Tobin, [https://www.nber.org/chapters/c7620.pdf ""Is Growth Obsolete?""], National Bureau of Economic Research, 1972</ref> MEW adjusts GDP to include the value of leisure time, unpaid work, and [[environmental damage]]s.<ref name=""MEW"" /> They also defined a sustainable MEW (MEW-S) value, and their work was the precursor to more sophisticated measures of sustainable development.

Repetto further explored the impact that the failure of resource-based economies to account for the depreciation of their natural capital could have, especially by distorting evaluations of macroeconomic relationships and performance.<ref name=""Jeroen"">Jeroen van den Bergh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=p6bwKkM1GC8C ""Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development""], 1996</ref> He and his colleagues developed the concept of depreciation accounting, which factors environmental depreciation into ""aggregate measures of economic performance"".<ref name=""Jeroen"" />

In their seminal report, ""Economic Accounting for Sustainable Development"", Yusuf Ahmad, Salah El Serafy, and Ernst Lutz compiled papers from several [[UNEP]]-[[World Bank]] sponsored workshops, convened after 1983, on how to develop [[environmental accounting]] as a [[public policy]] tool.<ref name=""WB"">Edited by Yusuf J. Ahmad, Salah El Serafy and Ernst Lutz, [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/12/03/000178830_98101901491957/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf ""Environmental Accounting for Sustainable Development""], The World Bank, 1989</ref> The central theme of all of the authors' arguments is that the [[system of national accounts]] (SNA), as it traditionally calculates income, omits important aspects of economic development that ought to be included.<ref name=""WB"" /> One important disagreement on environmentally adjusted indicators is presented by Anne Harrison and Salah El Serafy, in their respective chapters.<ref name=""WB"" /> Harrison argues that appropriate adjustments ought to be made within the existing SNA framework, while El Serafy suggests a redefinition of what constitutes intermediate and final demand.<ref name=""WB"" /> In his view, the SNA should not consider the sale of natural capital as generating value added, while at least part of the income generated from this sale should be excluded from GDP and net product.<ref name=""WB"" /> This would effectively allow GDP to continue to be used extensively.<ref name=""WB"" />

In ""Natural Resources, National Accounting and Economic Depreciation"", John Hartwick presents an accounting methodology to find NNP, inclusive of the depletion of natural resource stock, by representing the use of natural resources as ""economic depreciation magnitudes"".<ref>John Hartwick, [http://qed.econ.queensu.ca/working_papers/papers/qed_wp_771.pdf ""Natural Resources, National Accounting and Economic Depreciation""], Queen's University, 1990</ref>

This method of accounting, which makes adjustments to the existing national account indicators, found traction in the [[System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting]] (SEEA), published by the [[United Nations]] as an appendix to the 1993 SNA.<ref name=""Joy"">Joy Hecht, [http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C13/E1-21-03-04.pdf ""The Evolving System of Integrated Economic and Environmental Accounts""], Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems, 2004</ref> The report offered five approaches, or versions, to developing environmental accounts.<ref name=""Joy"" /> Over the years, the SEEA has been expanded and revised in view of the increased sophistication of accounting methodologies and technology. This revision will be explored in greater detail in the ""Global Initiatives"" section. Ultimately, the importance of the SEEA with respect to the green [[GDP]] is that it is possible to create full-sequence accounts from which aggregates, such as green GDP, can be derived and compared internationally, and many countries have begun this process.<ref>London Group on Environmental Accounting, [http://www.beyond-gdp.eu/download/bgdp-ve-seea.pdf ""Why We Need the SEEA""], ''Beyond GDP'', 25 October 2007</ref>

Several reports and initiatives after the SEEA-1993 have explored the possibility of expanding or changing the scope of environmentally-adjusted macroeconomic indicators. As the popularity of green GDP and other environmentally adjusted macroeconomic indicators grows, their construction will increasingly draw on this continuously developing body of research, especially with respect to the methodology associated with valuing non-market capital (e.g., services from natural capital which exist outside of traditional market settings).

In 1993, the [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the official bookkeeper of the U.S. economy, began responding to concerns that the GDP needed retooling. The agency began working on a green accounting system called Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounts. These initial results, released in 1994, showed that GDP numbers were overstating the impact of mining companies to the nation's economic wealth. Mining companies did not like those results, and in 1995, Alan B. Mollohan, a Democratic House Representative from West Virginia's coal country, sponsored an amendment to the 1995 Appropriations Bill that stopped the Bureau of Economic Analysis from working on revising the GDP.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://gwagner.com/writing/2004/04/fixing-gdp-green-accounting-in-united.html | title=Fixing GDP: Green Accounting in the United States | date=April 9, 2004 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070602190235/http://gwagner.com/writing/2004/04/fixing-gdp-green-accounting-in-united.html | archivedate=2007-06-02}}</ref><ref>Stiglitz, Joseph (2008), presentation in New York, 5 Feb 2008, ""[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Q_PA_czIKM video from 3:18]""</ref>

Costanza et al. (1997) estimated the current economic value of 17 [[ecosystem services]] for 16 biomes.<ref name=""Costanza"">Costanza et al., [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v387/n6630/abs/387253a0.html ""The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital""], ''Nature'', 1997</ref> The value of the entire biosphere, most of which exists outside of the market, is estimated conservatively to be between $16–54 trillion per year.<ref name=""Costanza"" /> By comparison, global GNP is approximately $18 trillion per year.<ref name=""Costanza"" /> The size of this figure demonstrates the significance of ecosystem services on human welfare and income generation, and the importance of identifying and recognizing this value. The valuation techniques used by the authors were often based on estimations of individuals' ""willingness-to-pay"" for ecosystem services.<ref name=""Costanza"" />

Kunte et al. (1998) use their paper ""Estimating National Wealth: Methodology and Results"" to demonstrate that expanding the national accounts to include natural capital is a ""practical [and necessary] exercise"".<ref name=""Kunte"">Kunte et al., [http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/ceea/archive/Framework/Kunte_etal_1998.PDF ""Estimating National Wealth""], The World Bank, 1998</ref> They estimate the total wealth of nations by including different components of wealth in their calculations, including natural capital. They place values on natural capital by using the concept of economic rent. ""Economic rent is the return on a commodity in excess of the minimum required to bring forth its services. Rental value is therefore the difference between the market price and cost of production / extraction.""<ref name=""Kunte"" /> Following this, and by adjusting calculations for (un)sustainable use patterns, they are able to determine the stock of natural capital in a country that more accurately reflects its wealth.<ref name=""Kunte"" />

""Nature's Numbers: Expanding the National Economic Accounts to Include the Environment,"" written by William Nordhaus and Edward Kokkelenberg and published in 1999, examined whether or not to broaden the U.S. National Income and Product Accounts (NIPA) to include natural resources and the environment.<ref name=""Nordhaus"">William Nordhaus and Edward Kokkelenberg, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3147043 ""Nature's Numbers: Expanding the National Economic Accounts to Include the Environment""], National Academy Press, 1999</ref> The panel, which addressed this question, concluded that extending the NIPA and developing supplemental environmental accounts should be a high-priority goal for the U.S., because these would provide useful data on a variety of economic issues and government trends, which entailed both replenishing and extractive activities.<ref name=""Nordhaus"" /> One of the major findings of the report is that it is fundamentally necessary for green adjustments to account for instances when natural capital is discovered or replenished, along with general depletive activities.

===Green GDP in China===

As one of the fastest-growing countries in the world, China noticed the green [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] as early as 1997.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Vic |last2=Lang |first2=Graeme |date=2010-02-01 |title=China's ""Green GDP"" Experiment and the Struggle for Ecological Modernisation |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00472330903270346 |journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=44–62 |doi=10.1080/00472330903270346 |issn=0047-2336}}</ref> City authorities had conducted a survey based on Beijing's GDP, and the result showed that around 75% of the total GDP was constituted by Green GDP, and the rest of the 25% flowed away as pollution.<ref name="":1"" /> Other cities also started the same calculation. For example, green GDP in Yaan reported 80% of the total GDP, while Datong reported only 60%.<ref name="":1"" />
[[File:Wen Jiabao (Cropped).jpg|thumb|Chinese Premier [[Wen Jiabao]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Office |first=Presidential Press and Information |title=Русский:  С Премьером Государственного Совета КНР Вэнь Цзябао.English:  With Premier of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China Wen Jiabao. |date=2010-09-27 |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wen_Jiabao_(Cropped).jpg |access-date=2023-05-04}}</ref>]]
In 2004, [[Wen Jiabao]], the Chinese premier, announced that the green GDP index would replace the Chinese GDP index itself as a performance measure for government and party officials at the highest levels. China’s State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA), together with the National Bureau of Statistics(NBS), the Chinese Academy for Environmental Planning(CAEP), and units from [[Renmin University of China|Renmin University]], investigated the nationwide Green GDP. The major environmental impacts in China were from air, water, and solid waste pollution.<ref name="":1"" /> The first green GDP accounting report, for 2004, was published in September 2006. It showed that the financial loss caused by pollution was 511.8 billion yuan ($66.3 billion), or 3.05 percent of the nation's economy.<ref>Sun Xiaohua (2007) ""[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-04/19/content_853917.htm Call for return to green accounting]"", ''China Daily'', 19 April 2007.</ref>

As an experiment in national accounting, the Green GDP effort collapsed in failure in 2007, when it became clear that the adjustment for environmental damage had reduced the growth rate to politically unacceptable levels, nearly zero in some provinces. In the face of mounting evidence that environmental damage and [[resource depletion]] was far more costly than anticipated, the government withdrew its support for the Green GDP methodology and suppressed the 2005 report, which had been due out in March, 2007.<ref>Kahn, J. and Yardley, J. (2007) ""[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html Choking on Growth: As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes]"", ''The New York Times'', 26 Aug 2007.</ref> The failure of Green GDP in China is connected to the incongruity between central authorities and local government.<ref name="":0"" /> Beijing was aware of the environmental costs of fast-growing GDP, and encouraged for cleaner or more efficient production. However, many local officials had direct connections with local businesses, and focused more on economic growth than damage by pollution.<ref name="":0"" /> Another reason for the failure was due to the cost of data collection. It took both money and time to collect data and set them into databases. The Chinese government had a hard time collecting comprehensive environmental cost data.<ref name="":0"" /> Only pollution and emission costs (air emissions, surface water pollution discards to land, and environmental accidents) were counted in, while social costs and natural resources depletion were missing.<ref name="":0"" />

Lang and Li (2009) use their paper ""China's 'Green GDP' Experiment and the Struggle for Ecological Modernisation"" to conclude that the attempt to implement green GDP was a signal that the Chinese government paid attention to environmental impacts. However, the fast-growing economy was more prioritized than environmental accounting, and the failure of the experiment was inevitable.<ref name="":1"" />

Independent estimates of the cost to China of environmental degradation and resource depletion have, for the last decade, ranged from 8 to 12 percentage points of GDP growth.<ref>Economy, Elizabeth (2007) ""[https://www.pbs.org/kqed/chinainside/nature/greengdp.html Green GDP: Accounting for the Environment in China]"", ''China from the Inside'', U.S. Public Broadcasting System.</ref> These estimates support the idea that, by this measure at least, the growth of the Chinese economy is close to zero.

The most promising national activity on the green GDP has been from India. The country's environmental minister, Jairam Ramesh, stated in 2009 that ""It is possible for scientists to estimate green GDP. An exercise has started under the country's chief statistician [[Pronab Sen]] and by 2015, India's GDP numbers will be adjusted with economic costs of [[environmental degradation]].""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/India-to-release--green-GDP--data-from-2015/544338/|title=India to release green GDP data from 2015}}</ref>

==Organizations==
The [[Global Reporting Initiative]]'s (GRI) core goals include the mainstreaming of disclosure on environmental, social, and governance performance. Although the GRI is independent, it remains a collaborating centre of [[UNEP]] and works in cooperation with the [[United Nations Global Compact]]. It produces one of the world's most prevalent standards for sustainability reporting&mdash;also known as [[ecological footprint]] reporting, [[Environmental Social and Corporate Governance|environmental social governance]] (ESG) reporting, [[triple bottom line]] (TBL) reporting, and [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) reporting. It is working on a green GDP to be implemented worldwide.

==Current debate==

Some critics of environmentally adjusted aggregates, including GDP, point out that it may be difficult to assign values to some of the outputs that are quantified. This is a particular difficulty in cases where the environmental asset does not exist in a traditional market and is therefore non-tradable. Ecosystem services are one example of this type of resource. In the case that valuation is undertaken indirectly, there is a possibility that calculations may rely on speculation or hypothetical assumptions.

Supporters of adjusted aggregates may reply to this objection in one of two ways. First, that as our technological capabilities increase, more accurate methods of valuation have been and will continue to develop. Second, that while measurements may not be perfect in the cases of non-market natural assets, the adjustments they entail are still a preferable alternative to traditional GDP.

A second objection may be found in the Report by the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress, when Stiglitz, Sen, and Fitoussi remark that:

<blockquote>""there is a more fundamental problem with green GDP, which also applies to Nordhaus and Tobin's SMEW and to the ISEW/GNI indices. None of these measures characterize sustainability per se. Green GDP just charges GDP for the depletion of or damage to environmental resources. This is only one part of the answer to the question of sustainability.""<ref name=""Fitoussi"">Joseph Stiglitz, Amartya Sen and Jean-Paul Fitoussi, [http://templatelab.com/rapport-anglais/ ""Report by the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress""], ""Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress"", 2008</ref></blockquote>

== See also ==

*[[Environment of China]]
*[[Genuine progress indicator]] (GPI)
*[[Green national product]]
*[[Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [http://www.gov.cn/english/2006-09/11/content_384596.htm Green GDP Accounting Study Report 2004 issued] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406234712/http://www.gov.cn/english/2006-09/11/content_384596.htm |date=2015-04-06 }}.
* A brief explanation of [http://www.env-econ.net/2005/07/from_the_answer_1.html Green GDP].
* [http://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/show/single/en/355-China-issues-first-green-GDP-report China issues first 'green GDP' report] – article from China Dialogue
* [http://www.terradaily.com/2006/060907094049.z78gdn6u.html Environmental pollution costs China 64 billion dollars in 2004] – article from Terra Daily
* [https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/08/26/world/asia/choking_on_growth.html#story3 NYTimes documentary on China's Green GDP effort]

{{Environmental social science}}

[[Category:Sustainability metrics and indices]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]"
Eco-industrial development,"'''Eco-industrial development''' ('''EID''') is a framework for industry to develop while reducing its impact on the environment.<ref name=WhatIsP7>{{cite web|title=What is Eco-Industrial Development?|url=http://www.greenleaf-publishing.com/content/pdfs/eich1.pdf|publisher=Greenleaf Publishing|accessdate=23 April 2014|author=Cohen-Rosenthal, E|page=7|year=2003}}</ref> It uses a [[Circular economy|closed loop]] production cycle<ref>{{cite web|title=Eco-industrial development and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act: examining the barrier presumption|url=http://www.bc.edu/content/dam/files/schools/law/lawreviews/journals/bcealr/30_2/01_FMS.htm|publisher=Boston College|accessdate=23 April 2014}}</ref> to tackle a broad set of environmental challenges such as soil and [[water pollution]], [[desertification]], species preservation, energy management, by-product synergy, resource efficiency, [[air quality]], etc.<ref name=WhatIs>{{cite web|title=What is Eco-Industrial Development?|url=http://www.greenleaf-publishing.com/content/pdfs/eich1.pdf|publisher=Greenleaf Publishing|accessdate=23 April 2014|author=Cohen-Rosenthal, E|year=2003}}</ref>

Mutually beneficial connections among industry, natural systems, energy, material and local communities become central factors in designing industrial production processes.<ref name=HandBook>{{cite web|title=Handbook on Codes, Covenants, Conditions, and Restrictions for Eco-Industrial Parks |url=http://www.cfe.cornell.edu/wei/papers/codes_files/codes.htm |publisher=Cornell Center for the Environment |accessdate=23 April 2014 |author=Cohen-Rosenthal, E |year=1999 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011225060140/http://www.cfe.cornell.edu/wei/papers/codes_files/codes.htm |archivedate=December 25, 2001 }}</ref>

The approach itself is largely voluntary and market-driven but often pressed ahead by favorable government treatment or efforts of development co-operation.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Qualitative Inquiry in Everyday Life: Working with Everyday Life Materials|last=Brinkmann|first=Svend|date=2012|publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd|isbn=9780857024763|location=London|doi = 10.4135/9781473913905|s2cid=147934729 }}</ref>

== History ==
Since the early 1990s the idea of EID evolved from biological [[symbiosis]]. This concept was adopted by industrial ecologists in the search for innovative approaches to solve problems of waste, energy shortage and degradation of the environment. A continuous approach towards improving both environmental and economic outcomes is used.<ref>Chung, B. (2007): The Limit and Merit of Taking Sustainable Buildings as a Catalyst for Eco-Industrial Development.</ref>

In 1992, the [[international community]] officially connected development co-operation to sustainable environmental protection for the first time. At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ([[UNCED]]) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil nearly 180 states signed the conference's Rio Declaration. Although non-binding, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development laid out 27 principles that shall guide the increasing inter-connectedness of development cooperation and sustainability.<ref name=UN1992>{{cite web|title=REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm|publisher=United nations|accessdate=23 April 2014|year=1992}}</ref> Moreover, the documents drafting was accompanied by a presentation describing the idea of eco-industrial development for the first time.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}

In the following years, EID became popular throughout the United States. The recently elected [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration installed a summit of business, labor, government and environmental protection representatives to further develop the approach. This summit established the idea of [[eco-industrial park]]s but soon realized that at first a more efficient management of raw materials, energy and waste has to be achieved.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}

Since then, the broad goals and application principles of EID have hardly changed and only became adapted to the rapid technological progress.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Deruty|first1=Emmanuel|last2=Tardieu|first2=Damien|date=2014-02-03|title=About Dynamic Processing in Mainstream Music|journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society|volume=62|issue=1/2|pages=42–55|doi=10.17743/jaes.2014.0001|issn=1549-4950}}</ref>

In 2012 the IGEP Foundation, for the promotion of trade,<ref name=IGEP>{{cite web|title=IGEP Foundation homepage|url=http://www.igep.org/|publisher=IGEP Foundation|accessdate=23 April 2014}}</ref> published a report called ''Pathway to Eco Industrial Development in India – Concepts and Cases''.<ref name=Pathway>{{cite web|title=Pathway to Eco Industrial Development in India – Concepts and Cases|url=http://www.igep.in/live/hrdpmp/hrdpmaster/igep/content/e48745/e50194/e50195/121004_Pathway_EID_ISOX3uncoated-1.pdf|publisher=IGEP Foundation|accessdate=23 April 2014|year=2012|archive-date=9 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909074547/http://www.igep.in/live/hrdpmp/hrdpmaster/igep/content/e48745/e50194/e50195/121004_Pathway_EID_ISOX3uncoated-1.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The field is researched by the Nation Centre for Eco-Industrial Development, a joint project by the [[University of Southern California]] and [[Cornell University]].<ref name=usc>{{cite web|title=National Center for Eco-Industrial Development|url=http://www.usc.edu/schools/price/research/NCEID/|publisher=usc.edu|accessdate=29 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624221300/http://www.usc.edu/schools/price/research/NCEID/|archive-date=24 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Goals and concepts ==
The primary goal of eco-industrial development is a significant and continuous improvement in both business and environmental performance. Herein, the notion of industry not only relates to private-sector manufacturing but also covers state-owned enterprises, the service sector as well as transportation. EID's twin guideline is reflected specifically in the ""eco"" of eco-industrial as it resembles ecology (decrease in pollution and waste) and economy (increase in commercial success) at the same time.<ref name=""WhatIs"" /> In order to build a framework of defining an enterprise's sustainable performance at the micro level, resource use optimization, minimization of waste, cleaner technologies and pollution limits are used in achieving a broad range of goals in EID: 

* [[Resource efficiency]] minimizes the use of energy, materials, water and transportation. This, in turn, lowers production costs due to savings in virtually all areas of business.<ref name=""Pathway""/>
* Cleaner production is a predominantly environmental measure, which aims at the reduction or even substitution of toxics, emissions-control or the re-use of residual material.
* [[Renewables]] in both energy and material use shall eliminate all pollution through fossil fuels.
* Greening of buildings or production sites installs high energy and environmental standards by relying on innovation in green architecture or engineering. Moreover, new facility and infrastructure design may also enhance the quality of life in neighboring communities significantly.
* Environmental management systems such as the [[ISO 14000]] ensure a continuous improvement through regular audits and the progressing establishment of environmental targets.
* Ecological site planning can then combine each of these aspects by developing a clear understanding of air, water and ground system capacities throughout the surrounding eco-system.

Eco-industrial development hence explores the possibility of improvement at the local level.<ref name=""WhatIs"" /> In unique case-to-case analyses, particular geography, human potential or business climate are investigated. In contrast to the widespread race for top-down governmental support such as tax cuts, EID emphasizes locally achievable success and room for improvement. As a result, purposeful enforcement of action plans can make a large difference by optimizing the interaction of business, community and ecological systems.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}

== Instruments ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2014}}
Eco-industrial development includes and employs four major conceptual instruments. Each of the approaches intends to combine the seemingly antithetic processes of industrial development and bolstering sustainability.

# [[Industrial ecology]] focuses on both industrial as well as consumer behavior. By assessing flows of energy and material, the approach determines the flows influences on the environment. In turn, it explores ways and means of optimizing the whole production chain from flow and use of resources to their final transformation. During these analyses, influences of economic, political, regulatory and social factors are key.
# The concept of [[industrial symbiosis]] is based on mainly voluntary cooperation of different industries. By conglomerating complementary enterprises and by then adapting their respective production chains, the presence of each may increase viability and profitability of the others. Therefore, symbioses consider resource scarcity and environmental protection as crucial factors in developing sustainable industries and profits. Industrial Symbiosis often becomes manifest in [[Eco-industrial park]]s.
# [[Environmental management system]]s include a wide range of different environmental management approaches in order to ensure continual improvement in sustainability. In early stages, monitoring companies facilitates the identification of hazardous environmental aspects. Further on, objectives and targets are set under consideration of legal requirements. Finally, the establishment of regular audits and other reporting systems combined with continuous follow-up targets shall ensure a constant improvement towards greener industrial production.
# The [[Design for the Environment]] concept originated in engineering disciplines as well as from the product life-cycle analysis. It is a simple but all-encompassing assessment of a product's potential environmental impact—ranging from energy and materials used for packaging, transportation, consumer use and disposal.

== See also ==
* [[Economic growth]]
* [[Green economy]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.ecoindustrialparks.net/ Eco Industrial Development in India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313093725/http://www.ecoindustrialparks.net/ |date=2018-03-13 }}
* [http://www.eco-industrial.net/ Eco-Industrial Development Network]
* [http://www.eco-industrial.org/ Eco-Industrial Development Institute]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130624221300/http://www.usc.edu/schools/price/research/NCEID/ National Center for Eco-Industrial Development (NCEID)]
* [http://wm.epa.gov.tw/estp/Document/EIP%20Overview%20Taiwan%202%204-07.ppt Principles of Eco-Industrial Development: Strategic Approaches and Best Practice for Sustainable Industrial Development - presentation by Andreas Koenig of ecoindustry.org]
* [http://www.greeneconomycoalition.org/ Green Economy Coalition]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150426005408/http://www2.hull.ac.uk/science/gees/research/environmentspacesgovernance/ecoindustrialdevelopment.aspx Industrial ecology: eco-industrial development and regional economic development (University of Hull)]

{{Industrial ecology}}

[[Category:Secondary sector of the economy]]
[[Category:Environmental economics]]
[[Category:Systems thinking]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Ecology]]"
Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2016,"{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
|short_title            = Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2016
|parliament             = Scottish Parliament
|type                   = Scottish Act
|long_title             = An Act of the Scottish Parliament to make provision for a land rights and responsibilities statement; to establish the Scottish Land Commission, provide for its functions and the functions of the Land Commissioners and the Tenant Farming Commissioner; to make provision about access to, and provision of, information about owners and controllers of land; to make provision about engaging communities in decisions relating to land; to enable certain persons to buy land to further sustainable development; to make provision for non-domestic rates to be levied on shootings and deer forests; to make provision about the change of use of common good land; to make provision about the management of deer on land; to make provision about access rights to land; to amend the law on agricultural holdings to provide for new forms of agricultural tenancy, to remove the requirement to register before tenants of certain holdings can exercise a right to buy, to provide a new power of sale where a landlord is in breach of certain obligations, to provide about rent reviews, to expand the list of the persons to whom holdings can be assigned or bequeathed and to whom holdings can be transferred on intestacy and to make provision about landlords’ objections to such successor tenants, to provide for certain holdings to be relinquished where landlords agree or assigned to persons new to or progressing in farming, to provide for a 3 year amnesty period in relation to certain improvements carried out by tenants, and to provide for notice of certain improvements proposed by landlords; and for connected purposes. 
|statute_book_chapter   = 2016 asp 18
|introduced_by          = [[Richard Lochhead]], [[Cabinet Secretary for Rural Affairs, Food and Environment]] 
|territorial_extent     = Scotland
|royal_assent           = 22 April 2016
|commencement           = 1 November 2016
|repeal_date            =
|amendments             =
|related_legislation    = [[Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Act 1991]], [[Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003]], [[Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015]]
|repealing_legislation  =
|status                 = Current
|original_text          = http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2016/18/enacted
|revised_text           = http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2016/18
|legislation_history    = http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/Bills/90675.aspx
|}}

The '''Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2016''' is an [[Act of the Scottish Parliament]] which continues the process of [[land reform in Scotland]] following the [[Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015]]. It is notable for granting [[Scottish ministers]] the power to force the sale of private land to community bodies to further [[sustainable development]] in the absence of a willing seller.

==Provisions==
Under the provisions of the Act there is to be a ‘Land Rights and Responsibilities Statement’, setting out the Scottish Government's objectives for [[Land reform in Scotland|land reform]], a [[Scottish Land Commission]] is to take forward the land reform process, preparing a strategic plan, for the approval of Scottish ministers. One of the new land commissioners is to be a Tenant Farming Commissioner who must be neither an agricultural landlord nor a tenant but who is to be responsible for reviewing issues relating to [[tenant farming]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Blair|first1=Mike|title=A Brief Guide to Land Reform in Scotland|url=http://www.gillespiemacandrew.co.uk/media/340813/land-reform-act-2016.pdf|publisher=Gillespie Macandrew LLP|accessdate=5 March 2017|date=April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306131212/http://www.gillespiemacandrew.co.uk/media/340813/land-reform-act-2016.pdf|archive-date=6 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

A further provision is the creation of the Community Right to Buy for Sustainable Development. This permits Scottish ministers to approve the purchase of privately owned land by a community body with a registered interest. Unlike the Community Right to Buy established by the [[Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003]] and extended by the [[Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015]], the Community Right to Buy for Sustainable Development does not require a willing seller but allows ministers to compel landowners to sell if they decide that the sale will further sustainable development in the area. In this respect it is similar to the Crofting Community Right to Buy of the 2003 Act which allows [[crofting]] communities to purchase croft land and the Community Right to Buy abandoned or derelict land of the 2015 Act, neither of which require a willing seller.<ref>{{cite web|title=Community rights to buy in Scotland – which is which, and what are they for?|url=http://www.brodies.com/node/8185|website=Brodies|accessdate=5 March 2017|language=en}}</ref> Community bodies may also register an interest in allowing a 3rd party to purchase land on the same basis.

Other provisions of the act include new regulations to require persons who control land to be identified, with information obtained to appear in the Land Register of Scotland; the removal of sporting rights exemption from rates, which are to be re-valued; and further powers for [[Scottish Natural Heritage]] to control deer management. It also makes provision for notice and consultation where core paths are to be amended.<ref>{{cite web|title=Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2016|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2016/18/pdfs/asp_20160018_en.pdf|accessdate=5 March 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Land Reform in Scotland]]
* [[Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015]]
* [[Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{UK legislation}}

[[Category:2016 in the environment]]
[[Category:Acts of the Scottish Parliament 2016]]
[[Category:Land reform in Scotland]]
[[Category:Culture of Scotland]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development,"{{Infobox website
|name             = Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development
|logo             = IPFSD Cover.jpg
|logo_size        = 200px
|screenshot       = 
|caption          = 
|url              = [http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/ Investment Policy Hub]
|commercial       = 
|type             = 
|language         = [[Official languages of the United Nations]]
|registration     = 
|owner            = 
|author           = [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]]
|launch_date      = July 2012
|current_status   = 
|revenue          = 
}}

The '''[http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/Upload/Documents/FINAL_WEB_POLICY_FRAMEWORK_30_NOV_2015.pdf Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development (IPFSD)]''' is a dynamic document created to help governments formulate sound investment policy, especially [[international investment agreement]]s (IIAs), that capitalize on [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI) for [[sustainable development]]. It was prepared by the Division on Investment and Enterprise (DIAE) of the [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] (UNCTAD). IPFSD is not a negotiated text or undertaking between States; but rather an initiative by the UNCTAD Secretariat that represents expert guidance while leaving domestic policy makers free to ''adapt and adopt.'' IPFSD is the result of numerous consultations with experts and is intended as a platform to provide for further consultation and discussion with all investment stakeholders. The main objective of the IPFSD is to create a balance between the rights and obligations of States and investors while maintaining attractive investment environments.

In the face of persistent global economic and social challenges, UNCTAD's IPFSD intends to:

*Promote a new generation of investment agreements by pursuing a broader development agenda; and
*Offer guidance to policymakers when formulating their national and international investment policies.

To that end, IPFSD defines eleven critical core principles. Flowing from these core principles IPFSD provides States guidelines and advice on formulating good investment policy including clause-by-clause options for negotiators to enhance the [[sustainable development]] value of domestic investment policies.

== Background to the IPFSD ==

IPFSD has grown out of a long precedent of [[UN]] Member States calling for sustainable economic development, an understanding that investment is a critical aspect of [[sustainable development]], and UNCTAD's three-and-a-half decades of experience in research and policy analysis.

The [[UN Charter]] promotes, ''inter alia'', the goal of economic and social progress. The [[UN Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs) call for a Global Partnership for Development. In particular, Goal 8 encourages the further development of an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system, which includes a commitment to good governance, development, and poverty reduction, both nationally and internationally- concepts that apply equally to the investment system. The “Monterrey Consensus” of the UN Conference on Financing for Development 2002, acknowledges that countries need to continue their efforts to achieve a transparent, stable and predictable investment climate. The UN Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of September 2002, following up on the Rio Declaration, calls for the formulation and elaboration of national strategies for [[sustainable development]], which integrate economic, social and environmental aspects. The 4th UN Conference on [[Least Developed Countries]] (LDCs) in May 2011 adopted the Istanbul Programme of Action with a strong focus on productive capacity building and structural transformation as core elements to achieve more robust, balanced, equitable, and inclusive sustainable development. Finally, the 2012 UNCTAD XIII Conference recognized the role of FDI in sustainable development and [[inclusive growth]].

Several other international instruments inspired the core principles that make up the IPFSD. They comprise, in particular, the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and the [[UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights]], the Convention on the Establishment of the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, the [[World Bank]] Guidelines, the [[UN Global Compact]] and the ILO Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and social policy and several [[WTO]]-related agreements, including the [[General Agreement on Trade in Services]], the [[TRIMs]] Agreement and the Agreement on Government Procurement.

== Structure and components of the IPFSD ==
[[File:IPFSD Structure.jpg|450px|thumbnail|right]]
The IPFSD consists of eleven core principles which aim to guide the investment policy underlying IIAs. Flowing from these core principles, the IPFSD provides states guidelines and advice on formulating good investment policies. The IPFSD proposes clause-by-clause options for negotiators to strengthen the [[sustainable development]] aspects of IIAs.

IPFSD also offers an interactive online platform giving stakeholders the opportunity to critically assess policy guidelines and recommend any appropriate changes.

=== The core principles ===

The eleven core principles of the IPFSD are:

# Investment for sustainable development
#
# Policy coherence
#
# Public governance and institutions
#
# Dynamic policymaking
#
# Balanced rights and obligations
#
# Right to regulate
#
# Openness to investment
#
# Investment protection and treatment
#
# Investment promotion and facilitation
#
# Corporate governance and responsibility
#
# International cooperation

=== National investment policy: guidelines ===
The national investment policy guidelines translate the core principles for investment policy making into concrete guidelines at the national level, with a view to addressing specific policy changes.
These guidelines are designed to ensure that investment policy is coherent with the overarching development strategy of countries, enhance the sustainable development impact of investment and promote responsible investment. The guidelines further aim to balance maximizing sustainable development outcomes while maintaining an attractive investment climate.
The national investment policy guidelines targets policy action at three levels:

*''Strategic'' – policymakers should ground investment policy in a broad roadmap for economic growth and sustainable development, such as those set out in formal economic or industrial development strategies in many countries.
*''Normative'' – by setting rules and regulations on investment and in a range of other policy areas, policymakers can promote and regulate investment that is geared towards sustainable development goals.
*''Administrative'' – through appropriate implementation and institutional mechanisms, policymakers can ensure continued relevance and effectiveness of investment policies.

=== International investment agreements (IIAs):  policy options ===

The IPFSD aims to translate the core principles into concrete options for policymakers with a view to addressing today’s investment challenges by providing examples of how to draft IIAs that address sustainable development by strengthening development dimensions of IIAs, balancing the rights and obligations of States and investors, and managing the systematic complexity of the IIA regime. International investment policy must be addressed at three levels.

*''Strategic'' – this involves managing the interaction between IIAs and national policies, and those between IIAs and other international agreements e.g. human rights obligations.  The overall objective is to ensure coherence between IIAs and sustainable development goals.
*''Designing provisions for sustainable development''– this concerns addressing the policy space and balancing rights and obligations between States and investors, and effective investment promotion.
*''Building multilateral consensus on investment policy'' – this goes toward helping address the systemic challenges that emerge from overlaps and inconsistencies in the IIA regime.

The IPFSD suggests, clause-by-clause, how the IPFSD's core principles can be converted into concrete provisions in an IIA. Governments can choose from these explicit policy options those that best suit their countries’ levels of development and respective policy objectives.  Among others these include: adjustments of existing IIA provisions(e.g. making them more [[sustainable development]]-friendly through formulations that safeguard policy space and limit State liability); new provisions in IIAs (e.g. to balance investor rights and responsibilities and to promote responsible investment); and the introduction of Special and Differential Treatment (SDT) (e.g. clauses for less-developed Parties to calibrate the level of obligations to the country’s level of development).

Some specific clause-level recommendations include:

*Narrowing the scope-and-definition clause to exclude portfolio, short-term or speculative investments from treaty coverage;
*Formulating the fair and equitable treatment (FET) clause as an exhaustive list of State obligations (e.g. not to (i) deny justice; (ii) treat investors in a manifestly arbitrary manner; (iii) flagrantly violate due process);
*Clarifying the distinction between legitimate regulatory activity and regulatory takings giving rise to compensation (i.e. indirect expropriations);
*Limiting the Full Protection and Security (FPS) clause to establish that ""physical"" security and protection will only commensurate with the country's level of development;
*Limiting the scope of the transfer-of-funds clause by providing an exhaustive list of covered payments/transfers, including exceptions triggered by serious balance-of-payment difficulties, and stipulating that the investor's transfer rights are contingent on its compliance with the host State's fiscal and other transfer-related obligations;
*Including exceptions to protect human rights, health, core labour standards and the environment, along with a check-and-balance system that ensures there is enough policy space while avoiding abuse; and
*Including clauses designed to eliminate or make investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) the last resort (e.g. after the investor's exhaustion of local remedies and use of Alternative Dispute Resolution mechanisms).

== The new generation of investment policies ==

The IPFSD embodies the new generation of investment policies that seeks to create a more intricate development strategy that maintains a favorable investment climate.  New generation investment policies seek to give investment policy a more prominent place in development strategies.  The continuous need to respond to newly emerging challenges and trends make it necessary to review and modify these guidelines.

== Dynamic nature of IPFSD and The Investment Policy Hub ==

IPFSD has been designed with the intention of providing immediate technical assistance for the negotiation of investment agreements, while maintaining a dialog between investment policy stakeholders including the international development community, investors, business associations, labor unions, relevant NGOs and interest groups. The result of these ongoing multi-stakeholder consultations will be a dynamic document.

To that end, in concert with IPFSD, UNCTAD has provided a platform for further consultation and discussion with all investment stakeholders—the [http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/ Investment Policy Hub] which allows investment stakeholders to post comments regarding the content of the IPFSD. The combination then, of IPFSD and the Investment Policy Hub will enable IPFSD to remain a valuable resource for investment policy makers into the future.

== External links ==
*[http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/diaepcb2015d5_en.pdf Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development 2015]
*[http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/diaepcb2012d5_en.pdf Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development (IPFSD) 2012]
*[http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/ UNCTAD Investment Policy Hub]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120184630/http://www.unctad.org/iia UNCTAD-International Investment Agreements]
*[[World Investment Forum]]

==See also==
*[[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]]
*[[United Nations]]
*[[International Investment Agreement]]s
*[[Foreign Direct Investment]]
*[[Sustainable Development]]
*[[Investment policy]]
*[[Developing country]]
*[[Bilateral Investment Treaty]]

[[Category:Investment]]
[[Category:Foreign direct investment]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Municipal wastewater treatment energy management,"[[Sustainable energy]] management in the [[Sewage|wastewater]] sector applies the concept of [[sustainable management]] to the energy involved in the [[treatment of wastewater]]. The energy used by the wastewater sector is usually the largest portion of energy consumed by the urban water and wastewater utilities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=DeHaas|first=David|date=November 2015|title=WASTEWATER TREATMENT ENERGY EFFICIENCY|url=http://www.watercentre.org/awa-journal-november-2015-article/|journal=Australian Water Association Journal|volume=November 2015|pages=53–58|via=International Water Centre}}</ref> The rising costs of electricity, the contribution to [[greenhouse gas emissions]] of the energy sector and the growing need to mitigate global warming, are driving wastewater utilities to rethink their energy management, adopting more energy efficient technologies and processes and investing in on-site renewable energy generation.

== Importance ==
Among the water and wastewater services of a city, wastewater treatment is usually the most energy intense process.<ref>Cook S., Hall M., Gregory A. (2012). Energy use in the provision and consumption of urban water in Australia: an update. CSIRO Water for a Healthy Country Flagship, Australia. Prepared for the Water Services Association of Australia. A. P. f. t. W. S. A. o. A. CSIRO Water for a Healthy Country Flagship, [[CSIRO]].</ref>
 
Wastewater treatment plants are designed with the purpose of treating the influent sewage to a set quality before discharging it back into a water body, without real concern for the [[energy consumption]] of the treating units of a plant. These facilities play the important role to protect not only the water systems but also the [[human health]], preventing the discharge of [[pathogen]]s normally present in the [[municipal sewage]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Resource Recovery|last=Metcalf & Eddy, Tchobanoglous G., Stensel H. D., Tsuchihashi R., Burton F. L.|publisher=McGraw Hill|year=2013}}</ref> Despite the key role of wastewater facilities, energy consumption can not be ignored anymore because of its contribution to greenhouse gas emissions and the need to reduce the emissions to mitigate global warming, as established by the [[Kyoto Protocol]] in 1997 and most recently, by the [[Paris Agreement]].<ref>UNFCCC (2016). Paris Agreement. United Nations.</ref> Moreover, there is uncertainty concerning energy costs. Because for a wastewater utility energy costs represent the second highest cost after labour,<ref>Copeland, Claudia. (2017). ''Energy-Water Nexus: The Water Sector's Energy Use'', Congressional Research Service.</ref> an increase in energy rate would further increase the operational budget of a municipality, and consequently, the service rates for consumers. 
 
Therefore, it is important for the wastewater sector to invest in strategies to limit the demand of energy from the grid in order to mitigate both costs and greenhouse gas emissions.

== Global challenges ==
[[Population growth]], [[Urbanization|urbanisation]], [[climate change]] and increasing demand for [[natural resource]]s are among the future biggest challenges for the urban wastewater sector.

=== Population growth and urbanisation ===
[[World population]] and [[population density]] in urban settlements are expected to grow by 32% and 66% by 2050, respectively.<ref>UN (2015). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, (ST/ESA/SER.A/366), United Nations.</ref><ref>UN (2015). World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables. Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP.241., United Nations.</ref> An increase in population is expected to increase the volume of wastewater and [[sewage sludge]] requiring treatment. To handle a higher volume of sewage and sewage sludge, it is necessary to upgrade the existing wastewater facilities and the collection networks to collect, store and treat the expected additional volume. Therefore, an increase in volume translates in high future investment costs for a sector that has a low cost recovery rate.<ref>World Bank. (2015). East Asia and Pacific Wastewater to Energy Processes: a Technical Note for Utility Managers in EAP countries, World bank.</ref> Moreover, as shown by Mizuta,<ref>Mizuta K., Shimada M. (2010). ""Benchmarking energy consumption in municipal wastewater treatment plants in Japan."" Water Science and Technology '''62'''(10): 2256-2262.</ref> there is a direct correlation between the volume of sewage treated and the energy consumption of a wastewater treatment plant. Hence, a rise in energy demand is expected with the upgrading of the existing wastewater facilities and the construction of new ones to cope with future population increase.

=== Climate change ===
Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities have almost doubled between 1970 and 2010.<ref name="":0"" /> The increase in greenhouse gases is held responsible for the changes in climate that have caused impacts on natural systems across all continents and oceans.<ref name="":0"">IPCC (2014). ''Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers''. IPCC Assessment Report. '''5'''.</ref> In particular, climate change has affected the [[water cycle]], increasing the precipitation intensity and variability, increasing in this way the risks of floods and droughts in many areas.<ref>Bates, B. C., Z. W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu and J. P. Palutikof, Eds., 2008: ''Climate Change and Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change'', IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 210 pp.</ref> The changes that have affected the water cycle have had substantial impacts on the aquatic ecosystems, increasing and worsening the stressors already affecting these systems. Nutrient loading represents one of those stressors as, with the change in precipitation patterns, it is expected a substantial increase in nutrients entering aquatic ecosystems due to increased erosion events and frequent sewage systems overflows. Because wastewater treatment plants discharge the treated wastewater in aquatic [[ecosystem]]s, the target [[Nutrient loading|nutrient load]] of these ecosystems affects the level of treatment that a wastewater treatment plant has to perform on the wastewater before being allowed to discharge it.<ref>Van DijK, A. (2015). ""Water resources, climate change and energy"". ''Climate, Energy and Water''. C. U. Press''':''' 6-27.</ref> Higher native levels of nutrients in the receiving water bodies force wastewater treatment plants to perform more stringent nutrients removal from the wastewater before dispose of it. In addition to stricter discharge limits, future standards for currently unregulated contaminants are most likely to be introduced.<ref>Stillwell A. S., Hoppock D. C., Webber M. E. (2010). ""Energy recovery from wastewater treatment plants in the United States: A case study of the energy-water nexus."" ''Sustainability'' '''2'''(4): 945-962.</ref> The combination of more stringent limits and new treatment requirements might further increase the already significant energy demand of these facilities.<ref>Venkatesh G., Brattebø H. (2011). ""Analysis of chemicals and energy consumption in water and wastewater treatment, as cost components: Case study of Oslo, Norway."" ''Urban Water Journal'' '''8'''(3): 189-202.</ref>

Population growth and climate change are increasing the energy needs of wastewater facilities. Because [[fossil fuel]]s are still the most diffused source of energy, providing more than half of the global energy needs,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=427&t=3.|title=What is U.S. electricity generation by energy source?|date=2016|website=The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)}}</ref> the wastewater sector is still highly dependent on fossil fuel-based energy sources. Electricity, for example, is sourced from the electricity [[Grid energy storage|grid]] while gas and [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] are generally used on-site for heating and to run backup [[Engine-generator|generators]]. High consumption of [[Fossil fuel|fossil-fuel]] energy makes the wastewater sector an indirect contributor to greenhouse gas emissions since fossil fuels are one of the biggest emitters of greenhouse gases, contributing for 65% of the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions globally.<ref name="":0"" />

=== Resource recovery ===
The pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]] and the increasing demand for natural resources is compelling the wastewater sector to develop innovative and more efficient practices to operate. Wastewater contains energy, nutrients and other organic and inorganic resources that can be successfully recovered and used in a broad range of applications. Energy can be recovered as [[biogas]]<ref>Askari, Mohammad Bagher, Fatemeh, Golestanian, Saman, Motraz, Motamedi Mirhosseiny, Leili (2015). ""Advantages and Disadvantages of Biogas Energy."" ''Bulletin of Advanced Scientific Research'' (5): 132-135%V 131.</ref><ref>Kwaśny, J., Balcerzak, W.(2017). ""Production logistics and participation of biogas in obtaining primary energy in Poland."" ''Energy and Environment'' '''28'''(4): 425-436</ref> and heat.<ref>Funamizu N.,  Iida M., Sakakura Y., Takakuwa T.(2001). ""Reuse of heat energy in wastewater: implementation examples in Japan."" ''Water Science and Technology'' IWA Publishing '''43''': 277-285.</ref><ref>Kollmann, René, Neugebauer, Georg, Kretschmer, Florian, Truger, Barbara, Kindermann, Helene, Stoeglehner, Gernot, Ertl, Thomas, Narodoslawsky, Michael (2016). ""Renewable energy from wastewater – Practical aspects of integrating a wastewater treatment plant into local energy supply concepts."" ''Journal of Cleaner Production''</ref> Biogas is an energy source with a wide range of uses, whereas heat has proven valuable for heating and cooling applications of buildings. Among the nutrients, [[Phosphate mining in the United States|phosphate]] can be recovered as [[struvite]] for fertilisers, a very important application since phosphate resources are limited and depletable.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environmental-research.ox.ac.uk/lets-talk-phosphorus-depletion/.|title=Let's talk about phosphorus depletion|date=October 2017|website=www.environmental-research.ox.ac.uk}}</ref> Composted sewage sludge finds applications in agricultural setting and urban gardens as soil amendment.<ref>Cheng, Hefa, Xu, Weipu, Liu, Junliang, Zhao, Qingjian, He, Yanqing, Chen, Gang (2007). ""Application of composted sewage sludge (CSS) as a soil amendment for turfgrass growth."" ''Ecological Engineering'' '''29'''(1): 96-104.</ref> Besides energy and nutrients, the effluent from the wastewater treatment plants can be reused as quality irrigation water both in agricultural and landscape applications. The reuse of treated water is especially valuable in countries with limited rainfall events or long periods of [[drought]].<ref>Arlosoroff, Saul. (2007). ""Wastewater Management, Treatment, and Reuse in Israel"". ''Wastewater Reuse–Risk Assessment, Decision-Making and Environmental Security''. M. K. Zaidi. Dordrecht, Springer Netherlands''':''' 55-64.</ref> All these possibilities are changing the vision of wastewater management and the role of wastewater treatment plants. Wastewater treatment plants have the potential not only to treat the wastewater but also to become resource recovery facilities<ref>Römgens Ben,  Kruizinga Eelco (2013). ''Wastewater management roadmap towards 2030: A sustainable approach to the collection and treatment of wastewater in the Netherlands''. A. o. N. M. Association of Regional Water Authorities, Agentschap NL and DNV.</ref>

== Energy ==
Effective strategies adopted by wastewater utilities to reduce energy consumption and dependence from fossil fuel-based energy sources include increasing [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] and generating renewable energy on site.

=== Energy efficiency ===
Since the recognition of anthropogenic causes of climate change in the late 1980s and the identification of the energy sector as one of the main contributors, there has been a global effort to investigate the energy consumption of human activities and their indirect contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. In Europe the energy analysis of the wastewater sector was conducted adopting mainly two strategies. Germany (MURL, 1999) and Switzerland (BUWAL, 1994), for example, developed energy management manuals for wastewater treatment plants and reduced their energy consumption by 38% and 50%, respectively.<ref name="":1"">Wett B., Buchauer K., Fimml C. (2017). ''Energy-Water Nexus: The Water Sector's Energy Use'', Congressional Research Service.</ref> These manuals provided wastewater utilities with energy targets to achieve. On the other hand, in 1999 Austria promoted benchmarking that allowed annual comparison of wastewater treatment plants energy performances. This comparison stimulated a competition among the wastewater treatment plants and the aspiration to improve their efficiency, which led Austria to be one of the first countries in the world to achieve energy neutrality in the wastewater sector. The energy benchmarking process has allowed wastewater treatment plants to identify their most energy-consuming assets and possible inefficiencies, and target them to reduce their energy demand. For example, the inefficiency of the aeration process identified by multiple studies<ref>Belloir C., Stanford C., Soares A. (2015). ""Energy benchmarking in wastewater treatment plants: the importance of site operation and layout."" ''Environmental Technology'' '''36'''(2): 260-269.</ref><ref>Nowak, O., Keil, S., Fimml, C. (2011). ""Examples of energy self-sufficient municipal nutrient removal plants."" ''Water Science and Technology'' '''64'''(1): 1-6.</ref><ref name="":1"" /> has allowed the development of more energy efficient oxidation units, with a possible energy saving of about 20% to 50% in some cases according to Frijns<ref>Frijns J., Middleton R., Uijterlinde C., Wheale G. (2012). ""Energy efficiency in the European water industry: learning from best practices."" ''Journal of Water and Climate Change'' '''3'''(1): 11-17.</ref> and an [[EPA Sustainability|EPA]]<ref>EPA (2013). ''Energy Efficiency in Water and Wastewater Facilities''. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 
</ref> study.

=== Renewable energy generation ===
Increased energy efficiency has allowed wastewater treatment plants to comply with discharge limits reducing the energy demand even up to 50%<ref name="":1"" /> without affecting treatment performances. However, energy efficiency strategies by themselves are not sufficient to achieve independence from the electricity grid and fossil fuel-based energy sources. To achieve energy neutrality, multiple studies have looked at the feasibility of integrating a variety of renewable energy sources into wastewater treatment plants. The wastewater itself is a carrier of energy and a theoretical calculation, based on the characteristic of the sewage, shows that the composition of the embedded energy is 80% thermal energy and 20% chemical energy.<ref>Steve Tarallo (2014). ''UTILITIES OF THE FUTURE ENERGY FINDINGS'', WERF.</ref> The thermal energy can be recovered as heat while the chemical energy is recovered as biogas. 
 
Renewable energy generation on site, in addition to increased energy efficiency, has already allowed at least twelve plants worldwide not only to achieve energy neutrality but also to produce more energy than they need.<ref>Gu Y., Li Y., Li X., Luo P., Wang H., Robinson Z. P., Wang X., Wu J., Li F.(2017). ""The feasibility and challenges of energy self-sufficient wastewater treatment plants."" ''Applied Energy''</ref> Energy efficiency programs and renewable energy generation have proven successful in diminishing the dependence of the wastewater sector from the energy grid, reducing treatment costs and the environmental impact associated with the grid connection.

== Advantages of on-site renewable energy generation ==
The production and recovery of energy on-site offers numerous advantages contributing to operation and management cost reduction of the treatment processes, source of revenue, contribution to waste management and the cost associated with it and increased resilience in case of power shortage.
 
One of the main advantages of energy generation on site is the less stringent dependence from the electricity grid and the cost mitigation associated with it. Depending on the level of renewable energy generation, wastewater treatment plants can disconnect from the main grid when the electricity is the most expensive, usually during peak hours and simply avoid the more elevated price of these periods. When [[Feed-in tariff|feed in tariffs]] are in place, wastewater treatment plants can sell electricity to the grid and reduce costs through the cost recovery of the sold energy. In some cases, energy utilities offer [https://energy.gov/oe/activities/technology-development/grid-modernization-and-smart-grid/demand-response demand response programs], in which a wastewater utility is given a financial incentive if it disconnects when requested by the energy utility. This helps the energy utilities to mitigate energy peak demands reducing the risks of blackout, and it is source of revenue for the wastewater utilities.

In countries where a r[[Mandatory renewable energy target|renewable energy target]] has been introduced, the production of renewable energy allows the wastewater sector to get a certificate for every unit of power they produce. The certificates are then bought by the electricity retailers, that surrender them every year to comply with the renewable energy regulation.

Another advantage of renewable energy production, in specific of [[biogas]] from [[sewage sludge]], is the contribution to waste management. In fact the recovery of the chemical energy involves the reduction of the sewage sludge volume. A smaller volume of sewage sludge is cheaper to transport and dispose of, decreasing operational costs.

Moreover, a diversify portfolio of energy source can contribute to a more resilient response in case of energy shortage and grid problems.

== Barriers to on-site renewable energy generation ==
Despite the numerous advantages offered by on-site renewable energy generation, wastewater utilities are experiencing several difficulties in integrating renewables in their facilities.
 
From a survey conducted by Beca<ref>{{Cite journal|last=BECA|date=November 2015|title=OPPORTUNITIES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY IN THE AUSTRALIAN WATER SECTOR|url=https://arena.gov.au/assets/2016/01/Opportunities-for-renewable-energy-in-the-Australian-water-sector.pdf|journal=Arena}}</ref> it emerged that one of the biggest barrier is that energy generation is not core business for wastewater utilities and renewable energy projects come with technical challenges and high initial investment costs. 
Moreover, each plant presents differences and it requires a customised solution for each situation, making it hard to generalise solution for the all sector. There is a lack of guidelines and roadmaps to follow, so each utility has to create specific solutions for their wastewater treatment plants.

The changing price of electricity connected with the fossil fuel price can affect the return time on the investment while the fast changing regulatory panorama increases the uncertainty of the investment and the financial value of it. This can create an unsustainable situation, where  investments in renewables projects can happens only when there are subsidies given by the government.

In the specific situation of biogas production, poor management can increase the [[fugitive emission]] of greenhouse gas emissions, reducing the environmental benefits of renewable energy generation.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sewerage]]
[[Category:Energy efficiency]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Food for the Hungry,"{{Short description|Christian international development organization}}
{{Infobox organization
| logo = Food for the Hungry FH logo.png
| logo_alt = Food for the Hungry logo
| type = International relief and development organization
| purpose = Together we follow God's call responding to human suffering and graduating communities from extreme poverty.
| name = Food for the Hungry
| founded_date = 1971
| founder = Larry Ward
| leader_title        = CEO
| leader_name         = Mark Viso
| location = [[Phoenix, Arizona]], United States
| area_served = 26 countries
| homepage = {{URL|https://www.fh.org|www.fh.org}}
| values = 1. We follow Jesus.
2. Our work is relational.
3. We invest wisely and focus on results.
4. We serve with humility.
5. We pursue beauty, goodness, and truth.
| vision = All forms of human poverty ended worldwide.
}}
{{Secondary|date=November 2022}}
'''Food for the Hungry''' (also known as FH) is a Christian international relief, development, and advocacy organization. Food for the Hungry was founded in 1971 by Larry Ward.<ref name=""ECFA"">{{cite web|url=http://www.ecfa.org/MemberProfile.aspx?ID=5160 |title=Food for the Hungry (Accredited Organization Profile) |publisher=ECFA.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> Food for the Hungry's stated mission for long-term development is to graduate communities of extreme poverty within 10–15 years. The organization also works in disaster relief and humanitarian response, including working with the [[Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh]] and Syrian refugees in Lebanon.

The organization's name ""Food for the Hungry"" was taken from [[Book of Psalms]] 146:7: ""He upholds the cause of the oppressed and gives food to the hungry."" Food for the Hungry is a charter member of the [[Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability]], since February 1, 1980.<ref name=""ECFA"" />

== History ==
Larry Ward founded the organization in 1971, with offices in [[Southern California]]. He moved the offices to [[Arizona]] in 1974. Early projects included helping [[refugees]] in war-torn [[Bangladesh]], victims of the [[1972 Nicaragua earthquake]], rescuing Vietnamese ""[[boat people]]"" from the [[South China Sea]], and helping hungry and needy people in [[Haiti]] and West Africa. The child sponsorship program was started in 1978. Hunger Corps, the people-sending division of Food for the Hungry, began in 1979.

Ward retired as president of both the U.S. fundraising office and the international implementation arm of Food for the Hungry in 1984. He was succeeded by [[Ted Yamamori]]. Yamamori retired in 2001, at which point two people were hired to replace him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.missionfrontiers.org/issue/article/feeding-the-hungry|title=Feeding the Hungry Dr. Tetsunao Yamamori & Food for the Hungry|publisher=Mission Frontiers|accessdate=3 June 2015}}</ref>
Randall Hoag was appointed president of Food for the Hungry International, and Benjamin K. Homan was appointed president of Food for the Hungry/U.S.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://global.christianpost.com/news/food-for-the-hungry-phoenix-officials-assess-relief-programs-in-indonesia-15685/ |title=Food For The Hungry, Phoenix Officials Assess Relief Programs in Indonesia |publisher=Global.christianpost.com |date=2005-05-18 |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref>

Since 2006, FH has consolidated its U.S. and international operations. From 2014-2019, Gary Edmonds led as President/CEO. In the fall of 2018, Mike Meyers was named CEO of the organization, but stepped down in 2019 due to familial priorities. In early 2020, Mark Viso was announced as the new CEO and President.

=== Organizational structure ===
Food for the Hungry, Inc. (FH/US) was incorporated by Ward in the United States in 1971 and has existed continuously since then. Ward incorporated Food for the Hungry International (FHI) in [[Geneva]], Switzerland, in 1980. FHI is made of national organizations (NOs) or affiliates.

FH/US became a supporting NO for FHI, along with like NOs in Japan (established in 1981), [[Canada]] (established in 1988), [[Sweden]] (established in 1988), [[Switzerland]] (established in 1988), [[Korea]] (established in 1989), [[United Kingdom]] (established in 1989) and a second organization in the United States, Korea-American Food for the Hungry International (established in 2002).<ref name=""Fex profile"">{{cite web |date= |title=Food for the Hungry &#124; ENN |url=http://fex.ennonline.net/5/agencyprofile |accessdate=2014-08-04 |publisher=Fex.ennonline.net}}</ref>

In 2006, FH restructured to align operations with NOs in Canada, Switzerland, Sweden, United Kingdom and United States as members of FH Association (FHA), which was registered in Switzerland in November 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpplatform.ch/pbguide/organisation/food-hungry-association-fh |title=Food for the Hungry Association (FH) &#124; GPPlatform |publisher=Gpplatform.ch |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> Japan and Korea aligned as Food for the Hungry International Federation (FHF) and, though loosely affiliated as members of a larger FHI ""family,"" operate separately from FHA.<ref>https://vocf.net/uploaded_project/fhifdir07.pdf{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

FH is the umbrella for all FHA NOs and relief and development fields. Field work occurs primarily in Asia, Africa, Central America, South America and the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fh.org/work/countries |title=Work &#124; Countries &#124; Food for the Hungry |publisher=Fh.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> NOs support this work by raising funds, supplying human resources and helping to design and evaluate field programs.

FH is governed by a unified Board of Directors providing direct oversight of FHA and FH/US<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fh.org/about/leadership/board |title=Food for the Hungry |publisher=Fh.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> and is led by board chair, Larry Jones.

== Biblical Holism ==

A [[Christian worldview|biblical worldview]] is both a foundation and umbrella for FH's work. Food for the Hungry's Statement of Faith<ref name=""Vision"">{{cite web|url=http://fh.org/about/vision |title=About &#124; Vision and Mission &#124; Food for the Hungry |publisher=Fh.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> corresponds to the Statement of Faith of the [[National Association of Evangelicals]] (NAE).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nae.net/about-us/statement-of-faith |title=Statement of Faith |publisher=Nae.net |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> FH is not affiliated with any specific church or denomination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/organizations/food-for-the-hungry |title=Food for the Hungry |publisher=Berkleycenter.georgetown.edu |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref>

== International work ==

=== Bangladesh ===
In 1972, FH began working in Bangladesh by distributing rice to the poor. Since then, FH has focused efforts on community development including livelihoods, micro-lending, health, education and disaster response resilience. Over the last 40 years, FH has partnered with Bangladeshi leaders and impoverished communities to create better living conditions.

Since more than 900,000 [[Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh|Rohingya people fled violence in Myanmar]] to seek refuge in Bangladesh since August 2017, FH/Bangladesh responded with [https://www.medicalteams.org/ Medical Teams International (MTI)] to provide critical health care and community health facilities to Rohingya refugees. The partnership is funded in part with grants from UNHCR, UNICEF, and others to provide psychosocial support and medical care with a special focus on vulnerable mothers and children.

=== Bolivia ===
In 1978, FH began working in Bolivia providing humanitarian aid in the high plains between the Andes Mountains ridge assisting with effects of El Niño. Since then, FH has focused efforts on community development including livelihoods, health, and education. Since Bolivia is vulnerable to natural disasters, much of FH's work there has also been in emergency response and relief aid.

Currently, FH Bolivia is developing 30 projects through a match from the municipal governments in some rural areas. The investment in the Poroma area in 2018 was $1,206,191, which includes funds for water projects, refurbishing classrooms, and establishing irrigation systems. In the Cochabamba region, FH is partnering with municipalities in 19 projects with an investment of $2,271,125 to improve community access to water and irrigation systems.

=== Cambodia ===
In 1990, FH began working in Cambodia by providing relief and aid to those living in refugee camps during the civil war. In 1992, they started to partner with poor communities in the Kampot Province to improve living conditions, and later expanded into northern Cambodia. Now, FH has focused efforts on community development and other areas of need to improve living conditions.

Since 2016, FH Cambodia has been fostering partnerships with education agencies and local organizations recognized by the Cambodian Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MOEYS), to provide certification to preschool teachers after they finish modular early childhood teacher training courses. FH Cambodia has supported the training of more than 200 preschool teachers in accessing this opportunity to grow their skills and become equipped to teach children well.

=== Guatemala ===
FH started operating in Guatemala in 1976 in response to an earthquake that killed more than 23,000 people through the provision of clothing, food and plastic sheeting for temporary shelters. After officially establishing the office in 1981 to focus on child development, FH concentrated on meeting the needs of orphans and widows who had been affected by Guatemala's civil war. Today the work in Guatemala has expanded and deepened to focus on long-term community development, especially in the sector of child and infant health and nutrition.

In 2018, FH Guatemala used peer education through 104 Cascade Groups to spread messages to help reduce chronic malnutrition in 4,463 children. With the assistance of 1,269 volunteer mothers in Cascade Groups, new mothers have been taught how to breastfeed, recognize hunger and other cues from their babies, and how to properly respond to those cues for the health and development of their children.

=== Kenya ===
In 1976, FH began working in Kenya in response to a devastating drought by providing emergency supplies and relief in the Marsabit district. Since then, FH has focused efforts on long-term development work including livelihoods, sanitation, water, health, nutrition, child development, and HIV/AIDS prevention, treatment, care and support.

Alongside [https://www.usaid.gov/documents/1860/kenya-resilient-arid-lands-partnership-integrated-development The Kenya Resilient Arid Land Partnership for Integrated Development project], which benefits 70,000 people through a partnership with the Millennium Water Alliance and support from USAID and the Swiss Development Corporation, FH Kenya is implementing a program to increase access to water for people and livestock by strengthening the capacity of public, civil society, community, and private sector institutions. The program is also undertaking initiatives to rebuild a healthy rangeland ecosystem, thereby ensuring that access to water is sufficient for multiple uses and is sustained over time. This project began in 2015 and will continue until 2020.

=== Rwanda ===
In 1994, FH began responding to the serious humanitarian crisis caused by the [[Rwandan genocide|genocide]]. In the immediate years following, FH implemented emergency programs in tracing and unifying children with their families, agriculture interventions, emergency food and non-food item distributions and livelihoods support. Since 2001, FH has focused efforts on long-term development work including livelihoods, food and education.

In 2017, FH Rwanda supported more than 18,000 students with school supplies while over 35,000 students benefited from new and improved classrooms, desks, latrines, and water tanks. These resources are supporting education alongside training by FH Rwanda that prepares parents and teachers to monitor child attendance, learning, and teaching in schools and be active participants in children's education.

== Funding ==
FH is a charter member in good standing of the Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability (ECFA).<ref name=""ECFA"" /> Their audited financial statement for the fiscal year ending September 30, 2013 shows that 35 percent of funding came from the U.S. government, 62 percent from individuals, 3 percent from churches, businesses, and foundations. Of this funding, 83 percent was used on programs, 11 percent on fundraising and 6 percent on administrative costs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://issuu.com/fh_us/docs/2011_annual_report_sm?mode=window&backgroundColor=%23222222 |title=Food for the Hungry 2011 Annual Report by Food for the Hungry |publisher=ISSUU |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref>

=== Financial transparency ===
As charter members of the [[Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability]], Food for the Hungry is in compliance with their Seven Standards of Responsible Stewardship. 

In the past, the organization received [https://www.guidestar.org/profile/95-2680390 GuideStar's Platinum Seal of Transparency], but that has since been downgraded due to a greater percentage of funding spent on administration and fundraising.

Food for the Hungry currently has a 3/4 star ranking on [[Charity Navigator]], with an overall score of 87.34/100.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Charity Navigator - Rating for Food for the Hungry |url=https://www.charitynavigator.org/ein/952680390 |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=www.charitynavigator.org |language=en-US}}</ref> While the organization scored a 100 for accountability and transparency, it scored only an 82.11/100 in the financial category, for having a relatively high amount of funds spent on fundraising and administration. 

== Controversies ==

=== IRS controversy ===
{{POV section|date=November 2022}}
In 2012, Food for the Hungry was one of hundreds of non-profits chosen by the [[IRS]] for a routine audit of their tax return for 2007. They cooperated fully with the IRS. A preliminary letter listed several issues that IRS wanted to clarify. That letter was illegally leaked to the media, launching a media controversy over unconfirmed facts.<ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Gifts-in-Kind &#124; Food for the Hungry |url=http://fh.org/gik |publisher=Fh.org |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> In March 2014, Food for the Hungry received a letter from the IRS. The letter accepted the tax return as originally submitted, and acknowledged that Food for the Hungry had followed all laws and accepted accounting practices.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fh.org/images/general/docs/IRS_Audit_Closing_Release_final.pdf |website=www.fh.org |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505182100/https://www.fh.org/images/general/docs/IRS_Audit_Closing_Release_final.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-05}}</ref>

=== Criticism of child sponsorship ===
In 2018, then President/CEO of Food for the Hungry, Gary Edmonds, responded to a study funded by Grey Matter Research and Opinions4Good, which shared that 54% of child sponsorship donors believed it to be ""mostly a gimmick to get donations,"" and that donations do not directly affect the sponsored child. The study said, ""''“Three out of four donors believe that despite what sponsorship organizations claim, the money given doesn’t really help one child – instead, it is used for the charity’s overall programs. While the major sponsorship organizations all pool sponsor funds to assist a larger project or community in a way that also helps the individual sponsored child, there are varying levels of transparency about this.  Some organizations openly promote this, while others barely mention it.  This appears to be causing confusion for many donors''.” 

Edmonds defended child sponsorship programs, saying “Sponsorship is more than (a gimmick). The big thing that sponsorship does is, yes, it helps donors to connect in personal, meaningful ways, but it has a major impact on the children and the families of those children where the children have been sponsored by somebody from another country or another context.”<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-29 |title=Food for the Hungry President Defends Child Sponsorship Programs |url=https://missionsbox.org/news/food-for-the-hungry-president-defends-child-sponsorship-programs/ |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=Missions Box |language=en-US}}</ref> 

== See also ==

* [[Canadian Food for the Hungry]]
* [[Feed the Children]]
* [[Food for the Poor, Inc.]]
* [[Heart to Heart International]]

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.fh.org/ Food for the Hungry home page]

[[Category:Charities based in Arizona]]
[[Category:Hunger relief organizations]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Phoenix, Arizona]]
[[Category:International development organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Project Neptune (water distribution system),"'''Project Neptune'''  is a water distribution project in the [[United Kingdom]] with the goal of establishing an optimized and more sustainable system for [[Water distribution system|water distribution]]. The project was officially announced in April 2007, and received a budget of £2.7 million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www-csd.eng.cam.ac.uk/themes0/water-1/project-neptune-delivering-sustainable-water-systems-by-optimising-existing-infrastructure|title=Project Neptune: Delivering sustainable water systems by optimising existing infrastructure|date=21 June 2011}}</ref>

In the UK, [[Water provider|water service providers]] (WSPs) are legally obligated to provide [[drinking water]] to all of their customers. The difficulty in optimizing this service involves the minimum water pressure and flow standards, as well as the strict regulations regarding water quality. The innovative technologies required to support the goal of Project Neptune are either partially evolved with no proven reliability or do not exist yet. The centre for [[Sustainable development|Sustainable Development]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] is heading the work on integrating [[artificial intelligence]] and mathematical simulation technologies to create an efficient online reporting and analyzing system for monitoring performance of the water distribution system.

== Research priority areas ==
In order to address the technological deficiencies of the project, research priority areas (RPA) have been identified by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. The RPA three key concentrations include “data and knowledge management, pressure management (including energy management), and the associated complex decision support systems on which to base interventions.""<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Savic D. A.|last2=Boxall J. B.|last3=Ulanicki B.|last4=Kapelan Z.|last5=Makropoulos C.|last6=Fenner R.|last7=Soga K.|last8=Marshall I. W.|last9=Maksimovic C.|title=Project Neptune: Improved Operation of Water Distribution Networks|url=http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/41024(340)47|journal=Water Distribution Systems Analysis 2008|series=Proceedings|year=2009|pages=1–16|doi=10.1061/41024(340)47|hdl=2086/9282|isbn=9780784410240|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

The specific objectives of the RPA are focused on developing communication networks, [[sustainable technologies]], real time information feedback system, and optimal operations. The function of the communication network is to evaluate the performance and reliability of already implemented hardware and [[sensor]]s for collecting faraway data. In order to achieve a reduction in energy usage, sustainable technologies that develop innovative energy harvesting technology and reduce the necessity for constant battery replacement are necessary for the project.

Real time information relates to acquiring knowledge related to performance of the water distribution system. Optimal operations can be achieved through improvement in understanding and analyzing relevant data, which includes online models of [[hydraulics]]. The first round of RPA work is contributing to the initiative headed by [[Yorkshire Water|Yorkshire Water Services]] to install the first prototypes of Ground Penetrating Radar Systems (GPRS). The [[Yorkshire]] initiative aims to install around 490 prototypes that are connected to sensors that collect pressure and flow data on a half hourly basis.

== Development goals ==
Project Neptune's academic and industrial partners aim to address the tasks of developing: [[Energy conservation|energy saving]] options, online simulation model to provide an overlook of a full day's water distribution patterns, system to mitigate and manage leakage, automate system adjustments, [[power harvesting]] methods, and optimized system for reacting to incidents.

Staff involved in the system controls department of the project have the burden of handling large amounts of data received. The [[Decision support system|Decision Support System]] (DSS) was developed in order to alleviate this burden and aid the staff in decision making, prioritizing urgent incidents, and identifying faulty alarms. The DSS functions to combine these strategy and decision making outputs into one single and comprehensive presentation of data for the operator.

== Partners and funding ==
The project today receives funding from the UK's [[Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council]] (EPSRC) in order to further advance understanding and contribute knowledge about optimal and efficient water supply systems.

Industrial funding is also provided for the project, the main contributors include the [[United Utilities]] and Yorkshire Water Services. [[University of Exeter]] in the UK carries out research for the project in collaboration with seven other research universities located in the UK, including [[University of Cambridge]], the [[University of Sheffield]], [[Imperial College London]], [[De Montfort University]], [[Lancaster University]], [[University of Leicester]], and [[University of Sheffield]].

==References==
{{reflist}}
* [http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/41024%28340%2947 “Project Neptune: Improved Operation of Water Distribution Networks.” ''Water Distribution Systems Analysis 2008'', 2009, doi:10.1061/9780784410240.]
* [http://emps.exeter.ac.uk/engineering/research/cws/research/distribution/neptune/ ''Project NEPTUNE: Real Time Anomaly Management for Water Distribution Systems'']
* [https://www.dora.dmu.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/2086/9282/128.pdf?sequence=1 Savic, D. A., et al. “Project Neptune: Improved Operation of Water Distribution Networks.” ''Water Distribution Systems Analysis 2008'', 2009, doi:10.1061/41024(340)47.]{{-}}

[[Category:Water management authorities]]
[[Category:Decision support systems]]
[[Category:Research projects]]
[[Category:Conservation in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Water conservation]]
[[Category:Systems analysis]]
[[Category:Organisations associated with the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Ground radars]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,"{{Short description|Government organization in New York, United States}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox UN
| image = 
| image_size = 
| name = United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
| map = Logo for the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.png
| type = Department
| abbreviation = UN DESA
| headquarters = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| leader_title = Head
| leader_name = [[Liu Zhenmin]]
| status = Active
| formation = {{start date and age|1948}}
| website = {{Official URL}}
}}

The '''United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs''' ('''UN DESA''') is part of the [[United Nations Secretariat]] and is responsible for the follow-up to major United Nations Summits and Conferences, as well as services to the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]] and the Second and Third Committees of the [[United Nations General Assembly]].<ref name=""bio2007"">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/ousg/#bioSection|title=About Mr. Wu Hongbo, Under-Secretary-General|access-date=2007-09-21|archive-date=10 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210013832/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/ousg/#bioSection|url-status=live}}</ref> UN DESA assists countries around the world in [[agenda-setting theory|agenda-setting]] and decision-making with the goal of meeting their economic, social and environmental challenges. It supports international cooperation to promote sustainable development for all, having as a foundation the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] ('''SDGs''') as adopted by the UN General Assembly on 25 September 2015. In providing a broad range of analytical products, policy advice, and technical assistance, UN DESA effectively translates global commitments in the economic, social and environmental spheres into national policies and actions and continues to play a key role in monitoring progress towards internationally agreed-upon development goals. It is also a member of the [[United Nations Development Group]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undg.org/index.cfm?P%3D13 |title=UNDG Members |access-date=15 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511144047/http://www.undg.org/index.cfm?P=13 |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> Since 2007, leadership positions in UN DESA have been held by representatives from the [[China|People's Republic of China]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |last=Lynch |first=Colum |date=2018-05-10 |title=China Enlists U.N. to Promote Its Belt and Road Project |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/05/10/china-enlists-u-n-to-promote-its-belt-and-road-project/ |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=[[Foreign Policy]] |language=en-US |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928101049/https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/05/10/china-enlists-u-n-to-promote-its-belt-and-road-project/ |url-status=live }}</ref> UN DESA has been used to promote China's [[Belt and Road Initiative]].<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cheng-Chia |first=Tung |last2=Yang |first2=Alan H. |date=April 9, 2020 |title=How China Is Remaking the UN In Its Own Image |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/04/how-china-is-remaking-the-un-in-its-own-image/ |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=[[The Diplomat]] |language=en-US |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529020051/https://thediplomat.com/2020/04/how-china-is-remaking-the-un-in-its-own-image/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Zhenmin |first=Liu |date=2020-04-18 |title=Statement High Level Symposium on the Belt and Road Initiative and 2030 Agenda {{!}} Under-Secretary-General Liu Zhenmin – United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/statements/mr-liu/2018/06/hl-on-belt-road-2030-agenda.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418044602/https://www.un.org/development/desa/statements/mr-liu/2018/06/hl-on-belt-road-2030-agenda.html |archive-date=April 18, 2020 |access-date= |website=[[United Nations]]}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples]]
* [[Financing For Development|Financing for Development]]
* [[Human development (humanity)]]
* [[Indigenous intellectual property]]
* [[International Association of Homes and Services for the Aging]]
* [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]]
* [[United Nations Forum on Forests]]
* [[United Nations Project Office on Governance]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Records of [https://search.archives.un.org/department-of-economic-and-social-affairs-desa-1955-present the Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) (1955–present)] at the United Nations Archives

==External links==

* {{Official website}}
{{International human rights organizations}}
{{United Nations}}

{{authority control|state=expanded}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:United Nations Department Of Economic And Social Affairs}}
[[Category:Organizations established in 1948]]
[[Category:United Nations Development Group|*]]
[[Category:United Nations Secretariat]]
[[Category:United Nations organizations based in North America]]
[[Category:Population]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Development economics]]"
Great Transition,"{{short description|Vision of a just and sustainable global future}}
{{Primary sources|date=April 2018}}
'''Great Transition''' is used by the Great Transition Initiative and its predecessor, the [[Global Scenario Group]] (GSG), to describe a vision of a just and sustainable global future. The term was originally coined by [[Kenneth E. Boulding]] in ''The Meaning of the 20th Century – The Great Transition'' (1964) and describes the shift from [[Pre-Modern|pre-modern]] to post-modern culture, and the four possible courses of action that these organizations believe will allow humanity to successfully manage the Great Transition.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u8YSAAAACAAJ}}|title=The Meaning of the 20th Century: The Great Transition|last=Boulding|first=Kenneth Ewart|publisher=University Press of America|year=1988|isbn=978-0-8191-7102-3}}</ref> 

Elements of the Great Transition vision include egalitarian social and ecological values, increased inter-human connectivity, improved [[quality of life]], and a healthy planet, as well as the absence of poverty, war, and environmental destruction. The Great Transition concept was cited by [[List of Prime Ministers of Bhutan|Prime Minister of Bhutan]] [[Jigme Thinley]],<ref>Jigme Thinly, [https://www.isecoeco.org/speech-to-isee-2012-by-prime-minister-of-bhutan/ ""Address by the Prime Minister on Well-Being and Happiness,""] UN Headquarters, New York, April 2, 2012.</ref> Josh Ryan-Collins of the [[New Economics Foundation]],<ref>Josh Ryan-Collins, [https://neweconomics.org/2009/10/the-great-transition ''Great Transition''] (London: New Economics Foundation, 2009)</ref> and the Capital Institute.<ref>[https://capitalinstitute.org/blog/beyond-sustainability-road-regenerative-capitalism/ The Capital Institute Symposium: ""Beyond Sustainability: The Road to Regenerative Capitalism] New York, June 20–21, 2013, </ref> It was used as a theme for the 2011 SmartCSOs conference on strategies for Civil Society Organisations in London.<ref>SmartCSOs, [https://www.socioeco.org/bdf_fiche-document-684_en.html ''Effective Change Strategies for the Great Transition: Five Leverage Points for Civil Society Organisations''] Berlin: Smart CSOs, 2011).</ref>

==History==
The Great Transition was first introduced by the [[Global Scenario Group]] (GSG), an international body of scientists convened in 1995 by the [[Tellus Institute]] and [[Stockholm Environment Institute]] to examine the requirements for a transition to a sustainable global society. The GSG set out to describe and analyze scenarios for the future of the earth as it entered a [[planetary phase of civilization]].<ref>See http://www.gsg.org/gsgpub.html and Paul Raskin, Tariq Banuri, Gilberto Gallopín, Pablo Gutman, Al Hammond, Robert Kates, and Rob Swart, [http://www.greattransition.org/gt-essay ''Great Transition: The Promise and Lure of the Times Ahead''] (Boston: Stockholm Environment Institute, 2002)</ref>

==See also==
* [[Anthropocene]]
* [[Global Citizens Movement]]
* [[Planetary boundaries]]
* [[Transition town]]
* [[Tellus Institute]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Publications==
{{refbegin}}

* Parris, Thomas. ""Bytes of Note: A Crystal Ball for Sustainability."" ''Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development''. 44, no. 7 (2002): 3-4. 10.1080/00139150209605799#.VZmxB0bLdyE http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00139150209605799#.VZmxB0bLdyE.
* Rajan, Chella, [http://www.tellus.org/pub/Global%20Politics%20and%20Institutions.pdf ''Global Politics and Institutions'']. Boston: Tellus Institute, 2006.
* Raskin, Paul. [http://www.tellus.org/pub/Global%20Politics%20and%20Institutions.pdf ''GT Today: A Report from the Future'']. Boston: Tellus Institute, 2006.
*Raskin, Paul. [http://www.greattransition.org/publication/journey-to-earthland ''Journey to Earthland: A Great Transition to Planetary Civilization'']. Boston: Tellus Institute, 2016.
* Revkin, Andy. [https://web.archive.org/web/20020907133247/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/09/0904_020904_wirimpact.html ''Human Impact on the Earth - How Do We Soften It?''] ''International Herald Tribune''. September 4, 2002. 
* Stutz, John. [http://www.tellus.org/pub/The%20Role%20of%20Well-being%20in%20a%20Great%20Transition.pdf ''The Role of Well-Being in a Great Transition'']. Boston: Tellus Institute, 2006.
* White, Allen. [http://www.tellus.org/tellus/publication/transforming-the-corporation ''Transforming the Corporation'']. Boston: Tellus Institute, 2006.

{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.GTinitiative.org Great Transition Initiative]
* [http://www.gsg.org Global Scenario Group]
* [https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5c4aa58f266c077ce184c992/t/5c4f4d06758d466ad39a08a7/1548700939842/ps-fourfutures.pdf Popular Science - Four Futures] - an article in Popular Science about the Great Transition and three other GSG scenarios, with infographics
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FS7o4g5kzMM Video - Visions of a Sustainable World] - a YouTube video with highlights from an interview with Dr. Paul Raskin of GSG and the Tellus Institute (from a speaker series at Yale University)

{{sustainability}}

[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Social justice]]
[[Category:Environmental movements]]"
Agriculture and Rural Development Day,"{{Short description|Annual event}}
Between 2009 and 2012, '''Agriculture and Rural Development Day''' ('''ARDD''') was an annual event co-organized by the [[CGIAR|Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research]] (CGIAR), the [[Earth System Science Partnership]] (ESSP), the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO), the [[Global Forum on Agricultural Research]] (GFAR), the [[International Federation of Agricultural Producers]] (IFAP), and the [[International Food Policy Research Institute]] (IFPRI).

== History ==
The first three ARRDs were side events of the [[United Nations Climate Change conference|United Nations Climate Change Conference]] (COP15) held in [[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2009]], [[2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2010]], and [[2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2011]] in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agricultureday.org/ARDDay2009/|title=Agriculture and Rural Development Day 2009 Website|website=www.agricultureday.org|access-date=2017-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116090114/http://agricultureday.org/ARDDay2009//|archive-date=2016-11-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Cancún]], [[Mexico]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agricultureday.org/ardday2010/|title=Agriculture and Rural Development Day 2010|website=www.agricultureday.org|access-date=2017-12-16}}{{Dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and [[Durban]], [[South Africa]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agricultureday.org/ardday2011/|title=Agriculture and Rural Development Day 2011|website=www.agricultureday.org|access-date=2017-12-16}}{{Dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> respectively.  Over 500 people attended in 2011, where British population biologist [[John Beddington]] ""presented key actions for avoiding a future in which weather extremes produce a succession of food crises"".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Researchers outline food security, climate change road map|url=https://news.wisc.edu/researchers-outline-food-security-climate-change-road-map/|access-date=2021-09-23|website=news.wisc.edu}}</ref>

The fourth event took place at the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]] (UNCSD)—also called Rio 2012, Rio+20, or the Earth Summit 2012—in [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brazil]]. It was co-hosted by the [[Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation]] (Embrapa) and the CGIAR.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cgiar.org/consortium-events/2012/06/18/agriculture-and-rural-development-day/|title=Agriculture and Rural Development Day|work=CGIAR|access-date=2017-12-16|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216210126/https://www.cgiar.org/consortium-events/2012/06/18/agriculture-and-rural-development-day/|archive-date=2017-12-16|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The fifth and final ARDD, called Agriculture, Landscapes, and Livelihoods Day 5<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.agricultureday.org/about/index.html |title=Agriculture, Landscapes, and Livelihoods Day 5 |access-date=2017-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929171213/http://agricultureday.org/about/index.html |archive-date=2017-09-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref>(ALL-5), took place alongside Forest Day on the sidelines of the [[2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] (COP18) in [[Doha]], [[Qatar]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://wle.cgiar.org/thrive/2012/12/05/story-agriculture-and-climate-change-road-we%E2%80%99ve-travelled|title=The Story of Agriculture and Climate Change: The Road We've Travelled|date=2012-12-05|work=Water, Land and Ecosystems|access-date=2017-12-16|language=en}}</ref>

In 2013, this event merged with [[Forest Day]] to become the [[Global Landscapes Forum]] (GLF).

== References ==
{{reflist}}


{{Environment-stub}}
{{Sustainability-stub}}
{{International-dev-stub}}


[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:International development programs]]"
World Institute of Sustainable Development Planners,"{{Multiple issues|
{{Notability|organization|date=March 2018}}
{{self-published|date=March 2018|reason=strongly tied to the website as to how the article is organized}}
{{advert|date=March 2018|reason=lots of verbiage that you would see on a brochure / website, including the section headers. Neutrality is suspect.}}
{{Technical|reason=full of jargon terms, making it very difficult to read|date=March 2018}}
}}

{{Infobox organization
|name = World Institute of Sustainable Development Planners
|abbreviation = WISDP
|latin_name = 
|image_name = WISDP_Logo.jpg
|image_size = 200px
|established = Oct 2017
|type = Company limited by guarantee
|staff = 10
|president = Lee Ngok
|city = Hong Kong
|country = China
|location = 
|affiliations = 
|website = http://www.wisdp.org
}}

The '''Worldwide Institute of Sustainable Development Planners''' ('''WISDP''') was formed in October 2017 by a group of academics and professionals to further the UN Agenda 2030 and the United Nations' 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]]<ref>{{cite web |author= |date= |title=Sustainable Development Goals: 17 Goals to Transform Our World |url=http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ |accessdate=26 March 2018 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development}}</ref> It is supported by the [[UNESCO]] Hong Kong Association (UNESCO HK) and the Hong Kong Institute of Education for Sustainable Development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hong Kong Institute of Education for Sustainable Development |url=http://hiesd.org/wp/ |access-date=2022-10-12 |language=en-US}}</ref>

WISDP is a world class learning and research institute which cooperates with the United Nations' [[sustainable development]] policy to promote sustainable development planning for individuals and organizations. It provides training, membership, and certification to businesses, industries, educational institutions, NGOs and government entities, as well as running courses for secondary schools students and teachers.

WISDP is also supported by UNESCO Office of Pacific States, UNESCO Chair in the Political Economy of Education, the UNESCO Chair in [[TVET (technical and vocational education and training)|TVET]] and [[Lifelong Learning]], Members of Working Groups of UNPRME (UN Principles for Responsibility of Management Education), Members of UN Global Compact, and Members of UNOSSC (UN Organization of South-South Cooperation).

== History ==
UNESCO Hong Kong Association (UNESCO HK)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.hk/index.php?charset=eng|title=UNESCO Hong Kong Association|website=www.unesco.hk}}</ref> is dedicated to facilitating and achieving UNESCO's mission, creating conditions for dialogue among nations, cultures and peoples based upon respect for commonly shared values. It is through this dialogue that the world can achieve global visions of [[sustainable development]] encompassing observance of human rights, mutual respect and the alleviation of poverty. It strives to work towards the building of peace and to facilitate the sustainable development of society, economy and environment through education, sciences and culture.

The United Nation 2030 Agenda<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld/publication|title=Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development|author=|date=|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref> for Sustainable Development was formed by 2015 and established 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (17 SDGs) and 169 work targets <ref>{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld|title=Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|author=|date=|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref> to push the sustainable development for year 2030 worldwide. To push and support the sustainable development of United Nations, a partner of UNESCO HK, WISDP was established in October 2017 to cooperate with UNESCO HK to push and facilitate the development, planning and implementation of 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals|SDGs]]. WISDP is a worldwide study and [[research institute]] to drive the training and  recognition of sustainable development to industries, business, education and public service.

WISDP was registered in Hong Kong with the company name WORLD INSTITUTE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PLANNERS LIMITED and was incorporated on 12 October 2017<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hkcompa.com/ny|title=- Hong Kong Business Directory|author=|date=|website=Hong Kong Business Directory|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref> as a [[company limited by guarantee]]. WISDP was formally launched in February 2018 and partners with training institutes to provide different levels of sustainable development training to industries and business. WISDP also establishes memberships and certification processes to recognize the training, experiences and contributions of sustainable development for individuals and organizations.

==Learned Society of Sustainable Development==
The United Nations established the training and initiatives of sustainable development to keep the sustainability of the earth as well as the human development. Sustainable development implies economic growth together with the protection of environmental quality and social situation, each reinforcing the other. It is crucial to harmonize three core elements: economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection. The Earth is the home of human beings and we need to protect  the sustainability of the Earth through sustainable development, culture, and planning.

WISDP is a [[Learned Society]] fostering and advocating UN Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development and the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] in accordance with the three components <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thwink.org/sustain/glossary/ThreePillarsOfSustainability.htm|title=The Three Pillars of Sustainability|author=|date=|website=www.thwink.org|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref> of Environment, Society and Economy. Training is provided for professionals according to their needs and successful trainees are awarded professional membership from WISDP and UNESCO HK Association, and subject to adequate relevant work experience, they are entitled to become Certified Sustainable Development Planners (CSDP).<ref name="":0"">{{cite web|url=http://www.wisdp.org.hk/cert_csdp.htm|title=WISDP - Menu|author=|date=|website=www.wisdp.org.hk|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref> Opportunities are provided for awardees to apply for Fellowship status after a number of years of [[continuing professional development]] (CPD).

In 2018, WISDP Divisions<ref name="":0"" /> launched training programmes and lead to professional memberships. The training programmes included Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Sustainable Finance and Investment, Health Society and [[Wellness (medicine)|Wellness]], Early Childhood Education, Sustainability in Engineering, and sustainable development in Insurance.

==Promotion and recognition of sustainable development==
WISDP partners with universities, training institutes and other professional bodies to promote and develop sustainable development planning in the business, industrial and education sectors. The study levels includes diploma, certificate and continuing professional development training.

WISDP also promotes sustainable development to business organizations. WISDP supports corporations to promote and implement sustainable leadership, processes, products, services as well as business strategies. Corporations may join the WISDP to cooperate with their sustainable development programs and WISDP will award the corporations that have contributed sustainable development to the industries and society.

WISDP is set up as a professional organization and membership<ref name="":0"" /> for practicing sustainable development planning. Principally individuals who support and experienced sustainable development planners may join. WISDP offers various categories of membership to recognize different levels of sustainable development. WISDP is welcome to people who are not practicing but are interested in the profession or students who aspire to join the profession in the future.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.wisdp.org Worldwide Institute of Sustainable Development Planner (WISDP) Website]

[[Category:UNESCO]]
[[Category:2017 establishments in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Teachers Without Borders,"{{short description|International organization based in the United States}}{{COI|date=March 2022}}[[File:TWB Logo Blue SQUARE.png|thumbnail|right]]
'''Teachers Without Borders''' ('''TWB''') is an international organization launched in 2000 with a mission to connect teachers to information and each other in order to close the education divide and based upon the premise that teachers are community change agents and key catalysts of global development priorities. The organization was founded by Dr. Fred Mednick, a former principal.

==Accomplishments==
Teachers Without Borders received the 2018 Luxembourg Peace Prize for Outstanding Peace Education, recognized for a free Peace Education program involving teachers from regions in conflict, for having embedded peace education into all TWB courses (see below), and its Voice of Teachers Radio Show in Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peace Education Initiative – Teachers Without Borders – 2018 Outstanding Peace Education — Luxembourg Peace Prize |url=https://luxembourgpeaceprize.org/laureates/outstanding-peace-education/2018-teachers-without-borders/ |access-date=2022-03-12 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Teachers Without Borders received the Champions of African Education Award (2010) for its use of radio and local educational capacity building to disseminate information about the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. In 2018, TWB's membership has reached 177 countries. Teachers Without Borders membership is free and enables local educators the opportunity to connect with colleagues globally.

Teachers Without Borders also received the [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize]] for ""outstanding work in the promotion of peace through efforts to convene teachers from regions in conflict, provide unfettered access to courses and networks devoted to teacher professional development, and to ensure that peace education is integrated into all initiatives.

==Approach==
Teachers Without Borders claims that teachers represent the largest professional community in the world (over 65 million); that teachers are uniquely suited as local leaders to recognize and help address development needs; that professional isolation and inconsequential or missing teacher professional development undermines social change; and that the transformation of pre-service and in-service teacher development can bring about more sustainable, equitable, democratic, and economically stable societies.

==Initiatives and Courses==
Teachers Without Borders' initiatives and courses are offered in various formats and settings: online, in schools, as community workshops, in books and journals, and on the radio. All programs have been conceived and led by Teachers Without Borders' members and partners around the world. Content of all TWB courses and workshop resources are free and governed by the least restrictive Creative Commons license. '''Initiatives''' include: education in emergencies, girls' education, peace and human rights education, Bullying, ICT in Education, and Child-Friendly Spaces. as well as several teacher pre-service and in-service professional development opportunities - including a five-course Certificate of Teaching Mastery program.

Most Teachers Without Borders initiatives are accompanied by courses offered independently, at universities such as [[Johns Hopkins University]]'s school of education (where TWB's founder is an assistant professor), and through the [[Canvas Network]], an online MOOC provider.  Those courses include:  ''Educating Girls''; ASAP:  Education in Emergencies; Peace and Human Rights; the five course ''Certificate of Teaching Mastery''; a course on ICTs for educators entitled:  ''High-Tech, High-Touch, High-Teach''; and ''Global Urban Education''.

==Flagship Programs==

===Education in Emergencies===
[[File:TWB ChinatoPakistan.jpg|thumbnail|right|TWB Disaster Risk attack]]
The ''Emergency Education Program'' works with teachers on preparedness and planning to avoid crises or lessen their impacts, education amidst emergencies, and in the reconstruction phase.  Teachers Without Borders has also helped to launch Parsquake, a consortium of NGOs devoted to earthquake science and safety throughout Persian speaking countries particularly vulnerable and seismically active regions of the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://teacherswithoutborders.org/eie/|title=Emergency Education {{!}} Teachers Without Borders|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-29}}</ref> This program was initiated after the [[2008 Sichuan earthquake|2008 earthquake]] in the [[Sichuan]] region of [[China]] and, in 2011, will engage and support teachers in Finland.The program also supports [[emergency relief]], reconstruction and recovery efforts in areas hit by [[natural disasters]], such as the [[2010 Pakistan floods|2010 floods]] in [[Pakistan]]. The online MOOC, entitled ASAP: Education in Emergencies, is available without cost.

===Peace and Human Rights Education===
[[File:Haiti Fenel wikipedia.jpg|thumbnail|right|TWB Peace sacrifice in Haiti]]
The Peace Education Initiative helps teachers promote peace in their classrooms and communities. Content of TWB's Peace Program is available without cost. The Peace Education course is available to the public as a MOOC and has been offered for Continuing Education Units at Johns Hopkins University.

===Girls' Education===
Teachers Without Borders' girls' education programs address four central themes:  (1) access (2) education in emergencies (3) public health, and (4) empowerment. The organization addresses these four themes by connecting global educators to NGOs working in the field; offering a free and low-fee course: (Educating Girls) in partnership with Johns Hopkins University and through the Canvas Network; and by promoting a Girls' Quake Science and Safety Initiative - designed in partnership with [[United States Geological Survey]] to ensure access to earthquake science education for teachers and schools in seismically-vulnerable communities around the world.

===Certificate of Teaching Mastery===
Teachers Without Borders' ''Certificate of Teaching Mastery'' helped to pioneer global access to online teacher professional development through Rice University's ""connexions"" program, and is available without cost on the Canvas course platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://teacherswithoutborders.org/programs/core-programs/certificate-teaching-mastery |title=Certificate of Teaching Mastery &#124; Teachers Without Borders &#124; Our Programs |accessdate=2010-11-11 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130091538/http://teacherswithoutborders.org/programs/core-programs/certificate-teaching-mastery |archivedate=2010-11-30 }}</ref> It consists of five courses that help teachers improve their professional knowledge, classroom practice, and leadership skills. This program has been deployed throughout [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], as well as in [[Mexico]] and [[Peru]]

==Countries==
Teachers Without Borders programs and resources have been adopted by teachers and communities in 177 countries worldwide, including: [[Afghanistan]], Bangladesh, [[Brazil]], [[Burundi]], [[Cameroon]], China, [[Ghana]], Haiti, [[India]], [[Kenya]], [[Mexico]], Nigeria, Pakistan, [[Rwanda]], [[South Africa]], Suriname, [[Turkey]], [[Uganda]] and the [[United States of America]].

[[File:ChalkboardTWB drop (1).png|thumbnail|right]]
On May 15, 2017, the United States IRS automatically revoked the federal tax exemption status of Teachers Without Borders for ""failure to file a Form 990-series return or notice for three consecutive years.""<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay=search.summary&orgid=12775|title=Charity Navigator - CN Advisory of Teachers Without Borders|website=Charity Navigator|language=en|access-date=2019-04-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.guidestar.org/profile/91-2023723|title=Teachers Without Borders - GuideStar Profile|website=www.guidestar.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-06}}</ref>

On March 4, 2020, the Office of the Secretary of State of Washington State reinstated Teachers Without Borders (UBI Number 602 008 785).

== See also ==
* [[Teachers Across Borders]]

== References ==
<!--- See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] on how to create references using <ref></ref> tags which will then appear here automatically -->
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://teacherswithoutborders.org/ Teachers Without Borders]
* [https://teacherswithoutborders.org/burning/ Burning Issues Newsletter]
* [https://flipboard.com/@fredmed TWB Magazine: The Voice of Teachers] 

{{Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize recipients}}

[[Category:International educational organizations]]
[[Category:International organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Peace organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Teacher training]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize]]"
Women Engage for a Common Future,"{{advert|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox organization
| formation = 1994, Netherlands
| type = [[Non-governmental organisation]]
| headquarters = WECF International, Korte Elisabethstraat 6, 3511 JG Utrecht, Netherlands
| abbreviation = WECF
| staff = 20-50
| location = [[Utrecht]] (Netherlands), [[Munich]] (Germany), [[Annemasse]] (France), [[Geneva]] (Switzerland), [[Tbilisi]] (Georgia)
| website = [http://www.wecf.org/ www.wecf.org]
| membership = 150 partner organisations
}}'''Women Engage for a Common Future''' (WECF), formerly known as '''Women in Europe for a Common Future''', is a [[non-governmental organization]] created in 1994 following the [[Earth Summit (1992)|1992 Earth Summit]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]]. The aim of the organization is to ""achieve an equitable and [[Sustainability|sustainable]] healthy environment for all"".<ref name=""auto"">{{Cite web|url=http://www.wecf.eu/english/about-wecf/|title=Vision & Strategy|website=www.wecf.eu|access-date=2016-03-07}}</ref> WECF is a network of more than 150 women's and [[environmental organizations]] in 50 countries worldwide.<ref name=""auto"" /> WECF also works on national, [[European Union|European]], [[UN]] and international political levels with the aim to increase women's influence in political decision-making processes.

== History ==
WECF was registered as a foundation in 1994 in the Netherlands as Women in Europe for a Common Future. During the “Earth Summit” in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1992), women from the European region formed the network WECF. The organization officially changed its name from “Women in Europe for a Common Future” to “Women Engage for a Common Future” in 2016.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|title=About us|url=https://www.wecf.org/about-us/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=WECF|language=en-GB}}</ref> 
[[File:Women Engage for a Common Future (WECF).jpg|alt=WECF Germany|thumb|411x411px|The staff from WECF Germany posing in front of the #munich4Europe statue as part of the ""make Europe sustainable for all"" campaign 2018]]

== Global role and processes ==
WECF has observer status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations ([[United Nations Economic and Social Council|ECOSOC]]) and is an official partner of the United Nations Environment Program ([[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]]). WECF was also a member of the European Environment and Health Committee until it concluded in 2010 ([https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/pages/european-environment-and-health-process-ehp/governance/previous-ehp-governance-mechanisms/european-environment-and-health-committee-1994-2010 EEHC]).  

'''WECF's Founding of the Women's Major Group at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992'''

The WECF is a founding member of the Women's Major Group (WMG).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-04-14|title=Women Engage for a Common Future (WECF)|url=https://womengenderclimate.org/member/women-in-europe-for-a-common-future-wecf/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Women & Gender Constituency|language=en-US}}</ref> This group was created in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, after governments recognized that women are one of the nine groups for achieving sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Women's Major Group|url=https://www.womensmajorgroup.org/|website=Women's Major Group}}</ref> As a result, the WMG is a participant in the United Nations initiatives for Sustainable Development. 

'''WECF at The Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing'''

In 1995, more than 30,000 activists from around the world met in Beijing for the [[World Conference on Women, 1995|Fourth World Conference on Women]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/fwcwn.html|access-date=2021-10-25|website=www.un.org}}</ref> One of WECF's first large projects as an organization consisted of sending a delegation of women to attend the civil society forum in Beijing before the conference, where they would highlight the intersections between gender and the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Beijing+25 - World conference on women|url=https://www.wecf.org/beijing25-world-conference-on-women/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=WECF|language=en-GB}}</ref> 

'''Women and Gender Constituency'''

The WECF is also one of the founding members of the Women and Gender Constituency.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-04-14|title=Women Engage for a Common Future (WECF)|url=https://womengenderclimate.org/member/women-in-europe-for-a-common-future-wecf/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Women & Gender Constituency|language=en-US}}</ref> Founded in 2009, the Women and Gender constituency is one of nine groups that are a part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|date=2014-04-13|title=About us|url=https://womengenderclimate.org/about-us/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Women & Gender Constituency|language=en-US}}</ref> The role of the 33 women's and environmental civil society organizations that are a part of this group is to ensure that women's voices and rights are central to all processes and results within the UNFCCC Framework. They also formalize the voice of the aforementioned organizations that are active within the UNFCCC, while developing, streamlining and advocating common positions.<ref name="":1"" /> 

As a member of the Constituency, the WECF is present at each meeting of the UNFCCC. The WECF works alongside the UNFCCC Secretariat, governments, civil society observers and others.<ref name="":1"" /> Overall, the WECF contributes to climate negotiations and ensures that grassroots women's organizations from within their networks participate in the policy meetings.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Women & Gender Constituency|url=https://www.wecf.org/women-gender-constituency/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=WECF|language=en-GB}}</ref>

'''WECF at the 2012 UN Rio+20 summit on sustainable development'''

More than 50,000 representatives of social movements and civil society organizations protested in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in June of 2012 against what they saw as unfair and unsustainable economic policies. At the same time, 30,000 participants of the United Nations [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|2012 Rio+20 conference]] created the document ""The Future We Want""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/727The%20Future%20We%20Want%2019%20June%201230pm.pdf|title=The Future We Want|work=uncsd2012.org|accessdate=23 June 2015}}</ref> which set the path for the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (replacing the [[Millennium Development Goals]]). WECF participated in the Rio+20 conference as co-facilitator of the Women's Major Group,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womenrio20.org/|title=Creating a just and sustainable future|work=womenrio20.org|accessdate=23 June 2015}}</ref> one of the nine groups of civil society that have a space in the UN policy process. WECF's role was to facilitate the 300 organizations through virtual and face-to-face meetings, created proposals for the negotiation text, organize meetings with country negotiators, as well as organizing events in which to present the priorities of women's organizations.

'''Beijing+25 and Generation Equality Forums'''

2020 marked the 25th anniversary of the fourth World Women's Conference, and UN Women has created the Generation Equality Forums in 2021 to build on the Beijing Platform for Action.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Beijing+25 - World conference on women|url=https://www.wecf.org/beijing25-world-conference-on-women/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=WECF|language=en-GB}}</ref> The forums are convened by UN Women to set concrete actions to achieve progress for Gender Equality.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Generation Equality Forum|url=https://forum.generationequality.org/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Generation Equality Forum|language=en}}</ref> The WEFC's Executive Director Sascha Gabizon is a member of the Civil Society Advisory Group (CSAG), which supports the decision-making of the Core Group at these forums and ensures that civil society priorities are reflected in the outcomes of the Forum.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Generation Equality Forums|url=https://www.wecf.org/generation-equality-forums/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=WECF|language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Organization ==
The organization was founded by Marie Kranendonk in 1994. WECF now has five offices in the Netherlands, Germany, France, Switzerland and Georgia. WECF has a dual governance system. The executive directors and their team are formally supervised by the Board of Trustees (BOT). Their role is to approve the annual plans, budgets and reports, and supervise the work of WECF's directors. WECF's partners also have a say in their governance, through the International Advisory Board (IAB). The IAB's role is to give strategic advice to WECF's BOT and directors.

To achieve the organization's goals, WECF works through capacity-building, policy, and outreach. WECF provides training, expertise, and offers grants to organizations working for women and gender equality.<ref name="":0"" /> 

WECF also advocates to policymakers locally and globally to ensure that women's perspectives and gender equality are included in both policies and implementing plans, by helping organizations participate in decision-making processes.<ref name="":0"" /> Lastly, WECF discusses the importance of gender-just climate and environmental solutions using a variety of methods, from social media campaigns to public debates.<ref name="":0"" />

The WECF's focus areas include sustainable development, climate action, and a toxin-free, healthy environment.<ref name="":0"" /> The key issues that the organization works for include climate justice, energy solutions, gender equality, inclusive forest governance, international solidarity, menstruation matters, safe water and sanitation, stopping toxic chemicals and waste and women's rights in Agenda2030.<ref name="":0"" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

__FORCETOC__
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women Engage for a Common Future}}
[[Category:International women's organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainability organizations]]
[[Category:International organisations based in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:International organizations based in Europe]]
[[Category:Environmental justice organizations]]
[[Category:Gender equality]]
[[Category:Ecofeminism]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Monitoring Education for Sustainable Development,"
'''Monitoring [[Education for sustainable development|Education for Sustainable Development]] (ESD)''' refers to measuring progress in ESD learning compared to policy commitments, provision, institutional support, resources and others. Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of [[Education for sustainable development|Education for Sustainable Development]] is widely discussed in literature on [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]], including debates regarding methodology and strategies for interpreting the data.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tilbury|first=D.|date=2007|title=Monitoring and evaluation during the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development|journal=Journal of Education for Sustainable Development|volume=1|issue=2|pages=239–254|doi=10.1177/097340820700100214|s2cid=143828816}}</ref>

== Purposes and benefits of monitoring ESD ==
New information, analysis and predictions feed into ‘improve[d] decision making and action-taking’ to guide and reorient programmes. This process increases understanding about the elements necessary to promote [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] learning in a particular context, and can influence other stakeholders. The desired outcome is wider social learning and enhanced ESD knowledge and skills, potentially resulting in diverse activities that promote not just better learning but the ultimate goal of [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]]: [[sustainable living]] throughout life.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232555?posInSet=1&queryId=f33b6a27-0a3a-4c03-b24f-065db93c4927|title=Rethinking Education: Towards a Global Common Good?|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100088-1|location=Paris}}</ref>

A main requirement of effective M&E in [[education]] and learning is clear objectives, also called competencies, which stem from defined concepts in a subject. The more dynamic aspects of ESD cannot be boxed into a measurable definition because they centre on the unknown and the emergent: they revolve around new concepts and ideas produced by learners to help populations confront global issues such as [[climate change]]. It is not always possible to know what to monitor because learners are partially leading the process. Differentiating [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] from two subject areas is challenging because it is often lumped together with – its precursor, [[environmental education]] (EE), and [[global citizenship education]] (GCED), which runs complementarily.<ref name="":0"" />

There is a governance and [[accountability]] angle to M&E of ESD. It involves verifying that all learners have access, that the process is inclusive and that the learning provided is suitable. At the national level, it is crucial that education authorities be in a position to account for how a significant share of public [[Expense|expenditure]] (supplemented by sizeable private investment) is ensuring the right of all children, youth and adults to basic educational opportunities that lead to effective and relevant learning. M&E also accounts ‘for ensuring equal opportunity for post-basic education and training’.<ref name="":0"" />

Monitoring is not only concerned with learning, but effective learning for all, and therefore operates from a position of social justice. It helps to keep special interests and the marketization of education in check, by regulating the [[private sector]] to ‘ensure the application of standards adopted by education professionals working in both public and private sectors’. M&E aims to protect and uphold access to quality education for all people throughout life by reining in potentially dominant special interest forces.<ref name="":0"" />

== Historical efforts in ESD monitoring ==
From 2005 to 2014, [[UNESCO]] worked on prioritizing and advancing ESD. Based on [[United Nations General Assembly]] Resolution 57/254, the UN Decade of [[Education for sustainable development|Education for Sustainable Development]] (DESD) was conceived as a way to foreground principles and practices of sustainability and marry them with education and learning. This marriage aimed to strengthen ESD worldwide with a view to effecting positive, sustainable change in the ways that people – in this case, learners – make choices and live their lives in relationship to others and their local environment, ultimately transforming broader [[Social behavior|social behaviour]] and its effects on the planet. The conclusion was that it was necessary to monitor efforts to observe the kind of progress being made. This information could be fed back into the [[process]] leading to changes and improvements resulting in better ESD learning. The common practice was to measure ESD through inputs, including the ‘development of strategies, plans, coordinating mechanisms and resources’. This approach reflected a more top-down approach to M&E often driven by national reporting to international agencies. It was also representative of a belief that inputs inevitably lead to outputs. However, the effect of inputs and throughputs on ESD learning proved difficult to see.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230514?posInSet=1&queryId=4e0893b8-6c61-4b5c-8217-223ddf872568|title=UNESCO Roadmap for Implementing the Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Development|publisher=UNESCO|year=2014|location=Paris}}</ref>

This suggested three things:

* equating inputs with outputs amounted to a leap of faith, and was not backed up by the evidence. Accordingly, different or a combination of M&E strategies were needed;
* D[[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] activities were not making an immediately observable difference on the ground; and
* more information was needed about the context, educational process and so on. Such input-output thinking often goes hand-in-hand with an overly focused conversation about indicators (which are sometimes presented as the solution in themselves).<ref name="":1"" />

This mix reflects the balance and tension between translating global and local concerns into goals and targets, and having indicators that help collect information on activities that demonstrate progress towards them. Both are important, as the wider call for [[sustainable development]] is a response to overarching, multifaceted (global) problems, such as [[climate change]] and specific (local) manifestations and effects on different places for actual people. During the Decade, the DESD Monitoring and Evaluation Expert Group (MEEG) developed various ESD indicators as part of their Global Monitoring and Evaluation Framework. Early involvement of stakeholders and establishing agreed-upon goals will be vital to addressing this indicator development challenge’. Coordination between National Commissions and designated working groups led to various types of indicator development bodies each with different purposes. This strategy resulted in an open and connected process that was part of a larger M&E scheme.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000155283|title=Asia-Pacific guidelines for the development of national ESD indicators|publisher=UNESCO|year=2007|isbn=978-92-9223-121-7}}</ref>

An outcome from the Decade is that many M&E experts now believe in evaluating programmes and practices at multiple levels and stages of the educational process. Possible multipronged frameworks involve large-scale student assessments and country-level and lower assessments related to contextualized ESD aims and purposes. This may include evaluation of the learning environment focusing on [[pedagogy]] and learner engagement, and formative assessments to improve professional practice among teachers through peer engagement.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230514|title=UNESCO Roadmap for Implementing the Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Development|publisher=UNESCO|year=2014|location=Paris}}</ref>

== How countries monitor ESD ==
Finding data on how countries monitor [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] has proven difficult. References in the literature to country approaches to M&E invariably follow the model of collecting and analysing policies, capacity-building efforts, [[implementation]], earning objectives, teacher and curriculum, partnerships and networks, and so on. There is little mention of holistic schemes or systems operating in unison. Some instances provide decontextualized discussions about indicators and assessments to evaluate [[Educational aims and objectives|learning outcomes]]. As these discussions are not part of a larger whole or anchored to country activities, they lose their concrete value and simply amount to a reiteration of oversimplified, input leads-to-output thinking without any information about what happens between inputs and [[Educational aims and objectives|learning outcomes]]. There are a few examples of studies where M&E of ESD within countries could have been inquired about and pointed to, but were not for some reason.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|url=http://archive.ias.unu.edu/resource_ centre/TICADV-ESD-flyer-2p.pdf|title=Education for Sustainable Development (ESD): A Sound Investment to Accelerate African Development|date=2013|website=UNESDOC|access-date=20 February 2017}}</ref>

The [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] (UNECE) Initiative on [[Education for sustainable development|Education for Sustainable Development]] includes an objective to ‘promote research on and development of ESD. However, the ten-year evaluation report on implementation does not provide examples of monitoring, and notes only that more and better practices are needed. The United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS) and the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) collaborated on a research project with the [[UNESCO]] Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education on M&E for ESD in 2011 to 2012. The study covered nine countries in North and [[Southeast Asia]] over two rounds of surveys using a mixed-methods approach (both quantitative and qualitative with a bridge connecting the two data sets). Similar to the [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|UNECE]] report, key input, content and process areas were examined. There is lengthy discussion in the final report about the benefits and deficiencies of monitoring, but an absence of country cases to illustrate these points. Examples of what is described and promoted as good practice can be useful.<ref name="":2"" />

A publication developed by UNESCO in 2013 entitled National Journeys towards [[Education for sustainable development|Education for Sustainable Development]] offers some detail and analysis of M&E in countries within the five world regions, focusing on: Costa Rica, Morocco, South Africa, Sweden and Viet Nam. In the case of Costa Rica, monitoring is addressed but mostly in relation to sustainable human development through the annual report, State of the Nation. Further leadership is mentioned as a key concern – one that also impacts M&E. According to the report, Morocco does not appear to have a comprehensive ESD M&E approach in place, including indicators.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000221008|title=National Journeys towards Education for Sustainable Development: Reviewing National ESD Experiences from Costa Rica, Morocco, South Africa, Sweden, Vietnam|publisher=UNESCO|year=2013|location=Paris}}</ref>

Accordingly, the report advocates for using SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) to evaluate performance. Versions of this approach are also applied to other country profiles in the report. According to the publication, South Africa has a strong tradition of M&E in ESD, and implemented the National Environmental Education Project for General Education and Training (NEEP-GET). This is ‘one of the largest, most comprehensive formative monitoring and evaluation (FME) processes’, which focused on ‘contextual monitoring and longitudinal studies, as well as critical appraisals of key issues’. In Sweden, the Institute for Research in Education and Sustainable Development (IRESD) is ‘one of the most expansive and acclaimed research environments for education and sustainable development in Sweden’. However, the report does not provide information on how this links to monitoring ESD. According to the publication, Viet Nam's approach is focused on ‘project based mechanisms and indicators’. This includes manuals and guidelines for M&E of ESD, and relevant teacher training.<ref name="":3"" />

Evidence shows that many countries are only getting started. The process of developing holistic, multipronged M&E systems for tracking ESD is still in the early stages. More needs to be done (and documented) with an emphasis on the driving reason for monitoring ESD in the first place: to gain information to make good decisions about policies, provision, institutional support, resources, and so on, that lead to better ESD learning and, ideally, broader sustainable behavior.<ref name="":3"" />

== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = Issues and trends in Education for Sustainable Development
| author = 
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 
| source = 
| documentURL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261445?posInSet=4&queryId=3a82a751-2b7e-455e-b7cd-3cbea3e35b7d
| license statement URL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261445?posInSet=4&queryId=3a82a751-2b7e-455e-b7cd-3cbea3e35b7d
| license = CC BY-SA
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Drawdown (book),"{{short description|2017 Climate change solution book}}
<noinclude>[[File:Drawdown book.jpg|thumb]]</noinclude>
'''''Drawdown: The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming''''' is a 2017 book created, written, and edited by [[Paul Hawken]] about [[climate change mitigation]]. Other writers include [[Katharine Wilkinson]], and the foreword was written by ([[hardback]] edition) [[Tom Steyer]] and ([[paperback]]) [[Prince Charles]].

The book describes solutions arranged in order by broad categories: energy, food, women and girls, buildings and cities, land use, transport, materials, and ""coming attractions"".<ref name=""Drawdown"">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/drawdownmostcomp0000hawk|title=Drawdown: The most comprehensive plan ever proposed to reverse global warming|last1=Hawken|first1=Paul|date=2017|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=9780143130444|editor=Paul Hawken|location=New York, NY|url-access=registration}}</ref> The book provides a list of 100 potential solutions and ranks them by the potential amount of greenhouse gases each could cut, with cost estimates and short descriptions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/09/climate/drawdown-climate-solutions-quiz.html|title=How Much Do You Know About Solving Global Warming?|last=Schlossberg|first=Tatiana|date=2017-06-12|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-09-24|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|author-link=Tatiana Schlossberg}}</ref><ref name=""Vox"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2017/5/10/15589038/top-100-solutions-climate-change-ranked|title=This book ranks the top 100 solutions to climate change. The results are surprising.|last=Roberts|first=David|date=2017-05-10|website=[[Vox Media|Vox]]|language=en|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref>

''[[The Guardian]]'' notes that the author has had influence in corporate sustainability efforts and that companies such as [[Interface, Inc.|Interface]] and [[Autodesk]] have backed the project. It was intended that the book be supplemented with an online database, ''[[Drawdown (climate)|Project Drawdown]]'', which was to compile the numerous types of solutions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2014/oct/22/first-look-environmental-entrepreneur-paul-hawkens-long-awaited-new-book|title=First look: environmental entrepreneur Paul Hawken's long-awaited new book|last=Gunther|first=Marc|date=2014-10-22|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-09-24|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

== Reception ==
''Drawdown'' has been a [[The New York Times|''New York Times'']] bestseller and has received favorable reviews.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/549348/drawdown-by-edited-by-paul-hawken/9780143130444|title=Drawdown|date=2019|website=[[Penguin Random House]]|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/05/climate-change-global-warming-drawdown-hawken/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903142453/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/05/climate-change-global-warming-drawdown-hawken/|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 3, 2019|title=100 Practical Ways to Reverse Climate Change|last=Worrall|first=Simon|date=2017-05-28|website=National Geographic News|language=en|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://shelburnefarms.org/blog/drawdown-a-book-review|title=Drawdown - A Book Review|last=Brough|first=Holly|date=2017-11-17|website=Shelburne Farms|language=en|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://treezero.com/solution-climate-change-review-drawdown-paul-hawken/|title=Solutions to Climate Change: A Review of Drawdown edited by Paul Hawken|date=2017-06-20|website=TreeZero|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/wilderness-resources/stories/drawdown-100-achievable-climate-solutions-Paul-Hawken|title=In 'Drawdown,' Paul Hawken ditches the rhetoric to offer 100 practical climate solutions|last=Edelstein|first=Ken|date=May 4, 2017|website=MNN - Mother Nature Network|language=en|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://facadetectonics.org/news-articles/drawdown-paul-hawken-gets-real-climate-change-mic-patterson/|title=Drawdown: Paul Hawken Gets Real with Climate Change by Mic Patterson, PhD, LEED AP BD+C|date=January 13, 2018|website=Facade Tectonics Institute|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-24|archive-date=2019-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924222933/https://facadetectonics.org/news-articles/drawdown-paul-hawken-gets-real-climate-change-mic-patterson/|url-status=dead}}</ref> For example, ''[[Kirkus Reviews]]'' called the book ""an optimistic program for getting out of our current mess"".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/paul-hawken/drawdown/|title=DRAWDOWN : The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming, edited by Paul Hawken|date=February 20, 2017|website=[[Kirkus Reviews]]|access-date=}}</ref> 

An April 2017 video on [[C-SPAN]] described the book as ""a collection of policies, plans, and active programs to reduce carbon emissions outside of the purview of the federal government"".<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?427029-2/drawdown|title=Drawdown|date=April 21, 2017|website=C-SPAN.org|language=en-us|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref> In the video, Mr. Hawken stated, ""the reason we can say 'the most comprehensive plan ever proposed' is that no one's ever proposed a plan... which is sort of astonishing when you think about it.""<ref name="":0"" /> According to an article in [[Vox Media|Vox]], ""until 2017, there was no real way for ordinary people to get an understanding of what they can do and what impact it can have"".<ref name=Vox/>

== See also ==

* [[Drawdown (climate)]]{{snd}}analysis designed to operationalize themes found in the book

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Cite web|url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/paul-hawken-on-one-hundred-solutions-to-the-climate-crisis|title=Paul Hawken on One Hundred Solutions to the Climate Crisis|website=Yale E360|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-24}}
* {{url|https://www.drawdown.org}}, Project Drawdown headquartered in San Francisco, USA
* {{url|https://www.drawdowneurope.org}} the Drawdown Europe Research Association project headquartered in Amsterdam, the Netherlands

[[Category:2017 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Climate change books]]
[[Category:2017 in the environment]]
[[Category:Penguin Books books]]"
Sustainable community,"{{utopia}}
The term ""sustainable communities"" has various definitions, but in essence refers to communities planned, built, or modified to promote [[sustainable living]]. Sustainable communities tend to focus on environmental and economic [[sustainability]], urban infrastructure, social equity, and municipal government. The term is sometimes used synonymously with ""green cities,"" ""eco-communities,"" ""livable cities"" and ""[[sustainable cities]].""

Different organizations have various understandings of sustainable communities; the term's definition is contested and still under construction. For example, [[Burlington, Vermont]]'s Principles of Sustainable Community Development <ref name=""clinton2.nara.gov"">""Appendix A: Definitions and Principles of Sustainable Communities"" Sustainable Communities Task Force Report. Fall 1997. http://clinton2.nara.gov/PCSD/Publications/suscomm/suscoa.html</ref>
stress the importance of local control of natural resources and a thriving non-profit sector to a '''sustainable community'''. The [[Institute for Sustainable Communities]] outlines how political empowerment and social well-being are also part of the definition.<ref name=""clinton2.nara.gov""/> Additionally, referring to communities in Shanghai and Singapore, geographer [[Lily Kong]] has paired concepts of [[cultural sustainability]] and [[social sustainability]] alongside [[environmental sustainability]] as aspects of sustainable communities.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Kong | first = Lily | title = Making Sustainable Creative/Cultural Space in Shanghai and Singapore| journal = Geographical Review | volume =  99| issue = 1 | pages = 1–22 | date = 21 April 2010 | doi =10.1111/j.1931-0846.2009.tb00415.x| s2cid = 144963064 | url = https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/soss_research/1701 }}</ref> Meanwhile, the UK's 2003 [[Sustainable Communities Plan]] often abbreviates its definition of sustainable communities as ""places where people want to live and work, now and in the future"".<ref name=""webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk"">""What is a Sustainable Community?"" The National Archives. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120919132719/http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1139866</ref> Addressing the scale of sustainable communities, political scientist Kent Portney points out that the term sustainable communities has been used to refer to a broad variety of places, ranging from neighborhoods to watersheds to cities to multi-state regions.<ref name=P1>{{cite book|last=Portney|first=Kent E.|title=Taking Sustainable Cities Seriously: A Comparative Analysis of Twenty-Three U.S. Cities|url=http://seg.fsu.edu/Library/portney-taking-sustainability-seriously-in-cities.pdf}}</ref>
 
Etymologically, the term ""sustainable community"" grew out of the related discourses of ""sustainability"" and ""[[sustainable development]]"" that gained widespread use among local, national, and international politicians and policymakers in NGOs starting in the late 1980s.<ref name=""Agyeman"">{{Citation | last = Agyeman | first = Julian | title = Sustainable Communities and the Challenge of Environmental Justice| place = New York| publisher = NYU Press| year = 2005| isbn = 9780814707111 }}</ref> The term originally referred to environmental concerns and was later applied to cities.<ref name=Maliene >{{cite journal | last1 = Maliene | first1 = V | last2 = Howe | first2 = J | last3 = Malys | first3 = N |title =  Sustainable Communities: Affordable Housing and Socio-Economic Relations. | journal = Local Economy | volume = 23| issue = 4 | pages = 267–276 | date = 21 April 2010 | doi = 10.1080/02690940802407989| s2cid = 153419157 }}</ref>

==Examples of Sustainable Community initiatives==

The best example of a real Sustainable Community is Saint Michael's Sustainable Community in Costa Rica. The community produces far more food and water than it needs.  It uses [[regenerative agriculture]] as a base to live in harmony with nature.

Sustainable community initiatives have emerged in neighborhoods, cities, counties, [[Metropolitan area|metropolitan]] planning districts, and watershed districts at different scales pertaining to community needs. These initiatives are driven by various actor groups that have different methods of effectively planning out ways to create sustainable communities. Most often they are implemented by [[governments]] and [[non-profit organizations]], but they also involve community members, academics, and create partnerships and [[coalitions]]. While each community has its distinct needs, stakeholders generally evaluate the indicators of sustainability with regard to system performance, policy, and rapid feedback in order to keep or alter their sustainability programs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Innes |first1=Judith |last2=Booher |first2=David |title=Indicators for Sustainable Communities: A Strategy Building on Complexity Theory and Distributed Intelligence |date=2000 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=173-186}}</ref>
 
Nonprofit organizations help to cultivate local talents and skills, [[Empowerment|empowering]] people to become more powerful and more involved in their own communities. Many also offer plans and guidance on improving the [[sustainability]] of various practices, such as land use and community design, [[transportation]], [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]], [[waste reduction]], and climate friendly purchasing.
 
Some government groups will create partnerships where departments will work together using [[Grant (money)|grants]] to provide resources to communities like clean air and water, [[community planning]], [[economic development]], equity and [[environmental justice]], as well as [[housing]] and transportation choices.
 
[[Social movements]] have gathered momentum, spreading sustainable community ideas around the world, not only through example, but also by offering classes and training on [[sustainable living]], [[permaculture]], and [[local economics]].

== International initiatives==

===United Kingdom===

The [[Sustainable Communities Plan]] was launched in 2003 through the [[Office of the Deputy Prime Minister]]. Lacking an official national spatial development plan, the UK employed the Sustainable Communities Plan as a regional development plan targeted at the South East of England.<ref name=""Raco"">{{cite journal  | last =  Raco| first = Mike | title = A growth agenda without growth: English spatial policy, sustainable communities, and the death of the neo-liberal project | journal =  GeoJournal | volume =  77| issue = 2 | pages = 153–165 | year = 2012 | doi = 10.1007/s10708-009-9327-0 | s2cid = 153538503 }}
</ref> Additionally, the plan created the [[Academy for Sustainable Communities]]. The £38 billion plan identifies four key growth areas for development and regeneration: the [[Thames Gateway]], [[Ashford, Kent]], [[London]]-Stansted-[[Cambridge]]-[[Peterborough]] (LSCP) and [[Milton Keynes]]/[[South Midlands]] (MKSM) <ref name=""webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk""/>
.  Designed during a period that projected sustained economic growth into the future, the plan's implementation has been slowed and disjointed, particularly since the [[2008 economic recession]]<ref name=""Raco""/>
An [[affordable housing]] shortage in the UK has also challenged the Plan's implementation.<ref name= Maliene />

== National initiatives ==
The '''Partnership for Sustainable Communities''' is an interagency partnership between the [[Department of Transportation]], [[Environmental Protection Agency]], and the [[Department of Housing and Urban Development]]. These departments work together with a mission to “improve access to affordable housing, increase transportation options, and lower transportation costs while protecting the environment”.<ref name=""sustainablecommunities.gov"">""About Us"" Partnership for Sustainable Communities.  Retrieved 10 March 2014 http://www.sustainablecommunities.gov/aboutUs.html</ref> All three bureaus offer funding opportunities to support communities in areas of clean air and water, community planning, economic development, energy efficiency, equity and environmental justice, as well as housing and transportation choices. The partnership incorporates six principles of livability into its grant-making and program development.:<ref name=""sustainablecommunities.gov""/>
*Provide more transportation choices
*Promote equitable, affordable housing
*Enhance economic competitiveness
*Support existing communities
*Coordinate policies and leverage investment
*Value communities and neighborhoods

Along with working collaboratively, these government agencies also have their own initiatives. 
The Department of Housing and Development has an ''Office of Sustainable Housing and Communities'' which features a Sustainable Housing Initiative, aiming at “supporting the construction and rehabilitation of [[green affordable housing]]”<ref>""Sustainable Housing Initiative"" U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/sustainable_housing_communities/sustainable_housing_initiative</ref>  and does this through programs that retrofit or construct energy efficient homes. They also work to standardize energy efficiency standards across federal agencies, as well as expand the availability of financing for home energy improvements and multifamily housing.

The Environmental Protection Agency has a ''Smart Growth Program'' which conducts research, publishes reports, showcases outstanding communities, and works with communities through grants and technical assistance.<ref>""Smart Growth"" U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 9 March 2014. http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/index.htm</ref>  They also have a Green Communities Program which provides communities with a tool kit of information to help them reach sustainable goals. The tool kit is arranged in a five-step program which allows communities to:<ref>""Basic Information"" Green Communities, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 9 March 2014. http://www.epa.gov/greenkit/basicinformation.htm</ref> 
*Develop '''community assessments''' of their current conditions
*Formulate '''trend analyses''' that answers the question “Where are we going?” in the face of no intervention 
*Create '''vision statements''' of where the community sees itself in the future
*Establish '''action plans''' about what programs and initiatives will help the community reach its goals
*Access tools to '''implement''' action plans

The Department of Transportation has a ''Livability Initiative'' which issues “grants to eligible recipients for planning, vehicle purchases, facility construction, operations, and other purposes”,<ref>""Grants and Programs"" U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://www.dot.gov/livability/grants-programs</ref> with numerous goals, including the improvement of surface transportation, providing public transit on Indian reservations, providing access to disadvantaged communities, etc.

===Case Studies from the Partnership for Sustainable Communities===

'''The Euclid Corridor in Cleveland'''

Once a thriving place of business and home to the wealthy and elite, Euclid Avenue in [[Cleveland]] had seen a decline in commerce following the [[Great Depression]]. During this economic downturn, Cleveland became a [[shrinking city]] as many of its residents moved and homes were turned into boarding houses or abandoned altogether.. After decades of work by city leaders and residents to revitalize this part of the city, the bus line [[HealthLine]] debuted in 2008. This bus line increased ridership and helped The Euclid Corridor begin to see the redevelopment of abandoned properties as well as investment in development of commerce, to the tune of $4.3 billion. This created thousands of square feet of retail space and thousands of jobs. The success of the revitalization of the Euclid Corridor is due in large part to engaged community leaders, community members, and NGO's like MidTown Cleveland who worked on ensuring that there was a variety of housing investments. EPA assisted with the redevelopment of abandoned space through their brownfield assessment grants and HUD provided mortgage insurance on properties to aid in the development of Euclid Avenue.<ref>""Transit as Transformation - The Euclid Corridor in Cleveland"" Partnership for Sustainable Communities. June 2012. Retrieved 10 March 2014"" http://www.sustainablecommunities.gov/pdf/studies/cleveland-euclid-corridor.pdf</ref>

'''Greenville, South Carolina's Westside'''

Following a shift from the cotton production that once thrived in the west end of [[Greenville, South Carolina]], this part of the city began to see a flight of its residents and with it the abandonment and decay of its buildings and facilities, higher crime rates, and more low-income households. In 2010, HUD and DOT awarded the city $1.8 million to support a three-year planning initiative which sought to improve affordable housing, transportation, and increase economic development. The HUD provided a loan to encourage economic growth, specifically through the conversion of an old cotton warehouse into an area of retail shops, offices, and restaurants known as West End Market. The success of West End Market led to 230 building permits being issued around the area in a three-year period, resulting in a successful arts district that created jobs as well as drew tourists and locals. EPA assisted with the redevelopment of abandoned space through $200,000 in brownfield assessment grants which allowed for the city to facilitate clean up, or initiate redevelopment. The city also worked with the [[Federal Highway Administration]] in demolishing an unnecessary bridge which allowed for the development of a recreational area with a cross bridge, waterfalls, and walking paths, known as [[Falls Park on the Reedy]]. In 2005, a mixed-use development was constructed across from Falls Park with a hotel, apartments, restaurants, and retail and office spaces to help further spark economic growth in the area.<ref>""Revitalizing Greenville's Westside"" Partnership for Sustainable Communities. December 2012. Retrieved 10 March 2014 http://www.sustainablecommunities.gov/pdf/studies/greenville_sc.pdf</ref>

'''Seattle's South Lake Union Neighborhood'''

With investments in transportation, affordable housing, and green space, Seattle's South Lake Union has transformed from a place of freeway traffic, abandoned warehouses, and parking lots to an economically flourishing neighborhood. An integral part to this transformation was the creation of a street car service, partially funded by the [[Federal Transit Administration]]. The streetcar encouraged both Amazon.com and Microsoft to locate campuses in the South Lake Union neighborhood, bringing with it jobs and investment in residential space. The City of Seattle is proposing a zoning change to promote affordable housing and attract market rate development. HUD provided grants to fund building and support services for the chronically homeless, adults and veterans recovering from addiction, and homeless with mental health issues and substance abuse problems. HUD also supplied $5.7 million towards the construction of a senior housing facility. To address the problems with the neighborhoods freeways and lack of sidewalks and crosswalks, a $30 million grant was issued by the DOT to help build crosswalks over 12 intersections, widen sidewalks, add bicycle lanes, as well as beautify the space through the addition of landscaping and trees.<ref>""Seattle's South Lake Union Neighborhood"" Partnership for Sustainable Communities. December 2012. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://www.sustainablecommunities.gov/pdf/studies/seattle-south-lake-union.pdf</ref>

== State initiatives ==

===Maryland===

The state of Maryland passed a Sustainable Communities Act in 2010 with the goal of revitalizing and promoting reinvestment in Maryland's older communities as well working to promote “equitable, affordable housing by expanding energy-efficient housing choices for people of all ages, incomes, races, and ethnicity to increase mobility and lower the combined cost of housing and transportation”.<ref>""Sustainable Communities"" Maryland Department of Planning. Retrieved 11 March 2014. [http://planning.maryland.gov/yourpart/sustainablecommunities.shtml]</ref> The law also created the Sustainable Communities Tax Credit Program which promotes private investment in the restoration and development of historic sites.<ref>""Maryland Sustainable Communities Tax Credit Program"" Maryland Department of Planning, Maryland Historical Trust. Retrieved 2 May 2014. http://mht.maryland.gov/taxCredits.shtml</ref> Thanks in part to the Sustainable Communities Tax Credit Program, the neighborhood of [[Remington, Baltimore]] was able to refurbish an old tin factory into a space for offices and residences, which led to the development of other properties as well as homes, which increased use and population for the neighborhood.<ref>""Remington Neighborhood Revitalization"" Maryland Department of Planning. Retrieved 2 May 2014. http://planning.maryland.gov/OurWork/spotlightComm_Remington.shtml</ref>

In 2013 the Maryland General Assembly passed the Sustainable Communities Tax Increment Financing Designation and Financing Law. This law allows for Maryland counties and municipalities to use funds generated from increased property tax values to fund improvement projects in sustainable communities. Sample projects include expanding sidewalks, the development of tree planting on streets and parks, as well as improvements to water and sewer infrastructure to help encourage economic growth and improve quality of life.<ref>""Sustainable Communities"" Maryland Department of Planning. Retrieved 2 May 2014. http://planning.maryland.gov/yourpart/sustainablecommunities.shtml</ref>

===California===

The state of California passed the [[Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008]], also known as SB 375. The law aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through transportation, housing, and land use planning. Under the SB 375, the state is broken up into Metropolitan Planning Organizations which are each responsible for developing Sustainable Community Strategies that will help the state reach its goal of reduced emissions. These strategies are then evaluated by the [[California Environmental Protection Agency]]'s Air Resources Board.<ref name= ""nrdc.org"">""Sustainable Communities"" California Environmental Protection Agency - Air Resources Board. Retrieved 8 March 2014. http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/sb375.htm</ref> Under the Sustainable Community Strategy, the city of [[Sacramento]] plans to double transit service and increase bike lanes, offering more transportation choices and reducing vehicle emissions.<ref name=""Eaken, Amanda 2012"">Eaken, Amanda. Horner, Justin. Ohland, Gloria ""A Bold Plan for Sustainable California Communities: A Report on the Implementation of Senate Bill 375"" Natural Resources Defense Council. September 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2014. http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/sb375/implementation-report/files/implementation-report.pdf</ref> The city of [[San Diego]] also plans to increase funding towards more transportation choices as well as promote more multi-family housing near high transit areas.<ref name=""Eaken, Amanda 2012""/> The Southern California Strategies include transit expansion, developing housing closer to public transportation, increasing funding for biking and pedestrians, and the creation of jobs, with most being near public transit.<ref name=""Eaken, Amanda 2012""/>

==City government initiatives==

Cities are defined as [[jurisdictional]] units that have small divisions of government within them. These divisions of government have the authority to affect environmental and [[ecological]] results.<ref name=""P1""/>  Cities are especially important in initiating sustainable communities because they have [[local authorities]] that “have political power and credibility to take initiatives to access and deploy [[resources]] in ways reflecting local conditions that allows them the capacity to manage and lead [[urban development]] for the good of the environment.” <ref name=P1 />  It is also necessary to implement sustainable communities in countries that are [[industrialized]] because cities are where most environmental and [[social problems]] dwell.
 
When looking at and comparing sustainable cities certain indicators may be used:
 
*Does the city have any [[smart growth]] programs that are designed to “help manage growth and avoid and eliminate [[urban sprawl]]” and minimize impacts on [[physical environment]]? <ref name=P1 />
*Does the city have [[zoning]] plans that demonstrate goals for the city in a way that create [[Environmentally Sensitive Area|environmentally-sensitive]] areas and maintain them? <ref name=P1 />
*Does the city follow any legal [[policies]] that allow [[advocates]] and [[activists]] to create programs that would help the city become [[sustainable]]? <ref name=A1>{{cite book|last=Agyeman|first=Julian|title=Sustainable Communities and the Challenge of Environmental Justice|pages=20}}</ref>
*How involved in the environmental and [[Social justice|social justice movement]] are programs within the city? <ref name=A2>{{cite book|last=Agyeman|first=Julian|title=Sustainable Communities and the Challenge of Environmental Justice}}</ref>
*Is the [[transportation]] system of the city set up to encourage [[public transportation]] and not private to reduce [[pollution]]? <ref name=P1 />
*Are there pollution remediation programs in the city? <ref name=P1 />
*How [[Politically|politically involved]] are citizens where their voices are equally heard in order to create social justice and a [[just community]]? <ref name=A2 />
 
The 34 elements inside “Taking Sustainable Cities Seriously"" can also be used to determine whether a city is considered sustainable or not.<ref name=P34>{{cite book|last=Portney|first=Kent E.|title=Taking Sustainable Cities Seriously: A Comparative Analysis of Twenty-Three U.S. Cities|page=34|url=http://seg.fsu.edu/Library/portney-taking-sustainability-seriously-in-cities.pdf}}</ref>

===City examples===

The city of [[San Francisco]] uses the [[Precautionary principal|Precautionary Principal]] as a framework to develop laws for a healthier and more just city.<ref name=A3>{{cite book|last=Agyeman|first=Julian|title=Sustainable Communities and the Challenge of Environmental Justice|page=21}}</ref> The precautionary principal gives more power to community members by allowing them to stand up against [[corporations]] in their neighborhoods and leaves the [[Burden of proof (law)|burden of proof]] to corporations instead of community members. Companies must prove that their endeavors are harmless to the community instead of the community having to prove they have been harmed by company endeavors.<ref name=A2 /> This allows for a sustainable community as [[environmental justice]] and social justice are created.
 
The city of [[Quebec]] to create a sustainable community through political involvement has dedicated studies to discovering why citizens are or are not politically active. Studies from Quebec have shown that citizens’ [[Political efficacy|internal and external efficacy]] is a large part in determining [[Participation (decision making)|participation]] in politics. When citizens lack the internal belief that one can make change in government and the external belief that the government will make changes according to citizen concerns, political participation dwindles as citizens believe no change will occur. When becoming politically active, a citizen takes into account the history of the city government, the government's actions, and government interactions with other citizens.<ref name=KC1>{{cite book|last=Kornberg and Clarke|first=Allan and Harold|title=Citizens and Community: Political Support in a Representative Democracy|page=60}}</ref>
 
After noting the city's sustainability level it is important to note what kinds of communities are targeted and how they are affected through these programs and what kinds of strategies are being used to try to create and transform sustainable communities.

==Non-Profit and NGO sector==

The [[Institute for Sustainable Communities]] created by former Vermont Governor, Madeleine M. Kunin, leads community based projects around the globe that address environmental, economic, and social issues.<ref>""What is a Sustainable Community?"" Institute for Sustainable Communities. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://www.iscvt.org/what_we_do/sustainable_community/</ref> Many of these groups help to cultivate local talents and skills, empowering people to become more powerful and involved in their own communities. Many also offer plans and guidance on improving the sustainability of various practices, such as land use and community design, green transportation, energy efficiency, waste reduction, and climate friendly purchasing.<ref>""About Sustainable Communities"" Sustainable Communities Online. Retrieved 11 March 2014. http://www.sustainable.org/about</ref>

The [[Global Integrity]] Project is focused on bringing together top scientists and thinkers from around the world in order to analyze the problems of inequality among humankind. These thinkers examine economic and ethical issues faced in protecting and enhancing our environments and make recommendations on restoration techniques that aid in promoting social justice. They also call for a major and imperative paradigm shift in order to ensure good quality of life for many future generations.<ref name=EI>{{cite book|last=Pimentel|first=David|title=Ecological Integrity: Integrating Environment, Conservation, and Health}}</ref>

[[Sustainable Seattle]]  is a non-profit organization which has created regional indicators for sustainability through grassroots activism and has become a world leader in these sustainability indicators. Sustainable Seattle has printed newsletters on a wide range of sustainable community topics, from building to recycling and more, and they are believed to be the first “sustainable community” organization, founded in 1991. There are now hundreds of “sustainable community” organizations across the USA <ref>""Who we are"" Sustainable Seattle. Retrieved 5 May 2014. http://www.sustainableseattle.org</ref>

==Social movement initiatives==

The Take Back Your Time Movement, led by John de Graaf, focuses on the concept of working fewer hours and devoting more time to living a healthy lifestyle. The movement suggests that allowing shorter work days and longer vacations would in turn help better distribute work, while also reducing stress and making for healthier living. Additionally, people would have more free time to make more rewarding and sustainable choices for themselves.<ref>Assadourian, Erik. ""The Power of Social Movements"" Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://blogs.worldwatch.org/transformingcultures/contents/social-movements</ref>

The Voluntary Simplicity Movement or [[Simple Living]] movement emphasizes reducing one's material possessions and desires and increasing self-sufficiency through skills such as gardening and [[DIY]]. The Voluntary Simplicity Movement suggests that one should focus on cultivating their own best inner being rather than focus on making material gains and wealth. It also promotes activism within the community to create engaged, educated citizens.

The [[Degrowth]] movement is based on [[anti-consumerist]] and [[anti-capitalist]] ideas, focusing on reducing consumption and promoting happy, healthy lifestyles in non-consumptive fashions. Main aspects of Degrowth include more equal distribution of workload and sharing work, consuming less, and setting aside time for personal and cultural growth through the arts and creativity <ref>""About Us: Description"" Degrowth.org Retrieved 9 March 2014. http://www.degrowth.org/</ref>

Movements such as [[ecovillage]]s are gathering momentum, spreading sustainable community ideas around the world, teaching through example and also offering classes and training on sustainable living, [[permaculture]], and local economics. Ecovillages seek to integrate themselves harmlessly into the ecosystem surrounding them, so as to live and interact in a way that is sustainable and supportive of the natural world <ref>""About Us"" Ecovillage Farm Learning Center. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://ecovillagefarm.org/</ref>

==Challenges and critiques==

Sustainable communities, both as individual projects and as a whole, have faced challenges impeding their development and have been met with criticism.
 
Sustainable communities projects have struggled to take hold for:
 
* poor economic conditions and inaccessible housing markets: in the UK's Sustainable Communities Plan, the economic downturn of 2008 has led to a general shortage of housing and affordable housing in particular, which run contrary to the plan's premises of  livable communities.<ref name= Maliene/>
 
Projects have been critiqued for:
* lacking a well-developed [[environmental justice]] framework: urban and environmental policy planner [[Julian Agyeman]] has written about the ""narrow focus"" of civic environmentalism that does not take ""social justice"" into account, and the need for sustainable communities to be democratic and collaborate with the environmental justice movement.<ref name=Agyeman />
* promoting a securitization agenda: British geographer Mike Raco argues that the UK's Sustainable Communities Plan employs the discourse of sustainability as ""a series of potentially repressive and counter-productive policy measures."".<ref>{{cite journal  | last =  Raco| first = Mike | title = Securing Sustainable Communities: Citizenship, Safety, and Sustainability in the New Urban Planning | journal =  European Urban and Regional Studies | volume =  14| issue = 4 | pages = 305–320 | year = 2014| doi = 10.1177/0969776407081164 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.580.7478 | s2cid = 156269868 }}
</ref>
 
* accommodating to [[neoliberal]] economic systems instead of confronting them: while some rationales for sustainable communities conflict with market-driven agendas, economic growth characterizes the means and ends of some initiatives. Additionally, sustainable communities reject the notion that development itself is fundamentally socially divisive or environmentally destructive.<ref>{{cite journal  | last =  Raco| first = Mike | title = Sustainable Development, Rolled-Out Neoliberalism and Sustainable Communities | journal =  Antipode | volume =  37| issue = 2 | pages = 324–347 | year = 2005| doi = 10.1111/j.0066-4812.2005.00495.x }}
</ref>

== Education ==
While there are a variety of graduate degrees at universities that touch on sustainability as it related to urban planning and environmental resources, only a few degree program programs exist that train students in the theory and practice of sustainable communities. The most notable examples are:

* [[Binghamton University]] offers a [https://www.binghamton.edu/sustainable-communities/ Masters of Arts (MA) and Masters of Science (MS) in Sustainable Communities]. 
* [[Northern Arizona University]] offers a [https://in.nau.edu/sustainable-communities/program/ Masters of Arts (MA) in Sustainable Communities].
* [[DNS The necessary teacher training college]] offers a [https://dns-Tvind.dk teacher training that focuses on the capacity to create a collective].

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Sustainable communities}}

[[Category:Planned communities]]
[[Category:Sustainable communities| ]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Jai Jagat 2020,"{{Orphan|date=December 2021}}

[[File:Jai Jagat 2020 Chambel river crossing.jpg|thumb|Jai Jagat 2020 crossing the Chambel river, Madhya Pradesh, India]]
'''Jai Jagat 2020''' is an international campaign for justice and peace initiated by [[Rajagopal P. V.]] and Jill Carr-Harris. The main action is a march from [[Raj Ghat and associated memorials|Rajghat]], [[New Delhi]], to the United Nations headquarters in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]. It started on October 2, 2019, on the 150th anniversary of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. Around 50 people from at least 10 countries are walking 10,000&nbsp;km during one year. It will arrive in Geneva on October 2, 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Luciano Cricchio |first1=Emilio |title=Jai Jagat March for Peace and Justice Arrives in Armenia |url=https://www.civilnet.am/news/2020/02/17/Jai-Jagat-March-for-Peace-and-Justice-Arrives-in-Armenia/376494 |website=Civilnet}}</ref> The march will cross 10 countries: [[India]], [[Iran]],<ref>[https://www.isna.ir/news/98112417865/%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%B1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3-%D9%88-%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%AD-%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3 Iranian Students News Agency]</ref> [[Armenia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Serbia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]], [[Italy]], and [[Switzerland]]. In addition, a small delegation is going to [[Pakistan]].<ref>[https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/615048-n-a The News International]</ref>

The objectives are based on the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] of the United Nations, especially eradication of poverty, reduction of discrimination, fight against climate change, and nonviolent conflict resolution.

In India, the march reached [[Sevagram]], in Maharashtra, where it arrived on January 30, 2020,<ref>[https://www.dailypioneer.com/2019/state-editions/jai-jagat-2020-yatra-arrives-in-mp.html The Daily Pioneer]</ref> after crossing Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh.

The march was stopped in Armenia on March 15, 2020, because of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several marches from Belgium, Sweden, Germany, France, and Spain were planned to converge to Geneva, but only small marches from France actually happened.

== Gallery ==
A few images of Jai Jagat in India
<gallery>
File:Walking on the road Jai Jagat.jpg|Walking on the road
File:Walking with the flag Jai Jagat 2020.jpg|Walking with the flag
File:Village meeting Jai Jagat.jpg|Village meeting
File:Tree Shade Meeting Jai Jagat.jpg|Tree shade meeting
File:School meeting Jai Jagat 2020.jpg|School meeting
File:Last day walking in India Jai Jagat.jpg|Last day walking in India
</gallery>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
* [https://www.jaijagat2020.org/ Jai Jagat 2020 official website]

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Movements in Asia]]"
Blue justice,"{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
'''Blue Justice''' is a critical approach examining how [[coastal]] communities and [[Artisanal fishing|small-scale fisheries]] are affected by [[blue economy]] and ""blue growth"" initiatives undertaken by institutions and governments globally to promote [[sustainable]] ocean development. The blue economy is also rooted in the [[green economy]] and the [[Sustainable Development Goals|UN Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>Isaacs, M. (23 July 2019). Blue Justice for small-scale fisheries. Retrieved 26 July 2019, from Plaas website: https://www.plaas.org.za/blue-justice-for-small-scale-fisheries/</ref> Blue Justice acknowledges the historical rights of small-scale fishing communities to marine and inland resources and coastal space; in some cases, communities have used these resources for thousands of years. Thus, as a concept, it seeks to investigate pressures on small-scale fisheries from other ocean uses promoted in blue economy and blue growth agendas, including [[Fishing industry|industrial fisheries]], coastal and marine tourism, [[aquaculture]], and [[energy production]], and how they may compromise the rights and the well-being of small-scale fisheries and their communities.

==Definition==

There is no one definition of Blue Justice. Below are definitions of Blue Justice offered by recent academic literature.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=Nathan|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341803577|title=Blue Growth and Blue Justice|last2=Blythe|first2=Jessica|last3=White|first3=Carole|last4=Campero|first4=Cecilia|date=1 June 2020}}</ref>

'''Moeniba Isaacs, PLAAS 2019''': Blue Justice has at its core a social justice principle that recognizes the need for small-scale fisheries to have equity, access, participation, and rights within the blue economy. The Blue Justice approach for small-scale fisheries, therefore, is to ""critically examine the political, economic, and ecological processes of blue economy development initiatives.""

'''Svein Jentoft, Life Above Water''':<ref>Jentoft, S. (2019). Life Above Water: Essays on Human Experiences of Small-Scale Fisheries. St. John’s, N.L.: TBTI Global.</ref> Blue Justice for small-scale fisheries in the blue economy agenda means inclusion for small-scale fishers and community members as stakeholders with an eye towards power imbalances and equity. The basic tenets of social justice address who has a stake in the issue, and they focus on what needs to be done to restore justice for past wrongs in the marginalization of small-scale fisheries.

'''Philippa Cohen et al., Securing a Just Space for Small-Scale Fisheries in the Blue Economy''':<ref name="":0"">Cohen, P. J., Allison, E. H., Andrew, N. L., Cinner, J., Evans, L. S., Fabinyi, M., … Ratner, B. D. (2019). Securing a Just Space for Small-Scale Fisheries in the Blue Economy. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00171</ref> Securing a ""just"" space for small-scale fisheries in the blue economy means including human rights and the voices of the largest ocean users in the discussion. It also means that paying closer attention to the social dimensions of fisheries may allow for better governance in this arena.

==Origins==

To address these longstanding issues, international instruments that explicitly reference human-rights principles have been adopted. The Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security and the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication (SSF Guidelines) are instruments that have social justice backings with language that calls for ""responsible governance of tenure because land, fisheries and forests are central for the realization of human rights..."" (FAO 2012; Governance of Tenure, p.&nbsp;6), and that ""States should ensure that effective fisheries management systems are in place to prevent overexploitation driven by market demand that can threaten the sustainability of fisheries resources, food security, and nutrition."" (FAO 2015; SSF Guidelines, p.&nbsp;11). These instruments are necessary to secure the historical use rights and customary use rights of small-scale fisheries.

Blue Justice has [[social justice]] and human rights principles at its foundation, and it has connections to [[environmental justice]] and [[climate justice]] due to the focus of those movements on the unequal distribution of harm exerted on marginalized communities. Rawls (1999) outlined his ‘justice as fairness’ with two principles: that each person has the equal right to basic liberties, and that social and economic inequalities should be reasonable and attached to positions that are open to all.<ref>Rawls, J. (1999). A Theory of Justice (Revised). Harvard University Press.</ref>

Although the environmental justice movement has had difficulty in documenting disproportionate effects on marginalized people,<ref>Mohai, P., Pellow, D., & Roberts, J. T. (2009). Environmental Justice. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 34(1), 405–430. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-082508-094348</ref> the injustices faced by small-scale fishers and the communities they support have been extensively documented in the past few decades,.<ref>Chuenpagdee, R., & Jentoft, S. (Eds.). (2019). Transdisciplinarity for Small-Scale Fisheries Governance: Analysis and Practice. Retrieved from https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783319949376</ref><ref>Bavinck, M., Jentoft, S., & Scholtens, J. (2018). Fisheries as social struggle: A reinvigorated social science research agenda. Marine Policy, (94), 46–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.04.026</ref> In the blue economy context, they have faced particular pressures such as the implementation of rights-based fisheries, forms of ocean enclosure such as [[marine protected area]]s (MPAs) <ref>Said, A., Chuenpagdee, R., Aguilar-Perera, A., Arce-Ibarra, M., Gurung, T. B., Bishop, B., … Jentoft, S. (2019). The Principles of Transdisciplinary Research in Small-Scale Fisheries. In R. Chuenpagdee & S. Jentoft (Eds.), Transdisciplinarity for Small-Scale Fisheries Governance (Vol. 21, pp. 411–431). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94938-3_22</ref> and marine spatial planning (MSP), which lead fisheries to run the risk of being both forced in and out.<ref>Jentoft, S. (2019). Life Above Water: Essays on Human Experiences of Small-Scale Fisheries. St. John’s, N.L.: TBTI Global.</ref>

==Blue Justice in the Blue Economy==

Blue Justice is a social movement in response to the [[blue economy]] and blue growth agendas, which ""frame the ocean as the new economic frontier""<ref name="":0"" /> and center on the commodification of ocean resources including ""entrepreneurship, technological innovation, multi-use offshore platforms, and new harvesting and cultivation strategies"".<ref>Arbo, P., Knol, M., Linke, S., & Martin, K. S. (2018). The transformation of the oceans and the future of marine social science. Maritime Studies; Heidelberg, 17(3), 295–304. http://dx.doi.org.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/10.1007/s40152-018-0117-5</ref>

It has been argued that if the blue economy is to be sustainable in the truest sense of the word (i.e., be continued forever), then fisheries, and in particular small-scale fisheries, should be the focus. Pauly (2018) argues that small-scale fisheries have features that make them sustainable and less likely to be negatively influenced by global crises.<ref>Pauly, D. (2018). A vision for marine fisheries in a global blue economy. Marine Policy, 87, 371–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.11.010</ref> If small-scale fisheries are to be a central focus of the blue economy—which they currently are not<ref>Bennett, N. J. (2019). In Political Seas: Engaging with Political Ecology in the Ocean and Coastal Environment. Coastal Management, 47(1), 67–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2019.1540905</ref>—then they will require equitable access to marine resources.

==See also==
* [[Environmental justice]]
==References==
<references />

==External links==
*[https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/blue_growth_en European Commission Blue Growth initiatives]
*[https://www.fao.org/3/i7862e/i7862e.pdf Blue Growth Initiative] – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
*[https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/infographic/2017/06/06/blue-economy World Bank and UNEP 2017 document on potentials of the Blue Economy]

[[Category:Justice]]
[[Category:Social movements]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable fishery]]"
Shroffs Foundation Trust,"{{Short description|Non-governmental organization}}
{{multiple issues|{{tone|date=July 2020}}
{{update|date=July 2020}}}}

'''Shroffs Foundation Trust''' (SFT) is a regional [[non-governmental organization]] primarily working in [[Vadodara district]] and a part of [[Kutch district]] in [[Gujarat|Gujarat, India]].<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 1. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf |date=2014-02-27 }}</ref>

It was established in 1980 under the Bombay Public Trust Act 1950<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE BOMBAY PUBLIC TRUSTS ACT, 1950 |url=https://charity.maharashtra.gov.in/Portals/0/Files/B.P.T.Act,1950.pdf}}</ref> to improve the lives of impoverished communities in the region through holistic [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/foundation.htm#mission |title=The Foundation ? Who We Are |access-date=2012-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619220254/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/foundation.htm#mission |archive-date=2013-06-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>""A Job on Their Hands: Spreading Work and Self-esteem."" The Times of India. 20 Sept. 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120412191807/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-20/india/30179451_1_chhota-udepur-village-expert-panel] Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012</ref> SFT has been involved in provision of livelihood security, drudgery reduction, natural resource management, health and education.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 1. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> 

In the year 2010–11, SFT derived 45% of their funds from government grants, 28% from donations and 27% from other sources.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 83. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref>

== Livelihood ==
SFT has carried out various projects to help communities achieve greater economic independence through community organization and [[capacity building]].<ref>[http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/foundation.htm#mission] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619220254/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/foundation.htm#mission|date=2013-06-19}} Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012</ref>

Widows hold a vulnerable position in the conservative society of rural India, to make them self-sufficient SFT trained 269 young widows in various businesses such as artificial jewellery making, [[cleaning agent]] making, stitching and [[embroidery]].<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 46. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> After training, 66% of the widows became self-sufficient.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 47. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref>

Another similar initiative taken by SFT was establishing a sustainable [[handicraft]] business run by the tribal women [[artisan]]s.<ref name=""shroffsfoundation.org"">http://www.shroffsfoundation.org. Shroff Foundation Trust. Web. 23 Feb. 2012. <http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/viveka_brochure.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206145728/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/viveka_brochure.pdf |date=2011-02-06 }}>.</ref> After three successful years of business, today their earnings have increased from Rs 6 per hour to Rs 14 per hour.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 34. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> This [[cooperative]] setup aims to empower more and more women by helping them have a steady source of income.<ref name=""shroffsfoundation.org""/>

Women in the region have begun the practice of dairy cooperatives allowing them to price milk higher via capacity building programs organized by Self Help Groups (SHG's) established by SFT.<ref name=""ReferenceA"">Bansal, Dr. Hema. “Self help group - NGO - Bank linkages program in India: a case study.” M.S. University of Baroda, India.</ref><ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 15. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> The co-operative has provided saving opportunities, which resulted in a profit accumulation of Rs 50,000 in one year.<ref name=""ReferenceA""/> Furthermore, SFT has acted as a surety for the [[microcredit]] loans undertaken by the women for purchasing milk cattle under the program.<ref name=""ReferenceA""/> Subsequently, the daily additional income of 348 families in the region linked to these co-operatives has increased to Rs 84,363.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 22. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> Nevertheless, the program had to counter [[illiteracy]] problems that barricaded the community from viewing the benefits of a cooperative and resulted in conflicts and thus, caused time lags in implementation.<ref>Integrated Tribal Development Project. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 25. Retrieved 21 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/itdp_report.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206145653/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/itdp_report.pdf|date=2011-02-06}}</ref>

SFT established a [[vocational training]] center in 2008 in [[Chhota Udaipur State|Chhota Udepur]].<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 48. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> The center aims to equip 8,900 youths living in the tribal belts of Gujarat with skills to employ them in back-end office operations in [[Outsourcing#Business process outsourcing|BPOs]].<ref name=""Tribal youths get job offers in Vadodara"">Tribal youths get job offers in Vadodara” The Times of India. 23 July 2011. [https://archive.today/20130103100754/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-23/vadodara/29807265_1_tribal-youths-vocational-training-tribal-development-department].</ref><ref name=""The flat world: BPO highway reaches Gujarat tribal belt"">The flat world: BPO highway reaches Gujarat tribal belt” The Indian Express. 12 Aug. 2008. http://www.indianexpress.comnews/the-flat-world-bpo-highway-reaches-gujarat-tribal-belt/347705/1{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> Initially participation in the courses was challenged by factors such as unawareness of the community of outlets such as BPOs and the degree of difficulty involved in learning [[English language|English]] from the basics.<ref name=""The flat world: BPO highway reaches Gujarat tribal belt""/> However, these were eventually resolved through continued effort of volunteers.<ref name=""The flat world: BPO highway reaches Gujarat tribal belt""/> and to date 175 trainees have received successful placements and are earning an average income of Rs 5000 per month.<ref name=""Annual Report 2010-11"">Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 48. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf |date=2014-02-27 }}.</ref>

== Drudgery reduction ==
The uneducated community has been prone to drudgery in the domestic and agricultural fields. [[Farm mechanization]] and safe drinking water has reduced drudgery of women providing time for other income generation activities.<ref name=""TOI Social Impact Awards: Helping them reap a richer harvest"">“TOI Social Impact Awards: Helping them reap a richer harvest” The Times of India. 24 Sep. 2011 [https://archive.today/20130103112909/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-24/india/30198074_1_chhota-udepur-check-dams-sft].</ref> SFT addressed the issues of access to safe drinking water through the introduction of a water distribution system (watershed project.<ref name=""TOI Social Impact Awards: Helping them reap a richer harvest""/>) in 127 villages in the region, thereby, reaching out to 25,000 households.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 45. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf |date=2014-02-27 }}.</ref>

In addition, SFT observed heavy reliance on labour-intensive means of farming which was tackled by the initiation of the Tool Bank Project in 2010.<ref name=""Annual Report 2010-11""/> Women spent on an average 15 or 16 hours a day in farm related chores like [[sowing]] and [[winnowing]].<ref name=""Annual Report 2010-11""/> To increase productivity, SFT introduced mechanization through tractors, maize shellers and mini mills, which benefited 1,050 farmers.<ref name=""Annual Report 2010-11""/>

SFT has also provided means for farmers to avail agro-services through the promotion of [[social enterprise]]s such as Agrocel Industries Ltd in order to help increase their crop yields.<ref name=""Agrocel Ind: A social enterprise in agriculture"">“Agrocel Ind: A social enterprise in agriculture.” Business Line, The Hindu. 7 June 2010. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-corporate/article993650.ece.</ref> This has been executed through the free provision of skilled technical guidance by the enterprise and access to superior inputs at affordable prices.<ref name=""Agrocel Ind: A social enterprise in agriculture""/> Consequently, this helped decrease the time and resources spent on menial work for around 2,000 farmers.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 46. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf |date=2014-02-27 }}.</ref>

== Constraints ==
Since the SFT's target group is the rural and tribal community, one of the biggest limitations faced by them was the internal conflict between groups due to entrenched attitudes of the people.<ref name=""Integrated Tribal Development Project"">Integrated Tribal Development Project. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 25. Retrieved 21 Feb. 2012 http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/itdp_report.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206145653/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/itdp_report.pdf |date=2011-02-06 }}.</ref><ref name=""Tribal voice and violence"">Devy, Ganesh. “Tribal voice and violence.” Society under Siege (Seminar). Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 http://www.india-seminar.com/2002/513/513%20ganesh%20devy.htm.</ref> Moreover, political interference, extensive and burdensome government procedures, and administrative delays by state departments hindered the implementation of the NGO's programmes.<ref name=""Integrated Tribal Development Project""/> Lastly, additional time lags were triggered by the unwillingness of the people to partake in the activities owing to their inability to understand the benefits of the programmes and disagreements on selection of sites or participants.<ref name=""The flat world: BPO highway reaches Gujarat tribal belt""/><ref name=""Integrated Tribal Development Project""/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Non-governmental organizations]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Vadodara district]]
[[Category:Kutch district]]
[[Category:1980s establishments in Gujarat]]"
Slow fashion,"{{short description|Fashion concept}}
[[File:Made Slow fashion show (28096808709).jpg|thumb|A 2018 slow fashion show in Ireland.]]
{{Clothing and the environment}}
{{Anti-consumerism}}
'''Slow fashion''' is an aspect of [[sustainable fashion]] and a concept describing the opposite to [[fast fashion]], part of the ""[[Slow movement (culture)|slow movement]]"" advocating for clothing and apparel manufacturing in respect to people, environment and animals. As such, contrary to the industrial practices of fast fashion conglomerates, slow fashion involves local [[artisan]]s and the use of [[eco-friendly]] materials, with the goal of preserving crafts and the environment which, ultimately, provides value to all, slow fashion brands, consumers and retailers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Staniforth|first=Sarah|date=2010|title=Slow Conservation|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27867120|access-date=September 30, 2020|journal=Studies in Conservation|volume=55|issue=2|pages=74–80|doi=10.1179/sic.2010.55.2.74|jstor=27867120|s2cid=198987730|language=en}}</ref>

==Principles==

=== Definition ===
Slow fashion is a way to ""identify sustainable fashion solutions, based on the repositioning of strategies of design, production, consumption, use, and reuse, which are emerging alongside the global fashion system, and are posing a potential challenge to it.""<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last=Clark|first=Hazel|date=December 2008|title=SLOW + FASHION—an Oxymoron—or a Promise for the Future …?|journal=Fashion Theory|volume=12|issue=4|pages=427–446|doi=10.2752/175174108X346922|s2cid=194180788|issn=1362-704X}}</ref> In other words, slow fashion is about making conscious and sustainable choices when it comes to fashion, and challenging the fast fashion system that is often associated with negative impacts on people and the planet. It promotes the purchase of higher-quality clothes that will last longer, as well as equitable treatment of people, animals, and the environment.

It is an alternative to [[fast fashion]] because it promotes a more ethical and sustainable way of living and consuming.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What Is Slow Fashion?|url=https://goodonyou.eco/what-is-slow-fashion/|date=2018-11-09|website=Good On You|language=en|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> ""It encompasses the whole range of 'sustainable,' 'eco,' 'green,' and 'ethical' fashion movement"".<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=Ertekin|first1=Zeynep Ozdamar|last2=Atik|first2=Deniz|date=2014-05-19|title=Sustainable Markets: Motivating Factors, Barriers, and Remedies for Mobilization of Slow Fashion|journal=Journal of Macromarketing|doi=10.1177/0276146714535932|s2cid=154555245}}</ref>  This movement is another [[business model]] focusing on slowing down [[consumerism]] and respecting the environment and ethics.<ref name=""Jung 2016 410–421""/> 

=== Fast and slow fashion ===
For a long time, slow fashion was defined in opposition to fast fashion.

Unlike [[fast fashion]], ''slow fashion'' production ensures quality manufacturing to lengthen the life of the garment or material. Slow fashion garment normally has a longer product life cycle, places stress on quality, is commonly more expensive, and demands increasing awareness from manufacturers and consumers to decrease production and consumption speed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |date=2010 |title=Slow Fashion: An Invitation for Systems Change |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175693810x12774625387594 |journal=Fashion Practice |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=259–265 |doi=10.2752/175693810x12774625387594 |s2cid=110000414 |issn=1756-9370}}</ref> Developing a garment with a cultural and emotional connection is also pertinent to the purpose behind slow fashion: consumers will keep an article of clothing longer than one season if they feel emotionally or culturally connected to the article of clothing.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kuusk|first1=Kristi|last2=Tomico|first2=Oscar|last3=Langereis|first3=Geert|last4=Wensveen|first4=Stephan|date=2012|title=Crafting smart textiles—a meaningful way towards societal sustainability in the fashion field?|url=http://bada.hb.se/handle/2320/12348|journal=The Nordic Textile Journal|volume=1|pages=6–15}}</ref> A taxation is in early stages of development{{by whomst|date=July 2023}} in order to deter fashion companies from purchasing or producing materials that are not made with recycled, organic, or re-purposed materials.<ref name=""Choi2013"">{{cite journal|last=Choi|first=Tsan-Ming|date=April 2013|title=Carbon footprint tax on fashion supply chain systems|journal=The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology|volume=68|issue=1–4|pages=835–847|doi=10.1007/s00170-013-4947-4|s2cid=110199159}}</ref> Utilizing materials already made will reduce the industry's [[carbon footprint]].<ref name=""Choi2013"" />

There is also an important movement{{among whom|date=July 2023}} toward companies being more transparent. Many sustainable fashion companies are transparent, from manufacturing to retailing clothes, with the aim of helping buyers to make more conscious purchasing decisions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why Sustainable Fashion Matters|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/ellevate/2019/10/07/why-sustainable-fashion-matters/|last=Ellevate|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> In accordance with the [[Slow movement (culture)#Fashion|slow movement]] there is a trend{{among whom|date=July 2023}} towards more conscious buying as well as companies attracting new consumers with their eco-friendly processes.

=== Authors ===
The idea of slow fashion became significant and grew after Elizabeth L. Cline published ''Overdressed: The Shockingly High Cost of Cheap Clothing''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Really, Anyone Can Shop Clothing Sustainably|url=https://www.thecut.com/2019/08/interview-elizabeth-cline-author-of-the-conscious-closet.html|last=Spellings|first=Sarah|date=2019-08-20|website=The Cut|language=en-us|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> and rose awareness regarding the detriments of the fast fashion industry. The term was used on blogs and the internet.<ref name=""Štefko 2270""/> However, the term ""slow clothes movement"" was apparently coined by Angela Murrills, a fashion writer for Georgia Straight, a Vancouver-based online news magazine.<ref name="":0"" />

However, the expression ""slow fashion"" was coined in a 2007 article by Kate Fletcher published in ''[[The Ecologist]]'', where she compared the eco/sustainable/ethical fashion industry to the slow food movement:<ref name=""Valverde"">{{cite web |last=Valverde |first=Yarina |url=https://fashionhedge.com/what-is-ethical-fashion/ |title=What is ethical fashion? |website=fashionhedge.com |access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|The concept of slow fashion borrows heavily from the Slow Food Movement. Founded by Carlo Petrini in Italy in 1986, Slow Food links pleasure and food with awareness and responsibility. It defends biodiversity in our food supply by opposing the standardisation of taste, defends the need for consumer information and protects cultural identities tied to food. It has spawned a wealth of other slow movements. Slow Cities, for example, design with slow values but within the context of a town or city and a commitment to improve its citizens' quality of life.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |date=September 2007 |title=Slow fashion |journal=[[The Ecologist]] |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=61 |url=http://www.theecologist.org/green_green_living/clothing/269245/slow_fashion.html}}</ref>}}

Slow Food Movement advocates the following principles:<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Slow Food International |url=https://www.slowfood.com/about-us/our-philosophy/ |title=Our Philosophy |access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref>

* Good: quality, flavorsome and healthy food
* Clean: production that does not harm the environment
* Fair: accessible prices for consumers and fair conditions and pay for producers

The slow fashion movement has been studied by Kate Fletcher, a researcher, author, consultant, and design activist, and the author of ''Sustainable Fashion and Textiles''. Her writings integrated design thinking with fashion and textiles as a necessary way to move towards a more sustainable fashion industry.

Based on the three principles of [[slow design]] that were created in 2006 in Milan, Hazel Clark, in ''SLOW + FASHION—an Oxymoron—or a Promise for the Future…?''<ref name="":0"" /> decided to define the principles of the Slow Fashion Movement:<ref name="":1"" />

* taking a local approach 
* having a transparent production system 
* making sustainable and sensorial products
In 2019, [[Debapratim Purkayastha]] provided an example of how an operative in the slow fashion industry looks like with a [[case study]] of 7Weaves Social.<ref>{{Cite web|title=7WEAVES: Slow Fashion|url=https://www.thecasecentre.org/main/products/view?&id=163765|access-date=2020-06-17|website=thecasecentre.org|language=en}}</ref> The [[Assam]]-based [[social venture]] deals in sustainably sourced and manufactured [[Eri silk]] products by on one hand working with the forest-dependent [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous people]] in the region, while on the other hand working with global slow fashion brands in the West.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal|last=Purkayastha|first=Debapratim|date=September 2019|title=7Weaves: Slow Fashion|journal=Case Folio |volume=19 |issue=3|pages=25–34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=News-Desk|first=Apparel Resources|date=2019-02-14|title=Why these 12 Indian weavers and artisans are special! {{!}} Trades News India|url=https://apparelresources.com/business-news/trade/12-indian-weavers-artisans-special/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Apparel Resources|language=en-US}}</ref> Eri silk is manufactured without killing the silk worm and only natural dyes were used by 7Weaves in coloring the fabric.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-21|title=7Weaves - Seda sustentável empodera comunidades indígenas na Índia|url=https://www.fashionbubbles.com/historia-da-moda/7weaves-seda-sustentavel-india/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Fashion Bubbles|language=pt-BR}}</ref> [[Zero waste]]

The model provided [[sustainable livelihood]] to the artisan who had [[traditional knowledge]] in handloom and [[sericulture]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Handworked Eri Silk from Assam Cocoa and Jasmine— COCOA AND JASMINE Cocoa and Jasmine|url=https://www.cocoaandjasmine.com/zine/handworked-eri-silk-from-assam|access-date=2020-06-17|website=COCOA AND JASMINE|date=17 April 2019 |language=en-US}}</ref> 7Weaves provided guaranteed work for artisans at a fixed monthly emolument for the whole year, and redistributed 50 percent of its annual profits to the artisans and other players in the [[supply chain]].<ref name="":2"" /> 7Weaves's focus was also to preserve the [[biodiversity]] of the biologically rich but ecologically fragile [[Brahmaputra Valley|Assam valley]] region.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Purkayastha|first=Debapratim|date=2019-01-07|title=Figure out how 7Weaves can scale up and go global|url=https://bloncampus.thehindubusinessline.com/case-studies/figure-out-how-7weaves-can-scale-up-and-go-global/article25933346.ece|access-date=2020-06-17|website=@businessline|language=en}}</ref> Slow fashion brands from countries including Germany, France, Belgium and Australia source garments and fabrics from 7Weaves. According, to the author, 7Weaves's focus on sustainably sourced [[fair trade]] fabrics that were long-lasting and locally produced, use of traditional values and know how, preservation of [[ecosystem]], source diversity, and responsible business practices emphasize its slow fashion credentials.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Purkayastha|first=Debapratim|date=2019-02-27|title=7Weaves, a promising model for ethical, slow fashion|url=https://bloncampus.thehindubusinessline.com/case-studies/7weaves-a-promising-model-for-ethical-slow-fashion/article26388043.ece|access-date=2020-06-17|website=@businessline|language=en}}</ref>

=== Context ===
In 2009, Vogue and The VOU Fashion Magazines traced the history of the context of the Slow Fashion Movement.<ref name="":1"" />

{{Blockquote|In March 1990, the New York Times and Vogue published articles about the environmental trend in the fashion world. In the summer of 1990, British fashion designer Katharine Hamnett, who has been often recognized as one of the first designers to combine environmental activism with fashion, gave a speech about the environmental impacts of fashion at the United Nations. In 1995, Giorgio Armani began to use hemp in his Emporio Armani collection. In 2001, Natalie Chanin launched Project Alabama, a collection of 200 locally produced hand-sewn T-shirts that was well received at New York Fashion Week. The same year, Stella McCartney launched her own line, applying animal-friendly (no leather, no fur) policies.<ref name="":1"" />}}In recent years, many companies have kick-started revolutions against fast fashion, such as [[Fashion Revolution|Fashion Revolution Day]] and Second Hand September campaigns. This has led to big fast fashion retailers such as [[Zara (retailer)|Zara]] and [[H&M]] to either pledge<ref>{{Cite news|last=Conlon|first=Scarlett|date=2019-07-17|title=Zara clothes to be made from 100% sustainable fabrics by 2025|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2019/jul/17/zara-collections-to-be-made-from-100-sustainable-fabrics|access-date=2020-05-15|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> or launch a clothing line<ref>{{Cite web|title=H&M Launches Conscious Collection|url=https://recyclenation.com/2011/05/hm-recycle-conscious-collection/|last=RecycleNation|date=2011-05-13|website=RecycleNation|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> dedicated to sustainable clothing.

== Marketing ==
Slow fashion has its own marketing strategies as it targets a certain type of consumers. Unlike fast fashion consumers, slow fashion consumers expect classic and timeless pieces of clothes, giving importance to versatility, low maintenance and a higher quality.<ref name=""Jung 2016 410–421"">{{Cite journal |last1=Jung |first1=Sojin |last2=Jin |first2=Byoungho |date=2016 |title=From quantity to quality: understanding slow fashion consumers for sustainability and consumer education |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=410–421 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12276 |issn=1470-6431}}</ref>

Marketing strategies concerning slow fashion often revolve around a more conscious consumption, focusing the advertising on environmentally and socially sustainable aspects on the clothes. Companies use several strategies in order to be less wasteful than other fast fashion brands<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.buyapowa.com/blog/ethical-fashion-made-for-referral-marketing/|title=Why ethical fashion is made for referral marketing|last=Martin-Muir|first=Fiona|date=2018-09-28|website=Buyapowa's Expert Insight on Referral Marketing {{!}} Blog|access-date=2019-08-23}}</ref>

* changing their clothing lines less often
* producing and stocking less items
* paying attention to the material that they use
* ensuring ethical and non-exploitive methods of production

Slow fashion is also often associated with [[Charity shop|thrift shops]], to the extent that shrift shops offer clothes that are not produced within a [[Just-in-time manufacturing|just-in-time flow]].

== Global economy ==
Global economy has a market-driven aspect. This means that consumers are encourage to always buy more and producers are encourage to always produce more. Those two aspects mutually develop each other. The current economic model is said to be global because the production process is divided worldwide to maximize efficiency and profit. Slow fashion is more slow, local and quality-oriented. Therefore, it does not fit well in the [[World economy|global economy]] model.<ref name=""Langdown 33–43"">{{Cite journal|last=Langdown|first=Amanda|date=2014-06-01|title=Slow fashion as an alternative to mass production: A fashion practitioner's journey|journal=Social Business|volume=4|issue=1|pages=33–43|doi=10.1362/204440814x13948909253785|issn=2044-4087}}</ref> Several papers question the longevity of slow fashion in a market-driven society.<ref name="":0""/><ref name=""Štefko 2270"">{{Cite journal|last1=Štefko|first1=Róbert|last2=Steffek|first2=Vladimira|date=2018-07-02|title=Key Issues in Slow Fashion: Current Challenges and Future Perspectives|journal=Sustainability|volume=10|issue=7|pages=2270|doi=10.3390/su10072270|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Production ===
In slow fashion, each designer is encouraged to produce locally, using local workforce and resources.<ref name=""Langdown 33–43""/> Quality is chosen over quantity, which means that slow fashion can reduce exploitation of resources or workers. The production chain is as transparent as possible. This redefines the hierarchy between designers, consumers and producers.<ref name="":0""/> Fashion is known to be ruled by trends that come and go quickly, encouraging consumption. The end products offered to clients are made to last longer and be timeless.

Slow fashion has a different cost of production and cannot produce as much in quantity. Slow fashion cannot compete with the mass produced products of fast fashion that use cheap labor and resources to maximize profits. Slow fashion is very local and used fair-trade materials and fabrics of high quality.<ref name=""Štefko 2270""/> Moreover, slow fashion cannot produced as much as fast fashion due to the different production process.<ref name=""Štefko 2270""/> Many academic papers have looked into the viability of this movement in an era of mass-production and mass-consumption.

By keeping the production in ""productive communities"", this process is more transparent. There is less intermediation and a greater cultural and material value to the consumer. This is one of the way Clarke presents to address the question of how slow fashion fit into the current economic model.<ref name="":0""/> Recently, a carbon footprint tax on fashion supply chains has been implemented to encourage the use of local supplies. The effect of that measures has been limited.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Choi|first=Tsan-Ming|date=September 2013|title=Carbon footprint tax on fashion supply chain systems|journal=The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology|volume=68|issue=1–4|pages=835–847|doi=10.1007/s00170-013-4947-4|s2cid=110199159|issn=0268-3768}}</ref>

=== Pricing ===
The pricing of slow fashion clothes varies a lot. Since the definition is so broad, a second-hand dress from a thrift shop worth five dollars and a designer dress costing 700 dollars can both be considered part of the slow fashion.<ref name=""Štefko 2270""/>

The current economic system focuses on economic growth and quantity sold. However, research has shown that more parameters should be included due to a raising social conscience.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Architecture and design versus consumerism: how design activism confronts growth|last=Thorpe, Ann.|date=2012|publisher=Earthscan|isbn=9781849713559|location=Abingdon, Oxon|oclc=758394577}}</ref> People have said to be willing to pay more for clothes when they know that they have been produced in ""sweat-free"" manufacture.<ref name=""Langdown 33–43""/>

== Impact ==

The slow fashion movement, part of the greater goal of sustainable fashion and thus, a cleaner world is gaining strength, driven by growing environmental concerns. In 2018, a third of fashion consumers bought clothing once a month, a decrease from 37% compared to 2016, whereas those buying clothes every two or three months or less rose from 64% to 67%, according to the market research firm [[Mintel]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/dec/29/fast-fashion-giving-way-sustainable-wardrobe|title=Is fast fashion giving way to the sustainable wardrobe?|last=Butler|first=Sarah|date=2018-12-29|work=The Observer|access-date=2019-08-24|issn=0029-7712}}</ref>

After the release of the documentaries ''[[The True Cost]]'' and ''[[RiverBlue]]'', there was attention drawn to companies that have fast fashion practices. Despite the spread movement, [[H&M]] had revenues amount to $25 billion in the fiscal year of 2016. However, as the movement has grown in popularity, H&M's stock and brand image has taken a hit as consumer awareness has spread of their environmentally unethical practices leading to a drop in sales.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Paton|first=Elizabeth|date=2018-03-27|title=H&M, a Fashion Giant, Has a Problem: $4.3 Billion in Unsold Clothes|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/27/business/hm-clothes-stock-sales.html|access-date=2020-05-16|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

The spread of the movement has resulted in two fast fashion giants, [[Zara (retailer)|Zara]] and [[H&M]], switching narratives to become advocates for ethical fashion practices. With collections aimed at sustainable fashions, the two companies have shifted towards more ethical practices.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Can fast fashion be green?|url=https://www.voguebusiness.com/technology/hm-fast-fashion-sustainability-recycling-hong-kong|website=Vogue Business| date=6 December 2018 |language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> Due to the audience that the movement against unethical fashion practices has accumulated, organizations such as the United States Fashion Industry Association have devoted some of their attention to ‘social compliance and sustainability’.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Compliance & Sustainability - the United States Fashion Industry Association|url=https://www.usfashionindustry.com/policy/social-compliance-sustainability|website=www.usfashionindustry.com|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref>

== Critics ==
Critics have called out against certain brands who have claimed to strive to follow slow fashion's principles. For example, Swedish brand [[H&M]] was accused of not being sustainable when reports found out that it burns its unsold clothes.
While H&M is striving to create sustainability to the best of their abilities, they are still overproducing mass amounts of clothing while hawking it as sustainable. H&M has a stated ""sustainability strategy,"" and brands some items with green ""Conscious"" tags to signal that they contain ""more sustainable materials"".<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/the-problem-with-sustainable-fashion/index.html | title=The problem with 'sustainable fashion' | website=[[CNN]] | date=11 October 2019 }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Ecodesign]]
*[[Empathic design]]
*[[Sustainable clothing]]
*[[Trashion]]
*[[Product tracing]] systems: allow to see source factory of a product

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Fashion}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Slow movement|Fashion]]
[[Category:2007 introductions]]
[[Category:Fashion aesthetics]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Clothing and the environment]]"
Bottom of the pyramid,"{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{distinguish|Pyramid of Capitalist System}}
{{POV check|talk=Objective rewrite needed|date=April 2014}}
{{short description|Socio-economic group}}
[[File:Wealth pyramid.jpg|thumb|The wealth pyramid. As we move higher and higher up in wealth we find fewer and fewer people having that wealth and vice versa.]]

The '''bottom of the pyramid''', '''bottom of the wealth pyramid''', '''bottom of the income pyramid''' or the '''base of the pyramid''' is the largest, but [[poverty|poorest]] [[socio-economic group]]. In global terms, this is the 2.7 billion people who live on less than $2.50 a day.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://lexicon.ft.com/Term?term=bottom-of-the-pyramid-(BOP) |title= Definition of bottom of the pyramid (BOP) |author= <!--Not stated--> |website= ft.com/lexicon |publisher= Nikkei |access-date= 2017-05-03 |quote= Technically, a member of the BOP is part of the largest but poorest groups of the world's population, who live with less than $2.50 a day and are excluded from the modernity of our globalised civilised societies, including consumption and choice as well as access to organised financial services. |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170505144805/http://lexicon.ft.com/Term?term=bottom-of-the-pyramid-(BOP) |archive-date= May 5, 2017 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation
| last    = Malik
| first   = Khalid
| author-link  = Khalid Malik
| year     = 2014
| title    = Human Development Report: Sustaining Human Progress
| chapter  = Chapter 1: Vulnerability and human development
| publisher = United Nations Development Programme
| place    = New York
| page  = 19
| isbn = 978-92-1-126368-8
| chapter-url = http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.pdf
| access-date  = 2017-05-03
| quote      = Globally, 1.2 billion people (22 percent) live on less than $1.25 a day. Increasing the income poverty line to $2.50 a day raises the global income poverty rate to about 50 percent, or 2.7 billion people.
}}
</ref>

Management scholar [[C.K. Prahalad|CK Prahalad]] popularised the idea of this demographic as a profitable consumer base in his 2004 book ''[[The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid]],'' written alongside [[Stuart L. Hart|Stuart Hart]].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/22/business/22prahalad.html |title= C. K. Prahalad, Proponent of Poor as Consumers, Dies at 68 |last= Bajaj |first= Vikas |date= April 21, 2010 |work= New York Times |access-date= 2017-05-03 |quote= C. K. Prahalad, a management professor and author who popularized the idea that companies could make money while helping to alleviate poverty, died Friday in the La Jolla neighborhood of San Diego. }}</ref>

==History==
U.S. president [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] used the term in his April 7, 1932 radio address, ''The Forgotten Man'', in which he said, 
{{Quote|text=These unhappy times call for the building of plans that rest upon the forgotten, the unorganized but the indispensable units of economic power . . . that build from the bottom up and not from the top down, that put their faith once more in the forgotten man at the bottom of the economic pyramid.}}

The more current usage refers to the billions of people living on less than $2.50 per day, the definition proposed in 1998 by C.K. Prahalad and [[Stuart L. Hart]]. It was subsequently expanded upon by both in their books: ''The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid'' by Prahalad in 2004<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whartonsp.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=0131467506&rl=1 |title=Wharton School Publishing &#124; InformIT |website=Whartonsp.com |date=April 17, 2016 |access-date=2016-07-24 |archive-date=February 8, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208230205/http://www.whartonsp.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=0131467506 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ''Capitalism at the Crossroads'' by Hart in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whartonsp.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=0131439871&rl=1 |title=Wharton School Publishing &#124; InformIT |website=Whartonsp.com |date=April 17, 2016 |access-date=2016-07-24 |archive-date=September 16, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090916035046/http://www.whartonsp.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=0131439871 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Prahalad proposes that businesses, governments, and donor agencies stop thinking of the poor as victims and instead start seeing them as resilient and creative entrepreneurs as well as value-demanding consumers.<ref>*{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/677842 |title=Creating the Responsible Consumer: Moralistic Governance Regimes and Consumer Subjectivity |author-link1=Markus Giesler |author-link2=Ela Veresiu|year=2014 |last1=Giesler |first1=Markus|last2=Veresiu |first2=Ela |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=41 |issue=October |pages=849–867}}</ref> He proposes that there are tremendous benefits to multi-national companies who choose to serve these markets in ways responsive to their needs. After all the poor of today are the [[middle class]] of tomorrow. There are also [[poverty]] reducing benefits if multi-nationals work with [[civil society]] organizations and local governments to create new local business models.

However, there is some debate over Prahalad's proposition. [[Aneel Karnani]], also of the [[Ross School of Business|Ross School]] at the University of Michigan, argued in a 2007 paper that there is no fortune at the bottom of the pyramid and that for most multinational companies the market is really very small.<ref name=""autogenerated2006"">{{cite web|ssrn=914518 |title=Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: A Mirage by Aneel G. Karnani |url=http://SSRN.com |date=July 14, 2006 |access-date=2016-07-24|last1=Karnani |first1=Aneel G. }}</ref> Karnani also suggests that the only way to alleviate poverty is to focus on the poor as producers, rather than as a market of consumers. Prahalad later provided a multi-page response to Karnani's article. Additional critiques of Prahalad's proposition have been gathered in ""Advancing the 'Base of the Pyramid' Debate"".

Meanwhile, Hart and his colleague Erik Simanis at Cornell University's [[Center for Sustainable Global Enterprise]] advance another approach, one that focuses on the poor as business partners and innovators, rather than just as potential producers or consumers. Hart and Simanis have led the development of the Base of the Pyramid Protocol, an entrepreneurial process that guides companies in developing business partnerships with income-poor communities in order to ""co-create businesses and markets that mutually benefit the companies and the communities"". This process has been adopted by the [[SC Johnson Company]]<ref name=""Johnson (2007)""> {{Cite Q|Q104887783}}</ref> and the [[Solae (company)|Solae]] Company (a subsidiary of [[DuPont]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bop-protocol.org/projectbriefs/solaeindia.html |title=Base of the Pyramid Protocol - Projects - Solae in India |access-date=2012-03-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206061330/http://bop-protocol.org/projectbriefs/solaeindia.html |archive-date=February 6, 2012 }}</ref>

Furthermore, [[Ted London]] at the [[William Davidson Institute]] at the University of Michigan focuses on the [[poverty reduction|poverty alleviation]] implications of Base of the Pyramid ventures. He has created a ''BoP teaching module'' designed for integration into a wide variety of courses common at business schools that explain the current BoP thinking. He has identified the BoP Perspective as a unique market-based approach to poverty alleviation. London has also developed the BoP Impact Assessment Framework, a tool that provides a holistic and robust guide for BoP ventures to assess and enhance their poverty alleviation impacts. This framework, along with other tools and approaches, is outlined in London's ''Base of the Pyramid Promise'' and has been implemented by companies, non-profits, and development agencies in Latin America, Asia, and Africa.<ref name=mich1 />

Another recent focus of interest lies on the impact of successful BoP-approaches on [[sustainable development]]. Some of the most significant obstacles encountered when integrating sustainable development at the BoP are the limits to growth that restrict the extended development of the poor, especially when applying a resource-intensive Western way of living. Nevertheless, from a normative ethical perspective poverty alleviation is an integral part of sustainable development according to the notion of intragenerational justice (i.e. within the living generation) in the [[Brundtland Commission]]'s definition. Ongoing research addresses these aspects and widens the BoP approach also by integrating it into [[corporate social responsibility]] thinking.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}

== What is the actual shape of the wealth pyramid? ==
[[File:Fifty percent one pyramid.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Approximate visualisation of the wealth pyramid when 1% population controls 50% of the wealth<ref name=""creditsuisse"">{{cite web|url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/ch/en/about-us/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html |title=Global Wealth Report 2015 |website=credit-suisse.com |access-date=2016-09-18}}</ref>]]
The pyramid is a graphical depiction of inverse relationship between two variables as one increases the other decreases. We find that the percent of world wealth and the percent of world population controlling it are related with each other in an inverse relation. If we plot the world wealth in percent terms along the vertical axis of a graph and the corresponding percent population having control on it on the horizontal axis of a graph and add the mirror image of this graph on the left side of the vertical axis we get a wealth pyramid and can see that as we move to higher and higher wealth brackets we find that fewer and fewer people have access to it, thus the figure has a wide bottom and a lean top similar to the pyramids of Egypt.

It has been reported that the gap between the ToP and BoP is widening over time in such a way that only 1% of the world population controls 50% of the wealth today, and the other 99% is having access to the remaining 50% only.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/Fault-Lines-Fractures-Threaten-Paperback/dp/B00OX8KPE6/ref=sr_1_12?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1466701032&sr=1-12&keywords=fault+lines+how+hidden+fractures+still+threaten+the+world+economy |title=Fault Lines: How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy |author=Raghuram G. Rajan |year=2012 |website=Amazon.com |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Jill Treanor |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population – report |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> On the basis of this report the wealth pyramid would look like the one shown in the illustration.

==How low is the bottom?==
The standards and benchmarks developed – for example less than $2.5 a day – always tell us about the upper limit of what we call the BoP, and not actually about its ''base or bottom''. The fact is that the bottom or the base is much much lower. Even going by the official definition, for example in India the Rangarajan Committee after re-examining the issue of poverty defined the poverty line in 2011-12 at INR 47.00 ($0.69) per capita per day for urban areas and INR 32.00 ($0.47) per capita per day in rural areas (June 2016 conversion rate),<ref>Puri, V. K., & Misra, S. K. (2015). Indian Economy. New Delhi: Himalya Publishing House.</ref> obviously much less than the $2.5 per day benchmark. This again is the ''upper layer'' of the poor as defined by the Rangarajan Committee. Where is the actual bottom? and how low? This can perhaps only be visualised by observing the slums right in the hearts of the cities in the developing countries.

==Good business sense and the BoP markets==
Kash Rangan, John Quelch, and other faculty members at the Global Poverty Project at [[Harvard Business School]] ""believe that in pursuing its own self-interest in opening and expanding the BoP market, business can make a profit while serving the poorest of consumers and contributing to development.""<ref name=""autogenerated2007"">{{cite web|url=http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/the-business-of-global-poverty |title=The Business of Global Poverty – HBS Working Knowledge – Harvard Business School |website=Hbswk.hbs.edu |date=April 4, 2007 |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> According to Rangan, ""For business, the bulk of emerging markets worldwide is at the bottom of the pyramid so it makes good business sense – not a sense of do-gooding – to go after it.""<ref name=""autogenerated2007""/> But in the view of Friedman ""the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits only, thus, it needs to be examined whether business in BoP markets is capable of achieving the dual objective of making a profit while serving the poorest of consumers and contributing to development?""<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.colorado.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/issues/friedman-soc-resp-business.html# |title=Friedman, M. (1970, September 13). The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase Its Profits. New York Times Magazine. |access-date=2016-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312125647/http://www.colorado.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/issues/friedman-soc-resp-business.html# |archive-date=2008-03-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 

Erik Simanis has reported that the model has a fatal flaw. According to Simanis, ""Despite achieving healthy penetration rates of 5% to 10% in four test markets, for instance, Procter & Gamble couldn’t generate a competitive return on its Pur water-purification powder after launching the product on a large scale in 2001...DuPont ran into similar problems with a venture piloted from 2006 to 2008 in Andhra Pradesh, India, by its subsidiary Solae, a global manufacturer of soy protein ... Because the high costs of doing business among the very poor demand a high contribution per transaction, companies must embrace the reality that high margins and price points aren't just a top-of-the-pyramid phenomenon; they’re also a necessity for ensuring sustainable businesses at the bottom of the pyramid.""<ref>{{cite journal|author=Erik Simanis |url=https://hbr.org/2012/06/reality-check-at-the-bottom-of-the-pyramid |title=Reality Check at the Bottom of the Pyramid |journal=Harvard Business Review |date=January 1, 1922 |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> Marc Gunther states that, ""The bottom-of-the-pyramid (BOP) market leader, arguably, is Unilever ... Its signature BOP product is Pureit, a countertop water-purification system sold in India, Africa and Latin America. It's saving lives, but it's not making money for shareholders.""<ref>{{cite news|author=Marc Gunther |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/prahalad-base-bottom-pyramid-profit-poor |title=The base of the pyramid: will selling to the poor pay off? |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> Several consulting companies have modeled the profitability of accessing the bottom of pyramid by utilizing [[economies of scale]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Accessing the Bottom of Pyramid in India|url=http://www.slideshare.net/KimberleeLuce/the-rising-bottom-of-the-pyramid-in-india|work=Boston Analytics|date=June 22, 2016}}</ref>

==Examples of BoP business==

===Microcredit===
One example of ""bottom of the pyramid"" is the growing [[microcredit]] market in South Asia, particularly in [[Bangladesh]]. With technology being steadily cheaper and more ubiquitous, it is becoming economically efficient to ""lend tiny amounts of money to people with even tinier assets"". An Indian banking report argues that the microfinance network (called ""Sa-Dhan"" in India) ""helps the poor"" and ""allows banks to 'increase their business'"".<ref name=""sadhan"">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/4281076 |title=Helping themselves |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=August 11, 2005 |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> However, formal lenders must avoid the phenomenon of informal intermediation: Some entrepreneurial borrowers become informal intermediaries between microfinance initiatives and poorer micro-entrepreneurs. Those who more easily qualify for microfinance split loans into smaller credit to even poorer borrowers. Informal intermediation ranges from casual intermediaries at the good or benign end of the spectrum to 'loan sharks' at the professional and sometimes criminal end of the spectrum.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Arp|first1=Frithjof|last2=Ardisa|first2=Alvin|last3=Ardisa|first3=Alviani|date=2017|title=Microfinance for poverty alleviation: Do transnational initiatives overlook fundamental questions of competition and intermediation?| doi = 10.18356/10695889-en|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320100413|journal=Transnational Corporations|publisher=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|volume=24|issue=3|pages=103–117|s2cid=73558727|id=UNCTAD/DIAE/IA/2017D4A8|hdl=10419/170696|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

===Market-specific products===
One of many examples of products that are designed with needs of the very poor in mind is that of a shampoo that works best with cold water and is sold in small packets to reduce barriers of upfront costs for the poor. Such a product is marketed by Hindustan Unilever.

===Innovation===
There is a traditional view that BOP consumers do not want to adopt innovation easily. However, [[C. K. Prahalad]] (2005) claimed against this traditional view, positing that the BOP market is very eager to adopt innovations. For instance, BOP consumers are using PC kiosks, Mobile phone, Mobile banking etc. Relative advantage and Complexity attributes of an innovation suggested by [[Everett Rogers]] (2004) significantly influence the adoption of an innovation in the Bottom of pyramid market (Rahman, Hasan, and Floyd, 2013). Therefore, innovation developed for this market should focus on these two attributes (Relative advantage and Complexity).

===Venture capital===
Whereas Prahalad originally focused on corporations for developing BoP products and entering BoP markets, it is believed by many that Small to Medium Enterprises (SME) might even play a bigger role. For Limited Partners (LPs), this offers an opportunity to enter new venture capital markets. Although several [[Social venture capital|social venture funds]] are already active, true Venture Capital (VC) funds are now emerging.

===Brand===
There is a traditional view that BOP consumers are not brand conscious (Prahalad, 2005). However, [[C. K. Prahalad]] (2005) claimed against this traditional view, positing that the BOP market is brand conscious. For instance, brand influences the new product adoption in the bottom of pyramid market (Rahman, Hasan, and Floyd, 2013). Rahman et al. (2013) mentioned that brand may positively influence the relative advantage of an innovation and it leads to adoption of innovation in the BOP. In point of traditional view BOP market, people were not aware about brand concept. Sopan Kumbhar (2013)

===Business and community partnerships===
As ''Fortune'' reported on November 15, 2006, since 2005 the [[SC Johnson Company]] has been partnering with youth groups in the [[Kibera]] slum of [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]. Together SC Johnson and the groups have created a community-based waste management and cleaning company, providing home-cleaning, insect treatment, and waste disposal services for residents of the slum. SC Johnson's project was the first implementation of the ""Base of the Pyramid Protocol"".

==Conferences==
There have been a number of academic and professional conferences focused on the BoP.  A sample of these conferences are listed below:
* ''Sankalp Conference''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sankalpforum.com |title=Sankalp Forum |publisher=Sankalp Forum |date=February 18, 2016 |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> – May 2012 in Mumbai, India – hosted by the [[Intellecap]].
* ''Eradicating Poverty through Profit''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nextbillion.net/sfconference |title=Eradicating Poverty Through Profit &#124; NextBillion.net - Development Through Enterprise |access-date=2009-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122154904/http://www.nextbillion.net/sfconference |archive-date=January 22, 2009 }}</ref> – December 2004 in San Francisco, CA – hosted by the [[World Resources Institute|World Resources Institute (WRI)]].
* ''Business Opportunity and Innovation at the Base of the Pyramid''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nextbillion.net/brazil05conference |title=Brazil BOP Conference Proceedings &#124; NextBillion.net - Development Through Enterprise |access-date=2009-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210132829/http://www.nextbillion.net/brazil05conference |archive-date=February 10, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nextbillion.net/mexico05conference |title=Mexico BOP Conference Proceedings &#124; NextBillion.net - Development Through Enterprise |access-date=2009-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210134211/http://www.nextbillion.net/mexico05conference |archive-date=February 10, 2009 }}</ref> – August 2005 in São Paulo, Brazil,  September 2005 in Mexico City, Mexico – two sister conferences co-hosted by WRI, the [[Multilateral Investment Fund]] and [[Ashoka: Innovators for the Public|Ashoka]].
* ''Research at the Base of the Pyramid''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wdi.umich.edu/NewsEvents/Conferences/BoPConf2006.aspx |title=Research at the Base of the Pyramid ""Developing a New Perspective"" - the William Davidson Institute |access-date=2009-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211084436/http://www.wdi.umich.edu/NewsEvents/Conferences/BoPConf2006.aspx |archive-date=February 11, 2009 }}</ref> – May 2006 in Ann Arbor, MI – co-hosted by the [[William Davidson Institute|William Davidson Institute (WDI)]] and the [[Ross School of Business]] at the [[University of Michigan]].
* ''Business with Four Billion''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bop2007.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222113625/http://www.bop2007.org/ |archive-date=February 22, 2007 |title=Base of the Pyramid Conference 2007|date=February 22, 2007 |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> – September 2007 in Ann Arbor, MI – co-hosted by WDI and the [[Center for Sustainable Global Enterprise]] at [[Cornell University]].
* ''Sustainable Innovations at the Base of the Pyramid''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hse.fi/EN/research/programs/globalization/events/bop/ |title=HSE - BOP &#124; Sustainable Innovations at the Base of the Pyramid |access-date=2009-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209042819/http://www.hse.fi/EN/research/programs/globalization/events/bop/ |archive-date=February 9, 2009 }}</ref> – September 2008 in Helsinki, Finland – hosted by the [[Helsinki School of Economics]].
* ""The Bottom of the Pyramid in Practice""<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/imtfi_bopworkshop |title=""The Bottom of the Pyramid in Practice"" Workshop &#124; UCI IMTFI Institute for Money, Technology, and Financial Inclusion |access-date=2009-05-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120802181737/http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/imtfi_bopworkshop |archive-date=August 2, 2012 }}</ref> –  June 2009, hosted by the Institute for Money, Technology and Financial Inclusion at the University of California, Irvine, and sponsored by Intel Research, the UC Discovery program, and the Center for Research on Information Technology and Organizations at UC Irvine.
* ""Impact of Base-of-the-Pyramid Ventures""<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bopimpact.nl/ |title=Online Store &#124; 2016 Vrouwen Jeans Verkopen |website=Bopimpact.nl |access-date=2016-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409053645/http://www.bopimpact.nl/ |archive-date=April 9, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> – November 2009 in Delft, the Netherlands – hosted by the [[Delft University of Technology]].
* ""BoP Summit 2013""<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bop2013.org/ |title=BoP Summit 2013: Home Page |website=Bop2013.org |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> - October 2013, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA - hosted by the [[William Davidson Institute|William Davidson Institute (WDI)]].
* ""BoP Global Network Summit 2015""[http://summit2015.bopglobalnetwork.org]-July 2015, Burlington, Vermont, USA - hosted by the BoP Global Network.

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=""mich1"">#London, T. 2016.{{cite web |url=http://wdi.umich.edu/the-base-of-the-pyramid-promise-building-business-with-impact-and-scale/ |title=The Base of the Pyramid Promise |publisher=William Davidson Institute |website=Wdi.umich.edu |access-date=2016-07-24 |archive-date=July 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725162125/https://wdi.umich.edu/the-base-of-the-pyramid-promise-building-business-with-impact-and-scale/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}

==Sources==

{{refbegin|30em}}
#Dalglish C. and M. Tonelli 2016. Entrepreneurship at the Bottom of the Pyramid. New York, U.S.A.: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-138-84655-5}}
#''Microcredit in India: Helping Themselves'' in ''The Economist'', August 11, 2005.
#{{cite web|last1=Fortune |first1=Marc Gunther| url=https://money.cnn.com/2006/11/14/magazines/fortune/guntherkenya.fortune/index.htm |title=SC Johnson funds startups in Africa: Chasing the base of the pyramid |website=Money.cnn.com |date=November 15, 2006 |access-date=2016-07-24}}
#[http://www.ssireview.org/articles/entry/developing_native_capability/ Hart, S. L. & London, T. 2005. Developing native capability: What multinational corporations can learn from the base of the pyramid. ''Stanford Social Innovation Review'', 3(2): 28-33.]
#''Profits – a penny at a time'' by David Ignatius in ''The Washington Post'', July 5, 2005.
#Karnani, Aneel G., ''Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: A Mirage'' . Ross School of Business Paper No. 1035
#{{cite journal| first1=Nancy E| last1=Landrum| title=Advancing the ""Base of the Pyramid"" Debate| journal=Strategic Management Review| volume=1| issue=1| date=2007| url=http://www.strategicmanagementreview.com/ojs/index.php/smr/article/viewFile/12/16| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009002252/http://www.strategicmanagementreview.com/ojs/index.php/smr/article/viewFile/12/16| archive-date=October 9, 2007| url-status=dead| access-date=June 24, 2007}}
#London, T. 2008. The base-of-the-pyramid perspective: A new approach to poverty alleviation. In G. T. Solomon (Ed.), ''Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings.''
#Prahalad, C K (2004) Fortune at the bottom of the pyramid: Eradicating poverty through profits. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
#{{cite journal|title=Brand Orientation as a Strategy That Influences the Adoption of Innovation in the Bottom of the Pyramid Market |date=May 20, 2013 |doi=10.1002/jsc.1935 |volume=22 |issue=3–4 |journal=Strategic Change |pages=225–239|last1 = Rahman|first1 = Mizan|last2=Hasan |first2=Md Rajibul |last3=Floyd |first3=David|url=https://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/15960/1/RH_brand.pdf }}
#''e-Choupal'' {{cite web |last=Rao |first=Sachin |url=http://indiamicrofinance.com/itcs-e-choupal-and-profits |title=Web-based information and procurement tools for Indian farmers |website=indiamicrofinance.com |date=August 1, 2003 |access-date=2017-01-12 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
#Rogers, E. M. ( 2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: Free Press.
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
#{{Cite book|title= Achieving Results: A Priority for Latin America and the Caribbean BoP Agenda|publisher= Inter-American Development Bank|date= February 2010|url= http://www.majoritymarkets.org/news/achieving-results-priority-latin-america-and-caribbean-bop-agenda|access-date= March 8, 2010|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100315211307/http://majoritymarkets.org/news/achieving-results-priority-latin-america-and-caribbean-bop-agenda|archive-date= March 15, 2010|url-status= dead}}
#{{Cite book|title=The Next Billions: Unleashing Business Potential in Untapped Markets|publisher=World Economic Forum|date=January 2009|page=44|url=http://www.weforum.org/pdf/BSSFP/NextBillionsUnleashingBusinessPotentialUntappedMarkets.pdf|access-date=May 3, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619104525/http://www.weforum.org/pdf/BSSFP/NextBillionsUnleashingBusinessPotentialUntappedMarkets.pdf|archive-date=June 19, 2013|url-status=dead}}
#{{Cite book|author1=Allen Hammond |author2=William J Kramer |author3=Julia Tran |author4=Rob Katz |author5=Courtland Walker |title=The Next 4 Billion: Market Size and Business Strategy at the Base of the Pyramid|publisher=World Resources Institute|date=March 2007|page=164|isbn=978-1-56973-625-8|url=http://www.wri.org/publication/the-next-4-billion}}
#Hart, S.L ""Capitalism at the Crossroads"" (Wharton School Publishing, 2005)
#{{cite web |url=http://www.johnson.cornell.edu/sge/research/bop_protocol.html |title=The Base of the Pyramid Protocol|access-date=2008-02-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503041424/http://www.johnson.cornell.edu/sge/research/bop_protocol.html |archive-date=May 3, 2008 }}
#Kandachar, P. and Halme, M. (Eds.) ""Sustainability challenges and solutions at the base of the pyramid – Business, technology and the poor"". [[Greenleaf Publishing Ltd]], Sheffield 2008
#Landrum, N. (2012).  Unintended consequences of business with 4 billion: Lessons learned from first generation BOP strategies.  In Wankel, C. & Malleck, S. (Eds.), ''Ethical Models and Applications of Globalization: Cultural, Socio-Political and Economic Perspectives''.  Hershey PA: IGI Global, pp. 42-54.
#{{cite journal| first1=T| last1=London| first2=S L| last2=Hart| url=http://www.palgrave-journals.com/jibs/journal/v35/n5/abs/8400099a.html| title=Reinventing strategies for emerging markets: Beyond the transnational model| journal=Journal of International Business Studies| volume=35| issue=5| pages=350–370| date=2004| doi=10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400099| s2cid=167837827| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706062202/http://www.palgrave-journals.com/jibs/journal/v35/n5/abs/8400099a.html| archive-date=July 6, 2008| access-date=July 3, 2008}}
#London. T. 2007.  A Base-of-the-Pyramid Perspective on Poverty Alleviation.  Washington, DC: United Nations Development Program.  ''Growing Inclusive Markets Working Paper Series''.
#Prahalad, C.K. and Hart, S.L [https://www.strategy-business.com/article/11518?gko=9a4ba ''The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid'']''[[Strategy+Business]]'' (2002).
#Prahalad, C.K ""The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid"" (Wharton School Publishing, 2004)
#{{Cite book |title=The fortune at the bottom of the pyramid: eradicating poverty through profits |last=Prahalad|first= Coimbatore Krishna |year= 2010|publisher= [[Wharton School]]|location= Upper Saddle River, NJ|isbn= 978-0-13-700927-5|page=407}}
#Prahalad, Deepa. [https://www.strategy-business.com/article/The-New-Fortune-at-the-Bottom-of-the-Pyramid?gko=7cf21 ''The New Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid'']. ''[[Strategy+Business]]'' (2019).
#{{Cite book|title= The Base of Pyramid distribution challenge: Evaluating alternate distribution models of energy products for rural Base of Pyramid in India|author1= Sachin Shukla|author2= Sreyamsa Bairiganjan|year= 2011|publisher= Centre for Development Finance, IFMR|location= Chennai, India|isbn= 978-81-920986-0-9|page= 53|url= http://ifmr-cdf.in/pg/groups/3704/the-base-of-pyramid-distribution-challenge&type=Initiative&int=3704|access-date= June 13, 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110818082048/http://ifmr-cdf.in/pg/groups/3704/the-base-of-pyramid-distribution-challenge%26type%3DInitiative%26int%3D3704|archive-date= August 18, 2011|url-status= dead}}
#{{Cite book |title=Power to the People: Investing in Clean Energy for the Base of the Pyramid in India |author1=Sreyamsa Bairiganjan |author2=Ray Cheung |author3=Ella Delio |author4=David Fuente |author5=Saurabh Lall |author6=Santosh Singh |year= 2010|publisher= Centre for Development Finance, IFMR|location= Chennai, India|isbn= 978-1-56973-754-5|page=74|url=http://www.wri.org/publication/power-to-the-people}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iroy.in/making-bottom-of-the-pyramid-marketing-work-in-nigeria Making Bottom of the Pyramid Marketing Work]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080225183033/http://www.wdi.umich.edu/ResearchInitiatives/BasePyramid/ Wdi.umich.edu]
* [http://brinq.com/about/bop.html Brinq.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828051231/http://lirneasia.net/projects/2006-07/bop-teleuse Telecom use at the Bottom of the Pyramid in Emerging Asia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081221230947/http://lirneasia.net/projects/2008-2010/bop-teleuse-3/ Lirneasia.net]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bottom Of The Pyramid}}
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[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Global Goals Week,"{{short description|Event for awareness for Sustainable Development Goals}}
[[File:Global Goals Week Logo.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Global Goals Week Logo]]

'''[https://globalgoalsweek.org/ Global Goals Week]''' is a shared commitment between a coalition of over 160 partners across all industries, which mobilizes annually in September to bring together communities, demand urgency, and supercharge solutions for the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs).<ref name="":1"" /> It was founded in 2016 by the [[United Nations Foundation]], [https://www.project-everyone.org/ Project Everyone], and the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP). It is timed to coincide with the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] ""High-Level Week"" in New York. The week includes events, summits, conferences, forums, workshops, pledges, and other activations in New York, around the world, and online. It usually runs alongside [[Climate Week NYC]], the annual conference of [[Goalkeepers (Gates Foundation)]], [[Bloomberg Global Business Forum]] and many other high-level events.

==History==
[[File:Young delegates at the UN Youth Climate Summit 2019.jpg|thumb|Young delegates at the UN Youth Climate Summit 2019]]
[[File:UN Youth Envoy Jayathma Wickramanayake, Lilly Singh, and young leaders.jpg|thumb|UN Youth Envoy Jayathma Wickramanayake, Lilly Singh, and young leaders]]
[[File:Social Good Summit 2019.jpg|thumb|Social Good Summit 2019]]
[[File:Female leaders at Social Good Summit 2019.jpg|thumb|Female leaders at Social Good Summit 2019]]
[[File:The Global Goals Icon Color 18.png|thumb|The Global Goals Icon]]

Global Goals Week is an annual week of action that first took place in 2016. It was piloted by core partners Project Everyone, the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP), and the [[United Nations Foundation]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week 2019|url=http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2019/#:~:text=Global%20Goals%20Week%20was%20originally,with%20Climate%20Week%20NYC%202019.|access-date=4 August 2020|publisher=SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref> The core partners have now expanded to include the [[United Nations Department of Global Communications]], the UN SDG Strategy Hub, the UN SDG Action Campaign, and Action for Sustainable Development.

== Structure ==
Global Goals Week is scheduled to coincide with the main annual meetings that take place during the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]]. The week highlights a shared commitment between over 160 partners across civil society, business, academia, and the UN system, to accelerate action on the SDGs, particularly during the UN General Assembly High-Level Week. Together, all this helps to reinforce the importance of working together to solve global challenges and achieve the SDGs.

==Purpose==
The purpose is to organize ""action, awareness, and accountability for the [[Sustainable Development Goals]]"". It is also an opportunity to ""speak out as one voice, share ideas and transformative solutions in the fight to build back better from global challenges"".<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week - About|url=https://globalgoalsweek.org/about/|access-date=4 August 2020|publisher=United Nations Foundation}}</ref>

It aims to make ""the SDG community come together"".<ref name="":1"" />

== Themes and Activities ==

=== 2022 ===
Global Goals Week 2022 took place from September 16 to 25. To allow partners more flexibility, the calendar was expanded to host events from September 1 to October 15.

The seventy-seventh session of the General Assembly opened on 13 September under the theme, “A watershed moment: transformative solutions to interlocking challenges.” The theme stems from the recognition that the world is at a critical moment in the history of the United Nations due to complex and interconnected crises, including the COVID-19 pandemic, the war in Ukraine, humanitarian challenges of unprecedented nature, a tipping point in climate change as well as growing concerns about threats to the global economy.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/unga-high-level-week-2022/ | title=Highlights: United Nations General Assembly High-Level Week 2022 }}</ref>

=== 2021 ===
Global Goals Week 2021 took place from September 17 to 26. Due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the calendar was expanded to host events from September 1 to October 15. Events and activations in 2021 were mostly virtual, but also included some in-person events around the world, as well as hybrid ones.

Under the theme ‘Building Resilience through Hope’, and against the background of the COVID pandemic and global insecurity, the 2021 UN General Assembly’s opening underscored the need for greater urgency and ambition to end the pandemic and ensure an equitable and [[green recovery]] and accelerated implementation of the SDGs.

===2020===
Global Goals Week 2020 took place from September 18 to 26. It was completely virtual due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The goal was to ""cultivate ideas, identify solutions, and build partnerships with the power to solve a wide range of complex global problems from inequality to [[Global warming|climate change]]"".<ref name="":1"" />

===2019===

Global Goals Week 2019 took place concurrently with [[Climate Week NYC]] 2019, from September 21 to 28. The theme was: ""Action for People and Planet"". There were 72 Global Goals Week events, 68 events from the SDG Action Zone, 351 events from Climate Week NYC, and 2981 actions, including events, from the SDG Action Campaign.<ref name="":0"">UN Foundations (2019) [https://unfoundation.app.box.com/s/cds365m0nidugswtxxp0jwkaqqivl8bc Presentation about Global Goals Week in 2019], provided on [https://globalgoalsweek.org/about/ website about Global Goals Week].</ref> Around 107,000 people attended online and around 30,000 people attended in-person.<ref name="":0"" />

The week included the events of the UN Summits Week, comprising the UN-Secretary-General's Climate Action Summit, a High-level Meeting on Universal Health Coverage; the SDG Summit; the 2019 High-level Dialogue on Financing for Development (FfD); and a High-level Review of Progress on SAMOA Pathway.<ref name="":0"" />

Other events included:<ref name="":0"" /><ref name=""IISD2019"">{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week 2019|url=http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2019/|access-date=4 August 2020|publisher=IISD SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref>

* Youth Climate Summit
* Social Good Summit
* Global Week to Act for SDGs
* Private Sector Forum
* International Conference on Sustainable Development (ICSD)
* Sustainable Development Impact Summit
* Equator Prize 2019 Award Ceremony
* [[Bloomberg Global Business Forum]]
* SDG Business Forum
* UN Solutions Summit
* AI ([[artificial intelligence]]) Sustainable Development Summit.

A range of commitments were announced in 2019. These include financial commitments, partnerships, initiatives and activists.

Initiatives included:<ref name="":0"" />

* The Rutgers Institute for Corporate Social Innovation supported the launch of the University Global Compact.
* [[World Food Programme|WFP]] and [[Alibaba Group]] unveiled “Hunger Map Live”, a digital map to track food-security issues across the globe.
* [[Open Government Partnership]]'s Acceleration Action on its recently launched coalition on justice.
* [[Google]] presented innovations in AI to advance the Global Goals and highlighted the work from their Impact Challenge grantees.

Activist events included:<ref name="":0"" />

* Activists and leaders from across all sectors came together at the SDG Action Zone alongside UN Deputy Secretary-General [[Amina J. Mohammed]] to pledge their commitment to a super year of activism in 2020, to kickstart a Decade of Action for the SDGs.
* [[Trisha Shetty]] (SheSays) focused on empowering women and girls, ensuring no-one is left behind.
* [[Kennedy Odede]] (SHOFCO and World Poverty Forum) focused on tackling poverty and reducing inequality, looking ahead to the World Poverty Forum in January, to be held in Kibera, Kenya's biggest slum.
* [[Kumi Naidoo]] (Amnesty International) focused on grassroots civil activists whose lives are at risk worldwide.
* [[Nikolaj Coster-Waldau]] (actor and UNDP Goodwill Ambassador) focused on the power of stories to galvanize movements for change.
* SDG Advocates [[Alaa Murabit]] and [[Richard Curtis]] called on all sectors and citizens to mobilize in 2020 for the super year of activism ahead.

Examples of financial commitments:<ref name="":0"" />

* [[UNICEF]] and the [[Islamic Development Bank]] (IsDB) launched an innovative fund that will open new opportunities for Muslim [[philanthropy]] to reach the millions of children currently in need of humanitarian support and help achieve the SDGs.
* [[Mastercard]]’s [[Michael Froman]] and [[The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria|Global Fund]] Chairman [[Donald Kaberuka]] reported on Mastercard’s new partnership with Step Up the Fight, a Global Fund initiative that proposes to raise $14 billion by 2023 for the fight against HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria. Of that $14 billion, the Global Fund is advocating for the private sector to mobilize at least $1 billion to expedite progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]] and universal health coverage.
* Colombian President [[Iván Duque Márquez|Iván Duque]] and [[Howard Graham Buffett|Howard G. Buffett]] discussed private capital and public policy levers that can support sustainable peace in Colombia, as well as how the [[Buffett Foundation|Howard G. Buffett Foundation]] is elevating its investments in Colombia’s agriculture industries in line with the country’s peace process.

=== 2018 ===
In 2018, Global Goals Week took place from September 22 to 29. It was termed ""the biggest Global Goals Week yet"".<ref name="":2"" /> Its theme was ""Let’s end poverty, fight inequality, and beat climate change''"".''<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week 2018|url=https://www.globalgoals.org/ggw|access-date=4 August 2020|website=The Global Goals|archive-date=1 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701170335/https://www.globalgoals.org/ggw|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Events included:<ref name=""IISD2018"">{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week 2018|url=http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2018/|access-date=4 August 2020|publisher=IISD SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref>

* Learning Revolutions: Creating Educational Environments for Empowerment and Inclusion 
* Global People's Summit
* Social Good Summit 
* [[United Nations Global Compact|UN Global Compact]] Leaders Summit
* World Economic Forum Sustainable Development Impact Summit
* SDG Philanthropy Platform Events 
* 2018 Concordia Annual Summit 
* [[Global Day of Action]]
* We the Future: Accelerating Sustainable Development Solutions 2018 
*[[Goalkeepers (Gates Foundation)|Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Goalkeepers]]
* Sustainable Investment Forum North America 
* [[Bloomberg Global Business Forum]]
* One Planet Summit 
* International Conference on Sustainable Development 
* The 8th Business Call to Action Annual Forum: Technological Disruption in the World of Inclusive Business

===2017===

Held from September 16 to 23, Global Goals Week 2017 events included:<ref name=""IISD2017"">{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week 2017|url=http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2017/|access-date=4 August 2020|publisher=IISD SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref>

* [[Hult Prize]] Awards Ceremony
* Social Good Summit
* SDG Media Zone
* Solutions Summit
* UN Private Sector Forum
* Global Citizen LIVE!
* Concordia Annual Summit
* [[World Economic Forum]] Sustainable Development Impact Summit
* International Conference on Sustainable Development
* Global Citizen Movement Makers
* [[Goalkeepers (Gates Foundation)|Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Goalkeepers]]
* [[TED (conference)|TED Global]] NYC
* UN Global Compact Leaders Summit
* We the Future
* [[Global Citizen Festival]]

Climate Week took place at the same time.

Trends that emerged from the 2017 Global Goals Week included: ""Development through the Trump prism, refugees and migration, humanitarian water-treading, putting business to work (for the SDGs), breaking down siloes, what’s next for development and new partnerships, United Nations reform.""<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 September 2017|title=7 biggest trends to emerge from Global Goals Week|url=https://www.devex.com/news/7-biggest-trends-to-emerge-from-global-goals-week-91115|access-date=5 August 2020|website=Devex|publisher=By Elizabeth Dickinson, Michael Igoe, Catherine Cheney, Amy Lieberman}}</ref>

== Impacts ==
In 2020, Global Goals Week recorded the following impacts:

* 164 events registered, spanning September and October 2020
* 112 partners in the coalition
* 63 million people joined online
* 17.5 thousand people attended in-person
* 2.2 billion social media impressions
* Between September 18-26, 2020, Global Goals Week received 527,000 social media engagements
* The US, Japan, the UK and India were the top countries reached


For Global Goals Week 2019, the following impacts were reported in terms of [[social media]] metrics: Reach: 5.8 billion - defined as the total number of unique people who have seen the social media content.<ref name="":0"" /> An analysis of [[Twitter]] data was done from 20 September to 2 October 2019 of over 50 different hashtags and Twitter handles. Around 10.8 million posts, shares, hashtags and mentions were tracked from 115 countries in 54 different languages.<ref name="":0"" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://globalgoalsweek.org/ Official website]

{{Sustainable Development Goals}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]]"
Goalkeepers (Gates Foundation),"{{short description|Initiative of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation for the SDGs}}
{{Undisclosed paid|date=November 2019}}
[[File:GG logo-vertical.svg|180px|right]]
'''Goalkeepers''' is an initiative launched by the [[Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation]] in 2017<ref>Donald G. McNeil Jr. (18 September 2017), [https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/18/health/bill-melinda-gates-global-health-report-card.html Bill and Melinda Gates Grade the World’s Health] ''[[New York Times]]''.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/gates-foundation-goalkeepers-2018-report-ceo-sue-desmond-hellman-2018-9|title=The CEO of The Gates Foundation says we're approaching a dangerous tipping point in global poverty. We still have time to reverse it.|last=Brueck|first=Hilary|website=Business Insider|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref> to bring together leaders from around the world to accelerate progress toward achieving the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDG).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedrum.com/creative-works/project/bill-and-melinda-gates-foundation-we-are-the-goalkeepers|title=Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation: We Are the Goalkeepers|website=The Drum|language=en|access-date=2019-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gatesfoundation.org/goalkeepers/what-is-goalkeepers|title=Goalkeepers 2018|website=www.gatesfoundation.org|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref> The initiative also provides reports and data flow charts over SDGs progress since 1990.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2018/09/18/gates-foundation-goalkeepers-war-on-poverty/|title=The Four Best Investments We Can Make in the Global War on Poverty|website=Fortune|language=en|access-date=2019-07-23}}</ref><ref>Andrew Jack (19 October 2017), [https://www.ft.com/content/340cd9f0-a9cb-11e7-ab66-21cc87a2edde Bill and Melinda Gates on the fight against global inequality] ''[[Financial Times]]''.</ref>

Its core event is the annual ''Goalkeepers Conference'' (which usually takes place during [[Global Goals Week]] and the [[UN General Assembly]]) at which the ''Changemaker Award'' is bestowed to 'extraordinary individuals who are driving progress in their communities and countries'. Invitations are issued to global leaders and aspiring personalities who have been personally selected by the board. Previous attendees include [[Barack Obama]], [[Emmanuel Macron]], [[Amina J. Mohammed]], [[Erna Solberg]], [[Malala Yousafzai]], and [[Trevor Noah]].<ref>Liz Ford (25 September 2017), [https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/sep/25/obama-the-world-has-never-been-healthier-wealthier-or-less-violent-united-nations-gates-foundation Obama: 'The world has never been healthier, wealthier or less violent'] ''[[The Guardian]]''.</ref> Past award winners have included [[Yusra Mardini]], [[Amika George]], [[Ria Sharma]], and [[Nadia Murad]], who later went on to win the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].

== Conferences and awards ==
[[File:Bill_og_Melinda_Gates_2009-06-03_(bilde_01).JPG|thumb|Bill and Melinda Gates, founders of the Gates Foundation]]

===2022===
The fourth in-person Goalkeepers event was held in September 2022 at Jazz at Lincoln Center in New York City. Speakers included:
* [[Mia Mottley]], Prime Minister of Barbados<ref>Maria Pasquini (22September 2022), [https://people.com/human-interest/bill-gates-melinda-french-gates-show-united-front-for-2022-goalkeepers-event/ Bill and Melinda Gates Reunite for Foundation 1 Year After Divorce: We're 'Completely Committed to This'] ''[[People (magazine)|Peope]]''.</ref>

The winner of the Global Goalkeeper award was:
* [[Ursula von der Leyen]]<ref>Thalia Beaty (22 September 2022), [https://apnews.com/article/united-nations-general-assembly-science-health-philanthropy-covid-29f66b44d789e86684899e8edbb316fc Gates Foundation prods UN, honors inspiration as Goalkeepers] ''[[Associated Press]]''.</ref><ref>Maria Pasquini (22 September 2022), [https://people.com/human-interest/bill-gates-melinda-french-gates-show-united-front-for-2022-goalkeepers-event/ Bill and Melinda Gates Reunite for Foundation 1 Year After Divorce: We're 'Completely Committed to This'] ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''.</ref>

Further awards went to:
* [[Zahra Joya]]: ''Changemaker Award''<ref>Thalia Beaty (22 September 2022), [https://apnews.com/article/united-nations-general-assembly-science-health-philanthropy-covid-29f66b44d789e86684899e8edbb316fc Gates Foundation prods UN, honors inspiration as Goalkeepers] ''[[Associated Press]]''.</ref><ref>Maria Pasquini (22 September 2022), [https://people.com/human-interest/bill-gates-melinda-french-gates-show-united-front-for-2022-goalkeepers-event/ Bill and Melinda Gates Reunite for Foundation 1 Year After Divorce: We're 'Completely Committed to This'] ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''.</ref>
* [[Vanessa Nakate]]: ''Campaign Award''<ref>Thalia Beaty (22 September 2022), [https://apnews.com/article/united-nations-general-assembly-science-health-philanthropy-covid-29f66b44d789e86684899e8edbb316fc Gates Foundation prods UN, honors inspiration as Goalkeepers] ''[[Associated Press]]''.</ref><ref>Lucy Morgan (21 September 2022), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/vanessa-nakate-goalkeeper-interview Vanessa Nakate on the power (and challenges) of navigating climate activism as a young woman] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref><ref>Maria Pasquini (22 September 2022), [https://people.com/human-interest/bill-gates-melinda-french-gates-show-united-front-for-2022-goalkeepers-event/ Bill and Melinda Gates Reunite for Foundation 1 Year After Divorce: We're 'Completely Committed to This'] ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''.</ref>
* Radhika Batra: ''Progress Award''<ref>Lucy Morgan (21 September 2022), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/dr-radhika-batra-goalkeepers-award-interview ‘It’s never too late to make a difference': Dr Radhika Batra on working to eradicate preventable child blindness] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref><ref>Maria Pasquini (22 September 2022), [https://people.com/human-interest/bill-gates-melinda-french-gates-show-united-front-for-2022-goalkeepers-event/ Bill and Melinda Gates Reunite for Foundation 1 Year After Divorce: We're 'Completely Committed to This'] ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''.</ref>

=== 2021 ===
The 2021 Goalkeepers conference could not take place physically, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], but had to be held virtually. The winner of the Global Goalkeeper award was:
* [[Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka]]<ref>Francesca Specter (24 September 2021), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/melinda-gates-foundation-interview-2021 Melinda Gates on choosing the Gates Foundation's Annual Goalkeepers Awards Winners: ‘Women and girls need to be front and centre’] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref>

Further awards went to:
* Jenifer Colpas: ''Changemaker Award''<ref>Francesca Specter (24 September 2021), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/melinda-gates-foundation-interview-2021 Melinda Gates on choosing the Gates Foundation's Annual Goalkeepers Awards Winners: ‘Women and girls need to be front and centre’] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref>
* [[Satta Sheriff]]: ''Campaign Award''<ref>Francesca Specter (24 September 2021), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/melinda-gates-foundation-interview-2021 Melinda Gates on choosing the Gates Foundation's Annual Goalkeepers Awards Winners: ‘Women and girls need to be front and centre’] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref>
* Fairooz Faizah: ''Progress Award''<ref>Francesca Specter (24 September 2021), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/melinda-gates-foundation-interview-2021 Melinda Gates on choosing the Gates Foundation's Annual Goalkeepers Awards Winners: ‘Women and girls need to be front and centre’] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref><ref>Tania Bryer (21 October 2021), [https://www.cnbc.com/video/2021/10/21/mental-health-awareness-in-bangladesh.html Finding Solutions: Mental health awareness in Bangladesh] ''[[CNBC]]''.</ref>

=== 2020 ===
[[File:Africa_CDC_Director_Dr._John_Nkengasong_(37892303376).jpg|thumb|150px|Winner of the 2020 Global Goalkeeper award [[John Nkengasong]]]]
The 2020 Goalkeepers conference could not take place physically, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], but had to be held virtually. The winner of the Global Goalkeeper award was:
* [[John Nkengasong]], Director of the [[Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention]] for being a ""relentless proponent of global collaboration and evidence-based public health practices, and a champion for minimizing the social and economic consequences of COVID-19 across the African continent""<ref>John Muchangi (1 October 2020), [https://www.the-star.co.ke/health/2020-10-01-bill-gates-recognises-kenyan-innovators/ Bill and Melinda Gates recognise Kenyan innovators] ''[[The Star (Kenya)|The Star]]''.</ref><ref>Noor Mahtani (7 October 2020), [https://brasil.elpais.com/internacional/2020-10-07/nosso-objetivo-e-imunizar-60-da-populacao-africana.html “Nosso objetivo é imunizar 60% da população africana”] ''[[El País]]''.</ref>

The Global Goals awards went to:
* [[Bonita Sharma]], co-founder and CEO of ''Social Changemakers and Innovators'' (SOCHAI) – a youth-led non-profit organization in Nepal<ref>John Muchangi (1 October 2020), [https://www.the-star.co.ke/health/2020-10-01-bill-gates-recognises-kenyan-innovators/ Bill and Melinda Gates recognise Kenyan innovators] ''[[The Star (Kenya)|The Star]]''.</ref>
* [[Hauwa Ojeifo]], founder of ''She Writes Woman'', a women-led movement giving mental health a voice in Nigeria<ref>John Muchangi (1 October 2020), [https://www.the-star.co.ke/health/2020-10-01-bill-gates-recognises-kenyan-innovators/ Bill and Melinda Gates recognise Kenyan innovators] ''[[The Star (Kenya)|The Star]]''.</ref>
* The ''MASH Project Foundation'', a youth led social enterprise based in India that develops and implements support systems for people who work for social causes through partnerships.<ref>{{Cite web|title=We Are Goalkeepers|url=https://www.gatesfoundation.org/goalkeepers/about-event/awards/|access-date=2020-11-24|website=www.gatesfoundation.org}}</ref>

=== 2019 ===
[[File:New_Zealand_Prime_Minister_Jacinda_Ardern_in_2018.jpg|thumb|150px|2019 Speaker, Prime Minister [[Jacinda Ardern]]]]
The third annual Goalkeepers event was held September 25–26, 2019, at Jazz at Lincoln Center in New York City. Speakers included:<ref>{{Cite web|title=We Are Goalkeepers|url=https://www.gatesfoundation.org/goalkeepers/about-event/past-events/|access-date=2020-11-24|website=www.gatesfoundation.org}}</ref>
* [[Jacinda Ardern]], Prime Minister of New Zealand<ref>Derek Cheng (25 September 2019), [https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/jacinda-ardern-in-new-york-only-five-countries-sign-up-for-nzs-trade-agreement-to-tackle-climate-change/ZOIJRUPOKQCRHZQTSVYIF2KZQY/ Jacinda Ardern in New York: Only five countries sign up for NZ's trade agreement to tackle climate change] ''[[The New Zealand Herald]]''.</ref>
* [[Pedro Sánchez]], Prime Minister of Spain<ref>[https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/lang/en/presidente/news/Paginas/2019/20190925un-2030agenda.aspx Pedro Sánchez claims before United Nations that 2030 Agenda is roadmap for Government of Spain] [[Prime Minister of Spain]], press release of 25 September 2019.</ref>
* [[Jennifer Eberhardt]]
* [[Aliko Dangote]]
* [[Senjuti Saha]]

The Global Goalkeeper Award was given to:
[[File:Prime_Minister,_Shri_Narendra_Modi,_in_New_Delhi_on_August_08,_2019_(cropped).jpg|thumb|150px|Prime Minister Modi got the Global Goalkeepers award 2019]]
* [[Narendra Modi]], Prime Minister of India, for successfully implementing the [[Swachh Bharat Mission]], a cleanliness and sanitation project, including 110&nbsp;million family and public toilets for poor and middle income families, reducing the Indian [[open defecation]] rate from 50% to almost 0% in 3 years.<ref name=""love1"">[https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/pm-modi-recieves-global-goalkeeper-award-for-swachh-bharat-abhiyan/article29506555.ece PM Modi {{sic|rec|ieves|nolink=y}} Global Goalkeeper award for Swachh Bharat Abhiyan], The Hindu, 25 Sept 2019.</ref> He personally makes cleaning initiatives - [[plogging]] along the roads and beaches - leading by example to promote mass fitness and cleanliness.<ref name=""modiplogging1"">[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-goes-plogging-on-tn-beach-gives-swachh-fit-india-drives-a-big-boost/articleshow/71561242.cms PM goes plogging on TN beach, gives Swachh & Fit India drives a big boost], Times of India, 13 October 2019.</ref><ref>Ayesha Venkataraman and Jeffrey Gettleman (20 September 2019), [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/20/world/asia/narendra-modi-bill-gates-foundation.html As Narendra Modi Heads to U.S., Controversy Follows Him] ''[[New York Times]]''.</ref>

Ahead of the ceremony, human rights groups and three Nobel Peace Prize winners – [[Shirin Ebadi]], [[Tawakkol Karman]] and [[Mairead Maguire]] – criticized in a letter to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation the decision to bestow an award upon Modi, stating that under his leadership, “India has descended into dangerous and deadly chaos that has consistently undermined human rights, democracy.’’<ref>Vidhi Doshi (12 September 2019), [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/12/bill-and-melinda-gates-foundation-under-fire-over-award-for-narendra-modi Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation under fire over award for Narendra Modi] ''[[The Guardian]]''.</ref><ref>Ayesha Venkataraman and Jeffrey Gettleman (20 September 2019), [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/20/world/asia/narendra-modi-bill-gates-foundation.html As Narendra Modi Heads to U.S., Controversy Follows Him] ''[[New York Times]]''.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/23/dismay-at-gates-foundation-prize-for-narendra-modi Dismay at Gates Foundation prize for Narendra Modi] ''[[The Guardian]]'', 23 September 2019.</ref>

The Global Goals awards went to:
* [[Payal Jangid]]: ''Changemaker Award''<ref>Rachel DeSantis (2 October 2019), [https://people.com/human-interest/payal-jangid-child-marriage-goalkeepers-awards/ 17-Year-Old Is Fighting to End Child Marriage in India After Escaping It Herself] ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''.</ref>
* [[Aya Chebbi]]: ''Campaign Award''<ref>John Muchangi (26 September 2019), [https://www.the-star.co.ke/health/2019-09-26-what-modis-goalkeepers-award-means-for-kenya/ What Modi's Goalkeepers Award means for Kenya] ''[[The Star (Kenya)|The Star]]''.</ref>
* Gregory Rockson: ''Progress Award''<ref>John Muchangi (26 September 2019), [https://www.the-star.co.ke/health/2019-09-26-what-modis-goalkeepers-award-means-for-kenya/ What Modi's Goalkeepers Award means for Kenya] ''[[The Star (Kenya)|The Star]]''.</ref>

=== 2018===
[[File:Emmanuel Macron (cropped).jpg|thumb|150px|Main speaker of the 2018 conference: President Emmanuel Macron]]
The second annual Goalkeepers event was held September 25–26, 2018, in New York City. Speakers included:<ref>{{Citation|last=GatesFoundation|title=Goalkeepers 2018 Livestream: Part 1|date=2018-09-26|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RtrsuGSCreU|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>

* [[Emmanuel Macron]], President of France<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/sep/26/education-family-planning-key-africa-future-emmanuel-macron-un-general-assembly|title=Emmanuel Macron: 'More choice would mean fewer children in Africa'|last=editor|first=Patrick Wintour Diplomatic|date=2018-09-26|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-03|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
* [[Julius Maada Bio|Julius Maada]], President of Sierra Leone<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thepatrioticvanguard.com/president-julius-maada-bio-of-sierra-leone|title=President Julius Maada Bio and Bill Gates at Goalkeepers event|date=2018-09-29|website=The Patriotic Vanguard|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.switsalone.com/26355_sierra-leone-president-bio-bill-gates-david-sengeh-at-goalkeepers-2018/|title=Sierra Leone: President Bio, Bill Gates, David Sengeh at Goalkeepers 2018 {{!}} Sierra Leone News|last=News|first=Sierra Leone|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
* [[Erna Solberg]], Prime Minister of Norway<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/business/business/bill-and-melinda-gates-co-host-goalkeepers-2018-in-new-york-city201809271705070002/|title=Bill and Melinda Gates co-host Goalkeepers 2018 in New York City|website=www.aninews.in|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
* [[King Kaka]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sde.co.ke/article/2001293119/king-kaka-to-share-stage-with-billionaire-bill-gates|title=King Kaka to share stage with billionaire Bill Gates|last=Samorai|first=Samora|website=Standard Digital News|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>

The Global Goals awards went to:
* [[Nadia Murad]]: ''Changemaker Award''<ref>Aparna Alluri (23 September 2019), [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49738605 'Toilet trouble' for Narendra Modi and Bill Gates] ''[[BBC News]]''.</ref>
* [[Amika George]]: ''Campaign Award''<ref>Annalisa Merelli (27 September 2018), [https://qz.com/quartzy/1401383/amika-georges-freeperiods-campaign-wins-bill-and-melinda-gates-goalkeepers-award/ This teen advocate against “period poverty” is the feminist we should all grow up to be] ''[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]''.</ref>
* Dysnus Kisilu: ''Progress Award''

=== 2017===
The first annual Goalkeepers event was held September 25–26, 2017, at [[Jazz at Lincoln Center]] in [[New York City]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalgoals.org/goalkeepers|title=Goalkeepers|website=The Global Goals|language=en|access-date=2019-04-12}}</ref> Speakers included:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.project-everyone.org/case-studies/goalkeepers-2017/|title=Goalkeepers 2017 — Project Everyone|website=www.project-everyone.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>

* [[Barack Obama]], President of the United States<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/sep/25/obama-the-world-has-never-been-healthier-wealthier-or-less-violent-united-nations-gates-foundation|title=Obama: 'The world has never been healthier, wealthier or less violent'|last=Ford|first=Liz|date=2017-09-25|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-03|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>Joseph Ax (20 September 2017), [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-gates-foundation-goalkeepers-idUSKCN1BV2W0 In rare public speech, Obama decries Republican healthcare bill] ''[[Reuters]]''.</ref>
* [[Justin Trudeau]], Prime Minister of Canada<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=http://time.com/4950653/justin-trudeau-chewbacca-socks/|title=Justin Trudeau's Socks Are Throwing the Internet for a Loop|magazine=Time|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
* [[Queen Rania of Jordan|Queen Rania]] of Jordan<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jordantimes.com/news/local/queen-takes-part-goalkeepers-event-aimed-accelerating-global-development-agenda|title=Queen takes part in Goalkeepers event aimed at accelerating global development agenda|date=2017-09-21|website=Jordan Times|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
*[[will.i.am]]
* [[Malala Yousafzai|Malala]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.local10.com/news/international/nobel-peace-prize-winner-malala-yousafzai-turns-21|title=Nobel Peace Prize winner Malala Yousafzai turns 21|date=2018-07-12|website=WPLG|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
* [[Stephen Fry]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thesierraleonetelegraph.com/presidents-bio-macron-and-prime-minister-solberg-join-bill-and-melinda-gates-at-goalkeepers-2018/|title=Presidents Bio, Macron and prime minister Solberg join Bill and Melinda Gates at Goalkeepers 2018|last=Thomas|first=Abdul Rashid|date=2018-09-26|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref><ref>Andrew Jack (19 October 2017), [https://www.ft.com/content/340cd9f0-a9cb-11e7-ab66-21cc87a2edde Bill and Melinda Gates on the fight against global inequality] ''[[Financial Times]]''.</ref>
* [[George the Poet|George The Poet]]

<gallery>
President_Barack_Obama.jpg
Prime_Minister_Trudeau_-_2020_(cropped).jpg
Queen_Rania_of_Jordan_Official_Release_05_(cropped).jpg
Will.i.am_in_2018.jpg
Shinzō_Abe_and_Malala_Yousafzai_(1)_Cropped.jpg
Stephen_Fry_June_2016.jpg
</gallery>

== Advisory board ==
The Goalkeepers program is being advised by several individuals, including the following:

* [[Hervé Berville]] (since 2022)<ref>[https://www.gatesfoundation.org/ideas/media-center/press-releases/2022/05/new-goalkeepers-advisors-appointed-to-help-meet-un-sdg Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Appoints New Members to Goalkeepers Advisory Group to Accelerate Progress Toward Global Goals] [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], press release of 9 May 2022.</ref>
* [[Lukas Köhler]] (2019–2022)<ref>[https://www.gatesfoundation.org/ideas/media-center/press-releases/2019/05/goalkeepers-advisory-board-to-accelerate-progress-on-un-sustainable-development-goals The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Appoints Goalkeepers Advisory Board to Accelerate Progress on the U.N. Sustainable Development Goals] [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], press release of 22 May 2019.</ref>
* [[Prajakta Koli]] (since 2022)<ref>[https://www.gatesfoundation.org/ideas/media-center/press-releases/2022/05/new-goalkeepers-advisors-appointed-to-help-meet-un-sdg Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Appoints New Members to Goalkeepers Advisory Group to Accelerate Progress Toward Global Goals] [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], press release of 9 May 2022.</ref>
* [[Tlaleng Mofokeng]] (since 2022)<ref>[https://www.gatesfoundation.org/ideas/media-center/press-releases/2022/05/new-goalkeepers-advisors-appointed-to-help-meet-un-sdg Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Appoints New Members to Goalkeepers Advisory Group to Accelerate Progress Toward Global Goals] [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], press release of 9 May 2022.</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators,"{{Short description|None}}
This '''List of SDG targets and indicators''' provides a complete overview of all the targets and indicators for the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>United Nations (2015) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, [[:File:N1529189.pdf|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ A/RES/70/1])</ref>

<ref name="":17"">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> The global indicator framework for Sustainable Development Goals was developed by the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) and agreed upon at the 48th session of the [[United Nations Statistical Commission]] held in March 2017. The official indicator list below includes all the refinements made {{As of|2020|03|lc=yes}}.

== Background ==
{{Excerpt|Sustainable development goals|Structure of goals, targets and indicators}}

== Targets and indicators for each SDG ==

This table is the global indicator framework for the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development{{refn|group=n|As contained in the Annex of the resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313), annual refinements contained in E/CN.3/2018/2 (Annex II), E/CN.3/2019/2 (Annex II), and 2020 Comprehensive Review changes (Annex II) and annual refinements (Annex III) contained in E/CN.3/2020/2.}}<ref name="":17"" /> The footnotes are updates from the indicator framework in 2020.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=SDG Indicators – Global indicator framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development|url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=6 August 2020|website=United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD)}}</ref> Earlier in 2016, as stated in the UN Sustainability Development, the Member States have decided that the report should be produced once every four years to inform the SDG review deliberations; reported from 15 experts who all have representing backgrounds.<ref>{{cite web |last1=United |first1=Nations |title=Global Sustainable Development Report (GSDR) 2023 |url=https://sdgs.un.org/gsdr/gsdr2023 |website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Sustainable Development}}</ref>  The official indicator list below includes all updates until the 51st session Statistical Commission in March 2020.<ref name="":0"" /> Between 15 October 2018 and 17 April 2020, a range of changes have been made to the indicators.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=17 April 2020|title=SDG Indicator changes (15 October 2018 and onward) – current to 17 April 2020|url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/List_of_changes_since_15_Oct_2018.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=10 September 2020|website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division}}</ref> Those are not yet reflected in the table below.

Sustainable Development Goal indicators should be disaggregated, where relevant, by [[income]], [[sex]], age, [[Race (human categorization)|race]], [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]], [[Migrant worker|migratory status]], [[disability]] and geographic location, or other characteristics, in accordance with the Fundamental Principles of [[Official statistics|Official Statistics]].{{refn|group=n|Resolution 68/261}}

=== Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 1}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 01NoPoverty.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|1.1 By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day
|1.1.1 Proportion of the population living below the international poverty line by sex, age, employment status and geographic location (urban/rural)
|C010101
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |1.2 By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions
|1.2.1 Proportion of population living below the national poverty line, by sex and age
|C010201
|-
|1.2.2 Proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions
|C010202
|-
|1.3 Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all, including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable
|1.3.1 Proportion of population covered by social protection floors/systems, by sex, distinguishing children, unemployed persons, older persons, persons with disabilities, pregnant women, newborns, work-injury victims and the poor and the vulnerable
|C010301
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance
|1.4.1 Proportion of population living in households with access to basic services
|C010401
|-
|1.4.2 Proportion of total adult population with secure tenure rights to land, (a) with legally recognized documentation, and (b) who perceive their rights to land as secure, by sex and type of tenure
|C010402
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""4"" |1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters
|1.5.1 Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population
|C200303
|-
|1.5.2 Direct economic loss attributed to disasters in relation to global gross domestic product (GDP)
|C010502
|-
|1.5.3 Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction strategies in line with the [[Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction]] 2015–2030
|C200304
|-
|1.5.4 Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies
|C200305
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |1.a Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources, including through enhanced development cooperation, in order to provide adequate and predictable means for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, to implement programmes and policies to end poverty in all its dimensions
|1.a.1 Total official development assistance grants from all donors that focus on poverty reduction as a share of the recipient country's gross national income
|C010a04
|-
|1.a.2 Proportion of total government spending on essential services (education, health and social protection)
|C010a02
|-
|1.b Create sound policy frameworks at the national, regional and international levels, based on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies, to support accelerated investment in poverty eradication actions
|1.b.1 Pro-poor public social spending
|C010b02
|}

=== Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 2}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 02ZeroHunger.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round
|2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment
|C020101
|-
|2.1.2 Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the population, based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)
|C020102
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""3"" |2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons
|2.2.1 Prevalence of stunting (height for age <-2 standard deviation from the median of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age
|C020201
|-
|2.2.2 Prevalence of malnutrition (weight for height >+2 or <-2 standard deviation from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age, by type (wasting and overweight)
|C020202
|-
|2.2.3 Prevalence of anaemia in women aged 15 to 49 years, by pregnancy status (percentage)
|C020203
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment
|2.3.1 Volume of production per labour unit by classes of farming/pastoral/forestry enterprise size
|C020301
|-
|2.3.2 Average income of small-scale food producers, by sex and indigenous status
|C020302
|-
|2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for [[climate change adaptation|adaptation to climate change]], extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality
|2.4.1 Proportion of agricultural area under productive and sustainable agriculture
|C020401
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |2.5 By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed
|2.5.1 Number of plant and animal genetic resources for food and agriculture secured in either medium- or long-term conservation facilities
|C020501
|-
|2.5.2 Proportion of local breeds classified as being at risk of extinction
|C020503
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |2.a Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing countries, in particular least developed countries
|2.a.1 The agriculture orientation index for government expenditures
|C020a01
|-
|2.a.2 Total official flows (official development assistance plus other official flows) to the agriculture sector
|C020a02
|-
|2.b Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets, including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha Development Round
|2.b.1 Agricultural export subsidies
|C020b02
|-
|2.c Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility
|2.c.1 Indicator of food price anomalies
|C020c01
|}

=== Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 3}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 03GoodHealth.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |3.1 By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births
|3.1.1 Maternal mortality ratio
|C030101
|-
|3.1.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
|C030102
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |3.2 By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and under‑5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births
|3.2.1 Under‑5 mortality rate
|C030201
|-
|3.2.2 Neonatal mortality rate
|C030202
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""5"" |3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases
|3.3.1 Number of new HIV infections per 1,000 uninfected population, by sex, age and key populations
|C030301
|-
|3.3.2 Tuberculosis incidence per 100,000 population
|C030302
|-
|3.3.3 Malaria incidence per 1,000 population
|C030303
|-
|3.3.4 Hepatitis B incidence per 100,000 population
|C030304
|-
|3.3.5 Number of people requiring interventions against neglected tropical diseases
|C030305
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |3.4 By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being
|3.4.1 Mortality rate attributed to cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes or chronic respiratory disease
|C030401
|-
|3.4.2 Suicide mortality rate
|C030402
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |3.5 Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of alcohol
|3.5.1 Coverage of treatment interventions (pharmacological, psychosocial and rehabilitation and aftercare services) for substance use disorders
|C030501
|-
|3.5.2 Alcohol per capita consumption (aged 15 years and older) within a calendar year in litres of pure alcohol
|C030502
|-
|3.6 By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents
|3.6.1 Death rate due to road traffic injuries
|C030601
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |3.7 By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes
|3.7.1 Proportion of women of reproductive age (aged 15–49 years) who have their need for family planning satisfied with modern methods
|C030701
|-
|3.7.2 Adolescent birth rate (aged 10–14 years; aged 15–19 years) per 1,000 women in that age group
|C030702
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |3.8 Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all
|3.8.1 Coverage of essential health services
|C030801
|-
|3.8.2 Proportion of population with large household expenditures on health as a share of total household expenditure or income
|C030802
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""3"" |3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination
|3.9.1 Mortality rate attributed to household and ambient air pollution
|C030901
|-
|3.9.2 Mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, unsafe sanitation and lack of hygiene (exposure to unsafe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for All (WASH) services)
|C030902
|-
|3.9.3 Mortality rate attributed to unintentional poisoning
|C030903
|-
|3.a Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in all countries, as appropriate
|3.a.1 Age-standardized prevalence of current tobacco use among persons aged 15 years and older
|C030a01
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""3"" |3.b Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable and non‑communicable diseases that primarily affect developing countries, provide access to affordable essential medicines and vaccines, in accordance with the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, which affirms the right of developing countries to use to the full the provisions in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights regarding flexibilities to protect public health, and, in particular, provide access to medicines for all
|3.b.1 Proportion of the target population covered by all vaccines included in their national programme
|C030b01
|-
|3.b.2 Total net official development assistance to medical research and basic health sectors
|C030b02
|-
|3.b.3 Proportion of health facilities that have a core set of relevant essential medicines available and affordable on a sustainable basis
|C030b03
|-
|3.c Substantially increase health financing and the recruitment, development, training and retention of the health workforce in developing countries, especially in least developed countries and small island developing States
|3.c.1 Health worker density and distribution
|C030c01
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |3.d Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks
|3.d.1 International Health Regulations (IHR) capacity and health emergency preparedness
|C030d01
|-
|3.d.2 Percentage of bloodstream infections due to selected antimicrobial-resistant organisms{{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C030d02
|}

=== Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 4}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 04QualityEducation.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |4.1 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes
|4.1.1 Proportion of children and young people (a) in grades 2/3; (b) at the end of primary; and (c) at the end of lower secondary achieving at least a minimum proficiency level in (i) reading and (ii) mathematics, by sex
|C040101
|-
|4.1.2 Completion rate (primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education)
|C040102
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |4.2 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre‑primary education so that they are ready for primary education
|4.2.1 Proportion of children aged 24–59 months who are developmentally on track in health, learning and psychosocial well-being, by sex {{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C040201
|-
|4.2.2 Participation rate in organized learning (one year before the official primary entry age), by sex
|C040202
|-
|4.3 By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university
|4.3.1 Participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, by sex
|C040301
|-
|4.4 By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship
|4.4.1 Proportion of youth and adults with information and communications technology (ICT) skills, by type of skill
|C040401
|-
|4.5 By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations
|4.5.1 Parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become available) for all education indicators on this list that can be disaggregated
|C040501
|-
|4.6 By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy
|4.6.1 Proportion of population in a given age group achieving at least a fixed level of proficiency in functional (a) literacy and (b) numeracy skills, by sex
|C040601
|-
|4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture's contribution to sustainable development
|4.7.1 Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment
|C200306
|-
|4.a Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all
|4.a.1 Proportion of schools offering basic services, by type of service
|C040a01
|-
|4.b By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries
|4.b.1 Volume of official development assistance flows for scholarships by sector and type of study
|C040b01
|-
|4.c By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing States
|4.c.1 Proportion of teachers with the minimum required qualifications, by education level{{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C040c01
|}

=== Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 5}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 05GenderEquality.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
|5.1.1 Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, enforce and monitor equality and non‑discrimination on the basis of sex
|C050101
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation
|5.2.1 Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by form of violence and by age
|C050201
|-
|5.2.2 Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age and place of occurrence
|C050202
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation
|5.3.1 Proportion of women aged 20–24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 and before age 18
|C050301
|-
|5.3.2 Proportion of girls and women aged 15–49 years who have undergone female genital mutilation/cutting, by age
|C050302
|-
|5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate
|5.4.1 Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work, by sex, age and location
|C050401
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |5.5 Ensure women's full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life
|5.5.1 Proportion of seats held by women in (a) national parliaments and (b) local governments
|C050501
|-
|5.5.2 Proportion of women in managerial positions
|C050502
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences
|5.6.1 Proportion of women aged 15–49 years who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care
|C050601
|-
|5.6.2 Number of countries with laws and regulations that guarantee full and equal access to women and men aged 15 years and older to sexual and reproductive health care, information and education
|C050602
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws
|5.a.1 (a) Proportion of total agricultural population with ownership or secure rights over agricultural land, by sex; and (b) share of women among owners or rights-bearers of agricultural land, by type of tenure
|C050a01
|-
|5.a.2 Proportion of countries where the legal framework (including customary law) guarantees women's equal rights to land ownership and/or control
|C050a02
|-
|5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women
|5.b.1 Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex
|C050b01
|-
|5.c Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels
|5.c.1 Proportion of countries with systems to track and make public allocations for gender equality and women's empowerment
|C050c01
|}

=== Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 6}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 06CleanWaterSanitation.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all
|6.1.1 Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services
|C060101
|-
|6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations
|6.2.1 Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a [[hand washing]] facility with soap and water
|C060201
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
|6.3.1 Proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater flows safely treated
|C060303
|-
|6.3.2 Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality
|C060302
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address [[water scarcity]] and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity
|6.4.1 Change in water-use efficiency over time
|C060401
|-
|6.4.2 Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources
|C060402
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate
|6.5.1 Degree of integrated water resources management
|C060501
|-
|6.5.2 Proportion of transboundary basin area with an operational arrangement for water cooperation
|C060502
|-
|6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
|6.6.1 Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time
|C060601
|-
|6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies
|6.a.1 Amount of water- and sanitation-related official development assistance that is part of a government-coordinated spending plan
|C060a01
|-
|6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management
|6.b.1 Proportion of local administrative units with established and operational policies and procedures for participation of local communities in water and sanitation management
|C060b01
|}

=== Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 7}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 07CleanEnergy.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services
|7.1.1 Proportion of population with access to electricity
|C070101
|-
|7.1.2 Proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology
|C070102
|-
|7.2 By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global [[energy mix]]
|7.2.1 Renewable energy share in the total final energy consumption
|C070201
|-
|7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency
|7.3.1 Energy intensity measured in terms of primary energy and GDP
|C070301
|-
|7.a By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology
|7.a.1 International financial flows to developing countries in support of clean energy research and development and renewable energy production, including in hybrid systems
|C070a01
|-
|7.b By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programmes of support
|7.b.1 Installed renewable energy-generating capacity in developing countries (in watts per capita)
|C200208
|}

=== Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 8}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 08DecentWork.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|8.1 Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed countries
|8.1.1 Annual growth rate of real GDP per capita
|C080101
|-
|8.2 Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors
|8.2.1 Annual growth rate of real GDP per employed person
|C080201
|-
|8.3 Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services
|8.3.1 Proportion of informal employment in total employment, by sector and sex
|C080302
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |8.4 Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10‑Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production, with developed countries taking the lead
|8.4.1 Material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP
|C200202
|-
|8.4.2 Domestic material consumption, domestic material consumption per capita, and domestic material consumption per GDP
|C200203
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |8.5 By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value
|8.5.1 Average hourly earnings of employees, by sex, age, occupation and persons with disabilities
|C080501
|-
|8.5.2 Unemployment rate, by sex, age and persons with disabilities
|C080502
|-
|8.6 By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training
|8.6.1 Proportion of youth (aged 15–24 years) not in education, employment or training
|C080601
|-
|8.7 Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms
|8.7.1 Proportion and number of children aged 5–17 years engaged in child labour, by sex and age
|C080701
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |8.8 Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment
|8.8.1 Fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries per 100,000 workers, by sex and migrant status
|C080801
|-
|8.8.2 Level of national compliance with labour rights (freedom of association and collective bargaining) based on International Labour Organization (ILO) textual sources and national legislation, by sex and migrant status
|C080802
|-
|8.9 By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
|8.9.1 Tourism direct GDP as a proportion of total GDP and in growth rate
|C080901
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |8.10 Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all
|8.10.1 (a) Number of commercial bank branches per 100,000 adults and (b) number of automated teller machines (ATMs) per 100,000 adults
|C081001
|-
|8.10.2 Proportion of adults (15 years and older) with an account at a bank or other financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider
|C081002
|-
|8.a Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries
|8.a.1 Aid for Trade commitments and disbursements
|C080a01
|-
|8.b By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization
|8.b.1 Existence of a developed and operationalized national strategy for youth employment, as a distinct strategy or as part of a national employment strategy
|C080b01
|}

=== Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 9}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 09Industry.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |9.1 Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and transborder infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all
|9.1.1 Proportion of the rural population who live within 2&nbsp;km of an all-season road
|C090101
|-
|9.1.2 Passenger and freight volumes, by mode of transport
|C090102
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by 2030, significantly raise industry's share of employment and gross domestic product, in line with national circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries
|9.2.1 Manufacturing value added as a proportion of GDP and per capita
|C090201
|-
|9.2.2 Manufacturing employment as a proportion of total employment
|C090202
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |9.3 Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit, and their integration into value chains and markets
|9.3.1 Proportion of small-scale industries in total industry value added
|C090301
|-
|9.3.2 Proportion of small-scale industries with a loan or line of credit
|C090302
|-
|9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities
|9.4.1 CO2 emission per unit of value added
|C090401
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |9.5 Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending
|9.5.1 Research and development expenditure as a proportion of GDP
|C090501
|-
|9.5.2 Researchers (in full-time equivalent) per million inhabitants
|C090502
|-
|9.a Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States
|9.a.1 Total official international support (official development assistance plus other official flows) to infrastructure
|C090a01
|-
|9.b Support domestic technology development, research and innovation in developing countries, including by ensuring a conducive policy environment for, inter alia, industrial diversification and value addition to commodities
|9.b.1 Proportion of medium and high-tech industry value added in total value added
|C090b01
|-
|9.c Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020
|9.c.1 Proportion of population covered by a mobile network, by technology
|C090c01
|}

=== Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 10}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 10ReducedInequalities.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|10.1 By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 per cent of the population at a rate higher than the national average
|10.1.1 Growth rates of household expenditure or income per capita among the bottom 40 per cent of the population and the total population
|C100101
|-
|10.2 By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status
|10.2.1 Proportion of people living below 50 per cent of median income, by sex, age and persons with disabilities
|C100201
|-
|10.3 Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate legislation, policies and action in this regard
|10.3.1 Proportion of population reporting having personally felt discriminated against or harassed in the previous 12 months on the basis of a ground of discrimination prohibited under international human rights law
|C200204
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |10.4 Adopt policies, especially fiscal, wage and social protection policies, and progressively achieve greater equality
|10.4.1 Labour share of GDP
|C100401
|-
|10.4.2 Redistributive impact of fiscal policy{{refn|group=n|Taking into account ongoing [[World Trade Organization]] negotiations, the [[Doha Development Agenda]] and the Hong Kong ministerial mandate.}}
|C100402
|-
|10.5 Improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial markets and institutions and strengthen the implementation of such regulations
|10.5.1 Financial Soundness Indicators
|C100501
|-
|10.6 Ensure enhanced representation and voice for developing countries in decision-making in global international economic and financial institutions in order to deliver more effective, credible, accountable and legitimate institutions
|10.6.1 Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international organizations
|C200205
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""4"" |10.7 Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies
|10.7.1 Recruitment cost borne by employee as a proportion of monthly income earned in country of destination
|C100701
|-
|10.7.2 Number of countries with migration policies that facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people
|C100702
|-
|10.7.3 Number of people who died or disappeared in the process of migration towards an international destination{{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C100703
|-
|10.7.4 Proportion of the population who are refugees, by country of origin
|C100704
|-
|10.a Implement the principle of special and differential treatment for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, in accordance with World Trade Organization agreements
|10.a.1 Proportion of tariff lines applied to imports from least developed countries and developing countries with zero-tariff
|C100a01
|-
|10.b Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign direct investment, to States where the need is greatest, in particular least developed countries, African countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their national plans and programmes
|10.b.1 Total resource flows for development, by recipient and donor countries and type of flow (e.g. official development assistance, foreign direct investment and other flows)
|C100b01
|-
|10.c By 2030, reduce to less than 3 per cent the transaction costs of migrant remittances and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5 per cent
|10.c.1 Remittance costs as a proportion of the amount remitted
|C100c01
|}

=== Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 11}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 11SustainableCities.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|11.1 By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums
|11.1.1 Proportion of urban population living in slums, informal settlements or inadequate housing
|C110101
|-
|11.2 By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with disabilities and older persons
|11.2.1 Proportion of population that has convenient access to public transport, by sex, age and persons with disabilities
|C110201
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries
|11.3.1 Ratio of land consumption rate to population growth rate
|C110301
|-
|11.3.2 Proportion of cities with a direct participation structure of civil society in urban planning and management that operate regularly and democratically
|C110302
|-
|11.4 Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world's cultural and natural heritage
|11.4.1 Total per capita expenditure on the preservation, protection and conservation of all cultural and natural heritage, by source of funding (public, private), type of heritage (cultural, natural) and level of government (national, regional, and local/municipal)
|C110401
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations
|11.5.1 Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population
|C200303
|-
|11.5.2 Direct economic loss in relation to global GDP, damage to critical infrastructure and number of disruptions to basic services, attributed to disasters
|C110502
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management
|11.6.1 Proportion of municipal solid waste collected and managed in controlled facilities out of total municipal waste generated, by cities
|C110603
|-
|11.6.2 Annual mean levels of fine particulate matter (e.g. PM2.5 and PM10) in cities (population weighted)
|C110602
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |11.7 By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities
|11.7.1 Average share of the built-up area of cities that is open space for public use for all, by sex, age and persons with disabilities
|C110701
|-
|11.7.2 Proportion of persons victim of physical or sexual harassment, by sex, age, disability status and place of occurrence, in the previous 12 months
|C110702
|-
|11.a Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning
|11.a.1 Number of countries that have national urban policies or regional development plans that (a) respond to population dynamics; (b) ensure balanced territorial development; and (c) increase local fiscal space
|C110a02
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |11.b By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the [[Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction]] 2015–2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels
|11.b.1 Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction strategies in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030
|C200304
|-
|11.b.2 Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies
|C200305
|-
|11.c Support least developed countries, including through financial and technical assistance, in building sustainable and resilient buildings utilizing local materials
|No suitable replacement indicator was proposed. The global statistical community is encouraged to work to develop an indicator that could be proposed for the 2025 comprehensive review. See E/CN.3/2020/2, paragraph 23.
|}

=== Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 12}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 12ResponsibleConsumption.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|12.1 Implement the 10‑Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries
|12.1.1 Number of countries developing, adopting or implementing policy instruments aimed at supporting the shift to sustainable consumption and production
|C120101
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources
|12.2.1 Material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP
|C200202
|-
|12.2.2 Domestic material consumption, domestic material consumption per capita, and domestic material consumption per GDP
|C200203
|-
|12.3 By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses
|12.3.1 (a) Food loss index and (b) food waste index
|C120301
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |12.4 By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment
|12.4.1 Number of parties to international multilateral environmental agreements on hazardous waste, and other chemicals that meet their commitments and obligations in transmitting information as required by each relevant agreement
|C120401
|-
|12.4.2 (a) Hazardous waste generated per capita; and (b) proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of treatment
|C120402
|-
|12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse
|12.5.1 National recycling rate, tons of material recycled
|C120501
|-
|12.6 Encourage companies, especially large and transnational companies, to adopt sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into their reporting cycle
|12.6.1 Number of companies publishing sustainability reports
|C120601
|-
|12.7 Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national policies and priorities
|12.7.1 Degree of sustainable public procurement policies and action plan implementation
|C120701
|-
|12.8 By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature
|12.8.1 Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment
|C200306
|-
|12.a Support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production
|12.a.1 Installed renewable energy-generating capacity in developing countries (in watts per capita)
|C200208
|-
|12.b Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
|12.b.1 Implementation of standard accounting tools to monitor the economic and environmental aspects of tourism sustainability
|C120b02
|-
|12.c Rationalize inefficient [[fossil fuel subsidies]] that encourage wasteful consumption by removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances, including by restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies, where they exist, to reflect their environmental impacts, taking fully into account the specific needs and conditions of developing countries and minimizing the possible adverse impacts on their development in a manner that protects the poor and the affected communities
|12.c.1 Amount of fossil-fuel subsidies per unit of GDP (production and consumption){{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C120c01
|}

=== Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 13}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 13Climate.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''{{refn|group=n|Acknowledging that the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.}}
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""3"" |13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries
|13.1.1 Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population
|C200303
|-
|13.1.2 Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction strategies in line with the [[Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction]] 2015–2030
|C200304
|-
|13.1.3 Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies
|C200305
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |13.2 Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning
|13.2.1 Number of countries with nationally determined contributions, long-term strategies, national adaptation plans, strategies as reported in adaptation communications and national communications
|C130203
|-
|13.2.2 Total greenhouse gas emissions per year
|C130202
|-
|13.3 Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning
|13.3.1 Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment
|C200306
|-
|13.a Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible
|13.a.1 Amounts provided and mobilized in United States dollars per year in relation to the continued existing collective mobilization goal of the $100 billion commitment through to 2025
|C130a02
|-
|13.b Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities
|13.b.1 Number of least developed countries and small island developing States with nationally determined contributions, long-term strategies, national adaptation plans, strategies as reported in adaptation communications and national communications
|C130b02
|}

=== Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 14}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 14LifeBelowWater.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including [[marine debris]] and nutrient pollution
|14.1.1 (a) Index of coastal eutrophication; and (b) plastic debris density{{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C140101
|-
|14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans
|14.2.1 Number of countries using ecosystem-based approaches to managing marine areas
|C140201
|-
|14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels
|14.3.1 Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations
|C140301
|-
|14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological characteristics
|14.4.1 Proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels
|C140401
|-
|14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information
|14.5.1 Coverage of protected areas in relation to marine areas
|C140501
|-
|14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation4
|14.6.1 Degree of implementation of international instruments aiming to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
|C140601
|-
|14.7 By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism
|14.7.1 Sustainable fisheries as a proportion of GDP in small island developing States, least developed countries and all countries
|C140701
|-
|14.a Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States and least developed countries
|14.a.1 Proportion of total research budget allocated to research in the field of marine technology
|C140a01
|-
|14.b Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets
|14.b.1 Degree of application of a legal/regulatory/ policy/institutional framework which recognizes and protects access rights for small-scale fisheries
|C140b01
|-
|14.c Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by implementing international law as reflected in the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]], which provides the legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of ""The future we want""
|14.c.1 Number of countries making progress in ratifying, accepting and implementing through legal, policy and institutional frameworks, ocean-related instruments that implement international law, as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans and their resources
|C140c01
|}

=== Goal 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 15}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 15LifeOnLand.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements
|15.1.1 Forest area as a proportion of total land area
|C150101
|-
|15.1.2 Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by protected areas, by ecosystem type
|C150102
|-
|15.2 By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally
|15.2.1 Progress towards sustainable forest management
|C150201
|-
|15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a [[land degradation]]-neutral world
|15.3.1 Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area
|C150301
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |15.4 By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development
|15.4.1 Coverage by protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity
|C150401
|-
|15.4.2 Mountain Green Cover Index
|C150402
|-
|15.5 Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species
|15.5.1 Red List Index
|C150501
|-
|15.6 Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed
|15.6.1 Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits
|C150601
|-
|15.7 Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products
|15.7.1 Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked
|C200206
|-
|15.8 By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species
|15.8.1 Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of invasive alien species
|C150801
|-
|15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts
|15.9.1 (a) Number of countries that have established national targets in accordance with or similar to Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 in their national biodiversity strategy and action plans and the progress reported towards these targets; and (b) integration of biodiversity into national accounting and reporting systems, defined as implementation of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting
|C150902
|-
|15.a Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems
|15.a.1 (a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilized from biodiversity-relevant economic instruments
|C200210
|-
|15.b Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation
|15.b.1 (a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilized from biodiversity-relevant economic instruments
|C200210
|-
|15.c Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities
|15.c.1 Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked
|C200206
|}

=== Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 16}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 16PeaceJusticeInstitutions.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""4"" |16.1 Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere
|16.1.1 Number of victims of intentional homicide per 100,000 population, by sex and age
|C160101
|-
|16.1.2 Conflict-related deaths per 100,000 population, by sex, age and cause
|C160102
|-
|16.1.3 Proportion of population subjected to (a) physical violence, (b) psychological violence and (c) sexual violence in the previous 12 months
|C160103
|-
|16.1.4 Proportion of population that feel safe walking alone around the area they live
|C160104
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""3"" |16.2 End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children
|16.2.1 Proportion of children aged 1–17 years who experienced any physical punishment and/or psychological aggression by caregivers in the past month
|C160201
|-
|16.2.2 Number of victims of human trafficking per 100,000 population, by sex, age and form of exploitation
|C160202
|-
|16.2.3 Proportion of young women and men aged 18–29 years who experienced sexual violence by age 18
|C160203
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""3"" |16.3 Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access to justice for all
|16.3.1 Proportion of victims of violence in the previous 12 months who reported their victimization to competent authorities or other officially recognized conflict resolution mechanisms
|C160301
|-
|16.3.2 Unsentenced detainees as a proportion of overall prison population
|C160302
|-
|16.3.3 Proportion of the population who have experienced a dispute in the past two years and who accessed a formal or informal dispute resolution mechanism, by type of mechanism
|C160303
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |16.4 By 2030, significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen the recovery and return of stolen assets and combat all forms of organized crime
|16.4.1 Total value of inward and outward illicit financial flows (in current United States dollars)
|C160401
|-
|16.4.2 Proportion of seized, found or surrendered arms whose illicit origin or context has been traced or established by a competent authority in line with international instruments
|C160402
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |16.5 Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms
|16.5.1 Proportion of persons who had at least one contact with a public official and who paid a bribe to a public official, or were asked for a bribe by those public officials, during the previous 12 months
|C160501
|-
|16.5.2 Proportion of businesses that had at least one contact with a public official and that paid a bribe to a public official, or were asked for a bribe by those public officials during the previous 12 months
|C160502
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |16.6 Develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels
|16.6.1 Primary government expenditures as a proportion of original approved budget, by sector (or by budget codes or similar)
|C160601
|-
|16.6.2 Proportion of population satisfied with their last experience of public services
|C160602
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |16.7 Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels
|16.7.1 Proportions of positions in national and local institutions, including (a) the legislatures; (b) the public service; and (c) the judiciary, compared to national distributions, by sex, age, persons with disabilities and population groups
|C160701
|-
|16.7.2 Proportion of population who believe decision-making is inclusive and responsive, by sex, age, disability and population group
|C160702
|-
|16.8 Broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance
|16.8.1 Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international organizations
|C200205
|-
|16.9 By 2030, provide legal identity for all, including birth registration
|16.9.1 Proportion of children under 5 years of age whose births have been registered with a civil authority, by age
|C160901
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |16.10 Ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance with national legislation and international agreements
|16.10.1 Number of verified cases of killing, kidnapping, enforced disappearance, arbitrary detention and torture of journalists, associated media personnel, trade unionists and human rights advocates in the previous 12 months
|C161001
|-
|16.10.2 Number of countries that adopt and implement constitutional, statutory and/or policy guarantees for public access to information
|C161002
|-
|16.a Strengthen relevant national institutions, including through international cooperation, for building capacity at all levels, in particular in developing countries, to prevent violence and combat terrorism and crime
|16.a.1 Existence of independent national human rights institutions in compliance with the Paris Principles
|C160a01
|-
|16.b Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies for sustainable development
|16.b.1 Proportion of population reporting having personally felt discriminated against or harassed in the previous 12 months on the basis of a ground of discrimination prohibited under international human rights law
|C200204
|}

=== Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 17}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 17Partnerships.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|'''Finance'''
|
|
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |17.1 Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue collection
|17.1.1 Total government revenue as a proportion of GDP, by source
|C170101
|-
|17.1.2 Proportion of domestic budget funded by domestic taxes
|C170102
|-
|17.2 Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the target of 0.7 per cent of gross national income for official development assistance (ODA/GNI) to developing countries and 0.15 to 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries; ODA providers are encouraged to consider setting a target to provide at least 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries
|17.2.1 Net official development assistance, total and to least developed countries, as a proportion of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Development Assistance Committee donors’ gross national income (GNI)
|C170201
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |17.3 Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources
|17.3.1 Foreign direct investment, official development assistance and South-South cooperation as a proportion of gross national income
|C170303
|-
|17.3.2 Volume of remittances (in United States dollars) as a proportion of total GDP
|C170302
|-
|17.4 Assist developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through coordinated policies aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief and debt restructuring, as appropriate, and address the external debt of highly indebted poor countries to reduce debt distress
|17.4.1 Debt service as a proportion of exports of goods and services
|C170401
|-
|17.5 Adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for least developed countries
|17.5.1 Number of countries that adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for developing countries, including the least developed countries
|C170502
|-
|'''Technology'''
|
|
|-
|17.6 Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge-sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level, and through a global technology facilitation mechanism
|17.6.1 Fixed Internet broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, by speed{{refn|group=n|The current indicator 17.6.1 was previously listed as 17.6.2.}}
|C170602
|-
|17.7 Promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms, including on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed
|17.7.1 Total amount of funding for developing countries to promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies
|C170701
|-
|17.8 Fully operationalize the technology bank and science, technology and innovation capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology
|17.8.1 Proportion of individuals using the Internet
|C170801
|-
|'''Capacity-building'''
|
|
|-
|17.9 Enhance international support for implementing effective and targeted capacity-building in developing countries to support national plans to implement all the Sustainable Development Goals, including through north–south, South-South and triangular cooperation
|17.9.1 Dollar value of financial and technical assistance (including through north–south, South‑South and triangular cooperation) committed to developing countries
|C170901
|-
|'''Trade'''
|
|
|-
|17.10 Promote a universal, rules-based, open, non‑discriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system under the World Trade Organization, including through the conclusion of negotiations under its Doha Development Agenda
|17.10.1 Worldwide weighted tariff-average
|C171001
|-
|17.11 Significantly increase the exports of developing countries, in particular with a view to doubling the least developed countries’ share of global exports by 2020
|17.11.1 Developing countries’ and least developed countries’ share of global exports
|C171101
|-
|17.12 Realize timely implementation of duty-free and quota-free market access on a lasting basis for all least developed countries, consistent with World Trade Organization decisions, including by ensuring that preferential rules of origin applicable to imports from least developed countries are transparent and simple, and contribute to facilitating market access
|17.12.1 Weighted average tariffs faced by developing countries, least developed countries and small island developing States
|C171201
|-
|'''Systemic issues'''
|
|
|-
|''Policy and institutional coherence''
|
|
|-
|17.13 Enhance global macroeconomic stability, including through policy coordination and policy coherence
|17.13.1 Macroeconomic Dashboard
|C171301
|-
|17.14 Enhance policy coherence for sustainable development
|17.14.1 Number of countries with mechanisms in place to enhance policy coherence of sustainable development
|C171401
|-
|17.15 Respect each country's policy space and leadership to establish and implement policies for poverty eradication and sustainable development
|17.15.1 Extent of use of country-owned results frameworks and planning tools by providers of development cooperation
|C171501
|-
|''Multi-stakeholder partnerships''
|
|
|-
|17.16 Enhance the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, complemented by multi-stakeholder partnerships that mobilize and share knowledge, expertise, technology and financial resources, to support the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals in all countries, in particular developing countries
|17.16.1 Number of countries reporting progress in multi-stakeholder development effectiveness monitoring frameworks that support the achievement of the sustainable development goals
|C171601
|-
|17.17 Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships, building on the experience and resourcing strategies of partnerships
|17.17.1 Amount in United States dollars committed to public-private partnerships for infrastructure
|C171702
|-
|''Data, monitoring and accountability''
|
|
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""3"" |17.18 By 2020, enhance capacity-building support to developing countries, including for least developed countries and small island developing States, to increase significantly the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other characteristics relevant in national contexts
|17.18.1 Statistical capacity indicator for Sustainable Development Goal monitoring
|C171804
|-
|17.18.2 Number of countries that have national statistical legislation that complies with the Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics
|C171802
|-
|17.18.3 Number of countries with a national statistical plan that is fully funded and under implementation, by source of funding
|C171803
|-
| colspan=""1"" rowspan=""2"" |17.19 By 2030, build on existing initiatives to develop measurements of progress on sustainable development that complement gross domestic product, and support statistical capacity-building in developing countries
|17.19.1 Dollar value of all resources made available to strengthen statistical capacity in developing countries
|C171901
|-
|17.19.2 Proportion of countries that (a) have conducted at least one population and housing census in the last 10 years; and (b) have achieved 100 per cent birth registration and 80 per cent death registration
|C171902
|-
| colspan=""2"" rowspan=""1"" |2 The Gini Coefficient will be reported as a second series in the database, as it is a component of this indicator.
|}

== Repeat indicators ==
Indicators in the global indicator framework that repeat are the following:<ref name="":17"" />

* 7.b.1/12.a.1
* 8.4.1/12.2.1
* 8.4.2/12.2.2
* 10.3.1/16.b.1
* 10.6.1/16.8.1
* 13.2.1/13.b.1 (with a slight amendment)
* 15.7.1/15.c.1
* 15.a.1/15.b.1
* 1.5.1/11.5.1/13.1.1
* 1.5.3/11.b.1/13.1.2
* 1.5.4/11.b.2/13.1.3
* 4.7.1/12.8.1/13.3.1

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=n}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Sustainable Development Goals}}

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]]"
High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development,"{{Infobox United Nations
| image         = Emblem of the United Nations.svg
| image_size    = 120px
| name         = United Nations High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development
| map        = 
| map_size   = 
| map_caption      = 
| type         = [[Intergovernmental organization]], [[Regulatory body]], [[Advisory board]]
| abbreviation     = HLPF
| leader_title  = Head
| leader_name         = 
| status       = Active
| formation  = {{start date and age|2013|07|09|df=yes}}
| headquarters = [[New York City|New York]], USA
| website      = [https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf HLPF on sustainabledevelopment.un.org]
| parent_organization       = [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]] <br /> [[United Nations General Assembly]]
| subsidiaries = 
| footnotes    = {{Portal-inline|Politics|size=tiny}}
}}

A subdivision of both the [[United Nations General Assembly]] and the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]], the '''United Nations High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development''' ('''HLPF''') is responsible for the entire organization's policy on [[sustainable development]]. 

It adopts negotiated declarations, reviews commitment and the progress of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]], SDGs or Global Goals). 

The Forum replaced the [[Commission on Sustainable Development]] on the 24 September 2013 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1556 |title=High-level Political Forum |date=n.d. |website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org |publisher=United Nations |access-date=14 November 2018 |quote=}}</ref> Meetings of the Forum are open to all Member States of the United Nations.

== Mandate and tasks ==

As the Forum is held under the authority of both the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|Economic and Social Council]] and the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]], the body hosts two different types of meetings:
* While under the auspices of the General Assembly: Once every four years at the level of Heads of State and Government for a period of two days.
* While under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council: Yearly, for a period of eight days, including a three-day ministerial segment.
The HLPF was created with the aim to strengthen sustainable development governance at the [[United Nations]]. It works to achieve this through its mandate, which states the following in respect to sustainable development:

Resolution A/RES/66/288:<ref name=""66-288"">{{UN doc|docid=A-RES-66-288|body=A|session=66|type=R|resolution_number=288|title=The Future We Want|date=27 July 2012|accessdate=14 November 2018}}</ref>{{unbulleted list
|(a) Provide political leadership, guidance and recommendations for sustainable development;
|(b) Enhance integration of the three dimensions of sustainable development...at all levels;
|(c) Provide a dynamic platform for regular dialogue...to advance sustainable development;
|(d) Ensuring the appropriate consideration of new and emerging sustainable development challenges;
|(e) Follow up and review progress in the implementation of previous United Nations sustainable development commitments;
|(g) Improve cooperation and coordination within the United Nations system on sustainable development programmes and policies;
|(i) Promote the sharing of best practices and experiences relating to the implementation of sustainable development;
|(j) Promote system-wide coherence and coordination of sustainable development policies;
}}Resolution A/RES/67/290:<ref name=""67-290"">{{UN doc|docid=A-RES-67-290|body=A|session=67|type=R|resolution_number=290|title=Format and Organizational Aspects of the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|date=9 July 2013|accessdate=14 November 2018}}</ref>{{unbulleted list
|(a) Provide political leadership, guidance and recommendations for sustainable development, 
|(b) Follow up and review progress in the implementation of sustainable development commitments, 
|(c) Enhance the integration of the three dimensions of sustainable development in a holistic and cross-sectoral manner at all levels;  
|(d) Ensure the appropriate consideration of new and emerging sustainable development challenges;
|(e) Devote adequate time to the discussion of the sustainable development challenges facing developing countries;
}}

=== Sustainable Development Commitments Review ===
The Forum is responsible for the follow up and the review of progress of implementation of the following sustainable development commitments:<ref name=""66-288"" />
*[[Agenda 21]]
* Johannesburg Plan of Implementation
*[[Barbados Programme of Action]]
* Mauritius Strategy
*[[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|Rio+20]]
* LDC-IV
As well as the relevant outcomes of other United Nations summits and conferences.

== Meeting themes ==
Every year since 2013, the HLPF has held a session. The meetings are held in July. Due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the forum took place virtually in 2020 for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=24 July 2020|title=A VIRTUAL AND INCLUSIVE HIGH-LEVEL POLITICAL FORUM|url=https://www.globalgoals.org/news/hlpf-2020|access-date=21 August 2020|website=Global Goals}}</ref>

{| class=""wikitable""
|-
! Year !! Auspices !! Dates !! Theme !! Ref
|-
|2021
|ECOSOC
|6-15 July 2021
|""Sustainable and resilient recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic that promotes the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development: building an inclusive and effective path for the achievement of the 2030 Agenda in the context of the decade of action and delivery for sustainable development""
|<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=High-level Political Forum 2021 under the Auspices of ECOSOC|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2021|access-date=9 July 2021|website=United Nations}}</ref>
|-
|2020
|ECOSOC
|7-16 July 2020
|""Accelerated action and transformative pathways: realizing the decade of action and delivery for sustainable development""  (due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the forum took place virtually in 2020 for the first time).
|<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=HIGH-LEVEL POLITICAL FORUM 2020 UNDER THE AUSPICES OF ECOSOC|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2020|access-date=21 August 2020|website=United Nations}}</ref>
|-
| 2019 || GA || 24 Sep – 25 Sep || SDG Summit ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/summit2019 un.org - SDG Summit 2019]</ref>
|-
| 2019 || ECOSOC || 9 Jul – 18 Jul|| Empowering people and ensuring inclusiveness and equality ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2019 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2019]</ref>
|-
| 2018 || ECOSOC || 9 Jul – 18 Jul|| ""Transformation towards sustainable and resilient societies""
The forum focused on six of the 17 goals: [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]] and [[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG 17]]<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|last=United Nations|date=11 July 2018|title=Achieving targets on energy helps meet other Global Goals, UN forum told|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2018/07/achieving-targets-on-energy-helps-meet-other-global-goals-un-forum-told-2/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=26 August 2020|website=United Nations Sustainable Development|language=en-US}}</ref>
|<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2018 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2018]</ref>
|-
| 2017 || ECOSOC || 10 Jul – 19 Jul || Eradicating poverty and promoting prosperity in a changing world ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2017 un.org -  High-level Political Forum 2017]</ref>
|-
| 2016 || ECOSOC || 11 Jul - 20 Jul || Ensuring that no one is left behind ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2016 un.org -  High-level Political Forum 2016]</ref>
|-
| 2015 || ECOSOC || 26 Jun – 8 Jul || Strengthening integration, implementation and review - the HLPF after 2015 ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2015 un.org -  High-level Political Forum 2015]</ref>
|-
| 2014 || ECOSOC || 30 Jun - 9 Jul || Achieving the MDGs and charting the way for an ambitious post-2015 development agenda, including the SDGs ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2014 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2014]</ref>
|-
| 2013 || GA || 24 Sep || Building the future we want: from Rio+20 to the post-2015 development agenda ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2013 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2013]</ref>
|}

== History ==
The HLPF has its origin in the [[Commission on Sustainable Development]] (CSD), which was created in 1992 to ensure follow-up of the [[Earth Summit|Conference on Environment and Development]] (UNCED).<ref>{{cite web|date=n.d.|title=Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/intergovernmental/csd|access-date=November 14, 2018|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|publisher=United Nations|quote=}}</ref> This Commission met a total of 20 times, with its last session on 20 September 2013.

At the 2012 [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|Conference on Sustainable Development]], or Rio+20, it was decided that the Commission would be replaced by the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development'''.''' This new Forum would meet under the auspices of both the Economic and Social Council, as well as the General Assembly. The Forum was formally created by Resolution 67/290 on 9 July 2013.<ref name=""67-290"" />
==See also==
* [[Earth Summit]]
**[[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development]]
* [[Durban III]] The conference opened on 22 September 2011
* [[Planetary boundaries#United Nations|Planetary boundaries]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf Official website of HLPF]
* [https://sdgs.un.org/ UN DESA - Division for Sustainable Development]

{{ECOSOC}}

[[Category:United Nations Economic and Social Council]]
[[Category:International sustainability organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental conferences]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]]"
World Business Council for Sustainable Development,"{{Use British English|date=September 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox organization
| logo = The World business Council for Sustainable Development - WBCSD logo.jpg
| key_people = [[Peter Bakker]] (CEO & President)
| name = World Business Council for Sustainable Development
| founded_date = 1995
| founder = [[Stephan Schmidheiny]]
| location = [[Geneva, Switzerland]]
| origins = 
| area_served = Global
| focus = [[Sustainable Development]]
| method = 
| revenue = 
| endowment = 
| num_employees = 51–300
| owner = 
| homepage = {{Official URL}}
}}

The '''World Business Council for Sustainable Development''' ('''WBCSD''') is a [[CEO]]-led organization of over 225 [[multinational company|international companies]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Overview/About-us|title=About us|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-19}}</ref> The council is also connected to 60 national and regional business councils and partner organizations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.geneve-int.ch/world-business-council-sustainable-development-wbcsd-0|title=World Business Council for Sustainable Development – WBCSD |website= Genève Internationale |language=en|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref>

Its origins date back to the Rio de Janeiro [[Earth Summit]] of 1992,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/history|access-date=2020-09-16|website=World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)|language=en-GB}}</ref> when [[Stephan Schmidheiny]], a Swiss business entrepreneur, was appointed chief adviser for business and industry to the secretary general of the [[United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]] (UNCED).<ref>{{cite news |title=Memo to Rio+20: 'green economy' doesn't mean monetising nature|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2012/may/29/rio-20-green-economy-monetising-nature|website=[[The Guardian]]|date=29 May 2012 |last1=Griffiths |first1=Hannah }}</ref> He created a forum called ""Business Council for Sustainable Development"", which went on to become ''Changing Course'', a book that coined the concept of [[eco-efficiency]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Eco-Efficiency|url=http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/business/ecoeffic.shtml|website=Smart Communities Network: Sustainable Business | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031959/http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/business/ecoeffic.shtml | archive-date=March 4, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The WBCSD was created in 1995 as a merger of the '''Business Council for Sustainable Development''' and the '''World Industry Council for the Environment'''<ref>{{cite web |title= THE ICC & THE ENVIRONMENT|url=http://archive.corporateeurope.org/icc/icc_environment.html|website=archive.corporateeurope.org}}</ref> and is based at the [[Maison de la paix]] in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]],<ref>{{cite book |title=World Business Council for Sustainable Development|url=http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/globalwarming/n721.xml|date=2008 |doi=10.4135/9781412963893 |last1=Philander |first1=S. |isbn=9781412958783 }}</ref> with offices in New York and New Delhi.

==Operations==
The council works on a variety of issues related to sustainable development. It works to achieve the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) through the transformation of six economic systems: [[circular economy]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Circular-Economy|title=Circular Economy – World business council for sustainable development|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> cities and mobility,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Cities-and-Mobility|title=Cities and Mobility|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> climate and energy,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Climate-and-Energy|title=Energy & Circular Economy|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> food, land and water,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Food-Land-Water|title=Food, Land & Water|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> people<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/People|title=People|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> and redefining value.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Redefining-Value|title=Redefining Value|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> Each system transformation is set up as a WBCSD Program with a number of supplementary Projects.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://docs.wbcsd.org/2018/11/Value.Impact.Voice.pdf |title=Value Impact Voice|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128210637/https://docs.wbcsd.org/2018/11/Value.Impact.Voice.pdf |archive-date=2018-11-28}}</ref>

==Impact and influence==
A 2003 [[World Bank]]/[[International Finance Corporation|IFC]] commissioned study identified the WBCSD as one of the ""most influential forums"" for companies on corporate social responsibility (CSR) issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.resourcesaver.org/|title=Cover Letter Template|website=Resourcesaver.org|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> A 2004 [[Globescan]] survey found the WBCSD as the second most effective SD research organization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://surveys.globescan.com/sdroleaders/sose04-2_resorg.pdf|title=2004 Globescan Survey of Sustainability Experts|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>  The 2006 survey by the same company reports that 54% of all surveyed experts believe the WBCSD will play a ""major role"" in advancing sustainable development. Only the European Union received higher approval (69%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cpi.cam.ac.uk/PDF/Aug%202006.pdf|title=Cambridge Sustainability Research Digest|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>

In the [[Ethisphere Institute]]'s 2007 list of the 100 Most Influential People in Business Ethics, WBCSD President Bjoern Stigson was ranked ninth, which made him the second most influential NGO leader.<ref>[http://ethisphere.com/influential/ 100 Most Influential People in Business Ethics] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210162230/http://ethisphere.com/influential/ |date=2012-02-10 }}</ref>

==Membership==
Membership of the WBCSD is by invitation of the executive committee to companies committed to [[sustainable development]]. WBCSD has over 180 members.<ref name=""members"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Overview/Our-members|title=Our members|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-12-06}}</ref>

===Forética===
Forética claims to be a global network of [[Spanish language|Spanish speaking]] businesses and professionals whose mission is to promote an ethical management and corporate social responsibility by the establishment of a National standard in Spain known as SGE-21, (sistema de gestión ética para el Siglo 21) which is also Annex 1 to [[ISO 26000]] and supported by [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] Europe<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csr-supplychain.org/|title=Welcome to www.csr-supplychain.org|website=www.csr-supplychain.org|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>
Membership is said to around 400 and includes companies of all sizes and sectors, as well as individual specialists, professionals, and academics and it was incorporated into WBCSD on 2 September 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wbcsd.org/Pages/eNews/eNewsDetails.aspx?ID=16293&NoSearchContextKey=true|title=Leading Spanish think-tank Forética joins WBCSD's Global Network|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>

==Governance==
The WBCSD is a member-led organization governed by a Council composed of the Council Members of its member companies. The Council elects the executive committee, including the chairman and four Vice Chairmen. Past chairmen include:

* Rodney F. Chase – [[BP]] (1995)
* [[Livio D. DeSimone]] – [[3M]] (1996/97)
* [[Egil Myklebust]] – [[Norsk Hydro]] (1998/99)
* [[Charles O. Holliday]], Jr. – [[DuPont]] (2000/01)
* Sir [[Philip Watts]] KCMG – [[Royal Dutch Shell]] (2002/03)
* [[Bertrand Collomb]] – [[Lafarge (company)|Lafarge]] (2004/05)
* [[Travis Engen]] – [[Alcan]] (2006/07)
* [[Sam DiPiazza]] – [[PwC]] (2008/09)
* [[Paul Polman]] – [[Unilever]] (2012–17)
*Sunny Verghese – [[Olam International|Olam]] (2018–2020)

==Geographic balance==
Most of WBCSD's member companies are headquartered in Europe (47%). 22% member companies are headquartered in Asia, 22% in North America and 5% in Latin America. The geographically least represented regions are Africa, Australasia and the Middle East with 1% each.<ref name=""members""/>

== Controversies ==

According to [[Greenpeace]] the ''World Business Council for Sustainable Development '' is among the key players responsible for holding back the world societies from tackling the [[climate change and energy]] management challenges for the past 20 years. The WBCSD Executive Committee was dominated by the largest non-renewable energy and [[emission intensity|carbon-intensive]] companies in the world at least until 2011. According to Greenpeace the WBCSD executive committee has been a 'Who's Who' of the world's largest carbon-intensive companies.<ref name=GP2010>[http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/publications/climate/2011/391%20-%20WhosHoldingUsBack.pdf Who's holding us back?Full report] November 23, 2011 page 9</ref>

The [[Sierra Club]] has collaborated with the World Business Council on a number of initiatives, as well as inviting its representatives to speak at Sierra Club events.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sierraclub.org/rocky-mountain-chapter/calendar-2 |title=Calendar &#124; Sierra Club |access-date=20 November 2018 |archive-date=10 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710183112/http://www.sierraclub.org/rocky-mountain-chapter/calendar-2 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.austineconetwork.com/content/austin-sierra-club-monthly-meeting |title=Austin Sierra Club monthly meeting &#124; Austin EcoNetwork |access-date=20 November 2018 |archive-date=14 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314100720/http://austineconetwork.com/content/austin-sierra-club-monthly-meeting |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Environmental Defense Fund]] recommends the World Business Council's auditing methods to companies seeking to reduce greenhouse emissions,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/GHG_roadmap_Final.pdf |title=www.edf.org }}</ref> and the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]] has drawn upon WBCSD guidelines in drawing up their own guidelines for determining biofuels sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nrdc.org/energy/files/biofuels-sustainability-certification-report.pdf |title=Biofuel Sustainability Performance Guidelines |access-date=2015-11-12 }}</ref>  The WBCSD's Vision 2050 report was highlighted by ''[[The Guardian]]'' as ""the largest concerted corporate sustainability action plan to date – include reversing the damage done to ecosystems, addressing rising [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and ensuring societies move to sustainable agriculture.""<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainability-case-studies-world-business-council |title=World Business Council for Sustainable Development: Vision 2050 &#124; Guardian Sustainable Business &#124; The Guardian |newspaper=The Guardian |date=15 May 2014 |last1=Wills |first1=Jackie }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website}}

{{Portal bar|Politics|Switzerland}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:International sustainability organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:International organisations based in Switzerland]]
[[Category:Maison de la Paix]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Geneva]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1995]]
[[Category:1995 establishments in Switzerland]]"
Developing country,"{{Short description|Nation with a lower living standard relative to more developed countries}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}

[[File:IMF advanced economies and UN least developed countries.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|<!-- Map is up to date, despite the file name. -->
{{legend|#00b9fa|[[Developed country|Developed countries or cities]]}}
{{legend|#ffb219|Developing countries}}
{{legend|#ff562f|[[Least developed countries]]}}
{{legend|#b9b9b9|Data unavailable}}<br />The latest classifications sorted by the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]<ref name=""IMF1"">{{cite web |title=World Economic and Financial Surveys World Economic Outlook Database—WEO Groups and Aggregates Information |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2022/01/weodata/groups.htm |publisher=International Monetary Fund |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-date=3 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230303145301/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2022/01/weodata/groups.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[United Nations|UN]]<ref>[https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/publication/ldc_list.pdf Least Developed Countries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517090756/http://www.unohrlls.org/en/ldc/related/62/ |date=17 May 2011 }} ([http://unohrlls.org/custom-content/uploads/2018/12/list-of-least-developed-countries-rev1.pdf 2018 list] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221185727/http://unohrlls.org/custom-content/uploads/2018/12/list-of-least-developed-countries-rev1.pdf |date=21 December 2019 }})</ref>]]
 
[[File:2021-22 UN Human Development Report (multicolor).svg|thumb|World map representing [[Human Development Index]] categories (based on 2021 data, published in 2022){{legend-col
|{{Legend|#008c00ff|Very high}}
|{{Legend|#ffcc00ff|High}}
|{{Legend|#ff6600ff|Medium}}
|{{Legend|#d40000ff|Low}}
|{{Legend|#b9b9b9ff|No data}}
}}|upright=1.5|alt=World map]]

A '''developing country''' is a [[sovereign state]] with a less developed [[Industrial sector|industrial base]] and a lower [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) relative to other countries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=O'Sullivan|first1=Arthur |author-link=Arthur O'Sullivan (economist)|first2=Steven M.|last2=Sheffrin | name-list-style = vanc |title=Economics: Principles in Action|url=https://archive.org/details/economicsprincip00osul|url-access=limited|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2003|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|page=[https://archive.org/details/economicsprincip00osul/page/n487 471]| isbn = 978-0-13-063085-8 }}</ref> However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category.<ref name=""UN"">{{cite web | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306024500/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm|archive-date=6 March 2010|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#ftnc | title = Composition of macro geographical (continental) region | publisher = United Nation s}}</ref><ref name="":5"" /> The terms '''low and middle-income country''' ('''LMIC''') and '''newly emerging economy''' ('''NEE''') are often used interchangeably but refers only to the economy of the countries. The [[World Bank]] classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on [[gross national income]] per capita: high, upper-middle, lower-middle, and low income countries. [[Least developed countries]], [[landlocked developing countries]] and [[Small Island Developing States|small island developing states]] are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income countries]] or [[Developed country|developed countries]].

There are controversies over the term's use, as some feel that it perpetuates an outdated concept of [[In-group and out-group|""us"" and ""them""]].<ref name=""Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About The World - And Why Things Are Better Than You Think"" /> In 2015, the World Bank declared that the ""developing/developed world categorization"" had become less relevant and that they will phase out the use of that descriptor. Instead, their reports will present data aggregations for regions and income groups.<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":6"" /> The term ""[[Global South]]"" is used by some as an alternative term to developing countries.

Developing countries tend to have some characteristics in common often due to their histories or geographies. For example, they commonly have: lower levels of access to safe [[drinking water]], [[sanitation]] and [[hygiene]], [[energy poverty]], higher levels of [[pollution]] (e.g. [[air pollution]], [[littering]], [[water pollution]], [[open defecation]]), higher proportions of people with tropical and infectious diseases ([[neglected tropical diseases]]), more [[Traffic collision|road traffic accidents]], and generally poorer quality [[infrastructure]]. 

In addition, there are also often high [[unemployment]] rates, widespread [[poverty]], widespread [[hunger]], [[extreme poverty]], [[child labour]], [[malnutrition]], [[homelessness]], [[substance abuse]], [[prostitution]], [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]], [[civil disorder]], [[human capital flight]], a large [[informal economy]], high [[crime]] rates ([[extortion]], [[robbery]], [[burglary]], [[murder]], [[homicide]], [[arms trafficking]], [[sex trafficking]], [[Illegal drug trade|drug trafficking]], [[kidnapping]], [[rape]]), low [[education]] levels, [[economic inequality]], [[dropping out|school desertion]], inadequate access to [[family planning]] services, [[teenage pregnancy]], many [[Informal housing|informal settlements]] and [[slums]], [[corruption]] at all government levels, and political instability. Unlike developed countries, developing countries lack [[rule of law]].

Access to [[Health care|healthcare]] is often low.<ref name="":11"" /> People in developing countries usually have lower [[life expectancy|life expectancies]] than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health.<ref name="":12"" /><ref name="":13"" /><ref name="":14"" /> The burden of infectious diseases,<ref name="":15"" /> [[Maternal death|maternal mortality]],<ref name="":16"" /><ref name="":17"" /> [[child mortality]]<ref name="":18"" /> and [[infant mortality]]<ref name=""MPG"" /><ref name=""Molitoris"" /> are typically substantially higher in those countries. The [[effects of climate change]] are expected to impact developing countries more than high-income countries, as most of them have a high [[Climate change vulnerability|climate vulnerability]] or low [[climate resilience]].<ref name="":4"">{{cite journal |vauthors=Althor G, Watson JE, Fuller RA |date=February 2016 |title=Global mismatch between greenhouse gas emissions and the burden of climate change |journal=Scientific Reports |language=En |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=20281 |bibcode=2016NatSR...620281A |doi=10.1038/srep20281 |pmc=4742864 |pmid=26848052}}</ref>

Developing countries often have lower [[median age]]s than developed countries. [[Population aging]] is a global phenomenon, but population age has risen more slowly in developing countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2014-05-27 |title=World population ageing 2013 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18356/30d0966c-en |journal=Statistical Papers – United Nations (Ser. A), Population and Vital Statistics Report |doi=10.18356/30d0966c-en |isbn=9789210566513 |issn=2412-138X}}</ref>

[[Development aid]] or development cooperation is financial [[aid]] given by foreign governments and other agencies to support developing countries' economic, environmental, social, and political [[International development|development]]. If the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] which were set up by the [[United Nations]] for the year 2030 are achieved, they would overcome many of these problems.

{{TOC limit|3}}

== Terms used to classify countries ==

There are several terms used to classify countries into rough levels of development. Classification of any given country differs across sources, and sometimes, these classifications or the specific terminology used is considered disparaging.

=== By income groups ===
[[File:High-income economies 2019.png|thumb|right|A map of World Bank high-income economies in 2019; high-income economies are indicated in blue, while former high-income economies are shown in teal. |alt=|upright=1.6]]
The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on [[gross national income]] per capita calculated using the [[Atlas method]], re-set each year on July 1:<ref name="":9"">{{cite web|title=New country classifications by income level: 2019–2020|url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/new-country-classifications-income-level-2019-2020|access-date=2021-02-12|publisher=World Bank Blogs |work=Data Blog |date=July 1, 2019 |language=en|archive-date=7 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107201418/https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/new-country-classifications-income-level-2019-2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

# low-income countries
# lower-middle income countries
# upper-middle income countries
# [[World Bank high-income economy|high income countries]] (similar to [[Developed country|developed countries]])

The three groups that are not ""high income"" are together referred to as ""low and middle income countries"" (LMICs). For example, for the 2022 fiscal year, a low income country is defined as one with a GNI per capita less than 1,045 in current US$; a lower middle-income country is one with GNI per capita between 1,046 to 4,095 in current US$; an upper middle-income country is one with GNI per capita between 4,096 to 12,695 in current US$, and a high income country is one with GNI per capita of more than 12,696 in current US$.<ref name=CountriesByGNIperCapita>{{cite web |url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups | title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups |website=World Bank Data Help Desk | accessdate=January 10, 2022 | archive-date=28 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028223324/https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups | url-status=live }}</ref> [[World Bank high-income economy#Historical thresholds|Historical thresholds]] are documented.

=== By markets and economic growth ===
The use of the term ""market"" instead of ""country"" usually indicates a specific focus on the characteristics of the countries' [[capital market]]s as opposed to the overall economy.

* [[Developed country|Developed countries]] and [[developed market]]s
* Developing countries include in decreasing order of economic growth or size of the capital market:
** [[Newly industrialized country|Newly industrialized countries]]<ref name=""Globalization"">{{cite book|title=Globalization and the Transformation of Foreign Economic Policy | first = Paweł | last = Bożyk | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7546-4638-9|chapter=Newly Industrialized Countries}}</ref><ref name=""Limits"">{{cite book|title=The Limits of Convergence| first = Mauro F. | last = Guillén | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-691-11633-4|chapter=Multinationals, Ideology, and Organized Labor|author-link=Mauro F. Guillén}}</ref><ref name=""AIA"">{{cite book|title=Geography, An Integrated Approach|last=Waugh|first=David | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Nelson Thornes Ltd.|year=2000|isbn=978-0-17-444706-1|edition= 3rd|pages=563, 576–579, 633, and 640|chapter=Manufacturing industries (chapter 19), World development (chapter 22)}}</ref><ref name=""Principles"">{{cite book|title=Principles of Economics|last=Mankiw|first=N. Gregory | name-list-style = vanc |year=2007|publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-324-22472-6|edition= 4th}}</ref> 
** [[Emerging markets]]
** [[Frontier markets]]
** [[Least developed country|Least developed countries]] (also called less economically developed country)
Under other criteria, some countries are at an intermediate stage of development, or, as the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) put it, following the [[fall of the Soviet Union]], ""countries in transition"": all those of [[Central and Eastern Europe]] (including Central European countries that still belonged to the ""Eastern Europe Group"" in the UN institutions); the former [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) countries in Central Asia ([[Kazakhstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Turkmenistan]]); and [[Mongolia]]. By 2009, the IMF's [[World Economic Outlook]] classified countries as advanced, emerging, or developing, depending on ""(1) per capita income level, (2) export diversification—so oil exporters that have high per capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70% of its exports are oil, and (3) degree of integration into the global financial system"".<ref>{{cite web|title=Q. How does the WEO categorize advanced versus emerging and developing economies?|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/faq.htm#q4b|access-date=20 July 2009|work=[[International Monetary Fund]]|archive-date=17 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417061830/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/faq.htm#q4b|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== By geography ===
Developing countries can also be categorized by geography:
* [[Small Island Developing States]] (a group of developing countries that are small [[island countries]] which tend to share similar [[sustainable development]] challenges: small but growing populations, limited resources, remoteness, susceptibility to [[natural disaster]]s, vulnerability to external shocks, excessive dependence on [[international trade]], and fragile environments).
* [[Landlocked developing countries|Landlocked Developing Countries]] ([[Landlocked country|landlocked countries]] often experience economic and other disadvantages)

=== By other parameters ===
* [[Heavily indebted poor countries]], a definition by a program of the IMF and World Bank
* [[Transition economy]], moving from a centrally planned to [[market-driven economy]]
* Multi-dimensional clustering system: with the understanding that different countries have different development priorities and levels of access to resources and institutional capacities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Svea|name-list-style=vanc|date=2015-06-01|title=From Poverty Reduction to Mutual Interests? The Debate on Differentiation in EU Development Policy|journal=Development Policy Review|volume=33|issue=4|pages=479–502|doi=10.1111/dpr.12119|hdl=10419/199382 |s2cid=53533671|issn=1467-7679|doi-access=free|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and to offer a more nuanced understanding of developing countries and their characteristics, scholars have categorized them into five distinct groups based on factors such as levels of poverty and inequality, productivity and innovation, political constraints and dependence on external flows.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vázquez|first1=Sergio Tezanos|last2=Sumner|first2=Andy | name-list-style = vanc | date = December 2013 | title=Revisiting the Meaning of Development: A Multidimensional Taxonomy of Developing Countries|journal=The Journal of Development Studies|volume=49|issue=12|pages=1728–1745|doi=10.1080/00220388.2013.822071|s2cid=155046265}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Taeihagh | first = Araz | name-list-style = vanc | title = Crowdsourcing, Sharing Economies and Development | journal = Journal of Developing Societies | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | year = 2017 | pages = 191–222 |doi=10.1177/0169796x17710072 | arxiv = 1707.06603 | s2cid = 32008949 }}</ref>

=== By self declaration ===
In general, the WTO accepts any country's claim of itself being ""developing"". Certain countries that have become ""developed"" in the last 20 years by almost all economic metrics, still insist to be classified as ""developing country"", as it entitles them to a preferential treatment at the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], countries such as [[Brunei]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Kuwait]], [[Macao]], [[Qatar]], [[Singapore]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]] have been cited and criticized for this self-declared status.<ref>{{cite web|date=26 July 2019|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|title=Memorandum on Reforming Developing-Country Status in the World Trade Organization.|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/memorandum-reforming-developing-country-status-world-trade-organization|access-date=1 March 2021|archive-date=16 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216200055/https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/memorandum-reforming-developing-country-status-world-trade-organization/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Measure and concept of development ==
[[File:Least Developed Countries.png|thumb|upright=1.6|
{{legend|#007f00|Least developed economies according to [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|ECOSOC]]}}
{{legend|#00ff00|Least developed economies out of scope of the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|ECOSOC]]}}
{{legend|#ff0000|Graduated to developing economy}}<br />
{{when|date=June 2016}}{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}
]]
[[File:Newly industrialized countries 2013.svg|thumb|[[Newly industrialized country|Newly industrialized countries]] {{as of|2013|lc=on}}]]
[[File:Map_of_countries_by_GDP_%28nominal%29_per_capita_in_2023.svg|thumb|Countries by 2023 [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|GDP (nominal) per capita]]]]
Development can be measured by economic or human factors. Developing countries are, in general, countries that have not achieved a significant degree of [[industrialization]] relative to their populations, and have, in most cases, a medium to low [[standard of living]]. There is an association between low income and high population growth.<ref name=""Population and poverty"">{{cite news|title=Population and poverty|url=https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty|access-date=2018-09-21|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|language=en|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521093951/https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty|url-status=live}}</ref> The development of a country is measured with statistical indices such as income [[per capita]] (per person), [[gross domestic product]] per capita, [[life expectancy]], the rate of literacy, freedom index and others. The UN has developed the [[Human Development Index]] (HDI), a compound indicator of some of the above statistics, to gauge the level of human development for countries where data is available. The UN had set [[Millennium Development Goals]] from a blueprint developed by all of the world's countries and leading development institutions, in order to evaluate growth.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Nations Millennium Development Goals|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/|access-date=2018-03-28|website=www.un.org|archive-date=4 May 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070504153515/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/|url-status=live}}</ref> These goals ended in 2015, to be superseded by the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].

The concept of the developing nation is found, under one term or another, in numerous theoretical systems having diverse orientations – for example, theories of [[decolonization]], [[liberation theology]], [[Marxism]], [[anti-imperialism]], [[Modernization theory|modernization]], [[social change]] and [[political economy]].

Another important indicator is the sectoral changes that have occurred since the stage of development of the country. On an average, countries with a 50% contribution from the [[secondary sector]] ([[manufacturing]]) have grown substantially. Similarly, countries with a [[tertiary sector]] stronghold also see a greater rate of [[economic development]].

== Associated theories ==
The term ""developing countries"" has many research theories associated with it (in chronological order):

* [[Modernization theory]] – to explain the process of modernization within societies
* [[Dependency theory]] – the notion that resources flow from a ""periphery"" of poor and underdeveloped states to a ""core"" of [[Developed country|wealthy states]], enriching the latter at the expense of the former
* [[Development theory]] – a collection of [[Theory|theories]] about how desirable change in society is best achieved.
* [[Postdevelopment theory]] – holds that the whole concept and practice of [[International development|development]] is a reflection of Western-Northern hegemony over the rest of the world

== Criticisms of the term ==
{{Further|Development aid}}
There is criticism for using the term ""developing country"". The term could imply inferiority of this kind of country compared with a [[developed country]].<ref name="":7"">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/01/04/372684438/if-you-shouldnt-call-it-the-third-world-what-should-you-call-it|title=If You Shouldn't Call It The Third World, What Should You Call It?|last=Silver|first=Marc|date=4 January 2015|website=NPR|access-date=5 March 2020|archive-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401165708/https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/01/04/372684438/if-you-shouldnt-call-it-the-third-world-what-should-you-call-it|url-status=live}}</ref> It could assume a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of [[economic development]] which a few countries, such as [[Cuba]] and [[Bhutan]], choose not to follow.{{clarification|date=July 2023}}<ref name=""Karma Ura"">{{cite book|url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2009/305/pdf/mono_1en_bt_dev_stry.pdf|title=The Bhutanese development story|last=Ura|first=Karma|year=2009|publisher=Heidelberg University Library|doi=10.11588/xarep.00000305|access-date=17 September 2012|name-list-style=vanc|archive-date=3 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203013407/http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2009/305/pdf/mono_1en_bt_dev_stry.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Alternative measurements such as [[gross national happiness]] have been suggested as important indicators.

One of the early criticisms that questioned the use of the terms ""developing"" and ""underdeveloped"" countries was voiced in 1973 by prominent historian and academic [[Walter Rodney]] who compared the economic, social, and political parameters between the United States and countries in Africa and Asia.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://abahlali.org/files/3295358-walter-rodney.pdf|title=''How Europe Underdeveloped Africa''|last=Rodney|first=Walter|date=1973|publisher=Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, London and Tanzanian Publishing House, Dar-Es-Salaam|language=en|page=25|access-date=12 May 2019|archive-date=3 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503095007/http://abahlali.org/files/3295358-walter-rodney.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{clarify|reason=What was his criticism? Why did he not like those terms?|date=April 2020}}

There is ""no established convention"" for defining ""developing country"".<ref name=""unstated.un.org"">{{cite web |title=Millennium Development Indicators: World and regional groupings |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/worldmillennium.htm |publisher=[[United Nations Statistics Division]] |date=2003 |at=Note b |access-date=13 May 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050210031555/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/worldmillennium.htm |archive-date=10 February 2005 }}</ref> According to [[economist]] [[Jeffrey Sachs]], the current divide between the [[developed country|developed]] and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century.<ref name=""The End of Poverty"">{{cite book | last = Sachs | first = Jeffrey | year = 2005 | title = The End of Poverty | publisher = The Penguin Press | location = New York, New York | isbn = 1-59420-045-9| title-link = The End of Poverty }}</ref>{{page needed|date=December 2019}} The late global health expert [[Hans Rosling]] has argued against the terms, calling the concept ""outdated"" since the terms are used under the prerequisite that the world is divided in rich and poor countries, while the fact is that the vast majority of countries are middle-income.<ref name=""Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About The World - And Why Things Are Better Than You Think"">{{cite book|last1=Rosling|first1=Hans|url=https://www.gapminder.org/factfulness-book/|title=Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About The World – And Why Things Are Better Than You Think|last2=Rosling|first2=Ola|last3=Rosling Rönnlund|first3=Anna|publisher=Sceptre|year=2018|isbn=978-1-250-10781-7|page=353|chapter=Chapter 1: The Gap Instinct|author-link=Hans Rosling|access-date=5 March 2020|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N94sDwAAQBAJ&q=Factfulness+(the+book)|archive-date=10 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410082631/https://www.gapminder.org/factfulness-book/|url-status=live}}</ref> Given the lack of a clear definition, sustainability expert [[Mathis Wackernagel]] and founder of [[Global Footprint Network]], emphasizes that the binary labeling of countries is ""neither descriptive nor explanatory"".<ref name=""Ecological Footprint: Managing Our Biocapacity Budget"">{{cite book|url=https://www.newsociety.com/Books/E/Ecological-Footprint|title=Ecological Footprint: Managing Our Biocapacity Budget|last1=Wackernagel|first1=Mathis|last2=Beyers|first2=Bert|publisher=New Society Publishers|year=2019|isbn=978-0865719118|location=Gabriola Island, BC, Canada|page=132|authorlink=Mathis Wackernagel|access-date=26 February 2021|archive-date=30 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230123431/https://www.newsociety.com/Books/E/Ecological-Footprint|url-status=live}}</ref> Wackernagel identifies these binary terms of ""developing"" vs. ""developed"" countries, or ""North"" vs. ""South"", as ""a thoughtless and destructive endorsement of GDP fetish.""<ref name=""Ecological Footprint: Managing Our Biocapacity Budget"" /> Wackernagel and Rosling both argue that in reality, there are not two types of countries, but over 200 countries, all faced with the same laws of nature, yet each with unique features.<ref name=""Ecological Footprint: Managing Our Biocapacity Budget"" /><ref name=""Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About The World - And Why Things Are Better Than You Think"" />

The term ""developing"" refers to a current situation and not a changing dynamic or expected direction of development. Since the late 1990s, countries identified by the UN as developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than those in the developed countries category.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Korotayev A, Zinkina J|date=2014|title=On the structure of the present-day convergence|url=https://www.academia.edu/30720894|journal=Campus-Wide Information Systems|volume=31|issue=2/3|pages=139–152|doi=10.1108/CWIS-11-2013-0064|access-date=10 January 2020|archive-date=8 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408054455/https://www.academia.edu/30720894|url-status=live}}</ref>

To moderate the [[euphemistic]] aspect of the word ""developing"", [[international organization]]s have started to use the term [[Least developed country|less economically developed country]] for the poorest nations – which can, in no sense, be regarded as developing. This highlights that the standard of living across the entire developing world varies greatly.

In 2015, the [[World Bank]] declared that the ""developing / developed world categorization"" had become less relevant, due to worldwide improvements in indices such as child mortality rates, fertility rates and extreme poverty rates.<ref name="":5"">{{cite web|url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/should-we-continue-use-term-developing-world|title=Should we continue to use the term ""developing world""?|date=16 November 2015|website=World Bank blogs|access-date=5 March 2020|archive-date=11 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211131900/https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/should-we-continue-use-term-developing-world|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 2016 edition of its [[World Development Indicators]] (WDI), the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between ""developed"" and ""developing"" countries in the presentation of its data, considering the two-category distinction outdated.<ref name=""WB"">{{cite web|last1=Fantom|first1=Neil|last2=Khokhar|first2=Tariq|last3=Purdie|first3=Edie|date=15 April 2016|title=The 2016 edition of World Development Indicators is out: three features you won't want to miss|url=http://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/2016-edition-world-development-indicators-out-three-features-you-won-t-want-miss|access-date=October 22, 2016|work=The Data Blog|publisher=The World Bank|name-list-style=vanc|archive-date=18 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018053326/http://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/2016-edition-world-development-indicators-out-three-features-you-won-t-want-miss|url-status=live}}</ref> Accordingly, World Bank is phasing out use of that descriptor. Instead, the reports by Worldbank (such as the WDI and the [[Global Monitoring Report (World Bank)|Global Monitoring Report]]) now include data aggregations for the whole world, for regions, and for income groups – but not for the ""developing world"".<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":6"">{{cite web|url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/2016-edition-world-development-indicators-out-three-features-you-won-t-want-miss|title=The 2016 edition of World Development Indicators is out: three features you won't want to miss|publisher=World Bank Blogs |work=Data Blog |first1=Neil |last1=Fantom |first2=Tariq |last2=Khokhar |first3=Edie |last3=Purdie |date=April 15, 2016 |language=en|access-date=2020-03-05|archive-date=6 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306194624/https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/2016-edition-world-development-indicators-out-three-features-you-won-t-want-miss|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Related terms ==
The term low and middle-income country (LMIC) is often used interchangeably with ""developing country"" but refers only to the economy of the countries. [[Least developed countries]], [[landlocked developing countries]] and [[Small Island Developing States|small island developing states]] are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income countries]] or [[Developed country|developed countries]].

=== Global South ===
{{Main|Global South}}

The term ""[[Global South]]"" began to be used more widely since about 2004.<ref name=""concept"">{{cite web |last1=Pagel |first1=Heikie |last2=Ranke |first2=Karen |last3=Hempel |first3=Fabian |last4=Köhler |first4=Jonas |date=11 July 2014 |title=The Use of the Concept 'Global South' in Social Science & Humanities |url=https://www.academia.edu/7917466 |access-date=2016-10-06 |publisher=[[Humboldt University of Berlin]] |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213073610/https://www.academia.edu/7917466 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mitlin |first1=Diana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GYdeNdKrp8sC&pg=PA13 |title=Urban Poverty in the Global South: Scale and Nature |last2=Satterthwaite |first2=David |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415624664 |page=13 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> It can also include poorer ""southern"" regions of wealthy ""northern"" countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Braveboy-Wagner |first=Jacqueline Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s3s7a39GHIEC&pg=PA11 |title=The Foreign Policies of the Global South: Rethinking Conceptual Frameworks |date=2003 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=9781588261755 |page=11}}</ref> The Global South refers to these countries' ""interconnected histories of [[colonialism]], [[neo-imperialism]], and differential economic and social change through which large inequalities in living standards, life expectancy, and access to resources are maintained"".<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last1=Dados |first1=Nour |last2=Connell |first2=Raewyn |name-list-style=vanc |date=2012-01-01 |title=the global south |journal=Contexts |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=12–13 |doi=10.1177/1536504212436479 |jstor=41960738 |s2cid=60907088|doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{excerpt|Global North and Global South|paragraphs=1-2}}

=== Third World (outdated) ===
{{excerpt|Third World|paragraphs=1|file=no}}

== Common characteristics ==

=== Government, politics and administration ===
Many developing countries have only attained full [[self-determination]] and [[democracy]] after the second half of the 20th century. Many were governed by an imperial European power until [[decolonization]]. Political systems in developing countries are diverse, but most states had established some form of [[Democracy|democratic governments]] by the early 21st century, with varying degrees of success and [[political liberty]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Palat|first1=Ravi Arvind|date=April 2010|title=World Turned Upside Down? Rise of the global South and the contemporary global financial turbulence|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=31|issue=3|pages=365–384|doi=10.1080/01436597.2010.488465|s2cid=56358607}}</ref> The inhabitants of developing countries were introduced to democratic systems later and more abruptly than their Northern counterparts and were sometimes targeted by governmental and non-governmental efforts to encourage participation. 'Effective [[citizenship]]' is defined by [[sociologist]] [[Patrick Heller]] as: ""closing [the] gap between formal legal rights in the civil and political arena, and the actual capability to meaningfully practice those rights"".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heller|first1=Patrick|date=October 2012|title=Democracy, Participatory Politics and Development: Some Comparative Lessons from Brazil, India and South Africa|journal=Polity|volume=44|issue=4|pages=643–665|doi=10.1057/pol.2012.19|s2cid=154320311}}</ref>

Beyond citizenship, the study of the politics of cross-border mobility in developing countries has also shed valuable light in [[Human migration|migration]] debates, seen as a corrective to the traditional focus on developed countries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haas|first1=Hein de|title=The age of migration: international population movements in the modern world|last2=Castles|first2=Stephen|last3=Miller|first3=Mark J|date=2020|isbn=978-1-352-00798-5|pages=96–123|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |oclc=1143614574}}</ref> Some political scientists identify a 'typology of nationalizing, developmental, and neoliberal migration management regimes' across developing countries.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Adamson|first1=Fiona B.|last2=Tsourapas|first2=Gerasimos|date=24 October 2019|title=The Migration State in the Global South: Nationalizing, Developmental, and Neoliberal Models of Migration Management|journal=International Migration Review|volume=54|issue=3|pages=853–882|doi=10.1177/0197918319879057|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Economy ===
[[File:Worlds_regions_by_total_wealth(in_trillions_USD),_2018.jpg|thumb|World regions by total [[wealth]] (in trillions USD), 2018]]
Following [[independence]] and [[decolonization]] in the 20th century, most developing countries had dire need of new [[infrastructure]], [[Industry (economics)|industry]] and economic stimulation. Many relied on foreign investment. This funding focused on improving infrastructure and industry, but led to a system of systemic exploitation.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} They exported raw materials, such as [[rubber]], for a bargain. Companies based in the [[Western world]] have often used the cheaper labor in developing countries for production.<ref name="":02"">{{cite journal|last1=Roy|first1=Pallavi|date=2 July 2016|title=Economic growth, the UN and the Global South: an unfulfilled promise|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/22135/1/Roy%20Growth%20and%20Redistribution.pdf|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=37|issue=7|pages=1284–1297|doi=10.1080/01436597.2016.1154440|s2cid=156462246|access-date=23 September 2020|archive-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813212020/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/22135/1/Roy%20Growth%20and%20Redistribution.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The West benefited significantly from this system, but left developing countries undeveloped.

This arrangement is sometimes called [[neocolonialism]], meaning a system in which less-developed countries are taken advantage of by developed countries.&nbsp;It does not necessarily mean that former colonies are still controlled by their former colonizer; it refers to colonial-like exploitation. Developing countries are often helping further develop rich countries, rather than being developed themselves.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hickel|first1=Jason|date=14 January 2017|title=Aid in reverse: how poor countries develop rich countries|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2017/jan/14/aid-in-reverse-how-poor-countries-develop-rich-countries|access-date=17 March 2019|archive-date=10 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010231327/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2017/jan/14/aid-in-reverse-how-poor-countries-develop-rich-countries|url-status=live}}</ref> Several institutions have been established with the goal of putting an end to this system.<ref>{{cite web|title=Neocolonialism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism|access-date=2019-04-01|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725235643/https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism|url-status=live}}</ref> One of these institutions is the [[New International Economic Order]]. They have a 'no-strings-attached' policy that promotes developing countries remaining or becoming self-sufficient. More specifically, they advocate sovereignty over natural resources and industrialization.

[[Coalitions]] of developing nations, like the NIEO, frequently lobby for parity in the world stage. The rise of China might imply the rise of the [[BRIC|BRIC countries]].<ref name="":02"" />

== Common challenges ==

{{Development economics sidebar}}

The [[global issues]] most often discussed by developing countries include [[globalisation]], global health governance, health, and prevention needs. This is contrasted by issues developed nations tend to address, such as innovations in science and technology.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ager|first1=Alastair|last2=Yu|first2=Gary|last3=Hermosilla|first3=Sabrina|date=September 2012|title=Mapping the key issues shaping the landscape of global public health|journal=Global Public Health|volume=7|issue=sup1|pages=S16–S28|doi=10.1080/17441692.2012.679741|pmid=22765282|s2cid=19407349}}</ref>

Most developing countries have these criteria in common:<ref name=""UN2018"">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category/ldc-criteria.html |title=Criteria For Identification Of LDCs |publisher=[[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]], Development Policy and Analysis Division |access-date=2018-03-02 |date=2010-03-04 |archive-date=20 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620211438/https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category/ldc-criteria.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""Criteria"">UN-OHRLLS [http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/criteria-for-ldcs/ Criteria for Identification and Graduation of LDCs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725125957/http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/criteria-for-ldcs/ |date=25 July 2019 }}.</ref>
* High levels of [[poverty]] – measured based on [[Gross national income|GNI]] per capita averaged over three years. For example, if the GNI per capita is less than US$1,025 (as of 2018) the country is regarded as a [[least developed country]].<ref name=""Criteria"" />
*[[Human resources|Human resource]] weakness (based on indicators of [[nutrition]], health, education and adult [[literacy]]). 
*[[Economic Vulnerability Index|Economic vulnerability]] (based on instability of agricultural production, instability of exports of goods and services, economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration, handicap of economic smallness, and the percentage of population displaced by [[natural disasters]]). Among other challenges, developing countries have a higher risk of suffering a balance of payments crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Camba-Crespo |first1=A. |last2=García-Solanes |first2=J. |last3=Torrejón-Flores |first3=F. |title=Current-account breaks and stability spells in a global perspective |journal=Applied Economic Analysis |date=7 July 2021 |volume=30 |issue=88 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1108/AEA-02-2021-0029 |s2cid=237827555 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Urban slums===
{{Main|Slum}}
According to [[United Nations Human Settlements Programme|UN-Habitat]], around 33% of the urban population in the developing world in 2012, or about 863 million people, lived in [[slum]]s.<ref name=""UNHABITATswcr1213"">{{cite web|title=State of the World's Cities Report 2012/2013: Prosperity of Cities|publisher=UNHABITAT|url=http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/745habitat.pdf|access-date=4 October 2013|archive-date=4 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004233458/http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/745habitat.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, the proportion of urban population living in slums was highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (62%), followed by South Asia (35%), Southeast Asia (31%) and East Asia (28%).<ref name=""UNHABITATswcr1213"" />{{rp|127}}

The UN-Habitat reports that 43% of urban population in developing countries and 78% of those in the least developed countries live in slums.<ref name=grhs2003>[http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/grhs.2003.key.pdf The challenge of slums – Global report on Human Settlements] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055009/http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/grhs.2003.key.pdf |date=21 September 2013 }}, United Nations Habitat (2003)</ref>

Slums form and grow in different parts of the world for many reasons. Causes include rapid [[Urbanization|rural-to-urban migration]], [[economic stagnation]] and depression, high [[unemployment]], poverty, [[Informal sector|informal economy]], forced or manipulated [[ghetto]]ization, poor planning, politics, natural disasters and [[social conflict]]s.<ref name=whyslums>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/4625_51419_GC%2021%20What%20are%20slums.pdf | title =What are slums and why do they exist? | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206143558/http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/4625_51419_GC%2021%20What%20are%20slums.pdf | archive-date = 2011-02-06 | publisher = UN-Habitat | location = Kenya | date = April 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Patton | first1 = Carl V. | name-list-style = vanc | title = Spontaneous Shelter: International Perspectives and Prospects | date=1988 |publisher=Temple University Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-87722-507-2 }}</ref><ref name=grhs2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS.2003.2.pdf | title = Assessing Slums in the Development Context | publisher = United Nations Habitat Group | year = 2011 | access-date = 16 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105025237/http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS.2003.2.pdf | archive-date = 5 January 2014 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> For example, as populations expand in poorer countries, rural people move to cities in extensive urban migration that results in the creation of slums.<ref name=""Westra"">{{cite journal | last = Westra | first = Richard | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2011 | title = Renewing Socialist Development in the Third World | journal = [[Journal of Contemporary Asia]] | volume = 41 | issue = 4 | pages = 519–543 | doi = 10.1080/00472336.2011.610612 | s2cid = 53972140 }}</ref>

In some cities, especially in countries in Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, slums are not just marginalized neighborhoods holding a small population; slums are widespread, and are home to a large part of urban population. These are sometimes called ""slum cities"".<ref>{{cite book|title=Slum Cities and Cities with Slums"" States of the World's Cities 2008/2009|publisher=UN-Habitat}}</ref>

===Violence against women===
{{Main|Violence against women}}
[[File:A formation of human chain at India Gate by the women from different walks of life at the launch of a National Campaign on prevention of violence against women, in New Delhi on October 02, 2009.jpg|thumb|A formation of human chain at India Gate by the women from different walks of life at the launch of a National Campaign on prevention of violence against women, in New Delhi on 2 October 2009]]
Several forms of [[violence against women]] are more prevalent in developing countries than in other parts of the world. [[Acid throwing]] is associated with Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. [[Honor killing]] is associated with the Middle East and the Indian Subcontinent. [[Marriage by abduction]] is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Abuse related to payment of [[bride price]] (such as violence, trafficking and forced marriage) is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania.<ref>{{cite news | title = Papua New Guinea: police cite bride price major factor in marital violence | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218182845/http://www.violenceisnotourculture.org/News-and-Views/papua-new-guinea-police-cite-bride-price-major-factor-marital-violence | archive-date = 18 February 2015 |url=http://www.violenceisnotourculture.org/News-and-Views/papua-new-guinea-police-cite-bride-price-major-factor-marital-violence | work = Island Business |via=Violence is not our Culture |date=21 November 2011 |access-date=6 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=An exploratory study of bride price and domestic violence in Bundibugyo District, Uganda |url=http://www.mrc.ac.za/gender/Bridepricedomesticviolence.pdf |publisher=Centre for Human Rights Advancement (CEHURA) and [[South African Medical Research Council]] |date=April 2012 |access-date=6 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717105205/http://www.mrc.ac.za/gender/Bridepricedomesticviolence.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Female genital mutilation]] (FGM) is another form of violence against women which is still occurring in many developing countries. It is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Developing countries with the highest rate of women who have been cut are Somalia (with 98% of women affected), Guinea (96%), Djibouti (93%), Egypt (91%), Eritrea (89%), Mali (89%), Sierra Leone (88%), Sudan (88%), Gambia (76%), Burkina Faso (76%), and Ethiopia (74%).<ref name=""unicef.org"">{{cite book | last = UNICEF | author-link = UNICEF | title = Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change |url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf | publisher = [[UNICEF]] | date = 22 July 2013 | access-date = 18 November 2013 | archive-date = 5 April 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> Due to [[globalization]] and immigration, FGM is spreading beyond the borders of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.S., and UK.<ref>{{cite book | last = Nussbaum | first = Martha | name-list-style = vanc | author-link = Martha Nussbaum | chapter = Judging other cultures: the case of genital mutilation | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=43U8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 | editor-last = Nussbaum | editor-first = Martha | editor-link = Martha Nussbaum | title = Sex & social justice | pages = [https://archive.org/details/sexsocialjustice00nuss/page/120 120–121] | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0195110326 | url-access = registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sexsocialjustice00nuss/page/120 }}</ref>

The [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence|Istanbul Convention]] prohibits female genital mutilation (Article 38).<ref>{{cite book | title = Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence |url=https://rm.coe.int/168046031c | date = 12 April 2011 | access-date = 8 October 2017 | archive-date = 26 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526172721/https://rm.coe.int/168046031c | url-status = live }}</ref> As of 2016, [[FGM]] has been legally banned in many African countries.<ref>''Citations'':
* {{cite news | last = Lyons | first = Kate | title = The Gambia bans female genital mutilation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/nov/24/the-gambia-bans-female-genital-mutilation | work = [[The Guardian]] | date = 24 November 2015 | access-date = 9 May 2016 | archive-date = 4 January 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104210127/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/nov/24/the-gambia-bans-female-genital-mutilation | url-status = live }}
* {{cite news | last = Richards | first = Kimberly | title = History has been made: female genital mutilation banned in Nigeria |url=http://aplus.com/a/nigeria-bans-genital-mutilation | work = [[A Plus (aplus.com)|A Plus]] | date = 3 June 2015 | access-date = 9 May 2016 | archive-date = 8 May 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508152355/http://aplus.com/a/nigeria-bans-genital-mutilation | url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last = UNFPA | author-link = UNFPA | title = Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions |url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/female-genital-mutilation-fgm-frequently-asked-questions | publisher = [[United Nations Population Fund]] | date = December 2015 | access-date = 9 May 2016 | archive-date = 4 August 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804194439/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/nov/24/the-gambia-bans-female-genital-mutilation | url-status = live }}</ref>
[[File:Women who experienced violence by an intimate partner, OWID.svg|alt=An image showing statistics by percentage of share of women, older than 14 years old who experienced violence by an intimate partner.|thumb|239x239px|Percentage of women older than 14 who have experienced violence by an intimate partner]]
According to [[UN Women]] facts and figures on ending [[violence against women]],<ref name="":10"" /> it is estimated that 35 percent of women worldwide have experienced either physical and [[Intimate partner sexual violence|sexual violence by intimate partners]] or [[sexual violence]] by a non-partner (not including [[sexual harassment]]) at some point in their lives. Evidence shows women who have had experienced physical or sexual [[intimate partner violence]] report higher rates of depression, having an [[abortion]] and acquiring [[HIV]], compared to women who have not had experienced any physical or sexual violence.<ref name="":10"" />

Data from the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]] shows that men who witnessed their fathers against their mothers, and men who experienced some form of violence as children, more likely have reported perpetrating intimate partner violence in their adult relationships.<ref name="":10"">{{cite web|title=Facts and figures: Ending violence against women|url=https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figures|access-date=2020-09-26|website=UN Women|language=en|archive-date=25 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525050922/http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figures|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Healthcare and public health ===
The status of healthcare that the general public can access is substantially different between developing countries and developed countries.<ref name="":11"">{{cite journal|last1=Alhaji|first1=Mohammed M.|last2=Alam|first2=Sartaj|date=21 March 2019|title=Health Policy and System Research in Global South: Bridging the Gap through Citizen Participation|url=http://ejournalsystem.net/index.php/jpmi/article/view/2474|journal=Journal of Postgraduate Medical Institute|volume=33|issue=1|access-date=23 September 2020|archive-date=Oct 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002001218/http://ejournalsystem.net/index.php/jpmi/article/view/2474|url-status=dead}}</ref> People in developing countries usually have a lower [[life expectancy]] than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health.<ref name="":12"">{{cite journal |last1=Jetter |first1=Michael |last2=Laudage |first2=Sabine |last3=Stadelmann |first3=David |title=The Intimate Link Between Income Levels and Life Expectancy: Global Evidence from 213 Years* |journal=Social Science Quarterly |date=June 2019 |volume=100 |issue=4 |pages=1387–1403 |doi=10.1111/ssqu.12638 |s2cid=149648133 |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12638 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |issn=0038-4941|hdl=10419/145149 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":13"">{{cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=R. G. |last2=Wofford |first2=S. |title=Life expectancy in less developed countries: socioeconomic development or public health? |journal=Journal of Biosocial Science |date=April 1989 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=245–252 |doi=10.1017/s0021932000017934 |pmid=2722920 |s2cid=23505067 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2722920/ |access-date=14 April 2022 |issn=0021-9320 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414172358/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2722920/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="":14"">{{cite journal |last1=Freeman |first1=Toby |last2=Gesesew |first2=Hailay Abrha |last3=Bambra |first3=Clare |last4=Giugliani |first4=Elsa Regina Justo |last5=Popay |first5=Jennie |last6=Sanders |first6=David |last7=Macinko |first7=James |last8=Musolino |first8=Connie |last9=Baum |first9=Fran |title=Why do some countries do better or worse in life expectancy relative to income? An analysis of Brazil, Ethiopia, and the United States of America |journal=International Journal for Equity in Health |date=10 November 2020 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=202 |doi=10.1186/s12939-020-01315-z |pmid=33168040 |pmc=7654592 |issn=1475-9276 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The burden of infectious diseases,<ref name="":15"">{{cite journal |last1=Fauci |first1=A. S. |title=Infectious Diseases: Considerations for the 21st Century |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |date=1 March 2001 |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=675–685 |doi=10.1086/319235 |pmid=11229834 |s2cid=878968 |url=https://doi.org/10.1086/319235 |access-date=14 April 2022}}</ref> [[Maternal death|maternal mortality]],<ref name="":16"">{{cite journal |last1=Declercq |first1=Eugene |last2=Zephyrin |first2=Laurie |title=Maternal Mortality in the United States: A Primer |url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-brief-report/2020/dec/maternal-mortality-united-states-primer |website=Commonwealth Fund |date=December 16, 2020 |doi=10.26099/ta1q-mw24 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=23 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323202309/https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-brief-report/2020/dec/maternal-mortality-united-states-primer |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="":17"">{{cite journal |last1=Girum |first1=Tadele |last2=Wasie |first2=Abebaw |title=Correlates of maternal mortality in developing countries: an ecological study in 82 countries |journal=Maternal Health, Neonatology and Perinatology |date=7 November 2017 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=19 |doi=10.1186/s40748-017-0059-8 |pmid=29142757 |pmc=5674830 |issn=2054-958X |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[child mortality]]<ref name="":18"">{{cite web |last1=Mohsin |first1=Nazzina |last2=Keenan |first2=Laura |last3=Guo |first3=Jing |title=Latest child mortality estimates reveal world remains off track to meeting Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/12/20/latest-child-mortality-estimates-reveal-world-remains-off-track-to-meeting-sustainable-development-goals |website=World Bank |date=December 20, 2021 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414172358/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/12/20/latest-child-mortality-estimates-reveal-world-remains-off-track-to-meeting-sustainable-development-goals |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[infant mortality]]<ref name=""MPG"">{{cite web |title=In poor countries birth spacing affects infant mortality |url=https://www.mpg.de/13691716/birth-spacing-affects-infant-mortality |website=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft |date=July 5, 2019 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=29 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629163139/https://www.mpg.de/13691716/birth-spacing-affects-infant-mortality |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""Molitoris"">{{cite journal |last1=Molitoris |first1=Joseph |last2=Barclay |first2=Kieron |last3=Kolk |first3=Martin |title=When and Where Birth Spacing Matters for Child Survival: An International Comparison Using the DHS |journal=Demography |date=3 July 2019 |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=1349–1370 |doi=10.1007/s13524-019-00798-y |pmid=31270780 |pmc=6667399 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00798-y |access-date=14 April 2022 |issn=0070-3370}}</ref> are typically substantially higher in those countries. Developing countries also have less access to medical health services generally,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=David H. |last2=Garg |first2=Anu |last3=Bloom |first3=Gerry |last4=Walker |first4=Damian G. |last5=Brieger |first5=William R. |last6=Rahman |first6=M. Hafizur |title=Poverty and access to health care in developing countries |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |date=2008 |volume=1136 |issue=1 |pages=161–171 |doi=10.1196/annals.1425.011 |pmid=17954679 |bibcode=2008NYASA1136..161P |s2cid=24649523 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17954679/ |access-date=14 April 2022 |issn=0077-8923 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414172939/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17954679/ |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> and are less likely to have the resources to purchase, produce and administer [[vaccine]]s, even though [[vaccine equity]] worldwide is important to combatting [[pandemic]]s, such as the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name=""Hotez"">{{cite journal |last1=Hotez |first1=Peter J. |last2=Bottazzi |first2=Maria Elena |title=Whole Inactivated Virus and Protein-Based COVID-19 Vaccines |journal=Annual Review of Medicine |date=27 January 2022 |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=55–64 |doi=10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212 |pmid=34637324 |s2cid=238747462 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212 |access-date=14 April 2022 |issn=0066-4219 |archive-date=15 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415201948/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:Hunger Map 2020 World Food Programme.svg|thumb|310px|Percentage of people with undernutrition by country, [[World Food Programme|World Food Program]], 2020<br />
{{Legend|#29b8c7|Under 2.5%}}
{{Legend|#16b484|2.5% – 5.0%}}
{{Legend|#fec960|5.0% – 14.9%}}
{{Legend|#f47846|15.0% – 24.9%}}
{{Legend|#f2203a|25.0% – 34.9%}}
{{Legend|#7f0928|Over 35.0%}}
{{Legend|#b5aba4|No data}}]]
[[Malnutrition|Undernutrition]] is more common in developing countries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4CGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|title=World Hunger Routledge Introductions to Development| first = Liz | last = Young | name-list-style = vanc |date=2002|isbn=9781134774944|page=20|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including women – in particular while pregnant or [[breastfeeding]] – children under five years of age, and the elderly. [[Undernutrition in children|Malnutrition in children]] and [[stunted growth]] of children is the cause for more than 200 million children under five years of age in developing countries not reaching their developmental potential.<ref>Grantham-McGregor, Sally et al., the International Child Development Steering Group. ""Developmental Potential in the First 5 Years for Children in Developing Countries."" Lancet 369.9555 (2007): 60–70. PMC. Web. 28 November 2014.</ref> About 165&nbsp;million children were estimated to have stunted growth from malnutrition in 2013.<ref name=Bh2013>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhutta ZA, Das JK, Rizvi A, Gaffey MF, Walker N, Horton S, Webb P, Lartey A, Black RE | title = Evidence-based interventions for improvement of maternal and child nutrition: what can be done and at what cost? | journal = Lancet | volume = 382 | issue = 9890 | pages = 452–477 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23746776 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60996-4 | s2cid = 11748341 }}</ref> In some developing countries, overnutrition in the form of [[obesity]] is beginning to present within the same communities as undernutrition.<ref>{{cite web|title=Progress For Children: A Report Card On Nutrition|url=http://www.unicef.org/nutrition/files/Progress_for_Children_-_No._4.pdf|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112154958/https://www.unicef.org/nutrition/files/Progress_for_Children_-_No._4.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The following list shows the further significant environmentally-related causes or conditions, as well as certain diseases with a strong environmental component:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/heli/risks/ehindevcoun/en|title=Environment and health in developing countries|date=8 September 2016|website=Priority environment and health risks|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|access-date=4 October 2020|archive-date=14 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114002040/https://www.who.int/heli/risks/ehindevcoun/en/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Illness/[[disease]] ([[malaria]], [[tuberculosis]], [[AIDS]], etc.): Illness imposes high and regressive cost burdens on families in developing countries.<ref>Russel S. The economic burden of illness for households in developing countries: a review of studies focusing on malaria, tuberculosis, and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004</ref>
* Tropical and infectious diseases ([[neglected tropical diseases]])
* Unsafe [[drinking water]], poor [[sanitation]] and hygiene
* [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations]]
* Pollution (e.g. [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]])
* Motor vehicle collisions
* Unintentional poisoning
* Non communicable diseases and weak [[Health care|healthcare]] systems

===Water, sanitation, hygiene (WASH)===

{{Further|WASH|Water issues in developing countries}}

Access to water, sanitation and hygiene ([[WASH]]) services is at very low levels in many developing countries. In 2015 the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimated that ""1 in 3 people, or 2.4 billion, are still without sanitation facilities"" while 663 million people still lack access to safe and clean drinking water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp-2015-key-facts/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703230219/http://who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp-2015-key-facts/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 July 2015|title=Key facts from JMP 2015 report|website=World Health Organization|language=en-GB|access-date=2017-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/jmp-report/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702063242/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/jmp-report/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 July 2015|title=WHO {{!}} Lack of sanitation for 2.4 billion people is undermining health improvements|website=www.who.int|access-date=2017-11-17}}</ref> The estimate in 2017 by [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name=""JMP2017"" /> The majority of these people live in developing countries.

About 892 million people or 12 percent of the global population, practiced [[open defecation]] instead of using toilets in 2016.<ref name=""JMP2017"">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://washdata.org/reports Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725020452/https://washdata.org/reports |date=25 July 2019 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref> Seventy-six percent (678 million) of the 892 million people practicing open defecation in the world live in just seven countries.<ref name=""JMP2017"" /> Countries with a high number of people openly defecating are India (348 million), followed by Nigeria (38.1 million), Indonesia (26.4 million), Ethiopia (23.1 million), Pakistan (19.7 million), Niger (14.6 million) and Sudan (9.7 million).<ref name=""WBSTATS"">{{cite web|title=People practicing open defecation (% of population) – Indonesia, Nigeria, Niger, Ethiopia, Sudan, India, Pakistan|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?locations=ID-NG-NE-ET-SD-IN-PK|website=data.worldbank.org|publisher=[[The World Bank]]|access-date=15 October 2019|archive-date=15 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015122909/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS%3Flocations%3DID-NG-NE-ET-SD-IN-PK|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Sustainable Development Goal 6]] is one of 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] established by the UN in 2015. It calls for clean water and sanitation for all people. This is particularly relevant for people in developing countries.

===Energy===
[[File:Solar-Panel-Cooker-in-front-of-hut.jpg|thumb| [[Solar cooker]]s use sunlight as energy source for outdoor cooking.]]
{{Main|Energy poverty|Renewable energy in developing countries}}
In 2009, about 1.4 billion of people in the world lived without electricity. 2.7 billion relied on wood, charcoal, and dung ([[dry animal dung fuel]]) for home energy requirements. This lack of access to modern energy technology limits income generation, blunts efforts to escape poverty, affects people's health due to indoor air pollution, and contributes to global [[deforestation]] and [[climate change]]. Small-scale renewable energy technologies and [[distributed energy]] options, such as onsite solar power and improved cookstoves, offer rural households modern energy services.<ref name=verlaw>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sovacool BK | title = Energy. Deploying off-grid technology to eradicate energy poverty | journal = Science | volume = 338 | issue = 6103 | pages = 47–8 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23042871 | doi = 10.1126/science.1222307 | s2cid = 206541473 }}</ref>

[[Renewable energy in developing countries|Renewable energy]] can be particularly suitable for developing countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from [[fossil fuels]] can be difficult and expensive. Producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.<ref name=aus>[http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/renewable_energy.pdf Power for the People] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330120425/http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/renewable_energy.pdf |date=2012-03-30 }} p. 3.</ref>

Renewable energy can directly contribute to [[poverty alleviation]] by providing the energy needed for creating businesses and employment. Renewable energy technologies can also make indirect contributions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cooking, space heating, and lighting.<ref name=mdg>[http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/ren21-1.pdf Energy for Development: The Potential Role of Renewable Energy in Meeting the Millennium Development Goals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527233918/http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/ren21-1.pdf |date=27 May 2008 }} pp. 7–9.</ref>

Kenya is the world leader in the number of [[solar power]] systems installed per capita.<ref name=""en.ccchina.gov.cn"">{{cite web |url=http://en.ccchina.gov.cn/Detail.aspx?newsId=38323&TId=97 |title=China Climate Change Info-Net |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105071350/http://en.ccchina.gov.cn/Detail.aspx?newsId=38323&TId=97 |archive-date=5 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Pollution ===

==== Water pollution ====
[[File:Factory in China at Yangtze River.JPG|thumb|Factory in China at [[Yangtze|Yangtze River]] causing [[air pollution]]]]
[[File:Plastic Pollution in Ghana.jpg|thumb|[[Plastic pollution]] at a beach near [[Accra]], Ghana]]
[[Water pollution]] is a major problem in many developing countries. It requires ongoing evaluation and revision of [[water resource policy]] at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and diseases,<ref name=""death"">{{cite news|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/columnist/article/trenddesk/3748 | last = Pink | first = Daniel H. | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Yahoo |title=Investing in Tomorrow's Liquid Gold |date=April 19, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060423172532/https://finance.yahoo.com/columnist/article/trenddesk/3748 |archive-date=April 23, 2006 }}</ref><ref name=""death2"">{{cite news |url=http://environment.about.com/od/environmentalevents/a/waterdayqa.htm |last=West |first=Larry |name-list-style=vanc |publisher=About.com |title=World Water Day: A Billion People Worldwide Lack Safe Drinking Water |date=2006-03-26 |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-date=27 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227153137/http://environment.about.com/od/environmentalevents/a/waterdayqa.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.<ref name=""death2"" />

India and China are two countries with high levels of water pollution: An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness (including [[waterborne diseases]]) every day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inclentrust.org/uploadedbyfck/file/Diarrhoea-Pneumonia/Lecture%203_1%20Burden%20of%20diarrhea%20in%20children%20in%20India%20-12th%20dec.pdf |title=An overview of diarrhea, symptoms, diagnosis and the costs of morbidity |year=2010 |work=CHNRI |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512231350/http://www.inclentrust.org/uploadedbyfck/file/Diarrhoea-Pneumonia/Lecture%203_1%20Burden%20of%20diarrhea%20in%20children%20in%20India%20-12th%20dec.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2013 }}</ref> About 90 percent of the [[Water resources of China|water in the cities of China]] is polluted.<ref>""[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-06/07/content_449451.htm China says water pollution so severe that cities could lack safe supplies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630102454/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-06/07/content_449451.htm |date=30 June 2017 }}"". Chinadaily.com.cn. June 7, 2005.</ref> As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kahn |first1=Joseph |last2=Yardley |first2=Jim |name-list-style=vanc |date=2007-08-26 |title=As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-date=22 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722082111/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

However, after a series of reforms, China's environment began to demonstrate enormous improvements around the 2010s. Under the [[Xi Jinping Administration|leadership]] of [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP general secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]], a sizable fraction of high-pollution industries have been gradually phased out and many illegally polluting factories were sanctioned or closed. A considerable amount of effort went to enforce environmental regulations at regional levels and holding persons of malpractice accountable, including officials and firm managers. The slogan ""[[Clear waters and green mountains|clear waters and green mountains are as valuable as gold and silver mountains]]"" proposed by Chinese leader Xi Jinping in 2005<ref>{{cite web |title=习近平：绿水青山就是金山银山_新华网 |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/szzsyzt/lsqs2017/index.htm |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308215121/http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/szzsyzt/lsqs2017/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> signifies China's determination in amending environmental burdens created during industrialization while shifting to more sustainable modes of development and adopting high-end industries. Water bodies around the country are much cleaner than a decade ago and steadily approaching natural levels in pollutants.

In 2021, China introduced the ""coal to gas"" policy<ref>{{cite web |title=""煤改气""是碳达峰的重要一环，需求有望超预期！ |url=http://www.fcgs.gov.cn/zrgs/dtxx/202105/t20210506_199603.html |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=12 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212032110/http://www.fcgs.gov.cn/zrgs/dtxx/202105/t20210506_199603.html |url-status=live }}</ref> as one of many policies directed towards achieving peak carbon emissions in 2060. Coal combustion in homes, power stations and production industries constitutes 60% of total energy consumption in China and is the main source of water and air pollution. It is speculated that pollution sources will be progressively eliminated as China reaches the upper tiers of developing countries.

Further details of water pollution in several countries, including many developing countries:

{{world topic|Water pollution in|title=Water pollution by country|noredlinks=yes|show=yes}}

====Indoor air pollution====
[[Indoor air pollution in developing nations]] is a major health hazard.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bruce N, Perez-Padilla R, Albalak R | title = Indoor air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 78 | issue = 9 | pages = 1078–92 | date = 2000 | pmid = 11019457 | pmc = 2560841 }}</ref> A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of [[biomass]]. Three billion people in developing countries across the globe rely on biomass in the form of wood, [[charcoal]], [[Manure|dung]], and [[crop residue]], as their domestic cooking fuel.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Duflo E, Greenstone M, Hanna R|year=2008|title=Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being|url=http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html|journal=S.A.P.I.EN.S|volume=1|issue=1|access-date=30 April 2018|archive-date=10 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110102416/http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Because much of the cooking is carried out indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of people, primarily poor women and children face serious health risks.

Globally, 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in 2012, almost all in low and middle income countries. The South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths, respectively. Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa.<ref name=""WHO1"">{{cite web|title=Burden of disease from Indoor Air Pollution for 2012|url=https://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/FINAL_HAP_AAP_BoD_24March2014.pdf?ua=1|publisher=WHO|access-date=2014-03-28|date=2014-03-24|archive-date=5 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405141320/https://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/FINAL_HAP_AAP_BoD_24March2014.pdf?ua=1|url-status=live}}</ref> An earlier estimate from 2000 put the death toll between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths.<ref name=""Ezzati"">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ezzati M, Kammen DM | title = The health impacts of exposure to indoor air pollution from solid fuels in developing countries: knowledge, gaps, and data needs | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 110 | issue = 11 | pages = 1057–68 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12417475 | pmc = 1241060 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.021101057 }}</ref>

Finding an affordable solution to address the many effects of indoor air pollution is complex. Strategies include improving combustion, reducing smoke exposure, improving safety and reducing labor, reducing fuel costs, and addressing sustainability.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Duflo E, Greenstone M, Hanna R |title=Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being |journal=S.A.P.I.EN.S |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=2008 |url=http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-date=10 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110102416/http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Climate change{{anchor|Global_warming}}===
{{Further|Effects of climate change|Climate change in Africa|Climate change in South Asia}}

====Particular vulnerability to climate change====
[[File:Change in Average Temperature With Fahrenheit.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Surface air temperature change over the past 50 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GISS Surface Temperature Analysis (v4) |url=https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/maps/index_v4.html |access-date=12 January 2024 |website=NASA}}</ref>]]
The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) has confirmed that warming of the climate system due to human intervention is 'unequivocal'.<ref name="":8"">{{Citation|title=Near-term Climate Change: Projections and Predictability|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.023|work=Climate Change 2013 – The Physical Science Basis|year=2014|pages=953–1028|editor-last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781107415324.023|isbn=978-1-107-41532-4|access-date=2020-11-30|archive-date=1 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601235158/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/climate-change-2013-the-physical-science-basis/nearterm-climate-change-projections-and-predictability/279D68DA9F51A8F880E478B58146AD43|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[effects of climate change]] will be felt around the globe and will result in events such as [[Extreme weather|extreme weather events]], droughts, floods, [[biodiversity loss]], disease and [[sea level rise]], which are dangerous for societies and the environment.<ref name="":0"" />

Although 79% of carbon emissions are produced by developed countries,<ref>Center for Global Development, 18 August 2015 [https://www.cgdev.org/media/who-caused-climate-change-historically ""Developed Countries Are Responsible for 79 Percent of Historical Carbon Emissions""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222050116/https://www.cgdev.org/media/who-caused-climate-change-historically |date=22 December 2020 }}</ref> and developing countries have not been the major cause of climate change,<ref name="":8"" /> they are the most at risk from the effects of these changes and may face challenges in [[Climate change adaptation|adapting to climate change]] due to the intersecting issues of high climate vulnerability, low economic status,<ref>UK Government Official Documents, February 2021, [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf ""The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review Headline Messages""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520070152/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf |date=20 May 2022 }} p. 2</ref> restricted access to technology, failing infrastructure and limited access to financial resources. Where a country is particularly [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]] they are called ""highly climate vulnerable""{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}. This applies to many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, [[fragile state]]s or [[failed state]]s like Afghanistan, Haiti, Myanmar, and Somalia, as well as to [[Small Island Developing States]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}. In the cases where developing countries produce only small quantities of greenhouse gas emissions per capita but are very vulnerable to the negative effects of global warming, the term ""forced riders"" as opposed to the ""free riders"" has been used as a descriptor.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":3"">{{cite web|title=Australia, the US and Europe are climate 'free-riders': it's time to step up|url=https://theconversation.com/australia-the-us-and-europe-are-climate-free-riders-its-time-to-step-up-53953|access-date=4 May 2018|work=The Conversation (Australia edition)|archive-date=4 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504155748/https://theconversation.com/australia-the-us-and-europe-are-climate-free-riders-its-time-to-step-up-53953|url-status=live}}</ref> Such countries include Comoros, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.<ref name="":3"" />

Climate vulnerability has been quantified in the [[Climate Vulnerability Monitor]] reports of 2010 and 2012. Climate vulnerability in developing countries occurs in four impact areas: health, extreme weather, [[habitat loss]], and economic stress.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":4"" /> A report by the Climate Vulnerability Monitor in 2012 estimated that climate change causes 400,000 deaths on average each year, mainly due to hunger and communicable diseases in developing countries.<ref name=""CVM report 2012"">{{Cite book|editor=Matthew McKinnon|title=Climate vulnerability monitor : a guide to the cold calculus of a hot planet|date=2012|publisher=DARA|others=DARA, Climate Vulnerable Forum|isbn=9788461605675|edition=2nd|location=Madrid|oclc=828337356}}</ref>{{Rp|17}} These effects are most severe for the world's poorest countries. Internationally there is recognition of the mismatch between those that have caused climate change and those which will suffer the most from climate change, termed ""[[climate justice]]"". It has been a topic for discussion at some of the [[United Nations Climate Change conference|United Nations Climate Change Conferences]] (COP).

""When we think about livelihoods at risk from climate change impacts, we know that people living in developing countries, and especially the least-developed countries and small island states, often have the least financial resources to adapt,"" says Nancy Saich, the [[European Investment Bank]]'s chief climate change expert.<ref>{{cite web|title=A plan for the long haul to contribute finance to the European Green Deal|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/climate-bank-roadmap|access-date=2021-06-10|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=19 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619233202/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/climate-bank-roadmap|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Impacts====
A changing climate also results in economic burdens. The economies in [[Least Developed Countries]] have lost an average of 7% of their [[gross domestic product]] for the year 2010, mainly due to reduced [[Workforce productivity|labor productivity]].<ref name=""CVM report 2012"" />{{Rp|14}} Rising sea levels cost 1% of GDP to the least developed countries in 2010 – 4% in the Pacific – with 65 billion dollars annually lost from the [[world economy]].<ref name="":0"">{{cite web|url=http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?id=17016|title=Climate vulnerability monitor 2010: the state of the climate crisis – Documents & Publications – Professional Resources|publisher=PreventionWeb.net|access-date=2013-06-26|archive-date=11 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311074817/http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?id=17016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another example is the impact on [[Fishery|fisheries]]: approximately 40 countries are acutely vulnerable to the impact of [[Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas emissions]] on fisheries. Developing countries with large fisheries sectors are particularly affected.<ref name=""CVM report 2012"" />{{Rp|279}} During the [[2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference|Cancún COP16 in 2010]], [[List of development aid country donors|donor countries]] promised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the [[Green Climate Fund]] for developing countries to adapt to climate change. However, concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/climate-finance-terrible-sense-limbo-says-iied-expert-saleemul-huq|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012042541/http://www.dandc.eu/articles/220605/index.en.shtml|url-status = dead|title=Climate finance is in ""a terrible sense of limbo"", says IIED expert Saleemul Huq|archive-date=12 October 2012|website=D+C}}</ref><ref name=""International_Adaptation_Finance"">{{cite book|url=http://www.eed.de/fix/files/doc/2008_BMueller_int_adapatation_finance.pdf|title=International Adaptation Finance: The Need for an Innovative and Strategic Approach 4 (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Working Paper)|last1=Müller|first1=Benito|date=2008|publisher=Oxford Institute for Energy Studies|isbn=978-1-901795-76-9|location=Oxford|name-list-style=vanc|access-date=11 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229175020/http://www.eed.de/fix/files/doc/2008_BMueller_int_adapatation_finance.pdf|archive-date=29 February 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Emmanuel Macron]] ([[President of France]]) said at the [[2017 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in Bonn (COP 23): ""Climate change adds further injustice to an already unfair world"".<ref name=""Carrington-2017.11.15"">Damian Carrington, [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/15/climate-change-will-determine-humanitys-destiny-says-angela-merkel ""Climate change will determine humanity's destiny, says Angela Merkel""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319095124/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/15/climate-change-will-determine-humanitys-destiny-says-angela-merkel |date=19 March 2018 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', 15 November 2017 (page visited on 15 November 2017).</ref> [[Economic development]] and climate are inextricably linked, particularly around poverty, [[gender equality]], and energy.<ref name="":1"">{{cite web|last1=Ansuategi, A|last2=Greño, P|last3=Houlden, V|display-authors=etal|date=May 2015|title=The impact of climate change on the achievement of the post-2015 sustainable development goals|url=http://cdkn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Impact-of-climate-on-SDGs-technical-report-CDKN.pdf|access-date=20 May 2015|publisher=CDKN & HR Wallingford|archive-date=26 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926020447/http://cdkn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Impact-of-climate-on-SDGs-technical-report-CDKN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tackling climate change will only be possible if the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) are met, in particular [[Sustainable Development Goal 13]] on [[Individual and political action on climate change|climate action]].<ref name="":1"" />

Climate stress is likely to add to existing [[Human migration|migration]] patterns in developing countries and beyond but is not expected to generate entirely new flows of people.<ref name=""wdr migration"">{{citation|title=Managing social risks: Empower communities to protect themselves|author=The World Bank|chapter=Part One: Chapter 2: Reducing Human Vulnerability: Helping People Help Themselves|chapter-url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2010/Resources/5287678-1226014527953/Chapter-2.pdf|access-date=27 March 2018|archive-date=7 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507173000/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2010/Resources/5287678-1226014527953/Chapter-2.pdf|url-status=live}}, p. 109, {{harvnb|WDR|2010}}.</ref>{{Rp|110|date=November 2012}} A report by the [[World Bank]] in 2018 estimated that around 143 million people in three regions (Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America) could be forced to move within their own countries to escape the slow-onset impacts of climate change. They will migrate from less viable areas with lower water availability and [[Agricultural productivity|crop productivity]] and from areas affected by rising sea level and [[storm surge]]s.<ref>Rigaud, Kanta Kumari; de Sherbinin, Alex; Jones, Bryan; Bergmann, Jonas; Clement, Viviane; Ober, Kayly; Schewe, Jacob; Adamo, Susana; McCusker, Brent; Heuser, Silke; Midgley, Amelia. 2018. [https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29461 Groundswell : Preparing for Internal Climate Migration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322001911/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29461 |date=22 March 2018 }}. World Bank, Washington, DC.</ref>

In spite of the cumulative stressors and challenges faced by developing countries in adapting to the effects of climate change, there are those that are world leaders in the field such as [[Bangladesh]]. Bangladesh created a national programme in 2009 focused on [[Climate change in Bangladesh|how the country would adapt to climate change]] (the first country to do so).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gilbert|first=Natasha|date=2008-09-11|title=Bangladesh launches climate change action plan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/news.2008.1103|journal=Nature|doi=10.1038/news.2008.1103|issn=0028-0836}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Haq|first=Naimul|date=9 July 2019|title=Bangladesh global leader in fighting climate change|work=Bangladesh Post|url=https://bangladeshpost.net/|access-date=30 November 2020|archive-date=27 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127172829/https://bangladeshpost.net/|url-status=live}}</ref> It established a fund to support these plans, spending on average $1 billion annually in this regard.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Star Report|date=10 July 2019|title=Hamid for active role in climate change adaptation|work=The Daily Star|url=https://thedailystar.net/|access-date=30 November 2020|archive-date=30 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130091058/https://www.thedailystar.net/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Population growth===
{{See also|List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate}}
[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|Map of countries and territories by [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] as of 2020]]
Over the last few decades, global population growth has largely been driven by developing countries, which often have higher [[birth rate]]s (higher [[fecundity]] rate) than developed countries. According to the United Nations, [[family planning]] can help to slow population growth and decrease poverty in these countries.<ref name=""Population and poverty""/>

The violent [[herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria]], the [[March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders]] in Mali, the [[Sudanese nomadic conflicts]] and other conflicts in the countries of the Sahel region have been exacerbated by climate change, [[land degradation]], and [[population growth]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=How Climate Change Is Spurring Land Conflict in Nigeria |url=http://time.com/5324712/climate-change-nigeria/ |magazine=Time |date=28 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The battle on the frontline of climate change in Mali |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/the-reporters-46921487 |work=BBC News |date=22 January 2019 |access-date=2 August 2019 |archive-date=9 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009175946/https://www.bbc.com/news/the-reporters-46921487 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Deadliest Conflict You've Never Heard of |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/nigeria/2019-01-23/deadliest-conflict-youve-never-heard |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |date=23 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218125507/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/nigeria/2019-01-23/deadliest-conflict-youve-never-heard |archive-date=18 February 2019 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Droughts and food shortages have been also linked to the [[Northern Mali conflict]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/in-depth/sahel-flames-Burkina-Faso-Mali-Niger-militancy-conflict|title=The Sahel in flames|date=2019-05-31|website=The New Humanitarian|language=en|access-date=2019-06-23|archive-date=13 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113161848/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/in-depth/sahel-flames-Burkina-Faso-Mali-Niger-militancy-conflict|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Climate change, food shortages, and conflict in Mali |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/04/climate-change-food-shortages-conflict-mali-150426105617725.html |work=Al-Jazeera |date=27 April 2015 |access-date=2 August 2019 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505190659/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2015/4/27/climate-change-food-shortages-and-conflict-in-mali |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Poor governance ===
Many developing countries are considered flawed democracies or authoritarian regimes by [[democracy indices]] such as the [[V-Dem Democracy indices]] and [[Democracy Index|Democracy Index (The Economist)]]. Following decolonization and independence, elites have often had [[Oligarchy|oligarchic]] control of the government.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}

The establishment of a healthy democratic state has often been challenged by widespread [[corruption]] and [[nepotism]] and a low confidence and participation in democratic process. [[Political instability]] and [[political corruption]] are common problems.<ref>{{cite web|last=Williams|first=Jeremy|date=1 July 2007|title=Political factors that affect development|url=https://earthbound.report/2007/07/01/political-factors-that-affect-development/|access-date=20 June 2020|archive-date=21 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621060902/https://earthbound.report/2007/07/01/political-factors-that-affect-development/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=""ReferenceA"">Edwards, S. ""Trade Orientation, Distortions and Growth In Developing Countries."" (n.d.): n. pag. 1–37</ref> To fully reach the goal of a low level of corruption, developing countries are usually using special steps for different establishments inside their territories, such as :

* Development or creation of a fair public administration system that is not partially based on corruption and is entirely based on the values and laws of the country
* Better investigation towards the sources of the corruption and probable causes of that particular action
* Publicly informing the residents about the source of corruption and negative influence on the country's economy
* Regulation of the official positions of an individual to not be the source of abuse for corruption.
* Creation of special laws dedicated to the corruption itself for specific establishments<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.am/files/docs/74.pdf |title=Republic of Armenia Anti-Corruption strategy and Implementation Action Plan |date=2003 |publisher=Republic of Armenia |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531195758/http://www.gov.am/files/docs/74.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Others ===
Other common challenges include: Increased and intensified industrial and agricultural production and emission of toxic chemicals directly into the soil, air, and water, unsustainable use of energy resources; high dependency on natural resources for livelihood, leading to unsustainable exploitation or depletion of those resources; [[child marriage]], [[indebtedness]] (see [[Debt of developing countries]]) and underperforming [[civil service]] (see [[Civil service reform in developing countries]]), [[food insecurity]], [[Literacy|illiteracy]] and [[unemployment]]. The economies of many developing nations are tried to primary products and a majority of their exports go to advanced nations. When advanced nations encounter economic downturns, they can quickly transmit to their developing country trading partners as seen in global economic downturn of 2008–2009.

== Opportunities ==

* Human Capital
* Trade Policy: Countries with more restrictive policies have not grown as fast as countries with open and less distorted trade policies.<ref name=""ReferenceA""/><ref>{{cite journal | last = Harrison | first = Ann | name-list-style = vanc | title = Openness and Growth: A Time-series, Cross-country Analysis for Developing Countries | journal = Journal of Development Economics | volume = 48 | issue = 2 | date = 1996 | pages = 419–47 | doi = 10.1016/0304-3878(95)00042-9 | s2cid = 53981521 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1165&context=mgmt_papers | access-date = 10 July 2019 | archive-date = 20 July 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720022150/https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1165&context=mgmt_papers | url-status = live | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* Investment: Investment has a positive effect on growth.<ref name=""ReferenceA""/>
* Education<ref>{{cite journal | last = Verspoor | first = Adriaan | name-list-style = vanc | title = Pathways to Change: Improving the Quality of Education in Developing Countries | journal = World Bank Discussion Papers | volume = 53 }}</ref>
* [[Aid for Trade]]: Included in [[Sustainable Development Goal 8]] under Target 8.a.1 Increase aid for trade is an initiative to help developing countries practice trade and benefit. Aid for trade is to assist developing countries in trade related programmes, prioritize trade and trade capacity, improve trade performance and reduce [[poverty]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Aid for Trade – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|url=http://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/|access-date=2020-09-24|website=www.oecd.org|language=en|archive-date=10 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200910112200/https://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Global partnership: A provision of [[Sustainable Development Goal 17]] which advocates for international investment and support to achieve innovative technological development, access to market, and fair trade for developing countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Goal 17: Partnerships for the Goals|url=https://www.globalgoals.org/17-partnerships-for-the-goals|access-date=2020-09-25|website=The Global Goals|language=en|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927092335/https://www.globalgoals.org/17-partnerships-for-the-goals|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Country lists ==
=== Developing countries according to International Monetary Fund ===
The following are considered developing economies according to the [[International Monetary Fund]]'s World Economic Outlook Database, {{as of|April 2023|alt=April 2023}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/groups-and-aggregates |title=World Economic Outlook, Database—WEO Groups and Aggregates Information, April 2023 |access-date=2023-04-17 |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416224423/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/groups-and-aggregates |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
*{{flagcountry|Islamic Republic of Afghanistan}}
*{{flag|Albania}}
*{{flag|Algeria}}
*{{flag|Angola}}
*{{flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}
*{{flag|Argentina}}
*{{flag|Armenia}}
*{{flag|Azerbaijan}}
*{{flag|Bahamas}}
*{{flag|Bahrain}}
*{{flag|Bangladesh}}
*{{flag|Barbados}}
*{{flag|Belarus}}
*{{flag|Belize}}
*{{flag|Benin}}
*{{flag|Bhutan}}
*{{flag|Bolivia}}
*{{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
*{{flag|Botswana}}
*{{flag|Brazil}}
*{{flag|Brunei}}
*{{flag|Bulgaria}}
*{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
*{{flag|Burundi}}
*{{flag|Cambodia}}
*{{flag|Cameroon}}
*{{flag|Cape Verde}}
*{{flag|Central African Republic}}
*{{flag|Chad}}
*{{flag|China}}
*{{flag|Chile}}
*{{flag|Colombia}}
*{{flag|Comoros}}
*{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
*{{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
*{{flag|Costa Rica}}
*{{flag|Côte d'Ivoire}}
*{{flag|Djibouti}}
*{{flag|Dominica}}
*{{flag|Dominican Republic}}
*{{flag|Ecuador}}
*{{flag|Egypt}}
*{{flag|El Salvador}}
*{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
*{{flag|Eritrea}}
*{{flag|Eswatini|name=Eswatini (Swaziland)}}
*{{flag|Ethiopia}}
*{{flag|Fiji}}
*{{flag|Gabon}}
*{{flag|The Gambia}}
*{{flag|Georgia (country)|name=Georgia}}
*{{flag|Ghana}}
*{{flag|Grenada}}
*{{flag|Guatemala}}
*{{flag|Guinea}}
*{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
*{{flag|Guyana}}
*{{flag|Haiti}}
*{{flag|Honduras}}
*{{flag|Hungary}}
*{{flag|India}}
*{{flag|Indonesia}}
*{{flag|Iran}}
*{{flag|Iraq}}
*{{flag|Jamaica}}
*{{flag|Jordan}}
*{{flag|Kazakhstan}}
*{{flag|Kenya}}
*{{flag|Kiribati}}
*{{flag|Kuwait}}
*{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
*{{flag|Laos}}
*{{flag|Lebanon}}
*{{flag|Lesotho}}
*{{flag|Liberia}}
*{{flag|Libya}}
*{{flag|Madagascar}}
*{{flag|Malawi}}
*{{flag|Malaysia}}
*{{flag|Maldives}}
*{{flag|Mali}}
*{{flag|Marshall Islands}}
*{{flag|Mauritania}}
*{{flag|Mauritius}}
*{{flag|Mexico}}
*{{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}}
*{{flag|Moldova}}
*{{flag|Mongolia}}
*{{flag|Montenegro}}
*{{flag|Morocco}}
*{{flag|Mozambique}}
*{{flag|Myanmar}}
*{{flag|Namibia}}
*{{flag|Nauru}}
*{{flag|Nepal}}
*{{flag|Nicaragua}}
*{{flag|Niger}}
*{{flag|Nigeria}}
*{{flag|North Macedonia}}
*{{flag|Pakistan}}
*{{flag|Palau}}
*{{flag|Palestine}}
*{{flag|Panama}}
*{{flag|Papua New Guinea}}
*{{flag|Paraguay}}
*{{flag|Peru}}
*{{flag|Poland}}
*{{flag|Philippines}}
*{{flag|Romania}}
*{{flag|Russia}}
*{{flag|Rwanda}}
*{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
*{{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
*{{flag|Saint Lucia}}
*{{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
*{{flag|Samoa}}
*{{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}
*{{flag|Senegal}}
*{{flag|Serbia}}
*{{flag|Seychelles}}
*{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
*{{flag|Solomon Islands}}
*{{flag|Somalia}}
*{{flag|South Africa}}
*{{flag|South Sudan}}
*{{flag|Sri Lanka}}
*{{flag|Sudan}}
*{{flag|Suriname}}
*{{flag|Syria}}
*{{flag|Tajikistan}}
*{{flag|Tanzania}}
*{{flag|Thailand}}
*{{flag|Timor-Leste}}
*{{flag|Togo}}
*{{flag|Tonga}}
*{{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
*{{flag|Tunisia}}
*{{flag|Turkey}}
*{{flag|Turkmenistan}}
*{{flag|Tuvalu}}
*{{flag|Uganda}}
*{{flag|Ukraine}}
*{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
*{{flag|Uruguay}}
*{{flag|Uzbekistan}}
*{{flag|Vanuatu}}
*{{flag|Venezuela}}
*{{flag|Vietnam}}
*{{flag|Yemen}}
*{{flag|Zambia}}
*{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
{{div col end}}

'''Countries not listed by IMF'''
*{{flag|Abkhazia}}
*{{flag|Cuba}}
*{{flag|North Korea}}
*{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}}
*{{flag|South Ossetia}}

=== Upper middle income countries by World Bank ===
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* Albania<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/country/XT |title=Archived copy |access-date=25 May 2023 |archive-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525041102/https://data.worldbank.org/country/XT |url-status=live }}</ref>
* American Samoa
* Argentina
* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Belize
* Bosnia and	Herzegovina
* Botswana
* Brazil
* Bulgaria
* China
* Colombia
* Costa Rica
* Cuba
* Dominica
* Dominican Republic
* Ecuador
* Equatorial Guinea
* Fiji
* Gabon
* Georgia
* Grenada
* Guatemala
* Guyana
* Indonesia
* Jamaica
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* Kosovo
* Libya
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Marshall Islands
* Mauritius
* Mexico
* Moldova
* Montenegro
* Namibia
* North Macedonia
* Palau
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Russian Federation
* Serbia
* South Africa
* St. Lucia
* St. Vincent and	the Grenadines
* Suriname
* Thailand
* Tonga
* Turkiye
* Turkmenistan
* Tuvalu
{{div col end}}

=== Lower middle income countries by World Bank ===
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* Algeria<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/country/XN |title=World Bank Open Data |access-date=25 May 2023 |archive-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525041113/https://data.worldbank.org/country/XN |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Angola
* Bangladesh
* Benin
* Bhutan
* Bolivia
* Cabo Verde
* Cambodia
* Cameroon
* Comoros
* Congo, Rep.
* Cote d'Ivoire
* Djibouti
* Egypt, Arab Rep.
* El Salvador
* Eswatini
* Ghana
* Haiti
* Honduras
* India
* Iraq
* Iran, Islamic Rep.
* Kenya
* Kiribati
* Kyrgyz Republic
* Lao PDR
* Lebanon
* Lesotho
* Mauritania
* Micronesia, Fed.	Sts.
* Mongolia
* Morocco
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Nicaragua
* Nigeria
* Pakistan
* Papua New Guinea
* Philippines
* Samoa
* Sao Tome and	Principe
* Senegal
* Solomon Islands
* Sri Lanka
* Tajikistan
* Tanzania
* Timor-Leste
* Tunisia
* Ukraine
* Uzbekistan
* Vanuatu
* Vietnam
* West Bank and Gaza
* Zimbabwe
{{div col end}}

===Countries and regions that are graduated developed economies ===
The following list, including the [[Four Asian Tigers]] and new [[Eurozone]] European Union countries (except for Czech Republic), were historically considered developing countries and regions until the 1990s, and are now listed as [[advanced economy|advanced economies]] (developed countries and regions) by the [[IMF]]. Time in brackets is the time to be listed as advanced economies.
*{{flag|Hong Kong}} (since 1997)<ref name=""IMF 1997"">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weo0598/pdf/0598sta.pdf |title=IMF Advanced Economies List. World Economic Outlook, May 1998, p. 134 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=18 August 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000818233010/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weo0598/pdf/0598sta.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Israel}} (since 1997)<ref name=""IMF 1997""/>
*{{flag|Singapore}} (since 1997)<ref name=""IMF 1997""/>
*{{flag|South Korea}} (since 1997)<ref name=""IMF 1997""/>
*{{flag|Taiwan}} (since 1997)<ref name=""IMF 1997""/><ref>The recognition of Taiwan is disputed; most UN-member states officially recognise the sovereignty of the [[People's Republic of China]] over Taiwan, however, some others maintain non-diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]]. See [[Foreign relations of Taiwan]].</ref>
*{{flag|Cyprus}} (since 2001)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2001/01/pdf/append.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2001, p.157 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=13 September 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010913073731/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2001/01/pdf/append.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (since 2007)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2007/01/pdf/statappx.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2007, p.204 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=5 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105062023/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2007/01/pdf/statappx.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Malta}} (since 2008)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2008, p.236 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516113641/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (since 2009,<ref name=""IMF 2009"">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2009, p.184 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=14 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114113955/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> since 2006 by [[World Bank]])<ref name=""worldbank06"">{{cite web| last = Velinger| first = Jan| title = World Bank Marks Czech Republic's Graduation to 'Developed' Status| publisher = Radio Prague|url=http://www.radio.cz/en/article/76314| date = 28 February 2006| access-date = 22 January 2007| archive-date = 12 January 2008| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112081601/http://www.radio.cz/en/article/76314| url-status = live}}</ref>
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (since 2009)<ref name=""IMF 2009""/>
*{{flag|Estonia}} (since 2011)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2011, p.172 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=6 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506073614/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Latvia}} (since 2014)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/pdf/text.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2014, p.160 |access-date=2014-05-21 |archive-date=8 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408225045/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/pdf/text.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Lithuania}} (since 2015)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/pdf/text.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2015, p.48 |access-date=2015-04-11 |archive-date=13 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413200149/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/pdf/text.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Andorra}} (since 2021)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/data/changes.htm|title=World Economic Outlook Database – Changes to the Database|website=www.imf.org|access-date=2022-09-21|archive-date=29 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229080726/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/data/changes.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
*{{flag|Croatia}} (since 2023)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/select-countries?grp=110&sg=All-countries/Advanced-economies|title=World Economic Outlook Database – Changes to the Database|website=www.imf.org|access-date=17 April 2023|archive-date=16 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416190103/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/select-countries?grp=110&sg=All-countries/Advanced-economies|url-status=live}}</ref>

Three economies lack data before being listed as advanced economies. However, because of the lack of data, it is difficult to judge whether they were advanced economies or developing economies before being listed as advanced economies.
*{{flag|San Marino}} (since 2012)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/02/pdf/statapp.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, October 2012, p.180 |access-date=2016-08-04 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020230354/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/02/pdf/statapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Macau}} (since 2016)<ref name=""IMF 2016"">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2016, p.148 |access-date=2016-06-25 |archive-date=17 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417162308/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Puerto Rico}} (since 2016)<ref name=""IMF 2016""/>

===Newly industrialized countries===
Ten countries belong to the ""[[newly industrialized country]]"" classification. They are countries whose economies have not yet reached a developed country's status but have, in a macroeconomic sense, outpaced their developing counterparts:
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*{{flag|Brazil}}
*{{flag|China}}
*{{flag|India}}
*{{flag|Indonesia}}
*{{flag|Malaysia}}
*{{flag|Mexico}}
*{{flag|Philippines}}
*{{flag|South Africa}}
*{{flag|Thailand}}
*{{flag|Turkey}}
{{div col end}}

===BRICS countries===
Five countries belong to the ""[[emerging markets]]"" groups and are together called the [[BRICS]] countries:
*{{flag|Brazil}} (since 2006)
*{{flag|Russia}} (since 2006)
*{{flag|India}} (since 2006)
*{{flag|China}} (since 2006)
*{{flag|South Africa}} (since 2010)
*{{flag|Egypt}} (since 2024)
*{{flag|Ethiopia}} (since 2024)
*{{flag|Iran}} (since 2024)
*{{flag|United Arab Emirates}} (since 2024)

== Society and culture ==

=== Media coverage ===
Western media tends to present a generalized view of developing countries through biased [[Media bias|media coverage]]; [[mass media]] outlets tend to focus disproportionately on [[poverty]] and other negative imagery. This common coverage has created a dominant stereotype of developing countries: ""the '[[Global South|South]]' is characterized by [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] and political backwardness, measured against Western values and standards.""<ref>{{cite web|title=Dependency Theory: A Useful Tool for Analyzing Global Inequalities Today?|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2016/11/23/dependency-theory-a-useful-tool-for-analyzing-global-inequalities-today/|access-date=2020-02-21|website=E-International Relations|date=23 November 2016|language=en-US|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002023728/https://www.e-ir.info/2016/11/23/dependency-theory-a-useful-tool-for-analyzing-global-inequalities-today/|url-status=live}}</ref> Mass media's role often compares the [[North–South divide in the World|Global South to the North]] and is thought to be an aid in the divide.

Mass media has also played a role in what information the people in developing countries receive. The news often covers developed countries and creates an imbalance of information flow.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Philo |first1=Greg |title=An unseen world: How the media portrays the poor |journal=The UNESCO Courier |date=November 2001 |volume=54 |issue=11 |pages=44–46 |id={{ProQuest|207594362}} |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000124294.locale=en |access-date=16 July 2022 |archive-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716164506/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000124294.locale=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The people in developing countries do not often receive coverage of the other developing countries but instead gets generous amounts of coverage about developed countries.

== See also ==
*[[Colonialism]]
*[[Economic miracle]]
*[[International development]]
*[[Land reform]]
*[[List of countries by wealth per adult]]
*[[Women migrant workers from developing countries]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|WDR|2010}} |title=World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change |date=6 November 2009 |publisher=World Bank Publications |isbn=978-0-8213-7988-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGOJs900Q-MC |language=en}}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}

{{Global economic classifications}}
{{South-South}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Economic globalization]]
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[[Category:Economic geography]]
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Sustainable Development Goals and Australia,"{{short description|Set of 17 global development goals defined by the United Nations for the year 2030}}
[[File:Australia SDG artwork - Jordana Angus.png|thumb|upright=1.5|17 individual, yet interconnected, art strips symbolising each of the 17 interconnected Sustainable Development Goals in the shape of the Australian continent]]
The ""'''Sustainable Development Goals and Australia'''"" describe how Australia participates in the [[Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)]] process. The SDGs are a collection of 17 global goals designed to be a ""blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all"". The SDGs, set in 2015 by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] and intended to be achieved by the year 2030, are part of a [[United Nations General Assembly resolution|UN Resolution]] called ""The 2030 Agenda"".<ref>United Nations (2015) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, [[:File:N1529189.pdf|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ A/RES/70/1])</ref> The targets and indicators for the SDGs are included in the UN Resolution adopted by the General Assembly two years later on 6 July 2017.<ref name="":17"">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref>

The [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]] was one of the 193 countries that adopted the 2030 Agenda in September 2015. Implementation of the agenda is led by the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT)]] and the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (PM&C) with different federal government agencies responsible for each of the goals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cabinet |first=Prime Minister and |date=2018-02-20 |title=2030 Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.pmc.gov.au/news-centre/office-women/2030-sustainable-development-goals |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064019/https://www.pmc.gov.au/news-centre/office-women/2030-sustainable-development-goals |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-09-14 |website=www.pmc.gov.au |language=en}}</ref>

In November 2020, the Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report stated that while Australia was performing well in health [[Sustainable Development Goal 3|(SDG 3]]) and education ([[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]]) it was falling behind in the reduction of {{CO2}} emissions ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]), waste and [[environmental degradation]] ([[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] and [[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]), and addressing economic inequality [[Sustainable Development Goal 10|(SDG 10]]).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Monash Sustainable Development Institute|date=19 November 2020|title=TRANSFORMING AUSTRALIA SDG PROGRESS REPORT - 2020 Update|url=https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/wp-content/uploads/MSDI_TA2020_Summary.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/|archive-date=1 February 2021|access-date=|website=SDG Transforming Australia}}</ref>

Australia is not on-track to achieve the SDGs by 2030.<ref name="":24"">{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Cameron |last2=Metternicht |first2=Graciela |last3=Wiedmann |first3=Thomas |last4=Pedercini |first4=Matteo |date=November 2019 |title=Greater gains for Australia by tackling all SDGs but the last steps will be the most challenging |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=1041–1050 |doi=10.1038/s41893-019-0409-9 |s2cid=207990746}}</ref> Four modelled scenarios based on different development approaches found that the 'Sustainability Transition' scenario could deliver ""rapid and balanced progress of 70% towards SDG targets by 2020, well ahead of the business-as-usual scenario (40%)"".<ref name="":24"" /> In 2020, Australia's overall performance in the SDG Index is ranked 37th out of 166 countries (down from 18th out of 34 countries in 2015).<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|last=Kroll|first=Christian|date=September 2015|title=Sustainable Development Goals: Are the rich countries ready? p6, The world's first SDG Index|url=https://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/fileadmin/files/BSt/Publikationen/GrauePublikationen/Studie_NW_Sustainable-Development-Goals_Are-the-rich-countries-ready_2015.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref name="":6"">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Sustainable Development Report 2020 - Australia|url=https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/static/countries/profiles/Australia.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=24 September 2020|website=}}</ref>

== Background ==
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|The 17 Sustainable Development Goals]]

=== Role in the SDGs creation ===
The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) led Australia's contribution to the development of the 2030 Agenda, which comprises the [[Sustainable Development Goals|SDGs]] and the [[Addis Ababa Action Agenda]]. In its 2015-2016 Annual Report, DFAT said its actions successfully ensured that Australia's national interest and existing aid, trade and foreign policy priorities, and those of its development partners, were reflected in the outcome. DFAT was active in securing standalone SDGs for economic growth ([[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]), gender equality ([[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]) and peace and good governance ([[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]]). In doing so, helps strengthen ""existing international frameworks, such as the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women"".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade|first=Australian Government|date=12 September 2016|title=Annual Report 2015-16, page 138|url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/corporate/annual-reports/Pages/annual-reports|url-status=live|archive-url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/DFAT-full-annual-report-2015-16.pdf|archive-date=15 September 2020|access-date=15 September 2020|website=DFAT}}</ref>

=== National co-ordination and governance ===
To co-ordinate Australia's domestic and international efforts to advance the 2030 Agenda, the Australian Government formed an Interdepartmental Committee (IDC) of senior officials.&nbsp;Co-chaired by [[Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (Australia)|PM&C]] and the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|DFAT]], the committee collaborates with domestic stakeholders to promote and monitor Australia's progress.&nbsp;

Responsibility for each goal is allocated to an Australian Government agency and each department is responsible for making the latest available data on the SDG data platform.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2020-09-21|title=Australian Government's Reporting Platform on the SDG Indicators|url=https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/home|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-21|website=Sustainable Development Goals|language=en}}</ref>

{| class=""wikitable""
|+Government agencies for domestic reporting on the Sustainable Development Goals for the Voluntary National Review <ref>{{Cite web|last=Senate Inquiry into the SDGs|first=DFAT, Submission 60, pp. 17–18.|date=|title=Table 1—Government agencies for domestic reporting on the Sustainable Development Goals for the Voluntary National Review|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/SDGs/Report/c03|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Parliament of Australia}}</ref>
|'''Goal'''
|'''Lead Agency'''
|'''Supporting agencies'''
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 1|SDG 1]]
|Social Services
|[[Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (Australia)|PM&C]];<ref>{{Cite web|last=PM&C|first=Australian Government|date=|title=PM&C SDGs website page|url=https://www.pmc.gov.au/news-centre/office-women/2030-sustainable-development-goals|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>  Australian Bureau of Statistics;<ref>{{Cite web|last=ABS|first=Australian Government|date=|title=SDGs pages on ABS website|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/Home/2030+Agenda+on+Sustainable+Development|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> Home Affairs (EMA)
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 2|SDG 2]]
|Agriculture and Water Resources
|[[Department of Health (Australia)|Health]]
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]]
|[[Department of Health (Australia)|Health]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]]
|[[Department of Education and Training (Australia)|Education and Training]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]
|[[Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (Australia)|PM&C]]
|DSS
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]]
|Agriculture and Water Resources
|Environment and Energy
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]]
|Environment and Energy
|Industry,  Innovation and Science
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]
|Treasury
|Jobs and Small Business, ABS
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 9|SDG 9]]
|Infrastructure, Regional Development and Cities
|Industry, Innovation and Science; [[Department of Communications and the Arts (Australia)|Communications and the Arts]]
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]]
|[[Treasury (Australia)|Treasury]]
|Social Services; Home Affairs
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]]
|[[Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Cities and Regional Development|Infrastructure, Regional Development and Cities]]
|Communications and the Arts; Home Affairs (EMA)
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]]
|[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Environment and Energy]]
|Agriculture and Water Resources; Finance
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]
|[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Environment and Energy]]
|Home Affairs (EMA)
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]]
|[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Environment and Energy]]
|Agriculture and Water Resources; Home Affairs (Maritime Border Command); Infrastructure Regional Development and Cities (Australian Maritime Safety Authority)
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]
|[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Environment and Energy]]
|Agriculture and Water Resources<ref>{{Cite web|last=Australian Government|first=Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment|date=|title=SDGs page on Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/about-us/international/2030-agenda|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]]
|[[Attorney-General's Department (Australia)|Attorney-General's Department]]
|[[Department of Defence (Australia)|Defence]]
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG 17]]
|[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|DFAT]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Australian Government|first=DFAT|date=|title=SDGs page on DFAT website|url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/aid/topics/development-issues/2030-agenda/Pages/default|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
|[[Treasury (Australia)|Treasury]];  AB
|}

== Reporting platforms ==

=== National Government's Data Reporting Platform on the SDG indicators ===
In June 2018, the Australian Government launched a data platform to centralise its available datasets on SDG Indicators and provide a single point of access for anyone interested in SDG data.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Goals|first=Sustainable Development|date=2020-09-20|title=Sustainable Development Goals|url=https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/home|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Sustainable Development Goals|language=en}}</ref>

The platform was part of a comprehensive package of reporting on SDG progress that included the VNR and the Australian SDGs website.<ref name="":0"" />

In addition to providing the status of Australia's data collection against all 232 SDG indicators, as progress is made over time on identifying data-sets or the SDG indicators are refined, other datasets can be uploaded to the platform. It will also assist with streamlining SDG reporting for other purposes as it can interact with other reporting instruments like the [[Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction|Sendai Framework]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2018-06-26|title=Voluntary National Review, p111|url=https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/about/voluntary-national-review|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Sustainable Development Goals|language=en}}</ref>

The ""data community"" was interested in seeing what actions the Australian Government has taken to plug existing data gaps to monitor progress on the SDGs. The launch of a new platform for SDG data, in addition to the VNR, was very welcome. The platform provides an incentive to improve its ability to report and by taking on this task in 'its own right', Australia ""is best able to support neighbouring countries to meet their own data challenges"".<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|title=Australia presents first VNR to the UN and highlights data as key focus for tracking SDG progress|url=https://www.individualdeprivationmeasure.org/australia-presents-first-vnr-to-the-un-and-highlights-data-as-key-focus-for-tracking-sdg-progress/|access-date=2020-09-19|website=www.individualdeprivationmeasure.org|language=en-AU}}</ref>

=== National SDGs Website ===
In June 2018, the Global Compact Network Australia (GNCA) launched a website that allowed organisations to share their SDG aligned projects and activities in one location.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Australian SDGs website|url=https://sdgs.org.au/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>

The Australian SDGs website was part of a comprehensive package of reporting on SDG progress to the that included the VNR and the Australian Government's  Data Reporting Platform on the SDGs Indicators.<ref name="":0"" />

With the support of the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT)]], the site was developed in response to industry and key stakeholders keen to have a centralised platform where knowledge and examples of action could be shared openly. Any organisation can upload a SDG action or case-study and interact with others on the website. The platform includes a resources section, a news and events feature, additional information on what the SDGs are and their contact within the Australian market.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=5 June 2018|title=New Australian SDGs Website Set to Launch {{!}} PBA|url=https://probonoaustralia.com.au/news/2018/06/new-australian-sdgs-website-set-launch/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Pro Bono Australia|language=en-US}}</ref>

Before the Australian SDGs website, the GCNA had established an online Australian SDGs Hub for Business. The Hub explained the relevance of each of the 17 SDGs to Australian business practices, and suggests ways that companies could contribute to achieving the SDGs.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hub|first=IISD's SDG Knowledge|title=Australia Delivers VNR, Holds Senate Inquiry on SDG Implementation {{!}} News {{!}} SDG Knowledge Hub {{!}} IISD|url=https://sdg.iisd.org:443/news/australia-delivers-vnr-holds-senate-inquiry-on-sdg-implementation/|access-date=2020-09-20|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Performance ==
=== Voluntary National Reviews ===

==== Voluntary National Review in 2018 ====
In July 2018, the Australian Government released its first Voluntary National Review (VNR) of its SDG implementation to the [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|UN High Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development]] (HLPF).<ref>{{Cite web|title=High-level Political Forum .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf|access-date=2020-09-19|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref> The VNR was part of a comprehensive package of reporting on SDG progress in that included the Australian Government's Data Reporting Platform on the SDGs Indicators and the Australian SDGs website.<ref name="":0"" />

In the review's foreword, the Australian Prime Minister, [[Malcolm Turnbull]] said: ""At the heart of the Goals is the belief in ‘a fair go for all’— nothing could be more Australian.""<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2018-06-26|title=Voluntary National Review, page 2|url=https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/about/voluntary-national-review|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-19|website=Sustainable Development Goals|language=en}}</ref>

Australia chose to take a narrative, case-study style approach to show the SDGs are a part of government policy and services delivery, and its broad support in the Australian community.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-06-25|title=What Australia's Voluntary National Review for SDG implementation shows|url=https://www.devex.com/news/sponsored/what-australia-s-voluntary-national-review-for-sdg-implementation-shows-92973|access-date=2020-09-19|website=Devex}}</ref>

On the SDGs Knowledge platform, Australia listed six key messages from its review.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Australia .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/australia|access-date=2020-09-19|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>

# The SDGs reflect Australia’s values and belief in a ‘fair go’.
# This is a ‘whole of Australia’ endeavour, across the whole Agenda.
# Australia is committed to the 2030 Agenda.
# Australia's response to the SDGs is shaped by the environment, governance systems, institutions, economy and society.
# The SDGs contain long-standing, complex policy challenges with no simple solutions. They require a joint effort.
# Australia has substantial expertise, innovation and experience to share.

At the domestic launch of the review, the Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs [[Julie Bishop]] highlighted four SDGs of particular importance to Australia: [[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]] (gender equality), [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]] (decent work and economic growth), [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] (life below water) and [[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]] (peace, justice and strong institutions).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hub|first=IISD's SDG Knowledge|title=Australia Delivers VNR, Holds Senate Inquiry on SDG Implementation {{!}} News {{!}} SDG Knowledge Hub {{!}} IISD|url=http://sdg.iisd.org/news/australia-delivers-vnr-holds-senate-inquiry-on-sdg-implementation/|access-date=2020-09-19|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== SDG Progress Reports ===
In November 2020, the Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report stated that while Australia was performing well in health ([[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]]) and education ([[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]]) it was falling behind in the reduction of {{CO2}} emissions ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]), waste and environmental degradation ([[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] and [[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG15]]), and addressing economic inequality [[Sustainable Development Goal 10|(SDG 10]]).<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|last=Monash Sustainable Development Institute|date=|title=Transforming Australia SDG Progress Report - 2020 Update|url=https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-02-01|website=SDG Transforming Australia|page=3|language=en-US}}</ref>

Of the 56 SDG indicators applied in the report, 12 were considered on track to meet the 2030 targets, 23 were determined to be off track, 11 required a breakthrough and 10 need to improve.<ref name="":4"" />

The 2020 report built on the targets and measures of progress developed in 2018, where that report scored Australia's overall performance at 6.5 out of 10 - an average of Australia's performance across all 17 goals.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=5 September 2018|title=Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report - Summary Dashboard|url=https://www.monash.edu/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/1471991/transforming-australia-sdg-progress-report-summary-dashboard-05092018.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/|archive-date=22 September 2020|access-date=|website=SDG Transforming Australia}}</ref>

=== SDG Index ===
In 2020, Australia's overall performance in the SDG Index is ranked 37th out of 166 countries (down from 18th out of 34 countries in 2015).<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":6"" />
{| class=""wikitable sortable""
|+Australia's SDG Index ratings (2015 - 2020)
|'''Year'''
|'''Ranking / No. of countries'''
|'''Score'''
|'''Reference'''
|-
|2015
|Equal 18th /34
|6.65 / 10
|<ref name="":5"" />
|-
|2016
|20/ 149
|74.5 / 100
|<ref>Sachs, J., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., Durand-Delacre, D. and Teksoz, K. (2016): [https://s3.amazonaws.com/sustainabledevelopment.report/2016/2016_sdg_index_and_dashboards_report.pdf SDG Index and Dashboards - Global Report]. New York: Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN)</ref>
|-
|2017
|26 / 157
|75.9 / 100
|<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=July 2017|title=SDG Index and Dashboards Report 2017 - Global Responsibilities - International spillovers in achieving the goals, Table 1.5 {{!}} The SDG Index, p10|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/sustainabledevelopment.report/2017/2017_sdg_index_and_dashboards_report.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
|-
|2018
|37 /156
|72.9 / 100
|<ref>Sachs, J., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G. (2018): [https://s3.amazonaws.com/sustainabledevelopment.report/2018/2018_sdg_index_and_dashboards_report.pdf SDG Index and Dashboards Report 2018]. New York: Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN)</ref>
|-
|2019
|38 / 162
|73.9 / 100
|<ref>Sachs, J., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G. (2019): [https://s3.amazonaws.com/sustainabledevelopment.report/2019/2019_sustainable_development_report.pdf Sustainable Development Report 2019]. New York: Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN).</ref>
|-
|2020
|37 / 166
|74.9 / 100
|<ref name="":6"" />
|}

{| class=""wikitable""
|+Assessment in 2020 - SDG Dashboard<ref>{{Cite web|last=Australia|first=The Sustainable Development Goals and Covid-19|date=|title=Sustainable Development Report 2020|url=https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/static/countries/profiles/Australia.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
!SDG
!Status
!SDG Trends
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 1|SDG 1]]
|Challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 2|SDG 2]]
|Major challenges
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]]
|Achieved
|On track and maintaining SDG achievement
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]]
|Challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]
|Significant challenges
|On track and maintaining SDG achievement
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]]
|Challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]]
|Major challenges
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]
|Significant challenges
|On track and maintaining SDG achievement
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 9|SDG 9]]
|Significant challenges
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]]
|Significant challenges
|Stagnating
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]]
|Challenges remain
|Stagnating
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]]
|Major challenges
|Information unavailable
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]
|Major challenges
|Stagnating
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]]
|Significant challenges
|Stagnating
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]
|Significant challenges
|Stagnating
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]]
|Challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG 17]]
|Significant challenges
|Stagnating
|}

=== Reviews by academics ===
Australia is not on-track to achieve the SDGs by 2030.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last1=Allen|first1=Cameron|last2=Metternicht|first2=Graciela|author-link2=Graciela Metternicht|last3=Wiedmann|first3=Thomas|last4=Pedercini|first4=Matteo|date=November 2019|title=Greater gains for Australia by tackling all SDGs but the last steps will be the most challenging|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0409-9|journal=Nature Sustainability|language=en|volume=2|issue=11|pages=1041–1050|doi=10.1038/s41893-019-0409-9|s2cid=207990746 |issn=2398-9629}}</ref> Four modelled scenarios based on different development approaches found that the 'Sustainability Transition' scenario could deliver ""rapid and balanced progress of 70% towards SDG targets by 2020, well ahead of the business-as-usual scenario (40%)"".<ref name="":3"" />

=== Private sector ===
A review of corporate sustainability reports from the top 150 Australian public-listed companies ([[Australian Securities Exchange|ASX]]150) has found that while reporting on the SDGs is rising the quality of disclosure is lacking.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 2020|title=SDG Measurement and Disclosure 2.0: A study of ASX150 companies|url=https://www.unaa.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/UNAA-RMIT-ASX-150-SDG-Report.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>  The [[RMIT University]]/[[United Nations Association of Australia]] report found 48% of companies mentioned the SDGs. While 45% of companies disclosed how they were prioritising selected SDGs, ""very few companies link business goals and targets with the SDGs which makes assessing real progress towards achieving them difficult to determine"".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Report from RMIT and UNAA finds Australian companies are lagging on transparent sustainability|url=https://www.rmit.edu.au/news/all-news/2020/aug/un-report-australian-companies-failing-sustainability|access-date=2020-09-20|website=www.rmit.edu.au|language=en}}</ref>

== Challenges ==
[[File:Flag of Australia (Brighter).svg|thumb|Australian flag]]

=== Senate inquiry and recommendations ===
In December 2017, The Australian Senate referred the SDGs to its Foreign Affairs, Defence and References Committee for a Senate Inquiry. Five public hearings were held and 164 written submissions were reviewed. A majority of the submissions focused on best practice.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=June 2020|title=No-one left behind: Implement the Sustainable Development Goals in Australia, p27|url=https://www.flipsnack.com/Whitlam/no-one-left-behind-implementing-the-sdgs-in-australia.html|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> The Committee released its report, with 18 recommendations, in February 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|last=The Senate|first=Australian Government|date=19 February 2019|title=Inquiry into the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Report|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/SDGs/Report|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> The report made a number of recommendations to strengthen SDG co-ordination and governance by establishing a national SDG secretariat to provide the IDC more support (Recommendation 4), the IDC regularly share resources on international best practice across government (Recommendation 7), undertakes a SDG literate review annually  and updates links to its information resources and partners with stakeholders to develop and disseminate Australian information resources (Recommendation 8).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Senate Inquiry into the SDGs Report|first=Australian Government|date=19 February 2019|title=18 Recommendations.|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/SDGs/Report/b01|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>

Among the Committee recommendations are a national SDG implementation plan, the formation of a cross-sector consultation group to advise the Government's IDC on the SDGs and regular mandatory reporting of the country's performance against the goals.

The Senate report included a dissenting report from [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] Senators, concerned that many of the recommendations would create unnecessary bureaucracy, regulation and expense for no benefit.  The Government's decision to mainstream the SDGs across its agencies and the create of inter-departmental committee from the very beginning, had already put in place the foundations needed to purse the goals. On this basis, the dissenting Senators ""encouraged the Government to ignore the recommendations of the majority report"".<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=19 February 2019|title=Senate Inquiry into the UN SDGs Report - Dissenting Report from Coalition Senators|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/SDGs/Report/d01|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>

The committee's first recommendation is the publication of a national SDG implementation plan that ""includes national priorities and regular reports of Australia's performance against the goals"".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee|first=Parliament of Australia, The Senate|date=14 February 2019|title=United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/SDGs/Report|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-14|website=www.aph.gov.au|language=en-AU}}</ref>  More than a year after this recommendation was made, ""the government is yet to release such a plan or indicate when such a roadmap will be presented"".<ref>{{Cite web|title=The goals for Australia to do better|url=https://www.whitlam.org/publications/2020/6/24/the-goals-for-australia-to-do-better|access-date=2020-09-14|website=Whitlam Institute|language=en-AU}}</ref> As of June 2020, none of these recommendations have been implemented by the Government.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=17 June 2020|title=No One Left Behind: Implementing the Sustainable Development Goals in Australia|url=https://www.whitlam.org/publications/2020/6/17/no-one-left-behind-implementing-the-sustainable-development-goals-in-australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>

==== Reception ====
In 2018, the [[Australian Council for International Development|Australian Council For International Development (ACFID)]] CEO, Marc Purcell, gave Australia a ''<nowiki/>'good effort, but must try harder''' mark for self-assessing its progress against international bench-marks. The Australian Government recognised shortcomings and championed good practice and it acknowledged the goals as 'the' blue print for a 'whole of Australia' collective response to shared global challenges. ""With such goodwill and understanding"", Marc Purcell asks, ""why is Australia falling behind?"".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Purcell|first=Marc|date=22 June 2018|title=Australia is risking a toxic legacy|url=https://acfid.asn.au/blog-post/australia-risking-toxic-legacy|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=24 September 2020|website=Australian Council For International Development (ACFID)}}</ref>

[[Sustainable Development Solutions Network|SDSN]] Australia, New Zealand & Pacific said the VNR was a significant step in Australia's affirmation in its commitment to the SDGs, however to meet the 2030 targets more urgency is required to move beyond “business as usual”.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-06-22|title=Australia's Voluntary National Review released|url=http://ap-unsdsn.org/australias-voluntary-national-review-released/|access-date=2020-09-19|website=SDSN Australia, New Zealand and Pacific|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Society and culture ==

=== Higher education ===
A number of Australian universities have established leading faculties and institutes with clear links to the SDG agenda.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2018-06-26|title=Voluntary National Review, p16|url=https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/about/voluntary-national-review|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Sustainable Development Goals|language=en}}</ref>

In the [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings|Times Higher Education]]’s second annual Impact Rankings, which ranks institutions contributions to the planet’s economic and social well-being, four Australian universities rank in the top 10 ([[University of Sydney]], [[Western Sydney University]], [[La Trobe University]], [[RMIT University]]), eight in the top 50 and 15 in the top 100. It is the only global performance table that assess universities against the SDGs.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-04|title=Impact Ranking|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/rankings/impact/2020/overall|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Times Higher Education (THE)|language=en}}</ref>

=== COVID-19 pandemic response ===
A group of Australian businesses, industry groups, universities and civil society organisations has called on the Australian Government to use the SDGs as a framework for Australia's recovery from the economic impacts of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Australia|COVID-19 pandemic]]. In a letter to the Australian [[Scott Morrison|Prime Minister]], 52 organisations said the SDGs outline a path to 2030 that leaves no one behind and asked the Government to consider ""building on the achievements that Australia has made against the United Nations Sustainability Development Goals"".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Call on Federal Government to use the SDGs as a framework for economic recovery {{!}} Global Compact Network Australia|url=https://unglobalcompact.org.au/call-on-federal-government-to-use-the-sdgs-as-a-framework-for-economic-recovery/|access-date=2020-09-20|website=unglobalcompact.org.au}}</ref>

The Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report - Update 2020 included an evaluation of the effects of COVID-19 on Australia's capacity to achieve the SDGs. It reported that trends emerging before the pandemic - higher levels of unemployment, poverty and psychological distress - have been amplified and ""could fracture Australian society"".<ref name="":4"" />

== See also ==
* [[Addis Ababa Action Agenda]]
*[[Climate change in Australia]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/ Australian Government's Reporting Platform on the SDG Indicators]
* [https://sdgs.org.au/ Australian SDGs website]
* [https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/ SDG Transforming Australia]

{{Sustainable Development Goals}}

[[Category:Foreign relations of Australia]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:International sustainable development]]"
Sustainable Development Goals and Lebanon,"{{Short description|Plans towards the advancement of the Sustainable Development Goals in Lebanon}}
'''Sustainable Development Goals and Lebanon''' explains major contributions launched in Lebanon towards the advancement of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] SDGs and the 2030 agenda. 

Lebanon adopted the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. It presented its first Voluntary National Review VNR in 2018 at the [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|High Level Political Forum]] in New York. A national committee chaired by the Lebanese Prime Minister is leading the work on the SDGs in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lebanon .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/lebanon |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064134/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/lebanon |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-10-04 |website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref> In 2019, Lebanon's overall performance in the SDG Index ranked 6th out of 21 countries in the Arab region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luomi |first1=M. |url=https://www.sdgindex.org/reports/2019-arab-region-sdg-index-and-dashboards-report/ |title=Arab Region SDG Index and Dashboards Report 2019 |last2=Fuller |first2=G. |last3=Dahan |first3=L. |last4=Lisboa Båsund |first4=K. |last5=de la Mothe Karoubi |first5=E. |last6=Lafortune |first6=G. |publisher=SDG Centre of Excellence for the Arab Region/Emirates Diplomatic Academy and Sustainable Development Solutions Network |year=2019 |page=5}}</ref>

Multi-stakeholder forums were held by different UN agencies including the [[United Nations|UN]] Global Compact Network in Lebanon during the late 2010s for the advancement of Global Goals and their Impact on Businesses in Lebanon. The latest two were held on October 18, 2018 and October 2019 under the title of connecting the global goals to Local Businesses.<ref name="":26"">{{Cite web |last=Global Compact Network Lebanon (GCNL) |date=2015 |title=Our Mission |url=https://www.globalcompact-lebanon.com/about/}}</ref>

== Background ==
[[File:Flag of Lebanon.svg|thumb|Flag of Lebanon]]
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals.png|thumb|The 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]]]]
=== Sustainable Development Prioritized Goals ===
Lebanon has always faced different challenges in terms of creating a clear vision plan that would develop and advance policy to improve the SDG implementation strategy.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Green Growth Knowledge Platform|url=https://www.greengrowthknowledge.org/|access-date=2021-01-02|website=Green Growth Knowledge Platform|language=en}}</ref> However, there are developmental attempts by The United Nations Global Compact to lead impactful  initiatives to integrate best SDG practices on terms of advancing the private sector  bto meet up with 2030 Agenda expectations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Impact Initiatives {{!}} UN Global Compact|url=https://www.unglobalcompact.org/take-action/globalimpactinitiatives|access-date=2021-01-02|website=www.unglobalcompact.org}}</ref>

=== Lebanese Contributions to SDG Agenda ===
Lebanon has been a lively participant in the process associated with the SDGs. Initially, it contributed to the report back presented in the UN Conference on Sustainable Development. Lebanon has also been part of the national consultations to produce inputs during the formulation of the SDGs, and so participated within the summits referring to sustainable development and therefore the SDGs. Lebanon endorsed the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and also the SDGs in September 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SDGs in Lebanon|url=https://www.un.org.lb/english/sdgs-in-lebanon|access-date=2021-01-01|website=United Nations Lebanon|language=en}}</ref>

In 2015, there was a global call to advance leadership attention on poverty, inequality, and the climate change crisis. For this to happen, on 25 September 2015 world leaders assembled at the United Nations headquarters in New York, to adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development replacing MDGs.

In this 2030 Agenda,  17 new Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were listed to act as a guided path for the upcoming  15 years to make the world a better place for anyone, anywhere.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainable Development Goals {{!}} UNDP in Lebanon|url=https://www.lb.undp.org/content/lebanon/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html|access-date=2021-01-01|website=UNDP|language=en}}</ref>

Lebanon’s showed a complex performance indicator regarding MDGs. Hence, Lebanon has been a target for development challenges on all levels, social economical, and environmental. The Syrian crisis increased the severity of the challenges.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sustainable Development Goals|date=|title=Voluntary National Review 2018|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/lebanon|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>

There was no actual improvement on the level of bringing to light the need for a national developmental strategy to enhance SDG status in Lebanon all way through 2016. Adding to this, the originally found issue linked to the Syrian crisis impact on the wellbeing of the country prevented further infrastructure advancement.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The 2030 Agenda in Lebanon: Promotion of the private sector at the expense of obstructing sustainable development {{!}} Social Watch|url=https://www.socialwatch.org/node/17792|access-date=2021-01-01|website=www.socialwatch.org}}</ref>   [[File:Beirut old.jpg|alt=|thumb|War Damaged Building in Beirut]]

=== Lebanon and the Millennium Development Goals ===
In 2000, the United Nations General Assembly embraced the [[United Nations Millennium Declaration|Millennium Declaration]], setting eight worldwide targets – the [[Millennium Development Goals]] to be achieved by 2015. The MDGs targeted different critical issues from poverty and education to the private sector's enrollment in the country's advancement.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|title=SDGs in Lebanon|url=https://www.un.org.lb/english/sdgs-in-lebanon|access-date=2020-09-24|website=United Nations Lebanon|language=en}}</ref> Lebanon submitted two reports on the [[Millennium Development Goals]], in 2003 and 2008 respectively. The second report made eight recommendations, which included the need to create a private-public partnership for health, the promotion of the ICT sector as an economy driver, promote development finance and facilitate favorable market access for Lebanese goods and WTO accession.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite journal|date=2008|title=Millennium Development Goals|url=https://www.un.org.lb/Library/Assets/2008-Millenium-Development-Goals-Lebanon-Report.pdf|journal=Lebanon Report}}</ref>

Since then, Lebanon has been in turmoil following multiple events resulting in political and security instability. The 2006 war damaged infrastructure and public services and caused the contamination of agricultural lands, and the coastal sea due to a large oil spill. The hostilities resulted caused the death of 1200 civilians and injured around 5000 people, 15% of whom are now with permanent disabilities.<ref name="":6"" /> The war's toll on the Lebanese economy, communities and human capital, impacted progress on the MDGs.

On June 5, 2012, leading up to the world summit, the President of the Republic of Lebanon addressed the people calling for a ""conscience awakening"". He acclaimed that the Rio+20 summit is a ""milestone on the path that we took in re-placing Lebanon on the international map and stressing on its civilizational and cultural status in the world."" His call to action was around making Lebanon a country of freedom and coexistence but most importantly, development.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2012|title=National Report To The United Nations Conference On Sustainable Development (Rio+20)|url=https://www.un.org.lb/Library/Assets/2012-National-Report-Lebanon-Rio20.pdf|journal=Sustainable Development in Lebanon: Status and Vision}}</ref>

Later on in 2013, 5 key priorities were identified during focus groups and national consultations. First, the country needed basic services mainly in the areas of health and education. Second, there was a major need for good governance and political reforms to tackle corruption and sectarian politics. It was also essential to advance structural reforms such as the secularization of the state and the adoption of a sound electoral law that secures the equitable representation of all the Lebanese and the creation of a culture of citizenship. The third major priority was around peace building and conflict prevention. The fourth one was about the enhancement of the infrastructure and public transportation and finally the fifth priority was about inclusive growth and job creation.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2013|title=The Lebanon We Want: Post 2015 National Consultations in Lebanon|url=https://www.un.org.lb/Library/Assets/Post-2015-Lebanon-Report-The-Lebanon-We-Want.pdf|journal=Report}}</ref>

=== Lebanon and the Sustainable Development Goals ===
The [[2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] was adopted by all United Nations Member States back in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|title=THE 17 GOALS {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs|url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals|access-date=2020-09-24|website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> The SDGs are a set of 17 global goals to transform our world. They are an urgent call for action addressed by and for all countries for a global partnership. The SDGs span across different developmental areas including poverty, equality, education, economic growth and more. The 2030 agenda has [[List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators|160 targets and 230 indicators.]]<ref>United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]]</ref>

In September 2015, Lebanon endorsed the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the SDGs. A [[ESCWA]] report, prepared in cooperation with the Lebanese Ministry of Environment in early 2015, identified six sustainable development priorities for Lebanon.

* Achieve employment generating economic growth;
* Build institutional and administrative capacities and improve governance;
* Improve social protection systems for all groups and address inequalities;
* Achieve energy security;
* Develop infrastructure and sustainable cities;
* Protect natural habitats and biodiversity.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal|title=The Sustainable Development Framework in Lebanon: A National Assessment|url=http://www.databank.com.lb/docs/Sustainable%20Development-ESCWA-2015.pdf|journal=Report}}</ref>

The report noted that these priorities are aligned with the [[SDGs]], particularly [[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]] (energy), [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]] (growth and employment), [[Sustainable Development Goal 9|SDG 9]] and [[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]] (infrastructure and cities), [[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]] (inequality), [[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]] (ecosystems) and [[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]] (institutions).<ref name="":7"" />

== Reporting Platforms ==

=== National Government's Data Reporting Platform on the SDG indicators ===
The Lebanese government established an institutional mechanism to give stakeholders the opportunity to participate in the SDG reporting process. There is also a national committee established by the council of ministers for the SDGs. This committee is chaired by the prime minister and includes more than 50 state officials.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|date=2018|title=Voluntary National Review (VNR) On Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/19484Lebanon_VNR_2018.pdf|journal=Report}}</ref> The committee has launched a website dedicated to the present the progress of this national committee towards achieving the 2030 Agenda.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SDGs in Lebanon|url=http://sdglebanon.pcm.gov.lb/|access-date=2020-09-24|website=sdglebanon.pcm.gov.lb}}</ref>

There is also a legislative institutional mechanism to monitor the SDGs within the Lebanese parliament. Ministries are also taking into consideration the integration of the SDGs within their planning such as the ministry of public health or industry.<ref name="":1"" />
{| class=""wikitable""
|+Summary of some projects and initiatives led by the Lebanese Government to support the SDGs<ref>{{Cite web|last=Trade|first=Ministry of Economy and|title=Support to SMEs {{!}} Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) {{!}} Ministry Of Economy & Trade, Republic of Lebanon|url=http://www.economy.gov.lb//en/services/support-to-smes/sustainable-development-goals-sdgs|access-date=2020-09-25|website=www.economy.gov.lb|language=ar}}</ref>
!
!Representative Organization\Body
!Initiatives\Projects
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 1|SDG1]]
|The Ministry of Social Affairs
|National Poverty Targeting Program (NPTP) Project
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 2|SDG 2]]
|Ministry of Agriculture

Ministry of Economy and Trade
|
* Strategy 2015–2019<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ministry of Agricultural|date=2014|title=Ministry of Agricultural Strategy|url=http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/leb149670.pdf|journal=Ministry of Agriculture}}</ref> promoting principles of good governance
* The Investment Development Authority of Lebanon, IDAL<ref>{{Cite web|last=IDAL,invest in Lebanon|date=2020|title=Who We Are|url=https://investinlebanon.gov.lb/en/about_us}}</ref>
* Agricultural loans for farmers by the Central Bank
* Governmental monetary control over wheat bread prices
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]]
|Ministry of Public Health
|Integrating SDG targets and indicators within its structural framework
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]]
|Lebanese government
|Adopting the strategy of equal educational opportunities for all
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]
|Lebanese Government
|
* NCLW's Strategy for Women's Affairs in Lebanon 2011–2021
* A ten–year strategy to empower women<ref>{{Cite journal|last=National Strategy for Women in Lebanon|date=2017–2019|title=National Action Plan (2017-2019)|url=https://womeninleadership.hivos.org/timeline/assets/2018/08/44-National-Strategy-for-Women-in-Lebanon-2011-2021-_-NCLW.pdf.pdf|journal=National Strategy for Women in Lebanon}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]]
|Lebanese Government
|Updating water resource supplies and protecting wastewater networks
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]]
|Council of Ministers
|A 5 Year  strategy to enhance the electricity sector<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebanese Center for Energy Conservation (LCEC)|date=2016–2020|title=The National Renewable Energy Action Plan for the Republic of Lebanon 2016-2020|url=http://lcec.org.lb/Content/uploads/LCECOther/161214021429307~NREAP_DEC14.pdf|journal=Lebanese Center for Energy Conservation (LCEC)}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]
|Ministry of Economy and Trade
|Lebanon SME Strategy: A roadmap to 2020<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ministry of Economy and Trade|date=2014|title=Lebanon SME Strategy: A roadmap to 2020|url=http://www.economy.gov.lb/media/10312/lebanon-sme-strategy-english-web.pdf|journal=UNDP Projects}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 9|SDG 9]]
|Ministry of Industry
|Integrating the vision of a better Lebanese industry by 2025
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]]
|Ministry of Public Health

Ministry of Labour
|
* Social protection policies and health insurance
* A five-year intensive strategy with the support of [[International Labour Organization|ILO]]
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]]
|The Ministry of State for Planning
|Improving a national urban Strategy and the ‘Habitat III National Report for Lebanon’<ref>{{Cite journal|last=The Council for Development and Reconstruction|date=2016|title=Habitat III National Report Final Report|url=https://www.un.org.lb/Library/Assets/habitaten.pdf|journal=Council for Development and Reconstruction (CDR)}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]]
|The Ministries of Environment and Industry
|Lebanon's Action Plan for Sustainable Consumption and Production for the Industrial Sector in 2015<ref>{{Cite web|last=Switch Med|date=2015|title=Lebanon's Action Plan for Sustainable Consumption and Production for the Industrial Sector|url=https://switchmed.eu/resources/}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]
|Council of Ministers
|Lebanon signed the Paris Agreement in 2016 which was under study until further time period
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]]
|Council for Development and Reconstruction
|National Physical Master Plan of the Lebanese Territory
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]
|Lebanese government
|
* National Action Plan to Combat Desertification
* National Afforestation and Reforestation Programme and the 40&nbsp;Million Trees Programme
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]]
|Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Emigrants collaborating with EU
|Drafting a national counter terrorism strategy
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG 17]]
|Lebanese and French Governments
|Lebanon - CEDRE Conference (6 April 2018)<ref>{{Cite web|last=étrangères|first=Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires|title=Lebanon - CEDRE Conference (06.04.18)|url=https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files/lebanon/news/article/lebanon-cedre-conference-06-04-18|access-date=2020-09-25|website=France Diplomacy - Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs|language=en}}</ref>
|}

== Performance ==

=== Voluntary National Reviews ===

==== 2018 Voluntary National Review ====
Lebanon presented its first Voluntary National Review (VNR) at the [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|UN High Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development]] (HLPF) in 2018.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|title=Lebanon: Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/lebanon|access-date=2020-09-24|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>

The VNR highlighted the importance of public-private-partnerships in the Lebanese economy and the need for SDG financing and private sector mobilization. The Syrian refugee crisis and its impact on public services and the economy has made the implementation of the 2030 Agenda very challenging.<ref name="":1"" />

The VNR was prepared by an independent national committee chaired by the Prime Minister. Workshops, meetings, and consultation sessions were conducted with national stakeholders.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Haddad|first1=Dany|last2=Zoghaib|first2=Riwa|date=2018|title=Lebanon: Progress Towards SDGs 16: A Civil Society Report Report on SDG 16.4, 16.5, 16.6 and 16.10|url=https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/assets/uploads/kproducts/SDG_Parallel-Report_2018_Lebanon.pdf|journal=The Lebanese Transparency Association|page=8}}</ref>

The VNR introduced the present conjuncture of the SDG implementation in Lebanon in the areas where the agreement with the 2030 agenda is still fragile or absent.

Lebanon used a certain methodology to write the VNR. The collection of data from primary resources, included extensive consultation with key ministries, parliament, and other state entities, was done as a first step. A survey consisting of short questions was also sent to all relevant public-sector administrations to gather facts and details on national policies and strategies related to the SDGs. Moreover, three workshops with government representatives, business sector, and civil society took place. Twenty-three interviews with individual stakeholders including academia were performed.<ref name="":1"" /> The second step consisted of a review of secondary sources including sectoral strategies, ministry reports, plans and legislations. Thematic publications as well as reports by UN agencies and well-established international organizations were also used.

=== SDG Index ===
In 2020, Lebanon's overall performance in the SDG Index ranked 95th out of 166 countries. Lebanon scored 66.7<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|last=SDG Index|first=Lebanon|title=Sustainable Development Report 2020|url=https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/static/countries/profiles/Lebanon.pdf}}</ref>
{| class=""wikitable""
|+Assessment in 2020 - SDG Dashboard<ref name="":4"" />
!SDG
!Status
!SDG Trends
|-
|SDG 1
|Achieved
|On track or maintaining SDG achievement
|-
|SDG 2
|Major Challenges Remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 3
|Significant Challenges Remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|SDG 4
|Significant challenges remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 5
|Major Challenges Remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 6
|Significant challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|SDG 7
|Challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|SDG 8
|Major Challenges Remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 9
|Significant challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|SDG 10
|Significant challenges remain
|Information unavailable
|-
|SDG 11
|Significant challenges remain
|Decreasing
|-
|SDG 12
|Significant Challenges Remain
|Information unavailable
|-
|SDG 13
|Challenges Remain
|On track or maintaining SDG achievement
|-
|SDG 14
|Major Challenges Remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 15
|Significant Challenges remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 16
|Significant Challenges Remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 17
|Significant challenges remain
|Decreasing
|}

=== Private Sector ===

==== SDGs implementation and the private sector ====
Notably, the private sector in Lebanon plays a vital contribution to the overall development of the country. As stated in   “Together towards Sustainable Development” a project implemented by The UNDP Lebanon they reported that the private sector has that ability and power to advance the country's status towards SDG developmental  initiatives that has a positive effect over all other SDGs mainly SDG9.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Watch {{!}} www.socialwatch.org|url=https://www.socialwatch.org/|access-date=2021-01-01|website=www.socialwatch.org}}</ref> The private sector represents 80 percent of Lebanon's GDP. The major contributing sections are baking and finance, construction, trade and tourism.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite journal|date=2018|title=Promotion of the private sector at the expense of obstructing sustainable development|url=https://www.socialwatch.org/sites/default/files/2017-SR-LEBANON-eng.pdf|journal=Report}}</ref>  As such, the private sector is a key player for the overall strategy of the Lebanese government by providing investments and  reinforcing public services through partnerships with the private sector. In 2013, a draft law on [[Public–private partnership|public-private partnerships]] (PPPs) was launched by the Higher Council on Privatization.<ref name="":5"" />

In 2012, UNDP launched the “Strategy for Working with the Private Sector”, to advance sustainable human development by engaging the private section and support ""appropriate inclusive market-based solutions and approaches.”<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2015|title=Private Sector Strategy|url=http://www.undp.org/content/dam/lebanon/docs/Operations/LegalFramework/UNDP%20Lebanon%20PS%20Strategy.pdf|journal=Report}}</ref> The strategy explains that UNDP will be working with the private on two different fronts. First, UNDP will ""act as an incubator"" for the development of private sector projects on national and regional levels, thus contributing to [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]], economic growth. Second, UNDP will promote private sector engagement advancing the 10 principles of the UN Global Compact. Examples of partnerships with the private sector include technical and financial assistance, resource transfer, facilitating innovative private investments and advocacy.
[[File:Making Global Goals Middle East - Lebanon .jpg|thumb|Making Global Goals Middle East Forum - Lebanon, 2019.]]
The main platform that groups corporate sustainability initiatives in Lebanon is the local chapter of the [[United Nations Global Compact|UN Global Compact]]. The compact advances the 10 principles of the UN Global Compact and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals at the country level. The main mission of the local network is to build a strong understanding of responsible business and highlight sustainability commitments and efforts of Lebanese businesses and other stakeholders such as NGOs, organizations and academia. The compact works on capacity building by mainstreaming a principle-based approach to the SDGs and provide good business practices to lead the way.

The UN Global Compact Network Lebanon advances the UN Global Compact initiatives, the Ten Principles, and the UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) at the country level. Its purpose is to build understanding of responsible business practices among Lebanese businesses and facilitate engagement with NGOs, government, academia and other businesses.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About|url=https://www.globalcompact-lebanon.com/about/|access-date=2020-09-26|website=UN Global Compact Lebanon|language=en-US}}</ref> The compact organizes local workshops, conferences and forums around the 17 SDGs including Lebanon Collaboration for the SDGs and Making Global Goals Local Business Middle-East.

== Implementation and Progress ==

=== SDG 1: No Poverty ===
In [[Lebanon]], initiatives are implemented to support the poorest and most vulnerable communities. However, Lebanon is suffering regardless all the efforts being made. In this sense, many remain below the poverty line and risk being left behind. Considering some statistical facts, 27% of Lebanese are considered poor, spending less than $270 per month. In 2015, 70% of [[Syrians|Syrian]] refugees in Lebanon spent less than $120 a month, 65% of [[Palestinians|Palestine]] [[refugee]]s in Lebanon spent less than $210 a month and 90% of Palestine refugees from Syria spent less than $80 a month.<ref name="":0"" />

=== SDG 2 : Zero Hunger ===
The issue in Lebanon regarding this goal is not about  sufficiency of good  food  but the lack of its accessibility to everyone. For this, considering the statistical indicators, 16.5% of children under 5 years old in are stunted, meaning they are not developing properly due to [[malnutrition]]. About 11% of Lebanese, 93% of Syrian refugees, 62% of Palestine refugees in Lebanon, and 94% of Palestine refugees from Syria cannot meet their basic food needs.<ref name="":0"" />

=== SDG 3: Good Health and Wellbeing ===
Lebanon has witnessed important advances that increased  life expectancy and reducing some of the common killers such as coronary heart disease and respiratory diseases, and in improving access to quality health services. But, there are a lot of efforts in progress to   improve the population’s health and ensure affordable health care for everyone.<ref name="":0"" />

=== SDG 4: Quality Education ===
Lebanon has a significant increase in the rate of enrollment in primary education and that is a significant increase in the educational status of the youth.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Goal 4: Quality education {{!}} UNDP in Lebanon|url=https://www.lb.undp.org/content/lebanon/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4-quality-education.html|access-date=2021-01-03|website=UNDP|language=en}}</ref>

It is noted that Lebanese youth show significantly high literacy rates with a 90 percentage entrance rate in primary education. This high rate of enrollment is due to its mandatory and free aspect in public schools.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Voluntary National Review 2018|url=https://www.globalcompact-lebanon.com/library/voluntary-national-review-2018/|access-date=2021-01-03|website=UN Global Compact Lebanon|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== SDG 5: Gender Equality ===
It is important to note that Lebanon has proven  solid achievements when it comes to  equality and empowerment. Women are still suffering from inequality, on the social, political, legal and labor market aspects. In the 2016 municipal elections about 100 more women were elected than in the 2010 municipal elections, still women only represent 5.5% of the municipal council seats. Only 23.5% of women are part of the labor market, whereas the proportion of men is 70.3%. And, only 3 percent of national parliamentary seats are held by women.<ref name="":0"" />

=== SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation ===
Important improvements have been made on the level of implementing SDG 6. Most Lebanese have improved access to water supply yet  the population experiences frequent water shortages. One of the issues faced is that in some Lebanese areas, the water is not safe to drink. Although, Lebanon has a  relatively well established water and wastewater networks still a limited amount of  water and wastewater is treated and managed safely. In this sense, up to 70% of natural water sources in Lebanon are bacterially contaminated. In 2012 Lebanon extracted 0.7 billion cubic meters of groundwater, but the groundwater is only replenished with 0.5 billion cubic meters each year.<ref name="":0"" />

=== SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy ===
It is vital aspect of Lebanese attempts in approaching SDG 7 by having a high  potential to deviate away from oil as a main fuel for energy and depend more on renewable energy from resources such as sun, wind and water. Considerable efforts are needed to enhance greenhouse gas emissions and the affordability of energy. In Lebanon up to 4.5% of electricity comes from hydropower and up to 95.5% from oil. In 2012 Electricité du Liban (EDL) only met 63% of the demand for electricity in Lebanon. Around 53% of Lebanon’s total greenhouse gas emissions were from the energy sector in 2012.<ref name="":0"" />

=== SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth ===
Lebanon has witnessed immense struggle with respect to its growth rate. It is important to mention that regardless these struggles, the Lebanese economy has shown a high level of resilience in the face of regional instability, supported by sectors such as tourism and construction. It is a continuous challenge for Lebanon to generate sufficient jobs which shows that  high unemployment rates, especially of women and youth, as well as high emigration of educated youth out of Lebanon. It is estimated that in Lebanon youth unemployment is 21.6% and is constantly rising.<ref name="":0"" />

=== SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure ===
Lebanon is known for its youth entrepreneurial activities. This  reputation of having a vibrant entrepreneurship atmosphere has helped  small businesses to grow. A challenging aspect of Lebanese industry is related to the manufacturing exports rate that decreased by almost 30% from 2012 to 2015.<ref name="":0"" />

=== SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities ===
Inequalities have different faces in Lebanon that is related to  income, consumption and social aspects, particularly between Beirut and rural areas. Geographical gaps exist and increased due to the manner of sending the  funding directly to municipalities, particularly affecting municipalities in rural areas. Notably speaking the richest 20% in Lebanon account for 40% of all consumption, five times more than the poorest 20%. Lebanon does not have a civil code guaranteeing equal treatment for all in personal status matters such as marriage, custody and inheritance, but rather has 15 separate personal status laws that are linked to religious sects. Another important fact is that, the 244 most vulnerable municipalities host 87% of all displaced persons from Syria.<ref name="":0"" />

=== SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities ===
It is well known about Lebanon that it has  a rich urban cultural heritage, with a number of the world’s oldest cities. However, huge demographic changes took place, like the increase in conflict urbanization and waves of external and internal displacements. This increased challenge makes it more difficult to sustain  social coherence and ensure inclusion. Around 90% of the population in Lebanon live in urban areas and about 30% live in the Beirut metropolitan area alone. Adding to this, the majority of Syrian refugees live in urban areas, often in high density poor neighborhoods and sometimes in vulnerable conditions. More, 63% of Palestinian refugees in Lebanon and 55% of Palestinian refugees from Syria live inside camps, most of which are located in urban areas.<ref name="":0"" />

=== SDG 12: Responsible Production and Consumption ===
As an attempt to reduce pollution, ever since 2000, Lebanon has implemented environmental legislation requiring industries to minimize their pollution.

But, environmental governance at municipal level and national level regulation and enforcement needs to be further strengthened for better recycling and waste management. In this sense, Lebanon was able to reduce consumption of CFC (a substance that depletes the ozone layer) from 928 tons to 0 tons in less than fifteen years. In 2010, 17% of household solid waste was recycled while 83% was sent to landfills or open dumps, including potentially hazardous forms of waste.

=== SDG 13: Climate Action ===
Lebanon has signed several conventions, such as the [[Paris Agreement on Climate Change|Paris Agreement on climate change]], and established several institutions dedicated to the protection of the environment. The country is vulnerable to extreme weather like winter floods and extended hot summer days.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} In this regard, it is expected that Lebanon can do more to reduce its contribution to climate change and increase the capacities of institutions working with environmental issues.<ref name="":0"" /> Lebanon increased its greenhouse gas emissions, gases that are harmful to the environment and contribute to climate change, by nearly 5% annually between 1994 and 2012.{{Update inline|date=January 2021|reason=}} It is estimated that by 2040 rainfall in Lebanon will have decreased by 10-20%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lebanon {{!}} Near East Network on Wildlands Forest Fire – NENFIRE {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/in-action/nenfire/projects/lebanon/en/#:~:text=By%202040,%20rainfall%20is%20projected,on%20plants%20and%20water%20shortages. |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref> Currently, sea levels in Lebanon will rise with up to 60 cm in the next 30 years.<ref name="":0"" />{{When|date=January 2021}}

=== SDG 14: Life below Water ===

=== SDG 15: Life on Land ===

=== SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions ===

=== SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals ===

== Challenges ==
On July 18, 2018: the Ministerial Meeting of the 2018 session of the UN High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) publicly shared the representation of 46 Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) for three days. Its purpose was to share the development and challenges faced by the participant countries when implementing the SDGS.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hub|first=IISD's SDG Knowledge|title=Final VNR Presenters Share SDG Progress, Constraints {{!}} News {{!}} SDG Knowledge Hub {{!}} IISD|url=https://sdg.iisd.org:443/news/final-vnr-presenters-share-sdg-progress-constraints/|access-date=2020-09-24|language=en-US}}</ref>

Critical challenges would disqualify Lebanon from  implementing the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development Goals. These challenges include: political instability, refugee crisis, socioeconomic policy choices, social protection, taxes, lack of data, and lack of gender equality.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal|last=Ziad Abdel Samad|date=2016|title=Structural challenges and obstacles to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda|url=https://www.socialwatch.org/sites/default/files/2016-SR-Lebanon-eng.pdf|journal=Arab NGO Network for Development (ANND)|pages=8}}</ref>

The VNR included some challenges facing the implementation of the SDGs in Lebanon including the lack of strong statistical system and database for the SDG targets and indicators as well as a lack in capacity building. Public sector administration institutional capacities need to be reinforced with the help of UN bodies and international entities.<ref name="":1"" />

=== Political obstacles ===
The political system in Lebanon is described by the agreed division of power leading to imbalanced structure of governance. This results in political conflicts affecting the economic and institutional performance of both the public and private sector. This ineffective distribution of power leads to weak fragile institutional strategic planning and the absence of transparency. Consequently, corruption prohibits investments and developmental global project implementation.<ref name="":3"" /> The result of this political distribution represents a limitation in decision-making towards any project or advancement.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Christophersen|first=Mona|date=2017-05-08|title=Sustainable Institutions Critical for Lebanon's Sustainable Development|url=https://theglobalobservatory.org/2017/05/lebanon-sustainable-development-goals-inequality/|access-date=2020-09-25|website=IPI Global Observatory|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Refugees crisis ===
Lebanon has faced a complex approach regarding more than one million Syrians resorted to the country for shelter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Janmyr|first=Maja|date=2018-03-16|title=UNHCR and the Syrian refugee response: negotiating status and registration in Lebanon|journal=The International Journal of Human Rights|volume=22|issue=3|pages=393–419|doi=10.1080/13642987.2017.1371140|issn=1364-2987|doi-access=free|hdl=1956/17996|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Lebanon was well known as the country that has integration of refugees within its population. This overpopulation of refugees affects the infrastructure negatively.<ref name="":3"" /> This results in imbalanced distribution of developmental projects towards a better status of the country. Refugees, mainly Palestinians and Syrians, suffered for a long time from unequal policies for they are known as the nations who are left behind. As a report dating back to 2019, Lebanon and Jordan face the same increased crisis with  17% and 7% of the overall population respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Are Refugees Located Near Urban Job Opportunities?|url=https://www.cgdev.org/publication/are-refugees-located-near-urban-job-opportunities|access-date=2021-01-02|website=Center For Global Development|language=en}}</ref>  The challenges faced by those communities were related to the need for mental health support, need for more advanced educational strategies and projects, and enhanced gender disparity status.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Samar Zebian|date=2018|title=MASHROU3 INSAN|url=https://www.aub.edu.lb/ifi/Documents/publications/research_reports/2017-2018/20180704_mashrou3_insan.pdf|journal=Issam Fares Institute Fo Public Policy and International Affairs|pages=34}}</ref>

In October 2014,  a governmental change took place regarding the rearrangement of Syrian refugees. Its main goal was to reduce the total number of  Syrian refugees and at the same time encourage them to return to Syria, it is still an ongoing target listed on the governmental agenda.

=== Socioeconomic policy choices ===
The economical structure in Lebanon depends on a focused model on banking and financial systems and sectors. The need for rebuilding the country post the civil war depended on over-borrowing from international bodies. This is done for an exchange rate from the donors increasing a public debt that the country can't face. This concentration of investments in specific sectors failed to improve the county's economic status and attract new advanced projects from investors that would have boosted all the goals targeted by the 2030 agenda.<ref name="":3"" /> Poverty and unemployment rates have increased within the youth giving little space for growth enhancement and a sense of competitiveness.<ref>{{Cite web|last=ILO|date=2017–2020|title=Decent Work Country Programme For Lebanon 2017|url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---arabstates/robeirut/documents/genericdocument/wcms_656561.pdf}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Sustainable Development Goals}}

[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Politics of Lebanon]]"
Category:Sustainable urban planning,"{{Commons}}
{{Cat main|Sustainable city}}

Articles related to [[sustainability|sustainable]] [[urban planning]]:

[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Aid for Trade,"[[File:Fourth Global Review of Aid for Trade 2002 (9240992540).jpg|thumb|right|Fourth Global Review of Aid for Trade, 2013]]
'''Aid for Trade''' is an initiative by the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), as well as a policy concept in international [[Economic development|economic]] and [[Trade and development|trade development]], concerned with helping [[developing countries]] and particularly the [[least developed countries]] build trade capacity and [[infrastructure]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=WTO {{!}} Development - Aid for Trade fact sheet|url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/a4t_e/a4t_factsheet_e.htm|access-date=2020-09-21|website=www.wto.org}}</ref><ref name=""oecd"" /><ref name=""un"" />

Aid for Trade is included in [[Sustainable Development Goal 8]] concerning ""decent work and economic growth"", which is one of the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] which were established by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 2015. Target 8.a aims to ""Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular, least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries.""<ref name="":172"">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref>

In 2018, aid for trade commitments remained stable, at $58 billion, based on current prices.<ref name="":03"">{{Cite web|last=United Nations|date=2020|title=United Nations World Economic Situation and Prospects|url=http://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/WESP2020_FullReport.pd|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-02|website=undocs.org}}</ref> [[South Asia|South]] and [[Central Asia]] received the highest share thereof (31.4 per cent), followed by [[sub-Saharan Africa]] (29.2 per cent).<ref name="":03""/> Lower-middle-income countries received 37.5 per cent of aid for trade, followed by least developed countries (36.8 per cent).<ref name="":03""/>

==Overview==
[[File:Aid for Trade Global Review 2017 – Day 1 (35486819660).jpg|thumb|Photos from the WTO Aid for Trade Global Review 2017 photo gallery may be reproduced provided attribution is given to the WTO and the WTO is informed. Photos: © WTO/Jay Louvion]]
Aid for Trade includes measures to help countries develop trade strategies, plans or projects and implementation, such as building [[road]]s, [[port]]s, and [[telecommunication]]s that link domestic and [[global markets]], or investing in [[Industry (economics)|industries]] and sectors to help diversify [[export]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WTO {{!}} Aid for Trade - gateway|url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/a4t_e/aid4trade_e.htm|access-date=2020-09-21|website=www.wto.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Aid for Trade |url=https://ustr.gov/issue-areas/trade-development/trade-capacity-building/aid-trade |website=USTR.gov |accessdate=22 September 2020}}</ref>

Many have credited Aid for Trade with economic improvements in developing countries,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adhikari |first1=Radhakar |title=Targeting Aid for Trade for Impactful Capacity-Building in the Least Developed Countries |journal=Global Policy |date=26 September 2019 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=408–412 |doi=10.1111/1758-5899.12705 |s2cid=204423461 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1758-5899.12705 |accessdate=22 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Hussain |first1=Zaidi |title=Aid for trade, and not merely trade, is what country needs |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1945737/aid-trade-not-merely-trade-country-needs |accessdate=22 September 2020 |publisher=Express Tribune |date=8 April 2019}}</ref> while others point out that not all trade initiatives are successful and some of the funding is lost to [[corruption]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Aid for trade – reducing the barriers and increasing the benefits |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2013/aug/16/aid-for-trade-development-infrastructure |accessdate=22 September 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=21 August 2013}}</ref>

The [[OECD]] and [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] established an 'aid-for-trade monitoring framework' to track progress in implementing the Aid-for-Trade Initiative. It consists of the following elements:<ref name=""oecd"" />

* mainstreaming and prioritising trade (demand).
* mainstreaming and prioritising trade (demand)
* trade-related [[project]]s and programmes (response).
* enhanced capacity to [[trade]] (outcome).
* improved trade performance and reduced [[poverty]] (impact).

==Value of commitments==
[[File:Total official flows commitments for Aid for Trade, by donor, OWID.svg|thumb|right|Total commitments by donor country, 2015]]
[[File:Total official flows commitments for Aid for Trade, by recipient, OWID.svg|thumb|right|Total commitments by recipient country, 2017]]
According to the [[United Nations|UN]], in 2017, the global total value of Aid for Trade disbursements exceeded USD 43 billion, with an additional {{circa}} USD 15 billion committed.<ref name=""un"">{{cite web |title=Aid for Trade |url=https://developmentfinance.un.org/aid-trade |website=UN.org |accessdate=22 September 2020}}</ref> Increasing Aid for Trade support is included as an objective in the United Nations [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|Sustainable development goal 8]] ""decent work and economic growth"" indicator 8.a.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8.a increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, particularly LDCs, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for LDCs – Indicators and a Monitoring Framework|url=https://indicators.report/targets/8-a/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=indicators.report}}</ref>

The [[European Union|EU]] and its member states are the largest contributor of Aid for Trade.<ref name=""ec"">{{cite web |title=Aid for Trade: Helping developing countries to achieve prosperity through trade and investment |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_17_4488 |website=European Commission |accessdate=22 September 2020}}</ref>

In 2018, aid for trade commitments remained stable, at $58 billion, based on current prices.<ref name="":03""/> [[South Asia|South]] and [[Central Asia]] received the highest share thereof (31.4 per cent), followed by [[sub-Saharan Africa]] (29.2 per cent).<ref name="":03"" /> Lower-middle-income countries received 37.5 per cent of aid for trade, followed by least developed countries (36.8 per cent).<ref name="":03"" />

==Origins and oversight==
The Aid for Trade initiative was launched at the [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 2005|World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference]] in December 2005,<ref>{{Cite web|title=WTO {{!}} Ministerial conferences - Hong Kong 6th Ministerial|url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min05_e/min05_e.htm|access-date=2020-09-21|website=www.wto.org}}</ref><ref name=""oecd"">{{cite web |title=Aid for Trade |url=http://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/ |website=OECD.org |accessdate=22 September 2020}}</ref> and in 2007, the WTO started implementation of its February 2006 recommendations of the Aid for Trade Task Force as it moved into its first stage.

The purpose of the Global Review is to provide strong monitoring and evaluation for the Aid for Trade agenda. Global Review events have been held under the themes of “Maintaining Momentum”, “Showing Results”, and “Connecting to Value Chains” in 2009, 2011 and 2013 respectively.

*First Global Review 2007
*Second Global Review 2009
*Third Global Review 2011
*Fourth Global Review 2013
*Fifth Global Review 2015
*Sixth Global Review 2017
*Seventh Global Review 2019
*Eighth Global Review 2022

== Sustainable development ==
Aid for Trade is included in the [[Sustainable Development Goal 8]] about ""decent work and economic growth"" which is one of the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] which were established by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 2015. The official wording for Target 8.a is to ""Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular, least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries.""<ref name="":172"" />

This target has one indicator. Indicator 8.a.1 is the ""Aid for Trade commitments and disbursements"".

The indicator 8.a.1 is measured as total Official Development Assistance (ODA) allocated to aid for trade in 2015 US$.

==See also==

* [[Development Assistance Committee]]
* [[OECD]]
*[[Sustainable Development Goal 8|Sustainable Development Goals]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/2-what-is-aid-for-trade.pdf 'What is Aid for Trade?' (Australian government briefing paper)]

[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:Economic development]]
[[Category:Economic growth]]
[[Category:Trade]]
[[Category:Aid]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Sport and sustainable development,"{{Orphan|date=October 2020}}
'''Sport and sustainable development''' is the integrated principle for explaining how [[sport]] functions as a platform for [[sustainable development]] outcomes and how the concept of sustainable development applies to sport.<ref name=""Lindsey, I., & Darby, P. (2019). Sport and the Sustainable Development Goals: Where is the policy coherence?. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 54(7), 793-812."">{{cite journal|last1=Lindsey|first1=I.|last2=Chapman|first2=T.|date=2017|title=Enhancing the contribution of sport to the sustainable development goals.|journal=Commonwealth Secretariat}}</ref>

== Pathways ==

The integration of sport with sustainable development reflects on two pathways.<ref name=""Loland, S. (2006). Olympic sport and the ideal of sustainable development. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 33(2), 144-156."">{{cite journal|last=Lawson|first=H. A.|date=2005|title=Empowering people, facilitating community development, and contributing to sustainable development: The social work of sport, exercise, and physical education programs.|journal=Sport, Education and Society|volume=10|pages=135–160|doi=10.1080/1357332052000308800|s2cid=54868804}}</ref><ref name=""Lawson, H. A. (2005). Empowering people, facilitating community development, and contributing to sustainable development: The social work of sport, exercise, and physical education programs. Sport, education and society, 10(1), 135-160."">{{cite journal|last=Loland|first=S.|date=2006|title=Olympic sport and the ideal of sustainable development|journal=Journal of the Philosophy of Sport|volume=33|issue=2|pages=144–156|doi=10.1080/00948705.2006.9714698|s2cid=145132682}}</ref> 
* Promoting sustainable development of sport, 
* Using sport for promoting sustainable development in society<ref name=""Loland, S. (2006). Olympic sport and the ideal of sustainable development. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 33(2), 144-156."" />

== Shared perspectives ==
The economic perspective focuses on the connection between sport and [[economic growth]] at the local, regional, national, and international levels, including sport finance and [[economics]], sustainable financial plans and strategies, and sport application.<ref>Lawson, H. A. (2005). Empowering people, facilitating community development, and contributing to sustainable development: The social work of sport, exercise, and physical education programs. ''Sport, education and society'', ''10''(1), 135-160.</ref> 

The [[Ecology|ecological]] perspective examines the critical issue of the [[climate crisis]] and highlights climate action's need.<ref>Mallen, C., Stevens, J., & Adams, L. J. (2011). A content analysis of environmental sustainability research in a sport-related journal sample. ''Journal of Sport Management'', ''25''(3), 240-256.</ref> 

The [[Technology|technological]] perspective discusses the technological innovations in sport and analyzes how sport-related technological advancements can enhance global sustainable development goals.<ref>Green Sport Alliance. (2020). ''Solar electric guide for your stadium or arena'' (2nd Edition). Retrieved from https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/stadium-solar-guide.pdf</ref> 

The political perspective examines the sport's unique advantage of [[global governance]] through many international sport organizations, both for-profit and non-profit.<ref>Chatzigianni, E. (2018). Global Sport Governance: Globalizing Globalized. ''Sport in Society,'' 21(9), 1454-1482. {{doi|10.1080/17430437.2017.1390566}}</ref>

== United Nations ==
In practice, efforts have started to increase on the newly developed endeavor of sport and sustainable development. [[United Nations]] have recognized the importance of sport in implementing [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development goals]] (SDGs).<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations|title=Sport and sustainable development goals|url=https://www.un.org/sport/sites/www.un.org.sport/files/ckfiles/files/Sport_for_SDGs_finalversion9.pdf}}</ref> According to 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development A/RES/70/1, paragraph 37,   <blockquote>""Sport is also an important enabler of sustainable development. We recognize the grow- ing contribution of sport to the realization of development and peace in its promotion of tolerance and respect and the contributions it makes to the empowerment of women and of young people, individuals and communities as well as to health, education and social inclusion objectives.""  </blockquote>

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sports culture]]"
Official development assistance,"{{Short description|Type of international aid}}
{{About|a particular category of international aid|more general aspects|Aid|and|Development aid}}

{{Image frame 
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 | caption=Annual overall quantity of ODA, 1970–2019 (data from OECD Statistics DAC Table 1)<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD Statistics |url=https://stats.oecd.org/ |access-date=2022-05-19 |website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref>
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 | content = {{Graph:Chart  
   | width = 350
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   | y1Title=Non-DAC donors
   | y2Title=DAC donors
   | x = 1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
 |xAxisAngle = -90   
| y1 = 2,3,4,11,18,22,20,17,22,19,24,21,14,11,11,9,9,6,3,3,11,5,2,2,2,1,2,2,2,2,2,1,5,5,4,3,5,5,8,6,6,8,5,14,22,11,16,17,20,17
| y2 = 41,42,46,40,46,49,47,49,55,55,61,59,66,66,70,72,73,72,78,75,81,84,85,78,78,70,70,66,72,73,76,78,84,88,93,123,116,107,119,121,128,127,122,128,130,138,154,153,150,149
  }}
}}

'''Official development assistance''' ('''ODA''') is a category used by the [[Development Assistance Committee]] (DAC) of the [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) to measure [[aid|foreign aid]]. The DAC first adopted the concept in 1969. It is widely used as an indicator of international aid flow. It refers to material resources given by the governments of richer countries to promote the economic development of poorer countries and the welfare of their people. The donor government agency may disburse such resources to the government of the recipient country or through other organizations. Most ODA is in the form of [[Grant (money)|grants]], but some is measured as the concessional value in [[Soft loan|soft (low-interest) loans]].

In 2019, the annual amount of state donor aid counted as ODA was US$168 billion, of which US$152 billion came from DAC donors.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|title=COVID-19 spending helped to lift foreign aid to an all-time high in 2020: Detailed note|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data/ODA-2020-detailed-summary.pdf|access-date=2021-04-15|website=OECD}}</ref>

==Concept and definition==
In order to co-ordinate and measure international aid effectively, the DAC needs its members to have agreed clear criteria for what is counted as aid. The precise type of aid to be counted was given the name of official development assistance (ODA) (where ""official"" indicates that the aid is public and from governments).

The full definition of ODA is:
{{Blockquote|Flows of official financing administered with the promotion of the economic development and welfare of developing countries as the main objective, and which are concessional in character with a grant element of at least 25 percent (using a fixed 10 percent rate of discount). By convention, ODA flows comprise contributions of donor government agencies, at all levels, to developing countries (""bilateral ODA"") and to multilateral institutions. ODA receipts comprise disbursements by bilateral donors and multilateral institutions. |OECD|Glossary of Statistical Terms<ref>[http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=6043 OECD Glossary of statistical terms, ''Official Development Assistance (ODA)'']</ref>}}

In other words, ODA needs to contain the three elements:
# undertaken by the <u>official sector</u> (official agencies, including state and local governments, or their executive agencies)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/investment/stats/34086975.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-06-05 |archive-date=2014-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606225836/http://www.oecd.org/investment/stats/34086975.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
# with promotion of economic <u>development</u> and welfare as the main objective; and
# at <u>concessional</u> financial terms (if a loan, having a grant element of at least 25 per cent).

This definition is used to exclude development aid from the two other categories of aid from DAC members:
* '''Official Aid''' (OA): Flows which meet conditions of eligibility for inclusion in Official Development Assistance (ODA), other than the fact that the recipients are on Part II of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) List of Aid Recipients.
* '''Other Official Flows''' (OOF): Transactions by the official sector with countries on the List of Aid Recipients which do not meet the conditions for eligibility as Official Development Assistance or Official Aid, either because they are not primarily aimed at development, or because they have a grant element of less than 25 percent.

For example:
* If a donor country accords a grant or a concessional loan to [[Afghanistan]] it is classified as '''ODA''', because it is on the Part I list.
* If a donor country accords a grant or a concessional loan to [[Bahrain]] it is classified as '''OA''', because it is on the Part II list.
* If a donor country gives military assistance to any other country or territory it is classified as '''OOF''', because it is not aimed at development.

=== Developments since inception ===

The concept of ODA was adopted by the OECD DAC in 1969, creating a standard of international aid based on ""promoting the economic and social development of developing countries"" in a way that was ""intended to be concessional in character"". This clarified previous conceptions of aid or development assistance; some grants and loans were now differently categorized as ""other official flows (OOF)"". It marked an advance on the effort to define aid that had been made in the DAC's 1962 ""Directives for reporting aid and resource flows to developing countries"". The establishment of ODA provided a basis for most DAC members to commit to the target, set by the United Nations General Assembly in 1970, that economically advanced countries should devote 0.7% of their national incomes to international aid.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|last=Führer|first=Helmut|title=The story of official development assistance|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/1896816.pdf|access-date=2021-03-22|website=OECD|language=en}}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|title=The DAC: 50 years, 50 highlights|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/47072129.pdf|access-date=2021-03-26|website=OECD}}</ref>

The definition of ODA was made firmer in 1972, specifying that qualifying loans should have a grant element of at least 25%. At the same time, donors (except Italy) adopted a target that at least 84% of their overall ODA should be grant, or count as grant element, rather than commercially repayable loan. This proportion was increased to 86% in 1978.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" />

The legitimacy of ""tied aid"" (aid dependent on the use of exports from the donor country) had been debated periodically in the DAC. In 1992 the DAC adopted rules for ODA restricting tied aid to lower-income countries and less ""commercially viable"" projects: restrictions that had been pushed by the U.S. to reduce protectionism in the world trading system. The DAC made a further recommendation on untying in 2001.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" />

In 2012 the DAC began a process of modernizing its statistical system and reforming some of the ways in which ODA is counted.<ref name="":2"" />  In 2014 the DAC donors agreed that ODA should measure the ""grant equivalent"" of loans estimated at the time of the loan, rather than loan inflows and outflows as they occurred. It took five years, however, before this was implemented.<ref name="":2"" /> Between 2016 and 2018 the rules were clarified for counting incidental developmental contributions by foreign military forces when deployed in underdeveloped countries for peace and security purposes. In this period there was also clarification of the criteria for counting some in-donor refugee costs as humanitarian assistance ODA. In 2019, the DAC switched its main reporting of ODA loans to the grant equivalent basis. But this approach creates problems for the accounting of debt relief within ODA, and donors only reached consensus on how to treat this in 2020.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|title=Modernisation of the DAC statistical system|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/modernisation-dac-statistical-system.htm|access-date=2021-03-26|website=OECD}}</ref>

As of 2020, two major items remained as works in progress in the aid modernization agenda: the counting of aid provided through private sector instruments (PSIs), and the construction of a system for measuring broader contributions to global public goods in support of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The latter type of aid is expected to be recorded as Total Official Support for Sustainable Development (TOSSD), and will be a separate category from ODA.<ref name="":2"" />

=== 0.7% target ===
The target of spending 0.7% of gross national income on ODA is the best known international aid target. It was formalised on 24 October 1970, when the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution which included the goal that ""Each economically advanced country will progressively increase its official development assistance to the developing countries and will exert its best efforts to reach a minimum net amount of 0.7% of its gross national product at market prices by the middle of the Decade [by 1975].""<ref name="":8"">{{Cite web |title=The 0.7% ODA/GNI target - a history - OECD |url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/the07odagnitarget-ahistory.htm |access-date=2022-10-30 |website=www.oecd.org}}</ref><ref>[https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/348/91/IMG/NR034891.pdf?OpenElement International Development Strategy for the Second United Nations Development Decade] (p. 5). [https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/25 Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly at its 25th session]. A/RES/2626(XXV), C.2, Agenda Item 42, A/PV.1883, 24 Oct. 1970, A/8124 and Add .2.</ref> Sweden and the Netherlands were the first countries to meet the target, in 1974, but it has been met by few other countries since.<ref name="":8"" />

==Quantitative analysis ==
{{Image frame 
 | align=right
 | caption='''Annual total ODA from DAC donors, 1960-2019'''<br />Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
 | pos=top
 | content = {{Graph:Chart  
   | width = 350
   | height = 150
   | type = line
   | yAxisTitle = US$ billions (2018 prices)
   | x = 1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
 |xAxisAngle = -90   
| y1 = 37,40,41,41,42,45,43,42,44,43,41,42,46,40,46,49,47,49,55,55,61,59,66,66,70,72,73,72,78,75,81,84,85,78,78,70,70,66,72,73,76,78,84,88,93,123,116,107,119,121,128,127,122,128,130,138,154,153,150,149
| y2 = 0
  }}
}}

{{Image frame 
 | align=right
 | caption='''Annual percentage of DAC donors' GNI given as ODA, 1960-2019'''<br />Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
 | pos=top
 | content = {{Graph:Chart  
   | width = 350
   | height = 150
   | type = line
   | yAxisTitle = % of combined GNI
   | x = 1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
 |xAxisAngle = -90   
| y1 = 0.51,0.54,0.53,0.51,0.48,0.48,0.44,0.41,0.41,0.37,0.33,0.32,0.34,0.27,0.32,0.34,0.31,0.31,0.33,0.33,0.35,0.32,0.36,0.34,0.34,0.33,0.34,0.33,0.34,0.31,0.32,0.32,0.32,0.29,0.29,0.26,0.24,0.22,0.23,0.22,0.22,0.21,0.23,0.24,0.25,0.32,0.30,0.27,0.30,0.31,0.31,0.31,0.28,0.30,0.30,0.30,0.32,0.31,,,
| y2 = 0
| colors = orange
  }}
}}

{{Image frame 
 | align=right
 | caption='''Annual ODA from five biggest donors and remainder, 1960-2019'''<ref>Although ODA was only officially instituted in 1969, the OECD provides data for ODA equivalent aid going back to 1960.</ref><br />Constant (2018) prices. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
 |pos=top
 | content = {{Graph:Chart  
   | width = 290
   | height = 150
   | type = line
   | yAxisTitle = US$ billions at 2018 prices 
   | legend=Donor
   | x = 1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
 |xAxisAngle = -45   
 | y1 = 4,4,4,4,4,5,6,7,7,8,9,10,11,11,12,14,14,15,16,17,18,19,21,20,23,23,26,25,27,28,27,28,30,28,28,26,26,26,28,28,29,31,33,33,34,42,41,43,47,45,47,46,43,43,44,49,51,49,48,48
 | y2 = 18,20,22,23,23,25,23,19,22,18,16,15,18,12,15,15,15,15,17,13,19,14,18,17,18,19,19,18,19,14,20,19,19,16,16,11,14,10,13,13,14,16,18,22,26,35,29,26,31,34,34,35,34,34,35,33,36,36,34,32
 | y3 = 2,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,4,5,4,5,6,6,6,5,6,8,8,8,8,9,8,9,8,8,8,9,9,10,10,9,9,8,9,8,7,8,8,8,8,9,9,11,12,12,13,12,13,13,13,14,16,20,27,27,26,25
 | y4 = 4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,5,5,6,4,5,4,4,4,4,4,3,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,5,4,6,6,6,7,8,10,11,8,10,11,13,13,13,17,17,17,19,19,19,20
 | y5 = 7,8,8,6,6,6,5,6,6,6,5,5,5,5,5,5,5,5,5,6,6,7,8,8,9,9,8,9,9,10,10,11,11,11,11,10,9,9,8,8,7,7,8,9,9,11,11,9,10,12,12,12,12,10,10,10,10,12,13,12
 | y6 = 1,1,1,1,1,2,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,4,4,4,4,4,5,6,7,6,7,8,9,8,8,9,10,10,11,12,11,10,11,11,8,9,11,11,12,10,10,9,8,13,11,8,9,8,9,8,8,11,9,10,10,12,10,12
 | y1Title=others
 | y2Title=USA
 | y3Title=Germany
 | y4Title=UK
 | y5Title=France
 | y6Title=Japan
 | colors=darkgreen,gold,black,red,blue,pink, 
  }}
}}

=== Overall quantity ===
In 2019, the annual amount of state donor aid counted as ODA was US$168 billion, of which US$152 billion came from DAC donors.<ref name="":4"" /><ref name="":5"" /> In the decade 2010–2019, average annual ODA was US$151.5 billion (in 2018 prices).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Statistics on resource flows to developing countries: Table 6|url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data/statisticsonresourceflowstodevelopingcountries.htm|access-date=2021-03-30|website=OECD}}</ref>

Historically, the amount of ODA disbursed every year rose approximately four-fold in real terms during the 60 years from 1960. The level was rather stagnant up to 1973 (although inflation meant that it grew in nominal terms). It generally rose from 1973 to 1992, then declined to 1997, then increased again.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web|date=2021-04-15|title=OECD.Stat|url=https://stats.oecd.org/|access-date=2021-03-13|website=[[OECD]]}}</ref>

=== ODA as a proportion of donor national incomes ===
The proportion of their combined gross national income (GNI) spent by DAC donors on ODA decreased from over 0.5% in 1961 to less than 0.3% in 1973. After that, while donors' incomes continued to grow, the level of ODA remained around 0.3 - 0.35%, except when it dipped below that level in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The USA - the donor with the largest economy - spent more than 0.5% of its GNI on ODA prior to 1966, but this proportion gradually dropped, reaching a low point of 0.1% in the late 1990s, and standing at 0.15% in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=OECD.Stat|url=https://stats.oecd.org/|access-date=2021-03-13|website=[[OECD]]}}</ref>

===Quantities of ODA from leading donors===
{{main|List of development aid country donors}}

Since 1960 the five largest donors of ODA have been: the US, Germany, the UK, Japan and France. See chart on the right.

The top 10 donors of ODA (by absolute amount transferred) in 2019 were: United States, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Japan, Turkey, Netherlands, Sweden, Canada and Italy. See pie chart below. Of these, Turkey is the only non-member of the DAC. Turkey's large ODA contribution is associated with the great numbers of Syrian refugees in the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=OECD.Stat|url=https://stats.oecd.org/#|publisher=OECD|access-date=2021-03-19}}</ref>

{{Image frame 
 | align=none
 | caption='''ODA from the ten biggest donors, 2019'''<br />Numbers shown are US dollar billions (2019 prices). Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
 |pos=top
 | content ={{Graph:Chart
 | width=100
 | height=100
 | type=pie
 | legend=Donor
 | x=United States, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Japan, Turkey, Netherlands, Sweden, Canada, Italy, others
 | y1=33.0, 24.1, 19.4, 12.0, 11.7, 8.7, 5.3, 5.2, 4.5, 4.3, 18.3  
 | showValues=
 | colors=gold,black,red,darkblue,pink,green,orange,yellow,brown,blue,lightgray
}}
}}

=== Donor countries by percentage of gross national income ===

The OECD also lists countries by the amount of ODA they give as a percentage of their [[gross national income]]. In 2019 six countries met the longstanding UN target for an ODA/GNI ratio of 0.7%. The ratios of the five most generous donors in this sense, and the five highest-volume donors, are shown in the chart below.
In 2021, the UK reduced its annual aid budget from 0.7% of gross national income to 0.5%.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-11-08 |title=Foreign aid: Who will be hit by the UK government cuts? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/57362816 |access-date=2022-06-26}}</ref>
{{Image frame 
 | align=none
 | caption='''ODA as % of GNI: the five most generous donors, and the five biggest donors in 2019'''<br />Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
 | pos=top
 | content ={{Bar chart
| table_style = font-size:10px;
| title       = 
| label_type  = Donor
| data_type   = ODA as % of GNI in 2019
| bar_width   = 50
| width_units = em
| data_max    = 1.5
| label1   = {{flag|Turkey}} : 1.15% <ref>Turkey is not a member of the DAC. Its high standing is due to its support for the large number of Syrian refugees in the country.</ref>
| data1    = 1.15
| color1   =green
| label2   = {{flag|Norway}} : 1.03%
| data2    = 1.03
| color2   =purple
| label3   = {{flag|Luxembourg}} : 1.03%
| data3    = 1.03
| color3   =lightblue
| label4   = {{flag|Sweden}} : 0.96%
| data4    = 0.96
| color4   = yellow
| label5   = {{flag|Denmark}} : 0.72%
| data5    = 0.72
| color5   = grey
| label6   = {{flag|United Kingdom}} : 0.70%
| data6    = 0.70
| color6   = red
| label7   = {{flag|Germany}} : 0.61%
| data7    = 0.61
| color7   = black
| label8   = {{flag|France}} : 0.44%
| data8    = 0.44
| color8   = darkblue
| label9   = {{flag|Japan}} : 0.30%
| data9    = 0.30
| color9   = Pink
| label10   = {{flag|United States}} : 0.15%
| data10    = 0.15
| color10   = gold
}}
}}

===Quantities of ODA by recipient country===
{{Further|List of countries by Official Development Assistance received}}

In 2019, Syria was the focus of more ODA than any other country, at $10.3 billion. Next were Ethiopia ($4.8 billion), Bangladesh ($4.5 billion), Yemen ($4.4 billion) and Afghanistan ($4.3 billion). China, Indonesia and Thailand were negative recipients: their repayments of past ODA loans were higher than their new receipts.<ref name=""OECD.Stat Table DAC1"">{{cite web|title=OECD.Stat (Table DAC1)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/#|publisher=OECD|access-date=2021-03-19}}</ref> See choropleth map below.

{{Image frame 
|align=none
|width=700
|pos=top
|caption='''ODA received in 2019 (US$ millions)'''<br />Note: Hover cursor over a country to see the amount of ODA it received. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
|content=
{{Choropleth world map
| title=ODA received in 2019
| table=OdaReceived2019.tab
| column=oda_received
| columnName=ODA received
| year=2019
}}
}}

According to estimates that the OECD made in 2014, 28 countries with an aggregate population of around 2 billion people will cease to be ODA eligible by 2030. They include emerging markets such as China, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Malaysia, Thailand and Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Krempin|first1=Michael|title=Beyond the threshold|url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/far-fewer-countries-will-be-eligible-receive-oda-future-means-problems-sdg-finance|website=D+C, Development and Cooperation|date=31 July 2019 }}</ref>

=== ODA by aid type (channel) ===

{{Image frame 
|align=none
|pos=top
|caption='''ODA by aid type, 2019'''<br />Figures given are US$ billions. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
|content= {{Graph:Chart
    | width=100
    | height=100
    | type=pie
    | legend=Aid type
    | x=Budget support, Bilateral core contributions & pooled programmes & funds, Project-type interventions, Experts and other technical assistance, Scholarships and student costs in donor countries, Administrative costs not included elsewhere, Other in-donor expenditures, Private sector instruments, Multilateral ODA, other.
    | y1=2.3, 24.5, 50.6, 5.5, 3.5, 8.4, 10.0, 3.7, 43.0, 0.1   
    | showValues=
   }}
}}

=== Multilateral ODA ===

Most ODA is bilateral, meaning that its state donor is identifiable at the point of delivery to intended beneficiaries. Multilateral ODA, on the other hand, is aid given into a pool administered by some intermediate organisation, so that the delivered aid is no longer attributable to a particular original state donor. In 2019, 28% of all ODA was multilateral. The main organizations for multilateral ODA were the European Union, the IDA (the concessional lending branch of the World Bank), regional development banks and UN agencies.<ref name=""OECD.Stat Table DAC1""/>

{{Image frame 
|align=none
|pos=top
|caption='''ODA multilateral channels, 2019'''<br />Figures given are US$ billions. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
|content= {{Graph:Chart
    | width=100
    | height=100
    | type=pie
    | legend=Type of multilateral
    | x=Bilateral, UN agencies, EU institutions, IDA and other World Bank, Regional development banks, other multilateral
    | y1=108.7, 7.5, 15.5, 9.5, 3.8, 7.1   
    | showValues=
   }}
}}

=== ODA use by sector ===
The breakdown given by OECD of sectors in which ODA was used in 2019 is shown in the chart below.

{{Image frame 
 | align=none
 | caption='''ODA by sector in 2019'''<br /> Figures given are US$ billions. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 5 
 | pos=top
 | content = {{Graph:Chart
    | width=100
    | height=100
    | type=pie
    | legend=Sector
    | x=Education, Health & population policies, Water supply & sanitation, Government & civil society, Economic infrastructure and services, Production sectors, Multi-sector / cross-cutting, Commodity aid / general program assistance, Humanitarian aid, Unallocated / unspecified / not allocable by sector 
    | y1=10.4, 12.7, 5.4, 16.3, 22.0, 9.3, 11.7, 2.4, 17.9, 43.6  
    | showValues=
   }}
}}

=== Tied ODA ===
{{Image frame 
 | align=right
 | caption='''Proportion of tied aid in bilateral ODA commitments, 1979-2019'''<br />Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 7b
 | pos=top
 | content = {{Graph:Chart  
   | width = 260
   | height = 150
   | type = stackedarea
   | yAxisTitle = %
   | x = 1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
 |legend=
 |y1Title=Untied
 |y2Title=Partly untied
 |y3Title=Tied  
| y1 = 44,44,44,45,46,47,47,49,43,49,44,59,59,48,56,66,69,71,83,81,85,80,79,85,91,90,91,88,84,87,84,79,81,85,83,83,78,84,87,81,82
| y2 = 5,4,6,7,12,8,7,8,18,10,9,7,8,12,7,3,4,3,3,7,4,3,3,3,2,1,2,0,0,0,0,6,4,0,4,3,3,3,2,3,2
| y3 = 51,52,50,48,43,45,45,42,35,41,46,32,33,40,35,30,27,25,14,12,11,17,18,12,7,9,7,11,16,13,15,15,15,16,15,16,20,13,12,16,16
  }}
}}

Tied aid is aid given on condition that the money is used to buy things from the donor country or a severely limited group of countries. The legitimacy of tied ODA has long been a point of contention within the DAC.<ref name="":0"" /> Targets have been set to reduce tying: for example in the 2005 Paris Declaration<ref name="":22"">{{Cite web|date=2012|title=Aid Effectiveness 2011: Progress in Implementing the Paris Declaration|url=https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/aid-effectiveness-2011_9789264125780-en|access-date=2021-04-21|website=OECD|page=}}</ref> and the DAC's ""Recommendation"" on untying, first agreed in 1998 and subsequently maintained in revised forms.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|title=Revised DAC recommendation on untying ODA|url=https://one.oecd.org/document/DCD/DAC(2018)33/FINAL/en/pdf|access-date=2021-03-31|website=OECD}}</ref> Official monitoring of performance against these targets is, however, undermined by a discrepancy between what the OECD calls ''de jure'' and ''de facto'' rates of tying, i.e. what the donors report and what they do.<ref name="":3"" />  A major review of the Paris Declaration targets found that, in 2009, 51% (by value) of contracts was spent in the country of the donor, even though donors were reporting only 14% of their aid as tied. The report pointed out that most DAC members failed to use a public bulletin board to advertise contract tenders.<ref name="":22"" /> The OECD's 2020 report on tied aid found this failure was still widespread.<ref name="":6"" /> Hence the official statistics on tied ODA must be treated with caution.

In 2019 five DAC members declared giving more than half of their ODA in the form of tied aid (Greece 100%, Hungary 78%, Poland 75%, Slovenia 74%, Austria 55%). The largest donor, the US, gave almost 40% of its ODA as tied aid, amounting to US$11.0 billion. Overall, DAC donors in 2019 reported US$22.1 billion – about 20% – of their ODA as tied aid.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Statistics on resource flows to developing countries: Tables 23 and 24|url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data/statisticsonresourceflowstodevelopingcountries.htm|access-date=2021-03-31|website=OECD}}</ref> Historically, the reported proportion of tied aid dropped from about 50% in 1979 to less than 10% in 2003, but rose again, and fluctuated between 15 and 20% between 2007 and 2019 (see chart on the right). This was despite agreement by the donors in the 2005 Paris Declaration to further reduce their tying of aid.<ref name="":22"" />

While the last paragraph refers to the proportion of tied aid in overall ODA, the DAC ""Recommendation"" on untying applies only to Low-Income Countries and a few other countries.<ref name="":3"" /> In 2018, 87% of all DAC ODA to these countries was reported as being untied. While 19 of the 30 DAC members claimed to have untied more than 90% of their ODA to these countries, the average was dragged down mainly by the United States, which reported only 64% untied aid to these recipients. (The United States, however, was one of the few DAC countries that systematically posted open tenders for its untied aid on a public bulletin board.)<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web|date=2021-03-12|title=2020 Report on the DAC Recommendation on Untying ODA|url=https://one.oecd.org/document/DCD/DAC(2020)54/FINAL/en/pdf|access-date=2021-03-15|website=OECD}}</ref>

== Problem areas and alternatives ==
{{For|broader criticisms of aid|Aid effectiveness|Aid|Development aid|Humanitarian aid}}

=== Problem areas ===
ODA is widely acknowledged to be an untidy and somewhat arbitrary category of aid, its definition having been agreed by the DAC members only with difficulty and awkward compromises. Arbitrariness is seen in the fixing of the qualifying rates of loan concessionality and the applied discount rates.<ref name="":7"" /> While in the past these rates were set at 25% and 10% respectively, as of 2021 the rates are different for different kinds of recipient<ref>{{Cite web|title=Official development assistance – definition and coverage|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm|access-date=2021-04-17|website=OECD}}</ref> but may still be regarded as in some ways arbitrary.

The criterion that ODA must primarily serve ""economic development and welfare"" leads to dissatisfaction because these two things are often seen as different priorities, and there are differing views about what actions are effective in leading toward development. For example, some stakeholders are particularly interested in progress toward economic convergence of rich and poor countries, and for this purpose the inclusion of humanitarian aid within ODA can seem an interference.<ref name="":30"">{{Cite web|last1=Severino|first1=Jean-Michel|last2=Olivier|first2=Ray|date=1999|title=The End of ODA: Death and Rebirth of a Global Public Policy|url=http://www.cosv.org/download/centrodocumentazione/End_of_ODA_FINAL.pdf|access-date=2021-04-15|website=Center for Global Development|page=18}}</ref>

Seen as a measure of donor countries' contribution to a common effort or to altruistic purposes, ODA is criticized for including expenditures that may mostly benefit the donor country or that are already included in that country's international legal obligations. Such types of spending include tied aid, administrative costs, imputed costs of education for foreign students in the donor country, subsistence of refugees inside donor countries, and ""development awareness"" programmes in donor countries.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal|last1=Hynes|first1=William|last2=Scott|first2=Simon|date=2013-12-01|title=The Evolution of Official Development Assistance: Achievements, Criticisms and a Way Forward|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/the-evolution-of-official-development-assistance_5k3v1dv3f024-en|journal=OECD Development Co-operation Working Papers|language=en|pages=8–10|doi=10.1787/5k3v1dv3f024-en|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The counting of loans in ODA is problematic. Until 2018, loan disbursements were counted in full as aid in the year they were given, and repayments were negative aid in the year they were returned. Some DAC members considered this method ""did not reflect actual efforts by donor countries""<ref>{{Cite web|date=April 2021|title=What is ODA?|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/What-is-ODA.pdf|access-date=2021-04-17|website=OECD}}</ref> (perhaps particularly when looking at an individual year). So in 2014 the DAC decided to record the ""grant equivalent"" of loans as ODA in the year the loan was agreed. This involves complex estimation: the exact methodology took years to finalize and was only first implemented in 2019. Even then, there was no agreement in the DAC on how to treat debt relief. When this agreement was reached, in 2020, it was criticized by commentators as producing a situation in which risky loans, subsequently defaulted, could count for as much ODA as simply giving a grant for the whole amount, yet cost less to the donor if some of the repayments have been made.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rivera|first=Jorge|date=2020-08-13|title=Why the DAC's latest move is bad for global development|url=https://www.one.org/international/blog/dac-latest-rules-bad-for-aid/|access-date=2021-04-17|website=One.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ritchie|first=Euan|date=2020-09-09|title=Measuring ODA: Four Strange Features of the New DAC Debt Relief Rules|url=https://www.cgdev.org/blog/measuring-oda-four-strange-features-new-dac-debt-relief-rules|access-date=2021-04-17|website=Center for Global Development}}</ref>

=== Alternatives ===
Recognizing that ODA does not capture all the expenditures that promote development, the International TOSSD Task Force started establishing a wider statistical framework called TOSSD (Total Official Support for Sustainable Development) that would count spending on ""international public goods"".  The TOSSD data for 2020 shows more than US$355 billion disbursed to support for sustainable development, from almost 100 provider countries and institutions. In March 2022, TOSSD was adopted as a data source for indicator 17.3.1 of the SDGs global indicator framework to measure development support.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Total Official Support for Sustainable Development (TOSSD) - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |url=https://www.tossd.org/ |access-date=2022-05-19 |website=www.tossd.org |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Commitment to Development Index]] is an alternative measure that ranks the largest donors on a broad range of their ""development friendly"" policies, including: the quality of aid (for instance by giving countries fewer points for [[tied aid]]), and considering country policies on issues such as trade, migration and international security.

== Society and culture ==

=== Global goals ===
Several of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (to be achieved by 2030 at a global level) include ODA in their [[List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators|targets and indicators]].<ref name="":17"">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> This applies to [[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG 17]] which is to ""Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development"". Its second target is worded as ""Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the target of 0.7 per cent of gross national income for official development assistance (ODA/GNI) to developing countries and 0.15 to 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to [[least developed countries]]; ODA providers are encouraged to consider setting a target to provide at least 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries.""<ref name="":17"" />

[[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]] (Reduce inequality within and among countries) also includes a target on ODA: ""Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign direct investment, to States where the need is greatest, in particular least developed countries, African countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their national plans and programmes.""<ref name="":17"" />

== See also ==
* [[Poverty reduction]]
* [[Aid for Trade]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.aiddata.org  AidData: Tracking Development Finance]
*[http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/official-development-assistance.htm Official Development Assistance - ODA - OECD]. 
*[http://www.aidflows.org Aidflows]

[[Category:Aid]]
[[Category:Economic development]]
[[Category:OECD]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
The Environment Trust (Tower Hamlets),"{{EngvarB|date=September 2019}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}{{Refimprove|date=April 2016}}
'''The Environment Trust''' was a [[registered charity]]<ref name=""Charity Commission"">{{Cite web |url=http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=289632&subid=0 |title=Tower Hamlets Environment Trust |publisher=[[Charity Commission for England and Wales]] |access-date=25 November 2018}}</ref> and development trust which, from 1979 until its closure in 2008, was based in the [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]].<ref name=""Remembers"">{{cite web | url=https://www.londonremembers.com/subjects/tower-hamlets-environment-trust | title=Tower Hamlets Environment Trust | publisher=London Remembers |  accessdate=22 March 2019}}</ref> It aimed to achieve [[sustainable development]] by improving the [[social]], [[economic]] and [[physical environment]] for [[community]] benefit.

The Environment Trust helped to establish Fair Finance, a [[community development financial institution]], which offered a range of financial packages to disadvantaged community members in the [[East End of London]].

The Trust researched and developed [[renewable energy]] schemes, including [[solar energy|solar]], [[wind energy|wind]], [[biofuels]], and [[tidal energy]], and offered educational workshops in schools around themes of [[biodiversity]], [[nature]] and [[gardening]]. Through organised events, it assisted people in becoming more involved in improving and using their local green spaces. It also worked with partners and communities to try to effect change in local and national government policy on public spaces and biodiversity.

The organisation provided affordable, environmentally [[sustainability|sustainable]] housing through its green homes schemes. It developed a practical approach to building [[Efficient energy use|energy efficient]] homes with low running costs, which were then sold at 70% of their market value.

The organisation also worked to increase the number of quality, affordable workspaces available to local social enterprises, by acquiring land and properties at discounted cost and transforming them into suitable workspace, which were then developed in line with the Green Homes Specification.

==See also==
*[[Environment Trust for Richmond upon Thames]], now Habitats & Heritage

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Environment Trust}}
[[Category:1979 establishments in England]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in England]]
[[Category:Charities based in London]]
[[Category:Community development organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental charities based in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in London]]
[[Category:Former organisations based in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Housing organisations based in London]]
[[Category:Renewable energy organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Social Impact Incentives,"{{short description|Blended finance instrument}}
The '''Social Impact Incentives''' ('''SIINC''') model is a [[blended finance]] instrument introduced for the first time in 2016.<ref name=interamerican2020>{{cite web |last1=Armeni |first1=Andrea |last2=Ferreyra de Bone |first2=Miguel |title=Innovations in Financing Structures for Impact Enterprises: Spotlight on Latin America |url=https://publications.iadb.org/publications/english/document/Innovations-in-Financing-Structures-for-Impact-Enterprises-A-Spotlight-on-Latin-America.pdf |website=Inter-American Development Bank |publisher=IDB |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=1}}</ref> In the SIINC model, enterprises are provided with time-limited premium payments for achieving social impact,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lewis |first1=Rachel |title=Mexican clinic boosts low-income patients by monetising quality |url=https://www.healthcarebusinessinternational.com/policy-mexican-clinic-boosts-low-income-patients-by-monetising-quality/ |website=Healthcare Business International |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=2}}</ref> thus aligning profitability with their social impact and enabling them to attract growth capital.<ref name=nextbillion2020 /> The SIINC agreement is a bilateral contract between an outcome funder (e.g. a development agency or a philanthropic organization<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schwartz |first1=Alan |last2=Finighan |first2=Reuben |title=Impact Investing Won’t Save Capitalism |url=https://hbr.org/2020/07/impact-investing-wont-save-capitalism |website=Harvard Business Review |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=4}}</ref>) and an enterprise; an independent verifier assesses the impact performance and clears payments for disbursement;<ref name=roots2020>{{cite web |title=Social Impact Incentives (SIINC) Enabling High-impact Social Enterprises to Improve Profitability and Reach Scale |url=https://www.roots-of-impact.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Social-Impact-Incentives-SIINC-White-Paper-2016.pdf |website=Roots of Impact |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=5}}</ref> the investment between the enterprise and its investor is arranged via a separate contract.<ref>{{cite web |title=Innovative Finance Toolkit |url=https://www.sie-b.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Innovative-Finance-Toolkit-2020-Final.pdf |website=B-Briddhi |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=6}}</ref>
[[File:SIINC_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|The SIINC Model]]

== History ==
SIINC was co-created by Roots of Impact<ref>{{cite web |last1=Price |first1=Dennis |title=Root Capital chases ‘social impact incentives’ in loans to Latin America agribusinesses |url=https://impactalpha.com/root-capital-chases-social-impact-incentives-in-loans-to-latin-america-agribusinesses/ |website=Impact Alpha |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=7}}</ref> and the [[Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation]] in 2016<ref>{{cite web |last1=Struewer |first1=Bjoern |title=Making Subsidies Smarter: How to Create More ‘Bang for the Buck’ in Blended Finance |url=https://nextbillion.net/smarter-subsidies-in-blended-finance/ |website=Next Billion |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=8}}</ref> by exploring how to adapt pay-for-success models like impact bonds for market-based organizations.<ref name=devex2020>{{cite web |last1=Saldinger |first1=Adva |title=Social impact incentives? A new tool for supporting impact |url=https://www.devex.com/news/social-impact-incentives-a-new-tool-for-supporting-impact-94965 |website=Devex |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=9}}</ref> The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation funded a pilot program in Latin America and the Caribbean which launched in 2016, led by a collaborative with Roots of Impact, the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], [[New Ventures]], and [[Ashoka (non-profit organization)]].<ref name=nextbillion2020>{{cite web |last1=Struwer |first1=Bjoern |last2=Moehrle |first2=Christina |title=Social Impact Incentives: A New Solution for Blended Finance |url=https://nextbillion.net/social-impact-incentives-a-new-solution-for-blended-finance/ |website=Next Billion |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=10}}</ref> 

== Structure ==
SIINC is a blended finance model that seeks to align the interests of development funders, enterprises, and investors around social impact.<ref name=nextbillion2020 /> A SIINC transaction can be understood as a pre-order for the impact made by a development funder with an enterprise.<ref name=interamerican2020 /> The enterprise uses this pre-order to secure investment,<ref name=roots2020 /> using that investment to expand operations and deliver the desired impact.<ref name=nextbillion2020 />

In the basic model, there is a time-limited payment agreement between the outcome payer and the social enterprise along with predefined social performance indicators.<ref name=interamerican2020 /> The investment contract between the social enterprise and the investor is structured individually to meet the specific needs of both.<ref name=thirds2020>{{cite web |last1=Schwartz |first1=Rodney |title=Rodney Schwartz: A German innovation I hope we don't overlook |url=https://www.thirdsector.co.uk/rodney-schwartz-german-innovation-i-hope-dont-overlook/social-enterprise/article/1391856 |website=Third Sector |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=17}}</ref> In the second step, an impact base-line is established, with payments triggered by organizational metrics directly related to the impact performance or externally generated impact metrics.<ref name=roots2020 /> Finally, the ongoing payments are structured and linked to impact, while an independent verification of the impact assessment system ensures that the results are as reliable as possible.<ref name=interamerican2020 />

A report from the [[Boston Consulting Group]] highlighted that SIINC is a form of Impact-Linked Finance as it fulfills the criteria of focusing on outcomes as opposed to outputs, and incentives are paid only to the value creator for additional impact.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Baic |first1=Alexander |last2=Struewer |first2=Bjoern |last3=Doerner |first3=Wolfgang |last4=Henderson |first4=Brad |last5=Maenning |first5=Max |last6=Kammerer |first6=Leopold |last7=Baffioni |first7=Patrizia |last8=Montgomery |first8=Benedicte |title=Accelerating Impact-Linked Finance |url=https://www.roots-of-impact.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Roots-of-Impact-BCG-Accelerating-Impact-Linked-Finance-2019.pdf |publisher=Boston Consulting Group, Roots of Impact |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=20}}</ref>

== Benefits and costs ==
SIINC has been described as an innovation due to the fact that the model is more streamlined than comparable approaches.<ref name=thirds2020 /> SIINC was developed for supporting market-based organizations (enterprises),<ref>{{cite web |title=Root Capital Launches Its First Pay-For-Impact Partnership |url=https://rootcapital.org/about-us/press-room/press/root-capital-launches-its-first-pay-for-impact-partnership/ |website=Root Capital |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=22}}</ref> while comparable models such as the [[social impact bond]] (SIB) and [[development impact bond]] (DIB) were originally developed for non-profit interventions. The SIINC model can be utilized to catalyze investment into an enterprise in an impact-focused manner,<ref name=nextbillion2020 /> or it can lead to deeper levels of impact being generated.<ref name=devex2020 />

The need for independent verification of results has been singled out as a drawback, with the costs needing to be covered by potential savings in order to ensure a transaction is cost effective.<ref name=thirds2020 />

== Implementing organizations ==
To date, the SIINC model has been implemented by the German firm Roots of Impact, with funding from the [[Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation]], and in collaboration with the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], [[New Ventures]], and [[Ashoka (non-profit organization)|Ashoka]].<ref name=nextbillion2020 />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Social impact]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Pat Yang,"{{short description|Chinese-American rural education development expert}}
{{Infobox person
| name        = Pat Kwei-Ping Yang
| native_name = {{nobold|杨贵平}}
| native_name_lang = zh-Hans
| image       = 
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = {{Birth year and age|1940}}
| birth_place = [[Guizhou]], China
| education   = [[Columbia University]]
| known_for   = [[Sustainable development]], [[Health care]], [[Basic education]]
}}

'''Pat Kwei-Ping Yang''' ({{zh|s=杨贵平 |t=楊貴平 |p=Yáng Guìpíng}}) is a Chinese-American rural education development expert,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinalink.tv/content/29256.html?fuid=0 |script-title=zh:中国滋根副秘书长杨贵平 |publisher=圆点直播 |date=2019-09-03 }}</ref>
dedicated to rural education and sustainable development in China,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://jyj.gmw.cn/2018-08/14/content_30525448.htm |script-title=zh:扎根农村三十年，用教育滋养乡村 |publisher=教育杂志 |date=2018-08-14 }}</ref>
with emphasis on women's literacy and health.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lianquan.org/ProjectPlus_ProjectInfo?guid=4B3404AB5390CC3545E8F0179F4BE68EC06E42E0B36C13E4B77183F0C0964FBFF8D4549691DB74BEB78A1F040D2C1008 |script-title=zh:贫困农村青春期女童健康教育与性教育课程开发项目 |publisher=上海联劝公益基金会 |date=2018-06-25 }}</ref>

'''Pat Yang''' is founder of U.S.-based '''[[The Zigen Fund]]''' ({{zh|labels=no|c=滋根}}) and China-based '''China Zigen Association for Rural Education and Development''' ({{zh|labels=no|s=中国滋根乡村教育与发展促进会}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zigen.org.cn/|script-title=zh:中国滋根乡村教育与发展促进会|publisher=中国滋根网}}</ref>

==Recognitions==
* 2012: China News Weekly “'''Influencing China People of the Year'''” honoree<ref>{{cite web |url=http://event.inewsweek.cn/2/2017-04-07/2977.html |title=Influencing China People of the Year |publisher=China News Weekly |date=2017-04-07 }}</ref>
* 2019: China ""'''Honour Book of Sustainable Development Education'''"" honoree<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zigen.org.tw/page1.aspx?no=279068&step=1&newsno=73646 |title=China Zigen 2019 Newsletter 2019.04.29 |publisher=Taiwan Zigen |date=April 29, 2019 }}</ref>

==Documentaries==
Films produced by '''Pat Yang''' and directed by [[Christine Choy]]:

* 2003: ''Sparrow Village'' - young girls yearn for education in a rural village of southwestern China<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nyuscholars.nyu.edu/en/publications/sparrow-village-a-film-directed-by-christine-choy-produced-by-the |title=Sparrow Village |publisher=New York University Research Institute |date=2003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/68961052 |title=Sparrow Village |publisher=WorldCat |date=2003 |oclc=68961052 }}</ref>
* 2007: ''No Fifth Grade'' - children in a village in [[Shanxi|Shanxi Province]] have to move to a bigger town to continue education of fifth grade and above<ref>{{cite web |url=https://asiasociety.org/hong-kong/christine-choy%E2%80%99s-no-fifth-grade |title=Christine Choy's 'No Fifth Grade' |publisher=Asia Society |date=April 16, 2012 }}</ref><ref name='chinanews'>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinanews.com/hr/hr-mzhrxw/news/2009/11-18/1970646.shtml |script-title=zh:吁侨界关注中国贫困地区 美侨团将放纪录片筹款 |publisher=中国新闻社 |date=Nov 18, 2009 }}</ref><ref name='sina'>{{cite web |url=http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2009-11-18/102116627667s.shtml |script-title=zh:吁侨界关注中国贫困地区 美侨团将放纪录片筹款 |publisher=SINA Corp |date=Nov 18, 2009 }}</ref>
* 2007: ''Miao Village Medicine'' - [[barefoot doctors]] and hygienists working in a remote [[Miao people|Miao]] village in [[Guizhou]]<ref name='haodoo'>{{cite web |url=http://www.haodoo.net/?M=anna&P=111 |script-title=zh:孟絲《兩部記錄片》 |publisher=好讀 |date=2013-12-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://pttstudios.com/documentary/17rixJZ_ |script-title=zh:中國農村發展紀錄片放映活動 |publisher=PTT影音娛樂區 |access-date=Nov 21, 2020 }}</ref>

==Publications==
* 2017: ''Co-creating a Sustainable Village: Teacher Training Handbook''<ref>{{cite book |title=Co-creating a Sustainable Village: Teacher Training Handbook |last1=Wei |first1= Manhua |last2=Yang |first2=Kwei-Ping |author-link2=Pat Yang |language=Chinese |publisher=Beijing Normal University Press |date=April 1, 2017 |isbn=978-7303222667 }}</ref>
* 2018: ''Rural Revitalization: Sustainable Development Talent Training Handbook''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dy.163.com/article/DNGCNQBD0511CI4B.html |title=Rural Revitalization: Sustainable Development Talent Training Handbook |language=Chinese |publisher=网易公司 |via=引凤计划 |date=2018 }}</ref>
* 2018: ''Rural Adolescent Girls' Sexual Health Education Teacher Training Handbook''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lianquan.org/ProjectPlus_ProjectInfo?guid=4B3404AB5390CC3545E8F0179F4BE68EEBD1B48F76683861364581D17FD1A02F89D246DB9C31B5FFEDEF22A48B854EF3 |title=Rural Adolescent Girls' Sexual Health Education Teacher Training Handbook |language=Chinese |publisher=Shanghai United Foundation |date=2018 }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.zigenfund.org The Zigen Fund website]
* [http://www.zigen.org.cn China Zigen website]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yang, Pat}}
[[Category:Chinese expatriates in the United States]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:1940 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]"
Inclusive wealth,"{{short description|Aggregate value of all capital assets in a given region}}
'''Inclusive wealth''' is the aggregate value of all capital assets in a given region, including [[human capital]], [[social capital]], [[public capital]], and [[natural capital]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-101813-013253|doi-access=free|title=Inclusive Wealth as a Metric of Sustainable Development|year=2015|last1=Polasky|first1=Stephen|last2=Bryant|first2=Benjamin|last3=Hawthorne|first3=Peter|last4=Johnson|first4=Justin|last5=Keeler|first5=Bonnie|last6=Pennington|first6=Derric|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|volume=40|pages=445–466}}</ref> Maximizing inclusive wealth is often a goal of [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-043621|doi-access=free|title=Sustainability Science: Toward a Synthesis|year=2020|last1=Clark|first1=William C.|last2=Harley|first2=Alicia G.|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|volume=45|pages=331–386}}</ref> The Inclusive Wealth Index is a metric for inclusive wealth within countries: unlike [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), the Inclusive Wealth Index ""provides a tool for countries to measure whether they are developing in a way that allows future generations to meet their own needs"".<ref name=""IWR 18""/>

The [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) published reports in 2012, 2014, and 2018 on inclusive wealth. The 2018 ""Inclusive Wealth Report"" found that, of 140 countries analyzed, inclusive wealth increased by 44% from 1990 to 2014, implying an average annual growth rate of 1.8%. On a [[per capita]] basis, 89 of 140 countries had increased inclusive wealth per capita. 96 of 140 countries had increased inclusive wealth per capita when adjusted.<ref name=""IWR 18"">{{cite web|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/report/inclusive-wealth-report-2018| title=Inclusive Wealth Report 2018| date=November 2018| access-date=8 April 2021|website = United Nations Environment Programme}}</ref> Roughly 40% of analyzed countries had stagnant or declining inclusive wealth, sometimes despite increasing GDP. Many countries showed a decline in natural capital during this period, fueling an increase in human capital.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s12076-019-00229-x|title=Inclusive wealth in the twenty-first century: A summary and further discussion of Inclusive Wealth Report 2018|year=2019|last1=Yamaguchi|first1=Rintaro|last2=Islam|first2=Moinul|last3=Managi|first3=Shunsuke|journal=Letters in Spatial and Resource Sciences|volume=12|issue=2|pages=101–111|s2cid=164461772|doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{Toclimit}}

== Inclusive Wealth Index ==
{{Infobox organization
| name                = Inclusive Wealth Index (IWI)
| formation           = 2012
| headquarters        = United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya
| parent_organization = United Nations Environment Programme
| website             = https://www.unep.org/resources/report/inclusive-wealth-report-2018
}}
The Inclusive Wealth Index (IWI)<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|last=UNEP|date=21 November 2018|title=Inclusive Wealth Report|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/report/inclusive-wealth-report-2018}}</ref> was developed by UNEP<ref>{{Cite web|last=UNEP|title=United Nations Environment Programme|url=https://www.unep.org/}}</ref> in partnership with [[Kyushu University]]. The Index calculation is based on estimating stocks of human, natural and produced (manufactured) capital which make up the productive base of an economy. Biennial Inclusive Wealth Reports (IWR)<ref name="":0"" /> track progress on sustainability across the world for 140 countries. The IWI is UNEP's metric for measuring intergenerational well-being. Implementing the IWI has been undertaken by many individual countries with UNEP support by a scientific panel headed by [[Partha Dasgupta|Sir Partha Dasgupta]] of [[Cambridge University]].

Inclusive wealth is complementary to [[Gross domestic product|Gross Domestic Product]] (GDP). In a 'stocks and flows' model, capital assets are stocks, and the goods and services provided by the assets are flows (GDP). A tree is a stock; its fruit is a flow, while its leaves provide a continuous flow of services by pulling [[carbon dioxide]] from the atmosphere to store as carbon. It is a multi-purpose indicator capable of measuring traditional stocks of wealth along with skill sets, health care, and environmental assets that underlie human progress.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351002080|title=Inclusive Wealth Report 2018|date=2018-07-18|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-00208-0|editor-last=Managi|editor-first=Shunsuke|doi=10.4324/9781351002080|s2cid=169571467 |editor-last2=Kumar|editor-first2=Pushpam}}</ref> The effective management of this capital supports the ultimate purpose of an economy – societal well-being.

=== Conceptual framework ===
[[File:Inclusive_Wealth_Per_capita.jpg|thumb|Trends in inclusive wealth, produced, human, and natural capital.]]
Produced capital (also referred to as manufactured capital) includes investment in roads, buildings, machines, equipment, and other physical infrastructure. Human capital comprises knowledge, education, skills, health and aptitude. Natural capital includes forests, [[fossil fuels]], fisheries, agricultural land, sub-soil resources, rivers and estuaries, oceans, the atmosphere and ecosystems, more generally. Social capital includes trust, the strength of community and institutions, and the ability of societies to overcome problems. An economy's institutions and politics determine the social value of its assets, because they influence what people are able to enjoy from them. IWI does not directly measure social capital, which is considered to be embedded in other capital types. Not all components of capital that are conceptually components of wealth are currently included in the Inclusive Wealth methodology. This is due to difficulties in measuring certain assets, as well as data availability and comparability constraints.

=== Methodology ===

Source:<ref name="":0"" />

The conceptual framework looks at well-being at time ''t'' as:

<math>V(t)=\int_{t}^{\infty} U(C_\tau)e^{-\delta(\tau-t)} d\tau </math>

Denoting produced, human, and natural capital as 𝐾, 𝐻, and 𝑁, the change in inclusive wealth 𝑊 is expressed by:

<math>dW=(K,H,N,t)/dt= p_k (dK/dt) + p_H(DH/dt) + p_N (dN/dt)   \delta V/\delta N </math>

where 𝑝<sub>𝐾</sub>, 𝑝<sub>𝐻</sub> and 𝑝<sub>N</sub> are the marginal [[Shadow price|shadow prices]] of produced, human, and natural capital, respectively. They are formally defined by,

<math>p_K \equiv \delta V/\delta K,  p_H\equiv \delta V/ \delta H,  p_N \equiv \delta V /\delta N </math>

given a forecast of how produced, human, and natural capitals, as well as other flow variables, evolve in the economy in question.

Practically, shadow prices act as a weight attached to each capital, resulting in the measure of wealth, or:

<math>IWI = p_K (K)+ p_H(H)+p_N(N) </math>

In practice, ''W'' and ''IWI'' can be used interchangeably, although they can differ in that IWI also uses shadow prices on the margin. In addition, the unit of IWI is monetary rather than utility.

This does not affect the sustainability assessment overall.

==== Natural capital ====
The components of natural capital include renewable resources (agricultural land, forests, and fisheries) and nonrenewable resources (fossil fuels and minerals).

The inclusion of fossil fuels within an indicator that tracks sustainability may appear counterintuitive because fossil fuels are often considered liabilities or stranded assets. The mechanism assumed in the IWI framework is the business-as-usual scenario of the imperfect economies that form the basis of our societies. The shadow price of any type of natural capital represents its marginal contribution towards social wellbeing. In this context, the potential benefit of fossil fuels for driving investment in other types of capital, outweighs the drawbacks of the [[Social cost of carbon|social costs of carbon]].

===== Non-renewable resources =====
Non-renewable natural capital resources are oil, coal, natural gas, minerals and metals. To measure a fossil fuel, data measures the stock and compared to data from other years, in order to develop a time-series that reflects accurate flows. The unit shadow price for non-renewables is the price net of extraction cost, also called the rental price. The rental rate of the total price is assumed constant.<ref name="":2"">Narayanan, B., Aguiar, A. & McDougall, R. (2012). ""Global Trade, Assistance, and Production: The GTAP 8 Data Base."" Center for Global Trade Analysis, Purdue University. Retrieved from [http://www.gtap.agecon]. purdue.edu/databases/v8/v8_doco.asp.</ref> Ideally, the marginal cost of extraction should be used for corresponding remaining stock, but this is hard to obtain. The accounting for minerals is similar to that used for fossil fuels. For rental rates, the sectoral rental rates of different mineral industries<ref name="":2"" /> are used, as well as [[United States Geological Survey|U.S. Geological Survey]] data.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey. (2015). Mineral commodity summaries. Retrieved from [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/].</ref>

===== Renewable resources =====

====== Timber ======
Timber stocks included in IWI estimates are those that are commercially available. To calculate the quantity of timber available, the total forest area, excluding cultivated forest[3], is multiplied by the timber density per area and percentage of total volume that is commercially available. The exclusion of cultivated forest from this category is debatable, as it is regarded as contributing to timber and non-timber values. Forest cultivation is categorized as a production activity in the System of National Accounts.

Following the estimation of physical stocks, shadow prices are computed to convert the wealth into monetary terms. The [[World Bank]]'s approach<ref name="":3"">World Bank. (2006). ''Where is the wealth of nations''? Washington, DC: World Bank.</ref> uses a weighted average price of two commodities for industrial roundwood and fuelwood. Country-specific GDP deflators are used to convert prices from current to constant units, and regional rental rates for timber<ref>Bolt, K., Matete, M., & Clemens, M. (2002). Manual for calculating adjusted net savings. Environment Department, World Bank, 1-23.</ref> are applied, which are assumed to be constant over time. To obtain the proxy value for the shadow price of timber, the average price over the study period (1990 to 2014) is taken. Wealth corresponding to timber value is taken as the product of quantity, price and average rental rate over time.

====== Non-timber forest benefits ======
Aside from the provisional [[ecosystem service]] of timber production, forests yield many other services. These additional ecosystem services are accounted for in the following manner: Non-cultivated forest area is retrieved from FAO (2015).<ref>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2015). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 http://www.fao.org/forest-resources-assessment/explore-data/en/</ref> The fraction of the forest area that contributes to human well-being is assumed to be 10%.<ref name="":3"" />  The unit benefit of non-timber forest to inter-temporal social well-being is obtained from the Ecosystem Service Valuation Database (ESVD) database.<ref>van der Ploeg, S. and de Groot R.S. (2010). The TEEB Valuation Database – a searchable database of 1310 estimates of monetary values of ecosystem services. Foundation for Sustainable Development, Wageningen, the Netherlands.</ref> This is expressed as USD/ha/year. Finally, to translate this benefit into capital asset value, we take its net present value, using the discount rate of 5%.

====== Fishery stocks ======
Fishery stocks cannot be estimated based on habitat area, unlike forest or agricultural lands. Marine fishery habitats often cross national borders. Global fish stocks are often assessed using trends in catch or harvest data.<ref>Pauly, D., Hilborn, R., & Branch, T. A. (2013). 'Fisheries: does catch reflect abundance?' ''Nature'', '''''494'''''(7437): 303-306.</ref> With a country's harvest and effort data, along with a catchability coefficient, stocks can be estimated using the Schefer production function.<ref>Yamaguchi, R., Sato, M., & Ueta, K. (2016). 'Measuring regional wealth and assessing sustainable development: An application to a disaster-torn region in Japan.' ''Social Indicators Research'', '''129'''(1), 365-389.</ref> For estimating fishery stocks in countries that lack sufficient effort data, a resource dynamic approach is taken.<ref>Martell, S., & Froese, R. (2013). ""A simple method for estimating MSY from catch and resilience."" ''Fish and Fisheries'', '''14'''(4): 504-514.</ref>

====== Agricultural land ======
Agricultural land is composed of cropland and pastureland. Data from [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (2015)<ref>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2015). FAOSTAT. Retrieved from [http://faostat3.fao.org/download/Q/QC/E] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019111658/http://faostat3.fao.org/download/Q/QC/E|date=2016-10-19}}.</ref> is employed to quantify cropland and pastureland area. Market prices are often unavailable for agricultural land. A shadow price is computed as the net present value of the annual flow of services per hectare, in line with [[World Bank]] (2011).<ref>World Bank. (2011). ''The changing wealth of nations''. Washington, DC: World Bank.</ref> IWI assumes the shadow price of pastureland is equal to that of cropland.

==== Shadow price ====
Shadow prices are the estimated price of a good or a service that does not have a market price. The calculation of shadow prices is central to the IWI, particularly for natural capital. Various non-market valuation techniques provide estimates for these prices. The use of shadow prices for natural capital is controversial, mainly regarding the knowledge gap surrounding how to represent production functions of life-supporting ecosystems. Nevertheless, shadow prices based on willingness to pay measures are considered the best available approach for estimating their value.<ref>Dasgupta, P. and A. Duraiappah (2012). ""Well-being and wealth. In: IHDPUNU- UNEP Inclusive Wealth Report 2012"", ''Cambridge University Press''</ref><ref>Farley, J. (2012). ""Ecosystem services: The economics debate."" ''Ecosystem Services'' 1: 40-</ref>

==== Human capital ====
The main components of human capital are health and education, but also parenting, on-the-job training, informal education and migration.

Human health is affected by daily well-being, productivity and lifespans. The latter is computed as a proxy for health-related human capital, largely because the options for quantifying the others are limited. The shadow price of health capital is the value of a statistical life year (VSLY).<ref>Arrow, K. J., Dasgupta, P., Goulder, L. H., Mumford, K. J., & Oleson, K. (2012). 'Sustainability and the measurement of wealth.' ''Environment and Development Economics'', '''17'''(3): 317-353.</ref> 

IWI methodology focuses on the return on formal education, acknowledging that non-formal education such as early childhood learning and vocational training also contribute to wealth. Using data from Barro and Lee (2013),<ref>Barro, R. & Lee, J. W. (2015). ''Education Matters: Global Schooling Gains from the 19th to the 21st Century.'' New York, NY: Oxford University Press.</ref> educational attainment is proxied by the average years of schooling per person. The rate of return on education is assumed to be 8.5%, and then multiplied by the educated population.

==== Produced capital ====
Produced capital, also referred to as manufactured capital, includes physical infrastructure, land, facilities of private firms, and dwelling places. IWI   uses the [[perpetual inventory]] method (PIM), which is a simple summation of gross investment net of depreciation that occurs in each period.<ref>Harberger, A. (1978). 'Perspectives on Capital and Technology in Less Developed Countries.' In M. Artis & A. Nobay (Eds.). ''Contemporary Economic Analysis'', Croom Helm: London.</ref><ref>King, R.G. & Levine, R. (1994). 'Capital fundamentalism, economic development and economic growth.' ''Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy'', '''40:''' 259-292.</ref><ref>Feenstra, R., Inklaar, R. & Timmer, M. (2013). ''The Next Generation of the Penn World Table''. Retrieved from www.ggdc.net/pwt</ref>

==== Adjustments ====
Three adjustments influence wealth and social well-being, but are not covered by the official capital assets:  carbon damage, oil capital gains, and total factor productivity.

Carbon damage can be regarded mostly as an exogenous change in social well-being. Calculation involves:

* Obtain global carbon emissions for the period under analysis (1990 to 2014);
* Derive global damage as a function of emissions; and
* Allocate global damage to countries according to their potential effect on global warming.

Oil prices are notorious for rapid fluctuations. Oil-rich nations benefit from spiking oil prices. Conversely, rising oil prices may result in reductions in social well-being for oil importing countries. An annual increase of 3% in the price of oil is assumed, corresponding to the annual average oil price increase during 1990–2014,<ref>BP. (2015). ''Statistical Review of World Energy 2015''. Retrieved from [http://www.bp.com/Statistical] review.</ref> implying that even if no oil is withdrawn, a nation can enjoy 3% growth in wealth. 

[[Total factor productivity]] (TFP) measures residual contributions to social well-being.<ref name="":4"">UNU-IHDP, & UNEP. (2012). Inclusive Wealth Report 2012: Measuring Progress toward Sustainability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> IWI includes TFP as an adjustment term. A non-parametric analysis called Malmquist productivity index is employed, which is based on the concept of data envelopment analysis.

== History ==
IWI was inaugurated in 2012 with the launch of the Inclusive Wealth Report (IWR) at the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]] (Rio+20). IWR 2012 compared the relative change of natural capital against produced capital and human capital. The results showed that changes in natural capital can significantly impact a nation's well-being, and that it is therefore possible to trace changes in components of wealth by country and link these to economic progress.<ref name="":4"" /> The 2014 and 2018 IWRs expanded scope to cover 140 countries. The main focus of IWR 2014<ref name="":5"">UNU-IHDP, & UNEP. (2014). Inclusive Wealth Report 2014: Measuring Progress toward Sustainability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> was to estimate the education component of human capital. In IWR 2018,<ref name="":0"" /> health was added to human capital, and fisheries were added to natural capital.<ref name="":5"" /><ref name="":1"" />

Changes in inclusive wealth are calculated using 25 year annual average growth rates. The results show that the growth of inclusive wealth is positive for many countries. Top performers include [[Republic of Korea]], [[Singapore]] and [[Malta]] among others. However, in many countries, the population is growing more quickly than the inclusive wealth. These places experienced negative per capita wealth growth. Some of the negative per capita growth of wealth occurred in countries that experienced absolute gains in wealth.

IWI looks at each country's assets and assesses the changing health of these assets over 25 years. IWR 2018 shows that 44 out of the 140 countries have suffered a decline in inclusive wealth per capita since 1992, even though GDP per capita increased in all but a handful of them. This statistic shows that their growth is unsustainably depleting resources.<ref name="":0"" />

== Inclusive Wealth Index and Sustainable Development Goals ==
[[Sustainable Development Goal 17|Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 17]] calls for developing ""measurements of progress on sustainable development that complement GDP.""  The inclusive wealth index is one way of measuring progress on the SDGs and positive development trajectories.

Infrastructure and industrialization can occur in line with sustainability considerations. On a global level, produced capital per capita has experienced the largest increase compared to human and natural capital, often at the expense of the latter. The IWI framework provides data and guidance in monitoring the trade-offs without compromising other development goals.

IWI provides governments a new and holistic guide. If inclusive wealth (adjusted for population and wealth distribution) increases as governments try to meet SDGs, the SDGs will be sustainable; if it declines, the SDGs will be unsustainable. It could be that the goals are reached, but are not sustainable because the development paths that nations choose to follow erode their productive capacities.

== 2018 Inclusive Wealth Index ==
{| class=""wikitable""
|+Table 1 Top performers on the basis of per capita inclusive wealth for 1992-2014
|'''IWI Ranking  '''
|'''            Country'''
|'''Average growth per capita 1992-2014'''
|-
|'''1'''
|Republic of Korea
|33.0%
|-
|'''2'''
|Singapore
|25.2%
|-
|'''3'''
|Malta
|18.9%
|-
|'''4'''
|Latvia
|17.9%
|-
|'''5'''
|Ireland
|17.1%
|-
|'''6'''
|Moldova
|17.0%
|-
|'''7'''
|Estonia
|16.0%
|-
|'''8'''
|Mauritius
|15.5%
|-
|'''9'''
|Lithuania
|15.2%
|-
|'''10'''
|Portugal
|13.9%
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Economic indicators]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]]
[[Category:United Nations Environment Programme]]
[[Category:Wealth]]"
Energy poverty and cooking,"{{Short description|Issues involving access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking}}
[[File:Tortillera en Guatemala.jpg|thumb|alt=a 3-stone stove|A traditional wood-fired 3-stone stove in Guatemala, which causes [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations|indoor air pollution]]]]
One aspect of '''[[energy poverty]]''' is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for '''cooking'''. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in [[Developing country|developing countries]] routinely cook with fuels such as wood, [[Dry dung fuel|animal dung]], [[coal]], or [[kerosene]]. Burning these types of fuels in open fires or traditional stoves causes harmful [[household air pollution]], resulting in an estimated 3.8 million deaths annually according to the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), and contributes to various health, socio-economic, and environmental problems.

A high priority in global sustainable development is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable. Stoves and appliances that run on electricity, [[Liquefied petroleum gas|liquid petroleum gas]] (LPG), [[piped natural gas]] (PNG), [[biogas]], alcohol, and solar heat meet WHO guidelines for clean cooking. Universal access to clean cooking facilities would have large benefits for environmental protection and for [[gender equality]].

Stoves that burn wood and other [[solid fuel]]s more efficiently than traditional stoves are known as ""improved cookstoves"" or ""clean cookstoves"". With very few exceptions, these stoves deliver fewer health benefits than stoves that use liquid or gaseous fuels. However, they reduce fuel usage and thus help to prevent [[environmental degradation]]. Improved cookstoves are an important interim solution in areas where deploying cleaner technologies is less feasible.

Initiatives to encourage cleaner cooking practices have yielded limited success. For various practical, cultural, and economic reasons, it is common for families who adopt clean stoves and fuels to continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves.

==Issues with traditional cooking fuels==
[[File:Cooking Stoves, Tigray (14425218394).jpg|thumb|Traditional [[wood-burning stove]]s]]

=== Health impacts ===
{{Further|Household air pollution#Health impacts}}
As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|date=October 2020|title=Access to clean cooking – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-clean-cooking|access-date=2021-03-31|website=IEA|language=en-GB}}</ref> in developing countries rely on burning polluting [[Biomass|biomass fuels]] such as wood, [[Dry dung fuel|dry dung]], [[coal]], or [[kerosene]] for cooking, which causes harmful [[household air pollution]] and also contributes significantly to outdoor [[air pollution]].{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=VII–XIV}} The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual deaths.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 May 2018|title=Household air pollution and health: fact sheet|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health|access-date=2020-11-21|website=WHO|language=en}}</ref> The [[Global Burden of Disease Study|Global Burden of Disease]] study estimated the number of deaths in 2017 at 1.6 million.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max|date=2019|title=Access to Energy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/indoor-air-pollution#indoor-air-pollution-is-one-of-the-leading-risk-factors-for-premature-death|access-date=1 April 2021|journal=Our World in Data|quote=""According to the Global Burden of Disease study 1.6 million people died prematurely in 2017 as a result of indoor air pollution ... But it's worth noting that the WHO publishes a substantially larger number of indoor air pollution deaths..""}}</ref>

In traditional cooking facilities, smoke is typically vented into the home rather than out through a chimney. Solid fuel smoke contains thousands of substances, many of which are hazardous to human health. The most well understood of these substances are [[Carbon monoxide (data page)|carbon monoxide]] (CO); small [[particulates|particulate matter]]; [[nitrous oxide]]; [[sulfur oxide]]s; a range of [[volatile organic compound]]s, including [[formaldehyde]], [[benzene]] and [[1,3-Butadiene|1,3-butadiene]]; and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon|polycyclic aromatic compounds]], such as [[Benzo(a)pyrene|benzo-a-pyrene]], which are thought to have both short and long term health consequences.<ref name="":10"">Peabody, J. W., Riddell, T. J., Smith, K. R., Liu, Y., Zhao, Y., Gong, J., ... & Sinton, J. E. (2005). Indoor air pollution in rural China: cooking fuels, stoves, and health status. Archives of environmental & occupational health, 60(2), 86-95.</ref>

Exposure to household air pollution (HAP) nearly doubles the risk of childhood [[pneumonia]] and is responsible for 45 percent of all pneumonia deaths in children under five years of age. Emerging evidence shows that HAP is also a risk factor for [[cataracts]], the leading cause of blindness in lower-middle-income countries, and low birth weight.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=17}} Cooking with open fires or unsafe stoves is a leading cause of [[burn]]s among women and children in developing countries.<ref name=WHO2016>{{cite web|title=Burns|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs365/en/|website=World Health Organization|access-date=1 August 2017|date=September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721132816/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs365/en/|archive-date=21 July 2017}}</ref>

=== Impacts on women and girls ===
Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=VII–XIV}}  The work of gathering fuel exposes women and children to safety risks and often consumes 15 or more hours per week, constraining their available time for education, rest, and paid work.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=VII–XIV}} Women and girls must often walk long distances to obtain cooking fuel, and, as a result, face increased risk of physical and sexual violence.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=20}} Many children, particularly girls, may not attend school in order to help their mothers with firewood collection and food preparation.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=20}}

=== Environmental impacts ===
Traditional cooking facilities are highly inefficient, allowing heat to escape into the open air. The inefficiency of fuel burning results in more wood needing to be harvested and also causes emissions of [[black carbon]], a contributor to climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Timilsina |first1=Govinda R. |last2=Malla |first2=Sunil |date=2021-01-01 |title=Clean Cooking: Why is Adoption Slow Despite Large Health and Environmental Benefits? |url=http://www.iaee.org/en/publications/eeeparticle.aspx?id=356 |journal=Economics of Energy & Environmental Policy |language=en-US |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.5547/2160-5890.9.1.gtim |s2cid=219660388 |issn=2160-5882}}</ref> Serious local environmental damage, including [[desertification]], can be caused by excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material.{{sfn|Tester|2012|p=504}}

While biomass harvesting in sensitive areas is problematic, it is now determined that the great majority of biomass clearing is due to [[agricultural expansion]] and land conversion.<ref name=""Kammen1"">[http://rael.berkeley.edu/old-site/Kammen-GatesGrandChal-stoves.doc Healthy Stoves and Fuels for Developing Nations and the Global Environment], Kammen, D. 2003. Accessed 12 May 2007.</ref> Use of crop residue and animal waste for domestic energy has detrimental results on [[soil quality]] and agricultural and livestock productivity as it means these materials are not available as soil conditioners, [[organic fertilizer]], and livestock [[fodder]].<ref name=""VillagePdf"">[http://www.ke.undp.org/KenyaEnrgyAtlasFinal-UN.pdf Global Village Energy Partnership, Nairobi, Kenya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613071848/http://www.ke.undp.org/KenyaEnrgyAtlasFinal-UN.pdf|date=13 June 2007}}, UNDP. 2005. Accessed 30 April 2007.</ref>

== Terminology ==
The term ""clean cookstove"" has often been used without defining what the term means.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vaidyanathan |first=Gayathri |title=Most of the world's poor continue to use unhealthy and polluting traditional cookstoves |url=https://scroll.in/pulse/903261/most-of-the-worlds-poor-continue-to-use-unhealthy-and-polluting-traditional-cookstoves |access-date=2021-09-26 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref> Organizations vary in how they define ""clean"":
* According to the WHO, cooking facilities are ""clean"" if their emissions of [[carbon monoxide]] and [[Fine Particulate Matter|fine particulate matter]] are below certain levels.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=11}}
* The [[Clean Cooking Alliance]] uses the term ""clean cooking"" more broadly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Onakomaiya |first1=Deborah |last2=Gyamfi |first2=Joyce |last3=Iwelunmor |first3=Juliet |last4=Opeyemi |first4=Jumoke |last5=Oluwasanmi |first5=Mofetoluwa |last6=Obiezu-Umeh |first6=Chisom |last7=Dalton |first7=Milena |last8=Nwaozuru |first8=Ucheoma |last9=Ojo |first9=Temitope |last10=Vieira |first10=Dorice |last11=Ogedegbe |first11=Gbenga |last12=Olopade |first12=Christopher |date=2019-05-14 |title=Implementation of clean cookstove interventions and its effects on blood pressure in low-income and middle-income countries: systematic review |journal=BMJ Open |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=e026517 |doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026517 |issn=2044-6055 |pmc=6530298 |pmid=31092656}}</ref> Its definition includes what the WHO refers to as ""improved cookstoves"", i.e. stoves that burn biomass fuel more efficiently than traditional stoves. As of 2020, the vast majority of stoves that burn biomass fuel do not qualify as clean under WHO standards even if they are more efficient than traditional stoves.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last1=Gill-Wiehl |first1=A. |last2=Ray |first2=I. |last3=Kammen |first3=D. |date=2021-11-01 |title=Is clean cooking affordable? A review |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=151 |pages=111537 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2021.111537 |issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The WHO has criticized the marketing of biomass cookstoves as ""improved"" when they have not been tested against standards and their health benefits are unclear.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=11}}

== WHO-recommended clean cooking facilities ==
[[File:ALSOL.jpg|thumb|[[Solar cookers]] are nonpolluting and free to use, but require favourable weather and longer cooking times.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}}]]
A high priority in global [[sustainable development]] is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable.<ref name=""auto"">{{Cite web|last=United Nations|date=2018|title=Accelerating SDG 7 Achievement Policy Brief 02: Achieving Universal Access to Clean and Modern Cooking Fuels, Technologies and Services|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17465PB2.pdf|access-date=April 5, 2021|website=UN.org}}</ref>

According to the WHO, stoves and appliances that are powered by electricity, [[Liquefied petroleum gas|liquid petroleum gas]] (LPG), piped [[natural gas]] (PNG), [[biogas]], alcohol, and solar heat are ""clean"".{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}} Best-in-class [[fan gasifier]] stoves that burn [[biomass pellets]] can be classified as clean cooking facilities if they are correctly operated and the pellets have sufficiently low levels of moisture, but these stoves are not widely available.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=19}}

Electricity can be used to power appliances such as electric pressure cookers, [[rice cookers]], and highly efficient [[induction stove]]s, in addition to standard electric stoves. [[Induction cooking|Electric induction stoves]] are so efficient that they create less pollution than liquified petroleum gas (LPG) even when connected to coal power sources, and are sometimes cheaper.<ref name=""Injury Prevention and Environmental Health"">{{cite book |author=Nugent |first1=R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnsBwgEACAAJ |title=Injury Prevention and Environmental Health. 3rd Edition |last2=Mock |first2=CN |last3=Kobusingye |first3=O |publisher=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank |year=2017 |chapter=Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525225/}}</ref> For stews, beans, rice and other foods that can be adapted to [[electric pressure cookers]], the savings are even greater.<ref>{{Cite web |title=eCookbooks |url=https://www.mecsplus.org/ecookbook |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=MECS Plus |language=en}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=October 2022}}. As of 2019, 770 million people do not have access to electricity,<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|title=Access to electricity – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-electricity|access-date=2021-05-05|website=IEA|language=en-GB}}</ref> and for many others electricity is not affordable or reliable. Because [[access to electricity]] is also a high priority in global sustainable development, integrated planning for new and improved electricity infrastructure that includes both typical electric loads as well as cooking loads is beginning to gain momentum. Indeed, this kind of [[integrated resource planning]] for electricity systems may deliver faster and lower-cost solutions to both access to electricity and to clean cooking.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ESMAP.2020 |title=The State of Access to Modern Energy Cooking Services (English). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. |url=https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/937141600195758792/The-State-of-Access-to-Modern-Energy-Cooking-Services |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Electric cooking can improve health, reduce climate impacts, and boost business models for universal electrification. |url=https://www.earthsparkinternational.org/clean-cooking.html |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=EarthSpark International |language=en}}</ref>

[[Gas stove|Natural gas stoves]], which are widely used in richer countries, are not without health risks. They emit high levels of [[nitrogen dioxide]], an atmospheric pollutant that is linked to [[oxidative stress]] and acute reduction in lung function.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite journal |last1=Garcia |first1=Erika |last2=Rice |first2=Mary B |last3=Gold |first3=Diane R |date=July 2021 |title=Air pollution and lung function in children |journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology |volume=148 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2021.05.006 |issn=0091-6749 |pmc=8274324 |pmid=34238501}}</ref> Studies on the effects of indoor cooking with natural gas have yielded inconsistent results.<ref name="":4"" /> According to a 2010 meta-analysis, the evidence suggests that the practice leads to small reductions in lung function in children, and that children with allergies may be more susceptible.<ref name="":4"" />

[[Biogas]] digesters convert waste, such as human waste and animal dung, into a methane-rich gas that burns cleanly. Biogas systems are a promising technology in areas where each household has at least two large animals to provide dung, and a steady supply of water is also available.<ref name=""Injury Prevention and Environmental Health2"">{{cite book|last1=Nugent|first1=R|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnsBwgEACAAJ|title=Injury Prevention and Environmental Health. 3rd Edition|last2=Mock|first2=C.N.|publisher=[[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] / The World Bank|year=2017|editor-last1=Kobusingye|editor-first1=O.|chapter=Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health|access-date=13 April 2021|display-editors=etal|chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525225/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413111557/https://books.google.com/books?id=KnsBwgEACAAJ|archive-date=13 April 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Solar cooker]]s collect and concentrate the sun's heat when sunshine is available.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}}

==Improved cook stoves==
{{redirect|Biomass cooking stove|a kitchen cooker, stove, range, oven, or stove top|Kitchen stove}}
[[File:Clean Cooking in Refugee Settlement.jpg|thumb|Improved cook stoves, such as the ones shown here, burn biomass relatively efficiently but usually still emit toxic levels of pollutants.]]
[[File:Murhun gargajiya na dutse.jpg|thumb|A traditional three-stone fire in Nigeria. This is the cheapest stove to produce, requiring only three suitable stones of the same height on which a [[cooking pot]] can be balanced over a fire. ]]
Improved cook stoves (ICS), often marketed as ""clean cookstoves"",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-09-21 |title=How Hillary Clinton's clean stoves will help African women {{!}} Madeleine Bunting |url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2010/sep/21/hillary-clinton-clean-stove-initiative-africa |access-date=2023-01-08 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> are biomass stoves that generally burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves and open fires.

Compared to traditional cook stoves, ICS are usually more fuel-efficient and aim to reduce the negative health impacts associated with exposure to toxic smoke.<ref name="":1a"">{{cite journal |last1=Gall |first1=Elliott T. |last2=Carter |first2=Ellison M. |last3=Matt Earnest |first3=C. |last4=Stephens |first4=Brent |title=Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries: Research and Implementation Needs for Improvements in Global Public Health |journal=American Journal of Public Health |date=April 2013 |volume=103 |issue=4 |pages=e67–e72 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300955 |pmid=23409891 |pmc=3673244 }}</ref> As of 2016, no widely-available biomass stoves meet the standards for clean cooking as defined by the WHO.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=88}} A 2020 review found only one biomass stove on the market that met WHO standards in field conditions.<ref name="":2"" />

Despite their limitations, ICS are an important interim solution where deploying fully clean solutions that use electricity, gas, or alcohol is less feasible.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=12}}  As of 2009, less than 30% of people who cook with some sort of biomass stove use ICS.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=Anita|last2=Johnson|first2=Michael|last3=Kay|first3=Ethan|last4=Pannu|first4=Raj|last5=Beltramo|first5=Theresa|last6=Derby|first6=Elisa|last7=Harrell|first7=Stephen|last8=Davis|first8=Curt|last9=Petach|first9=Helen|date=2014-07-22|title=Maximizing the benefits of improved cookstoves: moving from acquisition to correct and consistent use|journal=Global Health: Science and Practice|volume=2|issue=3|pages=268–274|doi=10.9745/GHSP-D-14-00060|issn=2169-575X|pmc=4168629|pmid=25276586}}</ref>

=== Benefits and limitations ===
Improved cookstoves are more efficient, meaning that the stove's users spend less time gathering wood or other fuels, while reducing deforestation and air pollution. However, a closed stove may result in production of more [[black carbon|soot]] and ultra-fine particles than an open fire would.<ref name=ClimateWire4513>{{cite news|title=Study finds improved cookstoves solve one emissions problem, but create another|url=http://www.eenews.net/public/climatewire/2013/04/05/1|access-date=April 5, 2013|newspaper=ClimateWire E & E Publishing|date=April 5, 2013|author=Umair Irfan}}</ref> Some designs also make the stove safer, preventing burns that often occur when children stumble into open fires.

The efficiency improvements of ICS do not necessarily translate into meaningful reductions in health risks{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=11–12}} because for certain conditions, such as childhood [[pneumonia]], the relationship between pollution levels and effects on the body has been shown to be [[Non-linear effects|non-linear]]. This means, for example, that a 50 percent reduction in exposure would not halve the health risk.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=19}} A 2020 [[systematic review]] found that ICS usage led to modest improvements in terms of blood pressure, shortness of breath, emissions of cancer-causing substances, and cardiovascular diseases, but no improvements in pregnancy outcomes or children's health.<ref name=""Pratiti et al 2020"">{{cite journal |last1=Pratiti |first1=Rebecca |last2=Vadala |first2=David |last3=Kalynych |first3=Zirka |last4=Sud |first4=Parul |date=July 2020 |title=Health effects of household air pollution related to biomass cook stoves in resource limited countries and its mitigation by improved cookstoves |journal=Environmental Research |volume=186 |pages=109574 |bibcode=2020ER....186j9574P |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2020.109574 |pmid=32668541 |s2cid=219033298}}</ref>

Substantial variations in emissions and fuel consumption have been observed across ranges of cookstove designs and between laboratory and field test conditions. At present, a standard testing mechanism does not exist to establish the true impact of alternative cookstove designs as well as descriptive language for exposure. Stove testing studies are not always consistent depending largely on the discipline of investigators and their scientific specialization.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Research and Evaluation |work=Global Alliance for Clean Cook Stoves |url=http://cleancookstoves.org/research-and-evaluation/ |access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref><ref name="":1a"" />

The World Health Organization encourages further research to develop biomass stove technology that is low-emission, affordable, durable, and meets users' needs.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=88}}

==Non-technological interventions==
Behavioral change interventions, in reducing childhood household exposures, have the potential to reduce household air pollution exposure by 20–98%. Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) exposure can be greatly reduced by cooking outdoors, reducing time spent in the cooking area, keeping the kitchen door open while cooking, avoid leaning over the fire while attending to the&nbsp; meal preparation, staying away while carrying children when cooking and keeping the children away from the cooking area. Negative impacts can also be reduced by changes to the environment (e.g. use of a chimney), drying fuel wood before use, and using a lid during cooking.<ref name=""WHO"">[https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs292/en/index.html Indoor air pollution and health] - [[World Health Organization]] fact sheet.</ref>

Opportunities to educate communities on reducing household indoor air pollution exposure include festival collaborations, religious meetings, and medical outreach clinics. Community health workers represent a significant resource for educating communities to help raise awareness regarding reducing the effects of indoor air pollution.<ref>Amegah, A. K., & Jaakkola, J. J. (2016). Household air pollution and the sustainable development goals. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 94(3), 215.</ref>

==Challenges==
[[File:Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking, OWID.svg|thumb|Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking.<ref>{{cite web |title=Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/access-to-clean-fuels-and-technologies-for-cooking |access-date=15 February 2020 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref>]]
Many users of clean stoves and fuels continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves, a phenomenon known as ""fuel stacking"" or ""stove stacking"".{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=42}} For instance, a recent study in [[Kenya]] found that households that are primary LPG users consume 42 percent as much [[charcoal]] as households that are primary charcoal users.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=42}}

When stacking is practiced, the introduction of clean cooking facilities may not reduce household air pollution enough to make a meaningful difference in health outcomes.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}} There are many reasons to continue to use traditional fuels and stoves, such as unreliable fuel supply, the cost of fuel, the ability of stoves to accommodate different types of pots and cooking techniques, and the need to travel long distances to repair stoves.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhodes |first1=Evelyn |last2=Dreibelbis |first2=Robert |last3=Klasen |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Naithani |first4=Neha |last5=Baliddawa |first5=Joyce |last6=Menya |first6=Diana |last7=Khatry |first7=Subarna |last8=Levy |first8=Stephanie |last9=Tielsch |first9=James |last10=Miranda |first10=J. |last11=Kennedy |first11=Caitlin |last12=Checkley |first12=William |date=3 October 2014 |title=Behavioral Attitudes and Preferences in Cooking Practices with Traditional Open-Fire Stoves in Peru, Nepal, and Kenya: Implications for Improved Cookstove Interventions |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=10310–10326 |doi=10.3390/ijerph111010310 |pmc=4210980 |pmid=25286166 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Research and implementation efforts are frequently pursued with insufficient coordination with supporting organizations, which, in many cases has led to widespread implementation of so called ""improved"" stoves that have sometimes failed to deliver on the promise of reducing indoor air pollution. Cookstove implementation efforts have often achieved mixed results because of technical and social complexities, such as the need to involve both women (who typically are responsible for cooking) and men (who typically control household spending).{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Efforts to improve access to clean cooking fuels and stoves have barely kept up with population growth, and current and planned policies would still leave 2.4 billion people without access in 2030.<ref name="":3"" />

== Environmental and sustainable development effects ==
[[File:Bread Maker, Adigrat (11815897476).jpg|thumb|alt=Woman baking bread on an electric stove|A woman cooks with electricity, a clean energy source, in [[Ethiopia]].]]
Transitioning to cleaner cooking methods is expected to either slightly raise [[greenhouse gas emissions]] or decrease emissions, even if the replacement fuels are fossil fuels. There is evidence that switching to LPG and PNG has a smaller climate effect than the combustion of solid fuels, which emits [[methane]] and [[black carbon]].{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=75}} The burning of residential solid fuels accounts for up to 58 percent of global black carbon emissions.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=22}} The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] stated in 2018, ""The costs of achieving nearly universal access to electricity and clean fuels for cooking and heating are projected to be between 72 and 95 billion USD per year until 2030 with minimal effects on GHG emissions.""{{sfn|IPCC SR15 Ch5|2018|loc=SPM.5.1}}

Universal access to clean cooking is an element of the UN [[Sustainable Development Goal 7]], whose first target is: ""By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services"".<ref name="":172"">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref>  Progress in clean cooking would facilitate progress in other Sustainable Development goals, such as eliminating poverty ([[Sustainable Development Goal 1|Goal 1]]), good health and well-being ([[Sustainable Development Goal 3|Goal 3]]), gender equality ([[Sustainable Development Goal 5|Goal 5]]), and climate action ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13|Goal 13]]).<ref name=""auto""/> An indicator of Goal 7 is the proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies for cooking, heating, and lighting, using the WHO's definition of ""clean"".<ref name="":0"">UN Statistics (2016) [https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/metadata-compilation/Metadata-Goal-7.pdf Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all] (Updated on 30 March 2016)</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Cooking|Food}}
* [[Energy poverty]]
* [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations]]
* [[Sustainable energy]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Book sources===
* {{cite book|last =Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP)|year= 2020|title= The State of Access to Modern Energy Cooking Services|ref={{harvid|ESMAP|2020}}|location=Washington, DC|publisher= World Bank|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/energy/publication/the-state-of-access-to-modern-energy-cooking-services}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by3}}
* {{cite book|last=Tester|first=Jefferson|title=Sustainable Energy : Choosing Among Options|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachutetts|pages=|year=2012|isbn=978-0-262-01747-3|oclc=892554374}}
* {{Cite book|last=World Health Organization|url=https://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124101534/http://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 24, 2017|title=Burning opportunity : clean household energy for health, sustainable development, and wellbeing of women and children|year=2016|location=Geneva, Switzerland}}
* {{cite book  |ref={{harvid|IPCC SR15 Ch5|2018}} <!-- ipcc:20200312 -->
 |year=2018
 |chapter=Chapter 5: Sustainable Development, Poverty Eradication and Reducing Inequalities
 |chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter5_High_Res.pdf
 |display-authors=4
 |first1=J.     |last1=Roy
 |first2=P.     |last2=Tschakert
 |first3=H.     |last3=Waisman
 |first4=S.     |last4=Abdul Halim
 |first5=P.     |last5=Antwi-Agyei
 |first6=P.     |last6=Dasgupta
 |first7=B.     |last7=Hayward
 |first8=M.     |last8=Kanninen
 |first9=D.     |last9=Liverman
 |first10=C.    |last10=Okereke
 |first11=P. F. |last11=Pinho
 |first12=K.    |last12=Riahi
 |first13=A. G. |last13=Suarez Rodriguez
 |title=Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5&nbsp;°C
 |pages=445–538
}}

[[Category:Sustainable energy]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:Air pollution]]
[[Category:Cooking]]
[[Category:Environmental health]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Women's health]]"
Sustainable energy,"{{Short description|Energy that responsibly meets social, economic, and environmental needs}}
{{Redirect|Green power}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
<noinclude>{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 350
| image1            = Andasol Guadix 4.jpg
| alt1              = Concentrated solar power parabolic troughs in the distance arranged in rectangles shining on a flat plain with snowy mountains in the background
| image2            = Darling_Wind_Farm.jpg
| alt2              = Wind turbines beside a red dirt road
| image3            = Kawasaki c751 eunos.jpg
| alt3              = Mass rapid transit train
| image4            = Bread Maker, Adigrat (11815897476).jpg
| alt4              = Woman cooking bread on an electric stove
| footer            = Sustainable energy examples: [[Concentrated solar power]] with [[Thermal energy storage#Molten salt technology|molten salt heat storage]] in Spain; [[wind energy]] in South Africa; electrified [[public transport]] in Singapore; and [[clean cooking]] in Ethiopia.
}}</noinclude>

[[Energy system|Energy]] is [[sustainability|sustainable]] if it ""meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of [[future generations]] to meet their own needs.""{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=5–6}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Wei |last2=Li |first2=Binshuai |last3=Xue |first3=Rui |last4=Wang |first4=Chengcheng |last5=Cao |first5=Wei |title=A systematic bibliometric review of clean energy transition: Implications for low-carbon development |journal=[[PLOS One|PLOS ONE]] |date=2021 |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=e0261091 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0261091 |pmid=34860855 |pmc=8641874 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021PLoSO..1661091Z }}</ref>  Most definitions of '''sustainable energy''' include considerations of environmental aspects such as [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and social and economic aspects such as [[energy poverty]]. [[Renewable energy]] sources such as [[wind power|wind]], [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power]], [[solar energy|solar]], and [[geothermal energy]] are generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel sources. However, some renewable energy projects, such as the clearing of forests to produce [[biofuels]], can cause severe environmental damage.

The role of non-renewable energy sources in sustainable energy has been controversial. [[Nuclear power]] is a [[Low-carbon power|low-carbon]] source whose historic mortality rates are comparable to those of wind and solar, but its [[sustainability]] has been debated because of concerns about [[radioactive waste]], [[nuclear proliferation]], and [[Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents|accidents]]. Switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower [[climate change|climate impact]], but may lead to a delay in switching to more sustainable options. [[Carbon capture and storage]] can be built into power plants to remove their [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented.

[[Fossil fuel]]s provide 85% of the world's energy consumption, and the energy system is responsible for 76% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Around 790&nbsp;million people in [[Developing country|developing countries]] lack [[rural electrification|access to electricity]], and 2.6&nbsp;billion rely on polluting fuels such as wood or charcoal to cook. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions to levels consistent with the 2015 [[Paris Agreement]] will require a system-wide transformation of the way energy is produced, distributed, stored, and consumed. The burning of [[fossil fuels]] and [[biomass]] is a major contributor to [[air pollution]], which causes an estimated 7&nbsp;million deaths each year. Therefore, the transition to a low-carbon energy system would have strong [[Co-benefits of climate change mitigation|co-benefits]] for human health. Pathways exist to provide universal access to electricity and [[clean cooking]] in ways that are compatible with climate goals while bringing major health and economic benefits to developing countries.

[[Climate change mitigation]] pathways have been proposed to limit global warming to {{convert|2|C-change}}. These pathways include phasing out coal-fired power plants, producing more electricity from clean sources such as [[wind energy|wind]] and [[Solar power|solar]], and shifting towards using [[Electrification|electricity instead of fossil fuels]] in sectors such as transport and heating buildings. For some energy-intensive technologies and processes that are difficult to electrify, many pathways describe a growing role for [[Green hydrogen|hydrogen fuel]] produced from low-emission energy sources. To accommodate larger shares of [[variable renewable energy]], [[electrical grid]]s require flexibility through infrastructure such as [[grid energy storage|energy storage]]. To make deep reductions in emissions, infrastructure and technologies that use energy, such as buildings and transport systems, would need to be changed to use clean forms of energy and also [[Energy conservation|conserve energy]]. Some critical technologies for eliminating energy-related greenhouse gas emissions are not yet mature.  

Wind and solar energy generated 8.5% of worldwide electricity in 2019. This share has grown rapidly while costs have fallen and are projected to continue falling. The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) estimates that 2.5% of world [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) would need to be invested in the energy system each year between 2016 and 2035 to limit global warming to {{convert|1.5|C-change}}. Well-designed government policies that promote energy system transformation can lower greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality. In many cases, they also increase [[energy security]]. Policy approaches include [[Carbon price|carbon pricing]], [[renewable portfolio standard]]s, phase-outs of [[fossil fuel subsidies]], and the development of infrastructure to support electrification and sustainable transport. Funding the research, development, and demonstration of new clean energy technologies is also an important role of the government.

<noinclude>{{Sustainable energy}}</noinclude>

{{TOC limit|3}}

==Definitions and background==
{{quote box
| halign = left
| quote = ""Energy is the golden thread that connects economic growth, increased social equity, and an environment that allows the world to thrive. Development is not possible without energy, and sustainable development is not possible without sustainable energy.""
| author = UN Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]]{{sfn|United Nations Development Programme|2016|p=5}}
| width = 25%
}}

=== Definitions ===
The United Nations [[Brundtland Commission]] described the concept of [[sustainable development]], for which energy is a key component, in its 1987 report ''[[Our Common Future]]''. It defined sustainable development as meeting ""the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs"".{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=5–6}} This description of sustainable development has since been referenced in many definitions and explanations of sustainable energy.{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=5–6}}<ref name="":OU"">{{Cite web|publisher=[[The Open University]] |title=Definitions: energy, sustainability and the future |url=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/nature-environment/environmental-studies/introduction-sustainable-energy/content-section-2|access-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127144447/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/nature-environment/environmental-studies/introduction-sustainable-energy/content-section-2|archive-date=27 January 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Golus̆in|Popov|Dodić|2013|p=8}}<ref name="":Galarraga"">{{Citec|year=2011 |last1=Hammond|first1=Geoffrey P.|last2=Jones|first2=Craig I.|pages=21–47|in=Galarraga|in2=González-Eguino|in3=Markandya|chapter=Sustainability criteria for energy resources and technologies}}</ref> 

There is no universally accepted interpretation of how the concept of [[sustainability]] applies to energy on a global scale.<ref name="":ECE"" /> Working definitions of sustainable energy encompass multiple dimensions of sustainability such as environmental, economic, and social dimensions.<ref name="":Galarraga"" /> Historically, the concept of sustainable energy development has focused on emissions and on [[energy security]]. Since the early 1990s, the concept has broadened to encompass wider social and economic issues.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gunnarsdottir|first1=I.|last2=Davidsdottir|first2=B.|last3=Worrel|first3=E. |last4=Sigurgeirsdottir|first4=S.|date=2021|title=Sustainable energy development: History of the concept and emerging themes|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032121000654|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=141|pages=110770 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2021.110770 |s2cid=233585148|issn=1364-0321|access-date=15 August 2021|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815092522/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032121000654|url-status=live}}</ref> 

The environmental dimension of sustainability includes [[Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas emissions]], impacts on [[biodiversity]] and ecosystems, hazardous waste and toxic emissions,<ref name="":ECE"">{{harvnb|UNECE|2020|pp=3–4}}</ref> water consumption,{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=1–2}} and depletion of non-renewable resources.<ref name="":Galarraga"" /> Energy sources with low environmental impact are sometimes called ''green energy'' or ''clean energy''. The economic dimension of sustainability covers economic development, efficient use of energy, and energy security to ensure that each country has constant access to sufficient energy.<ref name="":ECE"" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vera |first1=Ivan |last2=Langlois |first2=Lucille |title=Energy indicators for sustainable development |journal=[[Energy (journal)|Energy]] |date=2007 |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=875–882 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2006.08.006 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360544206002337 |issn=0360-5442 |access-date=15 August 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815113307/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360544206002337 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=3–5}} Social issues include access to affordable and reliable energy for all people, [[workers rights|workers' rights]], and land rights.<ref name="":Galarraga"" /><ref name="":ECE"" />

===Environmental impacts===
<!--[[File:Global primary energy consumption, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Graph showing growth of energy technologies. Coal shrank slightly between 2014 and 2019, whereas oil and gas grew. Nuclear and hydro had a slow growth, in contrast to other renewables. |The use of modern [[renewable energy]] sources increased from 2000 to 2019 but coal, oil, and natural gas remain the most-used global energy sources.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global direct primary energy consumption|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-primary-energy|access-date=16 July 2021|website=[[Our World in Data]]|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513154003/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-primary-energy|url-status=live}}</ref>]]-->
[[File:Rajasthan carrying firewood.jpeg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a woman carrying firewood she has gathered on her head| A woman in rural [[Rajasthan]], India, collects firewood. The [[Energy poverty and cooking|use of wood and other polluting fuels for cooking]] causes millions of deaths each year from [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations|indoor]] and outdoor [[air pollution]].]]
The current energy system contributes to many environmental problems, including [[climate change]], [[air pollution]], [[biodiversity loss]], the release of toxins into the environment, and water scarcity. As of 2019, 85% of the world's energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|p=46}} Energy production and consumption are responsible for 76% of annual human-caused greenhouse gas emissions as of 2018.<ref name="":23"">{{Cite web|title=Global Historical Emissions |url=https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions?breakBy=sector&chartType=percentage&end_year=2018&sectors=total-including-lucf&start_year=1990 |access-date=19 August 2021 |website=[[Climate Watch (World Resources Institute)|Climate Watch]]|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604144234/https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions?breakBy=sector&chartType=percentage&end_year=2018&start_year=1990|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Ge |first1=Mengpin |last2=Friedrich |first2=Johannes |last3=Vigna |first3=Leandro |title=4 Charts Explain Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Countries and Sectors |url=https://www.wri.org/insights/4-charts-explain-greenhouse-gas-emissions-countries-and-sectors |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=August 2021 |publisher=[[World Resources Institute]] |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819011608/https://www.wri.org/insights/4-charts-explain-greenhouse-gas-emissions-countries-and-sectors |url-status=live }}</ref> The 2015 international [[Paris Agreement]] on climate change aims to limit global warming to well below {{convert|2|C-change}} and preferably to 1.5&nbsp;°C (2.7&nbsp;°F); achieving this goal will require that emissions be reduced as soon as possible and reach [[Net-zero emissions|net-zero]] by mid-century.<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]|title=The Paris Agreement|url=https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319205057/https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement}}</ref>

The burning of fossil fuels and [[biomass]] is a major source of [[air pollution]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Watts|first1=Nick|last2=Amann|first2=Markus|last3=Arnell|first3=Nigel|last4=Ayeb-Karlsson |first4=Sonja|last5=Beagley |first5=Jessica|last6=Belesova|first6=Kristine|last7=Boykoff|first7=Maxwell |last8=Byass|first8=Peter|last9=Cai|first9=Wenjia|last10=Campbell-Lendrum|first10=Diarmid|display-authors=4 |date=2021|title=The 2020 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: responding to converging crises|journal=[[The Lancet]]|volume=397|issue=10269|page=151|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32290-X |pmid=33278353|issn=0140-6736|doi-access=free|url=http://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/33779/1/33779_DOMINGUEZ%20SALAS_2020_report_of_the_Lancet_countdown.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=4 June 2019|title=Every breath you take: The staggering, true cost of air pollution|url=https://stories.undp.org/every-breath-you-take|url-status=live|access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420022524/https://stories.undp.org/every-breath-you-take |archive-date=20 April 2021}}</ref> which causes an estimated 7&nbsp;million deaths each year, with the greatest attributable disease burden seen in low and middle-income countries.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 September 2021|title=New WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines aim to save millions of lives from air pollution|url=https://www.who.int/news/item/22-09-2021-new-who-global-air-quality-guidelines-aim-to-save-millions-of-lives-from-air-pollution |url-status=live|access-date=16 October 2021|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|archive-date=23 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923021545/https://www.who.int/news/item/22-09-2021-new-who-global-air-quality-guidelines-aim-to-save-millions-of-lives-from-air-pollution}}</ref> Fossil-fuel burning in power plants, vehicles, and factories is the main source of emissions that combine with oxygen in the atmosphere to cause [[acid rain]].<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|title=Acid Rain and Water|url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/acid-rain-and-water?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects|url-status=live|access-date=14 October 2021|archive-date=27 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627103228/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/acid-rain-and-water?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects}}</ref> Air pollution is the second-leading cause of death from non-infectious disease.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2018|p=16}} An estimated 99% of the world's population lives with levels of air pollution that exceed the [[World Health Organization]] recommended limits.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 September 2021 |title=Ambient (outdoor) air pollution|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health|access-date=22 October 2021|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008055940/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-%28outdoor%29-air-quality-and-health|archive-date=8 October 2021}}</ref> 

[[Energy poverty and cooking|Cooking with polluting fuels]] such as wood, animal dung, coal, or [[kerosene]] is responsible for nearly all indoor air pollution, which causes an estimated 1.6 to 3.8&nbsp;million deaths annually,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max |date=2019|title=Access to Energy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/indoor-air-pollution#indoor-air-pollution-is-one-of-the-leading-risk-factors-for-premature-death|access-date=1 April 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401122036/https://ourworldindata.org/indoor-air-pollution#indoor-air-pollution-is-one-of-the-leading-risk-factors-for-premature-death |archive-date=1 April 2021 |journal=[[Our World in Data]]}}</ref>{{sfn|World Health Organization|2018|p=16}} and also contributes significantly to outdoor air pollution.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=vii–xiv}} Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=vii–xiv}}

Environmental impacts extend beyond the by-products of combustion. [[Oil spill]]s at sea harm marine life and may cause fires which release toxic emissions.{{sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|p=118}} Around 10% of global water use goes to energy production, mainly for cooling in thermal energy plants. In dry regions, this contributes to [[water scarcity]]. Bioenergy production, coal mining and processing, and oil extraction also require large amounts of water.{{sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|pp=470–472}} Excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material for burning can cause serious local environmental damage, including [[desertification]].{{sfn|Tester|2012|p=504}}

In 2021, [[UNECE]] published a lifecycle analysis of the environmental impact of numerous electricity generation technologies, accounting for the following: resource use (minerals, metals); land use; resource use (fossils); water use; particulate matter; photochemical ozone formation; ozone depletion; human toxicity (non-cancer); ionising radiation; human toxicity (cancer); eutrophication (terrestrial, marine, freshwater); ecotoxicity (freshwater); acidification; climate change.<ref name="":9"">{{Cite report|title=Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Options|publisher=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]]|url=https://unece.org/sed/documents/2021/10/reports/life-cycle-assessment-electricity-generation-options|access-date=24 November 2021|page=59|date=|archive-date=15 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115074531/https://unece.org/sed/documents/2021/10/reports/life-cycle-assessment-electricity-generation-options|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Sustainable development goals ===
{{Further|Energy poverty|Energy poverty and cooking}}
[[File:People-without-electricity-country-2016.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Map of people with access to energy. Lack of access is most pronounced in India, Sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia.|World map showing where people without access to electricity lived in 2016⁠—mainly in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and the [[Indian subcontinent]]]]
Meeting existing and future energy demands in a sustainable way is a critical challenge for the global goal of limiting climate change while maintaining economic growth and enabling living standards to rise.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Kessides|first1=Ioannis N.|last2=Toman|first2=Michael|date=28 July 2011|title=The Global Energy Challenge|url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/the-global-energy-challenge|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725174744/http://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/the-global-energy-challenge|archive-date=25 July 2019|access-date=27 September 2019|url-status=live|publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> Reliable and affordable energy, particularly electricity, is essential for health care, education, and economic development.{{sfn|Morris|Mensah-Kutin|Greene|Diam-valla|2015|pp=24–27}} As of 2020, 790&nbsp;million people in developing countries do not have access to electricity, and around 2.6&nbsp;billion rely on burning polluting fuels for cooking.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|date=October 2020 |title=Access to clean cooking|work=SDG7: Data and Projections |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-clean-cooking|access-date=31 March 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206163046/https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-clean-cooking|archive-date=6 December 2019|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|ref=none}}</ref>{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=167}}

Improving energy access in the [[Least developed countries|least-developed countries]] and making energy cleaner are key to achieving most of the United Nations 2030 [[Sustainable Development Goals]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sarkodie |first=Samuel Asumadu |date=20 July 2022 |title=Winners and losers of energy sustainability—Global assessment of the Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=831 |at=154945 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154945 |pmid=35367559 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.831o4945S |s2cid=247881708 |issn=0048-9697 |doi-access=free |hdl=11250/3023660 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> which cover issues ranging from [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|climate action]] to [[Sustainable Development Goal 5|gender equality]].<ref name=""Welcome to the United Nations 2018"">{{cite press release|author=Deputy Secretary-General|date=6 June 2018|title=Sustainable Development Goal 7 on Reliable, Modern Energy 'Golden Thread' Linking All Other Targets, Deputy-Secretary-General Tells High-Level Panel|publisher=[[United Nations]] |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/dsgsm1182.doc.htm|url-status=live|access-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517215032/https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/dsgsm1182.doc.htm|archive-date=17 May 2021}}</ref> [[Sustainable Development Goal 7]] calls for ""access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all"", including universal [[access to electricity]] and to [[Clean cooking|clean cooking facilities]] by 2030.<ref name="":5"">{{Cite web|title=Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all|url=https://sdg-tracker.org/energy|work=SDG Tracker |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202044832/https://sdg-tracker.org/energy|archive-date=2 February 2021|access-date=12 March 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Energy conservation==
{{Main|Energy conservation|Efficient energy use}}
[[File:Energy use per person 2019 - OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Countries such as the US and Canada use twice as much energy per capita as Japan or western Europe, and 100 times as much commercial energy per capita as some African countries.|[[World energy consumption|Global energy usage]] is highly unequal. High income countries such as the United States and Canada use 100 times as much energy per capita as some of the [[least developed countries]] in Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Energy use per person|website=[[Our World in Data]] |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/per-capita-energy-use|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128155350/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/per-capita-energy-use |archive-date=28 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Energy efficiency—using less energy to deliver the same goods or services, or delivering comparable services with less goods—is a cornerstone of many sustainable energy strategies.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 February 2016|title=Europe 2030: Energy saving to become ""first fuel"" |url=https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/news/europe-2030-energy-saving-become-first-fuel|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|work=EU Science Hub|publisher=[[European Commission]]|archive-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918213742/https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/news/europe-2030-energy-saving-become-first-fuel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Motherway|first=Brian|date=19 December 2019|title=Energy efficiency is the first fuel, and demand for it needs to grow|url=https://www.iea.org/commentaries/energy-efficiency-is-the-first-fuel-and-demand-for-it-needs-to-grow|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|archive-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918213716/https://www.iea.org/commentaries/energy-efficiency-is-the-first-fuel-and-demand-for-it-needs-to-grow}}</ref> The [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) has estimated that increasing energy efficiency could achieve 40% of greenhouse gas emission reductions needed to fulfil the Paris Agreement's goals.<ref>{{Cite web| date=October 2018 |title=Energy Efficiency 2018: Analysis and outlooks to 2040|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2018|url-status=live|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|archive-date=29 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929142015/https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2018}}</ref>   

Energy can be conserved by increasing the technical efficiency of appliances, vehicles, industrial processes, and buildings.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 June 2021|title=Net zero by 2050 hinges on a global push to increase energy efficiency|url=https://www.iea.org/articles/net-zero-by-2050-hinges-on-a-global-push-to-increase-energy-efficiency|url-status=live|access-date=19 July 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|last1=Fernandez Pales |first1=Araceli|first2=Stéphanie|last2=Bouckaert|first3=Thibaut |last3=Abergel|first4=Timothy|last4=Goodson|archive-date=20 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720145913/https://www.iea.org/articles/net-zero-by-2050-hinges-on-a-global-push-to-increase-energy-efficiency}}</ref> Another approach is to use fewer materials whose production requires a lot of energy, for example through better building design and recycling. Behavioural changes such as using [[videoconferencing]] rather than business flights, or making urban trips by cycling, walking or public transport rather than by car, are another way to conserve energy.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=68–69}} Government policies to improve efficiency can include [[building codes]], [[Minimum energy performance standard|performance standards]], [[Carbon price|carbon pricing]], and the development of energy-efficient infrastructure to encourage [[modal shift|changes in transport modes]].{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=68–69}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mundaca|first1=Luis|last2=Ürge-Vorsatz|first2=Diana|author-link2=Diana Ürge-Vorsatz |last3=Wilson|first3=Charlie|date=2019|title=Demand-side approaches for limiting global warming to 1.5&nbsp;°C|url=https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/files/49859700/Energy_Efficiency3.pdf|journal=[[Energy Efficiency (journal)|Energy Efficiency]] |volume=12|issue=2|pages=343–362 |doi=10.1007/s12053-018-9722-9|issn=1570-6478|doi-access=free|s2cid=52251308}}</ref>

The [[energy intensity]] of the global economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP)) is a rough indicator of the energy efficiency of economic production.{{Sfn|IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization|2021|p=12}} In 2010, global energy intensity was 5.6 megajoules (1.6 [[Kilowatt-hour|kWh]]) per US dollar of GDP.{{Sfn|IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization|2021|p=12}} United Nations goals call for energy intensity to decrease by 2.6% each year between 2010 and 2030.{{Sfn|IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization|2021|p=11}} In recent years this target has not been met. For instance, between 2017 and 2018, energy intensity decreased by only 1.1%.{{Sfn|IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization|2021|p=11}} Efficiency improvements often lead to a [[Jevons paradox|rebound effect]] in which consumers use the money they save to buy more energy-intensive goods and services.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brockway |first1=Paul |last2=Sorrell|first2=Steve|last3=Semieniuk|first3=Gregor|last4=Heun|first4=Matthew K.|last5=Court |first5=Victor|date=2021|display-authors=4|title=Energy efficiency and economy-wide rebound effects: A review of the evidence and its implications|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=141 |pages=110781|issn=1364-0321 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2021.110781|s2cid=233554220|doi-access=free|url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/171952/1/brockway%20sorrell%20et%20al%202021%20large%20rebound%20paper_2.pdf}}</ref> For example, recent technical efficiency improvements in transport and buildings have been largely offset by trends in [[consumer behaviour]], such as [[Autobesity|selecting larger vehicles]] and homes.<ref name="":6"">{{Cite web |date=November 2019|title=Energy Efficiency 2019 |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013050500/https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2019 |archive-date=13 October 2020|access-date=21 September 2020|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]}}</ref>

==Sustainable energy sources==
===Renewable energy sources===
{{Main|Renewable energy}}
{{ multiple image | align = right | total_width =450
| image1= 2010- Fossil fuels vs Wind + Solar - electricity generation.svg |caption1=In 2023, electricity generation from wind and solar sources was projected to exceed 30% by 2030.<ref name=RMI_20230613>{{cite web |last1=Bond |first1=Kingsmill |last2=Butler-Sloss |first2=Sam |last3=Lovins |first3=Amory |last4=Speelman |first4=Laurens |last5=Topping |first5=Nigel |title=Report / 2023 / X-Change: Electricity / On track for disruption |publisher=Rocky Mountain Institute |url=https://rmi.org/insight/x-change-electricity/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713171138/https://rmi.org/insight/x-change-electricity/ |archive-date=13 July 2023 |date=13 June 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| image2=2011- Renewable energy capacity - International Energy Agency.svg| |alt=Graph showing the expansion of wind and solar renewable energy capacity from 2011 to 2020 |caption2=Renewable energy capacity has steadily grown, led by [[Photovoltaic system|solar photovoltaic]] power.<ref name=IEA_202306>Source for data beginning in 2017: {{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Market Update Outlook for 2023 and 2024 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/63c14514-6833-4cd8-ac53-f9918c2e4cd9/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate_June2023.pdf |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency (IEA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711115355/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/63c14514-6833-4cd8-ac53-f9918c2e4cd9/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate_June2023.pdf |archive-date=11 July 2023 |page=19 |date=June 2023 |quote=IEA. CC BY 4.0. |url-status=live}} ● Source for data through 2016: {{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Market Update / Outlook for 2021 and 2022 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/18a6041d-bf13-4667-a4c2-8fc008974008/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate-Outlookfor2021and2022.pdf |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325084025/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/18a6041d-bf13-4667-a4c2-8fc008974008/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate-Outlookfor2021and2022.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2023 |page=8 |date=May 2021 |url-status=live |quote=IEA. Licence: CC BY 4.0 }}</ref>
}}
[[File:2015- Clean energy vs fossil fuel investment - IEA.svg |thumb |Clean energy investment has benefited from post-pandemic economic recovery, a global energy crisis involving high fossil fuel prices, and growing policy support across various nations.<ref name=IEA_20230525>{{cite web |title=World Energy Investment 2023 / Overview and key findings |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-investment-2023/overview-and-key-findings |publisher=International Energy Agency (IEA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531004551/https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-investment-2023/overview-and-key-findings |archive-date=31 May 2023 |date=25 May 2023 |quote=Global energy investment in clean energy and in fossil fuels, 2015-2023 (chart) |url-status=live}} — From pages 8 and 12 of [https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/8834d3af-af60-4df0-9643-72e2684f7221/WorldEnergyInvestment2023.pdf ''World Energy Investment 2023''] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20230531003621/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/8834d3af-af60-4df0-9643-72e2684f7221/WorldEnergyInvestment2023.pdf archive]).</ref>]]
Renewable energy sources are essential to sustainable energy, as they generally strengthen energy security and emit far fewer greenhouse gases than [[fossil fuel]]s.{{sfn|IEA|2007|p=3}} Renewable energy projects sometimes raise significant sustainability concerns, such as risks to biodiversity when areas of high ecological value are converted to bioenergy production or wind or solar farms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santangeli|first1=Andrea|last2=Toivonen|first2=Tuuli|last3=Pouzols|first3=Federico Montesino |last4=Pogson|first4=Mark|last5=Hastings|first5=Astley|last6=Smith|first6=Pete|last7=Moilanen|first7=Atte |display-authors=4 |date=2016|title=Global change synergies and trade-offs between renewable energy and biodiversity|journal=[[GCB Bioenergy]]|volume=8|issue=5|pages=941–951|doi=10.1111/gcbb.12299|issn=1757-1707|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016GCBBi...8..941S |hdl=2164/6138|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rehbein|first1=Jose A.|last2=Watson|first2=James E.M. |last3=Lane|first3=Joe L.|last4=Sonter|first4=Laura J.|last5=Venter|first5=Oscar|last6=Atkinson |first6=Scott C.|last7=Allan|first7=James R.|display-authors=4 |date=2020|title=Renewable energy development threatens many globally important biodiversity areas|journal=[[Global Change Biology]] |volume=26|issue=5|pages=3040–3051|doi=10.1111/gcb.15067|pmid=32133726|bibcode=2020GCBio..26.3040R |s2cid=212418220|issn=1365-2486|url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:902f5a3/UQ902f5a3_OA.pdf}}</ref>

Hydropower is the largest source of renewable electricity while solar and wind energy are growing rapidly. [[Photovoltaic system|Photovoltaic solar]] and [[Wind power|onshore wind]] are the cheapest forms of new power generation capacity in most countries.<ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |title=Renewable Energy |website=[[Our World in Data]] |url=https://ourworldindata.org/renewable-energy |access-date=31 July 2020 |url-status=live |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804120952/https://ourworldindata.org/renewable-energy}}</ref><ref name=""IEA Renewables 2020"">{{cite report |publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]] |year=2020 |ref=none| title=Renewables 2020 Analysis and forecast to 2025 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/1a24f1fe-c971-4c25-964a-57d0f31eb97b/Renewables_2020-PDF.pdf |url-status=live |page=12 |archive-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426063553/https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2020}}</ref> For more than half of the 770&nbsp;million people who currently lack access to electricity, [[Distributed generation|decentralised renewable energy]] such as solar-powered mini-grids is likely the cheapest method of providing it by 2030.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web|date=2020|ref=none|title=Access to electricity|work=SDG7: Data and Projections|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-electricity|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513103128/https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-electricity|archive-date=13 May 2021|access-date=5 May 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]}}</ref> United Nations targets for 2030 include substantially increasing the proportion of renewable energy in the world's energy supply.<ref name="":5"" /> According to the International Energy Agency, renewable energy sources like wind and solar power are now a commonplace source of electricity, making up 70% of all new investments made in the world's power generation.<ref name="":732"">{{Cite web |title=Infrastructure Solutions: The power of purchase agreements |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/renewable-energy-power-purchase-agreements |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Renewable Power – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/renewable-power |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2022 |title=Global Electricity Review 2022 |url=https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/global-electricity-review-2022/ |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Ember |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Renewable Energy and Electricity {{!}} Sustainable Energy {{!}} Renewable Energy - World Nuclear Association |url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/energy-and-the-environment/renewable-energy-and-electricity.aspx |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=world-nuclear.org}}</ref> The Agency expects renewables to become the primary energy source for electricity generation globally in the next three years, overtaking coal.<ref name="":24"">IEA (2022), Renewables 2022, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022, License: CC BY 4.0</ref>

====Solar====
[[File:Renewable Energy Development in the California Desert 006.jpg|thumb|A [[photovoltaic power station]] in [[California]], United States|alt=long rows of dark panels, sloped about 45 degrees at the height of a person, stretch into the distance in bright sunshine]]
{{main|Solar power|Solar water heating}}
The Sun is Earth's primary source of energy, a clean and abundantly available resource in many regions.{{sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|p=406}} In 2019, solar power provided around 3% of global electricity,<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web |title=Wind & Solar Share in Electricity Production Data|publisher=[[Enerdata]] |url=https://yearbook.enerdata.net/renewables/wind-solar-share-electricity-production.html|work=Global Energy Statistical Yearbook 2021|access-date=13 June 2021|archive-date=19 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719014426/https://yearbook.enerdata.net/renewables/wind-solar-share-electricity-production.html|url-status=live}}</ref> mostly through [[solar panels]] based on [[photovoltaic cells]] (PV). Solar PV is expected to be the electricity source with the largest installed capacity worldwide by 2027.<ref name="":24"" /> The panels are mounted on top of buildings or installed in utility-scale [[photovoltaic power station|solar parks]]. Costs of solar photovoltaic cells have dropped rapidly, driving strong growth in worldwide capacity.{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|p=|pp=34–35}} The [[Cost of electricity by source|cost of electricity]] from new solar farms is competitive with, or in many places, cheaper than electricity from existing coal plants.<ref name="":10"">{{Cite web|date=19 October 2020|title=Levelized Cost of Energy and of Storage|url=http://www.lazard.com/perspective/levelized-cost-of-energy-and-levelized-cost-of-storage-2020/|url-status=live|access-date=26 February 2021|publisher=[[Lazard]]|archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225114950/https://www.lazard.com/perspective/levelized-cost-of-energy-and-levelized-cost-of-storage-2020/}}</ref> Various projections of future energy use identify solar PV as one of the main sources of energy generation in a sustainable mix.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021 |title=Solar photovoltaics is ready to power a sustainable future|journal=[[Joule (journal)|Joule]] |volume=5|issue=5|pages=1041–1056|doi=10.1016/j.joule.2021.03.005|first1=Marta|last1=Victoria|first2=Nancy |last2=Haegel|author2-link=Nancy Haegel|first3=Ian Marius|last3=Peters |first4=Ron|last4=Sinton|osti=1781630 |display-authors=etal|issn=2542-4351|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|IRENA|2021|pp=19, 22}}

Most components of solar panels can be easily recycled, but this is not always done in the absence of regulation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goetz|first1=Katelyn P.|last2=Taylor|first2=Alexander D. |last3=Hofstetter|first3=Yvonne J. |last4=Vaynzof|first4=Yana|date=2020|title=Sustainability in Perovskite Solar Cells|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acsami.0c17269|journal=[[ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces]]|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–17 |doi=10.1021/acsami.0c17269|pmid=33372760|s2cid=229714294 |issn=1944-8244}}</ref> Panels typically contain [[heavy metals]], so they pose environmental risks if put in [[landfill]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xu|first1=Yan|last2=Li |first2=Jinhui|last3=Tan|first3=Quanyin |last4=Peters|first4=Anesia Lauren|display-authors=etal|date=2018|title=Global status of recycling waste solar panels: A review|journal=[[Waste Management (journal)|Waste Management]] |volume=75|pages=450–458 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956053X18300576|access-date=28 June 2021 |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2018.01.036|pmid=29472153|bibcode=2018WaMan..75..450X |issn=0956-053X |archive-date=28 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628193335/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956053X18300576|url-status=live}}</ref> It takes fewer than two years for a solar panel to produce as much energy as was used for its production. Less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tian|first1=Xueyu|last2=Stranks|first2=Samuel D.|last3=You|first3=Fengqi |date=2020|title=Life cycle energy use and environmental implications of high-performance perovskite tandem solar cells|journal=[[Science Advances]]|volume=6|issue=31|pages=eabb0055 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abb0055|pmc=7399695|issn=2375-2548|pmid=32937582|bibcode=2020SciA....6...55T|s2cid=220937730}}</ref>

In [[concentrated solar power]], solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. Electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a [[heat engine]]. Concentrated solar power can support [[Dispatchable generation|dispatchable power generation]], as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed.{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=35–36}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Solar energy|publisher=[[International Renewable Energy Agency]]|url=https://www.irena.org/solar |access-date=5 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513154426/https://www.irena.org/solar |archive-date=13 May 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly; [[Solar thermal energy|solar thermal heating]] systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination.{{sfn|REN21|2020|p=124}}

====Wind power====
{{main|Wind power|Environmental impact of wind power}}
[[File:Wind_power_plants_in_Xinjiang,_China.jpg|thumb|Wind turbines in [[Xinjiang]], China|alt=Photograph of wind turbines against a hazy orange sky]]
Wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships.{{Sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|p=366}} Modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6% of global electricity in 2019.<ref name="":4"" /> Electricity from onshore [[wind farms]] is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear.<ref name="":10"" /> Wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 May 2016|title=What are the advantages and disadvantages of offshore wind farms?|url=https://www.americangeosciences.org/critical-issues/faq/what-are-advantages-and-disadvantages-offshore-wind-farms|access-date=18 September 2021|publisher=[[American Geosciences Institute]] |archive-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918215856/https://www.americangeosciences.org/critical-issues/faq/what-are-advantages-and-disadvantages-offshore-wind-farms|url-status=live}}</ref> 

Onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape.{{sfn|Szarka|2007|p=176}} While collisions with wind turbines kill both [[bat]]s and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and [[Overhead power line|transmission lines]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Shifeng|last2=Wang|first2=Sicong|date=2015 |title=Impacts of wind energy on environment: A review |journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=49|pages=437–443|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.137|issn=1364-0321 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032115004074|access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604062326/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032115004074|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|p=215}} The noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. Wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water.{{Sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|p=213}} Little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Yu-Fong|last2=Gan|first2=Xing-Jia |last3=Chiueh|first3=Pei-Te |date=2017|title=Life cycle assessment and net energy analysis of offshore wind power systems |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148116309156|journal=[[Renewable Energy (journal)|Renewable Energy]]|volume=102|pages=98–106|doi=10.1016/j.renene.2016.10.050|issn=0960-1481}}</ref> Turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier-to-recycle blades is ongoing.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Belton|first=Padraig|date=7 February 2020|title=What happens to all the old wind turbines?|publisher=[[BBC]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-51325101|url-status=live|access-date=27 February 2021|archive-date=23 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223042808/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-51325101}}</ref>

====Hydropower====
{{Main|Hydroelectricity}}
[[File:Central Hidroeléctrica Simón Bolívar Represa de Guri Гідроелектростанція Симона Болівара - гребля Гурі 29.jpg|thumb|alt=a river flows smoothly from rectangular openings at the base of a high sloping concrete wall, with electricity wires above the river|[[Guri Dam]], a hydroelectric dam in [[Venezuela]]]]
[[Hydroelectricity|Hydroelectric plants]] convert the energy of moving water into electricity. In 2020, hydropower supplied 17% of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20% in the mid-to-late 20th century.{{sfn|Smil|2017b|p=286}}{{sfn|REN21|2021|p=21}} 

In conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. Conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, [[Dispatchable generation|dispatchable]] electricity supply. They can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available.<ref name="":15"" />

Compared to reservoir-based facilities, [[run-of-the-river hydroelectricity]] generally has less environmental impact. However, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. Reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and flexible electricity output while also providing security during drought for drinking water supply and irrigation.<ref>{{citec |last1=Kumar |first1=A.|first2=T.|last2=Schei|first3=A.|last3=Ahenkorah|first4=R. |last4=Caceres Rodriguez |first5=J.-M. |last5=Devernay |first6=M.|last6=Freitas|first7=D.|last7=Hall|first8=Å.|last8=Killingtveit|first9=Z.|last9=Liu |display-authors=4 |chapter=Hydropower|chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/Chapter-5-Hydropower-1.pdf|pp=451, 462, 488|in=IPCC|year=2011
}}</ref>

Hydropower ranks among the energy sources with the lowest levels of greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy produced, but levels of emissions vary enormously between projects.<ref name=""AnnexIII_IPCC"">{{citec |last1=Schlömer |first1=S.|first2=T.|last2=Bruckner|first3=L.|last3=Fulton|first4=E.|last4=Hertwich|display-authors=etal|year=2014|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_annex-iii.pdf |chapter=Annex III: Technology-specific cost and performance parameters|in=IPCC|page=1335}}</ref> The highest emissions tend to occur with large dams in tropical regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Almeida |first1=Rafael M.|last2=Shi|first2=Qinru|last3=Gomes-Selman|first3=Jonathan M.|last4=Wu|first4=Xiaojian |last5=Xue|first5=Yexiang|last6=Angarita|first6=Hector|last7=Barros|first7=Nathan|last8=Forsberg |first8=Bruce R.|last9=García-Villacorta|first9=Roosevelt|last10=Hamilton |first10=Stephen K.|last11=Melack |first11=John M.|display-authors=4|date=2019|title=Reducing greenhouse gas emissions of Amazon hydropower with strategic dam planning|journal=Nature Communications|volume=10|issue=1|pages=4281 |issn=2041-1723 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.4281A|doi=10.1038/s41467-019-12179-5|pmc=6753097|pmid=31537792}}</ref> These emissions are produced when the biological matter that becomes submerged in the reservoir's flooding decomposes and releases carbon dioxide and methane. [[Deforestation]] and climate change can reduce energy generation from hydroelectric dams.<ref name="":15"">{{Cite journal|last1=Moran|first1=Emilio F.|last2=Lopez |first2=Maria Claudia |last3=Moore|first3=Nathan|last4=Müller|first4=Norbert|last5=Hyndman|first5=David W. |display-authors=4|date=2018|title=Sustainable hydropower in the 21st century |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=115|issue=47|pages=11891–11898|doi=10.1073/pnas.1809426115|issn=0027-8424|pmc=6255148|pmid=30397145|bibcode=2018PNAS..11511891M |doi-access=free}}</ref> Depending on location, large dams can displace residents and cause significant local environmental damage; potential [[dam failure]] could place the surrounding population at risk.<ref name="":15"" />

====Geothermal====
{{Main|Geothermal power|Geothermal heating}}
[[File:Larderello Cooling Towers.jpg|thumb|Cooling towers at a geothermal power plant in [[Larderello]], Italy|alt=3 enormous waisted vertical concrete cylinders, one emitting a wisp of steam, dwarf a building in the foreground]]
[[Geothermal energy]] is produced by tapping into deep underground heat<ref name=""László 1981 248–249"">{{cite journal|last=László|first=Erika|year=1981|title=Geothermal Energy: An Old Ally|journal=[[Ambio]]|volume=10|issue=5|pages=248–249|jstor=4312703}}</ref> and harnessing it to generate electricity or to heat water and buildings. The use of geothermal energy is concentrated in regions where heat extraction is economical: a combination is needed of high temperatures, heat flow, and [[Permeability (Earth sciences)|permeability]] (the ability of the rock to allow fluids to pass through).{{Sfn|REN21|2020|p=97}} Power is produced from the steam created in underground reservoirs.<ref>{{Cite web|date=19 October 2009|title=Geothermal Energy Information and Facts|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/geothermal-energy|url-status=dead|access-date=8 August 2021|publisher=[[National Geographic]]|archive-date=8 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808194416/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/geothermal-energy}}</ref> Geothermal energy provided less than 1% of [[global energy consumption]] in 2020.<ref name="":8"" />

Geothermal energy is a renewable resource because thermal energy is constantly replenished from neighbouring hotter regions and the [[radioactive decay]] of [[Naturally occurring radioactive material|naturally occurring isotopes]].{{Sfn|Soysal|Soysal|pp=222, 228|2020}} On average, the greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal-based electricity are less than 5% that of coal-based electricity.<ref name='AnnexIII_IPCC'/> Geothermal energy carries a risk of inducing earthquakes, needs effective protection to avoid water pollution, and releases toxic emissions which can be captured.{{Sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|pp=228–229}}

====Bioenergy====
{{Main|Bioenergy}}
{{Further|Sustainable biofuel}}
[[File:Kenyan farmer with a biogas lamp provided by USAID 2013.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Man lighting a lamp hung from the ceiling|Kenyan dairy farmer lighting a biogas lamp. [[Biogas]] produced from [[biomass]] is a renewable energy source that can be burned for cooking or light.]]
[[File:Faz S Sofia canavial 090607 REFON.JPG|thumb|right|alt=A green field of plants looking like metre high grass, surrounded by woodland with urban buildings on the far horizon|A [[Sustainable biofuel#Sugarcane in Brazil|sugarcane plantation]] to produce [[Ethanol fuel|ethanol]] in Brazil]]
Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2021|title=Biomass explained|url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biomass/|url-status=live|access-date=13 September 2021|publisher=[[US Energy Information Administration]]|archive-date=15 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915223913/https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biomass/}}</ref> It can either be burned to produce heat and electricity or be converted into [[biofuels]] such as [[biodiesel]] and ethanol, which can be used to power vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kopetz|first=Heinz|date=2013 |title=Build a biomass energy market|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=494|issue=7435|pages=29–31 |doi=10.1038/494029a|pmid=23389528|issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Demirbas |first=Ayhan|date=2008|title=Biofuels sources, biofuel policy, biofuel economy and global biofuel projections|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890408000770|journal=[[Energy Conversion and Management]]|volume=49|issue=8|pages=2106–2116 |doi=10.1016/j.enconman.2008.02.020 |issn=0196-8904|access-date=11 February 2021|url-status=live|archive-date=18 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318032539/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890408000770}}</ref> 

The climate impact of bioenergy varies considerably depending on where biomass feedstocks come from and how they are grown.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last1=Correa|first1=Diego F.|last2=Beyer|first2=Hawthorne L. |last3=Fargione |first3=Joseph E.|last4=Hill|first4=Jason D.|last5=Possingham|first5=Hugh P.|last6=Thomas-Hall|first6=Skye R.|last7=Schenk|first7=Peer M.|display-authors=4|date=2019|title=Towards the implementation of sustainable biofuel production systems|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=107|pages=250–263|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2019.03.005|s2cid=117472901|issn=1364-0321 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136403211930139X |access-date=7 February 2021 |url-status=live|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717132735/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S136403211930139X}}</ref> For example, burning wood for energy releases carbon dioxide; those emissions can be significantly offset if the trees that were harvested are replaced by new trees in a well-managed forest, as the new trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Daley |first=Jason|date=24 April 2018|title=The EPA Declared That Burning Wood Is Carbon Neutral. It's Actually a Lot More Complicated|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/epa-declares-burning-wood-carbon-neutral-180968880/|url-status=live|access-date=14 September 2021|website=[[Smithsonian Magazine]]|archive-date=30 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630153427/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/epa-declares-burning-wood-carbon-neutral-180968880/}}</ref> However, the establishment and cultivation of bioenergy crops can [[Land use, land-use change, and forestry|displace natural ecosystems]], [[soil retrogression and degradation|degrade soils]], and consume water resources and synthetic fertilisers.{{sfn|Tester|2012|p=512}}{{sfn|Smil|2017a|p=162}} Approximately one-third of all wood used for traditional heating and cooking in tropical areas is harvested unsustainably.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=73}} Bioenergy feedstocks typically require significant amounts of energy to harvest, dry, and transport; the energy usage for these processes may emit greenhouse gases. In some cases, the impacts of [[Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels|land-use change]], cultivation, and processing can result in higher overall carbon emissions for bioenergy compared to using fossil fuels.{{sfn|Smil|2017a|p=162}}{{sfn|IPCC|2014|p=616}} 

Use of farmland for growing biomass can result in [[food vs. fuel|less land being available for growing food]]. In the United States, around 10% of motor gasoline has been replaced by [[Corn ethanol|corn-based ethanol]], which requires a significant proportion of the harvest.<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 June 2020 |title=Biofuels explained: Ethanol|url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biofuels/ethanol.php|access-date=16 May 2021|publisher=[[US Energy Information Administration]]|archive-date=14 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514154634/https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biofuels/ethanol.php|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Foley|first=Jonathan |date=5 March 2013|title=It's Time to Rethink America's Corn System|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-to-rethink-corn/|url-status=live |access-date=16 May 2021|website=[[Scientific American]]|archive-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103212244/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-to-rethink-corn/}}</ref> In Malaysia and Indonesia, clearing forests to produce [[palm oil]] for biodiesel has led to [[Social and environmental impact of palm oil|serious social and environmental effects]], as these forests are critical [[carbon sinks]] and [[habitat]]s for diverse species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ayompe |first1=Lacour M. |last2=Schaafsma|first2=M.|last3=Egoh|first3=Benis N.|date=1 January 2021|title=Towards sustainable palm oil production: The positive and negative impacts on ecosystem services and human wellbeing |journal=[[Journal of Cleaner Production]]|volume=278|pages=123914|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123914|s2cid=224853908 |issn=0959-6526|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Lustgarten|first=Abrahm|date=20 November 2018|title=Palm Oil Was Supposed to Help Save the Planet. Instead It Unleashed a Catastrophe.|work=[[The New York Times]]|issn=0362-4331 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/20/magazine/palm-oil-borneo-climate-catastrophe.html |access-date=15 May 2019|url-status=live|archive-date=17 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517044504/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/20/magazine/palm-oil-borneo-climate-catastrophe.html}}</ref> Since [[photosynthesis]] captures only a small fraction of the energy in sunlight, producing a given amount of bioenergy requires a large amount of land compared to other renewable energy sources.{{sfn|Smil|2017a|p=161}}

[[Second-generation biofuels]] which are produced from non-food plants or waste reduce competition with food production, but may have other negative effects including trade-offs with conservation areas and local air pollution.<ref name="":0"" /> Relatively sustainable sources of biomass include [[Algae fuel|algae]], waste, and crops grown on soil unsuitable for food production.<ref name="":0"" /> 

[[Carbon capture and storage]] technology can be used to capture emissions from bioenergy power plants. This process is known as [[bioenergy with carbon capture and storage]] (BECCS) and can result in net [[carbon dioxide removal]] from the atmosphere. However, BECCS can also result in net positive emissions depending on how the biomass material is grown, harvested, and transported. Deployment of BECCS at scales described in some climate change mitigation pathways would require converting large amounts of cropland.{{sfn|National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine|2019|p=3}}

====Marine energy====
{{Main|Marine energy}}
Marine energy has the smallest share of the energy market. It includes [[Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion|OTEC]], [[tidal power]], which is approaching maturity, and [[wave power]], which is earlier in its development. Two tidal barrage systems in France and in South Korea make up 90% of global production. While single marine energy devices pose little risk to the environment, the impacts of larger devices are less well known.{{Sfn|REN21|2021|pp=113–116}}

===Non-renewable energy sources===
====Fossil fuel switching and mitigation==== <!-- This section is transcribed to [[climate change mitigation]], please keep that in mind if you change the section heading -->
Switching from [[coal]] to [[natural gas]] has advantages in terms of [[sustainability]]. For a given unit of energy produced, the [[Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources|life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions]] of natural gas are around 40 times the emissions of wind or nuclear energy but are much less than coal. Burning natural gas produces around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity and around two-thirds the emissions of coal when used to produce heat.<ref name=""IEA gas"">{{cite web|date=July 2019|title=The Role of Gas: Key Findings|url=https://www.iea.org/publications/roleofgas/|access-date=4 October 2019|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|url-status=live|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901022422/https://www.iea.org/publications/roleofgas/}}</ref>  Natural gas combustion also produces less air pollution than coal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Natural gas and the environment |url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/natural-gas-and-the-environment.php|url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2021|publisher=[[US Energy Information Administration]]|archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402225017/https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/natural-gas-and-the-environment.php}}</ref> However, natural gas is a potent greenhouse gas in itself, and [[Fugitive gas emissions|leaks during extraction and transportation]] can negate the advantages of switching away from coal.<ref name="":27"">{{Cite web |last=Storrow |first=Benjamin |title=Methane Leaks Erase Some of the Climate Benefits of Natural Gas |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/methane-leaks-erase-some-of-the-climate-benefits-of-natural-gas/ |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref> The technology to curb [[methane leaks]] is widely available but it is not always used.<ref name="":27"" /> 

Switching from coal to natural gas reduces emissions in the short term and thus contributes to [[climate change mitigation]]. However, in the long term it does not provide a path to [[net-zero emissions]]. Developing natural gas infrastructure risks [[carbon lock-in]] and [[stranded assets]], where new fossil infrastructure either commits to decades of carbon emissions, or has to be written off before it makes a profit.<ref name=""nytimes coal fades"">{{cite web |last=Plumer|first=Brad|date=26 June 2019|title=As Coal Fades in the U.S., Natural Gas Becomes the Climate Battleground|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/26/climate/natural-gas-renewables-fight.html |access-date=4 October 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]|archive-date=23 September 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190923092305/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/26/climate/natural-gas-renewables-fight.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gürsan|first1=C.|last2=de Gooyert|first2=V. |date=2021|title=The systemic impact of a transition fuel: Does natural gas help or hinder the energy transition?|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=138|pages=110552|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2020.110552|s2cid=228885573 |issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free|hdl=2066/228782|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

The greenhouse gas emissions of fossil fuel and biomass power plants can be significantly reduced through carbon capture and storage (CCS). Most studies use a working assumption that CCS can capture 85–90% of the [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) emissions from a power plant.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Budinis|first=Sarah |date=1 November 2018|title=An assessment of CCS costs, barriers and potential|journal=[[Energy Strategy Reviews]]|volume=22|pages=61–81 |doi=10.1016/j.esr.2018.08.003|issn=2211-467X|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=7 January 2021|title=Zero-emission carbon capture and storage in power plants using higher capture rates |url=https://www.iea.org/articles/zero-emission-carbon-capture-and-storage-in-power-plants-using-higher-capture-rates|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330093543/https://www.iea.org/articles/zero-emission-carbon-capture-and-storage-in-power-plants-using-higher-capture-rates|archive-date=30 March 2021}}</ref> Even if 90% of emitted {{CO2}} is captured from a coal-fired power plant, its uncaptured emissions would still be many times greater than the emissions of nuclear, solar or wind energy per unit of electricity produced.<ref name=cleanest>{{Cite web|last=Ritchie |first=Hannah|date=10 February 2020|title=What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?|url=https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2021|website=[[Our World in Data]]|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129205209/https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Evans|first=Simon|date=8 December 2017|title=Solar, wind and nuclear have 'amazingly low' carbon footprints, study finds|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/solar-wind-nuclear-amazingly-low-carbon-footprints|url-status=live|access-date=15 March 2021|work=[[Carbon Brief]]|archive-date=16 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316102518/https://www.carbonbrief.org/solar-wind-nuclear-amazingly-low-carbon-footprints}}</ref> Since coal plants using CCS would be less efficient, they would require more coal and thus increase the pollution associated with mining and transporting coal.{{sfn|IPCC|2018|loc=5.4.1.2}} The CCS process is expensive, with costs depending considerably on the location's proximity to suitable geology for [[Carbon sequestration|carbon dioxide storage]].<ref name="":11"">{{Cite web|last=Evans|first=Simon|date=27 August 2020|title=Wind and solar are 30–50% cheaper than thought, admits UK government|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/wind-and-solar-are-30-50-cheaper-than-thought-admits-uk-government|access-date=30 September 2020|url-status=live|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923025247/https://www.carbonbrief.org/wind-and-solar-are-30-50-cheaper-than-thought-admits-uk-government|website=[[Carbon Brief]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Malischek |first=Raimund|title=CCUS in Power|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/about-ccus|access-date=30 September 2020|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]}}</ref> Deployment of this technology is still very limited, with only 21 large-scale CCS plants in operation worldwide as of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deign|first=Jason|date=7 December 2020|title=Carbon Capture: Silver Bullet or Mirage?|website=[[Greentech Media]]|url=https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/no-clearer-if-carbon-capture-is-silver-bullet-or-mirage|access-date=14 February 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119013833/https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/no-clearer-if-carbon-capture-is-silver-bullet-or-mirage|archive-date=19 January 2021}}</ref>

====Nuclear power====
{{Main|Nuclear power debate|Nuclear renaissance}}
[[File:Elec-fossil-nuclear-renewables.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Chart showing the proportion of electricity produced by fossil fuels, nuclear, and renewables from 1985 to 2020|Since 1985, the proportion of electricity generated from low-carbon sources has increased only slightly. Advances in deploying renewables have been mostly offset by declining shares of nuclear power.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Roser |first=Max|date=10 December 2020|title=The world's energy problem|url=https://ourworldindata.org/worlds-energy-problem |url-status=live|access-date=21 July 2021|website=[[Our World in Data]]|archive-date=21 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721202510/https://ourworldindata.org/worlds-energy-problem}}</ref>]]
[[Nuclear power]] has been used since the 1950s as a low-carbon source of [[Base load|baseload]] electricity.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rhodes|first=Richard|date=19 July 2018|title=Why Nuclear Power Must Be Part of the Energy Solution |website=[[Yale Environment 360]]|publisher=[[Yale School of the Environment]] |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-nuclear-power-must-be-part-of-the-energy-solution-environmentalists-climate|url-status=live|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=9 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809182424/https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-nuclear-power-must-be-part-of-the-energy-solution-environmentalists-climate}}</ref> Nuclear power plants in over 30 countries generate about 10% of global electricity.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=June 2021|title=Nuclear Power in the World Today|publisher=[[World Nuclear Association]]|url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716094103/https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx|archive-date=16 July 2021|access-date=19 July 2021}}</ref> As of 2019, nuclear generated over a quarter of all [[low-carbon power|low-carbon energy]], making it the second largest source after hydropower.<ref name="":8"">{{cite journal|url=https://ourworldindata.org/energy-mix |last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max|title=Energy mix|year=2020|journal=[[Our World in Data]]|url-status=live|access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-date=2 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702082157/https://ourworldindata.org/energy-mix}}</ref>

Nuclear power's lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions—including the mining and processing of [[uranium]]—are similar to the emissions from renewable energy sources.<ref name=""AnnexIII_IPCC""/> Nuclear power uses little [[Surface power density|land per unit of energy]] produced, compared to the major renewables.  Additionally, Nuclear power does not create local air pollution.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bailey |first=Ronald |date=10 May 2023 |title=New study: Nuclear power is humanity's greenest energy option |url=https://reason.com/2023/05/10/new-study-nuclear-power-is-humanitys-greenest-energy-option/ |access-date=22 May 2023 |website=Reason.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Nuclear Energy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/nuclear-energy |last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max|access-date=19 July 2021|year=2020|journal=[[Our World in Data]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720063014/https://ourworldindata.org/nuclear-energy |archive-date=20 July 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> Although the [[uranium ore]] used to fuel nuclear fission plants is a non-renewable resource, enough exists to provide a supply for hundreds to thousands of years.{{sfn|MacKay|2008|p=[https://withouthotair.com/c24/page_162.shtml 162]}}<ref>{{Citec|last1=Gill |first1=Matthew|last2=Livens |first2=Francis|last3=Peakman|first3=Aiden|in=Letcher|year=2020 |chapter=Nuclear Fission|page=135}}</ref> However, uranium resources that can be accessed in an economically feasible manner, at the present state, are limited and uranium production could hardly keep up during the expansion phase.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nikolaus|last1=Muellner|first2=Nikolaus|last2=Arnold |first3=Klaus|last3=Gufler|first4=Wolfgang|last4=Kromp|first5=Wolfgang |last5=Renneberg|first6=Wolfgang |last6=Liebert|date=2021|journal=Energy Policy|volume=155|at=112363|title=Nuclear energy - The solution to climate change?|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112363|s2cid=236254316|doi-access=free}}</ref> Climate change mitigation pathways consistent with ambitious goals typically see an increase in power supply from nuclear.{{sfn|IPCC|2018|loc=2.4.2.1}}

There is controversy over whether nuclear power is sustainable, in part due to concerns around [[nuclear waste]], [[nuclear proliferation|nuclear weapon proliferation]], and [[Nuclear accident|accidents]].<ref name="":14"" /> Radioactive nuclear waste must be managed for thousands of years<ref name="":14"">{{Citec |last1=Gill|first1=Matthew|last2=Livens|first2=Francis|last3=Peakman|first3=Aiden|in=Letcher|year=2020|pages=147–149|chapter=Nuclear Fission}}</ref> and nuclear power plants create [[fissile material]] that can be used for weapons.<ref name="":14"" />  For each unit of energy produced, nuclear energy has caused far fewer [[Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents|accidental]] and pollution-related deaths than fossil fuels, and the historic fatality rate of nuclear is comparable to renewable sources.<ref name=cleanest/> [[Public opinion on nuclear issues|Public opposition to nuclear energy]] often makes nuclear plants politically difficult to implement.<ref name="":14"" /> 

Reducing the time and the cost of building new nuclear plants have been goals for decades but [[Economics of nuclear power plants|costs remain high]] and timescales long.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Timmer|first1=John |date=21 November 2020|title=Why are nuclear plants so expensive? Safety's only part of the story|website=[[Ars Technica]]|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/11/why-are-nuclear-plants-so-expensive-safetys-only-part-of-the-story/|access-date=17 March 2021|url-status=live|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428140032/https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/11/why-are-nuclear-plants-so-expensive-safetys-only-part-of-the-story/}}</ref> Various new forms of nuclear energy are in development, hoping to address the drawbacks of conventional plants. [[Fast breeder]] reactors are capable of [[Nuclear reprocessing|recycling nuclear waste]] and therefore can significantly reduce the amount of waste that requires [[Deep geological repository|geological disposal]], but have not yet been deployed on a large-scale commercial basis.<ref>{{Cite report|title=Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation') |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/business_economy_euro/banking_and_finance/documents/210329-jrc-report-nuclear-energy-assessment_en.pdf|publisher=[[European Commission Joint Research Centre]] |date=2021|page=53|archive-date=26 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426095255/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/business_economy_euro/banking_and_finance/documents/210329-jrc-report-nuclear-energy-assessment_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Thorium-based nuclear power|Nuclear power based on thorium]] (rather than uranium) may be able to provide higher energy security for countries that do not have a large supply of uranium.<ref>{{Citec |last1=Gill|first1=Matthew|last2=Livens |first2=Francis|last3=Peakman|first3=Aiden|in=Letcher|year=2020 |pages=146–147|chapter=Nuclear Fission}}</ref> [[Small modular reactors]] may have several advantages over current large reactors: It should be possible to build them faster and their modularization would allow for cost reductions via [[learning-by-doing]].<ref>{{citec|last1=Locatelli|first1=Giorgio|last2=Mignacca |first2=Benito|chapter=Small Modular Nuclear Reactors|year=2020|in=Letcher |pages=151–169 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081028865000086}}</ref>

Several countries are attempting to develop [[Fusion power|nuclear fusion]] reactors, which would generate small amounts of waste and no risk of explosions.<ref>{{Cite news|last=McGrath|first=Matt|date=6 November 2019|title=Nuclear fusion is 'a question of when, not if'|publisher=[[BBC]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50267017|url-status=live|access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125083144/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50267017|archive-date=25 January 2021}}</ref> Although fusion power has taken steps forward in the lab, the multi-decade timescale needed to bring it to commercialization and then scale means it will not contribute to a 2050 net zero goal for [[climate change mitigation]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=9 February 2022|title=Major breakthrough on nuclear fusion energy|publisher=[[BBC]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-60312633|url-status=live|access-date=10 February 2022|archive-date=1 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301030807/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-60312633}}</ref>

==Energy system transformation==
{{Main|Energy transition}}
[[File:2018- Energy transition investment versus fossil fuel investment.svg|thumb|[[Bloomberg L.P.#New Energy Finance|Bloomberg NEF]] reported that in 2022,  global energy transition investment equaled fossil fuels investment for the first time.<ref name=BloombergNEF_20230210>{{cite news |title=Energy Transition Investment Now On Par with Fossil Fuel |url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/energy-transition-investment-now-on-par-with-fossil-fuel/ |publisher=Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance) |date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327065546/https://about.bnef.com/blog/energy-transition-investment-now-on-par-with-fossil-fuel/ |archive-date=27 March 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The emissions reductions necessary to keep global warming below 2{{Nbsp}}°C will require a system-wide transformation of the way energy is produced, distributed, stored, and consumed.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|p=46}} For a society to replace one form of energy with another, multiple technologies and behaviours in the energy system must change. For example, transitioning from oil to solar power as the energy source for cars requires the generation of solar electricity, modifications to the electrical grid to accommodate fluctuations in solar panel output or the introduction of variable battery chargers and higher overall demand, adoption of [[electric cars]], and networks of [[Electric vehicle charging network|electric vehicle charging]] facilities and repair shops.{{sfn|Jaccard|2020|loc=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/renewables-have-won/F64DF99C3ED79CEA29C6EE2A59E71AB3/core-reader Chapter 11 – ""Renewables Have Won""]|pp=202–203}}   

Many climate change mitigation pathways envision three main aspects of a low-carbon energy system: 

* The use of low-emission energy sources to produce electricity
* [[Electrification]] – that is increased use of electricity instead of directly burning fossil fuels
* Accelerated adoption of energy efficiency measures{{sfn|IPCC|2014|loc=7.11.3}}

Some energy-intensive technologies and processes are difficult to electrify, including aviation, shipping, and steelmaking. There are several options for reducing the emissions from these sectors: biofuels and synthetic [[carbon-neutral fuels]] can power many vehicles that are designed to burn fossil fuels, however biofuels cannot be sustainably produced in the quantities needed and synthetic fuels are currently very expensive.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=106–110}} For some applications, the most prominent alternative to electrification is to develop a system based on sustainably-produced [[hydrogen fuel]].<ref name="":18"" />    

Full decarbonisation of the global energy system is expected to take several decades and can mostly be achieved with existing technologies.{{sfn|Jaccard|2020|loc=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/renewables-have-won/F64DF99C3ED79CEA29C6EE2A59E71AB3/core-reader Chapter 11 – ""Renewables Have Won""]|p=203}} The IEA states that further innovation in the energy sector, such as in battery technologies and carbon-neutral fuels, is needed to reach net-zero emissions by 2050.{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=15}} Developing new technologies requires research and development, [[technology demonstration|demonstration]], and [[experience curve|cost reductions via deployment]].{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=15}} The transition to a zero-carbon energy system will bring strong [[Co-benefits of climate change mitigation|co-benefits]] for human health: The [[World Health Organization]] estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 1.5&nbsp;°C could save millions of lives each year from reductions to air pollution alone.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2018|loc=Executive Summary}}<ref name=""Vandyck_et_al_2018"">{{cite journal|last1=Vandyck|first1=T.|last2=Keramidas|first2=K.|last3=Kitous|first3=A.|last4=Spadaro|first4=J.V.|display-authors=etal|year=2018|title=Air quality co-benefits for human health and agriculture counterbalance costs to meet Paris Agreement pledges.|journal=[[Nature Communications]]|volume=9|issue=1|pages=4939|doi=10.1038/s41467-018-06885-9|pmc=6250710|pmid=30467311|bibcode=2018NatCo...9.4939V}}</ref> With good planning and management, pathways exist to provide universal [[Rural electrification|access to electricity]] and [[clean cooking]] by 2030 in ways that are consistent with climate goals.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=46–55}}<ref>{{harvnb|IPCC|2018|p=97}}</ref> Historically, several countries have made rapid economic gains through coal usage.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=46–55}} However, there remains a window of opportunity for many poor countries and regions to ""[[Leapfrogging|leapfrog]]"" fossil fuel dependency by developing their energy systems based on renewables, given adequate international investment and knowledge transfer.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=46–55}}

===Integrating variable energy sources===
[[File:SoSie+SoSchiff Ansicht.jpg|thumb|alt=Short terraces of houses, with their entire sloping roofs covered with solar panels| Buildings in the [[Solar Settlement at Schlierberg]], Germany, produce more energy than they consume. They incorporate rooftop solar panels and are built for maximum energy efficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hopwood|first=David|date=2007|title=Blueprint for sustainability?: What lessons can we learn from Freiburg's inclusive approach to sustainable development?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471084607700689|journal=[[Refocus]]|volume=8|issue=3|pages=54–57|doi=10.1016/S1471-0846(07)70068-9|issn=1471-0846|access-date=17 October 2021|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102023331/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1471084607700689|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
To deliver reliable electricity from [[variable renewable energy]] sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems require flexibility.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|p=47}} Most [[electrical grid]]s were constructed for non-intermittent energy sources such as coal-fired power plants.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Introduction to System Integration of Renewables |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/introduction-to-system-integration-of-renewables|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=15 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515213454/https://www.iea.org/reports/introduction-to-system-integration-of-renewables|url-status=dead}}</ref> As larger amounts of solar and wind energy are integrated into the grid, changes have to be made to the energy system to ensure that the supply of electricity is matched to demand.<ref name="":13"">{{Cite journal|last1=Blanco|first1=Herib|last2=Faaij|first2=André|date=2018|title=A review at the role of storage in energy systems with a focus on Power to Gas and long-term storage|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=81|pages=1049–1086|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.062|issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/47678895/A_review_at_the_role_of_storage_in_energy_systems.pdf}}</ref> In 2019, these sources generated 8.5% of worldwide electricity, a share that has grown rapidly.<ref name="":4"" />

There are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. In many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale: there is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low.<ref name="":13"" /> Linking different geographical regions through [[High-voltage direct current|long-distance transmission lines]] allows for further cancelling out of variability.{{Sfn|REN21|2020|p=177}} Energy demand can be shifted in time through [[energy demand management]] and the use of [[smart grids]], matching the times when variable energy production is highest. With [[grid energy storage]], energy produced in excess can be released when needed.<ref name="":13"" /> Further flexibility could be provided from [[sector coupling]], that is coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via [[power-to-heat]]-systems and electric vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bloess|first1=Andreas|last2=Schill|first2=Wolf-Peter|last3=Zerrahn|first3=Alexander|date=2018|title=Power-to-heat for renewable energy integration: A review of technologies, modeling approaches, and flexibility potentials|journal=[[Applied Energy]]|volume=212|pages=1611–1626|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.073|s2cid=116132198 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018ApEn..212.1611B |hdl=10419/200120|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Building overcapacity for wind and solar generation can help ensure that enough electricity is produced even during poor weather. In optimal weather, energy generation may have to be [[Curtailment (electricity)|curtailed]] if excess electricity cannot be used or stored. The final demand-supply mismatch may be covered by using [[Dispatchable generation|dispatchable energy sources]] such as hydropower, bioenergy, or natural gas.{{Sfn|IEA|2020|p=109}}

====Energy storage====
{{Main|Energy storage|Grid energy storage}}
[[File:1 MW 4 MWh Turner Energy Storage Project in Pullman, WA.jpg|thumb|Battery storage facility|alt=Photo with a set of white containers]]Energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy and is an important aspect of a sustainable energy system.<ref name="":16"">{{Cite journal|last1=Koohi-Fayegh|first1=S.|last2=Rosen|first2=M.A.|date=2020|title=A review of energy storage types, applications and recent developments|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352152X19306012|journal=[[Journal of Energy Storage]]|volume=27|pages=101047|doi=10.1016/j.est.2019.101047|s2cid=210616155|issn=2352-152X|access-date=28 November 2020|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717132743/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352152X19306012|url-status=live}}</ref> The most commonly used and available storage method is [[pumped-storage hydroelectricity]], which requires locations with large differences in height and access to water.<ref name="":16"" /> [[Battery storage|Batteries]], especially [[Lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]], are also deployed widely.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Katz|first=Cheryl|date=17 December 2020|title=The batteries that could make fossil fuels obsolete|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201217-renewable-power-the-worlds-largest-battery|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111075439/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201217-renewable-power-the-worlds-largest-battery|archive-date=11 January 2021|access-date=10 January 2021|publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref>  Batteries typically store electricity for short periods; research is ongoing into technology with sufficient capacity to last through seasons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Herib|first1=Blanco|last2=André|first2=Faaij|date=2018|title=A review at the role of storage in energy systems with a focus on Power to Gas and long-term storage|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=81|pages=1049–1086|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.062|issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/47678895/A_review_at_the_role_of_storage_in_energy_systems.pdf}}</ref> Costs of utility-scale batteries in the US have fallen by around 70% since 2015, however the cost and low [[energy density]] of batteries makes them impractical for the very large energy storage needed to balance inter-seasonal  variations in energy production.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite book|date=19 May 2021|title=Climate change: science and solutions|url=https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/climate-change-science-solutions/|chapter=Climate change and batteries: the search for future power storage solutions|chapter-url=https://royalsociety.org/-/media/policy/projects/climate-change-science-solutions/climate-science-solutions-batteries.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=15 October 2021|publisher=[[The Royal Society]]|archive-date=16 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016023551/https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/climate-change-science-solutions/}}</ref> Pumped hydro storage and [[power-to-gas]] (converting electricity to gas and back) with capacity for multi-month usage has been implemented in some locations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hunt|first1=Julian D.|last2=Byers|first2=Edward|last3=Wada|first3=Yoshihide|last4=Parkinson|first4=Simon|last5=Gernaat|first5=David E. H. J.|last6=Langan|first6=Simon|last7=van Vuuren|first7=Detlef P.|last8=Riahi|first8=Keywan|display-authors=4|date=2020|title=Global resource potential of seasonal pumped hydropower storage for energy and water storage|journal=[[Nature Communications]]|volume=11|issue=1|pages=947|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-14555-y|pmid=32075965|pmc=7031375|bibcode=2020NatCo..11..947H|issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Balaraman|first=Kavya|date=12 October 2020|title=To batteries and beyond: With seasonal storage potential, hydrogen offers 'a different ballgame entirely'|url=https://www.utilitydive.com/news/to-batteries-and-beyond-with-seasonal-storage-potential-hydrogen-offers/584959/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118052735/https://www.utilitydive.com/news/to-batteries-and-beyond-with-seasonal-storage-potential-hydrogen-offers/584959/|archive-date=18 January 2021|access-date=10 January 2021|website=Utility Dive}}</ref>

=== Electrification ===
{{main|Electrification}}

[[File:Heat Pump.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph two fans, the outdoor section of a heat pump|The outdoor section of a [[heat pump]]. In contrast to oil and gas boilers, they use electricity and are highly efficient. As such, electrification of heating can significantly reduce emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cole|first=Laura|date=15 November 2020|title=How to cut carbon out of your heating|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201116-climate-change-how-to-cut-the-carbon-emissions-from-heating|url-status=live|access-date=31 August 2021|publisher=[[BBC]]|archive-date=27 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827063629/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201116-climate-change-how-to-cut-the-carbon-emissions-from-heating}}</ref>  ]]
Compared to the rest of the energy system, emissions can be reduced much faster in the electricity sector.{{sfn|IPCC|2014|loc=7.11.3}} As of 2019, 37% of global electricity is produced from low-carbon sources (renewables and nuclear energy). Fossil fuels, primarily coal, produce the rest of the electricity supply.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max|date=2020|title=Electricity Mix |url=https://ourworldindata.org/electricity-mix|journal=[[Our World in Data]]|access-date=16 October 2021|archive-date=13 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013212634/https://ourworldindata.org/electricity-mix|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the easiest and fastest ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is to phase out coal-fired power plants and increase renewable electricity generation.{{sfn|IPCC|2014|loc=7.11.3}}  

Climate change mitigation pathways envision extensive electrification—the use of electricity as a substitute for the direct burning of fossil fuels for heating buildings and for transport.{{sfn|IPCC|2014|loc=7.11.3}} Ambitious climate policy would see a doubling of energy share consumed as electricity by 2050, from 20% in 2020.{{sfn|IPCC|2018|loc=2.4.2.2}} 

One of the challenges in providing universal access to electricity is distributing power to rural areas. Off-grid and [[Mini-grids|mini-grid]] systems based on renewable energy, such as small solar PV installations that generate and store enough electricity for a village, are important solutions.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=167–169}} Wider access to reliable electricity would lead to less use of [[kerosene lighting]] and diesel generators, which are currently common in the developing world.{{sfn|United Nations Development Programme|2016|p=30}} 

Infrastructure for generating and storing renewable electricity requires minerals and metals, such as [[cobalt]] and [[lithium]] for batteries and [[copper]] for solar panels.<ref name="":19"">{{Cite journal|last=Herrington|first=Richard|date=2021|title=Mining our green future|journal=[[Nature Reviews Materials]]|volume=6|issue=6|pages=456–458|bibcode=2021NatRM...6..456H|doi=10.1038/s41578-021-00325-9|issn=2058-8437|doi-access=free}}</ref> Recycling can meet some of this demand if product lifecycles are well-designed, however achieving net zero emissions would still require major increases in mining for 17 types of metals and minerals.<ref name="":19"" /> A small group of countries or companies sometimes dominate the markets for these commodities, raising geopolitical concerns.<ref name="":20"">{{Citec|last=Mudd|first=Gavin M.|year=2020|in=Letcher|pp=723–724|chapter=Metals and Elements Needed to Support Future Energy Systems}}</ref> Most of the world's cobalt, for instance, is [[Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]], a politically unstable region where mining is often associated with human rights risks.<ref name="":19"" /> More diverse geographical sourcing may ensure a more flexible and less brittle [[supply chain]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Babbitt|first=Callie W.|date=2020|title=Sustainability perspectives on lithium-ion batteries|journal=[[Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy]]|volume=22|issue=6|pages=1213–1214|doi=10.1007/s10098-020-01890-3|issn=1618-9558|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020CTEP...22.1213B |s2cid=220351269}}</ref>

===Hydrogen===
{{Main|Hydrogen economy}}

Hydrogen gas is widely discussed in the context of energy, as an energy carrier with potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.{{sfn|IPCC AR6 WG3|2022|pp=91-92}}<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Evans |first1=Simon |last2=Gabbatiss |first2=Josh |date=30 November 2020 |title=In-depth Q&A: Does the world need hydrogen to solve climate change? |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-depth-qa-does-the-world-need-hydrogen-to-solve-climate-change |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201155033/https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-depth-qa-does-the-world-need-hydrogen-to-solve-climate-change |archive-date=1 December 2020 |access-date=1 December 2020 |website=[[Carbon Brief]]}}</ref> This requires hydrogen to be produced cleanly, in quantities to supply in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient [[Climate change mitigation|mitigation]] alternatives are limited. These applications include heavy industry and long-distance transport.{{sfn|IPCC AR6 WG3|2022|pp=91-92}}

Hydrogen can be deployed as an energy source in [[fuel cells]] to produce electricity, or via combustion to generate heat.<ref name="":0422"">{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Alastair C. |date=10 June 2021 |title=Optimising air quality co-benefits in a hydrogen economy: a case for hydrogen-specific standards for NO x emissions |journal=Environmental Science: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=201–207 |doi=10.1039/D1EA00037C|doi-access=free }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by3|url=|authors=|vrt=|from this source=yes}}</ref> When hydrogen is consumed in fuel cells, the only emission at the point of use is water vapour.<ref name="":0422"" /> Combustion of hydrogen can lead to the thermal formation of harmful [[NOx|nitrogen oxides]].<ref name="":0422"" /> The overall lifecycle emissions of hydrogen depend on how it is produced. Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Reed|first1=Stanley|last2=Ewing|first2=Jack|date=13 July 2021|title=Hydrogen Is One Answer to Climate Change. Getting It Is the Hard Part.|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/13/business/hydrogen-climate-change.html|access-date=14 July 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=14 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714190628/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/13/business/hydrogen-climate-change.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|IRENA|2019|p=9}}.</ref> The main method is [[steam methane reforming]], in which hydrogen is produced from a chemical reaction between steam and [[methane]], the main component of natural gas. Producing one tonne of hydrogen through this process emits 6.6–9.3 tonnes of carbon dioxide.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite web|last1=Bonheure|first1=Mike|last2=Vandewalle|first2=Laurien A.|last3=Marin|first3=Guy B.|last4=Van Geem|first4=Kevin M.|date=March 2021|title=Dream or Reality? Electrification of the Chemical Process Industries|url=https://www.aiche-cep.com/cepmagazine/march_2021/MobilePagedArticle.action?articleId=1663852|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717132733/https://www.aiche-cep.com/cepmagazine/march_2021/MobilePagedArticle.action?articleId=1663852|archive-date=17 July 2021|access-date=6 July 2021|website=CEP Magazine|publisher=[[American Institute of Chemical Engineers]]}}</ref> While [[carbon capture and storage]] (CCS) could remove a large fraction of these emissions, the overall carbon footprint of hydrogen from natural gas is difficult to assess {{As of|2021|lc=y}}, in part because of emissions (including [[Gas venting|vented]] and [[Fugitive gas emissions|fugitive]] [[methane]]) created in the production of the natural gas itself.<ref name="":25"">{{Cite journal|date=2021|title=Industrial decarbonization via hydrogen: A critical and systematic review of developments, socio-technical systems and policy options|url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/108187/1/Griffiths-IDRIC-Hydrogen-Manuscript-REV1_v1.1_tracked-BKS%5B90%5D.pdf|journal=[[Energy Research & Social Science]]|volume=80|page=39|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2021.102208|issn=2214-6296|first1=Steve|last1=Griffiths|first2=Benjamin K.|last2=Sovacool|first3=Jinsoo|last3=Kim|first4=Morgan|last4=Bazilian|first5=Joao M.|last5=Uratani|display-authors=4|access-date=11 September 2021|url-access=}}</ref> 

Electricity can be used to split water molecules, producing sustainable hydrogen provided the electricity was generated sustainably. However, this [[electrolysis]] process is currently financially more expensive than creating hydrogen from methane without CCS and the efficiency of energy conversion is inherently low.<ref name="":18"">{{Cite web|last1=Evans|first1=Simon|last2=Gabbatiss|first2=Josh|date=30 November 2020|title=In-depth Q&A: Does the world need hydrogen to solve climate change?|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-depth-qa-does-the-world-need-hydrogen-to-solve-climate-change|access-date=1 December 2020|website=[[Carbon Brief]]|archive-date=1 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201155033/https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-depth-qa-does-the-world-need-hydrogen-to-solve-climate-change|url-status=live}}</ref> Hydrogen can be produced when there is a surplus of [[Variable renewable energy|variable renewable electricity]], then stored and used to generate heat or to re-generate electricity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Palys|first1=Matthew J.|last2=Daoutidis|first2=Prodromos|date=2020|title=Using hydrogen and ammonia for renewable energy storage: A geographically comprehensive techno-economic study|journal=[[Computers & Chemical Engineering]]|volume=136|pages=106785|doi=10.1016/j.compchemeng.2020.106785|osti=1616471 |issn=0098-1354|doi-access=free}}</ref> It can be further transformed into liquid fuels such as [[green ammonia]] and [[green methanol]].{{Sfn|IRENA|2021|pp=12, 22}} Innovation in [[Electrolysis of water|hydrogen electrolysers]] could make large-scale production of hydrogen from electricity [[Hydrogen economy#Costs|more cost-competitive]].{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=15, 75–76}}  

Hydrogen fuel can produce the intense heat required for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals, thus contributing to the decarbonisation of industry alongside other technologies, such as [[electric arc furnace]]s for steelmaking.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kjellberg-Motton |first=Brendan |date=7 February 2022 |title=Steel decarbonisation gathers speed {{!}} Argus Media |url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en//news/2299399-steel-decarbonisation-gathers-speed |access-date=7 September 2023 |website=www.argusmedia.com |language=en}}</ref> For steelmaking, hydrogen can function as a clean energy carrier and simultaneously as a low-carbon catalyst replacing coal-derived [[coke (fuel)|coke]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Blank|first1=Thomas|last2=Molly|first2=Patrick|date=January 2020|title=Hydrogen's Decarbonization Impact for Industry|url=https://rmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/hydrogen_insight_brief.pdf|pages=2, 7, 8|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922115313/https://rmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/hydrogen_insight_brief.pdf|archive-date=22 September 2020|access-date=|publisher=[[Rocky Mountain Institute]]}}</ref> Hydrogen used to decarbonise transportation is likely to find its largest applications in shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles.{{sfn|IPCC AR6 WG3|2022|pp=91–92}} For light duty vehicles including passenger cars, hydrogen is far behind other [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s, especially compared with the rate of adoption of [[battery electric vehicles]], and may not play a significant role in future.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Plötz |first=Patrick |date=31 January 2022 |title=Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928-021-00706-6 |journal=Nature Electronics |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=8–10 |doi=10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 |s2cid=246465284 |issn=2520-1131}}</ref>

Disadvantages of hydrogen as an energy carrier include high costs of storage and distribution due to hydrogen's explosivity, its large volume compared to other fuels, and its tendency to make pipes brittle.<ref name="":25"" />

=== Energy usage technologies ===

====Transport====
[[File:Hornby Street Separated Bike Lane.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Group of cyclists using a bike lane in Vancouver, Canada|[[Utility cycling]] infrastructure, such as this [[bike lane]] in [[Vancouver]], encourages sustainable transport.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fraser |first1=Simon D.S. |last2=Lock |first2=Karen |title=Cycling for transport and public health: a systematic review of the effect of the environment on cycling |journal=[[European Journal of Public Health]] |date=December 2011 |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=738–743 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckq145 |pmid=20929903 |doi-access=free }}</ref>]]
{{main|Sustainable transport}}
Transport accounts for 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions,<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 January 2016|title=Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data|access-date=15 October 2021|publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]|archive-date=5 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205123907/https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data|url-status=live}}</ref> but there are multiple ways to make transport more sustainable. [[Public transport]] typically emits fewer greenhouse gases per passenger than personal vehicles, since trains and buses can carry many more passengers at once.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bigazzi|first=Alexander|date=2019|title=Comparison of marginal and average emission factors for passenger transportation modes|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030626191930580X|journal=[[Applied Energy]]|volume=242|pages=1460–1466|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.03.172|bibcode=2019ApEn..242.1460B |s2cid=115682591|issn=0306-2619|access-date=8 February 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717132723/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030626191930580X|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schäfer|first1=Andreas W.|last2=Yeh|first2=Sonia|date=2020|title=A holistic analysis of passenger travel energy and greenhouse gas intensities|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10096557/1/Energy%26GHG_Intensity.pdf|journal=[[Nature Sustainability]]|volume=3|issue=6|pages=459–462|doi=10.1038/s41893-020-0514-9|bibcode=2020NatSu...3..459S |s2cid=216032098|issn=2398-9629|via=|url-access=}}</ref> Short-distance flights can be replaced by [[high-speed rail]], which is more efficient, especially when electrified.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2020|p=xxv}}{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=137}} Promoting non-motorised transport such as walking and cycling, particularly in cities, can make transport cleaner and healthier.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pucher|first1=John|last2=Buehler|first2=Ralph|date=2017|title=Cycling towards a more sustainable transport future|journal=[[Transport Reviews]]|volume=37|issue=6|pages=689–694|doi=10.1080/01441647.2017.1340234|issn=0144-1647|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Smith|first=John|date=22 September 2016|title=Sustainable transport|url=https://transport.ec.europa.eu/transport-themes/sustainable-transport_en|access-date=22 October 2021|publisher=[[European Commission]]|url-status=live|archive-date=22 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022074150/https://transport.ec.europa.eu/transport-themes/sustainable-transport_en}}</ref> 

The [[Energy efficiency in transport|energy efficiency of cars]] has increased over time,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Knobloch|first1=Florian|last2=Hanssen|first2=Steef V.|last3=Lam|first3=Aileen|last4=Pollitt|first4=Hector |last5=Salas|first5=Pablo|last6=Chewpreecha|first6=Unnada |last7=Huijbregts|first7=Mark A. J.|last8=Mercure|first8=Jean-Francois|display-authors=4 |date=2020|title=Net emission reductions from electric cars and heat pumps in 59 world regions over time|journal=[[Nature Sustainability]]|volume=3|issue=6|pages=437–447|doi=10.1038/s41893-020-0488-7|pmid=32572385|issn=2398-9629|pmc=7308170|bibcode=2020NatSu...3..437K }}</ref> but shifting to [[electric vehicle]]s is an important further step towards decarbonising transport and reducing air pollution.<ref name="":17"">{{Cite journal|last1=Bogdanov|first1=Dmitrii|last2=Farfan|first2=Javier|last3=Sadovskaia|first3=Kristina|last4=Aghahosseini|first4=Arman|last5=Child|first5=Michael|last6=Gulagi|first6=Ashish|last7=Oyewo|first7=Ayobami Solomon|last8=de Souza Noel Simas Barbosa|first8=Larissa|last9=Breyer|first9=Christian|display-authors=4|date=2019|title=Radical transformation pathway towards sustainable electricity via evolutionary steps|url=|journal=[[Nature Communications]]|volume=10|issue=1|pages=1077|bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1077B|doi=10.1038/s41467-019-08855-1|issn=|pmc=6403340|pmid=30842423}}</ref> A large proportion of traffic-related air pollution consists of particulate matter from road dust and the wearing-down of tyres and brake pads.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Martini|first1=Giorgio|url=https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC89231|title=Non-exhaust traffic related emissions – Brake and tyre wear PM. EUR 26648.|last2=Grigoratos|first2=Theodoros|date=2014|publisher=[[Publications Office of the European Union]]|isbn=978-92-79-38303-8|pages=42|oclc=1044281650|archive-date=30 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730193639/https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC89231|url-status=live}}</ref> Substantially reducing pollution from these [[Non-tailpipe emissions|non-tailpipe]] sources cannot be achieved by electrification; it requires measures such as making vehicles lighter and driving them less.<ref>{{Cite book| url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/non-exhaust-particulate-emissions-from-road-transport_4a4dc6ca-en|title=Non-exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport: An Ignored Environmental Policy Challenge|date=2020|publisher=[[OECD]] Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-45244-2|pages=8–9|chapter=Executive Summary|doi=10.1787/4a4dc6ca-en|s2cid=136987659|archive-date=30 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730195154/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/non-exhaust-particulate-emissions-from-road-transport_4a4dc6ca-en|url-status=live}}</ref> Light-duty cars in particular are a prime candidate for decarbonization using [[Electric battery|battery technology]]. 25% of the world's [[Carbon dioxide|{{CO2}}]] emissions still originate from the transportation sector.<ref>{{Cite web |title={{CO2}} performance of new passenger cars in Europe |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/ims/co2-performance-of-new-passenger |access-date=19 October 2022 |website=www.eea.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>    

Long-distance freight transport and aviation are difficult sectors to electrify with current technologies, mostly because of the weight of [[Electric vehicle battery|batteries]] needed for long-distance travel, battery recharging times, and limited battery lifespans.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=133–137}}<ref name="":2"" />  Where available, freight transport by ship [[Rail freight transport|and rail]] is generally more sustainable than by air and by road.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rail and waterborne – best for low-carbon motorised transport|publisher=[[European Environment Agency]]|url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/rail-and-waterborne-transport|access-date=15 October 2021|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009064539/https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/rail-and-waterborne-transport|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Hydrogen vehicles]] may be an option for larger vehicles such as lorries.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Miller|first=Joe|date=9 September 2020|title=Hydrogen takes a back seat to electric for passenger vehicles|url=https://www.ft.com/content/98a386ee-1a04-40fd-b6a4-8cf13ff1d0da|access-date=9 September 2020|website=[[Financial Times]]|archive-date=20 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920154027/https://www.ft.com/content/98a386ee-1a04-40fd-b6a4-8cf13ff1d0da|url-status=live}}</ref> Many of the techniques needed to lower emissions from shipping and aviation are still early in their development, with [[ammonia]] (produced from hydrogen) a promising candidate for shipping fuel.{{Sfn|IEA|2021|pp=136, 139}} [[Aviation biofuel]] may be one of the better uses of bioenergy if emissions are captured and stored during manufacture of the fuel.<ref name=""Biomass in a low-carbon economy"">{{Cite report|url=https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/biomass-in-a-low-carbon-economy/|title=Biomass in a low-carbon economy|date=November 2018|publisher=UK [[Committee on Climate Change]]|page=18|access-date=28 December 2019|archive-date=28 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228191428/https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/biomass-in-a-low-carbon-economy/|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Buildings and cooking====
{{Further|Renewable heat|Green building|Energy poverty and cooking}}
[[File:Aghazade mansion.jpg|thumb|alt=Building with windcatcher towers|[[Passive cooling]] features, such as these [[windcatcher]] towers in Iran, bring cool air into buildings without any use of energy.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Abdolhamidi|first=Shervin|date=27 September 2018|title=An ancient engineering feat that harnessed the wind|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20180926-an-ancient-engineering-feat-that-harnessed-the-wind|url-status=live|access-date=12 August 2021|publisher=[[BBC]]|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812203754/https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20180926-an-ancient-engineering-feat-that-harnessed-the-wind}}</ref>]] 
[[File:Kookplaat inductie.JPG|thumb|alt=Electric induction oven|For cooking, [[Induction cooking|electric induction stoves]] are one of the most energy-efficient and safest options.{{sfn|Smith|Pillarisetti |2017|pp=145–146}}<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]]|date=16 January 2013|title=Cooking appliances|url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy-efficiency/products/product-information/appliances-for-residential-use/cooking-appliances/13987|url-status=live|access-date=30 July 2021|archive-date=30 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730185801/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy-efficiency/products/product-information/appliances-for-residential-use/cooking-appliances/13987}}</ref>]]
Over one-third of energy use is in buildings and their construction.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Buildings|url=https://www.iea.org/topics/buildings|access-date=15 October 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|archive-date=14 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014223318/https://www.iea.org/topics/buildings|url-status=live}}</ref> To heat buildings, alternatives to burning fossil fuels and biomass include electrification through [[heat pumps]] or [[Electric resistance heater|electric heaters]], [[Geothermal heating|geothermal energy]], [[central solar heating]], reuse of [[waste heat]], and [[seasonal thermal energy storage]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mortensen|first1=Anders Winther|last2=Mathiesen|first2=Brian Vad|last3=Hansen|first3=Anders Bavnhøj|last4=Pedersen|first4=Sigurd Lauge|last5=Grandal|first5=Rune Duban|last6=Wenzel|first6=Henrik|display-authors=4|date=2020|title=The role of electrification and hydrogen in breaking the biomass bottleneck of the renewable energy system – A study on the Danish energy system|journal=[[Applied Energy]]|volume=275|pages=115331|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115331|issn=0306-2619|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020ApEn..27515331M |url=https://findresearcher.sdu.dk/ws/files/172072129/1_s2.0_S0306261920308436_main.pdf}}</ref><ref name="":12"">{{Cite journal|last1=Knobloch|first1=Florian|last2=Pollitt|first2=Hector|last3=Chewpreecha|first3=Unnada|last4=Daioglou|first4=Vassilis|last5=Mercure|first5=Jean-Francois |display-authors=4|date=2019|title=Simulating the deep decarbonisation of residential heating for limiting global warming to 1.5&nbsp;°C|journal=[[Energy Efficiency (journal)|Energy Efficiency]] |volume=12|issue=2|pages=521–550|doi=10.1007/s12053-018-9710-0|issn=1570-6478|doi-access=free|s2cid=52830709|url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/375922/Knobloch2019_Article_SimulatingTheDeepDecarbonisati.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alva|first1=Guruprasad|last2=Lin|first2=Yaxue|last3=Fang|first3=Guiyin|date=2018|title=An overview of thermal energy storage systems|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036054421732056X|url-status=live|journal=[[Energy (journal)|Energy]]|volume=144|pages=341–378|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2017.12.037|issn=0360-5442|access-date=28 November 2020|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717132734/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S036054421732056X}}</ref> Heat pumps provide both heat and air conditioning through a single appliance.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Plumer|first=Brad|date=30 June 2021|title=Are 'Heat Pumps' the Answer to Heat Waves? Some Cities Think So.|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/30/climate/heat-pumps-climate.html|access-date=11 September 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=10 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910154532/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/30/climate/heat-pumps-climate.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The IEA estimates heat pumps could provide over 90% of space and water heating requirements globally.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Abergel|first1=Thibaut|date=June 2020|title=Heat Pumps|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/heat-pumps|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303162213/https://www.iea.org/reports/heat-pumps|archive-date=3 March 2021|access-date=12 April 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]}}</ref>   

A highly efficient way to heat buildings is through [[district heating]], in which heat is generated in a centralised location and then distributed to multiple buildings through [[insulated pipe]]s. Traditionally, most district heating systems have used fossil fuels, but [[District heating#Fourth generation|modern]] and [[cold district heating]] systems are designed to use high shares of renewable energy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Buffa|first1=Simone|last2=Cozzini|first2=Marco|last3=D'Antoni|first3=Matteo|last4=Baratieri|first4=Marco|last5=Fedrizzi|first5=Roberto|display-authors=4|date=2019|title=5th generation district heating and cooling systems: A review of existing cases in Europe|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=104|pages=504–522|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2018.12.059|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lund|first1=Henrik|author-link=Henrik Lund (academic)|last2=Werner|first2=Sven|last3=Wiltshire|first3=Robin|last4=Svendsen|first4=Svend|last5=Thorsen|first5=Jan Eric|last6=Hvelplund|first6=Frede|last7=Mathiesen|first7=Brian Vad|display-authors=4|date=2014|title=4th Generation District Heating (4GDH)|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544214002369|journal=[[Energy (journal)|Energy]]|volume=68|pages=1–11|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2014.02.089|access-date=13 June 2021|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307230126/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544214002369|url-status=live}}</ref> 

Cooling of buildings can be made more efficient through [[Passive solar building design|passive building design]], planning that minimises the [[urban heat island]] effect, and [[district cooling]] systems that cool multiple buildings with piped cold water.<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=[[United Nations Environment Programme]]|date=22 July 2020|title=How cities are using nature to keep heatwaves at bay|url=https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-cities-are-using-nature-keep-heatwaves-bay|url-status=live|access-date=11 September 2021|ref=none|archive-date=11 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911225833/https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-cities-are-using-nature-keep-heatwaves-bay}}</ref><ref name="":26"">{{Cite web|date=23 May 2019|title=Four Things You Should Know About Sustainable Cooling|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/05/23/four-things-you-should-know-about-sustainable-cooling|url-status=live|access-date=11 September 2021|publisher=[[World Bank]]|archive-date=11 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911232205/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/05/23/four-things-you-should-know-about-sustainable-cooling}}</ref> [[Air conditioning]] requires large amounts of electricity and is not always affordable for poorer households.<ref name="":26"" /> Some air conditioning units still use [[refrigerant]]s that are greenhouse gases, as some countries have not ratified the [[Kigali Amendment]] to only use climate-friendly refrigerants.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mastrucci|first1=Alessio|last2=Byers|first2=Edward|last3=Pachauri|first3=Shonali|last4=Rao|first4=Narasimha D.|date=2019|title=Improving the SDG energy poverty targets: Residential cooling needs in the Global South|journal=[[Energy and Buildings]]|volume=186|pages=405–415|doi=10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.01.015|issn=0378-7788|doi-access=free|url=http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/15739/1/1-s2.0-S0378778818323958-main.pdf}}</ref>  

In developing countries where populations suffer from [[energy poverty]], polluting fuels such as wood or animal dung are often used for cooking. Cooking with these fuels is generally unsustainable, because they release harmful smoke and because harvesting wood can lead to forest degradation.<ref>{{Cite report|author1=[[World Health Organization]] |author2=[[International Energy Agency]] |author3=[[Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves]] |author4=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |author5=Energising Development |name-list-style=and |author6=[[World Bank]] |date=2018|title=Accelerating SDG 7 Achievement Policy Brief 02: Achieving Universal Access to Clean and Modern Cooking Fuels, Technologies and Services|publisher=[[United Nations]]|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17465PB2.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318023046/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17465PB2.pdf|archive-date=18 March 2021|page=3}}</ref> The universal adoption of clean cooking facilities, which are already ubiquitous in rich countries,{{sfn|Smith|Pillarisetti|2017|pp=145–146}} would dramatically improve health and have minimal negative effects on climate.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=75}}{{sfn|IPCC|2014|p=29}} Clean cooking facilities, e.g. cooking facilities that produce less indoor soot, typically use natural gas, [[liquefied petroleum gas]] (both of which consume oxygen and produce carbon-dioxide) or electricity as the energy source; biogas systems are a promising alternative in some contexts.{{sfn|Smith|Pillarisetti|2017|pp=145–146}} [[Improved cookstoves]] that burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves are an interim solution where transitioning to clean cooking systems is difficult.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=12}}

====Industry====
Over one-third of energy use is by industry. Most of that energy is deployed in thermal processes: generating heat, drying, and [[refrigeration]]. The share of renewable energy in industry was 14.5% in 2017—mostly low-temperature heat supplied by bioenergy and electricity. The most energy-intensive activities in industry have the lowest shares of renewable energy, as they face limitations in generating heat at temperatures over {{convert|200|C|sigfig=2}}.{{Sfn|REN21|2020|p=40}}

For some industrial processes, commercialisation of technologies that have not yet been built or operated at full scale will be needed to eliminate greenhouse gas emissions.{{Sfn|IEA|2020|p=135}} [[Steelmaking]], for instance, is difficult to electrify because it traditionally uses [[Coke (fuel)|coke]], which is derived from coal, both to create very high-temperature heat and as an ingredient in the steel itself.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|p=50}} The production of plastic, cement, and fertilisers also requires significant amounts of energy, with limited possibilities available to decarbonise.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Åhman|first1=Max|last2=Nilsson|first2=Lars J.|last3=Johansson|first3=Bengt|date=2017|title=Global climate policy and deep decarbonization of energy-intensive industries|journal=[[Climate Policy (journal)|Climate Policy]]|volume=17|issue=5|pages=634–649|doi=10.1080/14693062.2016.1167009|issn=1469-3062|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017CliPo..17..634A }}</ref> A switch to a [[circular economy]] would make industry more sustainable as it involves recycling more and thereby using less energy compared to investing energy to mine and refine new [[raw materials]].{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|p=xxiii}}

==Government policies==
{{Further|Politics of climate change|Energy policy}}
{{quote box
| halign = left
| quote = ""Bringing new energy technologies to market can often take several decades, but the imperative of reaching net‐zero emissions globally by 2050 means that progress has to be much faster. Experience has shown that the role of government is crucial in shortening the time needed to bring new technology to market and to diffuse it widely.""
| author = [[International Energy Agency]] (2021){{sfn|IEA|2021|p=186}}
| width = 25%
}}
Well-designed government policies that promote energy system transformation can lower greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality simultaneously, and in many cases can also increase energy security and lessen the financial burden of using energy.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=39–45}} 

[[Environmental regulations]] have been used since the 1970s to promote more sustainable use of energy.{{sfn|Jaccard|2020|loc=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/we-must-price-carbon-emissions/66AEBB8BE9A7F7760DC1BCE3A9C50748 Chapter 6 – We Must Price Carbon Emissions""]|p=109}} Some governments have committed to dates for [[Coal phase-out|phasing out coal-fired power plants]] and ending new [[fossil fuel exploration]]. Governments can require that new cars produce zero emissions, or new buildings are heated by electricity instead of gas.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=28–36}} [[Renewable portfolio standard]]s in several countries require utilities to increase the percentage of electricity they generate from renewable sources.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ciucci|first=M.|date=February 2020|title=Renewable Energy|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/70/renewable-energy|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604182037/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/70/renewable-energy|archive-date=4 June 2020|access-date=3 June 2020|publisher=[[European Parliament]]|ref={{harvid|European Parliament, February|2020}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=17 April 2020|title=State Renewable Portfolio Standards and Goals|url=https://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/renewable-portfolio-standards.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603174312/https://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/renewable-portfolio-standards.aspx|archive-date=3 June 2020|access-date=3 June 2020|publisher=[[National Conference of State Legislators]]|ref={{harvid|National Conference of State Legislators, 17 April|2020}}}}</ref>

Governments can accelerate energy system transformation by leading the development of infrastructure such as long-distance electrical transmission lines, smart grids, and hydrogen pipelines.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=14–25}}  In transport, appropriate infrastructure and incentives can make travel more efficient and less car-dependent.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=39–45}} [[Urban planning]] that discourages [[Urban sprawl|sprawl]] can reduce energy use in local transport and buildings while enhancing quality of life.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=39–45}} Government-funded research, procurement, and incentive policies have historically been critical to the development and maturation of clean energy technologies, such as solar and lithium batteries.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=184–187}} In the IEA's scenario for a net zero-emission energy system by 2050, public funding is rapidly mobilised to bring a range of newer technologies to the demonstration phase and to encourage deployment.{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=16}}

[[File:MicrocityCarSharingHangzhou.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a row of cars plugged into squat metal boxes under a roof| Several countries and the European Union have committed to dates for all new cars to be [[zero-emissions vehicle]]s.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=28–36}}]]
[[Carbon pricing]] (such as a tax on {{CO2}} emissions) gives industries and consumers an incentive to reduce emissions while letting them choose how to do so. For example, they can shift to low-emission energy sources, improve energy efficiency, or reduce their use of energy-intensive products and services.{{sfn|Jaccard|2020|pp=106–109|loc=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/we-must-price-carbon-emissions/66AEBB8BE9A7F7760DC1BCE3A9C50748 Chapter 6 – ""We Must Price Carbon Emissions""]}} Carbon pricing has encountered strong [[Politics of climate change|political pushback]] in some jurisdictions, whereas energy-specific policies tend to be politically safer.<ref name=""Plumer"">{{Cite news|last=Plumer|first=Brad|date=8 October 2018|title=New U.N. Climate Report Says Put a High Price on Carbon |work=[[The New York Times]]|issn=0362-4331 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/08/climate/carbon-tax-united-nations-report-nordhaus.html|access-date=4 October 2019|url-status=live|archive-date=27 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927002827/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/08/climate/carbon-tax-united-nations-report-nordhaus.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Green|first=Jessica F.|date=2021 |title=Does carbon pricing reduce emissions? A review of ex-post analyses |journal=[[Environmental Research Letters]]|volume=16|issue=4|pages=043004|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/abdae9|bibcode=2021ERL....16d3004G |s2cid=234254992|issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free}}</ref> Most studies indicate that to limit global warming to 1.5{{Nbsp}}°C, carbon pricing would need to be complemented by stringent energy-specific policies.{{sfn|IPCC|2018|loc=2.5.2.1}} As of 2019, the price of carbon in most regions is too low to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement.<ref>
{{cite report |ref={{harvid|World Bank, June|2019}} |title=State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2019 |url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/191801559846379845/pdf/State-and-Trends-of-Carbon-Pricing-2019.pdf |date=June 2019 |publisher=[[World Bank]] |doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-1435-8 |hdl=10986/29687 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506210943/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/191801559846379845/pdf/State-and-Trends-of-Carbon-Pricing-2019.pdf |url-status=live|pages=8–11 |isbn=978-1-4648-1435-8 }}
</ref> [[Carbon tax]]es provide a source of revenue that can be used to lower other taxes<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Revenue-Neutral Carbon Tax {{!}} Canada|url=https://unfccc.int/climate-action/momentum-for-change/financing-for-climate-friendly/revenue-neutral-carbon-tax|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028052504/https://unfccc.int/climate-action/momentum-for-change/financing-for-climate-friendly/revenue-neutral-carbon-tax|archive-date=28 October 2019|access-date=28 October 2019|publisher=[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]}}</ref> or help lower-income households afford higher energy costs.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carr|first=Mathew|date=10 October 2018|title=How High Does Carbon Need to Be? Somewhere From $20–$27,000|work=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-10-10/how-much-does-carbon-need-to-cost-somewhere-from-20-to-27-000|url-status=live|access-date=4 October 2019|archive-date=5 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805224854/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-10-10/how-much-does-carbon-need-to-cost-somewhere-from-20-to-27-000}}</ref> Some governments, such as the EU and the UK, are exploring the use of [[carbon border adjustments]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=EAC launches new inquiry weighing up carbon border tax measures |date=24 September 2021|publisher=[[UK Parliament]] |url=https://committees.parliament.uk/committee/62/environmental-audit-committee/news/157728/eac-launches-new-inquiry-weighing-up-carbon-border-tax-measures/|access-date=14 October 2021|archive-date=24 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924120030/https://committees.parliament.uk/committee/62/environmental-audit-committee/news/157728/eac-launches-new-inquiry-weighing-up-carbon-border-tax-measures/|url-status=live}}</ref> These place [[tariff]]s on imports from countries with less stringent climate policies, to ensure that industries subject to internal carbon prices remain competitive.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Plumer |first=Brad|date=14 July 2021|title=Europe Is Proposing a Border Carbon Tax. What Is It and How Will It Work?|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/14/climate/carbon-border-tax.html|access-date=10 September 2021 |issn=0362-4331|archive-date=10 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910225727/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/14/climate/carbon-border-tax.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Bharti |first=Bianca|date=12 August 2021|title=Taxing imports of heavy carbon emitters is gaining momentum – and it could hurt Canadian industry: Report|work=[[Financial Post]]|url=https://financialpost.com/news/economy/border-carbon-adjustments-canada-eu-import-carbon-tax|access-date=3 October 2021|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003181112/https://financialpost.com/news/economy/border-carbon-adjustments-canada-eu-import-carbon-tax|url-status=live}}</ref> 

The scale and pace of policy reforms that have been initiated as of 2020 are far less than needed to fulfil the climate goals of the Paris Agreement.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2020|p=vii}}{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=13}} In addition to domestic policies, greater international cooperation is required to accelerate innovation and to assist poorer countries in establishing a sustainable path to full energy access.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=14–18}}

Countries may support renewables to create jobs.{{Sfn|IRENA|IEA|REN21|2018|p=19}} The [[International Labour Organization]] estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 2&nbsp;°C would result in net job creation in most sectors of the economy.<ref name="":21"">{{Cite web|date=14 May 2018|title=24&nbsp;million jobs to open up in the green economy|url=http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_628644/lang--en/index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213559/http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_628644/lang--en/index.htm|archive-date=2 June 2021|access-date=30 May 2021|publisher=[[International Labour Organization]]}}</ref> It predicts that 24&nbsp;million new jobs would be created by 2030 in areas such as renewable electricity generation, improving energy-efficiency in buildings, and the transition to electric vehicles. Six million jobs would be lost, in sectors such as mining and fossil fuels.<ref name="":21"" /> Governments can make the transition to sustainable energy more politically and socially feasible by ensuring a [[just transition]] for workers and regions that depend on the fossil fuel industry, to ensure they have alternative economic opportunities.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=46–55}}

==Finance==
{{Further|Climate finance}}
[[File:20210119 Renewable energy investment - 2004- BloombergNEF.svg |thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Graph of global investment for renewable energy, electrified heat and transport, and other non-fossil-fuel energy sources |Electrified transport and renewable energy are key areas of investment for the [[renewable energy transition]].<ref name=BloombergNEF_20230126>{{cite news |last1=Catsaros |first1=Oktavia |title=Global Low-Carbon Energy Technology Investment Surges Past $1 Trillion for the First Time |url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/global-low-carbon-energy-technology-investment-surges-past-1-trillion-for-the-first-time/ |publisher=Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance) |date=26 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522001857/https://about.bnef.com/blog/global-low-carbon-energy-technology-investment-surges-past-1-trillion-for-the-first-time/ |archive-date=22 May 2023 |at=Figure 1 |quote=Defying supply chain disruptions and macroeconomic headwinds, 2022 energy transition investment jumped 31% to draw level with fossil fuels |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Raising enough money for innovation and investment is a prerequisite for the energy transition.<ref name="":22"">{{Cite journal|last1=Mazzucato|first1=Mariana|last2=Semieniuk|first2=Gregor|date=2018|title=Financing renewable energy: Who is financing what and why it matters|journal=[[Technological Forecasting and Social Change]]|volume=127|pages=8–22|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2017.05.021|issn=0040-1625|doi-access=free|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10044043/1/1-s2.0-S0040162517306820-main.pdf}}</ref> The IPCC estimates that to limit global warming to 1.5&nbsp;°C, US$2.4&nbsp;trillion would need to be invested in the energy system each year between 2016 and 2035. Most studies project that these costs, equivalent to 2.5% of world GDP, would be small compared to the economic and health benefits.{{sfn|United Nations Development Programme|United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|2019|page=24}} Average annual investment in low-carbon energy technologies and energy efficiency would need to be six times more by 2050 compared to 2015.{{sfn|IPCC|2018|page=96}} Underfunding is particularly acute in the least developed countries, which are not attractive to the private sector.{{Sfn|IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization|2021|pp=129, 132}} 

The [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] estimates that climate financing totalled $681&nbsp;billion in 2016.{{sfn|United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|2018|p=54}} Most of this is private-sector investment in renewable energy deployment, public-sector investment in sustainable transport, and private-sector investment in energy efficiency.{{sfn|United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|2018|p=9}} The Paris Agreement includes a pledge of an extra $100&nbsp;billion per year from developed countries to poor countries, to do climate change mitigation and adaptation. However, this goal has not been met and measurement of progress has been hampered by unclear accounting rules.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=J. Timmons|last2=Weikmans|first2=Romain|last3=Robinson|first3=Stacy-ann|last4=Ciplet|first4=David|last5=Khan|first5=Mizan|last6=Falzon|first6=Danielle|display-authors=4|date=2021|title=Rebooting a failed promise of climate finance|journal=[[Nature Climate Change]]|volume=11|issue=3|pages=180–182|bibcode=2021NatCC..11..180R|doi=10.1038/s41558-021-00990-2|issn=1758-6798|doi-access=free|url=https://dipot.ulb.ac.be/dspace/bitstream/2013/319545/3/Rebootingclimatefinance.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Radwanski|first=Adam|date=29 September 2021|title=Opinion: As pivotal climate summit approaches, Canada at centre of efforts to repair broken trust among poorer countries|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/commentary/article-as-pivotal-climate-summit-approaches-canada-at-centre-of-efforts-to/|access-date=30 September 2021|archive-date=30 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930050603/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/commentary/article-as-pivotal-climate-summit-approaches-canada-at-centre-of-efforts-to/|url-status=live}}</ref> If energy-intensive businesses like chemicals, fertilizers, ceramics, steel, and non-ferrous metals invest significantly in R&D, its usage in industry might amount to between 5% and 20% of all energy used.<ref name="":78"">{{Cite web |title=Here are the clean energy innovations that will beat climate change |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/green-energy-innovation |access-date=26 September 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/5d01a32d-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/5d01a32d-en |access-date=19 October 2022 |website=www.oecd-ilibrary.org |language=en}}</ref>

Fossil fuel funding and [[energy subsidy#Fossil fuel subsidies|subsidies]] are a significant barrier to the energy transition.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Bridle|first1=Richard|last2=Sharma|first2=Shruti|last3=Mostafa|first3=Mostafa|last4=Geddes|first4=Anna|date=June 2019|title=Fossil Fuel to Clean Energy Subsidy Swaps: How to pay for an energy revolution|url=https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/fossil-fuel-clean-energy-subsidy-swap.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117055218/https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/fossil-fuel-clean-energy-subsidy-swap.pdf|archive-date=17 November 2019|access-date=|publisher=[[International Institute for Sustainable Development]]|page=iv}}</ref><ref name="":22"" /> Direct global fossil fuel subsidies were $319&nbsp;billion in 2017. This rises to $5.2&nbsp;trillion when indirect costs are priced in, like the effects of air pollution.<ref name=""Watts_et_al_2019"">{{cite journal|last1=Watts|first1=N.|last2=Amann|first2=M.|last3=Arnell|first3=N.|last4=Ayeb-Karlsson|first4=S.|display-authors=etal|year=2019|title=The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate.|url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/88053/4/__smbhome.uscs.susx.ac.uk_tjk30_Documents_The%202019%20Report%20of%20the%20Lancet%20Countdown%20-%20revised.pdf|journal=[[The Lancet]]|volume=394|issue=10211|pages=1836–1878|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32596-6|pmid=31733928|s2cid=207976337|access-date=3 November 2021|url-access=}}</ref> Ending these could lead to a 28% reduction in global carbon emissions and a 46% reduction in air pollution deaths.{{Sfn|United Nations Development Programme|2020|page=10}} Funding for clean energy has been largely unaffected by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], and pandemic-related economic stimulus packages offer possibilities for a [[green recovery]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kuzemko|first1=Caroline|last2=Bradshaw|first2=Michael|last3=Bridge|first3=Gavin|last4=Goldthau|first4=Andreas|last5=Jewell|first5=Jessica|display-authors=4|date=2020|title=Covid-19 and the politics of sustainable energy transitions|url=|journal=[[Energy Research & Social Science]]|volume=68|pages=101685|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2020.101685|issn=2214-6296|pmc=7330551|pmid=32839704}}</ref>{{Sfn|IRENA|2021|p=5}}

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* {{cite report|last1=Morris|first1=Ellen|first2=Rose|last2=Mensah-Kutin|first3=Jennye|last3=Greene |first4=Catherine|last4=Diam-valla|url=https://seforall.org/sites/default/files/Situation-Analysis-of-Energy-and-Gender-Issues.pdf |title=Situation Analysis of Energy and Gender Issues in ECOWAS Member States |date=2015|publisher=ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency|archive-date=21 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321142125/http://seforall.org/sites/default/files/Situation-Analysis-of-Energy-and-Gender-Issues.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|author=(([[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine]]))|title=Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda|year=2019|isbn=978-0-309-48452-7 |doi=10.17226/25259 |pmid=31120708|s2cid=134196575|url=https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25259/negative-emissions-technologies-and-reliable-sequestration-a-research-agenda|archive-date=25 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525204549/https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25259/negative-emissions-technologies-and-reliable-sequestration-a-research-agenda|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|author=[[REN21]]|title=Renewables 2020: Global Status Report|publisher=REN21 Secretariat |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2020_full_report_en.pdf |year=2020|isbn=978-3-948393-00-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923065621/https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2020_full_report_en.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2020|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|author=[[REN21]]|url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2021_Full_Report.pdf |title=Renewables 2021: Global Status Report|publisher=REN21 Secretariat|year=2021|isbn=978-3-948393-03-8 |archive-date=15 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615172702/https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2021_Full_Report.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book | last=Smil | first=Vaclav |author-link=Vaclav Smil| title=Energy Transitions: Global and National Perspectives | publisher=[[Praeger Publishing]] | year=2017a | isbn=978-1-4408-5324-1 | oclc=955778608 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Smil|first=Vaclav|author-link=Vaclav Smil|title=Energy and Civilization: A History|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|pages=|year=2017b|isbn=978-0-262-03577-4|oclc=959698256}}
*{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=Kirk R.|last2=Pillarisetti|first2=Ajay|title=Injury Prevention and Environmental Health|edition=3rd|publisher=[[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] / [[World Bank]]|year=2017 |editor-last1=Kobusingye|editor-first1=O.|chapter=Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health|display-editors=etal|chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525225/|doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-0522-6_ch7|pmid=30212117|url-status=live|isbn=978-1-4648-0523-3 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525218/|access-date=23 October 2021|archive-date=22 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200822155833/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525218/}}
* {{cite book |last1=Soysal |first1=Oguz A. |last2=Soysal |first2=Hilkat S. |title=Energy for Sustainable Society: From Resources to Users |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons Ltd]]|isbn=978-1-119-56130-9 |year=2020 |oclc=1153975635}}
* {{Cite book|last=Szarka|first=Joseph|title=Wind Power in Europe : Politics, Business and Society|date=2007|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0-230-28667-2 |oclc=681900901}}
* {{Cite book|last=Tester|first=Jefferson|title=Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|pages=|year=2012|isbn=978-0-262-01747-3|oclc=892554374}}
*{{cite report|url=https://www.undp.org/publications/undps-energy-strategy|title=Delivering Sustainable Energy in a Changing Climate: Strategy Note on Sustainable Energy 2017–2021|date=2016|author=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|url-status=live|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606234930/https://www.undp.org/publications/undps-energy-strategy}}
*{{cite report|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|last=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |year=2020|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|url-status=live|archive-date=15 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215063955/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Heat is On: Taking Stock of Global Climate Ambition|year=2019|author1=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |author2=[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] |name-list-style=amp |url=https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/NDC%20Outlook.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612075208/https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/NDC%20Outlook.pdf|archive-date=12 June 2021|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|ref={{harvid|UNECE|2020}}|author=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/se/pdfs/CSE/Publications/Final_Report_PathwaysToSE.pdf |title=Pathways to Sustainable Energy|publisher=[[United Nations]]|year=2020|isbn=978-92-1-117228-7|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412194448/https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/se/pdfs/CSE/Publications/Final_Report_PathwaysToSE.pdf|archive-date=12 April 2021|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |author=[[United Nations Environment Programme]] |year=2019 |title=Emissions Gap Report 2019 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30797/EGR2019.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |isbn=978-92-807-3766-0 |archive-date=7 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507022320/https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30797/EGR2019.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=1 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |author=[[United Nations Environment Programme]] |year=2020 |title=Emissions Gap Report 2020 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |url=https://www.unep.org/emissions-gap-report-2020 |isbn=978-92-807-3812-4 |archive-date=9 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209220237/https://www.unep.org/emissions-gap-report-2020 |url-status=live }}
*{{Cite report|author=[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]|date=2018|title=2018 Biennial Assessment and Overview of Climate Finance Flows Technical Report |url=https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/2018%20BA%20Technical%20Report%20Final%20Feb%202019.pdf|url-status=live|archive-date=14 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114002417/https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/2018%20BA%20Technical%20Report%20Final%20Feb%202019.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=[[World Health Organization]] |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/204717/9789241565233_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=Burning Opportunity: Clean Household Energy for Health, Sustainable Development, and Wellbeing of Women and Children|year=2016|isbn=978-92-4-156523-3|url-status=live|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613080258/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/204717/9789241565233_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}
* {{cite book|url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/cop24-special-report-health-climate-change |title=COP24 Special Report: Health and Climate Change|date=2018|author=[[World Health Organization]] |isbn=978-92-4-151497-2 |archive-date=12 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612025708/https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/cop24-special-report-health-climate-change/|url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=10 January 2022|En-Sustainable_energy-article.ogg}}

{{Footer energy}}
{{Environmental technology}}
{{Sustainability}}{{Climate change}}

*'''''<small>{{portal-inline|Renewable energy}}</small>'''''
* '''''<small>{{portal-inline|Energy}}</small>'''''
* '''''<small>{{portal-inline|Wind power}}</small>'''''
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Energy}}
[[Category:Sustainable energy| ]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Emissions reduction]]
[[Category:Energy economics]]
[[Category:Environmental impact of the energy industry]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Julius Natterer,"{{short description|French and Swiss engineer and wood expert}}

{{Multiple issues|
{{Third-party|date=May 2021}}
{{Cleanup-PR|1=article|date=August 2021}}
}}
{{Infobox academic
| honorific_prefix   =
| name             = Julius Natterer
| honorific_suffix   =
| image           = File:Julius Natterer.jpg
| image_size      =
| alt             =
| caption         = Natterer in 2015
| native_name     =
| native_name_lang   =
| birth_name      = <!-- use only if different from full/othernames -->
| birth_date      = {{birth date|1938|12|5}}
| birth_place     = [[Neukirchen, Lower Bavaria]]
| death_date      = {{death date and age|2021|10|25|1938|12|5}}
| death_place     =
| death_cause     =
| nationality     = [[Germany|German]]
| citizenship     =
| other_names     =
| occupation      = Scientist, inventor, wood expert
| period          =
| known_for       =
| home_town       =
| title           =
| boards          = <!--board or similar positions extraneous to main occupation-->
| spouse          =
| partner         =
| children        =
| parents         =
| relatives       =
| awards          = Académie d'architecture 1986
| website         = https://www.nattererbcn.com
| school_tradition   =
| doctoral_advisor   =
| academic_advisors  =
| influences      = <!--must be referenced from a third-party source-->
| era             =
| discipline      = [[Engineering]]
| sub_discipline  = Wood construction
| workplaces      = [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|EPFL]] (École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne)
| doctoral_students  = <!--only those with WP articles-->
| notable_students   = <!--only those with WP articles-->
| main_interests  =
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| notable_ideas   =
| influenced      = <!--must be referenced from a third-party source-->
| signature       =
| signature_alt   =
| signature_size  =
| footnotes       =
}}

'''Julius Natterer''', (December 5, 1938 – October 25, 2021), was a German engineer and professor of wood construction at the [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology]] in Lausanne.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://people.epfl.ch/julius.natterer/?lang=en |title=Julius Natterer — People - EPFL |publisher=People.epfl.ch |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bois.fordaq.com/news/JuliusNatterer_HermannKaufmann_74275.html|title=Décès de Julius Natterer, le 25 octobre 2021|date=27 October 2021}}</ref>

== Career ==
Julius Natterer studied at the [[Technical University of Munich]], where he graduated in 1965.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.db-bauzeitung.de/wissen/technik/ingenieurportraet-julius-natterer/ |title=Ingenieurporträt. Julius Natterer - db deutsche bauzeitung |publisher=Db-bauzeitung.de |date=2014-08-31 |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref> He then stayed there for nine years as an assistant. During this time, he founded his own wood design office. In 1978, he was appointed to the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne. There he headed the timber construction laboratory (IBOIS / EPFL) which, according to the ideas of the university president, Maurice Cossandey, was to give a new impetus to timber construction in Switzerland.

Peer Haller, Professor from the Institute metal and timber construction at the University of [[Dresden University of Technology]] in Germany, says that he is one of the most important personalities in the field of timber construction.<ref name=""thost-iabse-elearning1"">{{Cite web|last=Haller|first=Peer|date=February 2008|title=Eminent Structural Engineer: Julius Natterer|url=http://thost-iabse-elearning.org/EminentEng/Julius%20Natterer_2_2008.pdf|access-date=2021-05-24|website=thost-iabse-elearning.org}}</ref> He is the designer of many new construction systems in solid wood and nailed planks. He is also known for the geodesic roofs he designed in wood, such as the Polydome at the EPFL in 1991 and the Expo in Hannover in 2000.
Julius Natterer, as a practitioner and teacher, quickly realised that structural wood engineering had to be taught in a mixed way to engineering and architecture students. To develop this ambition, he initiated a postgraduate course in wood engineering and architecture at EPFL in 1988 in collaboration with Professor Roland Schweitzer. A pioneer of this type of master's degree at EPFL, he joined forces with Professor [[Jean-Luc Sandoz]], an engineer in wood materials and structures, to bring this training to an international level.
This expert continued to share his passion for wood construction, long after his academic retirement in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fr.calameo.com/read/005111039dd15fde968f6 |title=Curr E New Cv 6 2010 8 2011 |publisher=Fr.calameo.com |date=2021-04-25 |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
Julius Natterer is regularly quoted as a reference by the generations that follow him, particularly during official presentations on sustainable development.<ref>{{cite web|last=Depner|first=Sandra|date=March 2019|title=Menschen, Ich bin nicht der Holzbau-Papst|trans-title=People, I'm not the timber construction pope|url=https://www.holzbau-schweiz.ch/de/first/magazine-online/detail/magazin-artikel/ich-bin-nicht-der-holzbau-papst/magazin-backlink/58/|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Holzbau-schweiz.ch|language=de}}</ref><ref name=""informationsdienst-holz1"">{{Cite web|date=June 2011|title=Einfach Bauen mit Holz - Späte Werke von Julius Natterer|trans-title=Simply building with wood - late works by Julius Natterer|url=https://informationsdienst-holz.de/fileadmin/Publikationen/9_Dokumentationen/Einfach_bauen_mit_Holz_Julius_Natterer.pdf|access-date=2021-05-24|website=informationsdienst-holz.de}}</ref>

== Prizes and honors ==
* 1976: German Metal Structure Prize<ref name=""thost-iabse-elearning1""/>
* 1981: Mies van der Rohe Award [[European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture]]<ref name=""thost-iabse-elearning1""/>
* 1986: Medal of the Academy of Architecture<ref name=""thost-iabse-elearning1""/>
* 1992: Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences chaired by Lena Treschow Torell<ref name=""thost-iabse-elearning1""/>
* 1995: Ernst Pelz Prize and Merit Award in the USA<ref name=""thost-iabse-elearning1""/>
* 1999: Bibliography of Swiss History <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nb.admin.ch/snl/fr/home/recherche/bibliographies/bhs.html |title=Bibliographie de l'histoire suisse |publisher=Nb.admin.ch |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* 2002: World Award for Timber Structures in Malaysia<ref name=""thost-iabse-elearning1""/>
* 2005: awarded the main prize of the Schweighofer Foundation<ref name=""thost-iabse-elearning1""/>
* 2005: Designated Champion for the Earth by the community of Vaud for his valuable contribution to the preservation of the environment in the canton by the Athena Foundation and the Association pour le Développement du Nord Vaudois<ref name=""informationsdienst-holz1""/>
* 2012: Mr. Bois award <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.batimag.ch/architecture/distinction-monsieur-bois-2012-2416 |title=Distinction Monsieur Bois 2012 &#124; Batimag |publisher=Batimag.ch |date=2012-03-29 |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* 2018: At the 8th International Wood Construction Forum, he receives a tribute, alongside many of the engineers he has trained throughout his career, from all his peers, engineers and architects in wood construction<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018|title=Forum Construction Dijon 2018 - 8e Forum International Bois Construction Palais des Congrès Congrexpo Dijon (FR) 11, 12 et 13 avril 2018|trans-title=Forum Construction Dijon 2018 - 8th International Wood Construction Forum Congress Center Congrexpo Dijon (FR) April 11, 12 and 13, 2018|url=https://www.forum-boisconstruction.com/pdf_FR/FBC2018-programme-FR.pdf|access-date=2021-05-24|website=forum-boisconstruction.com}}</ref>

== Books ==
He is co-author of several world-class reference books on timber construction in several languages, including the EPFL's Atlas of Construction and Treatise on Civil Engineering, volume 13:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.epflpress.org/produit/64/9782880749491/construction-en-bois-tgc-volume-13 |title=Construction en bois (TGC volume 13) - Matériau, technologie et dimensionnement - Julius Natterer, Jean-Luc Sandoz, Martial Rey |publisher=Epfl Press |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Atlas of timber construction ({{ISBN|978-2-88074-602-5}})<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.epflpress.org/produit/409/9782880746025/construire-en-bois |title=Construire en bois - - Thomas Herzog, Julius Natterer, Roland Schweitzer, Michaël Volz, Wolfgang Winter |publisher=Epfl Press |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Traité de génie civil de l'EPFL, Volume 13, Construire en bois ({{ISBN|978-2-88074-949-1}})

== Wooden structures ==
* The Vallorbe bridge at Ballaigues, 1989<ref>{{cite web|author=Nicolas Janberg |url=https://structurae.net/fr/ouvrages/pont-de-vallorbe |title=Pont de Vallorbe (Ballaigues, 1989) |publisher=Structurae |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Polydome EPFL, 1991<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Polydome-at-the-Campus-EPFL-Lausanne-by-J-Natterer-left-Photo-W-Klasz-2015-middle_fig2_311415299 |title=Polydôme at the Campus EPFL Lausanne by J. Natterer; left: Photo: W &#124; Download Scientific Diagram |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Eine-Welt-Kirche, Schneverdingen, 1999<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.markusgemeinde-schneverdingen.de |title=Eine-Welt-Kirche Schneverdingen |publisher=Markusgemeinde-schneverdingen.de |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Roof of the 2000 World Exhibition, Hanover 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.holzkurier.com/holzbau/2008/12/julius_natterer_70jahre.html |title=Julius Natterer - 70 Jahre |publisher=Holzkurier.com |date= 2 December 2008|accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* [[Sauvabelin Tower]], Lausanne, 2003<ref>{{cite news|author=Debraine|first=Luc|date=2003-08-27|title=La tour de bois qui étreint le panorama lémanique - Le Temps|url=https://www.letemps.ch/societe/tour-bois-etreint-panorama-lemanique|access-date=2021-05-23|newspaper=Le Temps|language=fr}}</ref>
* [[Wil Tower]], St. Gallen, 2006<ref>{{cite web|author=Kurt Leuenberger |url=https://www.tagblatt.ch/ostschweiz/wil/der-wiler-turm-haette-schon-1884-gebaut-werden-sollen-ld.1031511 |title=Der Wiler Turm hätte schon 1884 gebaut werden sollen |publisher=Tagblatt.ch |date=2018-06-23 |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Zenith, Limoges, 2007<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lignum.ch/auf_einen_klick/news/lignum_journal_holz_news_schweiz/news_detail/internationale-leistungen-im-neuen-holzbulletin/|title=Internationale Leistungen im neuen ""Holzbulletin""|website=www.lignum.ch|date=30 September 2010 }}</ref>
* Luxembourg Pavilion at the Shanghai World Expo, 2010<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nattererbcn.com/index.php/projekte|title=Bois Consult Natterer - PROJEKTE|website=www.nattererbcn.com}}</ref>
* Construction of the roof of the Evangelical Free Church Christuskirche Heiligenstadt, 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://architekt.ulricharndt.com/CKH.htm |title=Kirche in Bamberg |publisher=Architekt.ulricharndt.com |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* Website of the company [https://www.nattererbcn.com Bois Consult Natterer - HOME]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Natterer, Julius}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental issues with forests]]
[[Category:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne alumni]]
[[Category:German engineers]]
[[Category:People from Straubing-Bogen]]"
James Ellsmoor,"{{Short description|Entrepreneur and sustainability expert}}
{{Infobox person
| name               = James Ellsmoor
| image              = James_Ellsmoor,_Island_Innovation_(51223690359).png
| alt                = <!-- descriptive text for use by speech synthesis (text-to-speech) software -->
| caption            = 
| birth_name         = <!-- only use if different from name -->
| birth_date         = <!-- {{Birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} for living people supply only the year with {{Birth year and age|YYYY}} unless the exact date is already widely published, as per [[WP:DOB]]. For people who have died, use {{Birth date|YYYY|MM|DD}}. -->
| birth_place        = 
| death_date         = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (enter DEATH date then BIRTH date (e.g., ...|1967|8|31|1908|2|28}} use both this parameter and |birth_date to display the person's date of birth, date of death, and age at death) -->
| death_place        = 
| nationality        = British
| education          = *[[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]
*[[University of the Highlands and Islands]]
| occupation         = [[Entrepreneur]]
| website            = {{url|www.jellsmoor.com/}}
}}

'''James Ellsmoor''' is a writer, entrepreneur and sustainability expert, who has lived and worked in the [[Caribbean]], [[United States]] and [[Colombia]]. He now lives in [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Island Innovation {{!}} Connecting Islands for Positive Change|url=https://islandinnovation.co/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=Island Innovation|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pescada|first=Reuters, Carolina|title=Estes ingleses queriam continuar a pertencer à União Europeia. Por isso, mudaram-se para Portugal|url=https://www.publico.pt/2020/12/21/mundo/video/ingleses-queriam-continuar-pertencer-uniao-europeia-mudaramse-portugal-20201221-165600|access-date=2021-06-04|website=PÚBLICO|language=pt}}</ref>   He is a graduate of the Institute for Northern Studies at the [[University of the Highlands and Islands]], and was awarded the [[university]]'s Alumnus of the Year in 2020.<ref>{{Cite press release|title=Social entrepreneur, writer and climate change champion recognised with university title|url=https://www.uhi.ac.uk/en/media/news/social-entrepreneur-writer-and-climate-change-champion-recognised-with-university-title---.html|access-date=2021-06-02|website=www.uhi.ac.uk|language=en}}</ref>  In 2017 he was recognised on the [[Forbes 30 Under 30|Forbes 30 under 30]]: Energy list.<ref>{{Cite web|title=30 Under 30 2017: Energy|url=https://www.forbes.com/30-under-30-2017/energy/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Contributor|first=Compass|date=2019-10-07|title=James Ellsmoor – digital island nomad|url=https://www.caymancompass.com/2019/10/06/james-ellsmoor-digital-island-nomad/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Cayman Compass|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-03-02|title=Start-up challenge for entrepreneurs|url=https://www.royalgazette.com/other/business/article/20180302/start-up-challenge-for-entrepreneurs/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=www.royalgazette.com|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Career ==
After graduating from the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] with a [[Bachelor's degree]] in Economics and Geography, he gained an MLitt [[Master's degree]] in Island Studies from the Institute for Northern Studies at the [[University of the Highlands and Islands]] in 2018.

== Island Innovation ==
He is co-founder and [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] of Island Innovation, a [[Social Enterprise UK|social enterprise]] and [[digital media]] company which runs the Virtual Island Summit, promoting cross-sector collaboration and the sharing of best practice in [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-25|title=Pacific: COVID-19 forces conferences to go virtual|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radio-australia/programs/pacificbeat/covid-19-forces-virtual-conferences-greener-and-inclusive/12591992|access-date=2021-06-04|website=ABC Radio Australia|language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-26|title=Virtual Island Summit: Making the economy sustainable|url=https://irishtechnews.ie/virtual-island-summit-making-economy-sustainable/|access-date=2021-06-04|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=says|first=Dumb|date=2020-09-05|title=Global Islands To Gather For Virtual Summit|url=https://bernews.com/2020/09/500-global-islands-gather-virtual-summit/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Bernews}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-31|title=Virtual Summit To Discuss Island Sustainability|url=https://stthomassource.com/content/2020/08/31/virtual-summit-to-discuss-island-sustainability/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=St. Thomas Source|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-10-15|title=The Virtual Island Summit: Did it work?|url=https://www.devex.com/news/sponsored/the-virtual-island-summit-did-it-work-95815|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Devex}}</ref>  Island Innovation originally started as a newsletter collating stories about sustainable development on islands across the world, and developed into a social enterprise running virtual events, working with remote islands around the world, linking them together to encourage sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=James Ellsmoor|url=https://www.citiesforum.org/interview/james-ellsmoor/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=citiesforum.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Klein|first=Michael|date=2020-11-17|title=Conference to focus on Cayman's clean energy future|url=https://www.caymancompass.com/2020/11/17/conference-to-focus-on-caymans-clean-energy-future/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Cayman Compass|language=en-GB}}</ref>  It has its own online community and works on project promotion and environmental consultancy, bringing together the [[private sector]], government, [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] and academia with the goal of advancing innovation for sustainability in island communities across the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=At CTEC, Ellsmoor explained how Cayman can learn from other islands {{!}} Loop Cayman Islands|url=https://cayman.loopnews.com/content/james-ellsmoor-explains-how-cayman-can-learn-other-islands|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Loop News|language=en}}</ref>  The company has also worked with the Strathclyde Centre for Environmental Law and Governance, based at the [[University of Strathclyde]], on a study of islands across the world in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=""No return to business as usual"" for island communities post-pandemic {{!}} University of Strathclyde|url=https://www.strath.ac.uk/whystrathclyde/news/noreturntobusinessasusualforislandcommunitiespost-pandemic/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=www.strath.ac.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=UNC Alumnus and Founder of Island Innovation, James Ellsmoore, Works to Understand COVID-19's Impact on Islands Globally|url=https://global.unc.edu/news-story/understand-covid-19s-impact-on-islands-globally/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=UNC Global|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Solar Head of State ==
He is co-founder and Director of Solar Head of State, an international non-profit which works with governments across the [[Caribbean]] and [[Pacific Islands]] raising awareness of renewable energy through high-profile solar installations on governmental buildings.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-17|title=Q&A: On the Frontline, Islands Aim to Seize Climate Initiatives|url=https://www.ipsnews.net/2021/05/qa-frontline-islands-aim-seize-climate-initiatives/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Inter Press Service}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-02-26|title=A 'digital nomad' from the UK advocates for solar power in all island nations|url=https://globalvoices.org/2019/02/26/a-digital-nomad-from-the-uk-advocates-for-solar-power-in-all-island-nations/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Global Voices|language=en}}</ref> The company was modelled on a campaign by US President [[Jimmy Carter]], who installed solar water heaters on the White House to conserve energy and set an example to the American public at the time of an international energy crisis.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Solar Panels and the White House|url=https://blog.sciencemuseum.org.uk/solar-panels-and-the-white-house/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=Science Museum Blog|language=en-GB}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==

* https://solarheadofstate.org/
* https://islandinnovation.co/
*https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AngekQzpuYA
*https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/201786504/skepticism-over-kiribati-purchase-of-fiji-land

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ellsmoor, James}}
<!-- [[Category:Example category]] -->
[[Category:Alumni of the University of the Highlands and Islands]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability advocates]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]"
International Finance Facility,"An '''International Finance Facility''' (IFF) is a [[Bond (finance)|bond]] issued against the security of donor government guarantees to maintain future [[aid]] flows for the purpose of [[international development]].

Bonds are issued on global [[capital markets]], against the security of government guarantees, which would be used to buy back the bonds over a longer period. This [[structured finance]] arrangement allows a large amount of aid to flow sooner, at the expense of less aid in the future. 

Critics have raised concerns that the poorest countries in particular do not have the ability to efficiently spend such large amounts of aid whilst avoiding [[political corruption|corruption]], and that their economies may not be able to cope with such rapid change either.{{cn|date=July 2021}}

==History==
The concept of an International Finance Facility was first was proposed in the [[United Kingdom]] in January 2003 by [[HM Treasury]] in conjunction with the [[Department for International Development]].<ref name=""hmt04"">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/jid.1131|title=The International Finance Facility|year=2004|last1=Treasury|first1=HM|journal=Journal of International Development|volume=16|issue=6|pages=865–878}}</ref><ref name=""hmtiff"">{{cite news |title=The International Finance Facility |url=https://www.cbd.int/financial/interdevinno/unitedkingdom-iff2005.pdf |publisher=HM Treasury |date=2005}}</ref> The IFF were designed to frontload aid to help meet the [[Millennium Development Goals]].

[[Official development assistance]] donors were committed to reaching the target of 0.7 per cent [[Official_development_assistance#ODA_as_a_proportion_of_donor_national_incomes|ODA/GNI]] and the IFF is a mechanism to accomplish that goal.<ref name=hmt04/> The [[International Development Association]] as well as the [[World Bank Group]] promoted the IFF idea.<ref name=""wbgm"">{{cite news |title=Millions of children to be protected from deadly diseases through unique global vaccine bond issuance |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2013/07/02/millions-of-children-to-be-protected-from-deadly-diseases-through-unique-global-vaccine-bond-issuance |publisher=The World Bank Group |date=2 July 2013}}</ref>

==International Finance Facility for Immunisation==
The first IFF is the ""[http://www.iffim.org International Finance Facility for Immunisation]"" (IFFIm), begun by France, the UK and other European countries in 2006. ""IFFIm was established as a charity with the [[Charity Commission for England and Wales]] and is registered in England and Wales as a company limited by guarantee with number 5857343 and as a charity with number 1115413""<ref name=wbgm/><ref name=""roccc"">{{cite news |title=INTERNATIONAL FINANCE FACILITY FOR IMMUNISATION COMPANY |url=https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=1115413&subid=0 |access-date=3 April 2021 |publisher=Crown copyright OGL3}}</ref> without share capital for indefinite duration under the [[Companies Act 1985]].<ref name=""secrep10"">{{cite news |date=31 December 2010 |title=INTERNATIONAL FINANCE FACILITY FOR IMMUNISATION COMPANY - ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES AND CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS |url=https://dl.bourse.lu/dl?v=3mqNK6MfRpAJpe5o81SeTin1W64Ylb/ZlJzjGWsMK+m/uh6HhF/n6ofcEtojD+kIlBmppyVY2xOgP1SC9EaZ4g9+cbNHhdaWFHfFXuvUI8I9X/8lt03wmOBtLEeyKx7ebXSBrzMpGtLuHREsuQ2cAYzX5qpmR0eocwfA7rzB+hY7DAZMDHnK1ikpDpNJ2hRfTBk5iC8jt3hAym9wecgMUQ== |publisher=Luxembourg Bourse}}</ref> IFFIm was initiated to rapidly accelerate the availability and predictability of funds for immunisation,<ref name=""giff"">{{cite news |title=International Finance Facility for Immunisation |url=https://www.gavi.org/investing-gavi/innovative-financing/iffim |publisher=GAVI |date=8 October 2020}}</ref> in programmes for over 70 of the poorest countries around the world.<ref name=""secrep15"">{{cite news |title=INTERNATIONAL FINANCE FACILITY FOR IMMUNISATION COMPANY - ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES AND CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS |url=https://sec.report/lux/doc/100171926/ |agency=SEC.report |publisher=Luxembourg Market Filings |date=31 December 2015}}</ref> ""Through its bond issuances, IFFlm converts long-term government pledges into immediately available cash resources.""<ref name=""secrep16"">{{cite news |url=https://sec.report/lux/doc/100171928/ |title=INTERNATIONAL FINANCE FACILITY FOR IMMUNISATION COMPANY - ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES AND CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS |agency=SEC.report |publisher=Luxembourg Market Filings |date=31 December 2016}}</ref>

IFFIm sells bonds - officially called [[Vaccine Bonds]] - on the capital markets to raise funds for the [[GAVI Alliance]], a public-private partnership which works to save children’s lives and protect people’s health by increasing access to vaccination in developing countries.<ref name=""friffim"">{{cite news |title=L'IFFIm en passe de contribuer à sauver quatre millions de vies |url=https://doczz.fr/doc/3179632/l-iffim-en-passe-de-contribuer-%C3%A0-sauver-quatre-millions-d... |publisher=IFFIm |date=5 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klock|first=Kevin A.|title=Global Management of Infectious Disease After Ebola|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2016|isbn=9780190604882|editor-last=Halabi|editor-first=Sam F.|pages=170|chapter=International Public-Private Partnerships as Part of the Solution to Infectious Disease Threats|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190604882.001.0001}}</ref> In 2008, [[Daiwa Securities Group]] provided in a package some of the capital market funds.<ref name=""daiwa08"">{{cite news |title=With new ""Vaccine Bonds"" Japanese Investors will have the opportunity to save more children's lives in the poorest countries of the world |url=https://www.daiwa-grp.jp/data/attach/35_press-2501-attachment.pdf |publisher=Daiwa Securities Group Inc. |date=11 December 2008}}</ref>

IFFIm was, as of July 2012, backed by the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Australia and South Africa.{{cn|date=July 2021}} Brazil has pledged to become IFFIm's tenth donor.{{cn|date=July 2021}} IFFIm was, as of May 2018, backed by the same nine countries.<ref name=oteh18/>

IFFIm ""front loads financing for [[vaccines]] by issuing vaccine bonds backed by the legally binding pledges from donors.""<ref name=""oteh18"">{{cite news |last1=Oteh |first1=Arunma |title=Leveraging Innovative Finance For Realizing The Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/speech/2018/05/15/leveraging-innovative-finance-for-realizing-the-sustainable-development-goals |publisher=The World Bank Group |date=15 May 2018}}</ref>

To date, IFFIm has leveraged US$6.3 billion in donor pledges to raise US$4.5 billion (July 2013) on the world’s capital markets from both retail and institutional investors. The [[World Bank]] is IFFIm's treasury manager. Since IFFIm began in 2006, IFFIm funding has allowed GAVI to nearly double its expenditures in health programmes. US$2.2 billion in IFFIm funding already has been disbursed to support vaccine purchase and delivery for 70 developing countries.

Health care consulting firm HLSP issued an independent evaluation of IFFIm in July 2011 that strongly commended its financial model and health care results. The report noted that not only do IFFIm-funded investments generate “extremely good returns,” but also that it likely helped GAVI save more than 2.1 million lives. The report focused on IFFIm’s cost-effectiveness, particularly the benefits of frontloading and its impact on creating large-scale immunity.{{cn|date=March 2022}}

IFFIm provides certainty of funding for both GAVI and recipient countries, aiding long-term planning and short-term needs. For example, US$545 million in proceeds from IFFIm funded tactical purchases that helped prevent 1.4 million deaths from [[yellow fever]], [[polio]] and [[measles]]. Dedicated IFFIm funding also played a significant role in combating 600,000 cases of meningitis and maternal and neonatal [[tetanus]].

In addition, IFFIm helped GAVI fund breakthrough vaccines quickly and securely. IFFIm financed more than 90% of the guaranteed payment to [[UNICEF]] for initial doses of a [[DTwP-HepB-Hib vaccine|pentavalent vaccine]] which immunises against five infectious diseases: [[diphtheria]], [[tetanus]], [[pertussis]], [[haemophilus influenzae type B]] (Hib) and [[hepatitis B]]. GAVI could not have made that commitment and upfront cash payment without IFFIm.

In December 2014 IFFIm issued its first Vaccine [[Sukuk]], which was ""a three-year, US$500 million transaction that was the largest debut Sukuk ever issued by a [[supranational organisation]].""<ref name=""mbsukuk"">{{cite news |last1=Bennett |first1=Michael |title=Vaccine Sukuks: Islamic securities deliver economic and social returns |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/arabvoices/vaccine-sukuks-islamic-securities-deliver-economic-and-social-returns |publisher=The World Bank Group |date=29 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=secrep15/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/documents/international_issues/int_gnd_intfinance.cfm HM Treasury: International Finance Facility]
*[http://www.iffim.org/ International Finance Facility for Immunisation]

[[Category:International development organizations]]
[[Category:UNICEF]]
[[Category:World Bank]]
[[Category:Millennium Development Goals]]
[[Category:Aid]]
[[Category:Economic development]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Vaccination-related organizations]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 2006]]
[[Category:2006 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Bonds (finance)]]"
Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present,"{{Short description|Notable events in energy research since 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Sustainable energy}}
{{Science year nav|{{CURRENTYEAR}}}}
{{Primary sources|date=March 2023}}
'''Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020-''' documents increases in [[renewable energy]], [[solar energy]], and [[fusion power|nuclear energy]], particularly for ways that are [[sustainable]] within the [[Solar System]].

[[File:2011- Renewable energy capacity - International Energy Agency.svg|thumb| upright=1.5 | Renewable energy capacity has steadily grown, led by [[Photovoltaic system|solar photovoltaic]] power.<ref name=IEA_202306>Source for data beginning in 2017: {{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Market Update Outlook for 2023 and 2024 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/63c14514-6833-4cd8-ac53-f9918c2e4cd9/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate_June2023.pdf |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency (IEA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711115355/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/63c14514-6833-4cd8-ac53-f9918c2e4cd9/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate_June2023.pdf |archive-date=11 July 2023 |page=19 |date=June 2023 |quote=IEA. CC BY 4.0. |url-status=live}} ● Source for data through 2016: {{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Market Update / Outlook for 2021 and 2022 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/18a6041d-bf13-4667-a4c2-8fc008974008/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate-Outlookfor2021and2022.pdf |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325084025/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/18a6041d-bf13-4667-a4c2-8fc008974008/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate-Outlookfor2021and2022.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2023 |page=8 |date=May 2021 |url-status=live |quote=IEA. Licence: CC BY 4.0 }}</ref>]]
Events currently not included in the timelines include:
* goal-codifying [[environmental policy|policy]] about, [[Renewable energy commercialization|commercialization of]], adoptions of, deployment-statistics of, announced developments of, announced funding for and dissemination of sustainable energy -technologies and -infrastructure/systems
* research about related phase-outs in general – such as about the [[fossil fuel phase out]]<!--example: Fossil Fuel Cuts Database-->
* research about relevant alternative technologies – such as [[sustainable transport|in transport]], [[Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning|HVAC]], [[refrigeration]], [[passive cooling]], [[heat pump]]s and [[district heating]]
* research about related public awareness, media<!--example: http://jestec.taylors.edu.my/Special%20Issue%20on%20SU18/SU18_04.pdf-->, policy-making and <!--Education sciences-->education
* research about [[Renewable energy#Geopolitics|related geopolitics]], [[policy studies|policies]], and [[Climate change mitigation#Overviews, strategies and comparisons of measures|integrated strategies]]
<!--adoption/use/dissemination statistics and other statistics, long-term trends and info about current deployment status are added not by events but could be added via images/charts-->
[[File:Energy consumption by source, OWID.svg|thumb|Prior history of energy consumption sources up to 2018]]

{{Toclimit}}

== Grids ==
{{See also|Grid energy storage}}

=== Smart grids ===
{{See also|Smart grid#Research}}

====2022====
* A study provides results of simulations and analysis of ""[[transactive energy]] mechanisms to engage the large-scale deployment of flexible distributed energy resources (DERs), such as air conditioners, water heaters, batteries, and electric vehicles, in the operation of the electric power system"".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ledbetter |first1=Tim |title=Homes fitted with new technology could make the grid smarter |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-homes-technology-grid-smarter.html |access-date=26 October 2022 |work=[[Pacific Northwest National Laboratory]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133620/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-homes-technology-grid-smarter.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Distribution System Operation with Transactive (DSO+T) Study {{!}} PNNL |url=https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/transactive-systems-program/dsot-study |website=www.pnnl.gov |access-date=26 October 2022 |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133617/https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/transactive-systems-program/dsot-study |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Super grids ===
{{See also|Super grid}}

====2022====
* Researchers describe a novel strategy to create a [[Electrical grid#Scale|global sustainable interconnected energy system]] based on deep-ocean-compressed [[green hydrogen|hydrogen]] [[Hydrogen transport|transportation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Julian David |last2=Nascimento |first2=Andreas |last3=Zakeri |first3=Behnam |last4=Barbosa |first4=Paulo Sérgio Franco |title=Hydrogen Deep Ocean Link: a global sustainable interconnected energy grid |journal=Energy |date=15 June 2022 |volume=249 |pages=123660 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2022.123660 |language=en |issn=0360-5442|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=October 2022}}

=== Microgrids and off-the-grid ===
{{See also|Microgrid|Mini-grid|Microgeneration|Off-the-grid}}
* Researchers describe a way for ""inherently robust, scalable method of integration using multiple energy storage systems and distributed energy resources, which does not require any means of dedicated communication improvised controls"", which could make microgrids easy and low cost ""where they are needed most"" such as during a power outage or [[Disaster response#Disaster response technologies|after a disaster]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=O'Neil |first1=Connor |title=Communication-less scheme streamlines microgrid setup, simplifies recovery |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-communication-less-scheme-microgrid-setup-recovery.html |access-date=26 October 2022 |work=[[National Renewable Energy Laboratory]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133622/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-communication-less-scheme-microgrid-setup-recovery.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koralewicz |first1=Przemyslaw |last2=Mendiola |first2=Emanuel |last3=Wallen |first3=Robb |last4=Gevorgian |first4=Vahan |last5=Laird |first5=Daniel |title=Unleashing the Frequency: Multi-Megawatt Demonstration of 100% Renewable Power Systems with Decentralized Communication-Less Control Scheme |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1891206 |publisher=National Renewable Energy Lab. (NREL), Golden, CO (United States) |access-date=26 October 2022 |language=English |date=28 September 2022 |doi=10.2172/1891206 |osti=1891206 |s2cid=252824040 |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133614/https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1891206 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Solar power ==
{{Further|Timeline of solar cells|Solar power#Emerging technologies}}
[[File:NREL PV Cell Record Efficiency Chart.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Reported timeline of research [[solar cell]] energy conversion efficiencies since 1976 ([[National Renewable Energy Laboratory]])]]
{{#section-h:Timeline of solar cells|2020s}}

=== High-altitude and space-based solar power ===
{{Further|Space-based solar power}}
Ongoing research and development projects include [[SSPS-OMEGA]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yang |last2=Zhang |first2=Yiqun |last3=Duan |first3=Baoyan |last4=Wang |first4=Dongxu |last5=Li |first5=Xun |title=A novel design project for space solar power station (SSPS-OMEGA) |journal=Acta Astronautica |date=1 April 2016 |volume=121 |pages=51–58 |doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2015.12.029 |bibcode=2016AcAau.121...51Y |language=en |issn=0094-5765}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Andrew |title=Chinese university completes space-based solar power ground test facility |url=https://spacenews.com/chinese-university-completes-space-based-solar-power-ground-test-facility/ |access-date=2 September 2022 |work=SpaceNews |date=14 June 2022 |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215164957/https://spacenews.com/chinese-university-completes-space-based-solar-power-ground-test-facility/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[SPS-ALPHA]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mankins |first1=John |last2=Hall |first2=Loura |title=SPS-ALPHA: The First Practical Solar Power Satellite |url=https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/2011_Practical_Solar_Power_Satellite/ |website=NASA |access-date=2 September 2022 |date=13 July 2017 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701012426/https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/2011_Practical_Solar_Power_Satellite/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=David |first1=Leonard |title=Space solar power's time may finally be coming |url=https://www.space.com/space-solar-power-research-advances |access-date=2 September 2022 |work=Space.com |date=3 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106142726/https://www.space.com/space-solar-power-research-advances |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Solaris program]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tamim |first1=Baba |title=European Space Agency is considering major investment in space-based solar power |url=https://interestingengineering.com/science/european-space-agency-solar-power |access-date=2 September 2022 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=21 August 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902230149/https://interestingengineering.com/science/european-space-agency-solar-power |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Could we get energy from solar power in space? – CBBC Newsround |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/62623698 |access-date=2 September 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902230149/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/62623698 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Berger |first1=Eric |title=Europe is seriously considering a major investment in space-based solar power |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/08/european-space-chief-says-continent-will-lead-in-space-based-solar-power/ |access-date=23 September 2022 |work=Ars Technica |date=18 August 2022 |language=en-us |archive-date=23 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923155514/https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/08/european-space-chief-says-continent-will-lead-in-space-based-solar-power/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====2020====
* The [[United States Naval Research Laboratory|US Naval Research Laboratory]] conducts its first test of solar power generation in a satellite, the [[Photovoltaic Radio-frequency Antenna Module|PRAM]] experiment aboard the [[Boeing X-37]]<!--#OTV-6 (USSF 7)-->.<ref>{{cite web |last1=David |first1=Leonard |title=Air Force's X-37B robotic space plane wings past 500 days in Earth orbit |url=https://www.livescience.com/x-37b-space-plane-500-days-in-orbit-otv-6-mission |publisher=[[LiveScience]] |access-date=6 November 2021 |language=en |date=4 October 2021 |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106164631/https://www.livescience.com/x-37b-space-plane-500-days-in-orbit-otv-6-mission |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=David |first1=Leonard |title=Space solar power's time may finally be coming |url=https://www.space.com/space-solar-power-research-advances |access-date=6 November 2021 |work=Space.com |date=3 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106142726/https://www.space.com/space-solar-power-research-advances |url-status=live }}</ref>

====2023====
[[File:Large-area flexible polymer solar cells on a balloon in the 35-km stratospheric environment.jpg|thumb]]
* Researchers demonstrate [[flexible electronics|flexible]] [[organic solar cell]]s on [[High-altitude balloon|balloons]] in the 35&nbsp;km [[stratosphere]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Using flexible organic solar cells in the stratosphere |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-04-flexible-solar-cells-stratosphere.html |access-date=28 May 2023 |work=Science China Press via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528180059/https://techxplore.com/news/2023-04-flexible-solar-cells-stratosphere.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Zihan |last2=Xu |first2=Guoning |last3=Luo |first3=Qun |last4=Han |first4=Yunfei |last5=Tang |first5=Yu |last6=Miao |first6=Ying |last7=Li |first7=Yongxiang |last8=Qin |first8=Jian |last9=Guo |first9=Jingbo |last10=Zha |first10=Wusong |last11=Gong |first11=Chao |last12=Lu |first12=Kun |last13=Zhang |first13=Jianqi |last14=Wei |first14=Zhixiang |last15=Cai |first15=Rong |last16=Yang |first16=Yanchu |last17=Li |first17=Zhaojie |last18=Ma |first18=Chang-Qi |title=''In situ'' performance and stability tests of large-area flexible polymer solar cells in the 35-km stratospheric environment |journal=National Science Review |date=15 December 2022 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=nwac285 |doi=10.1093/nsr/nwac285 |pmid=36960222 |pmc=10029844 |issn=2095-5138|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Caltech]] reports the first successful beaming of [[Space-based solar power|solar energy from space]] down to a receiver on the ground, via the MAPLE instrument on its SSPD-1 spacecraft, launched into orbit in January.<ref>{{cite news |title=In a First, Caltech's Space Solar Power Demonstrator Wirelessly Transmits Power in Space |url=https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/in-a-first-caltechs-space-solar-power-demonstrator-wirelessly-transmits-power-in-space |date=1 June 2023 |work=Caltech |accessdate=9 June 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Scientists demonstrate wireless power transmission from space to Earth for first time |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/space/space-earth-wireless-power-beamed-b2353588.html |date=8 June 2023 |work=The Independent|accessdate=9 June 2023 }}</ref>

=== Floating solar ===
{{Further|Floating solar}}

====2020====
* A study concludes that deploying floating solar panels on existing [[Hydroelectricity|hydro]] reservoirs could generate 16%–40% (4,251 to 10,616 TWh/year) of global energy needs when not considering project-siting constraints, local development regulations, ""economic or market potential"" and potential future technology improvements.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Combined Power Of Floating Solar On Hydro Reservoirs Shows New Potential |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/pikeresearch/2020/11/10/the-combined-power-of-floating-solar-on-hydro-reservoirs-shows-new-potential/ |access-date=22 July 2021 |work=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=22 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722150950/https://www.forbes.com/sites/pikeresearch/2020/11/10/the-combined-power-of-floating-solar-on-hydro-reservoirs-shows-new-potential/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Hybrid floating solar photovoltaics-hydropower systems: Benefits and global assessment of technical potential |journal=Renewable Energy |date=1 December 2020 |volume=162 |pages=1415–1427 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2020.08.080 |language=en |issn=0960-1481 |last1=Lee |first1=Nathan |last2=Grunwald |first2=Ursula |last3=Rosenlieb |first3=Evan |last4=Mirletz |first4=Heather |last5=Aznar |first5=Alexandra |last6=Spencer |first6=Robert |last7=Cox |first7=Sadie |s2cid=225257311 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

====2022====
* Researchers develop floating [[Artificial photosynthesis|artificial leaves]] for light-driven [[hydrogen]] and [[syngas]] fuel production. The lightweight, flexible perovskite devices are scalable and can float on water similar to lotus leaves.<ref>{{cite news |title=Cambridge University scientists create fuel from 'artificial leaves' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-62609620 |access-date=2 September 2022 |work=BBC News |date=22 August 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902233702/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-62609620 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Andrei |first1=Virgil |last2=Ucoski |first2=Geani M. |last3=Pornrungroj |first3=Chanon |last4=Uswachoke |first4=Chawit |last5=Wang |first5=Qian |last6=Achilleos |first6=Demetra S. |last7=Kasap |first7=Hatice |last8=Sokol |first8=Katarzyna P. |last9=Jagt |first9=Robert A. |last10=Lu |first10=Haijiao |last11=Lawson |first11=Takashi |last12=Wagner |first12=Andreas |last13=Pike |first13=Sebastian D. |last14=Wright |first14=Dominic S. |last15=Hoye |first15=Robert L. Z. |display-authors=10 |date=17 August 2022 |title=Floating perovskite-BiVO4 devices for scalable solar fuel production |url=https://go.nature.com/3QYA7hX |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=608 |issue=7923 |pages=518–522 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04978-6 |pmid=35978127 |bibcode=2022Natur.608..518A |s2cid=251645379 |issn=1476-4687 |access-date=2 September 2022 |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215164926/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04978-6.epdf?sharing_token=zCD0q2mxHsD6Z9FikARzJtRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MEOv-YoGFpe0FBwwZRBu0wVIecwvVZ2Ch9TnvHQ7brr16wS4nBH1LDurfmIDelKPPCu-A6ZZlN6jQz2iEmrT_YI8_nlu7R9pzLmvtv9KcqRxpufhBL0nlreqI0BBxvAYE%3D |url-status=live }}</ref>

====2023====
*An analysis concludes there is large potential (~9,400 TWh/yr) for [[floating solar|floating solar photovoltaics]] on reservoirs,<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Simon |first1=Matt |title=Solar Panels Floating in Reservoirs? We'll Drink to That |url=https://www.wired.com/story/solar-panels-floating-in-reservoirs-well-drink-to-that/ |access-date=20 April 2023 |magazine=Wired}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Yubin |last2=Hu |first2=Shijie |last3=Ziegler |first3=Alan D. |last4=Gibson |first4=Luke |last5=Campbell |first5=J. Elliott |last6=Xu |first6=Rongrong |last7=Chen |first7=Deliang |last8=Zhu |first8=Kai |last9=Zheng |first9=Yan |last10=Ye |first10=Bin |last11=Ye |first11=Fan |last12=Zeng |first12=Zhenzhong |title=Energy production and water savings from floating solar photovoltaics on global reservoirs |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=13 March 2023 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=865–874 |doi=10.1038/s41893-023-01089-6 |s2cid=257514885 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369201558 |language=en |issn=2398-9629}}</ref> at the upper range of the prior 2020 study (see above).

===Agrivoltaics===
* 2021 – An improved [[agrivoltaic]] system with a grooved glass plate is demonstrated.<ref>{{cite news |title=Novel Solar PV Plant Design for Agrivoltaics |url=https://www.greenbuildingafrica.co.za/novel-solar-pv-plant-design-for-agrivoltaics/ |access-date=8 August 2022 |work=Green Building Africa |date=6 August 2021 |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808153557/https://www.greenbuildingafrica.co.za/novel-solar-pv-plant-design-for-agrivoltaics/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=Jianan |last2=Meng |first2=Shoudong |last3=Zhang |first3=Xinyu |last4=Zhao |first4=Honglong |last5=Ning |first5=Xiaolong |last6=Chen |first6=Fangcai |last7=Omer |first7=Altyeb Ali Abaker |last8=Ingenhoff |first8=Jan |last9=Liu |first9=Wen |title=Increasing the comprehensive economic benefits of farmland with Even-lighting Agrivoltaic Systems |journal=PLOS ONE |date=15 July 2021 |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=e0254482 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254482 |pmid=34264986 |pmc=8282087 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654482Z |language=en |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* 2021 – A report reviews several studies<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pascaris |first1=Alexis S. |last2=Schelly |first2=Chelsea |last3=Pearce |first3=Joshua M. |title=A First Investigation of Agriculture Sector Perspectives on the Opportunities and Barriers for Agrivoltaics |journal=Agronomy |date=December 2020 |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=1885 |doi=10.3390/agronomy10121885 |language=en |issn=2073-4395|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trommsdorff |first1=Max |last2=Kang |first2=Jinsuk |last3=Reise |first3=Christian |last4=Schindele |first4=Stephan |last5=Bopp |first5=Georg |last6=Ehmann |first6=Andrea |last7=Weselek |first7=Axel |last8=Högy |first8=Petra |last9=Obergfell |first9=Tabea |title=Combining food and energy production: Design of an agrivoltaic system applied in arable and vegetable farming in Germany |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |date=1 April 2021 |volume=140 |pages=110694 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2020.110694 |s2cid=233561938 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032120309783 |language=en |issn=1364-0321 |access-date=23 September 2022 |archive-date=23 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923155514/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032120309783 |url-status=live }}</ref> about the potential of agrivoltaics, which partly suggest ""high potential of agrivoltaics as a viable and efficient technology"" and outline concerns for refinements to the technology.<ref>{{cite news |title=Transforming Farms and Food Production With Solar Panels |url=https://www.governing.com/next/transforming-farms-food-production-with-solar-panels.html |access-date=23 September 2022 |work=Governing |date=9 April 2021 |language=en |archive-date=23 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923155527/https://www.governing.com/next/transforming-farms-food-production-with-solar-panels.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2022 – Researchers report the development of [[greenhouse]]s (or [[solar module]]s) by a startup that generate electricity from a portion of the spectrum of sunlight, allowing spectra [[agrivoltaics|that interior plants use]] to pass through.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kempkens |first1=Wolfgang |title=Strom aus dem Gewächshaus |url=https://www.golem.de/news/saubere-energie-strom-aus-dem-gewaechshaus-2209-168042.html |access-date=18 September 2022 |work=Golem.de |archive-date=15 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915085502/https://www.golem.de/news/saubere-energie-strom-aus-dem-gewaechshaus-2209-168042.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Carron |first1=Cécilia |title=With new solar modules, greenhouses run on their own energy |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-08-solar-modules-greenhouses-energy.html |access-date=18 September 2022 |work=[[Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171802/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-08-solar-modules-greenhouses-energy.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2023 – Demonstration of another [[agrivoltaic]] [[Greenhouse#Greenhouses with spectrally selective solar modules|greenhouse]] which outperforms a conventional glass-roof greenhouse.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Paleja |first1=Ameya |title=Organic solar cells help plants in greenhouses grow better, finds study |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/organic-components-to-make-solar-cells |access-date=23 April 2023 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=6 March 2023 |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423151327/https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/organic-components-to-make-solar-cells |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Yepin |last2=Li |first2=Zongqi |last3=Deger |first3=Caner |last4=Wang |first4=Minhuan |last5=Peric |first5=Miroslav |last6=Yin |first6=Yanfeng |last7=Meng |first7=Dong |last8=Yang |first8=Wenxin |last9=Wang |first9=Xinyao |last10=Xing |first10=Qiyu |last11=Chang |first11=Bin |last12=Scott |first12=Elizabeth G. |last13=Zhou |first13=Yifan |last14=Zhang |first14=Elizabeth |last15=Zheng |first15=Ran |last16=Bian |first16=Jiming |last17=Shi |first17=Yantao |last18=Yavuz |first18=Ilhan |last19=Wei |first19=Kung-Hwa |last20=Houk |first20=K. N. |last21=Yang |first21=Yang |title=Achieving sustainability of greenhouses by integrating stable semi-transparent organic photovoltaics |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=6 March 2023 |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=539–548 |doi=10.1038/s41893-023-01071-2 |s2cid=257388015 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-023-01071-2 |language=en |issn=2398-9629 |url-access=subscription |access-date=19 June 2023 |archive-date=28 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428043026/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-023-01071-2 |url-status=live }}
* University press release: {{cite news |title=Engineers design solar roofs to harvest energy for greenhouses |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-03-solar-roofs-harvest-energy-greenhouses.html |access-date=23 April 2023 |work=[[University of California, Los Angeles]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423151318/https://techxplore.com/news/2023-03-solar-roofs-harvest-energy-greenhouses.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Solar-powered production ===
{{See also|Microbial food cultures#Environmental, food security and efficiency aspects}}

==== Water production ====

===== Early 2020s =====
* [[Hydrogel]]s are used to develop system that [[Atmospheric water generator|capture moisture]] (e.g. at night in a desert) to cool solar panels<ref>{{cite news |title=Hydrogel helps make self-cooling solar panels |url=https://physicsworld.com/a/hydrogel-helps-make-self-cooling-solar-panels/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=Physics World |date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523232348/https://physicsworld.com/a/hydrogel-helps-make-self-cooling-solar-panels/ |url-status=live }}</ref> or to produce fresh water<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shi |first1=Ye |last2=Ilic |first2=Ognjen |last3=Atwater |first3=Harry A. |last4=Greer |first4=Julia R. |title=All-day fresh water harvesting by microstructured hydrogel membranes |journal=Nature Communications |date=14 May 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=2797 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-23174-0 |pmid=33990601 |pmc=8121874 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.2797S |s2cid=234596800 |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> – including for irrigating crops as demonstrated in [[Photovoltaic system#Standalone|solar panel integrated system]]s where these have been enclosed next to<ref>{{cite news |title=Self-contained SmartFarm grows plants using water drawn from the air |url=https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/smartfarm-plants-hydrogel-water/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=New Atlas |date=15 April 2021 |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428092426/https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/smartfarm-plants-hydrogel-water/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Jiachen |last2=Zhang |first2=Xueping |last3=Qu |first3=Hao |last4=Yu |first4=Zhi Gen |last5=Zhang |first5=Yaoxin |last6=Eey |first6=Tze Jie |last7=Zhang |first7=Yong‐Wei |last8=Tan |first8=Swee Ching |title=A Moisture‐Hungry Copper Complex Harvesting Air Moisture for Potable Water and Autonomous Urban Agriculture |journal=Advanced Materials |date=October 2020 |volume=32 |issue=39 |pages=2002936 |doi=10.1002/adma.202002936 |pmid=32743963 |bibcode=2020AdM....3202936Y |s2cid=220946177 |language=en |issn=0935-9648}}</ref> or beneath the panels within the system.<ref>{{cite news |title=These solar panels pull in water vapor to grow crops in the desert |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-03-solar-panels-vapor-crops.html |access-date=18 April 2022 |work=Cell Press |language=en |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117105419/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-03-solar-panels-vapor-crops.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Ravisetti |first1=Monisha |title=New Solar Panel Design Uses Wasted Energy to Make Water From Air |url=https://www.cnet.com/home/energy-and-utilities/new-solar-panel-design-uses-wasted-energy-to-make-water-from-air/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=CNET |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428090418/https://www.cnet.com/home/energy-and-utilities/new-solar-panel-design-uses-wasted-energy-to-make-water-from-air/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Strom und Wasser aus Sonne und Wüstenluft |url=https://www.scinexx.de/news/technik/strom-und-wasser-aus-sonne-und-wuestenluft/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=scinexx {{!}} Das Wissensmagazin |date=2 March 2022 |language=de-DE |archive-date=28 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528072508/https://www.scinexx.de/news/technik/strom-und-wasser-aus-sonne-und-wuestenluft/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Hybrid system produces electricity and irrigation water in the desert |url=https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/wec2p-water-electricity-desert/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=New Atlas |date=1 March 2022 |archive-date=11 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511115424/https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/wec2p-water-electricity-desert/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Schank |first1=Eric |title=Turning the desert green: this solar panel system makes water (and grows food) out of thin air |url=https://www.salon.com/2022/03/08/turning-the-desert-green-this-solar-panel-system-makes-water-and-grows-food-out-of-thin-air/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=Salon |date=8 March 2022 |language=en |archive-date=1 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501223021/https://www.salon.com/2022/03/08/turning-the-desert-green-this-solar-panel-system-makes-water-and-grows-food-out-of-thin-air/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Renyuan |last2=Wu |first2=Mengchun |last3=Aleid |first3=Sara |last4=Zhang |first4=Chenlin |last5=Wang |first5=Wenbin |last6=Wang |first6=Peng |title=An integrated solar-driven system produces electricity with fresh water and crops in arid regions |journal=Cell Reports Physical Science |date=16 March 2022 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=100781 |doi=10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.100781 |bibcode=2022CRPS....300781L |s2cid=247211013 |language=en |issn=2666-3864|doi-access=free |hdl=10754/676557 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

== Wind power ==
{{See also|History of wind power}}
<!--[[File:Wind energy generation by region, OWID.svg|thumb|Wind energy generation by region]]-->
===2021===
* A study using simulations finds that large scale [[vertical-axis wind turbine]]s<!--#Research--> could outcompete conventional HAWTs (horizontal axis) wind farm turbines.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vertical turbines could be the future for wind farms |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-04-vertical-turbines-future-farms.html |access-date=20 July 2021 |work=techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720163758/https://techxplore.com/news/2021-04-vertical-turbines-future-farms.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Numerical modelling and optimization of vertical axis wind turbine pairs: A scale up approach |journal=Renewable Energy |date=1 June 2021 |volume=171 |pages=1371–1381 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2021.03.001 |language=en |issn=0960-1481 |doi-access=free |last1=Hansen |first1=Joachim Toftegaard |last2=Mahak |first2=Mahak |last3=Tzanakis |first3=Iakovos }}</ref>
* Scientists report that due to decreases in power generation efficiency of wind farms downwind of [[Offshore wind power|offshore wind farms]], cross-national limits and potentials for optimization need to be considered in [[Strategy#Management theory|strategic]] [[decision-making]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Are wind farms slowing each other down? |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-06-farms.html |access-date=11 July 2021 |work=techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=11 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711151836/https://techxplore.com/news/2021-06-farms.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Akhtar |first1=Naveed |last2=Geyer |first2=Beate |last3=Rockel |first3=Burkhardt |last4=Sommer |first4=Philipp S. |last5=Schrum |first5=Corinna |title=Accelerating deployment of offshore wind energy alter wind climate and reduce future power generation potentials |journal=Scientific Reports |date=3 June 2021 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=11826 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-91283-3 |pmid=34083704 |pmc=8175401 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1111826A |language=en |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>
* Researchers report, based on simulations, how large wind-farm performance can be significantly improved using windbreaks.<ref>{{cite news |title=Windbreaks, surprisingly, could help wind farms boost power output |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/wind-farm-windbreak-turbine-speed-power-output |access-date=6 November 2021 |work=Science News |date=10 August 2021 |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106164634/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/wind-farm-windbreak-turbine-speed-power-output |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Luoqin |last2=Stevens |first2=Richard J. A. M. |title=Enhanced wind-farm performance using windbreaks |journal=Physical Review Fluids |date=30 July 2021 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=074611 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevFluids.6.074611 | arxiv=2108.01197  |bibcode=2021PhRvF...6g4611L |s2cid=236881177 |url=https://journals.aps.org/prfluids/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevFluids.6.074611 |access-date=6 November 2021 |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106164633/https://journals.aps.org/prfluids/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevFluids.6.074611 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The world's first fully autonomous commercial ""airborne wind energy"" system (an [[airborne wind turbine]]) is launched by a company.<ref name=""BBC-20220309"">{{cite web |last1=Jones |first1=Nicola |title=The kites seeking the world's surest winds |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220309-the-kites-flying-to-harness-the-worlds-strongest-winds |website=www.bbc.com |access-date=8 August 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815145710/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220309-the-kites-flying-to-harness-the-worlds-strongest-winds |url-status=live }}</ref>
* An U.S. congressionally directed report concludes that ""the resource potential of wind energy available to AWE systems is likely similar to that available to traditional wind energy systems"" but that ""AWE would need significant further development before it could deploy at meaningful scales at the national level"".<ref name=""BBC-20220309""/>

===2023===
*First kWh by a [[tension leg platform|TLP]] [[offshore wind power|floating]] [[Airborne wind energy|airborne]] [[Airborne wind turbine|wind turbine]] system (X30) possibly as part of a ""new wave of startups""<ref>{{cite news |title=Sky-high kites aim to tap unused wind power |url=https://www.dw.com/en/wind-power-renewable-energy-of-the-future/a-65021452 |access-date=23 April 2023 |work=dw.com |language=en |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423093953/https://www.dw.com/en/wind-power-renewable-energy-of-the-future/a-65021452 |url-status=live }}</ref> in this area.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Malayil |first1=Jijo |title=World's first floating wind prototype with TLP system produces first kWh |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-first-floating-wind-prototype |access-date=23 April 2023 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423151324/https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-first-floating-wind-prototype |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Hydrogen energy ==
{{See also|#Grids|Timeline of hydrogen technologies#21st century|Green hydrogen#Research and development|Hydrogen economy}}

===2022===
* Researchers increase water electrolysis performance of renewable hydrogen via capillary-fed electrolysis cells.<ref>{{cite news |title=Australian researchers claim 'giant leap' in technology to produce affordable renewable hydrogen |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/mar/16/australian-researchers-claim-giant-leap-in-technology-to-produce-affordable-renewable-hydrogen |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=16 March 2022 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428212720/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/mar/16/australian-researchers-claim-giant-leap-in-technology-to-produce-affordable-renewable-hydrogen |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hodges |first1=Aaron |last2=Hoang |first2=Anh Linh |last3=Tsekouras |first3=George |last4=Wagner |first4=Klaudia |last5=Lee |first5=Chong-Yong |last6=Swiegers |first6=Gerhard F. |last7=Wallace |first7=Gordon G. |title=A high-performance capillary-fed electrolysis cell promises more cost-competitive renewable hydrogen |journal=Nature Communications |date=15 March 2022 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=1304 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28953-x|pmid=35292657  |pmc=8924184 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.1304H |s2cid=247475206 |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
* A novel energy-efficient strategy for hydrogen release from liquid hydrogen carriers with the potential to reduce costs of storage and transportation is reported.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shipman |first1=Matt |title=Driving down the costs of hydrogen fuel: Prototype achieves 99% yield 8 times faster than conventional batch reactors |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-hydrogen-fuel-prototype-yield-faster.html |access-date=8 August 2022 |work=[[North Carolina State University]] |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808153557/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-hydrogen-fuel-prototype-yield-faster.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ibrahim |first1=Malek Y. S. |last2=Bennett |first2=Jeffrey A. |last3=Abolhasani |first3=Milad |title=Continuous Room‐Temperature Hydrogen Release from Liquid Organic Carriers in a Photocatalytic Packed‐Bed Flow Reactor |journal=ChemSusChem |date=21 July 2022 |volume=15 |issue=14 |pages=e202200733 |doi=10.1002/cssc.202200733 |pmid=35446510 |pmc=9400973 |language=en |issn=1864-5631}}</ref>
* Researchers report the development of a potential efficient, secure and convenient method to separate, purify, store and transport large amounts of [[hydrogen economy|hydrogen for energy storage in renewables-based energy systems]] as powder using [[ball mill]]ing.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mechanochemical breakthrough unlocks cheap, safe, powdered hydrogen |url=https://newatlas.com/energy/mechanochemical-breakthrough-unlocks-cheap-safe-powdered-hydrogen/ |access-date=22 August 2022 |work=New Atlas |date=19 July 2022 |archive-date=16 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816094137/https://newatlas.com/energy/mechanochemical-breakthrough-unlocks-cheap-safe-powdered-hydrogen/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mateti |first1=Srikanth |last2=Zhang |first2=Chunmei |last3=Du |first3=Aijun |last4=Periasamy |first4=Selvakannan |last5=Chen |first5=Ying Ian |title=Superb storage and energy saving separation of hydrocarbon gases in boron nitride nanosheets via a mechanochemical process |journal=Materials Today |date=1 July 2022 |volume=57 |pages=26–34 |doi=10.1016/j.mattod.2022.06.004 |s2cid=250413503 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369702122001614 |language=en |issn=1369-7021 |url-access=subscription |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=24 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220824233214/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369702122001614 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* A way method for hydrogen production from the air, useful for [[off-the-grid]] settings, is demonstrated.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yirka |first1=Bob |title=Making hydrogen out of thin air |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-hydrogen-thin-air.html |access-date=26 October 2022 |work=techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133624/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-hydrogen-thin-air.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Jining |last2=Zhang |first2=Yuecheng |last3=Zavabeti |first3=Ali |last4=Chen |first4=Kaifei |last5=Guo |first5=Yalou |last6=Hu |first6=Guoping |last7=Fan |first7=Xiaolei |last8=Li |first8=Gang Kevin |title=Hydrogen production from the air |journal=Nature Communications |date=6 September 2022 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=5046 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-32652-y |pmid=36068193 |pmc=9448774 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.5046G |language=en |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* A novel type of effective [[hydrogen storage]] using readily available salts is reported.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Paleja |first1=Ameya |title=German researchers find a solution to the hydrogen storage problem: salts. |url=https://interestingengineering.com/science/salts-solve-problem-hydrogen-storage |access-date=17 November 2022 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=19 October 2022 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117151613/https://interestingengineering.com/science/salts-solve-problem-hydrogen-storage |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wei |first1=Duo |last2=Shi |first2=Xinzhe |last3=Sponholz |first3=Peter |last4=Junge |first4=Henrik |last5=Beller |first5=Matthias |title=Manganese Promoted (Bi)carbonate Hydrogenation and Formate Dehydrogenation: Toward a Circular Carbon and Hydrogen Economy |journal=ACS Central Science |date=26 October 2022 |volume=8 |issue=10 |pages=1457–1463 |doi=10.1021/acscentsci.2c00723 |pmid=36313168 |pmc=9615124 |doi-access=free |language=en |issn=2374-7943}}</ref>
*An [[electrolysis]] system for viable [[hydrogen economy|hydrogen production from seawater]] without requiring a pre-[[desalination]] process is reported, which could allow for more flexible and less costly hydrogen production.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Timmer |first1=John |title=New device can make hydrogen when dunked in salt water |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/11/waterproof-clothing-concept-used-to-make-hydrogen-from-seawater/ |access-date=18 December 2022 |work=Ars Technica |date=30 November 2022 |language=en-us |archive-date=18 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221218104532/https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/11/waterproof-clothing-concept-used-to-make-hydrogen-from-seawater/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xie |first1=Heping |last2=Zhao |first2=Zhiyu |last3=Liu |first3=Tao |last4=Wu |first4=Yifan |last5=Lan |first5=Cheng |last6=Jiang |first6=Wenchuan |last7=Zhu |first7=Liangyu |last8=Wang |first8=Yunpeng |last9=Yang |first9=Dongsheng |last10=Shao |first10=Zongping |title=A membrane-based seawater electrolyser for hydrogen generation |journal=Nature |date=30 November 2022 |volume=612 |issue=7941 |pages=673–678 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05379-5 |pmid=36450987 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..673X |s2cid=254123372 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365890373|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
*Chemical engineers report a method to substantially increase conversion efficiency and reduce material costs of [[hydrogen production|green hydrogen production]] by using sound waves during [[electrolysis]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Theresa |first1=Deena |title=Engineers use sound waves to boost green hydrogen production by 14 times |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/sound-waves-boost-green-hydrogen-production |access-date=18 January 2023 |work=[[Interesting Engineering]] |date=14 December 2022 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202170608/https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/sound-waves-boost-green-hydrogen-production |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ehrnst |first1=Yemima |last2=Sherrell |first2=Peter C. |last3=Rezk |first3=Amgad R. |last4=Yeo |first4=Leslie Y. |title=Acoustically‐Induced Water Frustration for Enhanced Hydrogen Evolution Reaction in Neutral Electrolytes |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |date=4 December 2022 |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=2203164 |doi=10.1002/aenm.202203164 |s2cid=254299691 |language=en |issn=1614-6832|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===2023===
* In three largely [[paywall]]ed studies, separate teams of researchers report substantial improvements to [[green hydrogen]] [[hydrogen production|production]] methods, enabling higher efficiencies<!--([[Photocatalytic water splitting#Indium gallium nitride|a solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of 9.2%]])--> and durable use of untreated seawater.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sun-powered water splitter produces unprecedented levels of green energy |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/sun-powered-water-splitter-produces-unprecedented-levels-green-energy |access-date=16 February 2023 |work=Science |language=en |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216224622/https://www.science.org/content/article/sun-powered-water-splitter-produces-unprecedented-levels-green-energy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Yirka |first1=Bob |title=A way to produce hydrogen directly from untreated sea water |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-01-hydrogen-untreated-sea.html |access-date=16 February 2023 |work=techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216224628/https://techxplore.com/news/2023-01-hydrogen-untreated-sea.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Peng |last2=Navid |first2=Ishtiaque Ahmed |last3=Ma |first3=Yongjin |last4=Xiao |first4=Yixin |last5=Wang |first5=Ping |last6=Ye |first6=Zhengwei |last7=Zhou |first7=Baowen |last8=Sun |first8=Kai |last9=Mi |first9=Zetian |title=Solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of more than 9% in photocatalytic water splitting |journal=Nature |date=January 2023 |volume=613 |issue=7942 |pages=66–70 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05399-1 |pmid=36600066 |bibcode=2023Natur.613...66Z |s2cid=255474993 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05399-1 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |url-access=subscription |access-date=16 February 2023 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203080833/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05399-1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Jiaxin |last2=Zheng |first2=Yao |last3=Hu |first3=Zhenpeng |last4=Zheng |first4=Caiyan |last5=Mao |first5=Jing |last6=Du |first6=Kun |last7=Jaroniec |first7=Mietek |last8=Qiao |first8=Shi-Zhang |last9=Ling |first9=Tao |title=Direct seawater electrolysis by adjusting the local reaction environment of a catalyst |journal=Nature Energy |date=30 January 2023 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1038/s41560-023-01195-x |s2cid=256493839 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367559005 |language=en |issn=2058-7546|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Young |first1=Chris |title=A new method converts seawater straight into green hydrogen |url=https://interestingengineering.com/science/seawater-straight-into-green-hydrogen |access-date=4 April 2023 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=14 February 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403215516/https://interestingengineering.com/science/seawater-straight-into-green-hydrogen |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loomba |first1=Suraj |last2=Khan |first2=Muhammad Waqas |last3=Haris |first3=Muhammad |last4=Mousavi |first4=Seyed Mahdi |last5=Zavabeti |first5=Ali |last6=Xu |first6=Kai |last7=Tadich |first7=Anton |last8=Thomsen |first8=Lars |last9=McConville |first9=Christopher F. |last10=Li |first10=Yongxiang |last11=Walia |first11=Sumeet |last12=Mahmood |first12=Nasir |title=Nitrogen‐Doped Porous Nickel Molybdenum Phosphide Sheets for Efficient Seawater Splitting |journal=Small |date=8 February 2023 |volume=19 |issue=18 |pages=2207310 |doi=10.1002/smll.202207310|pmid=36751959 |s2cid=256663170 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* A [[Deutscher Verein des Gas- und Wasserfaches|DVGW]] report suggests gas [[Pipeline transport|pipeline infrastructures]] (in [[Energy in Germany|Germany]]) are suitable to be repurposed to transport [[Hydrogen economy|hydrogen]], showing limited corrosion.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gasleitungen in Deutschland sind bereit für Wasserstoff |url=https://www.forschung-und-wissen.de/nachrichten/technik/gasleitungen-in-deutschland-sind-bereit-fuer-wasserstoff-13377194 |access-date=20 April 2023 |work=www.forschung-und-wissen.de |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=DVGW: Germany's gas pipelines h2ready |url=https://www.dvgw.de/english-pages/dvgw/news/germanys-gas-pipelines-h2ready |publisher=DVGW |access-date=20 April 2023 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420093014/https://www.dvgw.de/english-pages/dvgw/news/germanys-gas-pipelines-h2ready |url-status=live }}</ref>
<!--[[File:Overview of the solar hydrogen production system using a concentrated integrated photoelectrochemical device.webp |thumb]]-->
* A [[concentrated solar energy|concentrated solar]]-to-[[green hydrogen|hydrogen]] device approaching viability is demonstrated.<ref>{{cite news |title=Concentrated solar reactor generates unprecedented amounts of hydrogen |url=https://physicsworld.com/a/concentrated-solar-reactor-generates-unprecedented-amounts-of-hydrogen/ |access-date=28 May 2023 |work=Physics World |date=18 May 2023 |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528180109/https://physicsworld.com/a/concentrated-solar-reactor-generates-unprecedented-amounts-of-hydrogen/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holmes-Gentle |first1=Isaac |last2=Tembhurne |first2=Saurabh |last3=Suter |first3=Clemens |last4=Haussener |first4=Sophia |title=Kilowatt-scale solar hydrogen production system using a concentrated integrated photoelectrochemical device |journal=Nature Energy |date=10 April 2023 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=586–596 |doi=10.1038/s41560-023-01247-2 |language=en |issn=2058-7546|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* Record [[Green hydrogen#Research|solar-to-hydrogen efficiencies]], using photoelectrochemical cells, are reported.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fehr |first1=Austin M. K. |last2=Agrawal |first2=Ayush |last3=Mandani |first3=Faiz |last4=Conrad |first4=Christian L. |last5=Jiang |first5=Qi |last6=Park |first6=So Yeon |last7=Alley |first7=Olivia |last8=Li |first8=Bor |last9=Sidhik |first9=Siraj |last10=Metcalf |first10=Isaac |last11=Botello |first11=Christopher |last12=Young |first12=James L. |last13=Even |first13=Jacky |last14=Blancon |first14=Jean Christophe |last15=Deutsch |first15=Todd G. |date=26 June 2023 |title=Integrated halide perovskite photoelectrochemical cells with solar-driven water-splitting efficiency of 20.8% |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=3797 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.3797F |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-39290-y |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=10293190 |pmid=37365175 |doi-access=free |last16=Zhu |first16=Kai |last17=Albrecht |first17=Steve |last18=Toma |first18=Francesca M. |last19=Wong |first19=Michael |last20=Mohite |first20=Aditya D.}}
</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Silvia Cernea |last2=University |first2=Rice |date=July 20, 2023 |title=Device makes hydrogen from sunlight with record efficiency |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-07-device-hydrogen-sunlight-efficiency.html |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=techxplore.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Hydroelectricity and marine energy ==
{{See also|Hydropower#History|Hydroelectricity#History|Ocean thermal energy conversion|Marine energy}}

===2021===
* Engineers report the development of a prototype [[Wave power|wave energy converter]] that is twice as efficient as similar existing experimental technologies, which could be a major step towards practical viability of tapping into the sustainable energy source.<ref>{{cite news |title=New clean energy tech extracts twice the power from ocean waves |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-08-energy-tech-power-ocean.html |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=21 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921135030/https://techxplore.com/news/2021-08-energy-tech-power-ocean.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Study of a novel rotational speed amplified dual turbine wheel wave energy converter |journal=Applied Energy |date=1 November 2021 |volume=301 |pages=117423 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117423 |language=en |issn=0306-2619|last1=Xiao |first1=Han |last2=Liu |first2=Zhenwei |last3=Zhang |first3=Ran |last4=Kelham |first4=Andrew |last5=Xu |first5=Xiangyang |last6=Wang |first6=Xu }}</ref>
*A study investigates how [[tidal energy]] could be best integrated into the [[Orkney]] [[energy system]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Almoghayer |first1=Mohammed A. |last2=Woolf |first2=David K. |last3=Kerr |first3=Sandy |last4=Davies |first4=Gareth |title=Integration of tidal energy into an island energy system – A case study of Orkney islands |journal=Energy |date=11 November 2021 |volume=242 |pages=122547 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2021.122547 |s2cid=244068724 |language=en |issn=0360-5442}}</ref> A few days earlier, a [[scientific review|review]] assesses the potential of tidal energy in the UK's energy systems, finding that it could, according to their considerations that include an economic cost-benefit analysis, deliver 34 TWh/y or 11% of its energy demand.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tidal stream power can aid drive for net-zero and generate 11% of UK's electricity demand |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-11-tidal-stream-power-aid-net-zero.html |access-date=12 December 2021 |work=[[University of Plymouth]] |language=en |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212150730/https://techxplore.com/news/2021-11-tidal-stream-power-aid-net-zero.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coles |first1=Daniel |last2=Angeloudis |first2=Athanasios |last3=Greaves |first3=Deborah |last4=Hastie |first4=Gordon |last5=Lewis |first5=Matthew |last6=Mackie |first6=Lucas |last7=McNaughton |first7=James |last8=Miles |first8=Jon |last9=Neill |first9=Simon |last10=Piggott |first10=Matthew |last11=Risch |first11=Denise |last12=Scott |first12=Beth |last13=Sparling |first13=Carol |last14=Stallard |first14=Tim |last15=Thies |first15=Philipp |last16=Walker |first16=Stuart |last17=White |first17=David |last18=Willden |first18=Richard |last19=Williamson |first19=Benjamin |title=A review of the UK and British Channel Islands practical tidal stream energy resource |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=24 November 2021 |volume=477 |issue=2255 |pages=20210469 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2021.0469|pmid=35153596 |pmc=8564615 |bibcode=2021RSPSA.47710469C |s2cid=240424151 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Energy storage ==
{{See also|Energy storage#History|History of the battery|#Grid energy storage}}

===Electric batteries===
{{Expand section|date=November 2021}}

===2022===
* In a [[paywall]]ed article, scientists provide 3D imaging and model analysis to reveal main causes, mechanics, and potential mitigations of the prevalent [[lithium-ion battery]] [[wear and tear|degradation]] [[Charge cycle|over charge cycles]].<!--Such may be problematic e.g. due to [[electronic waste]], durability/costs especially when batteries in various devices are [[Technology policy|not required]] to be [[replaceable battery|replaceable/swapable]] worldwide, renewable energy efficiency, and [[Technology-critical element|rare minerals]].--><ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Sarah C. P. |title=Researchers zoom in on battery wear and tear |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-12-battery.html |access-date=18 January 2023 |work=[[University of Chicago]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202170609/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-12-battery.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Minghao |last2=Chouchane |first2=Mehdi |last3=Shojaee |first3=S. Ali |last4=Winiarski |first4=Bartlomiej |last5=Liu |first5=Zhao |last6=Li |first6=Letian |last7=Pelapur |first7=Rengarajan |last8=Shodiev |first8=Abbos |last9=Yao |first9=Weiliang |last10=Doux |first10=Jean-Marie |last11=Wang |first11=Shen |last12=Li |first12=Yixuan |last13=Liu |first13=Chaoyue |last14=Lemmens |first14=Herman |last15=Franco |first15=Alejandro A. |last16=Meng |first16=Ying Shirley |title=Coupling of multiscale imaging analysis and computational modeling for understanding thick cathode degradation mechanisms |journal=Joule |date=22 December 2022 |volume=7 |pages=201–220 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2022.12.001 |url=https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(22)00572-4 |language=English |issn=2542-4785 |url-access=subscription |access-date=15 February 2023 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202170605/https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(22)00572-4 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=February 2023}}

===2023===
* In two studies, researchers report that substitution of PET adhesive tapes could {{tooltip|nearly prevent|they report that ""The addition of two weight percent vinylene carbonate can prevent redox shuttle generation and leads to almost zero reversible self-discharge""}}{{clarify|date=February 2023}} [[self-discharge]] in the widely used [[lithium-ion batteries]], extending [[battery life]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Discovery in Canadian lab could help laptop, phone and car batteries last longer |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/discovery-in-canadian-lab-could-help-laptop-phone-and-car-batteries-last-longer-1.6254040 |access-date=15 February 2023 |work=CTVNews |date=31 January 2023 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215181223/https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/discovery-in-canadian-lab-could-help-laptop-phone-and-car-batteries-last-longer-1.6254040 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Reversible Self-discharge of LFP/Graphite and NMC811/Graphite Cells Originating from Redox Shuttle Generation |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |year=2023 |volume=170 |doi=10.1149/1945-7111/acb10c|doi-access=free|last1=Buechele |first1=Sebastian |last2=Logan |first2=Eric |last3=Boulanger |first3=Thomas |last4=Azam |first4=Saad |last5=Eldesoky |first5=Ahmed |last6=Song |first6=Wentao |last7=Johnson |first7=Michel B. |last8=Metzger |first8=Michael |issue=1 |page=010518 |bibcode=2023JElS..170a0518B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Identification of Redox Shuttle Generated in LFP/Graphite and NMC811/Graphite Cells |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |year=2023 |volume=170 |doi=10.1149/1945-7111/acaf44|last1=Buechele |first1=Sebastian |last2=Adamson |first2=Anu |last3=Eldesoky |first3=Ahmed |last4=Boetticher |first4=Tom |last5=Hartmann |first5=Louis |last6=Boulanger |first6=Thomas |last7=Azam |first7=Saad |last8=Johnson |first8=Michel B. |last9=Taskovic |first9=Tina |last10=Logan |first10=Eric |last11=Metzger |first11=Michael |issue=1 |page=010511 |bibcode=2023JElS..170a0511B |s2cid=255321506 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Thermal energy storage===
* 2022 – Researchers report the development of a system that combines the [[Thermal energy storage#MOST|MOST solar thermal energy storage system]] that can store energy for 18 years with a chip-sized [[thermoelectric generator]] to generate electricity from it.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hawkins |first1=Joshua |title=New liquid system could revolutionize solar energy |url=https://bgr.com/science/new-liquid-system-could-revolutionize-solar-energy/ |access-date=18 April 2022 |work=BGR |date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418130852/https://bgr.com/science/new-liquid-system-could-revolutionize-solar-energy/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Zhihang |last2=Wu |first2=Zhenhua |last3=Hu |first3=Zhiyu |last4=Orrego-Hernández |first4=Jessica |last5=Mu |first5=Erzhen |last6=Zhang |first6=Zhao-Yang |last7=Jevric |first7=Martyn |last8=Liu |first8=Yang |last9=Fu |first9=Xuecheng |last10=Wang |first10=Fengdan |last11=Li |first11=Tao |last12=Moth-Poulsen |first12=Kasper |title=Chip-scale solar thermal electrical power generation |journal=Cell Reports Physical Science |date=16 March 2022 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=100789 |doi=10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.100789 |bibcode=2022CRPS....300789W |s2cid=247329224 |language=en |issn=2666-3864|doi-access=free |hdl=10261/275653 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Novel and emerging types ===
{{See also|List of battery types|Lithium–sulfur battery#Research}}
* 2021 – A company generates its first power from a [[gravity battery]] at a site in Edinburgh.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gravity-based batteries try to beat their chemical cousins with winches, weights, and mine shafts |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/gravity-based-batteries-try-beat-their-chemical-cousins-winches-weights-and-mine-shafts |website=www.science.org |access-date=8 August 2022 |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808153556/https://www.science.org/content/article/gravity-based-batteries-try-beat-their-chemical-cousins-winches-weights-and-mine-shafts |url-status=live }}</ref> Other gravity batteries are also under construction by other companies.<ref>{{cite web |title=Revolutionary idea to store green power for the grid |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/energy-vault_revolutionary-idea-to-store-green-power-for-the-grid/45467684 |website=SWI swissinfo.ch |date=3 January 2020 |access-date=8 August 2022 |language=en |archive-date=26 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526182826/https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/energy-vault_revolutionary-idea-to-store-green-power-for-the-grid/45467684 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2022 – A study describes using lifts and empty apartments in tall buildings to store energy, estimating global potential around 30 to 300 GWh.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bushwick |first1=Sophie |title=Concrete Buildings Could Be Turned into Rechargeable Batteries |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/concrete-buildings-could-be-turned-into-rechargeable-batteries/ |access-date=8 August 2022 |work=Scientific American |language=en |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812094311/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/concrete-buildings-could-be-turned-into-rechargeable-batteries/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Julian David |last2=Nascimento |first2=Andreas |last3=Zakeri |first3=Behnam |last4=Jurasz |first4=Jakub |last5=Dąbek |first5=Paweł B. |last6=Barbosa |first6=Paulo Sergio Franco |last7=Brandão |first7=Roberto |last8=de Castro |first8=Nivalde José |last9=Leal Filho |first9=Walter |last10=Riahi |first10=Keywan |title=Lift Energy Storage Technology: A solution for decentralized urban energy storage |journal=Energy |date=1 September 2022 |volume=254 |pages=124102 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2022.124102 |language=en |issn=0360-5442|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Nuclear fusion ==
{{Excerpt|Timeline of nuclear fusion|2020s}}

== Geothermal energy ==
{{See also|Geothermal energy#History}}

===2022===
* A study describes a way by which [[geothermal power]] plants {{tooltip|could store their energy|(rather than providing nonflexible ""baseload"" energy even at times when renewable energy generation is abundant)}} within their reservoirs for [[dispatchable generation|dispatch]] to (better) help [[100% renewable energy#Intermittency|manage intermittency of solar and wind]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahambhatt |first1=Rupendra |title=In a world first, scientists propose geothermal power plants that also work as valuable clean energy reservoirs |url=https://interestingengineering.com/science/geothermal-power-plants-clean-energy-reservoirs |access-date=20 October 2022 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=9 September 2022 |archive-date=20 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020210406/https://interestingengineering.com/science/geothermal-power-plants-clean-energy-reservoirs |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ricks |first1=Wilson |last2=Norbeck |first2=Jack |last3=Jenkins |first3=Jesse |title=The value of in-reservoir energy storage for flexible dispatch of geothermal power |journal=Applied Energy |date=1 May 2022 |volume=313 |pages=118807 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.118807 |s2cid=247302205 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/6385742 |language=en |issn=0306-2619 |access-date=26 October 2022 |archive-date=20 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020210408/https://zenodo.org/record/6385742 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* University press release: {{cite news |last1=Waters |first1=Sharon |title=Study shows geothermal could be an ideal energy storage technology |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-geothermal-ideal-energy-storage-technology.html |access-date=20 October 2022 |work=Princeton University via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=20 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020210406/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-geothermal-ideal-energy-storage-technology.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Waste heat recovery==
{{See also|Waste heat recovery}}

===2020===
* Reviews about WHR in the aluminium industry<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brough |first1=Daniel |last2=Jouhara |first2=Hussam |title=The aluminium industry: A review on state-of-the-art technologies, environmental impacts and possibilities for waste heat recovery |journal=International Journal of Thermofluids |date=1 February 2020 |volume=1–2 |pages=100007 |doi=10.1016/j.ijft.2019.100007 |s2cid=212720002 |language=en |issn=2666-2027|doi-access=free }}</ref> and cement industry<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fierro |first1=José J. |last2=Escudero-Atehortua |first2=Ana |last3=Nieto-Londoño |first3=César |last4=Giraldo |first4=Mauricio |last5=Jouhara |first5=Hussam |last6=Wrobel |first6=Luiz C. |title=Evaluation of waste heat recovery technologies for the cement industry |journal=International Journal of Thermofluids |date=1 November 2020 |volume=7–8 |pages=100040 |doi=10.1016/j.ijft.2020.100040 |s2cid=221689777 |language=en |issn=2666-2027|doi-access=free }}</ref> are published.

===2023===
* A report by the company [[Danfoss]] estimates EU's excess heat recovery potential, suggesting there is ""huge, unharnessed potential"" and that action could involve initial mapping of existing waste heat sources.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turns |first1=Anna |title=Recapturing excess heat could power most of Europe, say experts |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/feb/23/recapturing-excess-heat-could-power-most-of-europe-say-experts |access-date=4 April 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330175109/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/feb/23/recapturing-excess-heat-could-power-most-of-europe-say-experts |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Bioenergy, chemical engineering and biotechnology ==
{{See also|Bioenergy|Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage#Current projects|Biobased economy#Energy|Artificial photosynthesis|Woodchips#Fuel}}

===2020===
* Scientists report the development of <!--[[Microemulsion]]-->micro-droplets for [[algae|algal cells]] or synergistic algal-bacterial multicellular [[spheroid]] [[microreactor|microbial reactors]] capable [[Hydrogen fuel#Production|of producing]] oxygen as well as [[biohydrogen|hydrogen]] via photosynthesis in daylight under air.<ref name=""phys-droplets"">{{cite news |title=Research creates hydrogen-producing living droplets, paving way for alternative future energy source |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-11-hydrogen-producing-droplets-paving-alternative-future.html |access-date=9 December 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=16 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216151601/https://phys.org/news/2020-11-hydrogen-producing-droplets-paving-alternative-future.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Zhijun |last2=Wang |first2=Shengliang |last3=Zhao |first3=Chunyu |last4=Li |first4=Shangsong |last5=Liu |first5=Xiaoman |last6=Wang |first6=Lei |last7=Li |first7=Mei |last8=Huang |first8=Xin |last9=Mann |first9=Stephen |title=Photosynthetic hydrogen production by droplet-based microbial micro-reactors under aerobic conditions |journal=Nature Communications |date=25 November 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5985 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19823-5 |pmid=33239636 |pmc=7689460 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5985X |url=|language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>

===2022===
*Researchers report the [[Nanobiotechnology#Nanobiotechnology|development]] of [[3D printing|3D-printed]] [[Nanomanufacturing|nano]]-""skyscraper"" electrodes that house [[cyanobacteria]] for extracting substantially more [[sustainable energy|sustainable]] [[bioenergy]] from their [[photosynthesis]] than before<!-- and provide new tools for three-dimensional electrode design-->.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tiny 'skyscrapers' help bacteria convert sunlight into electricity |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-03-tiny-skyscrapers-bacteria-sunlight-electricity.html |access-date=19 April 2022 |work=[[University of Cambridge]] |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330222845/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-03-tiny-skyscrapers-bacteria-sunlight-electricity.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Xiaolong |last2=Lawrence |first2=Joshua M. |last3=Wey |first3=Laura T. |last4=Schertel |first4=Lukas |last5=Jing |first5=Qingshen |last6=Vignolini |first6=Silvia |last7=Howe |first7=Christopher J. |last8=Kar-Narayan |first8=Sohini |last9=Zhang |first9=Jenny Z. |title=3D-printed hierarchical pillar array electrodes for high-performance semi-artificial photosynthesis |journal=Nature Materials |date=7 March 2022 |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=811–818 |doi=10.1038/s41563-022-01205-5| pmid=35256790 |bibcode=2022NatMa..21..811C |s2cid=237763253 |language=en |issn=1476-4660 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353153555}}</ref>
*News outlets report about the development of [[Algae bioreactor#Microgeneration|algae biopanels]] by a company for [[Renewable energy#Algae fuels|sustainable energy generation]] with unclear viability<ref>{{cite news |title=Algae biopanel windows make power, oxygen and biomass, and suck up CO2 |url=https://newatlas.com/energy/greenfluidics-algae-biopanels/ |access-date=21 August 2022 |work=New Atlas |date=11 July 2022 |archive-date=21 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821192455/https://newatlas.com/energy/greenfluidics-algae-biopanels/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Paleja |first1=Ameya |title=Algae-filled panels could generate oxygen and electricity while absorbing CO2 |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/algae-filled-panels-generate-oxygen-electricity-absorbing-co2 |access-date=21 August 2022 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=13 July 2022 |archive-date=21 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821192603/https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/algae-filled-panels-generate-oxygen-electricity-absorbing-co2 |url-status=live }}</ref> after other researchers built the self-powered [[Bionic architecture#Advantages|{{tooltip|2='Bio-Intelligent Quotient'|BIQ}} house prototype]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Talaei |first1=Maryam |last2=Mahdavinejad |first2=Mohammadjavad |last3=Azari |first3=Rahman |title=Thermal and energy performance of algae bioreactive façades: A review |journal=Journal of Building Engineering |date=1 March 2020 |volume=28 |pages=101011 |doi=10.1016/j.jobe.2019.101011 |s2cid=210245691 |language=en |issn=2352-7102}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Sara |last2=Stoller |first2=Paul |last3=Ralph |first3=Peter |last4=Hamdorf |first4=Brenton |last5=Catana |first5=Laila Navarro |last6=Kuzava |first6=Gabriela Santana |title=Exploring the Feasibility of Algae Building Technology in NSW |journal=Procedia Engineering |date=1 January 2017 |volume=180 |pages=1121–1130 |doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.272 |language=en |issn=1877-7058|doi-access=free}}</ref>

====2023====
*A [[Mycobacterium smegmatis#Production of Electricity|bacterial]] [[hydrogenase]]<!--#[NiFe] hydrogenase--> [[enzyme]], Huc, for [[biohydrogen]] energy from the air is reported.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yu |first1=Andi |title=Scientists have found an enzyme that can make electricity out of tiny amounts of hydrogen |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-09/monash-university-air-electricity-enzyme-soil/102071786 |access-date=20 April 2023 |work=ABC News |date=9 March 2023 |language=en-AU |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420082616/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-09/monash-university-air-electricity-enzyme-soil/102071786 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grinter |first1=Rhys |last2=Kropp |first2=Ashleigh |last3=Venugopal |first3=Hari |last4=Senger |first4=Moritz |last5=Badley |first5=Jack |last6=Cabotaje |first6=Princess R. |last7=Jia |first7=Ruyu |last8=Duan |first8=Zehui |last9=Huang |first9=Ping |last10=Stripp |first10=Sven T. |last11=Barlow |first11=Christopher K. |last12=Belousoff |first12=Matthew |last13=Shafaat |first13=Hannah S. |last14=Cook |first14=Gregory M. |last15=Schittenhelm |first15=Ralf B. |last16=Vincent |first16=Kylie A. |last17=Khalid |first17=Syma |last18=Berggren |first18=Gustav |last19=Greening |first19=Chris |title=Structural basis for bacterial energy extraction from atmospheric hydrogen |journal=Nature |date=March 2023 |volume=615 |issue=7952 |pages=541–547 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-05781-7 |pmid=36890228 |pmc=10017518 |bibcode=2023Natur.615..541G |language=en |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== General ==
Research about sustainable energy in general or across different types.

=== Other energy-need reductions ===
{{See also|Energy conservation|Sustainable lifestyle|Heat cost allocator|Personal carbon credits|Climate change mitigation#Research}}
Research and development of (technical) means to substantially or systematically reduce need for energy beyond smart grids, education / educational technology (such as about differential environmental impacts of diets), transportation infrastructure (bicycles and rail transport) and conventional improvements of [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] on the level of the energy system.

====2020====
* A study shows a set of different scenarios of minimal energy requirements for providing decent [[living standard]]s globally, finding that – according to their models, assessments and data – by 2050 global energy use could be reduced to 1960 levels despite of 'sufficiency' still being materially relatively generous.<ref>{{cite news |title=Decent living for all does not have to cost the Earth |url=https://scienmag.com/decent-living-for-all-does-not-have-to-cost-the-earth/ |access-date=11 November 2021 |work=SCIENMAG: Latest Science and Health News |date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=11 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111130059/https://scienmag.com/decent-living-for-all-does-not-have-to-cost-the-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Decent living for all does not have to cost the Earth |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-10-decent-earth.html |access-date=11 November 2021 |work=University of Leeds |language=en |archive-date=11 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111130059/https://phys.org/news/2020-10-decent-earth.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Millward-Hopkins |first1=Joel |last2=Steinberger |first2=Julia K. |last3=Rao |first3=Narasimha D. |last4=Oswald |first4=Yannick |title=Providing decent living with minimum energy: A global scenario |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=1 November 2020 |volume=65 |pages=102168 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102168 |s2cid=224977493 |language=en |issn=0959-3780|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====2022====
* A trial of estimated financial energy cost of [[refrigerator]]s alongside [[European Union energy label|EU energy-efficiency class (EEEC) labels]] online finds that the approach of labels involves a trade-off between [[Homo economicus|financial considerations]] and higher cost requirements in effort or time for the product-selection from the [[Overchoice|many]] available options which are often unlabelled and don't have any EEEC-requirement for being bought, used or sold within the EU.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fadelli |first1=Ingrid |title=Adding energy cost information to energy-efficiency class labels could affect refrigerator purchases |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-adding-energy-energy-efficiency-class-affect.html |access-date=15 May 2022 |work=Tech Xplore |language=en |archive-date=6 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506083307/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-adding-energy-energy-efficiency-class-affect.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=d’Adda |first1=Giovanna |last2=Gao |first2=Yu |last3=Tavoni |first3=Massimo |title=A randomized trial of energy cost information provision alongside energy-efficiency classes for refrigerator purchases |journal=Nature Energy |date=April 2022 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=360–368 |doi=10.1038/s41560-022-01002-z |bibcode=2022NatEn...7..360D |s2cid=248033760 |language=en |issn=2058-7546|doi-access=free |hdl=2434/922959 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Materials and recycling ===
{{See also|#Solar power|Solar panel#Waste and recycling|Solar cell#Recycling|Rare-earth element#Environmental considerations|Environmental aspects of the electric car|Circular economy#Rare-earth elements recovery}}

====2020====
* Researchers report that mining for [[renewable energy production]] will increase threats to [[biodiversity]] and publish a map of areas that contain needed materials as well as estimations of their overlaps with ""Key Biodiversity Areas"", ""Remaining Wilderness"" and ""Protected Areas"". The authors assess that careful [[strategic planning]] is needed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mining needed for renewable energy 'could harm biodiversity' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/01/mining-needed-for-renewable-energy-could-harm-biodiversity |access-date=8 October 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=1 September 2020 |language=en |archive-date=6 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006002803/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/01/mining-needed-for-renewable-energy-could-harm-biodiversity |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mining for renewable energy could be another threat to the environment |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-09-renewable-energy-threat-environment.html |access-date=8 October 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003033243/https://phys.org/news/2020-09-renewable-energy-threat-environment.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sonter |first1=Laura J. |last2=Dade |first2=Marie C. |last3=Watson |first3=James E. M. |last4=Valenta |first4=Rick K. |title=Renewable energy production will exacerbate mining threats to biodiversity |journal=Nature Communications |date=1 September 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=4174 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17928-5 |pmid=32873789 |pmc=7463236 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.4174S |url=|language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>

==== 2021 ====

* [[Neodymium]], an essential [[rare-earth element]] (REE), plays a key role in making permanent magnets for wind turbines. Demand for REEs is expected to double by 2035 due to renewable energy growth, posing environmental risks, including [[radioactive waste]] from their extraction.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rare Earth Elements: A Resource Constraint of the Energy Transition |url=https://kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/research/publications/rare-earth-elements-a-resource-constraint-of-the-energy-transition/ |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=Kleinman Center for Energy Policy |language=en-US}}</ref>

====2023====
*A study finds that the world has [[Technology-critical element|enough]] [[rare earths]] and other raw materials to [[Energy transition|switch]] from fossil fuels to [[renewable energy]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study: Enough rare earth minerals to fuel green energy shift |url=https://apnews.com/article/science-green-technology-climate-and-environment-renewable-energy-141761657a8e7a5627a0e49e601dd48e |date=27 January 2023 |work=AP |accessdate=31 January 2023 |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130212928/https://apnews.com/article/science-green-technology-climate-and-environment-renewable-energy-141761657a8e7a5627a0e49e601dd48e |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Future demand for electricity generation materials under different climate mitigation scenarios |date=27 January 2023 |journal=[[Joule (journal)|Joule]] |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2023.01.001 |last1=Wang |first1=Seaver |last2=Hausfather |first2=Zeke |last3=Davis |first3=Steven |last4=Lloyd |first4=Juzel |last5=Olson |first5=Erik B. |last6=Liebermann |first6=Lauren |last7=Núñez-Mujica |first7=Guido D. |last8=McBride |first8=Jameson |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=309–332 |s2cid=256347184 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*A new viable [[Research in lithium-ion batteries|lithium-ion]] [[battery recycling]] method is reported.<ref>{{cite news |title=New lithium-ion battery recycling method is energy efficient, acid free and recovers 70% lithium |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/lithium-ion-battery-recycling-new/ |access-date=19 April 2023 |work=Cosmos Magazine |date=31 March 2023 |language=en-AU |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419212534/https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/lithium-ion-battery-recycling-new/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dolotko |first1=Oleksandr |last2=Gehrke |first2=Niclas |last3=Malliaridou |first3=Triantafillia |last4=Sieweck |first4=Raphael |last5=Herrmann |first5=Laura |last6=Hunzinger |first6=Bettina |last7=Knapp |first7=Michael |last8=Ehrenberg |first8=Helmut |title=Universal and efficient extraction of lithium for lithium-ion battery recycling using mechanochemistry |journal=Communications Chemistry |date=28 March 2023 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=49 |doi=10.1038/s42004-023-00844-2 |pmid=36977798 |pmc=10049983 |language=en |issn=2399-3669|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[File:Flow chart of possible product stewardship scheme for new solar PV panels.jpg|thumb|Flow chart of proposed or possible product stewardship scheme for new solar PV panels<ref name=""10.3934/energy.2023008""/>]]
*A study suggests incentives and regulations [[Renewable energy#Conservation areas, recycling and rare-earth elements|are needed]] for producers to [[sustainable design|design]] solar panels [[solar panel recycling|that can be more easily recycled]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hart |first1=Amalyah |title=Researchers urge mandatory scheme to ensure solar panels are recycled |url=https://reneweconomy.com.au/researchers-urge-mandatory-scheme-to-ensure-solar-panels-are-recycled/ |access-date=19 April 2023 |work=RenewEconomy |date=21 March 2023 |language=en-AU |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419212535/https://reneweconomy.com.au/researchers-urge-mandatory-scheme-to-ensure-solar-panels-are-recycled/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""10.3934/energy.2023008"">{{cite journal |last1=Majewski |first1=Peter |last2=Deng |first2=Rong |last3=Dias |first3=Pablo R. |last4=Jones |first4=Megan |last5=Majewski |first5=Peter |last6=Deng |first6=Rong |last7=Dias |first7=Pablo R. |last8=Jones |first8=Megan |title=Product stewardship considerations for solar photovoltaic panels |journal=AIMS Energy |date=2023 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=140–155 |doi=10.3934/energy.2023008 |language=en |issn=2333-8334|doi-access=free}}
* University press release: {{cite news |title=Solar industry feeling the heat over disposal of 80 million panels |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-03-solar-industry-disposal-million-panels.html |access-date=19 April 2023 |work=[[University of South Australia]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419212533/https://techxplore.com/news/2023-03-solar-industry-disposal-million-panels.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Seabed mining ====

=====2020=====
* Researchers assess to what extent international law and existing policy support the practice of a proactive knowledge management system that enables systematic addressing of uncertainties about the [[Deep sea mining#Environmental impacts|environmental effects of seabed mining]] via regulations that, for example, enable the [[International Seabed Authority]] to actively engage in generating and synthesizing information.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ginzky |first1=Harald |last2=Singh |first2=Pradeep A. |last3=Markus |first3=Till |title=Strengthening the International Seabed Authority's knowledge-base: Addressing uncertainties to enhance decision-making |journal=Marine Policy |date=1 April 2020 |volume=114 |pages=103823 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103823 |s2cid=212808129 |language=en |issn=0308-597X}}</ref>

===== 2021 =====
* A moratorium on deep-sea mining until rigorous and transparent impact assessments are carried out is enacted at the 2021 world congress of the [[International Union for the Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN). However, the effectiveness of the moratorium may be questionable as no enforcement mechanisms have been set up, planned or specified.<ref>{{cite news |title=Conservationists call for urgent ban on deep-sea mining |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/09/marseille-biodiversity-summit-adopts-motion-to-ban-deep-sea-mining |access-date=6 November 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=9 September 2021 |language=en |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106112014/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/09/marseille-biodiversity-summit-adopts-motion-to-ban-deep-sea-mining |url-status=live }}</ref> Researchers have outlined why there is a need to avoid mining the deep sea.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=K. A. |last2=Brigden |first2=K. |last3=Santillo |first3=D. |last4=Currie |first4=D. |last5=Johnston |first5=P. |last6=Thompson |first6=K. F. |title=Challenging the Need for Deep Seabed Mining From the Perspective of Metal Demand, Biodiversity, Ecosystems Services, and Benefit Sharing |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |date=2021 |volume=8 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.706161 |issn=2296-7745|doi-access=free |hdl=10871/126732 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='False choice': is deep-sea mining required for an electric vehicle revolution? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/28/false-choice-is-deep-sea-mining-required-for-an-electric-vehicle-revolution |access-date=8 August 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=28 September 2021 |language=en |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025055311/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/28/false-choice-is-deep-sea-mining-required-for-an-electric-vehicle-revolution |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Warning over start of commercial-scale deep-sea mining |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-07-commercial-scale-deep-sea.html |access-date=8 August 2022 |work=University of Exeter |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808153600/https://phys.org/news/2021-07-commercial-scale-deep-sea.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amon |first1=Diva J. |last2=Gollner |first2=Sabine |last3=Morato |first3=Telmo |last4=Smith |first4=Craig R. |last5=Chen |first5=Chong |last6=Christiansen |first6=Sabine |last7=Currie |first7=Bronwen |last8=Drazen |first8=Jeffrey C. |last9=Fukushima |first9=Tomohiko |last10=Gianni |first10=Matthew |last11=Gjerde |first11=Kristina M. |last12=Gooday |first12=Andrew J. |last13=Grillo |first13=Georgina Guillen |last14=Haeckel |first14=Matthias |last15=Joyini |first15=Thembile |last16=Ju |first16=Se-Jong |last17=Levin |first17=Lisa A. |last18=Metaxas |first18=Anna |last19=Mianowicz |first19=Kamila |last20=Molodtsova |first20=Tina N. |last21=Narberhaus |first21=Ingo |last22=Orcutt |first22=Beth N. |last23=Swaddling |first23=Alison |last24=Tuhumwire |first24=Joshua |last25=Palacio |first25=Patricio Urueña |last26=Walker |first26=Michelle |last27=Weaver |first27=Phil |last28=Xu |first28=Xue-Wei |last29=Mulalap |first29=Clement Yow |last30=Edwards |first30=Peter E. T. |last31=Pickens |first31=Chris |title=Assessment of scientific gaps related to the effective environmental management of deep-seabed mining |journal=Marine Policy |date=1 April 2022 |volume=138 |pages=105006 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105006 |s2cid=247350879 |language=en |issn=0308-597X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Out of our depth? Why deep seabed mining is not the answer to the climate crisis |url=https://www.fauna-flora.org/news/depth-deep-sea-mining-not-answer-climate-crisis |website=Fauna & Flora International |access-date=8 August 2022 |date=1 September 2021 |archive-date=16 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016190424/https://www.fauna-flora.org/news/depth-deep-sea-mining-not-answer-climate-crisis |url-status=live |last1=Duthie |first1=Lizzie }}</ref>
* Nauru requested the ISA to finalize rules so that The Metals Company be approved to begin work in 2023.<ref name="":0"" />
* China’s COMRA tested its polymetallic nodules collection system at 4,200 feet of depth in the East and South China Seas. The Dayang Yihao was exploring the Clarion-Clipperton Zone for China Minmetals when it crossed into the U.S. [[exclusive economic zone]] near [[Hawaii]], where for five days it looped south of [[Honolulu]] without having requested entry into US waters.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |last=Kuo |first=Lily |date=October 19, 2023 |title=China is set to dominate the deep sea and its wealth of rare metals |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2023/china-deep-sea-mining-military-renewable-energy/ |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=Washington Post |language=en}}</ref>

=====2022=====
* Impossible Metals announces its first [[Autonomous underwater vehicle|underwater robotic vehicle]], 'Eureka 1', has completed its first trial of selectively harvesting [[polymetallic nodule]] rocks from the seabed to help address the [[climate change mitigation|rising global need]] for [[Technology-critical element|metals]] for [[renewable energy]] system components, mainly batteries.<ref>{{cite news |title=Impossible Metals demonstrates its super-careful seabed mining robot |url=https://newatlas.com/marine/seabed-mining-robot-impossible-metals/ |access-date=17 January 2023 |work=New Atlas |date=8 December 2022 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117120752/https://newatlas.com/marine/seabed-mining-robot-impossible-metals/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=These fearsome robots will bring mining to the deep ocean |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/innovation/these-fearsome-robots-will-bring-mining-deep-ocean-n724901 |access-date=2 February 2023 |work=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=15 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115003027/https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/innovation/these-fearsome-robots-will-bring-mining-deep-ocean-n724901 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Proposed deep-sea mining would kill animals not yet discovered |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/proposed-deep-sea-mining-would-kill-animals-not-yet-discovered |access-date=2 February 2023 |work=National Geographic |date=1 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202170603/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/proposed-deep-sea-mining-would-kill-animals-not-yet-discovered |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mining robot stranded on Pacific Ocean floor in deep-sea mining trial |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/mining-robot-stranded-pacific-ocean-floor-deep-sea-mining-trial-2021-04-28/ |access-date=2 February 2023 |work=Reuters |date=28 April 2021 |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202170602/https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/mining-robot-stranded-pacific-ocean-floor-deep-sea-mining-trial-2021-04-28/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== 2023 =====

* Supporters of mining were led by Norway, Mexico, and the United Kingdom, and supported by [[The Metals Company]].<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web |last=Clifford |first=Catherine |date=2023-08-04 |title=The Metals Company announces a controversial timeline for deep sea mining that worsens the divide in an already bitter battle |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/08/04/the-metals-company-puts-out-controversial-timeline-for-deep-sea-mining.html |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>
* Chinese prospecting ship Dayang Hao prospected in China-licensed areas in the Clarion Clipperton Zone.<ref name="":1"" />

===== 2024 =====

* [[Norway]] approved commercial deep-sea mining. 80% of Parliament voted to approve.<ref>{{Cite web |title=🟡 Semafor Flagship: Bedlam, brilliance, and brightness {{!}} Semafor {{!}} Semafor |url=https://www.semafor.com/newsletter/01/10/2024/semafor-flagship |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=www.semafor.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Maintenance ===
{{Expand section|date=November 2021}}
{{See also|Soiling (solar energy)#Mitigation techniques}}
Maintenance of sustainable energy systems could [[Solar cell#Autonomous maintenance|be automated]], standardized and simplified and the required resources and efforts for such get reduced via research relevant for their design and processes like [[waste management]].

====2022====
* Researchers demonstrate electrostatic dust removal from solar panels.<ref>{{cite news |title=Static electricity can keep desert solar panels free of dust |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2312079-static-electricity-can-keep-desert-solar-panels-free-of-dust/ |access-date=18 April 2022 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418152732/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2312079-static-electricity-can-keep-desert-solar-panels-free-of-dust/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Panat |first1=Sreedath |last2=Varanasi |first2=Kripa K. |title=Electrostatic dust removal using adsorbed moisture–assisted charge induction for sustainable operation of solar panels |journal=Science Advances |date=11 March 2022 |volume=8 |issue=10 |pages=eabm0078 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abm0078 |pmid=35275728 |pmc=8916732 |bibcode=2022SciA....8M..78P |s2cid=247407117 |language=en |issn=2375-2548}}</ref>

=== Economics ===

====2021====
* A review finds that the pace of cost-decline of renewables has been underestimated and that an ""open cost-database would greatly benefit the energy scenario community"".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Johnson |first1=Doug |title=The decreasing cost of renewables unlikely to plateau any time soon |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/10/the-decreasing-cost-of-renewables-unlikely-to-plateau-anytime-soon/ |access-date=6 November 2021 |work=Ars Technica |date=3 October 2021 |language=en-us |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106164634/https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/10/the-decreasing-cost-of-renewables-unlikely-to-plateau-anytime-soon/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xiao |first1=Mengzhu |last2=Junne |first2=Tobias |last3=Haas |first3=Jannik |last4=Klein |first4=Martin |title=Plummeting costs of renewables – Are energy scenarios lagging? |journal=Energy Strategy Reviews |date=1 May 2021 |volume=35 |pages=100636 |doi=10.1016/j.esr.2021.100636 |s2cid=233543846 |language=en |issn=2211-467X|doi-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref> A 2022 study comes to similar conclusions.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Patel |first1=Prachi |title=Fast transition to carbon-free energy could save trillions |url=https://www.anthropocenemagazine.org/2022/09/carbon-free-energy-system-could-save-trillions-of-dollars/ |access-date=25 October 2022 |date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133618/https://www.anthropocenemagazine.org/2022/09/carbon-free-energy-system-could-save-trillions-of-dollars/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Way |first1=Rupert |last2=Ives |first2=Matthew C. |last3=Mealy |first3=Penny |last4=Farmer |first4=J. Doyne |title=Empirically grounded technology forecasts and the energy transition |journal=Joule |date=21 September 2022 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=2057–2082 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2022.08.009 |s2cid=237624207 |language=English |issn=2542-4785|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====2022====
* A study<!--described as ""the first major study of driving forces behind government funding of energy RD&D""--> investigates funding allocations for [[public investment]] in energy [[research and development|research, development]] and demonstration. It provides insights about {{tooltip|potential past impacts of drivers|e.g. clean tech competition with China and stimulus spending after the financial crisis}}, that may be relevant to [[Public research and development|adjusting (or facilitating)]] ""investment in [[sustainable energy|clean energy]]"" ""to come close to achieving meaningful [[climate change mitigation|global decarbonization]]"", suggesting advancement of impactful ""{{tooltip|coopetition|the ""managed interplay of cooperation and competition, through both domestic and international measures""}}"".<ref>{{cite news |title=Competition with China a 'driving force' for clean energy funding in the 21st century |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-competition-china-energy-funding-21st.html |access-date=19 October 2022 |work=University of Cambridge via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=19 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019155105/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-competition-china-energy-funding-21st.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meckling |first1=Jonas |last2=Galeazzi |first2=Clara |last3=Shears |first3=Esther |last4=Xu |first4=Tong |last5=Anadon |first5=Laura Diaz |title=Energy innovation funding and institutions in major economies |journal=Nature Energy |date=September 2022 |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=876–885 |doi=10.1038/s41560-022-01117-3 |bibcode=2022NatEn...7..876M |s2cid=252272866 |language=en |issn=2058-7546|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Feasibility studies and energy system models ===

====2020====
* A study suggests that all sector defossilisation can be achieved worldwide even for nations with severe conditions. The study suggests that integration impacts depend on ""demand profiles, flexibility and storage cost"".<ref>{{cite news |title=Cheap, safe 100% renewable energy possible before 2050, says Finnish uni study |url=https://yle.fi/news/3-10736252 |access-date=24 January 2022 |date=12 April 2019 |language=en |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119083452/https://yle.fi/news/3-10736252 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bogdanov |first1=Dmitrii |last2=Gulagi |first2=Ashish |last3=Fasihi |first3=Mahdi |last4=Breyer |first4=Christian |title=Full energy sector transition towards 100% renewable energy supply: Integrating power, heat, transport and industry sectors including desalination |journal=Applied Energy |date=1 February 2021 |volume=283 |pages=116273 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116273 |s2cid=229427360 |language=en |issn=0306-2619|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====2021====
* Researchers develop an [[energy system]] model for [[100% renewable energy|100%]] [[renewable energy transition|renewable energy]], examining [[feasibility study|feasibility]] and [[Variable renewable energy#Solutions for their integration|grid stability]] in the U.S.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Clifford |first1=Catherine |title=U.S. can get to 100% clean energy with wind, water, solar and zero nuclear, Stanford professor says |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/12/21/us-can-get-to-100percent-clean-energy-without-nuclear-power-stanford-professor-says.html |access-date=16 January 2022 |work=CNBC |date=21 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=14 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114201928/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/12/21/us-can-get-to-100percent-clean-energy-without-nuclear-power-stanford-professor-says.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=Mark Z. |last2=von Krauland |first2=Anna-Katharina |last3=Coughlin |first3=Stephen J. |last4=Palmer |first4=Frances C. |last5=Smith |first5=Miles M. |title=Zero air pollution and zero carbon from all energy at low cost and without blackouts in variable weather throughout the U.S. with 100% wind-water-solar and storage |journal=Renewable Energy |date=1 January 2022 |volume=184 |pages=430–442 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2021.11.067 |s2cid=244820608 |language=en |issn=0960-1481 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960148121016499 |url-access=subscription |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118182656/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960148121016499 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====2022====
* A revised or updated version of a major worldwide [[100% renewable energy]] proposed plan and model is published.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harvey |first1=George |title=We Can Have (Just About) Everything We Want For Energy & The Climate |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2022/07/04/we-can-have-just-about-everything-we-want-for-energy-the-climate/ |access-date=21 July 2022 |work=CleanTechnica |date=4 July 2022 |archive-date=21 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721120608/https://cleantechnica.com/2022/07/04/we-can-have-just-about-everything-we-want-for-energy-the-climate/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=Mark Z. |last2=Krauland |first2=Anna-Katharina von |last3=Coughlin |first3=Stephen J. |last4=Dukas |first4=Emily |last5=Nelson |first5=Alexander J. H. |last6=Palmer |first6=Frances C. |last7=Rasmussen |first7=Kylie R. |title=Low-cost solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy insecurity for 145 countries |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |date=28 June 2022 |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=3343–3359 |doi=10.1039/D2EE00722C |s2cid=250126767 |language=en |issn=1754-5706 |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/145Country/22-145Countries.pdf |access-date=8 August 2022 |archive-date=7 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807054703/http://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/145Country/22-145Countries.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Researchers [[scientific review|review]] the scientific literature on [[100% renewable energy]], addressing various issues, [[research question#Aggregated research questions and coordination|outlining open research questions]], and concluding there to be growing consensus, research and empirical evidence concerning its feasibility worldwide.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shakeel |first1=Fatima |title=The World Can Achieve A 100% Renewable Energy System By 2050, Researchers Say |url=https://wonderfulengineering.com/renewable-energy-systems-could-be-possible-by-2050/ |access-date=23 August 2022 |work=Wonderful Engineering |date=12 August 2022 |archive-date=23 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823103237/https://wonderfulengineering.com/renewable-energy-systems-could-be-possible-by-2050/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breyer |first1=Christian |last2=Khalili |first2=Siavash |last3=Bogdanov |first3=Dmitrii |last4=Ram |first4=Manish |last5=Oyewo |first5=Ayobami Solomon |last6=Aghahosseini |first6=Arman |last7=Gulagi |first7=Ashish |last8=Solomon |first8=A. A. |last9=Keiner |first9=Dominik |last10=Lopez |first10=Gabriel |last11=Østergaard |first11=Poul Alberg |last12=Lund |first12=Henrik |last13=Mathiesen |first13=Brian V. |last14=Jacobson |first14=Mark Z. |last15=Victoria |first15=Marta |last16=Teske |first16=Sven |last17=Pregger |first17=Thomas |last18=Fthenakis |first18=Vasilis |last19=Raugei |first19=Marco |last20=Holttinen |first20=Hannele |last21=Bardi |first21=Ugo |last22=Hoekstra |first22=Auke |last23=Sovacool |first23=Benjamin K. |title=On the History and Future of 100% Renewable Energy Systems Research |journal=IEEE Access |date=2022 |volume=10 |pages=78176–78218 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402 |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free}}</ref>

====2023====
[[File:Assessment of pathways for building heating in the EU in the context of planetary boundaries.jpg|thumb|Assessment of pathways for building heating in the EU<ref name=""10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116602""/> ([[:Commons:Category:Heating transition|more]])]]
*A study indicates that in [[Central heating|building heating]] in the [[Energy policy of the EU|EU]], the [[Feasibility study|feasibility]] of staying within [[planetary boundaries]] is possible only {{tooltip|through [[electrification]]|relying on electrification where system costs could be reduced via ""Large-scale international trade of electricity combined with renewable electricity generation in the most favourable locations"" and ""Balancing supply and demand through a combination of trade and dispatchable generation means there was almost no need for energy storage""}}, with [[green hydrogen|green]] [[Hydrogen fuel#Energy|hydrogen heating]] being 2–3 times more expensive than [[heat pump]] costs.<ref name=""Gabbatiss"">{{cite news |last1=Gabbatiss |first1=Josh |title=Heat pumps 'up to three times cheaper' than green hydrogen in Europe, study finds |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/heat-pumps-up-to-three-times-cheaper-than-green-hydrogen-in-europe-study-finds/ |access-date=21 April 2023 |work=Carbon Brief |date=23 February 2023 |language=en |archive-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421094515/https://www.carbonbrief.org/heat-pumps-up-to-three-times-cheaper-than-green-hydrogen-in-europe-study-finds/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116602"">{{cite journal |last1=Weidner |first1=Till |last2=Guillén-Gosálbez |first2=Gonzalo |title=Planetary boundaries assessment of deep decarbonisation options for building heating in the European Union |journal=Energy Conversion and Management |date=15 February 2023 |volume=278 |pages=116602 |doi=10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116602 |language=en |issn=0196-8904|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11850/599236 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A separate study indicates that replacing [[gas boiler]]s with heat pumps is the fastest way to cut [[Energy policy of Germany|German]]<!--first study of its kind and in Nature despite limited to Germany--> [[gas consumption]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Altermatt |first1=Pietro P. |last2=Clausen |first2=Jens |last3=Brendel |first3=Heiko |last4=Breyer |first4=Christian |last5=Gerhards |first5=Christoph |last6=Kemfert |first6=Claudia |authorlink6=Claudia Kemfert |last7=Weber |first7=Urban |last8=Wright |first8=Matthew |title=Replacing gas boilers with heat pumps is the fastest way to cut German gas consumption |journal=Communications Earth & Environment |date=3 March 2023 |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=56 |doi=10.1038/s43247-023-00715-7 |bibcode=2023ComEE...4...56A |language=en |issn=2662-4435|doi-access=free}}</ref> despite of ""[[fossil fuel industry|gas-industry]] [[lobbyism|lobbyists]] and [...] politicians"" at the time making ""the case for hydrogen"" amid some {{ill|heating transition|de|Wärmewende}} policy changes,<ref name=""Gabbatiss""/> for which the former study revealed a need to ""[[Climate justice|mitigate]] [[Economics of climate change|increased]] costs [[Consumer expenditure|for [many of the] consumers]]"".<ref name=""10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116602""/>

== See also ==
{{Science year nav|{{CURRENTYEAR}}}}
{{Portal|Renewable energy|Energy|Science}}
* [[Climate change adaptation]]
* [[Energy development]]
* [[Energy policy]]
** [[Funding of science]]
** [[Energy transition]]
** [[Green recovery]]
** [[Public research and development]]
** [[Policy studies]]
* [[Energy system]]
* [[Renewable energy#Emerging technologies]]
* [[List of emerging technologies#Energy]]
* [[Technology transfer]]
* [[Outline of energy]]
;Not yet included
* [[Standardization#Environmental protection]] such as for certifications and policies
* [[Open energy system models]]
* [[Open energy system databases]]
* [[Power-to-X]]
* Nanogeneration such as [[synthetic molecular motor]]s [[Microbotics#Design considerations|for microbots]] and nanobots<!--example: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7334648-->
;Timelines of related areas
* [[Timeline of materials technology#20th century]]
* [[Timeline of computing 2020–present]]
* [[Timeline of transportation technology#21st century]]
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}{{Grid modernization|state=uncollapsed}}
{{HydrogenDelivery|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Energy modeling|state=uncollapsed}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020-present}}
[[Category:Sustainable energy|*]]
[[Category:Energy timelines|Sustainable]]
[[Category:Renewable energy]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:History of energy]]
[[Category:Technology timelines|Sustainable energy research 2020-present]]
[[Category:Science timelines]]
[[Category:Energy research|*]]"
Sulfur concrete,"{{Short description|Composite construction material with elemental sulfur as a binder}}
'''Sulfur concrete''', sometimes named '''thioconcrete''' or '''sulfurcrete''', is a [[composite material|composite]] construction material, composed mainly of [[sulfur]] and [[construction aggregate|aggregate]] (generally a coarse aggregate made of gravel or crushed rocks and a fine aggregate such as [[sand]]). [[Cement]] and water, important compounds in normal [[concrete]], are not part of sulfur concrete. The concrete is heated above the [[melting point]] of elemental sulfur ({{Convert|115.21|C|F}}) at ca. {{Convert|140|C|F}} in a ratio of between 12% and 25% sulfur, the rest being [[Construction aggregate|aggregate]].<ref name=""MohamedEl-Gamal2010"">{{cite book |author1=Abdel-Mohsen Onsy Mohamed |author2=Maisa El-Gamal |title=Sulfur Concrete for the Construction Industry: A Sustainable Development Approach |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYecyRmnTEkC&pg=PA109 |date=15 July 2010 |publisher=J. Ross Publishing |isbn=978-1-60427-005-1 |page=109}}</ref> 

Low-volatility (i.e., with a high [[boiling point]]) organic admixtures (sulfur modifiers), such as [[dicyclopentadiene]] (DCPD), [[styrene]], [[turpentine]], or [[furfural]], are also added to the molten sulfur to inhibit its crystallization and to stabilize its polymeric structure after solidification.<ref name=""Lewandowski_2018"">{{cite journal |last1=Lewandowski |first1=Michał |last2=Kotynia |first2=Renata |title=Assessment of sulfur concrete properties for use in civil engineering |journal=MATEC Web of Conferences |date=2018 |volume=219 |pages=03006 |doi=10.1051/matecconf/201821903006|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In the absence of modifying agents, elemental sulfur crystallizes in its most stable [[allotropic]] ([[Polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphic]]) crystal phase at room temperature. With the addition of modifying agents, elemental sulfur forms a [[copolymer]] (linear chains with styrene, [[cross-link]]ing structure with DCPD<ref name=""Bordoloi_1978"">{{cite book| last1 = Bordoloi | first1 = Binoy K. | last2 = Pearce | first2 = Eli M. | title = ''In:'' New uses of sulfur — II | chapter = Plastic sulfur stabilization by copolymerization of sulfur with dicyclopentadiene | series = Advances in Chemistry | date = 1 March 1978 |volume = 165 | pages = 31–53 | publisher = American Chemical Society | issn = 0065-2393 | doi = 10.1021/ba-1978-0165.ch003 | isbn = 9780841203914 | url = }}</ref>) and remains plastic.<ref name=""Lewandowski_2018"" />{{efn|name=fn1|In the [[natural rubber]] [[sulfur vulcanization|vulcanization]] process developed by [[Charles Goodyear]], elemental sulfur is added to the material (extracted from [[hevea|rubber tree]] [[latex]]) heated to high temperatures to [[cross-link]] it (cross-linking with formation of [[disulfide bond]]s). In sulfur concrete, the opposite is true: a low-volatility organic liquid ([[dicyclopentadiene]] (DCPD), [[styrene]], [[turpentine]], or [[furfural]]...) is added to the molten sulfur to inhibit its crystallization and maintain a certain [[Plasticity (physics)|plasticity]] during its cooling/hardening. In both cases, cross-linking reactions take place between the sulfur and the organic molecules.}}

Sulfur concrete then achieves high [[strength (material)|mechanical strength]] within {{no break|~ 24 hours}} of cooling. It does not require a prolonged [[Concrete#Curing|curing]] period like conventional [[cement]] [[concrete]], which after setting (a few hours) must still harden to reach its expected nominal strength at 28 days. The rate of hardening of sulfur concrete depends on its cooling rate and also on the nature and concentration of modifying agents (cross-linking process).<ref name=""Lewandowski_2018"" /> Its hardening is governed by the fairly rapid liquid/solid state change and associated phase transition processes (the added modifiers maintaining the plastic state while avoiding its recrystallization). It is a [[Thermoplasticity|thermoplastic]] material whose physical state depends on temperature. It can be recycled and reshaped in a reversible way, simply by remelting it at high temperature.

A sulfur concrete patent was already registered in 1900 by McKay.<ref name=""McKay_1900"">McKay, G., U.S. Patent No. 643, February 13, 1900, p. 251.</ref><ref name=""Loov_1974"">{{Cite journal |last1=Loov |first1=Robert E. |last2=Vroom |first2=Alan H. |last3=Ward |first3=Michael A. |date=1974 |title=Sulfur concrete – A new construction material |journal=PCI Journal |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=86–95 |doi=10.15554/pcij.01011974.86.95 |doi-access=free |issn=0887-9672 |accessdate=2022-09-20 |publisher=Prestressed Concrete Institute |url=https://www.pci.org/PCI_Docs/Publications/PCI%20Journal/1974/Jan-Feb/Sulfur%20Concrete%20-%20A%20New%20Construction%20Material.pdf |url-status= bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322151823/http://www.pci.org/pdf/publications/journal/1974/January-February/JL-74-JANUARY-FEBRUARY-7.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-22}}</ref>  Sulfur concrete was studied in the 1920s and 1930s and received renewed interest in the 1970s because of the accumulation of large quantities of sulfur as a by-product of the [[hydrodesulfurization]] process of oil and gas production and its low cost.<ref name=""Loov_1974"" /><ref name=""Bourne_1978"">{{Cite book |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/book/10.1021/ba-1978-0165 |title=New uses of sulfur — II |chapter=A New Approach to Sulfur Concrete |date=1978 |publisher=American Chemical Society |isbn=978-0-8412-0391-4 |editor-last=Bourne |editor-first=Douglas J. |series=Advances in Chemistry |volume=165 |pages=54–78 |location=Washington, D.C. |language=en |doi=10.1021/ba-1978-0165.ch004}}</ref><ref name=""Gregor_1978"">{{Cite book |last1=Gregor |first1=R. |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/book/10.1021/ba-1978-0165 |title=New uses of sulfur — II |last2=Hackl |first2=A. |date=March 1, 1978 |publisher=American Chemical Society |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-8412-0391-4 |editor-last=Bourne |editor-first=Douglas J. |series=Advances in Chemistry |volume=165 |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=54–78 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 4: A new approach to sulfur concrete |doi=10.1021/ba-1978-0165.ch004}}</ref>

==Characteristics==
Sulfur concrete has a low [[porosity]] and is a poorly [[Permeability (Earth sciences)|permeable]] material. Its low [[hydraulic conductivity]] slows down water ingress in its low porosity matrix and so decreases the transport of harmful chemical species, such as [[chloride]] ([[pitting corrosion]]), towards the steel reinforcements (physical protection of [[steel]] as long as no microcracks develop in the sulfur concrete matrix). It is resistant to some compounds like acids which attack normal concrete. However, unlike ordinary concrete, it cannot withstand prolonged high heat {{Clarify|date=September 2022|reason=Unclear. What does it mean? How the composition of sulfur concrete does affect its melting point? Or is it about the risk of fire at high temperature? |text=without adjusted mixture.}}

Beside its [[hydraulic conductivity|impermeability]], Loov et al. (1974) also consider amongst the beneficial characteristics of sulfur concrete its low [[thermal conductivity|thermal]] and [[electrical conductivity |electrical conductivities]]. Sulfur concrete does not cause adverse reaction with [[glass]] (no [[alkali–silica reaction]]), does not produce [[efflorescence]]s, and also presents a smooth surface finish. They also mention amongst its main limitations, its high [[coefficient of thermal expansion]], the possible formation of [[acid]] under the action of water and [[sunlight]]. It also reacts with [[copper]] and produces a smell when melted.

==Uses==
Sulfur concrete was developed and promoted as a building material to get rid of large amounts of stored sulfur produced by [[hydrodesulfurization]] of gas and oil ([[Claus process]]). As of 2011, sulfur concrete has only been used in small quantities when fast curing or acid resistance is necessary.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DlQe8WAA8AEC&pg=PA52 |page=52 |title=Cement-based composites: Materials, mechanical properties and performance |isbn=978-0-419-19110-0 |last1=Brandt |first1=Andrzej Marek |year=1995|publisher=CRC Press }}</ref><ref name=""Loov_1974"" />The material has been suggested by researchers as a potential [[building material]] on [[Mars]], where water and [[limestone]] are not easily available, but sulfur is.<ref>Wan, Lin, Roman Wendner, and Gianluca Cusatis (2016). ""A novel material for ''in situ'' construction on Mars: experiments and numerical simulations."" Construction and Building Materials, 120: 222–231.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-27 |title=To build settlements on Mars, we'll need materials chemistry |url=https://cen.acs.org/articles/96/i1/build-settlements-Mars-ll-need.html |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=cen.acs.org}}</ref><ref name=""Jones_2019"">{{Cite web |title=Mixing it on Mars |author=Nick Jones |work=sustainableconcrete.org.uk |date=2019 |access-date=19 September 2022 |url= https://www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk/MPA-ACP/media/SustainableCon-Media-Library/Pdfs%20-%20Performance%20reports/TIC_innovation_Feb19.pdf |publisher=The Concrete Centre |pages=18–19 |language=English |quote=Marscrete will be mission-critical to any future landing on the Red Planet, writes Nick Jones}}</ref>

==Advantages and benefits==
More recently,{{when|reason=Date needed|date=August 2022}} it has been proposed as a near-[[Carbon neutrality|carbon-neutral]] construction material. Its waterless and less energy-intensive production (in comparison with ordinary cement and regular concrete) makes it a potential alternative for high-{{Chem|link=Carbon dioxide|C|O|2}}-emission [[portland cement|portland-cement]]-based materials. Due to improvements in fabrication techniques, it can be produced in high quality and large quantities.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} Recyclable sulfur [[concrete sleeper]]s are used in [[Belgium]] for the [[railway track|railways infrastructure]], and are mass-produced locally.<ref name=""Infrabel_2021"">{{cite web |author=Infrabel|date=8 March 2021|title=First recyclable sulfur concrete sleepers placed in Belgium |url=https://www.railtech.com/infrastructure/2021/03/08/first-recyclable-sulfur-concrete-sleepers-placed-in-belgium/ |website=RailTech.com |access-date=14 April 2022}}</ref>

==Long-term scientific and technical challenges==
[[Sulfate-reducing bacteria]] (SRB) and [[sulfur-oxidizing bacteria]] (SOB) produce [[hydrogen sulfide]] ({{chem2|H2S}}) and [[sulfuric acid]] ({{chem2|H2SO4}}) respectively. When the [[sulfur cycle]] is active in [[sanitary sewer|sewers]] and {{chem2|H2S}} emanations from the effluent waters are oxidized in {{chem2|H2SO4}} by atmospheric oxygen at the moist surface of tunnel walls, sulfuric acid can attack the hydrated Portland cement paste of cementitious materials, especially in the non-totally immersed sections of sewers (non-completely water-filled [[vadose zone]]).<ref name=""Satoh_2009"">{{Cite journal |last1=Satoh |first1=Hisashi |last2=Odagiri |first2=Mitsunori |last3=Ito |first3=Tsukasa |last4=Okabe |first4=Satoshi |date=2009 |title=Microbial community structures and in situ sulfate-reducing and sulfur-oxidizing activities in biofilms developed on mortar specimens in a corroded sewer system |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0043135409005041 |journal=Water Research |language=en |volume=43 |issue=18 |pages=4729–4739 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2009.07.035|pmid=19709714 |bibcode=2009WatRe..43.4729S |hdl=2115/45290 |s2cid=10227999 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It causes extensive damages to [[Mortar (masonry)|masonry mortar]] and concrete in older sewage infrastructures.<ref name=""Scrivener_2013"">{{Citation |last1=Scrivener |first1=Karen |date=2013 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-007-5413-3_12 |work=Performance of Cement-Based Materials in Aggressive Aqueous Environments |volume=10 |pages=305–318 |editor-last=Alexander |editor-first=Mark |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-5413-3_12 |isbn=978-94-007-5412-6 |access-date=2022-10-02 |last2=De Belie |first2=Nele |title=Bacteriogenic Sulfuric Acid Attack of Cementitious Materials in Sewage Systems |series=RILEM State-of-the-Art Reports |editor2-last=Bertron |editor2-first=Alexandra |editor3-last=De Belie |editor3-first=Nele}}</ref><ref name=""Alexander_2013"">{{Cite book |last1=Alexander |first1=Mark G. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/823643788 |title=Performance of cement-based materials in aggressive aqueous environments |last2=Bertron |first2=Alexandra |last3=Nele |first3=De Belie |date=2013 |work=International Union of Testing and Research |publisher=Springer |year=2013 |isbn=978-94-007-5413-3 |location=Dordrecht |language=English |oclc=823643788}}</ref> Sulfur concrete, if proven resistant to long-term chemical and bacterial attacks, could provide an effective and long-lasting solution to this problem. However, since elemental sulfur itself participates in [[redox|redox reactions]] used by some [[autotroph]]ic bacteria to produce the energy they need from the [[sulfur cycle]], elemental sulfur could contribute directly fueling the bacterial activity.<ref name=""Okabe_2005"">{{Cite journal |last1=Okabe |first1=Satoshi |last2=Ito |first2=Tsukasa |last3=Sugita |first3=Kenichi |last4=Satoh |first4=Hisashi |date=2005 |title=Succession of internal sulfur cycles and sulfur-oxidizing bacterial communities in microaerophilic wastewater biofilms |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |language=en |volume=71 |issue=5 |pages=2520–2529 |doi=10.1128/AEM.71.5.2520-2529.2005 |issn=0099-2240 |pmc=1087539 |pmid=15870342 |bibcode=2005ApEnM..71.2520O |id=Okabe_2005}}</ref>

[[Biofilm]]s adhering to the surface of sewer walls could harbor [[autotroph]]ic microbial colonies that can degrade sulfur concrete if they are able to use elemental sulfur directly as an [[electron donor]] to reduce [[nitrate]] (autotrophic [[denitrification]] process),<ref name=""Batchelor_1978"">{{Cite journal |last=Batchelor |first=B |date=1978 |title=A kinetic model for autotrophic denitrification using elemental sulfur |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0043135478900532 |journal=Water Research |language=en |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=1075–1084 |doi=10.1016/0043-1354(78)90053-2 |bibcode=1978WatRe..12.1075B |id=Batchelor_1978}}</ref><ref name=""Claus_1985"">{{Cite journal |last1=Claus |first1=Günter |last2=Kutzner |first2=Hans Jürgen |date=1985 |title=Autotrophic denitrification by ''Thiobacillus denitrificans'' in a packed bed reactor |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00252032 |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |doi=10.1007/BF00252032 |s2cid=23359931 |issn=0175-7598}}</ref><ref name=""Koenig_1996"">{{Cite journal |last1=Koenig |first1=A. |last2=Liu |first2=L. H. |date=1996 |title=Autotrophic denitrification of landfill leachate using elemental sulphur |url=https://iwaponline.com/wst/article/34/5-6/469/6283/Autotrophic-denitrification-of-landfill-leachate |journal=Water Science and Technology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=5–6 |pages=469–476 |doi=10.2166/wst.1996.0584 |issn=0273-1223}}</ref><ref name=""Lee_2007"">{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Chang Soo |last2=Kim |first2=Kwang Kyu |last3=Aslam |first3=Zubair |last4=Lee |first4=Sung-Taik |date=2007 |title=''Rhodanobacter thiooxydans'' sp. nov., isolated from a biofilm on sulfur particles used in an autotrophic denitrification process |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |language=en |volume=57 |issue=8 |pages=1775–1779 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.65086-0 |pmid=17684255 |issn=1466-5026|doi-access=free }}</ref> or [[sulfate]], present in [[wastewater]]. The required service life of sewage infrastructures in large cities is well over 100 years (in [[London]], many sewers date back to the [[Victorian era]], 1832 – 1901). One of the major challenges facing sulfur concrete is to demonstrate that it is sufficiently non-reactive and insensitive to [[microbial consortium|microbial activity]] over the long term. [[Microbial biodegradation]] tests in the laboratory and under ''in situ'' field conditions are still needed due to the lack of [[feedback|return of experience]] on the [[durability]] of this material and the considered time scales.

The very long-term durability of sulfur concrete also depends on physicochemical factors such as those controlling, among other things, the [[diffusion]] of modifying agents (if not completely chemically fixed) out of the elemental sulfur matrix and their [[Leaching (chemistry)|leaching]] by water. The resulting changes in the physical properties of the material will determine its long-term [[Strength of materials|mechanical strength]] and chemical behavior. The [[Biodegradation|biodegradability]] of the organic admixtures (sulfur modifiers), or their resistance to [[Microbial consortium|microbial activity]], and their possible [[Biocide|biocidal]] properties (which may protect the sulfur concrete from microbial attack) are important aspects in assessing the durability of the material. This could also depend on the progressive [[Recrystallization (metallurgy)|recrystallization]] of elemental sulfur over time, or on the rate of [[Plasticity (physics)|plastic deformation]] of its structure modified by the different types of organic admixtures.

==Disadvantages and limitations==
Swamy and Jurjees (1986) have pointed out the limitations of sulfur concrete.<ref name=""Swamy1986"">{{Cite journal| last1 = Swamy| first1 = R. N.| last2 = Jurjees| first2 = T. A. R.| date = 1986-09-01| title = Stability of sulphur concrete beams with steel reinforcement| journal = Materials and Structures| volume = 19| issue = 5| pages = 351–360| doi = 10.1007/BF02472125| s2cid = 135888809| issn = 1871-6873| accessdate = 2023-03-25| url = https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02472125}}</ref> They questioned the stability and the long-term durability of sulfur concrete beams with steel reinforcement, especially for sulfur concrete modified with dicyclopentadiene and dipentene. Even when dry, modified concrete beams show strength loss with ageing. Ageing in a wet environment leads to softening of sulfur concrete and loss of strength. It causes structural damages in sulfur concrete beams leading to shear failures and cracking. Swamy and Jurjees (1986) also observed severe corrosion of steel reinforcements.<ref name=""Swamy1986"" /> They concluded that the stability of reinforced sulfur concrete beams can only be guaranteed when they are unmodified and kept dry.<ref name=""Swamy1986"" /> In a wet environment sulfur concrete lacks stability and durability.<ref name=""Swamy1986"" />

Being based on the use of [[sulfur|elemental sulfur]] (S{{sup|0}}, or S{{sub|8}}) as a binder, sulfur concrete applications are expected to suffer the same limitations as those of elemental sulfur which is not a really inert material, can burn, and is also known to be a potent [[corrosion|corrosive agent]].<ref name=""MacDonald_1978"">{{Cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=Digby D. |last2=Roberts |first2=Bruce |last3=Hyne |first3=James B. |date=1978 |title=The corrosion of carbon steel by wet elemental sulphur |journal=Corrosion Science |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=411–425 |doi=10.1016/S0010-938X(78)80037-7 |issn=0010-938X |access-date=2022-09-19 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010938X78800377}}</ref><ref name=""Maldonado_1982"">{{Cite journal |last1=Maldonado-Zagal |first1=S. B. |last2=Boden |first2=P. J. |date=1982 |title=Hydrolysis of elemental sulphur in water and its effect on the corrosion of mild steel |journal=British Corrosion Journal |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1179/000705982798274336 |issn=0007-0599 |access-date=2022-09-19 |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/000705982798274336}}</ref><ref name=""Smith_2005"">{{Cite conference |last1=Smith |first1=Liane |last2=Craig |first2=Bruce D. |date=2005-04-03 |title=Practical corrosion control measures for elemental sulfur containing environments |conference=Corrosion 2005 |publisher=OnePetro |access-date=2022-09-19 |url=https://onepetro.org/NACECORR/proceedings/CORR05/All-CORR05/NACE-05646/115569}}</ref> 

In case of fire, this concrete is flammable and will generate toxic and corrosive fumes of [[sulfur dioxide]] ({{chem|link=sulfur dioxide|SO|2}}), and  [[sulfur trioxide]] ({{chem|link=sulfur trioxide|SO|3}}), ultimately leading to the formation of [[sulfuric acid]] ({{chem|link=sulfuric acid|H|2|SO|4}}). 

According to Maldonado-Zagal and Boden (1982),<ref name=""Maldonado_1982"" /> the hydrolysis of elemental sulfur (octa-atomic sulphur, S{{sub|8}}) in water is driven by its [[disproportionation]] into oxidised and reduced forms in the ratio {{chem|H|2|S}}/{{chem|H|2|SO|4}} = 3/1. [[Hydrogen sulfide]] ({{chem|H|2|S}}) causes [[sulfide stress cracking]] (SSC) and in contact with air is also easily oxidized into [[thiosulfate]] ({{chem|link=thiosulfate|S|2|O|3|2-}}), responsible for [[pitting corrosion]]. 

Like [[pyrite]] ({{chem|link=pyrite|FeS|2}}, iron(II) [[disulfide]]), in the presence of moisture, sulfur is also sensitive to [[oxidation]] by [[atmospheric oxygen]] and could ultimately produce [[sulfuric acid]] ({{chem|link=sulfuric acid|H|2|SO|4}}), [[sulfate]] ({{chem|link=sulfate|SO|4|2-}}), and intermediate chemical species such as [[thiosulfate]]s ({{chem|link=thiosulfate|S|2|O|3|2-}}), or [[tetrathionate]]s ({{chem|link=tetrathionate|S|4|O|6|2-}}),  which are also strongly [[corrosion|corrosive]] substances ([[pitting corrosion]]), as all the reduced species of sulfur.<ref name=""MacDonald_1978"" /><ref name=""Fang_2008"">{{Cite conference |publisher=OnePetro |conference=Corrosion 2008 |last1=Fang |first1=Haitao |last2=Young |first2=David |last3=Nesic |first3=Srdjan |title=Corrosion of mild steel in the presence of elemental sulfur |date=2008 |url=https://onepetro.org/NACECORR/proceedings-abstract/CORR08/All-CORR08/NACE-08637/119135}}</ref><ref name=""Fang_2011"">{{Cite conference |last1=Fang |first1=Haitao |last2=Brown |first2=Bruce |last3=Young |first3=David |last4=Nešic |first4=Srdjan |date=2011-03-13 |title=Investigation of elemental sulfur corrosion mechanisms |conference=Corrosion 2011 |publisher=OnePetro |url=https://onepetro.org/NACECORR/proceedings-abstract/CORR11/All-CORR11/NACE-11398/119729 |access-date=2022-09-19}}</ref> Therefore, long-term [[corrosion]] problems of [[steel]]s and other metals ([[aluminium]], [[copper]]...) need to be anticipated, and correctly addressed, before selecting sulfur concrete for specific applications.

The formation of sulfuric acid could also attack and dissolve [[limestone]] ({{chem|link=calcium carbonate|CaCO|3}}) and [[concrete]] structures while also producing expansive [[gypsum]] ({{chem|link=calcium sulfate|CaSO|4|·2H|2|O}}), aggravating the formation of cracks and fissures in these materials.

If the local physico-chemical conditions are conducive (sufficient space and water available for their growth), [[Microbial metabolism#Sulfur oxidation|sulfur-oxidizing bacteria]] ([[microbial oxidation of sulfur]]) could also thrive at the expense of concrete sulfur and contribute to aggravate potential corrosion problems.<ref name=""Little_2000"">{{Cite journal |last1=Little |first1=B.J. |last2=Ray |first2=R.I. |last3=Pope |first3=R.K. |date=2000-04-01 |title=Relationship between corrosion and the biological sulfur cycle: A review |journal=Corrosion |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=433–443 |doi=10.5006/1.3280548 |issn=0010-9312 |url=https://onepetro.org/corrosion/article-abstract/111949/Relationship-Between-Corrosion-and-the-Biological}}</ref>

The degradation rate of elemental sulfur depends on its [[specific surface area]]. The degradation reactions are the fastest with sulfur [[dust]], or [[Powder|crushed powder]] of sulfur, while intact compact blocks of sulfur concrete are expected to react more slowly. The [[service life]] of components made of sulfur concrete depends thus on the degradation [[Chemical kinetics|kinetics]] of elemental sulfur exposed to atmospheric oxygen, moisture and [[microorganism]]s, on the density/concentration of microcracks in the material, and on the accessibility of the [[Carbon steel|carbon-steel]] surface to the corrosive degradation products present in aqueous solution in case of macrocracks or technical voids exposed to water ingress. All these factors need to be taken into account when designing structures, systems and components (SSC) based on sulfur concrete, certainly if they are reinforced, or pre-stressed, with steel elements ([[rebar]] or tensioning cables respectively).

While the process of elemental sulfur oxidation will also lower the [[pH]] value, aggravating [[carbon steel]] corrosion, in contrast to ordinary [[Portland cement]] and classical [[concrete]], fresh sulfur concrete does not contain [[alkali]] [[hydroxide]]s (KOH, NaOH), nor [[calcium hydroxide]] ({{chem|link=portlandite|Ca(OH)|2}}), and therefore does not provide any [[buffering capacity]] to maintain a high pH [[passivation (chemistry)|passivating]] the steel surface. In other words, intact sulfur concrete does not chemically protect steel [[reinforcement bar]]s (rebar) against corrosion. The corrosion of steel elements embedded into sulfur concrete will thus depends on water ingress through cracks and to their exposure to aggressive chemical species of sulfur dissolved in the seeping water. The presence of microorganisms fuelled by elemental sulfur could also play a role and accelerate the corrosion rate.

==See also==
{{Common|Concrete}}
{{Wiktionary|sulfur}}
* [[Asphalt concrete]], similar aggregate material using 'bitumen' as a binder
* [[Lunarcrete#Sulfur based .22Waterless Concrete.22|Sulfur-based lunarcrete]], a proposed lunar construction material
* [[Cenocell]], a concrete material using fly ash cenospheres (hollow spheres) in place of cement
* Rubber [[vulcanisation]] and [[cross-link]]ing made by [[disulfide bridge]]s formed after the reaction of elemental sulfur with [[natural rubber]] [[terpenoid]]s ([[polyisoprene]]) (process discovered by [[Charles Goodyear]])
* [[Sulfur vulcanization]], produced by the reaction of elemental sulfur with [[allyl]] groups (-CH=CH-CH<sub>2</sub>-) of natural rubber ([[latex]] extracted from [[hevea]]) heated at elevated temperature

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist | 30em}}

== Further reading ==

{{div col | colwidth = 30em | small = yes}}
* {{cite conference|title=Production of Lunar Concrete Using Molten Sulfur|author1=Husam A. Omar  |author2=Mohsen Issa |name-list-style=amp |pages=952&ndash;959|book-title=Engineering, construction, and operations in space IV: Space '94; Proceedings of the 4th International Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico, February 26&ndash;March 3, 1994|volume=2|date=1994|editor1=Rodney G. Galloway |editor2=Stanley Lokaj |location=New York|publisher=[[American Society of Civil Engineers]]|isbn=0872629376|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19980001900_1997093192.pdf}}
* {{cite conference|title=Feasibility and Applications of Sulfur Concrete for Lunar Base Development: A Preliminary Study|author=I. Casanova|book-title=28th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, March 17&ndash;21, 1997, Houston, TX|pages=209|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc97/pdf/1483.PDF|date=1997}}
* {{cite journal|author1=T. D. Lin |author2=Steven B. Skaar |author3=Joseph J. O'Gallagher  |name-list-style=amp |title=Proposed remote control solar powered concrete production experiment on the Moon|journal=Aerospace Engineering|volume=10|issue=2|pages=104&ndash;109|date=April 1997|doi=10.1061/(ASCE)0893-1321(1997)10:2(104) }}
* {{cite conference|chapter=Strength and Durability Performance of Waterless Lunar Concrete|author1=Houssam Toutanji|author2=Becca Glenn-Loper|author3=Beth Schrayshuen|title=43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit|name-list-style=amp|book-title=43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit 10 &ndash; 13 January 2005, Reno, Nevada|date=2005|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|doi=10.2514/6.2005-1436|isbn=978-1-62410-064-2|chapter-url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.2005-1436}}
* {{cite conference|author1=R.N. Grugel |author2=Houssam Toutanji  |name-list-style=amp |title=Viability of Sulfur ""Concrete"" on the Moon: Environmental Consideration|book-title=Proceedings: 43rd American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), Reno, NV, Jan. 9-12, 2006|date=2006}} &mdash; also:
* {{cite journal|author1=R. Grugel |author2=Houssam Toutanji  |name-list-style=amp |year=2006|title=Viability of Sulfur Concrete on the Moon: Environmental Considerations|journal=Journal of Advances in Space Research}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.asr.2007.08.018|title=Sulfur ""concrete"" for lunar applications &mdash; Sublimation concerns|author1=Richard N. Grugela  |author2=Houssam Toutanji |name-list-style=amp |journal=Advances in Space Research|volume=41|issue=1|year=2008|pages=103&ndash;112|bibcode=2008AdSpR..41..103G|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258768}}
* {{Cite journal| last1 = Dugarte| first1 = Margareth| last2 = Martinez-Arguelles| first2 = Gilberto| last3 = Torres| first3 = Jaime| date = 2019| title = Experimental evaluation of modified sulfur concrete for achieving sustainability in industry applications| journal = Sustainability| volume = 11| issue = 1| pages = 70| doi = 10.3390/su11010070| doi-access = free| issn = 2071-1050}}
{{div col end}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web |author=Infrabel|date=8 March 2021|title=First recyclable sulfur concrete sleepers placed in Belgium |url=https://www.railtech.com/infrastructure/2021/03/08/first-recyclable-sulfur-concrete-sleepers-placed-in-belgium/ |website=RailTech.com |access-date=14 April 2022}}

{{Concrete navbox}}

[[Category:Concrete]]
[[Category:Sulfur]]
[[Category:Corrosion]]
[[Category:Geomicrobiology]]
[[Category:Building materials]]
[[Category:Sustainable building]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Sustainable development,"{{Short description|Mode of human development}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
[[File:Sustainable_development_-_6_central_capacities.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Sustainable development requires six central capacities.<ref name="":7"">{{Cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=William |last2=Harley |first2=Alicia |date=2020 |title=Sustainability Science: Toward a Synthesis |journal=[[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=331–86 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-043621 |doi-access=free}} {{CC-notice|cc=by4}}</ref>]]
'''Sustainable development''' is an [[organizing principle]] that aims to meet [[Human development (economics)|human development]] goals while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary [[natural resource]]s and [[ecosystem services]] to humans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Justin Andrew |last2=Baldos |first2=Uris Lantz |last3=Corong |first3=Erwin |last4=Hertel |first4=Thomas |last5=Polasky |first5=Stephen |last6=Cervigni |first6=Raffaello |last7=Roxburgh |first7=Toby |last8=Ruta |first8=Giovanni |last9=Salemi |first9=Colette |last10=Thakrar |first10=Sumil |title=Investing in nature can improve equity and economic returns |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |date=2023 |volume=120 |issue=27 |pages=e2220401120 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2220401120 |pmid=37364118 |doi-access=free |pmc=10318957 |bibcode=2023PNAS..12020401J }}</ref> The desired result is a society where living conditions and resources meet [[human needs]] without undermining the [[planetary integrity]] and stability of the natural system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robert |first1=Kates W. |last2=Parris |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Leiserowitz |first3=Anthony A. |title=What is Sustainable Development? Goals, Indicators, Values, and Practice |journal=Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development |date=2005 |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=8–21 |doi=10.1080/00139157.2005.10524444|bibcode=2005ESPSD..47c...8R |s2cid=154882898 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mensah |first1=Justice |title=Sustainable development: Meaning, history, principles, pillars, and implications for human action: Literature review |journal=Cogent Social Sciences |date=2019 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1653531 |doi=10.1080/23311886.2019.1653531 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Sustainable development tries to find a balance between [[economic development]], [[environmental protection]], and [[social well-being]]. The [[Brundtland Report]] in 1987 defined sustainable development as ""development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of [[future generations]] to meet their own needs"".<ref name="":1"">United Nations General Assembly (1987) .[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf ''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331195909/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf |date=31 March 2022 }}. Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 – Development and International Co-operation: Environment.</ref><ref name="":72"">{{cite web |author=United Nations General Assembly |date=20 March 1987 |title=''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future''; Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 – Development and International Co-operation: Environment; Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development; Paragraph 1 |url=http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm |access-date=1 March 2010 |publisher=[[United Nations General Assembly]]}}</ref> The concept of sustainable development nowadays has a focus on [[economic development]], [[Social Development|social development]] and [[environmental protection]] for future generations.

Sustainable development was first institutionalized with the Rio Process initiated at the [[Earth Summit|1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro]]. In 2015 the [[United Nations General Assembly]] (UNGA) adopted the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (2015 to 2030) and explained how the goals are integrated and indivisible to achieve sustainable development at the global level.<ref name=""Purvis"">{{Cite journal |last1=Purvis |first1=Ben |last2=Mao |first2=Yong |last3=Robinson |first3=Darren |date=2019 |title=Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins |journal=Sustainability Science |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=681–695 |doi=10.1007/s11625-018-0627-5 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019SuSc...14..681P }} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> The UNGA's 17 goals address the global challenges, including [[poverty]], inequality, [[climate change]], [[environmental degradation]], peace, and justice.

Sustainable development is interlinked with the [[Normativity|normative concept]] of [[sustainability]]. [[UNESCO]] formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: ""''Sustainability'' is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while ''sustainable development'' refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it.""<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web |last= |date=2015-08-03 |title=Sustainable Development |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development/what-is-esd/sd |access-date=20 January 2022 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> The concept of sustainable development has been criticized in various ways. While some see it as paradoxical (or as an [[oxymoron]]) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far.<ref name="":13"" /><ref name="":15"" /> Part of the problem is that ""development"" itself is not consistently defined.<ref name="":10"">{{Cite book |last=Berg |first=Christian |title=Sustainable action: overcoming the barriers |date=2020 |isbn=978-0-429-57873-1 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |oclc=1124780147}}</ref>{{RP|16}}{{TOC limit|3}}

== Definition ==
In 1987, the United Nations [[World Commission on Environment and Development]] released the report ''Our Common Future'', commonly called the [[Brundtland Report]].<ref name="":1"" /> The report included a definition of ""sustainable development"" which is now widely used:<ref name="":1"" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keeble |first1=Brian R. |title=The Brundtland report: 'Our common future' |journal=Medicine and War |date=1988 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=17–25 |doi=10.1080/07488008808408783}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains two key concepts within it:
* The concept of 'needs', in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and
* The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.|author=[[World Commission on Environment and Development]]|source=''[[Our Common Future]]'' (1987)}}Sustainable development thus tries to find a balance between [[economic development]], [[environmental protection]], and [[social well-being]].

=== Related concepts ===

====Sustainability====
{{excerpt|sustainability|paragraphs=1}}

== Development of the concept ==
{{See also|Sustainability}}
Sustainable development has its roots in ideas regarding [[sustainable forest management]], which were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name=""Grober2"">Ulrich Grober: Deep roots&nbsp;— [https://bibliothek.wzb.eu/pdf/2007/p07-002.pdf A conceptual history of ""sustainable development"" (Nachhaltigkeit)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925121333/https://bibliothek.wzb.eu/pdf/2007/p07-002.pdf |date=25 September 2021 }}, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung, 2007</ref><ref name=""Blewitt-2015"">{{cite book |last1=Blewitt |first1=John |title=Understanding Sustainable Development |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-70782-4 }}{{pn|date=July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Du Pisani |first1=Jacobus A. |title=Sustainable development – historical roots of the concept |journal=Environmental Sciences |date=2006 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=83–96 |doi=10.1080/15693430600688831 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2006JIES....3...83D }}</ref> In response to a growing awareness of the depletion of timber resources in England, [[John Evelyn]] argued, in his 1662 essay ''[[Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber|Sylva]]'', that ""sowing and planting of trees had to be regarded as a national duty of every landowner, in order to stop the destructive [[over-exploitation|over-]][[exploitation of natural resources]]."" In 1713, [[Hans Carl von Carlowitz]], a senior mining administrator in the service of Elector [[Augustus II the Strong|Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]] published ''Sylvicultura economics'', a 400-page work on forestry. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], von Carlowitz developed the concept of managing forests for [[sustained yield]].<ref name=""Grober2"" /> His work influenced others, including [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and [[Georg Ludwig Hartig]], eventually leading to the development of the science of forestry. This, in turn, influenced people like [[Gifford Pinchot]], the first head of the [[US Forest Service]], whose approach to forest management was driven by the idea of wise use of resources, and [[Aldo Leopold]] whose [[land ethic]] was influential in the development of the [[environmental movement]] in the 1960s.<ref name=""Grober2"" /><ref name=""Blewitt-2015"" />

Following the publication of [[Rachel Carson]]'s ''[[Silent Spring]]'' in 1962, the developing environmental movement drew attention to the relationship between economic growth and [[environmental degradation]]. [[Kenneth E. Boulding]], in his influential 1966 essay ''The Economics of the Coming [[Spaceship Earth]]'', identified the need for the economic system to fit itself to the ecological system with its limited pools of resources.<ref name=""Blewitt-2015""/> Another milestone was the 1968 article by [[Garrett Hardin]] that popularized the term ""[[tragedy of the commons]]"".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=Garrett |title=The Tragedy of the Commons: The population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality |journal=Science |date=13 December 1968 |volume=162 |issue=3859 |pages=1243–1248 |doi=10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 |pmid=17756331 }}</ref> 

The direct linking of [[sustainability]] and development in a contemporary sense can be traced to the early 1970s. ""Strategy of Progress"", a 1972 book (in German) by Ernst Basler, explained how the long-acknowledged [[sustainability]] concept of preserving forests for future wood production can be directly transferred to the broader importance of preserving environmental resources to sustain the world for future generations.<ref name=""Basler-1972"">{{cite book |last=Basler |first=Ernst |title= Strategie des Fortschritts: Umweltbelastung Lebensraumverknappung and Zukunftsforshung (Strategy of Progress: Environmental Pollution, Habitat Scarcity and Future Research) |date=1972 |publisher= BLV Publishing Company |location=Munich}}</ref> That same year, the interrelationship of environment and development was formally demonstrated in a systems dynamic simulation model reported in the classic report on ''[[Limits to Growth]]''. It was commissioned by the Club of Rome and written by a group of scientists led by [[Dennis Meadows|Dennis]] and [[Donella Meadows]] of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. Describing the desirable ""state of global equilibrium"", the authors wrote: ""We are searching for a model output that represents a world system that is sustainable without sudden and uncontrolled collapse and capable of satisfying the basic material requirements of all of its people.""<ref name=""Finn-2009"">{{cite book |last=Finn |first=Donovan |title=Our Uncertain Future: Can Good Planning Create Sustainable Communities? |date=2009 |publisher=University of Illinois |location=Champaign-Urbana}}</ref> Also in 1972 was publication of the influential book, ''[[A Blueprint for Survival]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=A Blueprint for Survival |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/02/05/archives/a-blueprint-for-survival.html |work=The New York Times |date=5 February 1972 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theecologist.org/2012/jan/27/ecologist-january-1972-blueprint-survival|title=The Ecologist January 1972: a blueprint for survival|website=The Ecologist|date=27 January 2012 |language=en|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref>

In 1975, an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] research group prepared ten days of hearings on ""Growth and Its Implication for the Future"" for the [[United States Congress|US Congress]], the first hearings ever held on sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Growth and its implications for the future |url=http://www.wpainc.com/Archive/MIT/Growth%20and%20Its%20Implications.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033056/http://www.wpainc.com/Archive/MIT/Growth%20and%20Its%20Implications.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>

In 1980, the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] published a world conservation strategy that included one of the first references to sustainable development as a global priority<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.a21italy.it/medias/31C2D26FD81B0D40.pdf |title=World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development |date=1980 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources}}</ref> and introduced the term ""sustainable development"".<ref name=""Sachs-2015"">{{Cite book |last=Sachs |first=Jeffrey D. |title=The Age of Sustainable Development |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780231173155 |location=New York}}</ref>{{RP|4}} Two years later, the United Nations [[World Charter for Nature]] raised five principles of [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]] by which human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged.<ref>{{citation |title=World Charter for Nature |date=28 October 1982 |url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm |publisher=United Nations, General Assembly, 48th Plenary Meeting}}</ref>

Since the [[Brundtland Report]], the concept of sustainable development has developed beyond the initial intergenerational framework to focus more on the goal of ""socially [[inclusive growth|inclusive]] and environmentally [[sustainable economic growth]]"".<ref name=Sachs-2015/>{{RP|5}} In 1992, the [[UN Conference on Environment and Development]] published the [[Earth Charter]], which outlines the building of a just, sustainable, and peaceful global society in the 21st century. The action plan [[Agenda 21]] for sustainable development identified information, integration, and participation as key building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasizes that broad public participation in decision-making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development.<ref>Will Allen. 2007.[http://learningforsustainability.net/susdev/ ""Learning for Sustainability: Sustainable Development.""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114042435/http://learningforsustainability.net/susdev/ |date=14 January 2016 }}</ref>

[[Rio Protocol|The Rio Protocol]] was a huge leap forward: for the first time, the world agreed on a [[sustainability]] agenda. In fact, a global consensus was facilitated by neglecting concrete goals and operational details. The [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) now have concrete targets (unlike the results from the Rio Process) but no methods for sanctions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-06-12 |title=Why Rio failed in the past and how it can succeed this time |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jun/12/rio20-agenda-politicians-john-gummer |website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref name="":10"" />{{rp|137}}

==Dimensions==
{{Main|Sustainability#Dimensions of sustainability}}
Sustainable development, like [[sustainability]], is regarded to have three ''dimensions'': the environment, economy and [[Society|society.]] The idea is that a good balance between the three dimensions should be achieved. Instead of calling them ''dimensions'', other terms commonly used are ''pillars'', ''domains'', ''aspects'', ''spheres''.

{{excerpt|Sustainability#Development of three dimensions|paragraphs=1}}

== Critique ==
{{Main|Sustainability#Critique}}
{{Further|Weak and strong sustainability|Degrowth|Eco-economic decoupling}}
The concept of sustainable development has been and still is, subject to criticism, including the question of what is to be sustained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as sustainable use of a [[non-renewable resource]], since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of earth's finite stock;<ref name=""kt01"">{{cite book |last=Turner |first=R. Kerry |title=Sustainable Environmental Management. |date=1988 |publisher=Belhaven Press |editor-last=Turner |editor-first=R. Kerry |location=London |chapter=Sustainability, Resource Conservation and Pollution Control: An Overview}}</ref>{{rp|13}} this perspective renders the [[Industrial Revolution]] as a whole unsustainable.<ref name=""ngr01"">{{cite book |last=Georgescu-Roegen |first=Nicholas |url=https://archive.org/details/entropylawe00nich |title=The Entropy Law and the Economic Process |date=1971 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674257801 |location=Cambridge |format=Full book accessible at Scribd |author-link=Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen}}</ref>{{rp|20f}}<ref name=""jr01"">{{cite book |last=Rifkin |first=Jeremy |url=http://www.foet.org/FOET-data/uploads/2017/03/Jeremy-Rifkin-Entropy-table-of-contents.pdf |title=Entropy: A New World View. |date=1980 |publisher=The Viking Press |isbn=978-0670297177 |location=New York |format=PDF contains only the title and contents pages of the book |author-link=Jeremy Rifkin}}</ref>{{rp|61–67}}<ref name=""hd01"">{{cite book |last=Daly |first=Herman E. |title=Steady-state economics |date=1992 |publisher=Earthscan Publications |edition=2nd |location=London |author-link=Herman Daly}}</ref>{{rp|22f}}

The sustainable development debate is based on the assumption that societies need to manage three types of capital (economic, social, and natural), which may be non-substitutable and whose consumption might be irreversible.<ref name=""Dyllick, T. 2002"">{{cite journal |last1=Dyllick |first1=T. |last2=Hockerts |first2=K. |year=2002 |title=Beyond the business case for corporate sustainability |journal=Business Strategy and the Environment |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=130–141 |doi=10.1002/bse.323}}</ref> [[Natural capital]] can not necessarily be substituted by economic capital.<ref name=""hd01"" /> While it is possible that we can find ways to replace some natural resources, it is much less likely that they will ever be able to replace [[ecosystem service]]s, such as the protection provided by the ozone layer, or the climate stabilizing function of the Amazonian forest.

The concept of sustainable development has been criticized from different angles. While some see it as paradoxical (or an [[oxymoron]]) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far.<ref name="":13"">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=James H. |date=2015 |title=The Oxymoron of Sustainable Development |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=1027–1029 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biv117 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="":15"">{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Colin C |last2=Millington |first2=Andrew C |date=2004 |title=The diverse and contested meanings of sustainable development |journal=[[The Geographical Journal]] |volume=170 |issue=2 |pages=99–104 |doi=10.1111/j.0016-7398.2004.00111.x |bibcode=2004GeogJ.170...99W |s2cid=143181802}}</ref> Part of the problem is that ""development"" itself is not consistently defined.<ref name="":10"" />{{RP|16}}<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Albert Sanghoon |date=2023 |title=Understanding resilience in sustainable development: Rallying call or siren song? |journal=Sustainable Development |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1002/sd.2645 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Such a viewpoint contradicts the mainstream academic community, which frequently concedes that the processes of capitalism are incompatible with the long-term sustainability of human life. 

The vagueness of the Brundtland definition of sustainable development has been criticized as follows:<ref name="":10"" />{{RP|17}} The definition has ""opened up the possibility of downplaying sustainability. Hence, governments spread the message that we can have it all at the same time, i.e. economic growth, prospering societies and a healthy environment. No new ethic is required. This so-called weak version of sustainability is popular among governments, and businesses, but profoundly wrong and not even [[Weak and strong sustainability|weak]], as there is no alternative to preserving the earth's ecological integrity.""<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bosselmann |first=Klaus |title=The principle of sustainability: transforming law and governance |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-4724-8128-3 |edition=2nd |location=London |oclc=951915998}}</ref>{{RP|2}}

== Pathways ==
{{Further|Sustainability#Sustainability transitions}}

=== Requirements ===
Six interdependent capacities are deemed to be necessary for the successful pursuit of sustainable development.<ref name="":7"" /> These are the capacities to measure progress towards sustainable development; promote equity within and between generations; adapt to shocks and surprises; transform the system onto more sustainable development pathways; link knowledge with action for sustainability; and to devise governance arrangements that allow people to work together.

=== Environmental characteristics of sustainable cities ===
A sustainable city is an urban center that improves its environmental impact through urban planning and management. For the definition of an eco-city, imagine a city with parks and green spaces, solar-powered buildings, rooftop gardens, and more pedestrians and bicycles than cars. This is not a futuristic dream. Smart cities are actively moving towards greener urban ecosystems and better environmental management.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalgoals.org/goals/11-sustainable-cities-and-communities/ | title=Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities }}</ref>

{{Further|Human impact on the environment|Ecological footprint}}
[[File:Sugarcane Deforestation, Bolivia, 2016-06-15 by Planet Labs.jpg|thumb|[[Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest]]. Deforestation and increased road-building in the [[Amazon rainforest]] are a concern because of increased human encroachment upon [[wilderness]] areas, increased resource extraction and further threats to [[biodiversity]].]][[Environmental sustainability]] concerns the [[natural environment]] and how it endures and remains diverse and productive. Since [[natural resources]] are derived from the environment, the state of air, water, and climate is of particular concern. Environmental sustainability requires society to design activities to meet human needs while preserving the life support systems of the planet. This, for example, entails using water sustainably, using [[renewable energy]] and sustainable material supplies (e.g. harvesting wood from forests at a rate that maintains the biomass and biodiversity).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainable development domains|url=http://semantic-portal.net/sd-domains |access-date=2021-09-06|website=Semantic portal}}</ref>

An unsustainable situation occurs when [[natural capital]] (the total of nature's resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished.<ref name="":0"" />{{rp|58}} Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. The concept of sustainable development is intertwined with the concept of [[carrying capacity]]. Theoretically, the long-term result of [[environmental degradation]] is the inability to sustain human life.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite book |last1=Nayeripour |first1=Majid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9CPDwAAQBAJ&dq=An+unsustainable+situation+occurs+when+natural+capital+(the+total+of+nature's+resources)+is+used+up+faster+than+it+can+be+replenished.+Sustainability+requires+that+human+activity+only+uses+nature's+resources+at+a+rate+at+which+they+can+be+replenished+naturally.+The+concept+of+sustainable+development+is+intertwined+with+the+concept+of+carrying+capacity.+Theoretically,+the+long-term+result+of+environmental+degradation+is+the+inability+to+sustain+human+life&pg=PA58 |title=Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources |last2=Kheshti |first2=Mostafa |date=2011-12-02 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-953-307-408-5 |page=58 }}[[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 International License]] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/|date=16 October 2017}}</ref>

Important operational principles of sustainable development were published by [[Herman Daly]] in 1990: renewable resources should provide a [[sustainable yield]] (the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration); for non-renewable resources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes; waste generation should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=H.E. |year=1990 |title=Toward some operational principles of sustainable development |journal=Ecological Economics |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1016/0921-8009(90)90010-r}}</ref>

{| class=""wikitable""
|+Summary of different levels of consumption of natural resources.<ref name="":0"" />{{rp|58}}
|-
! Consumption of natural resources
! State of the environment
! State of sustainability
|-
| More than nature's ability to replenish
| Environmental degradation
| Not sustainable
|-
| Equal to nature's ability to replenish
| Environmental equilibrium
| [[Steady state economy]]
|-
| Less than nature's ability to replenish
| Environmental renewal
| Environmentally sustainable
|}

==== Land use changes, agriculture and food ====
{{Further|Environmental impact of agriculture}}

[[Environmental impact of agriculture|Environmental problems]] associated with [[industrial agriculture]] and [[agribusiness]] are now being addressed through approaches such as [[sustainable agriculture]], [[organic farming]] and more [[Sustainable business|sustainable business practices]].<ref>[http://www.wbcsd.org/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?MenuID=1 World Business Council for Sustainable Development] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410074308/http://www.wbcsd.org/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?MenuID=1|date=10 April 2009}} This web site has multiple articles on [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development|WBCSD]] contributions to sustainable development. Retrieved 7 April 2009.</ref> The most cost-effective [[climate change mitigation]] options include [[afforestation]], [[sustainable forest management]], and reducing [[deforestation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=AR5 Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change — IPCC|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/|access-date=2021-05-13}}</ref> At the local level there are various movements working towards [[sustainable food system]]s which may include less meat consumption, [[local food]] production, [[slow food]], [[sustainable gardening]], and [[organic gardening]].<ref>Holmgren, D. (March 2005). [http://www.sbpermaculture.org/Suburbs_Holmgren.html ""Retrofitting the suburbs for sustainability.""] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415103213/http://www.sbpermaculture.org/Suburbs_Holmgren.html|date=15 April 2009}} CSIRO Sustainability Network. Retrieved 7 July 2009.</ref> The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on many factors, including the proportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method of food production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McMichael |first1=Anthony J |last2=Powles |first2=John W |last3=Butler |first3=Colin D |last4=Uauy |first4=Ricardo |title=Food, livestock production, energy, climate change, and health |journal=The Lancet |date=October 2007 |volume=370 |issue=9594 |pages=1253–1263 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61256-2 |pmid=17868818 |hdl=1885/38056 |s2cid=9316230 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baroni |first1=L |last2=Cenci |first2=L |last3=Tettamanti |first3=M |last4=Berati |first4=M |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |date=1 February 2007 |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |s2cid=16387344 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Materials and waste ====
[[File:Highlight Findings of the WA S0E 2007 report.gif|upright=1.7|thumb|Ecological footprint for different nations compared to their [[Human Development Index]] (2007)]]
[[File:Air pollution by industrial chimneys.jpg|thumb|Before [[flue-gas desulfurization]] was installed, the [[air pollution|air-polluting]] emissions from this power plant in [[New Mexico]] contained excessive amounts of [[sulfur dioxide]].]]
{{Further|Cradle-to-cradle}}
As global population and affluence have increased, so has the use of various materials increased in volume, diversity, and distance transported. Included here are raw materials, minerals, synthetic chemicals (including [[hazardous substances]]), manufactured products, food, living organisms, and waste.<ref name=""VITAL"">Bournay, E. ''et al.''. (2006). [http://www.vitalgraphics.net/ ''Vital waste graphics 2''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912162250/http://vitalgraphics.net/ |date=12 September 2017 }}. The Basel Convention, UNEP, GRID-Arendal. {{ISBN|82-7701-042-7}}.</ref> By 2050, humanity could consume an estimated 140 billion tons of minerals, ores, fossil fuels and biomass per year (three times its current amount) unless the economic growth rate is decoupled from the rate of natural [[resource consumption]]. Developed countries' citizens consume an average of 16 tons of those four key resources per capita per year, ranging up to 40 or more tons per person in some developed countries with resource consumption levels far beyond what is likely sustainable. By comparison, the average person in India today consumes four tons per year.<ref>UNEP (2011). [http://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/decoupling-natural-resource-use-and-environmental-impacts-economic-growth Decoupling Natural Resource Use and Environmental Impacts from Economic Growth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120134055/https://resourcepanel.org/reports/decoupling-natural-resource-use-and-environmental-impacts-economic-growth |date=20 January 2022 }}. {{ISBN|978-92-807-3167-5}}. Retrieved 30 November 2011.</ref>

Sustainable use of materials has targeted the idea of [[Dematerialization (economics)|dematerialization]], converting the linear path of materials (extraction, use, disposal in landfill) to a [[Material flow accounting|circular material flow]] that reuses materials as much as possible, much like the cycling and reuse of waste in nature.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Anderberg|first1=S|year=1998|title=Industrial metabolism and linkages between economics, ethics, and the environment|journal=Ecological Economics|volume=24|issue=2–3|pages=311–320|doi=10.1016/s0921-8009(97)00151-1}}</ref> Dematerialization is being encouraged through the ideas of [[industrial ecology]], [[Ecodesign|eco design]]<ref>Fuad-Luke, A. (2006). ''The Eco-design Handbook''. London: Thames & Hudson. {{ISBN|978-0-500-28521-3}}.</ref> and [[ecolabelling]].

This way of thinking is expressed in the concept of [[circular economy]], which employs [[reuse]], [[Sharing economy|sharing]], repair, refurbishment, [[remanufacturing]] and [[recycling]] to create a closed-loop system, minimizing the use of [[Resource depletion|resource inputs]] and the creation of [[Waste minimisation|waste]], pollution and carbon emissions.<ref name=""Geissdoerfer 757–768"">{{cite journal |last1=Geissdoerfer |first1=Martin |last2=Savaget |first2=Paulo |last3=Bocken |first3=Nancy M.P. |last4=Hultink |first4=Erik Jan |title=The Circular Economy – A new sustainability paradigm? |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=February 2017 |volume=143 |pages=757–768 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.048 |s2cid=157449142 |url=https://dro.dur.ac.uk/29108/1/29108.pdf }}</ref> Building electric vehicles has been one of the most popular ways in the field of sustainable development, the potential of using reusable energy and reducing waste offered a perspective in sustainable development.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shigeta |first1=Naoya |last2=Hosseini |first2=Seyed Ehsan |title=Sustainable Development of the Automobile Industry in the United States, Europe, and Japan with Special Focus on the Vehicles' Power Sources |journal=Energies |date=25 December 2020 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=78 |doi=10.3390/en14010078 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[European Commission]] has adopted an ambitious [[Circular Economy Action Plan]] in 2020, which aims at making sustainable products the norm in the EU.<ref>European Commission (2020). [https://ec.europa.eu/environment/strategy/circular-economy-action-plan_en Circular economy action plan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120070301/https://ec.europa.eu/environment/strategy/circular-economy-action-plan_en |date=20 January 2022 }}. Retrieved 10 November 2021.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex - 52020DC0098 - EN - EUR-Lex|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2020%3A98%3AFIN|access-date=2021-11-09|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>

==== Biodiversity and ecosystem services ====
There is a connection between ecosystems and biodiversity. Ecosystems are made up of various living things interacting with one another and their surroundings. Along with this, biodiversity lays the groundwork for ecosystems to function well by defining the kinds of species that can coexist in an environment, as well as their functions and interactions with other species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balvanera |first1=Patricia |last2=Pfisterer |first2=Andrea B. |last3=Buchmann |first3=Nina |last4=He |first4=Jing-Shen |last5=Nakashizuka |first5=Tohru |last6=Raffaelli |first6=David |last7=Schmid |first7=Bernhard |title=Quantifying the evidence for biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning and services: Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning/services |journal=Ecology Letters |date=October 2006 |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=1146–1156 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00963.x |pmid=16972878 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/2100/8/Balvanera_etal_EL_06V.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tilman |first1=David |last2=Knops |first2=Johannes |last3=Wedin |first3=David |last4=Reich |first4=Peter |last5=Ritchie |first5=Mark |last6=Siemann |first6=Evan |title=The Influence of Functional Diversity and Composition on Ecosystem Processes |journal=Science |date=29 August 1997 |volume=277 |issue=5330 |pages=1300–1302 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5330.1300 }}</ref> In 2019, a summary for policymakers of the [[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services|largest, most comprehensive study to date]] of [[biodiversity]] and [[ecosystem service]]s was published by the [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]. It recommended that human civilization will need a transformative change, including [[sustainable agriculture]], reductions in [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] and waste, fishing quotas and collaborative water management.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.ipbes.net/sites/default/files/downloads/spm_unedited_advance_for_posting_htn.pdf |title=Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |date=6 May 2019 |publisher=the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Deutsche Welle |first1=Deutsche |date=6 May 2019 |title=Why Biodiversity Loss Hurts Humans as Much as Climate Change Does |agency=Ecowatch |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/biodiversity-loss-human-health-2636410357.html |access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref> Biodiversity is not only crucial for the well-being of animals and wildlife but also plays a positive role in the lives of human beings in the way in which it aids development of human life.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Naeem |first1=Shahid |last2=Chazdon |first2=Robin |last3=Duffy |first3=J. Emmett |last4=Prager |first4=Case |last5=Worm |first5=Boris |title=Biodiversity and human well-being: an essential link for sustainable development |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=14 December 2016 |volume=283 |issue=1844 |pages=20162091 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2016.2091 |pmid=27928039 |pmc=5204155 }}</ref>
==== Management of human consumption and impacts ====
{{Further|Consumption (economics)|Overconsumption|Micro-sustainability}}
[[File:Waste_generation_per_day_per_capita,_September_2018.jpg|thumb|[[Waste]] generation, measured in kilograms per person per day]]
The [[Human impact on the environment|environmental impact]] of a community or humankind as a whole depends both on population and impact per person, which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources are being used, whether or not those resources are renewable, and the scale of the human activity relative to the carrying capacity of the ecosystems involved.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Basiago |first=Andrew D. |date=1995 |title=Methods of defining 'sustainability' |journal=Sustainable Development |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=109–119 |doi=10.1002/sd.3460030302 }}</ref> Careful resource management can be applied at many scales, from economic sectors like agriculture, manufacturing and industry, to work organizations, the consumption patterns of households and individuals, and the resource demands of individual goods and services.<ref>Clark, D. (2006). ''A Rough Guide to Ethical Living''. London: Penguin. {{ISBN|978-1-84353-792-2}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref><ref name=""Brower"">Brower, M. & Leon, W. (1999). ''The Consumer's Guide to Effective Environmental Choices: Practical Advice from the Union of Concerned Scientists''. New York: Three Rivers Press. {{ISBN|0-609-80281-X}}.{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref>

The underlying driver of direct human impacts on the environment is human consumption.<ref name=""www2.mst.dk"">Michaelis, L. & Lorek, S. (2004). [http://www2.mst.dk/udgiv/publications/2004/87-7614-193-4/pdf/87-7614-194-2.pdf ""Consumption and the Environment in Europe: Trends and Futures.""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722062028/https://www2.mst.dk/udgiv/publications/2004/87-7614-193-4/pdf/87-7614-194-2.pdf |date=22 July 2019 }} Danish Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental Project No. 904.</ref> This impact is reduced by not only consuming less but also making the full cycle of production, use, and disposal more sustainable. Consumption of goods and services can be analyzed and managed at all scales through the chain of consumption, starting with the effects of individual lifestyle choices and spending patterns, through to the resource demands of specific goods and services, the impacts of economic sectors, through national economies to the global economy.<ref>Jackson, T. & Michaelis, L. (2003). [https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/2237/sdc-2003-consumption-policy.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y ""Policies for Sustainable Consumption""] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807222211/https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/2237/sdc-2003-consumption-policy.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |date=7 August 2020 }}. The UK [[Sustainable Development Commission]].</ref> Key resource categories relating to human needs are [[food]], [[energy]], raw materials and water.

===Improving on economic and social aspects===
{{Further|Corporate sustainability|Sustainable business}}

It has been suggested that because of [[rural poverty]] and [[overexploitation]], environmental resources should be treated as important economic assets, called [[natural capital]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barbier |first=Edward B. |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/economics/economic-development-and-growth/natural-resources-and-economic-development?format=HB |title=Natural Resources and Economic Development |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780521706513 |location= |pages=44–45 |access-date=8 April 2014}}</ref> Economic development has traditionally required a growth in the gross domestic product. This model of unlimited personal and GDP growth may be over. Sustainable development may involve improvements in the quality of life for many but may necessitate a decrease in [[resource consumption]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Brown|first=L. R.|title=World on the Edge|publisher=Norton|year=2011|isbn=978-0-393-08029-2|series=Earth Policy Institute}}</ref> ""Growth"" generally ignores the direct effect that the environment may have on social welfare, whereas ""development"" takes it into account.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243768263 |title=Sustainable development concepts |last=Pezzey |first=John |publisher=The World Bank |date=November 1992 |website=Researchgate |access-date=16 October 2022}}</ref>

As early as the 1970s, the concept of sustainability was used to describe an economy ""in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems"".<ref>[[Robert L. Stivers|Stivers, R.]] 1976. The Sustainable Society: Ethics and Economic Growth. Philadelphia: [[Westminster John Knox Press|Westminster Press]].</ref> Scientists in many fields have highlighted ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'',<ref>Meadows, D.H., D.L. Meadows, J. Randers, and W.W. Behrens III. 1972. The Limits to Growth. Universe Books, New York, NY. {{ISBN|0-87663-165-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Meadows|first1=D.H.|title=Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update|last2=Randers|first2=Jørgen|last3=Meadows|first3=D.L.|publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-931498-58-6}}</ref> and economists have presented alternatives, for example a '[[steady-state economy]]', to address concerns over the impacts of expanding human development on the planet.<ref name=""hd01"" /> In 1987, the economist [[Edward Barbier]] published the study ''The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development'', where he recognized that goals of environmental conservation and economic development are not conflicting and can be reinforcing each other.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barbier|first=E.|year=1987|title=The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development|journal=Environmental Conservation|volume=14|issue=2|pages=101–110|doi=10.1017/S0376892900011449|bibcode=1987EnvCo..14..101B |s2cid=145595791 }}</ref>

A [[World Bank]] study from 1999 concluded that based on the theory of genuine savings (defined as ""traditional net savings less the value of [[resource depletion]] and environmental degradation plus the value of investment in [[human capital]]""), policymakers have many possible interventions to increase sustainability, in [[macroeconomics]] or purely environmental.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hamilton|first1=K.|last2=Clemens|first2=M.|year=1999|title=Genuine savings rates in developing countries|journal=World Bank Economic Review|volume=13|issue=2|pages=333–356|citeseerx=10.1.1.452.7532|doi=10.1093/wber/13.2.333}}</ref> Several studies have noted that efficient policies for renewable energy and pollution are compatible with increasing human welfare, eventually reaching a golden-rule{{Clarify|date=September 2021}} steady state.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ayong Le Kama|first=A. D.|year=2001|title=Sustainable growth renewable resources, and pollution|journal=Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control|volume=25|issue=12|pages=1911–1918|doi=10.1016/S0165-1889(00)00007-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chichilnisky|first1=G.|last2=Heal|first2=G.|last3=Beltratti|first3=A.|year=1995|title=A Green Golden Rule|journal=Economics Letters|volume=49|issue=2|pages=175–179|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(95)00662-Y|s2cid=154964259|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Endress|first1=L.|last2=Roumasset|first2=J.|year=1994|title=Golden rules for sustainable resource management|url=http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/workingpapers/88-98/WP_93-19.pdf|journal=Economic Record|volume=70|issue=210|pages=266–277|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4932.1994.tb01847.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Endress|first1=L.|last2=Roumasset|first2=J.|last3=Zhou|first3=T.|year=2005|title=Sustainable Growth with Environmental Spillovers|journal=Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization|volume=58|issue=4|pages=527–547|citeseerx=10.1.1.529.5305|doi=10.1016/j.jebo.2004.09.003}}</ref>

A meta review in 2002 looked at environmental and economic valuations and found a ""lack of concrete understanding of what ""sustainability policies"" might entail in practice"".<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Pezzey|first1=John C. V.|last2=Michael A.|first2=Toman|year=2002|title=The Economics of Sustainability: A Review of Journal Articles |website=Resources for the Future |url=http://www.rff.org/documents/rff-dp-02-03.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408214704/http://www.rff.org/documents/rff-dp-02-03.pdf|archive-date=8 April 2014|access-date=8 April 2014}}</ref> A study concluded in 2007 that knowledge, manufactured and human capital (health and education) has not compensated for the degradation of natural capital in many parts of the world.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dasgupta|first=P.|year=2007|title=The idea of sustainable development|journal=[[Sustainability Science]]|volume=2|issue=1|pages=5–11|doi=10.1007/s11625-007-0024-y|bibcode=2007SuSc....2....5D |s2cid=154597956}}</ref> It has been suggested that intergenerational equity can be incorporated into a sustainable development and decision making, as has become common in economic valuations of [[Economics of climate change|climate economics]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Heal|first=G.|year=2009|title=Climate Economics: A Meta-Review and Some Suggestions for Future Research|journal=Review of Environmental Economics and Policy|volume=3|issue=1|pages=4–21|doi=10.1093/reep/ren014|s2cid=154917782}}</ref>

The [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]] published a Vision 2050 document in 2021 to show ""How business can lead the transformations the world needs"". The vision states that ""we envision a world in which 9+billion people can live well, within [[planetary boundaries]], by 2050.""<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vision 2050 - Time to transform |url=https://timetotransform.biz/ |access-date=2022-03-29 |publisher=WBCSD |language=en-US}}</ref> This report was highlighted by ''[[The Guardian]]'' as ""the largest concerted corporate sustainability action plan to date – include reversing the damage done to ecosystems, addressing rising [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and ensuring societies move to sustainable agriculture.""<ref name=""Wills"">{{cite news |last1=Wills |first1=Jackie |title=World Business Council for Sustainable Development: Vision 2050 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainability-case-studies-world-business-council |access-date=17 May 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=15 May 2014 |language=en}}</ref>

====Gender and leadership in sustainable development====
Gender and sustainable development have been examined, focusing on women's leadership potential and barriers to it. While leadership roles in sustainable development have become more androgynous over time, patriarchal structures and perceptions continue to constrain women from becoming leaders.<ref name=""Shinbrot Wilkins Gretzel Bowser 2019"">{{cite journal |last1=Shinbrot |first1=Xoco A. |last2=Wilkins |first2=Kate |last3=Gretzel |first3=Ulrike |last4=Bowser |first4=Gillian |title=Unlocking women's sustainability leadership potential: Perceptions of contributions and challenges for women in sustainable development |journal=World Development |date=July 2019 |volume=119 |pages=120–132 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.03.009 |s2cid=159285419 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some hidden issues are women's lack of self-confidence, impeding access to leadership roles, but men can potentially play a role as allies for women's leadership.<ref name=""Shinbrot Wilkins Gretzel Bowser 2019""/>

== Barriers ==
There are barriers that small and medium enterprises face when implementing sustainable development such as lack of expertise, lack of resources, and high initial capital cost of implementing sustainability measures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sossa |first1=Jhon |date=May 2019 |title=Barriers to sustainability for small and medium enterprises in the framework of sustainable development—Literature review |journal=Business Strategy and the Environment |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=512–524 |doi=10.1002/bse.2261 |s2cid=239523321}}</ref>

Globally, the scale of [[Collective action problem|collective action]] and lack of [[political will]] are barriers to achieving sustainable development.<ref name="":2"" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Adetunji |first1=Israel O. |last2=Price |first2=Andrew |last3=Fleming |first3=Paul |last4=Kemp |first4=Pamela |title=The barriers and possible solution to achieve sustainable development | url=https://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB10669.pdf| publisher=Proceedings of 2005 2nd Scottish conference for Postgraduate Researchers of the Built and Natural Environment| date=2005 |access-date=7 January 2024| hdl=2134/23679 }}</ref> To overcome these challenges, governments must jointly form an agreement of social and political strength. Efforts to enact reforms or design and implement programs to decrease the harmful effects of human behaviors allow for progress toward present and future environmental sustainability goals.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ccsi.columbia.edu/news/political-will-what-it-why-it-matters-extractives-and-how-earth-do-you-find-it |title=Political Will: What It Is, Why It Matters for Extractives and How on Earth Do You Find It? |access-date=22 October 2022 |archive-date=22 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022070114/https://ccsi.columbia.edu/news/political-will-what-it-why-it-matters-extractives-and-how-earth-do-you-find-it |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Paris Agreement]] exemplifies efforts of [[political will]] on a global level, a multinational agreement between 193 parties <ref name=""un.org"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/paris-agreement|title=The Paris Agreement|first=United|last=Nations|website=United Nations|access-date=18 December 2022}}</ref> intended to strengthen the global response to [[climate change]] by reducing [[Emission intensity|emissions]] and working together to adjust to the consequent effects of [[climate change]].<ref name=""un.org""/> Experts continue to firmly suggest that governments should do more outside of [[Paris Agreement|The Paris Agreement]], there persist a greater need for [[political will]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/paris-global-climate-change-agreements|title=Global Climate Agreements: Successes and Failures|website=Council on Foreign Relations|access-date=18 December 2022}}</ref>

Another barrier towards sustainable development would be [[negative externalities]] that may potentially arise from implementing sustainable development technology. One example would be the development of [[lithium-ion batteries]], a key element towards environmental sustainability and the reduction in reliance towards [[fossil fuels]]. However, currently with the technology and methodology available, Lithium production poses a negative environmental impact during its extraction from the earth as it uses a method very similar to [[fracking]] as well as during its processing to be used as a battery which is a chemically intensive process.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/02646811.2020.1754596 | title=Potential environmental impacts of lithium mining | year=2020 | last1=Kaunda | first1=Rennie B. | journal=Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law | volume=38 | issue=3 | pages=237–244 | bibcode=2020JENRL..38..237K | s2cid=219452489 }}</ref> One suggested solution would be to weigh the possibility of recycling as this will cut down on the waste of old lithium as well as reducing the need for extracting new lithium from the ground, however, this sustainable development solution is barred from implementation by a high initial cost as studies have shown that recycling old technology for the purpose of extracting metals such as [[lithium]] and [[cobalt]] is typically more expensive than extracting them from the ground and processing them.{{fact|date=July 2023}}

The COVID-19 pandemic needs to be considered in the SDG process. Especially for developing countries exposed to social problems affected by COVID-19, the connection between post-epidemic recovery and SDG needs to be discussed and studied.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elavarasan |first1=Rajvikram Madurai |last2=Pugazhendhi |first2=Rishi |last3=Shafiullah |first3=G. M. |last4=Kumar |first4=Nallapaneni Manoj |last5=Arif |first5=Mohammad Taufiqul |last6=Jamal |first6=Taskin |last7=Chopra |first7=Shauhrat Singh |last8=Dyduch |first8=Joanna |title=Impacts of COVID-19 on Sustainable Development Goals and effective approaches to maneuver them in the post-pandemic environment |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |date=May 2022 |volume=29 |issue=23 |pages=33957–33987 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-17793-9 |pmc=8760582 |pmid=35032263 |bibcode=2022ESPR...2933957E }}</ref> The COVID-19 pandemic has provided substantial roadblocks towards achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). While the long-term effects of COVID-19 on SDGs is limited, research has shown that SDG 1, SDG 4, and SDG 8 are the most likely to be adversely affected by the pandemic. One of the strategies proposed towards SDG in the light of the COVID-19 pandemic is green management, or the government strategy of utilizing resources such as water and energy with the intention to change resource consumption behavior. Other strategies include erecting sustainable food systems, labor market energization, inclusive education, and supporting research in the energy sector.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ameli |first1=Mariam |last2=Esfandabadi |first2=Zahara S. |last3=Sadeghi |first3=Somayeh |last4=Ranjbari |first4=Meisam |last5=Zanetti |first5=Maria C. |title=COVID-19 and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Scenario analysis through fuzzy cognitive map modeling |journal=Gondwana Research |date=29 January 2022 |volume=114, 2023 |pages=138–155 |doi=10.1016/j.gr.2021.12.014 |pmid=35132304 |pmc=8811702 }}</ref>

== Society and culture ==

=== Sustainable development goals ===
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals.png|thumb|right|The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals]]
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goals|paragraphs=1-3|file=no}}

=== Education for sustainable development ===
Education for sustainable development (ESD) is a term officially used by the [[United Nations]] and is defined as education practices that encourage changes in knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just society for humanity. ESD aims to empower and equip current and future generations to meet their needs using a balanced and integrated approach to the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.<ref name=""UNESCO"">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261445|title=Issues and trends in education for sustainable development|publisher=UNESCO|year=2018|isbn=978-92-3-100244-1|location=Paris|pages=7}}{{CC-notice|cc=by4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kolvoord |first1=Robert A |title=Fostering spatial thinking skills for future citizens to support sustainable development |journal=Cultures of Science |date=2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=17–24 |doi=10.1177/20966083211024714 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Agenda 21]] was the first international document that identified education as an essential tool for achieving sustainable development and highlighted areas of action for education.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Leicht |first=Alexander |date=2018 |title=From Agenda 21 to Target 4.7: the development of education for sustainable development |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261801 |access-date=2020-05-24 |website=[[UNESCO]], UNESDOC Digital Library}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bernad-Cavero|first1=Olga|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwiQDwAAQBAJ&q=Agenda+21+was+the+first+international+document+that+identified+education+as+an+essential+tool+for+achieving+sustainable+development+and+highlighted+areas+of+action+for+education.&pg=PA27|title=New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century: Contributions of Research in Education|last2=Llevot-Calvet|first2=Núria|date=2018-07-04|publisher=BoD – Books on Demand|isbn=978-1-78923-380-3|language=en}}</ref> ESD is a component of measurement in an indicator for [[Sustainable Development Goal 12]] (SDG) for ""responsible consumption and production"". SDG 12 has 11 targets and target 12.8 is ""By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature.""<ref>United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023121826/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 |date=23 October 2020 }})</ref> 20 years after the Agenda 21 document was declared, the 'Future we want' document was declared in the Rio+20 UN Conference on Sustainable Development, stating that ""We resolve to promote education for sustainable development and to integrate sustainable development more actively into education beyond the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development.""<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shulla |first1=K. |last2=Filho |first2=W. Leal |last3=Lardjane |first3=S. |last4=Sommer |first4=J. H. |last5=Borgemeister |first5=C. |title=Sustainable development education in the context of the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology |date=3 July 2020 |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=458–468 |doi=10.1080/13504509.2020.1721378 |bibcode=2020IJSDW..27..458S |s2cid=214390476 |url=https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/625146/1/Deposit.Sustainable%20development%20education%20in%20the%20context%20of%20the%202030%20Agenda%20for%20sustainable%20development.pdf }}</ref>

One version of education for Sustainable Development recognizes modern-day environmental challenges and seeks to define new ways to adjust to a changing biosphere, as well as engage individuals to address societal issues that come with them <ref>{{Cite book |title=Schooling for sustainable development in Europe: concepts, policies and educational experiences at the end of the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development |editor=Jucker, Rolf |editor2=Mathar, Reiner |date=27 October 2014|isbn=978-3-319-09549-3|location=Cham, Switzerland |oclc=894509040}}</ref> In the International Encyclopedia of Education, this approach to education is seen as an attempt to ""shift consciousness toward an ethics of life-giving relationships that respects the interconnectedness of man to his natural world"" in order to equip future members of society with environmental awareness and a sense of responsibility to sustainability.<ref>{{Citation |entry= |title=International encyclopedia of education|date=2010|publisher=Elsevier |editor=Peterson, Penelope L. |editor2=Baker, Eva L. |editor3=McGaw, Barry |isbn=978-0-08-044894-7 |edition=3rd|location=Oxford|oclc=645208716}}</ref>

For [[UNESCO]], education for sustainable development involves:
{{blockquote|integrating key sustainable development issues into teaching and learning. This may include, for example, instruction about [[climate change]], [[disaster risk reduction]], [[biodiversity]], and [[poverty reduction]] and [[sustainable consumption]]. It also requires participatory teaching and learning methods that motivate and empower learners to change their behaviours and take action for sustainable development. ESD consequently promotes competencies like critical thinking, imagining future scenarios and making decisions in a collaborative way.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-sustainable-development|title=Education for Sustainable Development|website=UNESCO|date=10 May 2013|access-date=17 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="":12"">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002330/233030e.pdf|title=Unleashing the Potential: Transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training|last1=Marope|first1=P.T.M|last2=Chakroun|first2=B.|last3=Holmes|first3=K.P.|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100091-1|pages=9, 23, 25–26}}</ref>}}
The Thessaloniki Declaration, presented at the ""International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability"" by [[UNESCO]] and the Government of Greece (December 1997), highlights the importance of sustainability not only with regards to the natural environment, but also with ""poverty, health, food security, democracy, human rights, and peace"".<ref>{{Cite book|date=2010|title=Education for Sustainable Development: Challenges, Strategies, and Practices in a Globalizing World Education for sustainable development: Challenges, strategies, and practices in a globalizing world|doi=10.4135/9788132108023|isbn=9788132102939|last1=Nikolopoulou |first1=Anastasia |last2=Abraham |first2=Taisha |last3=Mirbagheri |first3=Farid }}{{pn|date=July 2023}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Environment}}
*{{annotated link|Climate change education (CCE)}}
*{{annotated link|Environmental education}}
*{{annotated link|Global citizenship education}}
*{{annotated link|Human population planning}}
*{{annotated link|List of sustainability topics}}
*{{annotated link|Outline of sustainability}}
*{{annotated link|United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development}}
*{{annotated link|Informal waste collection}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Sustainability}}

* [http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform of the UN]
* [http://unsdsn.org/ Sustainable Development Solutions Network]

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[[Category:Environmental education]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]
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Bioeconomy,"{{Short description|Economic activity focused on biotechnology}}
'''Biobased economy''', '''bioeconomy''' or '''biotechonomy''' is economic activity involving the use of [[biotechnology]] and [[biomass]] in the production of goods, services, or energy. The terms are widely used by regional development agencies, national and international organizations, and biotechnology companies. They are closely linked to the evolution of the biotechnology industry and the capacity to study, understand, and manipulate genetic material that has been possible due to scientific research and technological development. This includes the application of scientific and technological developments to agriculture, health, chemical, and energy industries.<ref name=""Smyth-2011"">{{cite journal|last1=Smyth|first1=S. J.|last2=Aerni|first2=P.|last3=Castle|first3=D.|last4=Demont|first4=M.|last5=Falck-Zepeda|first5=J. B.|last6=Paarlberg|first6=R.|last7=Phillips|first7=P. W. B.|last8=Pray|first8=C. E.|last9=Savastano|first9=S.|last10=Wesseler|last11=Zilberman|first11=D.|year=2011|title=Sustainability and the bioeconomy: Policy recommendations from the 15th ICABR conference|journal=AgBioForum|volume=14|issue=3|pages=180–186}}</ref><ref name=""Wesseler-2011"">{{cite journal|last1=Wesseler|last2=Spielman|first2=D. S.|last3=Demont|first3=M.|year=2011|title=The Future of Governance in the Global Bioeconomy: Policy, Regulation, and Investment Challenges for the Biotechnology and Bioenergy Sectors|journal=AgBioForum|volume=13|issue=4|pages=288–290}}</ref>[[File:Lab Grown Meat explained by New Harvest.webm|thumb|thumbtime=0:39|350px|A video by [[New Harvest]] and [[Xprize]] explaining the development of cultured meat and a ""post-animal bio-economy"" driven by lab-grown protein (meat, eggs, milk)]] The terms bioeconomy (BE) and bio-based economy (BBE) are sometimes used interchangeably. However, it is worth to distinguish them: the biobased economy takes into consideration the production of non-food goods, whilst bioeconomy covers both bio-based economy and the production and use of food and feed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Staffas|first1=Louise|last2=Gustavsson|first2=Mathias|last3=McCormick|first3=Kes|date=2013-06-20|title=Strategies and Policies for the Bioeconomy and Bio-Based Economy: An Analysis of Official National Approaches|journal=Sustainability|language=en|volume=5|issue=6|pages=2751–2769|doi=10.3390/su5062751|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref> More than 60 countries and regions have bioeconomy or bioscience-related strategies, of which 20 have published dedicated bioeconomy strategies in Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania, and the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Document card {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb6564en |access-date=2022-09-16 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref>

==Definitions==
Bioeconomy has large variety of definitions. The bioeconomy comprises those parts of the economy that use renewable biological resources from land and sea – such as crops, forests, fish, animals and micro-organisms – to produce food, health, materials, products, textiles and energy.<ref name="":1"" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/839878465|title=Innovating for sustainable growth: a bioeconomy for Europe|date= 2012|publisher=European Union. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation.|isbn=978-92-79-25376-8|location=Luxembourg|oclc=839878465}}</ref> The definitions and usage does however vary between different areas of the world. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roos |first1=Annie |last2=Blomquist |first2=Mimmi |last3=Bhatia |first3=Riina |last4=Ekegren |first4=Katarina |last5=Rönnberg |first5=Jonas |last6=Torfgård |first6=Lovisa |last7=Tunberg |first7=Maria |date=2021-11-17 |title=The digitalisation of the Nordic bioeconomy and its effect on gender equality |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research |volume=36 |issue=7–8 |pages=639–654 |doi=10.1080/02827581.2021.1996629 |s2cid=240328487 |issn=0282-7581|doi-access=free }}</ref>

An important aspect of the bioeconomy is understanding mechanisms and processes at the genetic, molecular, and [[Genomics|genomic]] levels, and applying this understanding to creating or improving industrial processes, developing new products and services, and producing new energy. Bioeconomy aims to reduce our dependence on fossil natural resources, to prevent [[biodiversity loss]] and to create new economic growth and jobs that are in line with the principles of [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1035157127|title=Growth by integrating bioeconomy and low-carbon economy : scenarios for Finland until 2050|others=Arasto, Antti, Koljonen, Tiina, Similä, Lassi|year=2018|isbn=978-951-38-8699-8|location=[Espoo]|oclc=1035157127}}</ref>

===Earlier definitions===
The term 'biotechonomy' was used by [[Juan Enríquez]] and Rodrigo Martinez at the [[Genomics Seminar]] in the 1997 [[American Association for the Advancement of Science|AAAS]] meeting. An excerpt of this paper was published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''.""<ref>Enríquez-Cabot, Juan. ""Genomics and the World's Economy."" ''Science'' 281 (14 August 1998): 925-926.</ref>

In 2010 it was defined in the report ""The Knowledge Based Bio-Economy (KBBE) in Europe: Achievements and Challenges"" by Albrecht & al. as follows: ''The bio-economy is the sustainable production and conversion of biomass, for a range of food, health, fibre and industrial products and energy, where renewable biomass encompasses any biological material to be used as raw material''.”<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal|last1=J. Albrecht|last2=D. Carrez|last3=P. Cunningham|last4=L.Daroda|last5=R. Mancia|last6=L. Máthé|last7=A. Raschka|last8=M. Carus|last9=S.Piotrowski|date=2010|title=The Knowledge Based Bio-Economy (KBBE) in Europe: Achievements and Challenges.|url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.2.36049.94560|doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.36049.94560}}</ref>

According to a 2013 study, ""the bioeconomy can be defined as an economy where the basic building blocks for materials, chemicals and energy are derived from renewable biological resources"".<ref name=""10.3390/su5062589""/>

The [https://gbs2015.com/ First Global Bioeconomy Summit] in Berlin in November 2015 defines bioeconomy as ""knowledge-based production and utilization of biological resources, biological processes and principles to sustainably provide goods and services across all economic sectors"". According to the summit, bioeconomy involves three elements: renewable biomass, enabling and converging technologies, and integration across applications concerning primary production (i.e. all living natural resources), health (i.e. pharmaceuticals and medical devices), and industry (i.e. chemicals, plastics, enzymes, pulp and paper, bioenergy).<ref>{{Cite web|title=An Overview on How Sustainability is Addressed in Official Bioeconomy Strategies at International, National and Regional Levels|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5998e.pdf|website=fao.org}}</ref>

==History==
Enríquez and Martinez' 2002 Harvard Business School working paper, ""Biotechonomy 1.0: A Rough Map of Biodata Flow"", showed the global flow of genetic material into and out of the three largest public genetic databases: [[GenBank]], [[EMBL]] and [[DDBJ]]. The authors then hypothesized about the economic impact that such data flows might have on patent creation, evolution of biotech startups and licensing fees.<ref>Juan Enríquez, Rodrigo Martinez. ""Biotechonomy 1.0: A Rough Map of Biodata Flow"", Harvard Business School working paper # 03-028, August 2002.</ref> An adaptation of this paper was published in ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'' magazine in 2003.<ref>Rodrigo Martinez, Juan Enríquez, Jonathan West. ""DNA Space. The Geography of the Genome"", ''Wired'', June 2003. p. 160.</ref>

The term 'bioeconomy' became popular from the mid-2000s with its adoption by the [[European Union]] and [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] as a policy agenda and framework to promote the use of biotechnology to develop new products, markets, and uses of biomass.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Neoliberal Bio-economies? The Co-construction of Markets and Natures|last=Birch|first=Kean|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2019|isbn=978-3-319-91424-4|location=London|pages=64–67}}</ref> Since then, both the EU (2012) and OECD (2006) have created dedicated bioeconomy strategies, as have an increasing number of countries around the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Schematic showing the biomass and processes used in Zeafuels|url=https://biooekonomierat.de/en/international/|access-date=Jan 6, 2021|website=biooekonomierat.de}}</ref> Often these strategies conflate the bioeconomy with the term 'bio-based economy'. For example, since 2005 the Netherlands has sought to promote the creation of a biobased economy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biobasedeconomy.nl/|title=BioBased Economy – De Nederlandse BioBased Economy community|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref> Pilot plants have been started i.e. in Lelystad (Zeafuels), and a centralised organisation exists (Interdepartementaal programma biobased economy), with supporting research (Food & Biobased Research) being conducted.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TransIP - Reserved domain|url=http://www.duurzameenergiethuis.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/acrres_afbeelding.jpg|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426050549/http://www.duurzameenergiethuis.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/acrres_afbeelding.jpg|archive-date=Apr 26, 2012|access-date=Jan 6, 2021|website=www.duurzameenergiethuis.nl}}</ref> Other [[Europe]]an countries have also developed and implemented bioeconomy or bio-based economy policy strategies and frameworks.<ref name=""10.3390/su5062589""/>

In 2012 [[Presidency of Barack Obama|president Barack Obama]] of the [[United States|USA]] announced intentions to encourage biological manufacturing methods, with a National Bioeconomy Blueprint.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/26/business/energy-environment/white-house-promotes-a-bioeconomy.html White House Promotes a Bioeconomy] April 26, 2012</ref>

==Aims==
Global population growth and over consumption of many resources are causing increasing environmental pressure and climate change. Bioeconomy tackles with these challenges. It aims to ensure food security and to promote more sustainable natural resource use as well as to reduce the dependence on non-renewable resources, e.g. fossil natural resources and minerals. In some extent bioeconomy also helps economy to reduces greenhouse gas emissions and assists in mitigating and adapting to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1060956843|title=Review of the 2012 European Bioeconomy Strategy|others=European Commission. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation.|year=2017|isbn=978-92-79-74382-5|location=Luxembourg|oclc=1060956843}}</ref>

==Genetic modification ==
{{See also|Genetically modified crops#By-products|Genetically modified organism|Algae fuel|Cellulosic ethanol|#Agriculture|#Medicine, nutritional science and the health economy}}
Organisms, ranging from bacteria over yeasts up to plants are used for production of enzymatic catalysis. Genetically modified [[bacteria]] have been used to produce insulin, artemisinic acid was made in engineered [[yeast]]. Some [[bioplastic]]s (based on polyhydroxylbutyrate or polyhydroxylalkanoates) are produced from [[sugar]] using genetically modified microbes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-05-circular-bioeconomy-synthetic-biology.html|title=Building a circular bioeconomy with synthetic biology|website=phys.org|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref>

Genetically modified organisms are also used for the production of [[biofuel]]s. Biofuels are a type of [[carbon-neutral fuel]].

Research is also being done towards CO<sub>2</sub> fixation using a synthetic metabolic pathway. By genetically modifying ''E. coli'' bacteria so as to allow them to consume CO<sub>2</sub>, the bacterium may provide the infrastructure for the future renewable production of food and green fuels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il/life-sciences/greenest-diet-bacteria-switch-eating-carbon-dioxide|title=The Greenest Diet: Bacteria Switch to Eating Carbon Dioxide|date=27 November 2019 |access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref><ref>[http://www.weizmann.ac.il/WeizmannCompass/sections/briefs/diet-for-the-planet Diet for the planet]</ref>

One of the organisms (''Ideonella sakaiensis'') that is able to break down PET (a plastic) into other substances [[Ideonella sakaiensis#Genetic engineering|has been genetically modified]] to break down PET even faster and also break down PEF. Once plastics (which are normally non-biodegradable) are broken down and recycled into other substances (i.e. biomatter in the case of [[Mealworm|''Tenebrio molitor'' larvae]]) it can be used as an input for other animals.

Genetically modified crops are also used. Genetically modified [[energy crops]] for instance may provide some additional advantages such as reduced associated costs (i.e. costs during the manufacturing process<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Rebecca A. |last2=Cass |first2=Cynthia L. |last3=Mazaheri |first3=Mona |last4=Sekhon |first4=Rajandeep S. |last5=Heckwolf |first5=Marlies |last6=Kaeppler |first6=Heidi |last7=de Leon |first7=Natalia |last8=Mansfield |first8=Shawn D. |last9=Kaeppler |first9=Shawn M. |last10=Sedbrook |first10=John C. |last11=Karlen |first11=Steven D. |last12=Ralph |first12=John |title=Suppression of CINNAMOYL-CoA REDUCTASE increases the level of monolignol ferulates incorporated into maize lignins |journal=Biotechnology for Biofuels |date=2 May 2017 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=109 |doi=10.1186/s13068-017-0793-1 |pmid=28469705 |pmc=5414125 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ) and less water use. One example are trees have been genetically modified to either have less lignin, or to express lignin with chemically labile bonds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25354-redesigned-crops-could-produce-far-more-fuel/|title=Redesigned crops could produce far more fuel|first=Hal|last=Hodson|website=New Scientist|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/content/Plant-genetic-engineering-for-biofuel-production-towards-45102|title=Plant genetic engineering for biofuel production: towards affordable cellulosic ethanol. &#124; Learn Science at Scitable|website=www.nature.com|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref>

With genetically modified crops however, there are still some [[Genetically modified organism#Regulation|challenges involved]] (hurdles to regulatory approvals, market adoption and public acceptance).<ref>{{cite journal| pmid=17701080 | doi=10.1007/s11248-007-9122-y | volume=16 | issue=6 | title=Genetically modified crops for the bioeconomy: meeting public and regulatory expectations | year=2007 | journal=Transgenic Res | pages=675–88 | last1 = Chapotin | first1 = SM | last2 = Wolt | first2 = JD| s2cid=37104746 }}</ref>

== Fields ==
According to European Union Bioeconomy Strategy updated in 2018 the bioeconomy covers all sectors and systems that rely on biological resources (animals, plants, micro-organisms and derived biomass, including organic waste), their functions and principles. It covers all primary production and economic and industrial sectors that base on use, production or processing biological resources from [[agriculture]], [[forestry]], [[Fishery|fisheries]] and [[aquaculture]]. The product of bioeconomy are typically food, feed and other biobased products, bioenergy and services based on biological resources. The bioeconomy aims to drive towards [[sustainability]], circularity as well as the protection of the environment and will enhance [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1099358181|title=A sustainable bioeconomy for Europe strengthening the connection between economy, society and the environment : updated bioeconomy strategy|others=Europäische Kommission Generaldirektion Forschung und Innovation|year=2018|isbn=978-92-79-94144-3|location=Luxembourg|oclc=1099358181}}</ref>

In some definitions, bioeconomy comprises also ecosystem services that are services offered by the environment, including binding carbon dioxide and opportunities for recreation. Another key aspect of the bioeconomy is not wasting natural resources but using and recycling them efficiently.<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=The Finnish Ministry of Employment and the Economy|title=Sustainable growth from bioeconomy – The Finnish Bioeconomy Strategy|url=https://biotalous.fi/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/The_Finnish_Bioeconomy_Strategy_110620141.pdf|url-status=live|website=Bioeconomy.fi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505173432/http://biotalous.fi:80/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/The_Finnish_Bioeconomy_Strategy_110620141.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-05 }}</ref>

According to EU [https://op.europa.eu/s/ozfP Bioeconomy Report 2016], the bioeconomy brings together various sectors of the economy that produce, process and reuse renewable biological resources (agriculture, forestry, fisheries, food, bio-based chemicals and materials and bioenergy).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Union|first=Publications Office of the European|date=2017-06-09|title=Bioeconomy report 2016.|url=http://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/b3a3b800-4f18-11e7-a5ca-01aa75ed71a1|access-date=2020-12-17|website=op.europa.eu|isbn=9789279657115|language=en}}</ref>

===Agriculture===
{{See also|Food microbiology|Biochar|Pesticide#Alternatives|Agricultural technology|Regenerative agriculture}}
[[File:First cultured hamburger fried.png|thumb|Presentation of the world's first [[cultured meat]]  hamburger]]
{{Further|Cellular agriculture#Applications|Sustainable food system}}
{{Transclude lead excerpt | 1=Cellular agriculture | paragraphs= | files= | fileargs= | errors= }}

However, not all synthetic nutrition products are animal food products such as meat and dairy – for instance, as of 2021 there are also <!--two-->products of [[Coffee substitute#Synthetic coffee|synthetic coffee]] that are reported to be close to commercialization.<ref name=""synthcoffee"">{{cite news |last1=Lavars |first1=Nick |title=Lab-grown coffee cuts out the beans and deforestation |url=https://newatlas.com/science/lab-grown-coffee-beans-deforestation/ |access-date=18 October 2021 |work=New Atlas |date=20 September 2021}}</ref><ref name=""labgrown"">{{cite news |title=Eco-friendly, lab-grown coffee is on the way, but it comes with a catch |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/16/lab-grown-coffee-eco-friendly |access-date=26 October 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=16 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""vttresearch"">{{cite web |title=Sustainable coffee grown in Finland – {{!}} VTT News |url=https://www.vttresearch.com/en/news-and-ideas/sustainable-coffee-grown-finland-land-drinks-most-coffee-capita-produces-its-first |website=www.vttresearch.com |date=15 September 2021 |access-date=18 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Similar fields of research and production based on bioeconomy agriculture are:

* [[Microbial food cultures]] and genetically engineered microbial production (e.g. of spider silk<ref name=""spider-silk"">{{cite news |title=Spider silk made by photosynthetic bacteria |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-07-spider-silk-photosynthetic-bacteria.html |access-date=16 August 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807092649/https://phys.org/news/2020-07-spider-silk-photosynthetic-bacteria.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""Foong Higuchi-Takeuchi Malay Oktaviani p. 357"">{{cite journal |last1=Foong |first1=Choon Pin |last2=Higuchi-Takeuchi |first2=Mieko |last3=Malay |first3=Ali D. |last4=Oktaviani |first4=Nur Alia |last5=Thagun |first5=Chonprakun |last6=Numata |first6=Keiji |title=A marine photosynthetic microbial cell factory as a platform for spider silk production |journal=Communications Biology |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=3 |issue=1 |date=2020-07-08 |issn=2399-3642 |doi=10.1038/s42003-020-1099-6 |page=357 |pmid=32641733 |pmc=7343832 }}</ref> or solar-energy-based protein powder)<ref>{{cite news |title=Growing food with air and solar power: More efficient than planting crops |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-06-food-air-solar-power-efficient.html |access-date=11 July 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leger |first1=Dorian |last2=Matassa |first2=Silvio |last3=Noor |first3=Elad |last4=Shepon |first4=Alon |last5=Milo |first5=Ron |last6=Bar-Even |first6=Arren |title=Photovoltaic-driven microbial protein production can use land and sunlight more efficiently than conventional crops |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=29 June 2021 |volume=118 |issue=26 |pages=e2015025118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2015025118 |pmid=34155098 |s2cid=235595143 |language=en |issn=0027-8424|pmc=8255800 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11815025L |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Controlled self-assembly of plant proteins (e.g. of spider silk similar plant-proteins-based [[Sustainable packaging#Alternatives to plastics|plastics alternative]]s)<ref>{{cite news |title='Vegan spider silk' provides sustainable alternative to single-use plastics |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-06-vegan-spider-silk-sustainable-alternative.html |access-date=11 July 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=""controlled assembly"">{{cite journal |last1=Kamada |first1=Ayaka |last2=Rodriguez-Garcia |first2=Marc |last3=Ruggeri |first3=Francesco Simone |last4=Shen |first4=Yi |last5=Levin |first5=Aviad |last6=Knowles |first6=Tuomas P. J. |title=Controlled self-assembly of plant proteins into high-performance multifunctional nanostructured films |journal=Nature Communications |date=10 June 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=3529 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-23813-6 |pmid=34112802 |pmc=8192951 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.3529K |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
* Cell-free artificial synthesis (e.g. of [[starch]]<ref>{{cite news |title=World-first artificial synthesis of starch from CO2 outperforms nature |url=https://newatlas.com/science/artificial-synthesis-starch-from-co2/ |access-date=18 October 2021 |work=New Atlas |date=28 September 2021}}</ref><!--https://phys.org/news/2021-09-chinese-scientists-starch-synthesis-carbon.html--><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Tao |last2=Sun |first2=Hongbing |last3=Qiao |first3=Jing |last4=Zhu |first4=Leilei |last5=Zhang |first5=Fan |last6=Zhang |first6=Jie |last7=Tang |first7=Zijing |last8=Wei |first8=Xinlei |last9=Yang |first9=Jiangang |last10=Yuan |first10=Qianqian |last11=Wang |first11=Wangyin |last12=Yang |first12=Xue |last13=Chu |first13=Huanyu |last14=Wang |first14=Qian |last15=You |first15=Chun |last16=Ma |first16=Hongwu |last17=Sun |first17=Yuanxia |last18=Li |first18=Yin |last19=Li |first19=Can |last20=Jiang |first20=Huifeng |last21=Wang |first21=Qinhong |last22=Ma |first22=Yanhe |title=Cell-free chemoenzymatic starch synthesis from carbon dioxide |journal=Science |date=24 September 2021 |volume=373 |issue=6562 |pages=1523–1527 |doi=10.1126/science.abh4049 |pmid=34554807 |bibcode=2021Sci...373.1523C |s2cid=237615280 |language=EN|doi-access=free }}</ref>)
* Bioproduced [[:Category:Imitation foods|imitation foods]] (e.g. [[meat analogue]]s and [[milk substitute]]s)

Many of the foods produced with tools and methods of the bioeconomy may not be intended for human consumption but for non-human animals such as for [[Animal feed|livestock feed]], [[insect-based pet food]] or [[Commercial fish feed#Sustainability|sustainable aquacultural feed]]. There are various startups and research teams around the world who use synthetic biology to create animal feed.<ref>{{cite news |title=China to make protein for livestock from carbon monoxide |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-make-protein-livestock-carbon-monoxide-2021-11-01/ |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=Reuters |date=1 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

Moreover, [[genetically modified crop|crops could be genetically engineered]] in ways that e.g. safely increase yields, reduce the need for pesticides or ease indoor production.

One example of a product highly specific to the bioeconomy that is widely available is [[Algae fuel#Food supplementation|algae oil]] which is a dietary supplement that could substitute possibly less sustainable, larger-market-share [[fish oil]] supplements.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arterburn |first1=Linda M. |last2=Oken |first2=Harry A. |last3=Bailey Hall |first3=Eileen |last4=Hamersley |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Kuratko |first5=Connye N. |last6=Hoffman |first6=James P. |title=Algal-Oil Capsules and Cooked Salmon: Nutritionally Equivalent Sources of Docosahexaenoic Acid |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |date=1 July 2008 |volume=108 |issue=7 |pages=1204–1209 |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2008.04.020 |pmid=18589030 |language=en |issn=0002-8223}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Lisa |last2=Symington |first2=Amy M. |title=Algal-oil supplements are a viable alternative to fish-oil supplements in terms of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3; DHA) |journal=Journal of Functional Foods |date=1 December 2015 |volume=19 |pages=852–858 |doi=10.1016/j.jff.2014.06.023 |language=en |issn=1756-4646}}</ref>

====Vertical farming====
{{Excerpt|Vertical farming}}
====Fungiculture====
{{See also|Fungiculture}}
{{Excerpt|Fungus|Human use}}
For example, there is ongoing research and development for indoor high-yield mechanisms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Katsnelson |first1=Alla |title=Cultivating Coveted Morels Year-Round and Indoors |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/26/science/morel-mushrooms-growing.html |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=26 April 2022}}</ref>
{{Excerpt|Fungus|Cultured foods}}
=====Mycoprotein=====
{{Excerpt|Mycoprotein|paragraphs=1}}
=== Algaculture ===
[[File:Microalgae cultivation facility along the Kona Coast of the Big Island of Hawai’i.jpg|thumb|A microalgae cultivation facility<ref name=""10.5670/oceanog.2022.213""/>]]
{{Excerpt|Algaculture}}

=== Waste management, recycling and biomining ===
{{expand section|date=October 2021}}
{{See also|Polymer degradation#Biological degradation|Plastisphere#Degradation by microorganisms}}
Biobased applications, research and development of [[waste management]] may form a part of the bioeconomy. Bio-based [[recycling]] ([[e-waste]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ilyas |first1=Sadia |last2=Srivastava |first2=Rajiv R. |last3=Kim |first3=Hyunjung |last4=Das |first4=Subhankar |last5=Singh |first5=Vinay K. |title=Circular bioeconomy and environmental benignness through microbial recycling of e-waste: A case study on copper and gold restoration |journal=Waste Management |date=15 February 2021 |volume=121 |pages=175–185 |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2020.12.013 |pmid=33360816 |bibcode=2021WaMan.121..175I |s2cid=229693482 |language=en |issn=0956-053X}}</ref> [[plastics recycling]], etc.) is linked to waste management and relevant standards and requirements of production and products. Some of the recycling of waste may be biomining and some biomining could be applied beyond recycling.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mitha |first1=Farhan |title=Biomining: Turning Waste into Gold Sustainably with Microbes |url=https://www.labiotech.eu/in-depth/biomining-sustainable-microbes/ |website=Labiotech.eu |access-date=26 October 2021 |date=18 November 2020}}</ref>

For example, in 2020, biotechnologists reported the [[genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] refinement and mechanical description of synergistic enzymes – [[PETase]], first discovered in 2016, and [[MHETase]] of ''[[Ideonella sakaiensis]]'' – for faster [[depolymerization]] of [[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET]] and also of PEF, which may be useful for [[Plastics pollution|depollution]], [[plastics recycling|recycling]] and [[upcycling]] of mixed plastics along with other approaches.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=New super-enzyme eats plastic bottles six times faster |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/28/new-super-enzyme-eats-plastic-bottles-six-times-faster |access-date=12 October 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=28 September 2020 |archive-date=12 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012004245/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/28/new-super-enzyme-eats-plastic-bottles-six-times-faster |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Plastic-eating enzyme 'cocktail' heralds new hope for plastic waste |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-09-plastic-eating-enzyme-cocktail-heralds-plastic.html |access-date=12 October 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011210353/https://phys.org/news/2020-09-plastic-eating-enzyme-cocktail-heralds-plastic.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knott |first1=Brandon C. |last2=Erickson |first2=Erika |last3=Allen |first3=Mark D. |last4=Gado |first4=Japheth E. |last5=Graham |first5=Rosie |last6=Kearns |first6=Fiona L. |last7=Pardo |first7=Isabel |last8=Topuzlu |first8=Ece |last9=Anderson |first9=Jared J. |last10=Austin |first10=Harry P. |last11=Dominick |first11=Graham |last12=Johnson |first12=Christopher W. |last13=Rorrer |first13=Nicholas A. |last14=Szostkiewicz |first14=Caralyn J. |last15=Copié |first15=Valérie |last16=Payne |first16=Christina M. |last17=Woodcock |first17=H. Lee |last18=Donohoe |first18=Bryon S. |last19=Beckham |first19=Gregg T. |last20=McGeehan |first20=John E. |title=Characterization and engineering of a two-enzyme system for plastics depolymerization |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=24 September 2020 |volume=117 |issue=41 |pages=25476–25485 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2006753117 |pmid=32989159 |pmc=7568301 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11725476K |language=en |issn=0027-8424 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Such approaches may be more environmentally-friendly as well as cost-effective than mechanical and chemical PET-recycling, enabling circular plastic bio-economy solutions via systems based on engineered strains.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gautom |first1=Trishnamoni |last2=Dheeman |first2=Dharmendra |last3=Levy |first3=Colin |last4=Butterfield |first4=Thomas |last5=Alvarez Gonzalez |first5=Guadalupe |last6=Le Roy |first6=Philip |last7=Caiger |first7=Lewis |last8=Fisher |first8=Karl |last9=Johannissen |first9=Linus |last10=Dixon |first10=Neil |title=Structural basis of terephthalate recognition by solute binding protein TphC |journal=Nature Communications |date=29 October 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=6244 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-26508-0 |pmid=34716322 |pmc=8556258 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.6244G |s2cid=240229196 |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> Moreover, [[biomining|microorganisms could be employed to mine]] useful elements from basalt rocks via [[bioleaching]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Crane |first1=Leah |title=Asteroid-munching microbes could mine materials from space rocks |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2259373-asteroid-munching-microbes-could-mine-materials-from-space-rocks/ |access-date=9 December 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=7 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207190406/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2259373-asteroid-munching-microbes-could-mine-materials-from-space-rocks/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=""iss-biomining"">{{cite journal |last1=Cockell |first1=Charles S. |last2=Santomartino |first2=Rosa |last3=Finster |first3=Kai |last4=Waajen |first4=Annemiek C. |last5=Eades |first5=Lorna J. |last6=Moeller |first6=Ralf |last7=Rettberg |first7=Petra |last8=Fuchs |first8=Felix M. |last9=Van Houdt |first9=Rob |last10=Leys |first10=Natalie |last11=Coninx |first11=Ilse |last12=Hatton |first12=Jason |last13=Parmitano |first13=Luca |last14=Krause |first14=Jutta |last15=Koehler |first15=Andrea |last16=Caplin |first16=Nicol |last17=Zuijderduijn |first17=Lobke |last18=Mariani |first18=Alessandro |last19=Pellari |first19=Stefano S. |last20=Carubia |first20=Fabrizio |last21=Luciani |first21=Giacomo |last22=Balsamo |first22=Michele |last23=Zolesi |first23=Valfredo |last24=Nicholson |first24=Natasha |last25=Loudon |first25=Claire-Marie |last26=Doswald-Winkler |first26=Jeannine |last27=Herová |first27=Magdalena |last28=Rattenbacher |first28=Bernd |last29=Wadsworth |first29=Jennifer |last30=Craig Everroad |first30=R. |last31=Demets |first31=René |title=Space station biomining experiment demonstrates rare earth element extraction in microgravity and Mars gravity |journal=Nature Communications |date=10 November 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5523 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19276-w |pmid=33173035 |pmc=7656455 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5523C |language=en |issn=2041-1723 }}.</ref>

=== Medicine, nutritional science and the health economy ===
{{expand section|date=October 2021}}
{{See also|Personal genomics}}
In 2020, the global industry for [[dietary supplement]]s was valued at $140.3 billion by a ""Grand View Research"" analysis.<ref name=""GVW_Report"">{{cite web |title=Dietary Supplements Market Size & Trends Report, 2021-2028 |url=https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/dietary-supplements-market |access-date=2021-07-30 | location = San Francisco, CA | work = Grand View Research |language=en}}</ref> Certain parts of the [[Health economics|health economy]] may overlap with the bioeconomy,<ref>{{cite web |title=The global bioeconomy |url=https://ebrary.net/169442/geography/global_bioeconomy |website=Ebrary |access-date=26 October 2021}}</ref><ref name=""10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408"">{{cite journal |last1=Haapala |first1=Antti |last2=Härkönen |first2=Janne |last3=Leviäkangas |first3=Pekka |last4=Kess |first4=Pekka |last5=Häggman |first5=Hely |last6=Arvola |first6=Jouko |last7=Stoor |first7=Tuomas |last8=Ämmälä |first8=Ari |last9=Karppinen |first9=Katja |last10=Leppilampi |first10=Mari |last11=Niinimäki |first11=Jouko |title=Bioeconomy potential - focus on Northern Finland |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Economy |date=1 January 2015 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=66–90 |doi=10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408 |issn=1756-5804}}</ref> including [[anti-aging]]- and [[life extension]]-related products and activities, hygiene/beauty products,<ref name=""10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408""/> [[functional food]],<ref name=""10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408""/> sports performance related products and bio-based tests (such as of one's [[Gut microbiota#Composition|microbiota]]) and banks (such as [[Fecal microbiota transplant#Stool banks|stool banks]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McLeod |first1=Carmen |last2=Nerlich |first2=Brigitte |last3=Jaspal |first3=Rusi |title=Fecal microbiota transplants: emerging social representations in the English-language print media |journal=New Genetics and Society |date=3 July 2019 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=331–351 |doi=10.1080/14636778.2019.1637721 |s2cid=195390497 |issn=1463-6778|doi-access=free }}</ref> including oral ""super stool"" capsules<ref>{{cite news |title=Super poo: the emerging science of stool transplants and designer gut bacteria |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jan/03/super-poo-the-emerging-science-of-stool-transplants-and-designer-gut-bacteria |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=2 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>) and databases (mainly [[DNA database]]s), all of which can in turn be used for [[precision medicine|individualized interventions]], monitoring as well as for the development of new products. The pharmaceutical sector, including the research and development of new [[antibiotics]], can also be considered to be a bioeconomy sector.

===Forest bioeconomy===
{{Further|#Climate change adaptation and mitigation|#Woodchips and pellets}}
'''The forest bioeconomy''' is based on [[forest]]s and their natural resources, and covers a variety of different industry and production processes. Forest bioeconomy includes, for example, the processing of forest [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] to provide products relating to, energy, chemistry, or the food industry. Thus, forest bioeconomy covers a variety of different manufacturing processes that are based on wood material and the range of end products is wide.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite web|title=Green bioeconomy|url=https://mmm.fi/en/bioeconomy/green-bioeconomy|access-date=December 11, 2020|website=Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of Finland}}</ref>

Besides different wood-based products, recreation, nature tourism and game are a crucial part of forest bioeconomy. [[Carbon sequestration]] and [[ecosystem service]]s are also included in the concept of forest bioeconomy.<ref name="":0"" />

Pulp, paper, packaging materials and sawn timber are the traditional products of the [[forest industry]]. Wood is also traditionally used in furniture and construction industries. But in addition to these, as a renewable natural resource, ingredients from wood can be valorised into innovative [[bioproducts]] alongside a range of conventional forest industry products. Thus, traditional mill sites of large forest industry companies, for example in Finland, are in the process of becoming [[Biorefinery|biorefineries]]. In different processes, forest biomass is used to produce textiles, chemicals, cosmetics, fuels, medicine, intelligent packaging, coatings, glues, plastics, food and feed.<ref name="":0"" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Wood-Based Bioeconomy Solving Global Challenges|publisher=Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment Enterprise and Innovation Department|year=2017|isbn=978-952-327-215-6|editor-last=Lilja|editor-first=Kari|pages=9–10|editor-last2=Loukola-Ruskeeniem|editor-first2=Kirsti}}</ref>

=== Blue bioeconomy ===
{{Further|Ocean#Protection}}
The blue bioeconomy covers businesses that are based on the sustainable use of renewable aquatic resources as well water related expertise areas. It covers the development and marketing of blue bioeconomy products and services. In that respect, the key sectors include business activities based on water expertise and technology, water-based tourism, making use of aquatic biomass, and the value chain of fisheries. Furthermore, the immaterial value of aquatic natural resources is also very high. Water areas have also other values beyond being platforms of economic activities. It provides human well-being, recreation and health.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Blue bioeconomy|url=https://mmm.fi/en/bioeconomy/blue-bioeconomy|access-date=2020-12-17|website=Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö|language=en-US}}</ref>

According to the European Union the blue bioeconomy has the focus on aquatic or marine environments, especially, on novel aquaculture applications, including non-food, food and feed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1140706262|title=Blue Bioeconomy Forum : highlights : synthesis of the roadmap and a selection of viable and innovative projects.|others=Executive Agency for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises., Technopolis Group., Wageningen Research.|year=2020|isbn=978-92-9202-730-8|location=Luxembourg|oclc=1140706262}}</ref>

In the European [https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/sites/maritimeaffairs/files/swd-2017-128_en.pdf Report on the Blue Growth Strategy - Towards more sustainable growth and jobs in the blue economy] (2017) the blue bioeconomy is defined differently to the blue economy. The [[blue economy]] means the industries that are related to marine environment activities, e.g. shipbuilding, transport, coastal tourism, renewable energies (such as off-shore windmills), living and non-living resources.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Johnson|first1=Kate|title=Building Industries athttp://bibliotecadigital.f Sea: 'Blue Growth' and the New Maritime Economy|date=2018|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.13052/rp-9788793609259|pages=1–516|publisher=River Publisher|isbn=978-87-93609-25-9|access-date=2020-12-17|last2=Dalton|first2=Gordon|last3=Masters|first3=Ian|doi=10.13052/rp-9788793609259|s2cid=135401447 }}</ref>

=== Energy ===
{{See also|Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present#Bioenergy and biotechnology|Cellulosic ethanol#Production methods|Ethanol fermentation}}
The bioeconomy also includes [[bioenergy]], [[biohydrogen]], [[biofuel]] and [[algae fuel]].

According to [[World Bioenergy Association]] 17.8 % out of gross final energy consumption was covered with renewable energy. Among renewable energy sources, bioenergy (energy from bio-based sources) is the largest renewable energy source. In 2017, bioenergy accounted for 70% of renewable energy consumption.<ref name="":3"">{{Cite web|publisher=World Bioenergy Association|title=Global bioenergy statistics 2019|url=https://worldbioenergy.org/uploads/191129%20WBA%20GBS%202019_LQ.pdf|access-date=13 November 2020|website=worldbioenergy.org}}</ref>

The role of bioenergy varies in different countries and continents. In Africa it is the most important energy sources with the share of 96%. Bioenergy has significant shares in energy production in the Americas (59%), Asia (65%) and Europe (59%). The bioenergy is produced out of a large variety of [[biomass]] from forestry, agriculture and waste and side streams of industries to produce useful end products (pellets, wood chips, bioethanol, biogas and biodiesel) for electricity, heat and transportation fuel around the world.<ref name="":3"" />

Biomass is a renewable natural resource but it is still a limited resource. Globally there are huge resources, but environmental, social and economic aspects limit their use. [[Biomass (ecology)|Biomass]] can play an important role for low-carbon solutions in the fields of customer supplies, energy, food and feed. In practice, there are many competing uses.<ref name="":0"" />

The biobased economy uses first-generation [[biomass]] (crops), second-generation biomass (crop refuge), and third-generation biomass (seaweed, algae). Several methods of processing are then used (in [[Biorefinery|biorefineries]]) to gather the most out of the biomass. This includes techniques such as
* [[Anaerobic digestion]]
* [[Pyrolysis]]
* [[Torrefaction]]
* [[Industrial fermentation|Fermentation]]

Anaerobic digestion is generally used to produce [[biogas]], fermentation of sugars produces [[ethanol]], pyrolysis is used to produce [[pyrolysis-oil]] (which is solidified biogas), and torrefaction is used to create biomass-coal.<ref>{{cite web |title=4. Bioenergy conversion technologies. |url=http://www.fao.org/3/t1804e/t1804e06.htm |website=www.fao.org |access-date=1 August 2021}}</ref> Biomass-coal{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} and biogas is then burnt for energy production, ethanol can be used as a (vehicle)-fuel, as well as for other purposes, such as [[skincare]] products.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.acrres.nl/|title=Home|website=Acrres|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref>

Biobased energy can be used to [[100% renewable energy#Intermittency|manage intermittency of variable renewable energy]] like solar and wind.

====Woodchips and pellets====
{{Excerpt|Woodchips|Fuel}}
{{Excerpt|Woodchips|Comparison to other fuels}}

====Getting the most out of the biomass====
For economic reasons, the processing of the biomass is done according to a specific pattern (a process called cascading). This pattern depends on the types of biomass used. The whole of finding the most suitable pattern is known as [[biorefining]]. A general list shows the products with high added value and lowest volume of biomass to the products with the lowest added value and highest volume of biomass:<ref>Kijk magazine, number 8, 2011</ref>
* fine chemicals/medicines
* food
* chemicals/bioplastics
* transport fuels
* electricity and heat
Recent studies have highlighted the potential of traditionally used plants, in providing value-added products in remote areas of the world. A study conducted on tobacco plants proposed a non-exhaustive list of compounds with potential economic interest that can be sourced from these plants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laszlo C, Kaminski K, Guan H, Fatarova M, Wei J, Bergounioux A, Schlage WK, Schorderet-Weber S, Guy PA, Ivanov NV, Lamottke K, Hoeng J | title = Fractionation and Extraction Optimization of Potentially Valuable Compounds and Their Profiling in Six Varieties of Two ''Nicotiana'' Species | journal = Molecules | volume = 27 | issue = 22 | page = 8105 | date = November 2022 | pmid = 36432206 | pmc = 9694777 | doi = 10.3390/molecules27228105 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Other fields and applications ===
{{See also|Timeline of biotechnology}}
[[Bioproducts]] or bio-based products are products that are made from [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]]. The term “bioproduct” refers to a wide array of industrial and commercial products that are characterized by a variety of properties, compositions and processes, as well as different benefits and risks.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/181844396|title=Primer on bioproducts.|date=2004|publisher=Pollution Probe|others=Pollution Probe., BIOCAP Canada Foundation.|isbn=978-0-919764-57-6|location=Toronto, Ont.|oclc=181844396}}</ref>

Bio-based products are developed in order to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and non-renewable resources. To achieve this, the key is to develop new bio-refining technologies to sustainably transform renewable natural resources into bio-based products, materials and fuels, e.g.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2015-07-01|title=The role of biomass and bioenergy in a future bioeconomy: Policies and facts|journal=Environmental Development|language=en|volume=15|pages=3–34|doi=10.1016/j.envdev.2015.03.006|issn=2211-4645|last1=Scarlat|first1=Nicolae|last2=Dallemand|first2=Jean-François|last3=Monforti-Ferrario|first3=Fabio|last4=Nita|first4=Viorel|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Transplantable organs and induced regeneration ====
{{main|Synthetic biology#Other<!--not bioprinted--> transplants and induced regeneration}}

==== Microtechnology (medicine and energy) ====
{{Transcluded section|source=Synthetic biology |part=Nanoparticles, artificial cells and micro-droplets }}
{{#section-h:Synthetic biology|Nanoparticles, artificial cells and micro-droplets}}
==== Climate change adaptation and mitigation ====
{{See also|Nature-based solutions}}
<!--Besides innovations, activities and products that could transform industries and production to be sustainable, -->Activities and technologies for bio-based [[climate change adaptation]] could be considered as part of the bioeconomy. Examples may include:
* reforestation (alongside [[Deforestation#Control|forest protection]]) {{see above|[[#Forest bioeconomy|above]]}}
* algaculture carbon sequestration {{see above|[[#Algaculture|above]]}}
* [[Coral bleaching#Artificial assistance|artificial assistance to make coral reefs more resilient against climate change]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Probiotics help lab corals survive deadly heat stress |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/probiotics-lab-coral-heat-stress-death-reef-survival-ocean-warming |access-date=22 September 2021 |work=Science News |date=13 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santoro |first1=Erika P. |last2=Borges |first2=Ricardo M. |last3=Espinoza |first3=Josh L. |last4=Freire |first4=Marcelo |last5=Messias |first5=Camila S. M. A. |last6=Villela |first6=Helena D. M. |last7=Pereira |first7=Leandro M. |last8=Vilela |first8=Caren L. S. |last9=Rosado |first9=João G. |last10=Cardoso |first10=Pedro M. |last11=Rosado |first11=Phillipe M. |last12=Assis |first12=Juliana M. |last13=Duarte |first13=Gustavo A. S. |last14=Perna |first14=Gabriela |last15=Rosado |first15=Alexandre S. |last16=Macrae |first16=Andrew |last17=Dupont |first17=Christopher L. |last18=Nelson |first18=Karen E. |last19=Sweet |first19=Michael J. |last20=Voolstra |first20=Christian R. |last21=Peixoto |first21=Raquel S. |title=Coral microbiome manipulation elicits metabolic and genetic restructuring to mitigate heat stress and evade mortality |journal=Science Advances |date=August 2021 |volume=7 |issue=33 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abg3088 |pmid=34389536 |pmc=8363143 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.3088S |language=EN}}</ref>
* restoration of [[seagrass]], [[mangroves]] and [[salt marsh]]es {{see above|[[#Blue bioeconomy|above]]}}<ref>{{cite news |title=The problem with blue carbon: can seagrass be replanted … by hand? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/05/seagrass-meadows-could-turn-tide-of-climate-crisis-aoe |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=5 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Macreadie |first1=Peter I. |last2=Costa |first2=Micheli D. P. |last3=Atwood |first3=Trisha B. |last4=Friess |first4=Daniel A. |last5=Kelleway |first5=Jeffrey J. |last6=Kennedy |first6=Hilary |last7=Lovelock |first7=Catherine E. |last8=Serrano |first8=Oscar |last9=Duarte |first9=Carlos M. |title=Blue carbon as a natural climate solution |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |date=December 2021 |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=826–839 |doi=10.1038/s43017-021-00224-1 |bibcode=2021NRvEE...2..826M |language=en |issn=2662-138X|hdl=10754/673304 |s2cid=240290913 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==== Materials ====
There is a potential for biobased-production of building materials (insulation, surface materials, etc.) as well as new materials in general (polymers, plastics, composites, etc.).<ref name=""10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408""/> Photosynthetic microbial cells have been used as a step to synthetic production of [[spider silk]].<ref name=""spider-silk""/><ref name=""Foong Higuchi-Takeuchi Malay Oktaviani p. 357""/>

===== Bioplastics =====
[[Bioplastic]]s are not just one single material. They comprise a whole family of materials with different properties and applications. According to European Bioplastics, a plastic material is defined as a bioplastic if it is either [[Bioplastic|bio-based plastic]], [[biodegradable plastic]], or is a material with both properties. Bioplastics have the same properties as conventional plastics and offer additional advantages, such as a reduced carbon footprint or additional waste management options, such as [[compost]]ing.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite web|title=What are bioplastics?|url=https://www.european-bioplastics.org/bioplastics/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=www.european-bioplastics.org}}</ref>

Bioplastics are divided into three main groups:<ref name="":2"" />
* Bio-based or partially bio-based non-biodegradable plastics such as bio-based PE, PP, or PET (so-called drop-ins) and bio-based technical performance polymers such as PTT or TPC-ET
* Plastics that are both bio-based and biodegradable, such as PLA and PHA or PBS
* Plastics that are based on fossil resources and are biodegradable, such as PBAT

Additionally, new materials such as PLA, PHA, [[cellulose]] or starch-based materials offer solutions with completely new functionalities such as [[biodegradability]] and compostability, and in some cases optimized barrier properties. Along with the growth in variety of bioplastic materials, properties such as flexibility, durability, printability, transparency, barrier, heat resistance, gloss and many more have been significantly enhanced.<ref name="":2"" />

Bioplastics have been made from sugarbeet, by bacteria.<ref>[https://bloom-bioeconomy.eu/2020/04/01/video-series-on-bioeconomy-bioplastics-from-sugar-beets/ Video Series on Bioeconomy – Bioplastics from Sugar Beets].</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Bioplastics from sugerbeet video created by project ""Boosting European Citizen's Knowledge and Awareness of Bio-Economy Research and Innovation"" that is European Union Horizon project under programme H2020-EU.3.2.4.3. - Supporting market development for bio-based products and processes.|url=https://bloom-bioeconomy.eu/2020/07/16/video-series-on-bioeconomy-bioplastic-from-bacteria/|access-date=25 November 2020|website=Bloom-bioeconomy.eu|date=16 July 2020}}</ref>
====== Examples of bioplastics ======
* '''Paptic:''' There are packaging materials which combine the qualities of paper and plastic. For example, Paptic is produced from wood-based fibre that contains more than 70% wood. The material is formed with foam-forming technology that saves raw material and improves the qualities of the material. The material can be produced as reels, which enables it to be delivered with existing mills. The material is spatter-proof but is decomposed when put under water. It is more durable than paper and maintains its shape better than plastic. The material is recycled with cardboards.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fact sheet of PAPTIC®|url=https://ec.europa.eu/easme/sites/easme-site/files/pap_fact_sheet_new.pdf|access-date=17 December 2020|website=ec.europa.eu/easme|publisher=Fact sheet of EASME - Executive Agency for SMEs under European Commission}}</ref>

====== Examples of bio-composites ======
* '''Sulapac''' tins are made from wood chips and biodegradable natural binder and they have features similar to plastic. These packaging products tolerate water and fats, and they do not allow oxygen to pass. Sulapac products combine ecology, luxury and are not subject to design limitations. Sulapac can compete with traditional plastic tins by cost and is suitable for the same packing devices.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Haimi|first=Suvi|date=25 April 2017|title=The biodegradable Sulapac® material aims to challenge plastic|url=https://www.bioeconomy.fi/the-biodegradable-sulapac-material-aims-to-challenge-plastic/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=Bioeconomy.fi}}</ref>
* '''Woodio''' produces wood composite sinks and other bathroom furniture. The composite is produced by moulding a mixture of wood chips and crystal clear binder. Woodio has developed a solid wood composite that is entirely waterproof. The material has similar features to ceramic, but can be used for producing energy at the end of its lifespan, unlike ceramic waste. Solid wood composite is hard and can be moulded with wooden tools.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pasanen|first=Teemu|date=17 June 2017|title=Woodio's waterproof wood composite elevates wood to a new level|url=https://www.bioeconomy.fi/woodios-waterproof-wood-composite-elevates-wood-to-a-new-level/|website=Bioeconomy.fi}}</ref>
* '''Woodcast''' is a renewable and biodegradable casting material. It is produced from woodchips and biodegradable plastic. It is hard and durable in room temperature but when heated is flexible and self-sticky. Woodcast can be applied to all plastering and supporting elements. The material is breathable and X-ray transparent. It is used in plastering and in occupational therapy and can be moulded to any anatomical shape. Excess pieces can be reused: used casts can be disposed of either as energy or biowaste. The composite differs from traditional lime cast in that it doesn’t need water and it is non-toxic. Therefore gas-masks, gauntlets or suction fans are not required when handling the cast.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2014|title=Woodcast|url=https://www.bioeconomy.fi/woodcast-2/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=Bioeconomy.fi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=14 December 2016|title=Splinting material made from wood and bioplastics|url=https://forest.fi/products-services/splinting-material-made-from-wood-and-bioplastics/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=forest.fi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=n.d.|title=Revolutionary casting material|url=https://woodcastmedical.com/about/casting|website=woodcastmedical.com}}</ref>

===== For sustainable packaging =====
{{Transcluded section|source=Sustainable packaging# Alternatives to conventional plastics|part= }}
{{#section-h:Sustainable packaging| Alternatives to conventional plastics}}

==== Textiles ====
{{See also|Environmental impact of fashion}}
The [[textile industry]], or certain activities and elements of it, could be considered to be a strong global bioeconomy sector. Textiles are produced from natural fibres, regenerated fibres and synthetic fibres (Sinclair 2014). The natural fibre textile industry is based on cotton, linen, bamboo, hemp, wool, silk, angora, mohair and cashmere.<ref name="":4"">{{Citation|title=Textiles Used in Fashion Design|date=2008|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781474218214.ch-006|work=Textiles and Fashion|pages=156–189|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc|doi=10.5040/9781474218214.ch-006|isbn=978-1-4742-1821-4|access-date=2020-12-17}}. p. 5</ref>

Activities related to textile production and processing that more clearly fall under the domain of the bioeconomy are developments such as the [[biofabrication]] of leather-like material using fungi,<ref>{{cite news |title=Leather jackets made in labs? This fashion designer wants to make it happen |url=https://grist.org/science/leather-jackets-made-in-labs-this-fashion-designer-wants-to-make-it-happen/ |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=Grist |date=12 November 2015 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gamillo |first1=Elizabeth |title=This Mushroom-Based Leather Could Be the Next Sustainable Fashion Material |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/this-mushroom-based-leather-could-be-the-next-sustainable-fashion-material-180979170/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Mitchell |last2=Gandia |first2=Antoni |last3=John |first3=Sabu |last4=Bismarck |first4=Alexander |title=Leather-like material biofabrication using fungi |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=January 2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=9–16 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00606-1 |s2cid=221522085 |language=en |issn=2398-9629}}</ref> fungal cotton substitutes,<ref>{{cite news |title=Sustainable textiles made from fungi |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/materials/sustainable-textiles-fungi/ |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=cosmosmagazine.com |date=23 March 2022 |language=en-AU}}</ref> and renewable fibers from fungal cell walls.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Svensson |first1=Sofie E. |last2=Ferreira |first2=Jorge A. |last3=Hakkarainen |first3=Minna |last4=Adolfsson |first4=Karin H. |last5=Zamani |first5=Akram |title=Fungal textiles: Wet spinning of fungal microfibers to produce monofilament yarns |journal=Sustainable Materials and Technologies |date=1 July 2021 |volume=28 |pages=e00256 |doi=10.1016/j.susmat.2021.e00256 |language=en |issn=2214-9937|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Textile fibres can be formed in chemical processes from bio-based materials. These fibres are called bio-based regenerated fibres. The oldest regenerated fibres are viscose and rayon, produced in the 19th century. The first industrial processes used a large amount of wood as raw material, as well as harmful chemicals and water. Later the process of regenerating fibres developed to reduce the use of raw materials, chemicals, water and energy.<ref name="":4"" />

In the 1990s the first more sustainable regenerated fibres, e.g. Lyocell, entered the market with the commercial name of Tencel. The production process uses wood cellulose and it processes the fibre without harmful chemicals.<ref name="":4"" />

The next generation of regenerated fibres are under development. The production processes use less or no chemicals, and the water consumption is also diminished.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Knuuttila|first1=Kirsi|last2=Sciences{{!}}|first2=fi=Jyväskylän ammattikorkeakoulu{{!}}sv=Jyväskylän ammattikorkeakoulu{{!}}en=JAMK University of Applied|date=2020|title=Uudet bio- ja kierrätyspohjaiset tekstiilimateriaalit ja niiden ominaisuuksien testaaminen|url=http://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/344627|access-date=2020-12-17|website=www.theseus.fi}}</ref>

== Issues ==
{{See also|Synthetic biology#Ethics}}
=== Degrowth, green growth and circular economy ===
{{Further|Degrowth}}
The bioeconomy has largely been associated with visions of ""green growth"".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hausknost |first1=Daniel |last2=Schriefl |first2=Ernst |last3=Lauk |first3=Christian |last4=Kalt |first4=Gerald |title=A Transition to Which Bioeconomy? An Exploration of Diverging Techno-Political Choices |journal=Sustainability |date=April 2017 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=669 |doi=10.3390/su9040669 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref> A study found that a ""circular bioeconomy"" may be ""necessary to build a carbon neutral future in line with the climate objectives of the [[Paris Agreement]]"".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoehn |first1=Daniel |last2=Laso |first2=Jara |last3=Margallo |first3=María |last4=Ruiz-Salmón |first4=Israel |last5=Amo-Setién |first5=Francisco José |last6=Abajas-Bustillo |first6=Rebeca |last7=Sarabia |first7=Carmen |last8=Quiñones |first8=Ainoa |last9=Vázquez-Rowe |first9=Ian |last10=Bala |first10=Alba |last11=Batlle-Bayer |first11=Laura |last12=Fullana-i-Palmer |first12=Pere |last13=Aldaco |first13=Rubén |title=Introducing a Degrowth Approach to the Circular Economy Policies of Food Production, and Food Loss and Waste Management: Towards a Circular Bioeconomy |journal=Sustainability |date=January 2021 |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=3379 |doi=10.3390/su13063379 |language=en|doi-access=free |hdl=10902/21665 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> However, some are concerned that with a focus or reliance on technological progress a fundamentally unsustainable socioeconomic model might be maintained rather than be changed.<ref name=""beg"">{{cite book |last1=Pietzsch |first1=Joachim |title=Bioeconomy for Beginners |date=6 March 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-662-60390-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PkHVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 |language=en}}</ref> Some are concerned it that may not lead to a ecologization of the economy but to an economization of the biological, ""the living"" and caution that potentials of non-bio-based techniques to achieve greater sustainability need to be considered.<ref name=""beg""/> A study found that the, as of 2019, current EU interpretation of the bioeconomy is ""diametrically opposite to the original narrative of Baranoff and Georgescu-Roegen that told us that expanding the share of activities based on renewable resources in the economy would slow down economic growth and set strict limits on the overall expansion of the economy"".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Giampietro |first1=Mario |title=On the Circular Bioeconomy and Decoupling: Implications for Sustainable Growth |journal=Ecological Economics |date=1 August 2019 |volume=162 |pages=143–156 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.05.001 |s2cid=201329805 |language=en |issn=0921-8009|doi-access=free }}</ref> Furthermore, some caution that ""Silicon Valley and food corporations"" could use bioeconomy technologies for [[greenwashing]] and [[#Patents, intellectual property and monopolies|monopoly-concentrations]].<ref name=""tg2""/> The bioeconomy, its potentials, disruptive new modes of production and innovations may distract from the need for systemic structural socioeconomic changes<ref name=""effectspaper"">{{cite journal |last1=Forster |first1=Piers M. |last2=Forster |first2=Harriet I. |last3=Evans |first3=Mat J. |last4=Gidden |first4=Matthew J. |last5=Jones |first5=Chris D. |last6=Keller |first6=Christoph A. |last7=Lamboll |first7=Robin D. |last8=Quéré |first8=Corinne Le |last9=Rogelj |first9=Joeri|author9-link=Joeri Rogelj |last10=Rosen |first10=Deborah |last11=Schleussner |first11=Carl-Friedrich |last12=Richardson |first12=Thomas B. |last13=Smith |first13=Christopher J. |last14=Turnock |first14=Steven T. |title=Current and future global climate impacts resulting from COVID-19 |journal=Nature Climate Change |date=7 August 2020 |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=913–919 |doi=10.1038/s41558-020-0883-0 |bibcode=2020NatCC..10..913F |s2cid=221019148 |language=en |issn=1758-6798|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1= Ripple |first1=William J.|display-authors=etal.|date=July 28, 2021 |title=World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency 2021 |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biab079/6325731 |journal=BioScience |volume=71|issue=9|pages=894–898|doi=10.1093/biosci/biab079 |access-date=July 29, 2021|hdl=1808/30278 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and provide a false illusion of [[technocapitalism|technocapitalist]] [[Technological utopianism|utopianism/optimism]] that suggests [[technological fix]]es<ref name=""10.3390/su5062589"">{{Cite journal|last1=McCormick|first1=Kes|last2=Kautto|first2=Niina|date=2013|title=The Bioeconomy in Europe: An Overview|journal=Sustainability|volume=5|issue=6|pages=2589–2608|doi=10.3390/su5062589|doi-access=free}}</ref> may make it possible to sustain contemporary patterns and structures, pre-empting structural changes.

===Unemployment and work reallocation===
{{Further|Technological unemployment}}
Many farmers depend on conventional methods of producing crops and many of them live in developing economies.<ref>{{cite news |title=Eco-friendly, lab-grown coffee is on the way, but it comes with a catch |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/16/lab-grown-coffee-eco-friendly |access-date=26 October 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=16 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Cellular agriculture for products such as synthetic coffee could, if the contemporary socioeconomic context (the socio[[economic system]]'s mechanisms such as incentives and resource distribution mechanisms like markets) remains unaltered (e.g. in nature, purposes, scopes, limits and degrees), threaten their employment and livelihoods as well as the respective nation's economy and social stability. A study concluded that ""given the expertise required and the high investment costs of the innovation, it seems unlikely that cultured meat immediately benefits the poor in developing countries"" and emphasized that animal agriculture is often essential for the subsistence for farmers in poor countries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Treich |first1=Nicolas |title=Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges |journal=Environmental & Resource Economics |year=2021 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=33–61 |doi=10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3 |pmid=33758465 |pmc=7977488 |language=en}}</ref> However, not only developing countries may be affected.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Newton |first1=Peter |last2=Blaustein-Rejto |first2=Daniel |title=Social and Economic Opportunities and Challenges of Plant-Based and Cultured Meat for Rural Producers in the US |journal=Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems |date=2021 |volume=5 |pages=10 |doi=10.3389/fsufs.2021.624270 |issn=2571-581X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Patents, intellectual property and monopolies ===
Observers worry that the bioeconomy will become as opaque and free of accountability as the industry it attempts to replace, that is the current [[food system]]. The fear is that its core products will be mass-produced, nutritionally dubious meat sold at the homogeneous fast-food joints of the future.<ref name=""tg2"">{{cite news |title=Man v food: is lab-grown meat really going to solve our nasty agriculture problem? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/29/lab-grown-meat-factory-farms-industrial-agriculture-animals |access-date=26 October 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=29 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

The medical community has warned that [[Biological patent|gene patents]] can inhibit the practice of medicine and progress of science.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Andrews | first1 = LB | year = 2000 | title = Genes and Patent Policy: Rethinking IP Rights | journal = Nature Reviews Genetics | volume = 3 | issue = 10 | pages = 803–8 | doi=10.1038/nrg909| pmid = 12360238 | s2cid = 13822192 }}</ref> This can also apply to other areas where patents and private intellectual property licenses are being used, often entirely preventing the use and continued development of knowledge and techniques for many years or decades. On the other hand, some worry that without intellectual property protection as the type of R&D-incentive, particularly to current degrees and extents, companies would no longer have the resources or motives/incentives to perform competitive, viable biotech research – as otherwise they may not be able to generate sufficient returns from initial R&D investment or less returns than from other expenditures that are possible.<ref>Marchant GE. 2007. Genomics, Ethics, and Intellectual Property. Intellectual Property Management in Health and Agricultural Innovation: A Handbook of Best Practices. Ch 1.5:29-38</ref> ""[[Biopiracy]]"" refers to ""the use of intellectual property systems to legitimize the exclusive ownership and control over biological resources and biological products that have been used over centuries in non-industrialized cultures"".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=Chris |title=Intellectual property rights, the bioeconomy and the challenge of biopiracy |journal=Genomics, Society and Policy |date=15 December 2008 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=26 |doi=10.1186/1746-5354-4-3-26 |s2cid=35186396 |issn=1746-5354|doi-access=free |pmc=5424966 }}</ref>

Rather than leading to sustainable, healthy, inexpensive, safe, accessible food being produced with little labor locally – after [[technology transfer|knowledge-]] and [[technology transfer]] and timely, efficient [[innovation]] – the bioeconomy may lead to aggressive [[monopoly|monopoly-formation]] and exacerbated inequality.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Braun |first1=Veit |title=Bioeconomy and Global Inequalities |chapter=Tools of Extraction or Means of Speculation? Making Sense of Patents in the Bioeconomy |journal=Bioeconomy and Global Inequalities: Socio-Ecological Perspectives on Biomass Sourcing and Production |date=2021 |pages=65–84 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-68944-5_4 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-68943-8 |s2cid=236731518 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Birch |first1=Kean |title=Rethinking Value in the Bio-economy: Finance, Assetization, and the Management of Value |journal=Science, Technology, & Human Values |date=1 May 2017 |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=460–490 |doi=10.1177/0162243916661633 |pmid=28458406 |pmc=5390941 |s2cid=1702910 |language=en |issn=0162-2439}}</ref><ref name=""tg2""/>{{additional citation needed|date=October 2021}} For instance, while production costs may be minimal, costs – including of medicine<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Löfgren |first1=Hans |title=The Competition State and the Private Control of Healthcare |journal=Global Health Governance |date=2009 |pages=245–264 |doi=10.1057/9780230249486_12 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-349-30228-4 |language=en}}</ref> – may be high.

=== Innovation management, public spending and governance ===
{{See also|Strategic planning}}
It has been argued that public investment would be a tool governments should use to regulate and license cellular agriculture. Private firms and venture capital would likely seek to maximise investor value rather than social welfare.<ref name=""tg2""/> Moreover, radical innovation is considered to be more risky, ""and likely involves more information asymmetry, so that private financial markets may imperfectly manage these frictions"". Governments may also help to coordinate ""since several innovators may be needed to push the knowledge frontier and make the market profitable, but no single company wants to make the early necessary investments"". And investments in the relevant sectors seem to be a bottleneck hindering the transition toward a bioeconomy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hinderer |first1=Sebastian|last2=Brändle |first2=Leif|last3=Kuckertz|first3=Andreas|date=2021 |title=Transition to a Sustainable Bioeconomy|journal=Sustainability |volume=13 |issue=15 |pages=8232 |doi=10.3390/SU13158232 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Governments could also help innovators that lack the network ""to naturally obtain the visibility and political influence necessary to obtain public funds"" and could help determine relevant laws.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Treich |first1=Nicolas |title=Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges |journal=Environmental and Resource Economics |date=1 May 2021 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=33–61 |doi=10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3 |pmid=33758465 |pmc=7977488 |language=en |issn=1573-1502}}</ref>
By establishing supporting infrastructure for entrepreneurial ecosystems they can help creating a beneficial environment for innovative bioeconomy startups.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuckertz |first1=Andreas|last2=Berger|first2=Elisabeth S.C.|last3=Brändle |first3=Leif|title=Entrepreneurship and the sustainable bioeconomy transformation |journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions | date=2020 |volume=37 |pages=332–344 |doi=10.1016/j.eist.2020.10.003 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Enabling such bioeconomy startups to act on the opportunities provided through the bioeconomy transformation further contributes to its success.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hinderer |first1=Sebastian|last2=Kuckertz|first2=Andreas|date=2022 |title=The bioeconomy transformation as an external enabler of sustainable entrepreneurship|url= https://doi.org/10.1002/BSE.3056 |journal=Business Strategy and the Environment| volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=2947–2963|doi=10.1002/BSE.3056 |hdl=10419/266672|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

== In popular media ==
[[Biopunk]] – so called due to similarity with [[cyberpunk]] – is a genre of science fiction that often thematizes the bioeconomy as well as its potential issues and technologies. The novel ''[[The Windup Girl]]'' portrays a society driven by a ruthless bioeconomy and [[climate fiction|ailing under climate change]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Idema |first1=Tom |title=When the levees break: global heating, watery rhetoric and complexity in Paolo Bacigalupi's The Windup Girl |journal=Green Letters |date=2 January 2020 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=51–63 |doi=10.1080/14688417.2020.1752509 |s2cid=219811345 |issn=1468-8417|doi-access=free }}</ref> In the more recent novel ''Change Agent'' prevalent black market clinics offer wealthy people unauthorized [[human genetic enhancement]] services and e.g. custom narcotics are 3D-printed locally or smuggled with [[soft robot]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=Adi |title=Change Agent is a terrible book that will make a great movie |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/18/15162608/change-agent-daniel-suarez-movie-option-genetic-engineering-review |website=The Verge |access-date=29 October 2021 |language=en |date=18 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Aune |first1=Clayton J. |title=Building the Hyper-Capable Operator: Should the Military Enhance Its Special Operations Warriors? |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1120842 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029160833/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1120842 |url-status=live |archive-date=October 29, 2021 |publisher=Naval War College – Newport, R.I.|language=en |date=7 June 2019}}</ref> [[Solarpunk]] is another emerging genre that focuses on the relationship between human societies and the environment and also addresses many of the bioeconomy's issues and technologies such as genetic engineering, synthetic meat and commodification.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farver |first1=Kenneth |title=Negotiating the Boundaries of Solarpunk Literature in Environmental Justice |url=https://cedar.wwu.edu/wwu_honors/124/ |journal=WWU Honors College Senior Projects |date=1 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mohr |first1=Dunja M. |title=Mohr, Dunja M.: Anthropocene Fiction: Narrating the 'Zero Hour' in Margaret Atwood's MaddAddam Trilogy. Writing Beyond the End Times? The Literatures of Canada and Quebec. Eds. Ursula Mathis-Moser and Marie Carrière. Innsbruck: Innsbruck UP, 2017, 25-46. |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/39934/9783903122970.pdf |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col}}
* [[Bioremediation]]
* [[Biosynthesis]]
* [[Chemurgy]]
* [[Cross-laminated timber]]
* [[Degrowth]]
* [[Digital economy]]
* [[European Green Deal]]
* [[Plyscraper]]
* [[Oleochemical]]
* [[Open innovation]]
* [[Single-cell protein]]
* [[Synthetic ivory]]
* [[Straw-bale construction]]
* [[Timeline of biotechnology]]
* [[Framing (construction)|Wood frame building]]
* [[Working animal]]
{{div col end}}

{{Portal|Biology|Technology}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Bioeconomy}}
*{{website|https://ec.europa.eu/knowledge4policy/bioeconomy_en/|European Commission's Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy}}
*[https://www.fao.org/in-action/sustainable-and-circular-bioeconomy/en/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Sustainable and circular bioeconomy]

{{Biotechnology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[Category:Alternative energy economics]]
[[Category:Industries (economics)]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Economy by field]]"
Environmental governance,"{{short description|Concept in political ecology and environmental policy}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Essay-like|date = September 2013}}
{{Buzzword|date = September 2013}}
}}
{{Governance}}
{{broader|Environmental, social, and corporate governance}}

'''Environmental governance (EG)''' consists of a system of laws, norms, rules, policies and practices that dictate how the board members of an [[Regulatory agency|environment related regulatory body]] should manage and oversee the affairs of any [[Regulatory agency|environment related regulatory body]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manchester |first1=University |title=MSc Environmental Governance |url=https://www.manchester.ac.uk/study/masters/courses/list/06967/msc-environmental-governance/ |website=University of Manchester |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> which is responsible for ensuring [[sustainability]] ([[sustainable development]]) and [[Management|manage]] all human activities—[[Politics|political]], [[social]] and [[Economy|economic]].<ref>Page 8. The Soft Path in a Nutshell. (2005). Oliver M Brandes and David B Brooks. University of Victoria, Victoria, BC.</ref> Environmental governance includes government, business and civil society, and emphasizes whole [[Systems management|system management]]. To capture this diverse range of elements, environmental governance often employs alternative systems of governance, for example watershed-based management.<ref>IPlanet U, R. Michael M'Gonigle, Justine Starke</ref> Obviously, in fact the EG arrangements are very diversed and not at all as inclusive as we could wish them to be. 

In some cases, it views natural resources and the environment as global public goods, belonging to the category of [[goods]] that are not diminished when they are shared.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.institut-gouvernance.org/en/analyse/fiche-analyse-317.html |title=Launay, Claire, Mouriès, Thomas, '' Les différentes catégories de biens '', summary and excerpt from Pierre Calame’s book, ’’La démocratie en miettes’’, 2003. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-date=2009-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913042940/http://www.institut-gouvernance.org/en/analyse/fiche-analyse-317.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> This means that everyone benefits from, for example, a breathable [[atmosphere]], stable [[climate]] and stable biodiversity. But obviously, following Ostrom's analysis, many environmental goods are rival and qualify as common-pool resources (CPRs). (Ostrom, 1990). Therefore, they need to be managed with care and require deliberation among involved parties.

==Definitions==

''Environmental governance'' refers to the processes of [[decision-making]] involved in the control and management of the environment and [[natural resource]]s. [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), define environmental governance as the 'multi-level interactions (i.e., local, national, international/global) among, but not limited to, three main actors, i.e., state, [[market (economics)|market]], and civil society, which interact with one another, whether in formal and informal ways; in formulating and implementing policies in response to environment-related demands and inputs from the society; bound by rules, procedures, processes, and widely accepted behavior; possessing characteristics of “good governance”; for the purpose of attaining environmentally-[[sustainable development]]' (IUCN 2014)

Key principles of environmental governance include:

* Embedding the environment in all levels of decision-making and action
* Conceptualizing cities and communities, economic and political life as a subset of the environment
* Emphasizing the connection of people to the ecosystems in which they live
* Promoting the transition from open-loop/cradle-to-grave systems (like garbage disposal with no recycling) to closed-loop/[[cradle-to-cradle]] systems (like [[permaculture]] and [[zero waste]] strategies).

''Neoliberal environmental governance'' is an approach to the theory of environmental governance framed by a perspective on [[neoliberalism]] as an ideology, policy and practice in relation to the biophysical world. There are many definitions and applications of neoliberalism, e.g. in economic, international relations, etc. However, the traditional understanding of neoliberalism is often simplified to the notion of the primacy of market-led economics through the rolling back of the state, [[deregulation]] and [[privatisation]]. Neoliberalism has evolved particularly over the last 40 years with many scholars leaving their ideological footprint on the neoliberal map. [[Hayek]] and [[Friedman]] believed in the superiority of the free market over state intervention. As long as the market was allowed to act freely, the supply/demand law would ensure the ‘optimal’ price and reward. In [[Karl Polanyi]]'s opposing view this would also create a state of tension in which self-regulating [[free market]]s disrupt and alter social interactions and “displace other valued means of living and working”.<ref>Castree, N. (2007) ‘Neoliberal ecologies’, in Nik Heynen, James McCarthy, Scott Prudham and Paul Robbins (eds.) Neoliberal environments, London: Routledge, p.  281.</ref> However, in contrast to the notion of an unregulated market economy there has also been a “paradoxical increase in [state] intervention”<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/1467-8330.00250|page=454|title=Liberalism, Neoliberalism, and Urban Governance: A State-Theoretical Perspective|journal=Antipode|volume=34|issue=3|year=2002|last1=Jessop|first1=Bob|bibcode=2002Antip..34..452J |s2cid=14246801 }}</ref> in the choice of economic, legislative and social policy reforms, which are pursued by the state to preserve the neoliberal order. This contradictory process is described by Peck and Tickell as roll back/roll out neoliberalism in which on one hand the state willingly gives up the control over resources and responsibility for social provision while on the other, it engages in “purposeful construction and consolidation of neoliberalised state forms, modes of governance, and regulatory relations"".<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/1467-8330.00247|page=382|title=Neoliberalizing Space|journal=Antipode|volume=34|issue=3|year=2002|last1=Peck|first1=Jamie|last2=Tickell|first2=Adam|bibcode=2002Antip..34..380P |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03142138/file/Bally_F.%20Transition%202020.pdf}}</ref>

There has been a growing interest in the effects of neoliberalism on the politics of the non-human world of environmental governance. Neoliberalism is seen to be more than a [[Homogenous|homogenous and monolithic]] ‘thing’ with a clear end point.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/1045575052000335339|page=6|title=The neoliberalization of nature: Governance, privatization, enclosure and valuation|journal=Capitalism Nature Socialism|volume=16|year=2005|last1=Heynen|first1=Nik|last2=Robbins|first2=Paul|issue=1|s2cid=144519444}}</ref> It is a series of path-dependent, spatially and temporally “connected neoliberalisation” processes which affect and are affected by nature and environment that “cover a remarkable array of places, regions and countries”.<ref>Castree, N. (2007) ‘Neoliberal ecologies’, in Nik Heynen, James McCarthy, Scott Prudham and Paul Robbins (eds.) Neoliberal environments, London: Routledge, p.  283.</ref>  Co-opting neoliberal ideas of the importance of private property and the protection of individual (investor) rights, into environmental governance can be seen in the example of recent multilateral trade agreements (see in particular the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]]). Such neoliberal structures further reinforce a process of nature enclosure and primitive accumulation or “accumulation by dispossession” that serves to privatise increasing areas of nature.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2003.07.002|page=327|title=Privatizing conditions of production: Trade agreements as neoliberal environmental governance|journal=Geoforum|volume=35|issue=3|year=2004|last1=McCarthy|first1=James}}</ref> The ownership-transfer of resources traditionally not privately owned to free market mechanisms is believed to deliver greater efficiency and optimal return on investment.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/1045575052000335384|title=Dispossessing H2O: The contested terrain of water privatization|journal=Capitalism Nature Socialism|volume=16|pages=81–98|year=2005|last1=Swyngedouw|first1=Erik|issue=1 |s2cid=131323368}}</ref> Other similar examples of neo-liberal inspired projects include the enclosure of minerals, the fisheries quota system in the North Pacific<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.00414.x|title=Rules of Privatization: Contradictions in Neoliberal Regulation of North Pacific Fisheries|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|volume=94|issue=3|pages=565–584|year=2004|last1=Mansfield|first1=Becky|s2cid=18365959}}</ref> and the [[water privatization|privatisation of water supply]] and [[sewage treatment]] in England and Wales.<ref>Bakker, K. (2004) An uncooperative commodity: privatizing water in England and Wales, Oxford: Oxford University Press</ref> All three examples share neoliberal characteristics to “deploy markets as the solution to environmental problems” in which scarce natural resources are commercialized and turned into commodities.<ref>Bakker, K. (2004) An uncooperative commodity: privatizing water in England and Wales, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.431</ref> The approach to frame the ecosystem in the context of a price-able commodity is also present in the work of neoliberal geographers who subject nature to price and supply/demand mechanisms where the earth is considered to be a [[quantifiable]] resource ([[Robert Costanza|Costanza]], for example, estimates the earth [[ecosystem services|ecosystem's service]] value to be between 16 and 54 trillion dollars per year<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/387253a0|page=255|title=The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital|journal=Nature|volume=387|issue=6630|year=1997|last1=Costanza|first1=Robert|last2=d'Arge|first2=Ralph|last3=De Groot|first3=Rudolf|last4=Farber|first4=Stephen|last5=Grasso|first5=Monica|last6=Hannon|first6=Bruce|last7=Limburg|first7=Karin|last8=Naeem|first8=Shahid|last9=O'Neill|first9=Robert V.|last10=Paruelo|first10=Jose|last11=Raskin|first11=Robert G.|last12=Sutton|first12=Paul|last13=Van Den Belt|first13=Marjan|bibcode=1997Natur.387..253C|s2cid=672256}}</ref>).

==Environmental issues==

===Main drivers of environmental degradation===

''[[Economic growth]]'' – The development-centric vision that prevails in most countries and international institutions advocates a headlong rush towards more economic growth. Environmental economists on the other hand, point to a close correlation between economic growth and [[environmental degradation]], arguing for qualitative development as an alternative to growth. As a result, the past couple of decades has seen a big shift towards sustainable development as an alternative to neo-liberal economics. There are those, particularly within the alternative globalization movement, who maintain that it is feasible to change to a [[degrowth]] phase without losing social efficiency or lowering the [[quality of life]].

''[[Consumption (economics)|Consumption]]'' – The growth of consumption and the cult of consumption, or [[consumerist]] ideology, is the major cause of economic growth. [[Overdevelopment]], seen as the only alternative to poverty, has become an end in itself. The means for curbing this growth are not equal to the task, since the phenomenon is not confined to a growing middle class in developing countries, but also concerns the development of irresponsible lifestyles, particularly in northern countries, such as the increase in the size and number of homes and cars per person.

''Destruction of [[biodiversity]]'' – The complexity of the planet's ecosystems means that the loss of any species has [[unexpected consequences]]. The stronger the impact on biodiversity, the stronger the likelihood of a chain reaction with unpredictable negative effects. Another important factor of environmental degradation that falls under this destruction of biodiversity, and must not be ignored is deforestation. Despite all the damage inflicted, a number of ecosystems have proved to be [[Resilience (ecology)|resilient]]. Environmentalists are endorsing a precautionary principle whereby all potentially damaging activities would have to be analyzed for their [[environmental impact]].

''[[Population growth]]'' – Forecasts predict 8.9 billion people on the planet in 2050. This is a subject which primarily affects developing countries, but also concerns northern countries; although their demographic growth is lower, the environmental impact per person is far higher in these countries. Demographic growth needs to be countered by developing education and family planning programs and generally improving women's status.

""[[Pollution]]"" - Pollution caused by the use of fossil fuels is another driver of environmental destruction. The burning of carbon-based fossil fuels such as coal and oil, releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. One of the major impacts of this is the climate change that is currently taking place on the planet, where the earth's temperature is gradually rising. Given that fuels such as coal and oil are the most heavily used fuels, this a great concern to many environmentalists.

""Agricultural practices"" - Destructive agricultural practices such as overuse of fertilizers and [[overgrazing]] lead to land degradation. The soil gets [[soil erosion|eroded]], and leads to silting in rivers and reservoirs. Soil erosion is a continuous cycle and ultimately results in [[desertification]] of the land. Apart from [[land degradation]], [[water pollution]] is also a possibility; chemicals used in farming can [[surface runoff|run-off]] into rivers and [[water contamination|contaminate the water]].

===Challenges===

Challenges facing environmental governance include:

* Inadequate continental and global agreements
* Unresolved tensions between maximum development, sustainable development and maximum protection, limiting funding, damaging links with the economy and limiting application of [[Multilateral Environment Agreement]]s (MEAs).
* Environmental funding is not self-sustaining, diverting resources from problem-solving into funding battles.
* Lack of integration of sector policies
* Inadequate institutional capacities
* Ill-defined priorities
* Unclear objectives
* Lack of coordination within the UN, governments, the private sector and civil society
* Lack of shared vision
* Interdependencies among development/sustainable economic growth, trade, agriculture, health, peace and security.
* International imbalance between environmental governance and trade and finance programs, e.g., [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO).
* Limited credit for organizations running projects within the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
* Linking [[UNEP]], [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) and the [[World Bank]] with MEAs
* Lack of government capacity to satisfy MEA obligations
* Absence of the gender perspective and equity in environmental governance
* Inability to influence public opinion<ref name=""inforesources2005"">[http://www.inforesources.ch/pdf/focus_3_05_e.pdf Global Conventions and Environmental Governance; Inforesources Focus No. 3, 2005.]</ref><ref name=unep>UNEP; International Environmental Governance and the Reform of the United Nations, XVI Meeting of the Forum of Environment Ministers of Latin America and the Caribbean;  2008.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/civil_society/PDF_docs/3rdGCSF_CS_Statement_IEG.pdf |title=Civil Society Statement on International Environmental Governance; Seventh special session of the UNEP Governing Council/GMEF; Cartagena, Colombia; February 2002. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-date=2009-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422073745/http://www.unep.org/civil_society/PDF_docs/3rdGCSF_CS_Statement_IEG.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Time lag between human action and environmental effect, sometimes as long as a generation<ref name=""Underdal, A 2010, pp.386-393"">{{cite journal | last1 = Underdal | first1 = A | year = 2010 | title = Complexity and challenges of long term environmental governance | journal = Global Environmental Change | volume = 20 | issue = 3| pages = 386–393 | doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.02.005}}</ref>
* Environmental problems being embedded in very complex systems, of which our understanding is still quite weak<ref name=""Underdal, A 2010, pp.386-393""/>

All of these challenges have implications on governance, however international environmental governance is necessary. The IDDRI claims that rejection of [[multilateralism]] in the name of efficiency and protection of national interests conflicts with the promotion of international law and the concept of global public goods. Others cite the complex nature of environmental problems.

On the other hand, The [[local Agenda 21|Agenda 21]] program has been implemented in over 7,000 communities.<ref>7,000 municipalities is very few, as over a million municipalities exist on the planet and that initial forecasts were for local agenda 21 actions being adopted in 500,000 municipalities in 1996 and throughout the rest of the planet in 2000</ref> Environmental problems, including global-scale problems, may not always require global solutions. For example, marine pollution can be tackled regionally, and ecosystem deterioration can be addressed locally. Other global problems such as climate change benefit from local and regional action.

Bäckstrand and Saward wrote, “sustainability and environmental protection is an arena in which innovative experiments with new hybrid, plurilateral forms of governance, along with the incorporation of a transnational civil society spanning the public-private divide, are taking place.”<ref name=Saward>[http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p58974_index.html Bäckstrand, Karin; Saward, Michel; Democratizing Global Governance: Stakeholder Democracy at the World Summit for Sustainable Development; Document presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association; Chicago; 2005.]</ref>

===Local governance===
A 1997 report observed a global consensus that sustainable development implementation should be based on local level solutions and initiatives designed with and by the local communities.<ref name=""Leach, M. 1997 pp 1"">Leach, M., Mearns, R and Scoones, I. (1997), Challenges to community based sustainable development, in IDS Bulletin Vol 28:4, pp 1</ref> Community participation and partnership along with the decentralisation of government power to local communities are important aspects of environmental governance at the local level. Initiatives such as these are integral divergence from earlier environmental governance approaches which was “driven by state agendas and resource control”<ref name=""Leach, M. 1997 pp 1""/> and followed a top-down or trickle down approach rather than the bottom up approach that local level governance encompasses. The adoption of practices or interventions at a local scale can, in part, be explained by [[Diffusion of innovations|diffusion of innovation]] theory.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last1=Mascia|first1=Michael B.|last2=Mills|first2=Morena|title=When conservation goes viral: The diffusion of innovative biodiversity conservation policies and practices|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=11|issue=3|language=en|doi=10.1111/conl.12442|issn=1755-263X|year=2018|pages=e12442|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018ConL...11E2442M |hdl=10044/1/76315|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In Tanzania and in the Pacific, researchers have illustrated that aspects of the intervention, of the adopter, and of the social-ecological context all shape why community-centered conservation interventions spread through space and time.<ref name="":0"" /> Local level governance shifts decision-making power away from the state and/or governments to the grassroots. Local level governance is extremely important even on a global scale. Environmental governance at the global level is defined as international and as such has resulted in the marginalisation of local voices. Local level governance is important to bring back power to local communities in the global fight against environmental degridation.<ref name=""Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 57"">Elliot, L. (1956), Global Environmental Governance, in Hughes, S. and Wilkinson, R. (eds), Global Governance: Critical Perspectives, London: Routledge, ch. 4, pp. 57</ref>  Pulgar Vidal observed a “new institutional framework, [wherein] decision-making regarding access to and use of natural resources has become increasingly decentralized.”<ref name=pv>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11304196171GAD-espanol.pdf |title=Pulgar Vidal, Manuel; Gobernanza Ambiental Descentralizada (Decentralized Environmental Governance); 2005. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609013624/http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11304196171GAD-espanol.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He noted four techniques that can be used to develop these processes:

* formal and informal regulations, procedures and processes, such as consultations and participative democracy;
* social interaction that can arise from participation in development programs or from the reaction to perceived injustice;
* regulating social behaviours to reclassify an individual question as a [[public matter]];
* within-group [[participation (decision making)|participation]] in decision-making and relations with external actors.

He found that the key conditions for developing decentralized environmental governance are:

* access to [[social capital]], including local knowledge, leaders and local shared vision;
* democratic access to information and decision-making;
* local government activity in environmental governance: as facilitator of access to natural resources, or as policy maker;
* an institutional framework that favours decentralized environmental governance and creates forums for social interaction and making widely accepted agreements acceptable.<ref name=pv/>

The legitimacy of decisions depends on the local population's participation rate and on how well participants represent that population.<ref name=poats>{{Cite web |url=http://www.portalces.org/content/view/85/100000022/lang,Spanish |title=Suárez, David; Poats, Susan V.; Procesos de Gobernanza Ambiental en el Manejo Participativo de Áreas Protegidas en Carchi (Environmental Governance Processes in the Participative Management of Carchi Protected Areas); Symposium; 2008. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731215822/http://www.portalces.org/content/view/85/100000022/lang,spanish/ |archive-date=2009-07-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
With regard to public authorities, questions linked to biodiversity can be faced by adopting appropriate policies and strategies, through exchange of knowledge and experience, the forming of partnerships, correct management of land use, monitoring of biodiversity and optimal use of resources, or reducing consumption, and promoting environmental certifications, such as EMAS and/or ISO 14001. Local authorities undoubtedly have a central role to play in the protection of biodiversity and this strategy is successful above all when the authorities show strength by involving stakeholders in a credible environmental improvement project and activating a transparent and effective communication policy (Ioppolo et al., 2013).<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.08.010|title=From coastal management to environmental management: The sustainable eco-tourism program for the mid-western coast of Sardinia (Italy)|journal=Land Use Policy|volume=31|pages=460–471|year=2013|last1=Ioppolo|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Saija|first2=Giuseppe|last3=Salomone|first3=Roberta}}</ref>

===State governance===
States play a crucial role in environmental governance, because ""however far and fast international economic integration proceeds, political authority remains vested in national governments"".<ref>Cable, V. 1999, ''Globalisation and global governance'', Chatham House Papers, London</ref> It is for this reason that governments should respect and support the commitment to implementation of international agreements.<ref>WHAT 2000, ""Governance for a sustainable future"", Reports of the Commissions of the World Humanity Action Trust, viewed 22 April 2014, http://www.stakeholderforum.org/policy/governance/future.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007093122/http://www.stakeholderforum.org/policy/governance/future.pdf |date=2006-10-07 }}</ref>

At the state level, [[environmental management]] has been found to be conducive to the creation of roundtables and committees. In France, the ''Grenelle de l’environnement''<ref>Operational Committee No. 24 ""Institutions and stakeholder representativity"" (introduced by Bertrand Pancher); Final report to the Prime Minister, senior Minister, Minister for the Ecology, Sustainable Development and Territorial Planning; 2008, also known as the Rapport Pancher.</ref> process:

* included a variety of actors (e.g. the state, political leaders, unions, businesses, not-for-profit organizations and environmental protection foundations);
* allowed stakeholders to interact with the legislative and executive powers in office as indispensable advisors;
* worked to integrate other institutions, particularly the [[French Economic, Social and Environmental Council|Economic and Social Council]], to form a pressure group that participated in the process for creating an environmental governance model;
* attempted to link with environmental management at regional and local levels.

If environmental issues are excluded from e.g., the economic agenda, this may delegitimize those institutions.<ref>[http://www.eauxglacees.com/Gouvernance-environnementale-vers Laime, Marc; Gouvernance environnementale: vers une meilleure concertation ? (Environmental Governance: towards better consultation?); 2008.]</ref>

“In southern countries, the main obstacle to the integration of intermediate levels in the process of territorial environmental governance development is often the dominance of developmentalist inertia in states’ political mindset. The question of the environment has not been effectively integrated in national development planning and programs. Instead, the most common idea is that environmental protection curbs economic and social development, an idea encouraged by the frenzy for exporting raw materials extracted using destructive methods that consume resources and fail to generate any added value.”<ref>[http://www.iucn.org/es/sobre/union/secretaria/oficinas/sudamerica/sur_trabajo/sur_pgam.cfm IUCN; Gobernanza ambiental para un desarrollo sostenible (Environmental Governance for Sustainable Development).]</ref> Of course they are justified in this thinking, as their main concerns are social injustices such as poverty alleviation. Citizens in some of these states have responded by developing empowerment strategies to ease poverty through sustainable development. In addition to this, policymakers must be more aware of these concerns of the global south, and must make sure to integrate a strong focus on social justice in their policies.

=== Global governance ===
According to the [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]], global environmental governance is ""the sum of organizations, policy instruments, financing mechanisms, rules, procedures and norms that regulate the processes of global environmental protection.""<ref>{{Citation |last=Deere-Birkbeck |first=Carolyn |title=WTO Reform: A Forward-looking Agenda on Environmental Sustainability |date=2019-05-13 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.14217/86877f45-en |work=WTO Reform |pages=33–59 |publisher=Commonwealth |doi=10.14217/86877f45-en |isbn=978-1-84859-977-2 |s2cid=164287165 |access-date=2022-03-02}}</ref> At the global level there are numerous important actors involved in environmental governance and ""a range of institutions contribute to and help define the practice of global environmental governance.<ref name=""Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 57""/> The idea of global environmental governance is to govern the environment at a global level through a range of nation states and non state actors such as national governments, [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] and other international organisations such as UNEP ([[United Nations Environment Programme]]).<ref>{{Citation |last=Tarter |first=Andrew |title=Environment Programme, UN (UNEP) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452275956.n127 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Crisis Management |year=2013 |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc. |doi=10.4135/9781452275956.n127 |isbn=9781452226125 |access-date=2022-03-02}}</ref> The global environmental movement can be traced back to the 19th century; academics acknowledge the role of the [[United Nations]] for providing a platform for international conversations regarding the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Patt |first=Anthony G. |date=2010-02-01 |title=Effective regional energy governance—not global environmental governance—is what we need right now for climate change |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378009000855 |journal=Global Environmental Change |series=Adaptive Capacity to Global Change in Latin America |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=33–35 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.09.006 |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> Supporters of global environmental governance emphasize the importance of [[Multilateralism|international cooperation]] on environmental issues such as climate change. Some opponents argue that more aggressive regional environmental governance has a stronger impact compared to global environmental governance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Patt |first=Anthony G. |date=February 2010 |title=Effective regional energy governance—not global environmental governance—is what we need right now for climate change |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959378009000855 |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=33–35 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.09.006}}</ref>

Global environmental governance is the answer to calls for new forms of governance because of the increasing complexity of the international agenda. It is perceived to be an effective form of multilateral management and essential to the international community in meeting goals of mitigation and the possible reversal of the impacts on the global environment.<ref name=""Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 58"">Elliot, L. (1956), Global Environmental Governance, in Hughes, S. and Wilkinson, R. (eds), Global Governance: Critical Perspectives, London: Routledge, ch. 4, pp. 58</ref> However, a precise definition of global environmental governance is still vague and there are many issues surrounding global governance.<ref name=""Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 58"" />
Elliot argues that “the congested institutional terrain still provides more of an appearance than a reality of comprehensive global governance.”<ref name=""Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 58"" /> It is a political practice which simultaneously reflects, constitutes and masks global relations of power and powerlessness.”<ref name=""Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 58"" /> State agendas exploit the use of global environmental governance to enhance their oven agendas or wishes even if this is at the detriment of the vital element behind global environmental governance which is the environment. Elliot states that global environmental governance “is neither normatively neutral nor materially benign.”<ref name=""Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 58"" />
As explored by Newell, report notes by The Global Environmental Outlook noted that the systems of global environmental governance are becoming increasingly irrelevant or impotent due to patterns of globalisation such as; imbalances in productivity and the distribution of goods and services, unsustainable progression of extremes of wealth and poverty and population and economic growth overtaking environmental gains.<ref name=""Newell, P. 2008 pp 508"">{{cite journal|jstor=40212487|page=508|title=The Political Economy of Global Environmental Governance|journal=Review of International Studies|volume=34|issue=3|last1=Newell|first1=Peter|year=2008|doi=10.1017/S0260210508008140|s2cid=146654612|url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/12575/1/S0260210508008140a.pdf}}</ref> Newell states that, despite such acknowledgements, the “managing of global environmental change within International Relations continues to look to international regimes for the answers.”<ref name=""Newell, P. 2008 pp 508"" />

==== Environmental Governance in the Global North and Global South ====
Relations between the [[Global North and Global South]] have been impacted by a history of [[colonialism]], during which Northern colonial powers contributed to environmental degradation of natural resources in the South.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shepherd |first1=Christopher |last2=Palmer |first2=Lisa |date=2015-01-01 |title=The Modern Origins of Traditional Agriculture: Colonial Policy, Swidden Development, and Environmental Degradation in Eastern Timor |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/bki/171/2-3/article-p281_5.xml |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia |language=en |volume=171 |issue=2–3 |pages=281–311 |doi=10.1163/22134379-17102005 |issn=0006-2294|doi-access=free }}</ref> This dynamic continues to influence international relations and is the basis for what some historians recognize as the ""[[Global North and Global South|North-South divide]].""<ref name="":1"">{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/international-environmental-law-and-the-global-south/F20B81AFC3AB12E6ABC114BEFDA88BF1 |title=International Environmental Law and the Global South |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-05569-8 |editor-last=Alam |editor-first=Shawkat |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/cbo9781107295414 |editor-last2=Atapattu |editor-first2=Sumudu |editor-last3=Gonzalez |editor-first3=Carmen G. |editor-last4=Razzaque |editor-first4=Jona |editor-link2=Sumudu Atapattu}}</ref> Scholars argue that this divide has created hurdles in the international lawmaking process regarding the environment. Scholars have noted that unindustrialized countries in the Global South sometimes are disconnected from environmentalism and perceive environmental governance to be a ""luxury"" priority for the Global North.<ref name="":1"" /> In recent years, [[sustainable development]] has made its way to the forefront of international discourse and urges the North and South to cooperate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE 17 GOALS {{!}} Sustainable Development |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |access-date=2022-02-24 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref>  Academics recognized that environmental governance priorities in the Global North have been at odds with the desire to focus on economic development in the Global South.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Duffy |first=Rosaleen |date=April 2013 |title=Global Environmental Governance and North—South Dynamics: The Case of the Cites |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1068/c1105 |journal=Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy |language=en |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=222–239 |doi=10.1068/c1105 |bibcode=2013EnPlC..31..222D |s2cid=154558633 |issn=0263-774X}}</ref>

Some analysts propose a shift towards ""non-state"" actors for the development of environmental governance.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite journal |last=Bäckstrand |first=Karin |date=December 2006 |title=Democratizing Global Environmental Governance? Stakeholder Democracy after the World Summit on Sustainable Development |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066106069321 |journal=European Journal of International Relations |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=467–498 |doi=10.1177/1354066106069321 |s2cid=146248414 |issn=1354-0661}}</ref> Environmental politics researcher [[Karin Bäckstrand]] claims this will increase transparency, accountability, and legitimacy.<ref name="":2"" /> In some cases, scholars have noted that environmental governance in the Global North has had adverse consequences on the environment in the Global South.<ref name="":02"">{{Cite journal |last=Minneti |first=Jeffrey |date=2018-10-15 |title=Environmental Governance and the Global South |url=https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmelpr/vol43/iss1/4 |journal=William & Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=83 |issn=1091-9724}}</ref> Environmental and economic priorities in the Global North do not always align with those in the Global South.<ref name="":02"" /> Producers in the Global North developed voluntary sustainability standards (VSS) to address environmental concerns in the North, but these standards also end up impacting economic activity in the Global South.<ref name="":02"" /> Jeffrey J. Minneti from the [[William & Mary Law School]] has argued that the Global South needs to ""manage its own ecological footprint"" by creating VSS independent from the Global North.<ref name="":02"" /> Tension between countries in the Global North and Global South has caused some academics to criticize global environmental governance for being too slow of a process to enact policy change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Winchester |first=N. |date=2009-01-01 |title=Emerging Global Environmental Governance |url=https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ijgls/vol16/iss1/2 |journal=16 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 7 (2009) |volume=16 |issue=1}}</ref>

=== Outer Space Environmental Governance ===
Since space travel and activities began in the 1950s, more nations have engaged in the race to use space more rigorously. More specifically, USA and Russia launched the world's first [[artificial satellite]].<ref name="":3"">{{Cite journal |last1=Cracknell |first1=Arthur P. |last2=Varotsos |first2=Costas A. |date=2007-05-01 |title=Editorial and cover: Fifty years after the first artificial satellite: from Sputnik 1 to ENVISAT |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160701347147 |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |volume=28 |issue=10 |pages=2071–2072 |doi=10.1080/01431160701347147 |bibcode=2007IJRS...28.2071C |s2cid=128420996 |issn=0143-1161}}</ref> The other new nations entering the space race lack the comprehensive space abilities similar to the US and Russia. The need and desire to expand into space creates numerous problems, none more prominent than the concern of space wreckages. Various organizations, including the [[Committee of Space Research]], continue to implement ways to successfully and effectively govern the global sphere. Laws like the [[Planetary protection policy|Planetary Protection Policy]] are meant to regulate the use of space, specifically, the issue of space debris. As each launch becomes more and more dangerous, the policy development of various countries is unbalanced, and there is a lack of unified international standards and norms. Space is at risk of permanent damage or ""[[Kessler syndrome]]"" (an on-orbit collision [[chain reaction]] caused by major debris events). It increases the risk of paralyzed global space services, including GPS, the [[global financial system]], and daily weather forecasts. Although the [[Planetary protection policy|Planetary Protection Policy]] law is not enforceable, it helps protect against the Moon's contamination and other celestial bodies. The space governing organizations implement laws that help regulate space use, thus, lessening space contamination. For instance, the 65% post-mission-disposal still falls well short of the 90% target, which China looks to increase to 95%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Qisong |first=He |date=2021 |title=China's Space Power Strategy in the New Era |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/837041 |journal=Asian Perspective |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=785–807 |doi=10.1353/apr.2021.0041 |s2cid=244482618 |issn=2288-2871}}</ref> However, more countries are implementing additional measures to increase that number. [[Space Situational Awareness Programme|Space Situational Awareness]] (SSA) is important because it monitors the conditions in space and helps improve [https://www.army.mil/article/237502/safety_of_flight_messages_save_lives#:~:text=Safety%20of%20Flight%20messages%20are,or%20damage%20to%20the%20system. Safety-of-Flight (SoF)], increasing its comprehensiveness, timeliness, accuracy, and transparency.

Outer space is part of the environment because it is linked to the Earth's environment in numerous modest ways. For instance, the day-to-day changes in the weather system are closely related to outer space conditions. The solar wind repeatedly hits [[Earth's magnetic field]], including its [[upper atmosphere]], resulting in [http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~earpwjg/PG_EN/Mypdfs/2015_Glover_ToG2_LD.pdf Earth's electrical properties]. Furthermore, Earth sits at the center of the 'gale' of particles that emanate from the outer parts of the [[Sun's atmosphere]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Hai |last2=Liu |first2=Jing |last3=Cheng |first3=Hao-Wen |last4=Zhang |first4=Yao |date=2017-02-01 |title=Particle swarm optimization based space debris surveillance network scheduling |journal=Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=30 |doi=10.1088/1674-4527/17/3/30 |bibcode=2017RAA....17...30J |s2cid=12926473 |issn=1674-4527|doi-access=free }}</ref> Like the solar wind but of much deeper space origin, [[cosmic ray]]s also strike the Earth penetrating its [[Troposphere|lower atmosphere]], where it is believed to help form low-level clouds. Lastly, outer space is part of the environment because its conditions affect the operations of spaceships, the health of astronauts, and the state and functioning of any other objects and satellites circumnavigating Earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pardini |first1=Carmen |last2=Anselmo |first2=Luciano |date=2017-05-01 |title=Revisiting the collision risk with cataloged objects for the Iridium and COSMO-SkyMed satellite constellations |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576516312607 |journal=Acta Astronautica |language=en |volume=134 |pages=23–32 |doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2017.01.046 |bibcode=2017AcAau.134...23P |issn=0094-5765}}</ref> The international space order is amid an upheaval, adjustment, and reconstruction period. The global space economy will be worth $360 billion by 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Petronio |first=Sole Petronio |date=2020 |title=The evolution of the space sector: an insight into the new trends and business opportunities |url=http://tesi.luiss.it/29455/1/225821_PETRONIO_MARIA%20SOLE.pdf}}</ref> However, as costs decline, it is expected that the entry barrier to space will continue to decrease. Countries are increasingly focusing their attention on space not only for national security but also for commercial opportunities. As a result, outer space environmental governance is being introduced gradually.

The space governance methods incorporate the issues provided in the [https://www.canasean.com/the-montreal-declaration-for-the-responsible-development-of-artificial-intelligence-launched/ Montreal Declaration], which requires the following elements. The inspection of the shifting international fiscal, social, and political environments and space infrastructure dependence; the identification and valuation of all known space threats and dangers; the inspection of all space prospects and the need for [[maintainable]] and diplomatic use of outer space, including the study and manipulation of space for the advantage of man; the recognition of safety, technical, and operative alterations requiring resolutions; and the endorsement of relevant space governance treaties, arrangements, guidelines, ethics, and apposite established mechanisms, inventions and procedures pertinent to existing and developing space events.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Fengyun |last2=Shi |first2=Yaning |last3=Yao |first3=Ke |date=2021 |title=Challenges and Countermeasures of China's Cyberspace Governance in the New Era |url=https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/abs/2021/07/shsconf_iafsm2020_01005/shsconf_iafsm2020_01005.html |journal=SHS Web of Conferences |language=en |volume=96 |pages=01005 |doi=10.1051/shsconf/20219601005 |s2cid=234119004 |issn=2261-2424|doi-access=free }}</ref> Many countries aspire to be leaders and responsible actors in space and therefore support the international community's ongoing efforts to develop responsible behavior and norms for space operators. Countries such as Brazil, China, France, Japan, and South Africa are all working to establish standards of behavior in space, hoping to protect space assets through better [[Space Situational Awareness Programme|space situational awareness]] and [[space traffic management]].

Below are examples of policies from three different countries.

* Australia does not have a national space policy but emphasizes [[COPUOS]] standards for space debris mitigation while creating official guidelines for international launches. Australia has activated a [[C-Band All Sky Survey|C-band]] space surveillance radar system for the purpose of tracking space debris.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Defence |first=Department of |date=2017-03-07 |title=Australia's Space Surveillance Radar reaches Full Operational Capability |url=https://www.minister.defence.gov.au/minister/marise-payne/media-releases/australias-space-surveillance-radar-reaches-full-operational |access-date=2022-03-16 |website=www.minister.defence.gov.au |language=en}}</ref> These data from the southern hemisphere will help increase worldwide awareness of the state of the world's space and sustainable practices.
* France's outer space environmental governance policy is mostly seen in the 2011 [https://www.ccis-expertise.com/en/cu-tr-010-2011-safety-of-machinery Technical Regulations Decree], which focuses on launch and orbital licensing. The Technical Regulations Decree requires that rail systems be designed, manufactured, and implemented in such a way that debris is avoided during regular operation. At launch, the likelihood of disintegration in orbit must be less than one in 1,000. Additionally, it must be capable of safely deorbiting and re-entering the atmosphere once the mission is accomplished. If it cannot deorbit, it must adhere to the [[ITU]]'s standards for geosynchronous orbits.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Space Law Review - The Law Reviews |url=https://thelawreviews.co.uk/title/the-space-law-review/france |access-date=2022-03-16 |website=thelawreviews.co.uk |language=en}}</ref>
* Canada's government has established a regulatory framework aimed at reducing the formation of space debris. Operators must give an evaluation and plan for disposing of projected orbital debris. The [[Canadian Space Agency]] (CSA) has adopted the [https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/iadc-space-debris-guidelines-revision-2.pdf IADC principles] for space debris mitigation and aims to implement them across all CSA activities. Additionally, the Canadian government requires licensees of spacecraft that operate in the radio frequency to submit a space debris mitigation strategy as part of the licensing process.<ref name="":4"">{{Cite web |last=Agency |first=Canadian Space |date=2013-11-29 |title=Canada's Space Policy Framework |url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/publications/space-policy/default.asp |access-date=2022-03-16 |website=www.asc-csa.gc.ca}}</ref> Simultaneously, if the satellite is in a geosynchronous orbit, it must adhere to [[ITU]] standards.<ref name="":4"" />

=== Issues of scale ===

==== Multi-tier governance ====

The literature on governance scale shows how changes in the understanding of [[environmental issues]] have led to the movement from a local view to recognising their larger and more complicated scale. This move brought an increase in the diversity, specificity and complexity of initiatives. Meadowcroft pointed out innovations that were layered on top of existing structures and processes, instead of replacing them.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Meadowcroft|first=James|title=Politics and scale: some implications for environmental governance|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning|year=2002|volume=61|issue=2–4|pages=169–179|doi=10.1016/s0169-2046(02)00111-1}}</ref>

Lafferty and Meadowcroft give three examples of multi-tiered governance: [[internationalisation]], increasingly comprehensive approaches, and involvement of multiple governmental entities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lafferty|first=William|title=Implementing Sustainable Development|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|author2=Meadowcroft, James}}</ref>  Lafferty and Meadowcroft described the resulting multi-tiered system as addressing issues on both smaller and wider scales.

==== Institutional fit ====

[[Hans Bruyninckx]] claimed that a mismatch between the scale of the environmental problem and the level of the policy intervention was problematic.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bruyninckx|first=Hans|title=Environmental evaluation practices and the issue of scale|journal=New Directions for Evaluation|year=2009|volume=2009|issue=122|pages=31–39|doi=10.1002/ev.293|s2cid=144373806 |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/234737/1/newdirectionsevaluation-HB.pdf}}</ref>  Young claimed that such mismatches reduced the effectiveness of interventions.<ref name=young>{{cite journal|last=Young|first=Oran|title=The globalization of socio-ecological systems: An agenda for scientific research|journal=Global Environmental Change|year=2006|volume=16|issue=3|pages=304–316|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.03.004}}</ref>  Most of the literature addresses the level of [[governance]] rather than ecological scale.

[[Elinor Ostrom]], amongst others, claimed that the mismatch is often the cause of unsustainable management practices and that simple solutions to the mismatch have not been identified.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Folke|first=C|title=The problem of fit between ecosystems and institutions: ten years later|journal=Ecology and Society|year=2007|volume=12|issue=1|page=30|doi=10.5751/ES-02064-120130|doi-access=free|hdl=10535/3529|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ostrem|first=Elinor|title=A diagnostic approach for going beyond panaceas|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2007|volume=104|issue=39|pages=15181–15187|doi=10.1073/pnas.0702288104|pmid=17881578|pmc=2000497|bibcode=2007PNAS..10415181O|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Considerable debate has addressed the question of which level(s) should take responsibility for fresh water management. Development workers tend to address the problem at the local level. National governments focus on policy issues.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lebel|first=L |author2=Garden, L |author3=Imamura, M|title=The Politics of Scale, Position and Place in the Governance of Water Resources in the Mekong Region|journal=Ecology and Society|year=2005|volume=10|issue=2|page=18|doi=10.5751/ES-01543-100218 |doi-access=free|hdl=10535/2498|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This can create conflicts among states because rivers cross borders, leading to efforts to evolve governance of  [[river basins]].<ref name=""Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 57""/>
<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zagg|first=V|author2=Gupta, J|title=Scale issues in the governance of water storage projects|journal=Water Resources Research|year=2008|volume=44|issue=10|pages=W10417|bibcode=2008WRR....4410417V|doi=10.1029/2007WR006364|url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/8d927518-6adc-4b67-bea3-3ed1c19e488b|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Environmental governance issues==

===Soil deterioration===

[[soil degradation|Soil]] and [[land degradation|land deterioration]] reduces its [[field capacity|capacity]] for capturing, [[water storage|storing]] and recycling water, energy and food. [[Alliance 21]] proposed solutions in the following domains:<ref>[http://www.alliance21.org/2003/article514.html Alliance 21’s Proposal Paper “Save our Soils to Sustain our Societies”]</ref>

* include [[Soil regeneration|soil rehabilitation]] as part of conventional and popular education
* involve all stakeholders, including policymakers and authorities, producers and land users, the scientific community and civil society to manage incentives and enforce regulations and laws
* establish a set of binding rules, such as an international convention
* set up mechanisms and incentives to facilitate transformations
* gather and share knowledge;
* mobilize funds nationally and internationally

===Climate change===
The [[scientific consensus on climate change]] is expressed in the reports of [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) and also in the statements by all major scientific bodies in the United States such as [[National Academy of Sciences]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1103618|pmid=15576594|title=The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change|journal=Science|volume=306|issue=5702|pages=1686|year=2004|last1=Oreskes|first1=Naomi|author1-link=Naomi Oreskes|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The drivers of climate change can include
- Changes in [[solar irradiance]]
- Changes in atmospheric [[trace gas]] and [[aerosol]] concentrations
Evidence of climate change can be identified by examining
- Atmospheric concentrations of [[Green House Gas]]es (GHGs) such as [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}})
- Land and sea surface temperatures
- Atmospheric water vapor
- [[Precipitation]]
- The occurrence or strength of extreme weather and climate events
- [[Glacier]]s
- Rapid sea [[ice loss]]
- Sea level<ref>http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_Chapter01_FINAL.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>

It is suggested by climate models that the changes in temperature and sea level can be the causal effects of human activities such as [[fuel consumption|consumption]] of fossil fuels, [[deforestation]], increased [[agricultural production]] and production of [[xenobiotic]] gases.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0964-5691(92)90054-o|title=Climate, sea level rise and the coastal zone: Management and planning for global changes|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=18|pages=113–160|year=1992|last1=Pernetta|first1=John C.|last2=Elder|first2=Danny L.|issue=1 |bibcode=1992OCM....18..113P }}</ref>

There has been increasing actions in order to mitigate climate change and reduce its impact at national, regional and international levels. [[Kyoto protocol]] and [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC) plays the most important role in addressing climate change at an international level.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/climatechange/pages/gateway/the-negotiations/the-un-climate-change-convention-and-the-kyoto-protocol | title=United Nations Maintenance Page}}</ref>

The goal of combating climate change led to the adoption of the [[Kyoto Protocol]] by 191 states, an agreement encouraging the reduction of [[greenhouse gases]], mainly {{CO2}}. Since developed economies produce more emissions per capita, limiting emissions in all countries inhibits opportunities for emerging economies, the only major success in efforts to produce a global response to the phenomenon.

Two decades following the [[Brundtland Report]], however, there has been no improvement in the key indicators highlighted.

===Biodiversity===

Environmental governance for protecting the [[biodiversity]] has to act in many levels. Biodiversity is fragile because it is threatened by almost all human actions. To promote conservation of biodiversity, agreements and laws have to be created to regulate agricultural activities, [[urban growth]], [[industrialization]] of countries, [[resource use|use of natural resources]], control of [[invasive species]],  the correct use of water and protection of [[air quality]]. Before making any decision for a region or country decision makers, politicians and community have to take into account what are the potential impacts for biodiversity, that any project can have.

[[Population growth]] and [[urbanization]] have been a great contributor for deforestation. Also, population growth requires more intense agricultural areas use, which also results in necessity of new areas to be deforested. This causes [[habitat loss]], which is one of the major threats for biodiversity. Habitat loss and  [[habitat fragmentation]] affects all species, because they all rely on limited resources, to feed on and to breed.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2000.00175.x|title=Butterfly community structure in fragmented habitats|journal=Ecology Letters|volume=3|issue=5|pages=449–456|year=2000|last1=Steffan-Dewenter|first1=I.|last2=Tscharntke|first2=T.|bibcode=2000EcolL...3..449S }}</ref>

‘''Species are genetically unique and irreplaceable their loss is irreversible. Ecosystems vary across a vast range of parameters, and similar ecosystems (whether wetlands, forests, coastal reserves etc) cannot be presumed to be interchangeable, such that the loss of one can be compensated by protection or restoration of another''’.<ref>IUCN 2010 ‘Environmental Governance’ viewed 28 May 2014, www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/environmental_law/elp_work/elp_work_issues/elp_work_governance</ref>

To avoid habitat loss, and consequently [[biodiversity loss]], politicians and lawmakers should be aware of the precautionary principle, which means that before approving a project or law all the pros and cons should be carefully analysed. Sometimes the impacts are not explicit, or not even proved to exist. However, if there is any chance of an irreversible impact happen, it should be taken into consideration.<ref>IUCN 2007 ‘Guidelines for applying the precautionary principle to biodiversity conservation and  natural resource management’ viewed 28 May 2014, cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/ln250507_ppguidelines.pdf</ref>

To promote environmental governance for biodiversity protection there has to be a clear articulation between values and interests while negotiating environmental management plans.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/s1462-9011(02)00027-8|title=Environmental governance for biodiversity|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=5|pages=79–90|year=2002|last1=Sampford|first1=Charles|issue=1 }}</ref> International agreements are good way to have it done right.

The [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD) was signed in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 human activities. The CBD's objectives are: “to conserve biological diversity, to use biological diversity in a sustainable fashion, to share the benefits of [[Biological diversity|biological diversity fairly]] and equitably.” The convention is the first global agreement to address all aspects of biodiversity: genetic resources, species and ecosystems. It recognizes, for the first time, that the conservation of biological diversity is “a common concern for all humanity”. The       Convention encourages joint efforts on measures for scientific and technological cooperation, access to genetic resources and the transfer of clean environmental technologies.

The Convention on Biological Diversity most important edition happened in 2010 when the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the [[Aichi Targets]], were launched. These two projects together make the United Nations decade on Biodiversity. It was held in Japan and has the targets of ‘''halting and eventually reversing the [[loss of biodiversity]] of the planet''’.<ref name=""cbd.int"">Convention on Biodiversity 2010 ‘Strategic Goals & Targets for 2020’ viewed 28  May 2014, www.cbd.int/2011-2020/goals/</ref>  The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity has the goal to ‘''promote its overall vision of living in harmony with nature''’ As result (...) ‘''mainstream biodiversity at different levels. Throughout the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity, governments are encouraged to develop, implement and communicate the results of national strategies for implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity''’.<ref name=""cbd.int""/> According to the CBD <ref name=""cbd.int""/> the five Aichi targets are:
#‘''Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society'';
#''Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use'';
#''Improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and [[genetic diversity]]'';
#''Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and [[ecosystem services]]'';
#''Enhance implementation through [[participatory planning]], [[knowledge management]] and [[capacity building]]''.’

=== Water ===

The 2003 [[UN World Water Development Report]] claimed that the amount of water available over the next twenty years would drop by 30%.{{update|date=September 2013}}
In the same report, it is indicated that in 1998, 2.2 million people died from diarrhoeal diseases.<ref>United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2003). ''World Water Development Report 1: ""Water for People, Water for Life""''. Retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001297/129726e.pdf#page=27</ref> In 2004, the UK's [[WaterAid]] charity reported that one child died every 15 seconds from water-linked diseases.

According to Alliance 21<ref>[http://www.alliance21.org/2003/article501.html Proposals Related to the Water Issue]</ref> “All levels of [[Water management|water supply management]] are necessary and independent. The integrated approach to the catchment areas must take into account the needs of [[irrigation]] and those of towns, jointly and not separately as is often seen to be the case....The governance of a water supply must be guided by the principles of sustainable development.”

[[Australia]]n [[water resources]] have always been variable but they are becoming increasingly so with changing climate conditions. Because of how limited water resources are in Australia, there needs to be an effective implementation of environmental governance conducted within the country. Water restrictions are an important policy device used in Australian environmental governance to limit the amount of water used in urban and agricultural environments (Beeton et al. 2006). There is increased pressure on surface water resources in Australia because of the uncontrolled growth in [[groundwater]] use and the constant threat of drought. These increased pressures not only affect the quantity and quality of the waterways but they also negatively affect biodiversity. The government needs to create policies that preserve, protect and monitor Australia's inland water. The most significant environmental governance policy imposed by the Australian government is environmental flow allocations that allocate water to the natural environment. The proper implementation of [[water trading]] systems could help to conserve water resources in Australia. Over the years there has been an increase in demand for water, making Australia the third largest per capita user of water in the world (Beeton et al. 2006). If this trend continues, the gap between supply and demand will need to be addressed. The government needs to implement more efficient water allocations and raise water rates (UNEP, 2014). By changing public perception to promote the action of reusing and recycling water some of the stress of water shortages can be alleviated.  More extensive solutions like desalination plants, building more dams and using aquifer storage are all options that could be taken to conserve water levels but all these methods are controversial. With caps on surface water use, both urban and rural consumers are turning to groundwater use; this has caused groundwater levels to decline significantly. Groundwater use is very hard to monitor and regulate. There is not enough research currently being conducted to accurately determine sustainable yields. Some regions are seeing improvement in groundwater levels by applying caps on bores and the amount of water that consumers are allowed to extract. There have been projects in environmental governance aimed at restoring vegetation in the riparian zone. Restoring riparian vegetation helps increase biodiversity, reduce salinity, prevent soil erosion and prevent riverbank collapse. Many rivers and waterways are controlled by weirs and locks that control the flow of rivers and also prevent the movement of fish. The government has funded fish-ways on some weirs and locks to allow for native fish to move upstream. Wetlands have significantly suffered under restricted water resources with water bird numbers dropping and a decrease in species diversity. The allocation of water for bird breeding through environmental flows in [[Macquarie Marshes]] has led to an increase in breeding (Beeton et al. 2006). Because of dry land salinity throughout Australia there has been an increase in the levels of salt in Australian waterways. There has been funding in salt interception schemes which help to improve in-stream salinity levels but whether river salinity has improved or not is still unclear because there is not enough data available yet. High salinity levels are dangerous because they can negatively affect larval and juvenile stages of certain fish. The introduction of invasive species into waterways has negatively affected native aquatic species because invasive species compete with native species and alter natural habitats. There has been research in producing [[daughterless carp]] to help eradicate carp. Government funding has also gone into building in-stream barriers that trap the carp and prevent them from moving into floodplains and wetlands.  Investment in national and regional programmes like the Living Murray (MDBC), Healthy Waterways Partnership and the Clean Up the Swan Programme are leading to important environmental governance. The Healthy Rivers programme promotes restoration and recovery of environmental flows, riparian re-vegetation and aquatic pest control.  The Living Murray programme has been crucial for the allocation of water to the environment by creating an agreement to recover 500 billion litres of water to the Murray River environment. Environmental governance and water resource management in Australia must be constantly monitored and adapted to suit the changing environmental conditions within the country (Beeton et al. 2006). If environmental programmes are governed with transparency there can be a reduction in policy fragmentation and an increase in policy efficiency (Mclntyre, 2010). In Arab countries, the extensive use of water for agriculture also needs critical attention since agriculture in this region has less contribution for its national income.   
<ref>Beeton, B, Buckley, K, Jones, G, Morgan, D, Reichelt, R, Trewin, D, 2006, “Inland waters: Water availability and use”, Australian Government: Department of Environment.</ref>
<ref>McIntyre, Owen, 2010, “Improving Transboundary Water Governance through the Application of Integrated Water Resources Management”, National University of Ireland.</ref>
<ref>
United Nations Environmental Programme, 2014, “UNEP Conference on Strengthening Transboundary Freshwater Governance – The Environmental Sustainability Challenge”, UNEP, viewed on 31/5/14, <http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Events/StrengtheningTransboundaryFreshwaterGovernance/tabid/475/language/en-US/Default.aspx>
</ref>

===Ozone layer===

On 16 September 1987 the United Nations General Assembly signed the Montreal Protocol to address the declining [[ozone layer]]. Since that time, the use of [[chlorofluorocarbons]] (industrial refrigerants and aerosols) and farming fungicides such as [[methyl bromide]] has mostly been eliminated, although other damaging gases are still in use.<ref>Gareau, Brian J. From Precaution to Profit: Contemporary Challenges to Global Environmental Protection in the Montreal Protocol (2013, Yale University Press).</ref>

===Nuclear risk===

The [[Nuclear non-proliferation treaty]] is the primary multilateral agreement governing nuclear activity.

===Transgenic organisms===
[[Genetically modified organisms]] are not the subject of any major multilateral agreements. They are the subject of various restrictions at other levels of governance. GMOs are in widespread use in the US, but are heavily restricted in many other jurisdictions.

Controversies have ensued over [[golden rice]], [[AquAdvantage salmon|genetically modified salmon]], [[Monsanto#Seeds|genetically modified seeds]], disclosure and other topics.

=== Precautionary principle ===

The [[precautionary principle]] or precautionary approach states that if an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is harmful, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on those taking an action. As of 2013 it was not the basis of major multilateral agreements.
The Precautionary Principle is put into effect if there is a chance that proposed action may cause harm to the society or the environment. Therefore, those involved in the proposed action must provide evidence that it will not be harmful, even if scientists do not believe that it will cause harm. It falls upon the policymakers to make the optimal decision, if there is any risk, even without any credible scientific evidence. However, taking precautionary action also means that there is an element of cost involved, either social or economic. So if the cost was seen as insignificant the action would be taken without the implementation of the precautionary principle.<ref>Goldstein, BD 2000, 'Applying the precautionary principle to the environment', Bulletin Of The World Health Organization, 78, 9, p. 1159, Health Business Elite, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 May 2014.</ref> But often the cost is ignored, which can lead to harmful repercussions. This is often the case with industry and scientists who are primarily concerned with protecting their own interests.<ref>European Report 25 Jan. 2013""ENVIRONMENT : PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE: EEA REPORT DAMNING TO INDUSTRY.""Academic OneFile. Web. 17 May 2014.</ref>

=== Socio-environmental conflicts ===
Environmental issues such as natural resource management and climate change have security and social considerations. Drinking water scarcity and climate change can cause mass migrations of [[Environmental migrant|climate refugees]], for example.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Kaplan|first=Robert D.|date=February 1994|title=The Coming Anarchy: How scarcity, crime, overpopulation,tribalism, and disease are rapidly destroying the social fabric of our planet.|magazine=The Atlantic|volume=GLOBAL|pages=39}}</ref>

[[Social network analysis]] has been applied to understand how different actors cooperate and conflict in environmental governance. Existing relationships can influence how stakeholders collaborate during times of conflict: a study of transportation planning and land use in California found that stakeholders choose their collaborative partners by avoiding those with the most dissimilar beliefs, rather than by selecting for those with shared views. The result is known as [[homophily]]&mdash;actors with similar views are more likely to end up collaborating than those with opposing views.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-011020-064352|doi-access=free|title=Reconciling Conflict and Cooperation in Environmental Governance: A Social Network Perspective|year=2020|last1=Bodin|first1=Örjan|last2=Mancilla García|first2=María|last3=Robins|first3=Garry|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|volume=45|issue=1 |pages=471–495|hdl=11343/274185|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/jopart/muq042|doi-access=free|title=Belief Systems and Social Capital as Drivers of Policy Network Structure: The Case of California Regional Planning|year=2011|last1=Henry|first1=Adam Douglas|last2=Lubell|first2=Mark|last3=McCoy|first3=Michael|journal=Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory|volume=21|issue=3|pages=419–444}}</ref>

=== Orbital debris ===
Since the beginning of [[space exploration]] and operations in the 1950s, additional countries have joined the race to utilize space more intensively. The United States and Russia launched the first artificial satellite.<ref name="":3"" /> Human space operations have resulted in a large amount of trash in the sky. Among these is the last stage of a rocket, functioning pieces of starting explosive devices, disintegration fragments created by the mutual impact of [[space vehicle]]s or arrows ([[projectile]]s) as a result of their explosion. In the vicinity of the Earth, there are already more than 50,000 abandoned spacecraft and space junk as each launch gets hazardous.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Garcia |first=Mark |date=2015-04-13 |title=Space Debris and Human Spacecraft |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Ting |date=2010-06-30 |title=Analysis of Debris from the Collision of the Cosmos 2251 and the Iridium 33 Satellites |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/08929882.2010.493078 |journal=Science & Global Security |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=87–118 |doi=10.1080/08929882.2010.493078 |bibcode=2010S&GS...18...87W |s2cid=22749661 |issn=0892-9882}}</ref> A ""[[Kessler syndrome]]"" or ""permanent harm"" might occur, which means one fragment breaks up and collides with another fragment, causing a series of collisions, which eventually pollutes the whole orbit of the satellite. Space has become a part of daily human life, from [[telecommunications]] to disaster monitoring. The loss of any satellite is a serious problem, such as GPS, the [[global financial system]], and daily [[Weather forecasting|weather forecasts]].

==Agreements==

===Conventions===

The main multilateral conventions, also known as Rio Conventions, are as follows:

[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD) (1992–1993): aims to conserve biodiversity. Related agreements include the [http://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cartagena-protocol-en.pdf Cartagena Protocol] on biosafety.

[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCC) (1992–1994): aims to stabilize concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would [[Avoiding dangerous climate change|stabilize the climate system]] without threatening food production, and enabling the pursuit of sustainable economic development; it incorporates the [[Kyoto Protocol]].

[[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD) (1994–1996): aims to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought and desertification, in developing countries (Though initially the convention was primarily meant for Africa).

Further conventions:
* [http://www.ramsar.org Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance] (1971–1975)
* [http://whc.unesco.org UNESCO World Heritage Convention]  (1972–1975)
* [http://www.cites.org Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)] (1973–1975)
* [http://www.cms.int Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species] (1979–1983)
* [http://www.unece.org/env/water Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention)] (1992–1996)
* [http://www.basel.int Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal] (1989–1992)
* [http://www.pic.int Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedures for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade]
* [http://www.pops.int Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (COP)] (2001–2004)

The Rio Conventions are characterized by:

* obligatory execution by signatory states
* involvement in a sector of global environmental governance
* focus on the fighting poverty and the development of sustainable living conditions;
* funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) for countries with few financial resources;
* inclusion of a for assessing ecosystem status<ref>[http://www.millenniumassessment.org/fr/index.aspx Millennium assessment]</ref>

Environmental conventions are regularly criticized for their:

* rigidity and verticality: they are too descriptive, homogenous and top down, not reflecting the diversity and complexity of environmental issues. Signatory countries struggle to translate objectives into concrete form and incorporate them consistently;
* duplicate structures and aid: the sector-specific format of the conventions produced duplicate structures and procedures. Inadequate cooperation between government ministries;
* contradictions and incompatibility: e.g., “if reforestation projects to reduce {{CO2}} give preference to monocultures of exotic species, this can have a negative impact on biodiversity (whereas natural regeneration can strengthen both biodiversity and the conditions needed for life).”<ref name=""inforesources2005""/>

Until now, the formulation of environmental policies at the international level has been divided by theme, sector or territory, resulting in treaties that overlap or clash. International attempts to coordinate environment institutions, include the Inter-Agency Coordination Committee and the [[Commission for Sustainable Development]], but these institutions are not powerful enough to effectively incorporate the three aspects of sustainable development.{{sfn|Kanie|Haas|2004}}

===Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)===

MEAs are agreements between several countries that apply internationally or regionally and concern a variety of environmental questions. As of 2013 over 500 Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs), including 45 of global scope involve at least 72 signatory countries.<ref name=inomata>Inomata, Tadanori; Management Review of Environmental Governance within the United Nations System; United Nations; Joint Inspection Unit; Geneva; 2008.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Prue|title=Multilateral Environmental Agreement Negotiator's Handbook: Pacific Region 2013|date=2013|publisher=Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme / New Zealand Centre for Environmental Law, University of Auckland|location=Samoa / New Zealand|isbn=978-982-04-0475-5|url=http://www.sprep.org/attachments/Publications/EMG/MEA_Handbook_2013.pdf|author2=Stroud, Lucy |author3=Peteru, Clark }}</ref> Further agreements cover regional environmental problems, such as [[deforestation in Borneo]] or pollution in the Mediterranean. Each agreement has a specific mission and objectives ratified by multiple states.

Many Multilateral Environmental Agreements have been negotiated with the support from the United Nations Environmental Programme and work towards the achievement of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals as a means to instil sustainable practices for the environment and its people.<ref name=""Steiner, A 2010 pp. 1-136"">Steiner, A & Oviir, M (2010) ‘Auditing the Implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs): A Primer for Auditors’, United Nations Environment Programme, pp. 1-136</ref> Multilateral Environmental Agreements are considered to present enormous opportunities for greener societies and economies which can deliver numerous benefits in addressing food, energy and [[water security]] and in achieving sustainable development.<ref name=""Steiner, A 2010 pp. 1-136""/> These agreements can be implemented on a global or regional scale, for example the issues surrounding the disposal of hazardous waste can be implemented on a regional level as per the Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Waste within Africa which applies specifically to Africa, or the global approach to hazardous waste such as the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal which is monitored throughout the world.<ref name=""Steiner, A 2010 pp. 1-136""/><ref>African Union, (2010) ‘Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa’, African Union, accessed on 16 May 2014 via <http://www.au.int/en/content/bamako-convention-ban-import-africa-and-control-transboundary-movement-and-management-hazard {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517135708/http://www.au.int/en/content/bamako-convention-ban-import-africa-and-control-transboundary-movement-and-management-hazard |date=2014-05-17 }}></ref><ref>Basil Action Network (2011) ‘The Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal’, Basil Action Network, accessed on 16 May 2014 via <http://ban.org/about_basel_conv/treaty_text.html></ref>

“The environmental governance structure defined by the Rio and Johannesburg Summits is sustained by [http://en.coredem.info/wiki/Environmental_governance#International_institutions UNEP], MEAs and developmental organizations and consists of assessment and policy development, as well as project implementation at the country level.

""The governance structure consists of a chain of phases:

* a) assessment of environment status;
* b) international policy development;
* c) formulation of MEAs;
* d) policy implementation;
* e) policy assessment;
* f) enforcement;
* g) sustainable development.

""Traditionally, UNEP has focused on the normative role of engagement in the first three
phases. Phases (d) to (f) are covered by MEAs and the sustainable development phase involves developmental organizations such as UNDP and the World Bank.”<ref name=inomata/>

Lack of coordination affects the development of coherent governance. The report shows that donor states support development organizations, according to their individual interests. They do not follow a joint plan, resulting in overlaps and duplication. MEAs tend not to become a joint frame of reference and therefore receive little financial support. States and organizations emphasize existing regulations rather than improving and adapting them.<ref name=inomata/>

==Background==

The risks associated with nuclear fission raised global awareness of environmental threats. The 1963 [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]] prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing was the beginning of the globalization of environmental issues. Environmental law began to be modernized and coordinated with the [[Stockholm Conference]] (1972), backed up in 1980 by the Vienna Convention on the [[Law of treaties|Law of Treaties]].<ref>Di Mento, Josep; The Global Environment and International law, University of Texas Press; 2003; p 7.</ref> The [[Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer]] was signed and ratified in 1985. In 1987, 24 countries signed the [[Montreal Protocol]] which imposed the gradual withdrawal of CFCs.

The [[Brundtland Report]], published in 1987 by the [[Earth Summit|UN Commission on Environment and Development]], stipulated the need for economic development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the capacity of future generations to meet their needs.

===Rio Conference (1992) and reactions===

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), better known as the 1992 [[Earth Summit]], was the first major international meeting since the end of the [[Cold War]] and was attended by delegations from 175 countries. Since then the biggest international conferences that take place every 10 years guided the global governance process with a series of MEAs. [[Environmental treaties]] are applied with the help of [[secretariats]].

Governments created international treaties in the 1990s to check [[List of global issues|global threats]] to the environment. These treaties are far more restrictive than global protocols and set out to change non-sustainable production and consumption models.<ref name=boug>Bouguerra, Larbi; La consommation assassine. Comment le mode de vie des uns ruine celui des autres, pistes pour u ne consommation responsible (Consumption Kills. How some people’s lifestyles ruin other people’s lives. Ideas for responsible consumption) ; Éditions Charles Léopold Mayer; 2005; adaptation of State of the World. Special Focus - The Consumer Society; The Worldwatch Institute; 2004.</ref>

===Agenda 21===

[[Agenda 21]] is a detailed plan of actions to be implemented at the global, national and local levels by UN organizations, member states and key individual groups in all regions. Agenda 21 advocates making sustainable development a legal principle law. At the local level, local Agenda 21 advocates an inclusive, territory-based strategic plan, incorporating sustainable environmental and social policies.

The Agenda has been accused of using neoliberal principles, including free trade to achieve environmental goals. For example, chapter two, entitled “International Cooperation to Accelerate Sustainable Development in Developing Countries and Related Domestic Policies” states, “The international economy should provide a supportive international climate for achieving environment and development goals by: promoting sustainable development through trade liberalization.”

==Actors==

===International institutions===

====United Nations Environment Program====
{{main|United Nations Environment Program}}
The UNEP has had its biggest impact as a monitoring and advisory body, and in developing environmental agreements. It has also contributed to strengthening the institutional capacity of environment ministries.

In 2002 UNEP held a conference to focus on product lifecycle impacts, emphasizing the fashion, advertising, financial and retail industries, seen as key agents in promoting sustainable consumption.<ref name=boug/>

According to Ivanova, UNEP adds value in environmental monitoring, scientific assessment and information sharing, but cannot lead all environmental management processes. She proposed the following tasks for UNEP:

* initiate a strategic independent overhaul of its mission;
* consolidate the financial information and transparency process;
* restructure organizing governance by creating an operative executive council that balances the omnipresence of the overly imposing and fairly ineffectual Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum (GMEF).

Other proposals offer a new mandate to “produce greater unity amongst social and environmental agencies, so that the concept of ‘environment for development’ becomes a reality. It needs to act as a platform for establishing standards and for other types of interaction with national and international organizations and the United Nations. The principles of cooperation and [https://web.archive.org/web/20091123163001/http://www.amisdelaterre.org/Des-responsabilites-communes-mais.html common but differentiated responsibilities] should be reflected in the application of this revised mandate.”<ref>Reforming International Environmental Governance: Statement representing views expressed at two meetings of stakeholders held at the 24th Session of the UNEP Governing Council/GMEF 2007.</ref>

Sherman proposed principles to strengthen UNEP:

* obtain a social consensus on a long-term vision;
* analyze the current situation and future scenarios;
* produce a comprehensive plan covering all aspects of sustainable development;
* build on existing strategies and processes;
* multiply links between national and local strategies;
* include all these points in the financial and budget plan;
* adopt fast controls to improve process piloting and identification of progress made;
* implement effective participation mechanisms.<ref>[https://www.un.org/ga/president/62/issues/environmentalgov/Statement%20on%20IEG%20by%20civil%20society.pdf Stakeholder Forum for a Sustainable Future, et al (comp.); Options for Strengthening the Environment Pillar of Sustainable Development. Compilation of Civil Society Proposals on the Institutional Framework for the United Nations' Environmental Activities; 2007.]</ref>

Another group stated, “Consider the specific needs of developing countries and respect of the fundamental principle of 'common but differentiated responsibilities'. Developed countries should promote technology transfer, new and additional financial resources, and capacity building for meaningful participation of developing countries in international environmental governance. Strengthening of international environmental governance should occur in the context of sustainable development and should involve civil society as an important stakeholder and agent of transformation.”<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stakeholderforum.org/policy/ieg/SubmissionsToThePanel/BRAZILIANFORUMOFNGOS.pdf |title=Submission by the Brazilian Forum of NGOs and Social Movements for the Environment and the Development to the Panel Consultation with Civil Society; June 2006. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721080113/http://www.stakeholderforum.org/policy/ieg/SubmissionsToThePanel/BRAZILIANFORUMOFNGOS.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Global Environment Facility (GEF)====
{{main|Global Environment Facility}}
Created in 1991, the Global Environment Facility is an independent financial organization initiated by donor governments including Germany and France. It was the first financial organization dedicated to the environment at the global level. As of 2013 it had 179 members. Donations are used for projects covering biodiversity, climate change, international waters, destruction of the ozone layer, soil degradation and [[persistent organic pollutant]]s.

GEF's institutional structure includes UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank. It is the funding mechanism for the four environmental conventions: climate change, biodiversity, persistent organic pollutants and desertification. GEF transfers resources from developed countries to developing countries to fund UNDP, UNEP and World Bank projects. The World Bank manages the annual budget of US$561.10 million.<ref name=young2002>{{cite book|last=Zoë |first=Young |title=A new green order: The World Bank and the politics of the global environmental facility |publisher=Pluto Press |location=London |year=2002 }}</ref>

The GEF has been criticized for its historic links with the World Bank, at least during its first phase during the 1990s,<ref>Andler, Lydia; The Secretariat of the Global Environment Facility: From Network to Bureaucracy; ""Global Governance Working Paper"", no. 24; Amsterdam et al.; The Global Governance Project; 2007.</ref> and for having favoured certain regions to the detriment of others.<ref>Werksman, Jake; Consolidating global environmental governance: New lessons from the GEF?; in {{harvnb|Kanie|Haas|2004}}</ref> Another view sees it as contributing to the emergence of a global ""green market"". It represents “an adaptation (of the World Bank) to this emerging world order, as a response to the emergence of environmental movements that are becoming a geopolitical force.”{{sfn|Zoë2002|p=3}}  Developing countries demanded financial transfers to help them protect their environment.

GEF is subject to economic profitability criteria, as is the case for all the [http://en.coredem.info/wiki/Environmental_governance#Conventions conventions]. It received more funds in its first three years than the UNEP has since its creation in 1972. GEF funding represents less than 1% of development aid between 1992 and 2002.{{sfn|Zoë2002|p=3}}

====United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)====
{{main|Commission on Sustainable Development}}
This intergovernmental institution meets twice a year to assess follow-up on Rio Summit goals. The CSD is made up of 53 member states, elected every three years and was reformed in 2004 to help improve implementation of Agenda 21. It meets twice a year, focusing on a specific theme during each two-year period: 2004-2005 was dedicated to water and 2006–2007 to climate change. The CSD has been criticized for its low impact, general lack of presence and the absence of Agenda 21 at the state level specifically, according to a report by the [[World Resources Institute]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.wri.org/pubs/pubs_pdf.cfm?PubID=3764 |title=World Resources Institute; World Resources 2002–2004: Decisions for the Earth: Balance, Voice and Power; Washington DC; 2004. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104024346/http://archive.wri.org/pubs/pubs_pdf.cfm?PubID=3764 |archive-date=2010-01-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Its mission focuses on sequencing actions and establishing agreements puts it in conflict with institutions such as UNEP and OECD.<ref name=Najam>[http://www.iisd.org/pdf/2006/geg.pdf Najam, A., Papa, M. and Taiyab, N. Global Environmental Governance. A Reform Agenda; IISD; 2006.]</ref>

====World Environment Organization (WEO)====
{{main|United Nations Environment Organization}}
A proposed World Environment Organization, analogous to the [[World Health Organization]] could be capable of adapting treaties and enforcing international standards.<ref>[http://en.coredem.info/wiki/Environmental_governance#Proposals proposals]</ref>

The European Union, particularly France and Germany, and a number of NGOs favour creating a WEO. The United Kingdom, the US and most developing countries prefer to focus on voluntary initiatives.<ref>[http://www.iddri.org/Publications/Collections/Syntheses/Gouvernance-internationale-de-l'environnement-les-prochaines-etapes Tubiana, L.; Martimort-Asso, B.; Gouvernance internationale de l'environnement: les prochaines étapes (International Environmental Governance; the next stages)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920013058/http://www.iddri.org/Publications/Collections/Syntheses/Gouvernance-internationale-de-l%27environnement-les-prochaines-etapes |date=2008-09-20 }}; in ""Synthèse"", 2005, no. 01, Institut du développement durable et des relations internationales (IDDRI).</ref> WEO partisans maintain that it could offer better political leadership, improved legitimacy and more efficient coordination. Its detractors argue that existing institutions and missions already provide appropriate environmental governance; however the lack of coherence and coordination between them and the absence of clear division of responsibilities prevents them from greater effectiveness.{{sfn|Kanie|Haas|2004}}<ref name=unep/>

====World Bank====
{{main|World Bank}}
The World Bank influences environmental governance through other actors, particularly the GEF. The World Bank's mandate is not sufficiently defined in terms of environmental governance despite the fact that it is included in its mission. However, it allocates 5 to 10% of its annual funds to environmental projects. The institution's capitalist vocation means that its investment is concentrated solely in areas which are profitable in terms of cost benefits, such as climate change action and ozone layer protection, whilst neglecting other such as adapting to climate change and desertification. Its financial autonomy means that it can make its influence felt indirectly on the creation of standards, and on international and regional negotiations.<ref>Marschinski, Robert; Behrle, Steffen; The World Bank: Making the Business Case for the Environment; ""Global Governance Working Paper No 21""; Amsterdam et al; The Global Governance Project; 2006.</ref>

Following intense criticism in the 1980s for its support for destructive projects which, amongst other consequences, caused deforestation of tropical forests, the World Bank drew up its own environment-related standards in the 1990s so it could correct its actions. These standards differ from UNEP's standards, meant to be the benchmark, thus discrediting the institution and sowing disorder and conflict in the world of environmental governance. Other financial institutions, regional development banks and the private sector also drew up their own standards. Criticism is not directed at the World Bank's standards in themselves, which Najam considered as “robust”,<ref name=Najam/> but at their legitimacy and efficacy.

===== GEF =====

The [[Global Environment Facility|GEF]]'s account of itself as of 2012 [http://www.thegef.org/gef/whatisgef] is as ""the largest public funder of projects to improve the global environment"", period, which ""provides grants for projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants.""  It claims to have provided ""$10.5 billion in grants and leveraging $51 billion in co-financing for over 2,700 projects in over 165 countries [and] made more than 14,000 small grants directly to civil society and community-based organizations, totaling $634 million.""  It serves as mechanism for the:
*[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD)
*[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC)
*[[Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants]] (POPs)
*[[Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD)
*implementation of [[Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer]] in some countries with ""economies in transition"" [http://www.thegef.org/gef/whatisgef]
This mandate reflects the restructured GEF as of October 2011 [http://www.thegef.org/gef/instrument] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315020839/https://www.thegef.org/gef/instrument |date=2016-03-15 }}.

====World Trade Organization (WTO)====
{{main|World Trade Organization}}
The WTO's mandate does not include a specific principle on the environment. All the problems linked to the environment are treated in such a way as to give priority to trade requirements and the principles of the WTO's own trade system. This produces conflictual situations. Even if the WTO recognizes the existence of MEAs, it denounces the fact that around 20 MEAs are in conflict with the WTO's trade regulations. Furthermore, certain MEAs can allow a country to ban or limit trade in certain products if they do not satisfy established environmental protection requirements. In these circumstances, if one country's ban relating to another country concerns two signatories of the same MEA, the principles of the treaty can be used to resolve the disagreement, whereas if the country affected by the trade ban with another country has not signed the agreement, the WTO demands that the dispute be resolved using the WTO's trade principles, in other words, without taking into account the environmental consequences.

Some criticisms of the WTO mechanisms may be too broad.  In a recently dispute over labelling of [[dolphin safe label]]s for [[tuna]] between the US and Mexico, the ruling was relatively narrow and did not, as some critics claimed,

====International Monetary Fund (IMF)====
{{main|International Monetary Fund}}
The IMF's mission is ""''to ensure the stability of the international monetary system''"".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/about.htm/|title=IMF -- About|website=www.imf.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref>

The IMF Green Fund proposal of [[Dominique Strauss-Kahn]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2010/NEW013010A.htm |title=IMF Survey: IMF Proposes ""Green Fund"" for Climate Change Financing |publisher=Imf.org |date=2010-01-30 |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref> specifically to address ""climate-related shocks in Africa"",<ref>{{cite web|last=Recio |first=Eugenia |url=http://climate-l.iisd.org/news/imf-chief-proposes-green-fund-to-address-climate-related-shocks-in-africa/ |title=IMF Chief Proposes Green Fund to Address Climate-Related Shocks in Africa - Climate Change Policy & Practice |publisher=Climate-l.iisd.org |date=2010-03-08 |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref> despite receiving serious attention<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wdev.eu/wearchiv/042ae69d480ee8e01.php |title=The IMF's Green Fund Proposal |publisher=Wdev.eu |date=2010-02-04 |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref> was rejected.<ref name=""reuters1"">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/imf-climate-idUSN2414340820100325 |title=IMF member countries reject green fund plan |newspaper=Reuters |access-date=2013-09-15|date=2010-03-25 }}</ref> Strauss-Kahn's proposal, backed by [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]], was that ""developed countries would make an initial capital injection into the fund using some of the $176 billion worth of SDR allocations from last year in exchange for a stake in the green fund.""  However, ""most of the 24 directors ... told Strauss-Kahn that climate was not part of the IMF's mandate and that SDR allocations are a reserve asset never intended for development issues.""<ref name=""reuters1""/>

==== UN ICLEI ====

{{main|International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives}}

The UN's main body for coordinating municipal and urban decision-making<ref>[http://www.iclei.org/ ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability]</ref> is named the [[International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives]]. Its slogan is ""Local Governments for Sustainability"".
This body sponsored the concept of [[full cost accounting]] that makes environmental governance the foundation of other governance.

ICLEIs projects and achievements include:
*Convincing thousands of municipal leaders to sign the [[World Mayors and Municipal Leaders Declaration on Climate Change]] (2005) which notably requests of other levels of government that:
:Global trade regimes, credits and banking reserve rules be reformed to advance debt relief and incentives to implement policies and practices that reduce and mitigate climate change.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=2447
| title=World Mayors and Municipal Leaders Declaration on Climate Change
| date=8 December 2005
| access-date=30 March 2018
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330211229/http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=2447
| archive-date=30 March 2018
| url-status=dead
}}</ref>
*Starting national councils to implement this and other key agreements, e.g., [[ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability USA]]
*Spreading [[ecoBudget]] (2008)<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=822
| title=Sustainability Management Projects
| access-date=30 March 2018
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330143739/http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=822
| archive-date=30 March 2018
| url-status=dead
}}</ref> and [[Triple Bottom Line]] (2007) ""tools for embedding sustainability into council operations"",<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=6390
| title=Triple Bottom Line Tools for Embedding Sustainability into Council Operations
| date=2 May 2007
| access-date=30 March 2018
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330143718/http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=6390
| archive-date=30 March 2018
| url-status=dead
}}</ref> e.g. [[Guntur]]'s Municipal Corporation, one of the first four to implement the entire framework.
*[[Sustainability Planning Toolkit]] (launched 2009)<ref>{{cite web |author=ICLEI Releases Sustainability Toolkit |url=http://blog.accessfayetteville.org/triple_bottom_line/2009/12/iclei-releases-sustainability-toolkit.html |title=ICLEI Releases Sustainability Toolkit - Triple Bottom Line |publisher=Blog.accessfayetteville.org |date=2009-12-05 |access-date=2013-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812135301/http://blog.accessfayetteville.org/triple_bottom_line/2009/12/iclei-releases-sustainability-toolkit.html |archive-date=2011-08-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> integrating these and other tools
*[[Cities Climate Registry]] (launched 2010)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wmsc2010.org/2010/11/mayors-launch-reporting-platform-of-cities-at-climate-summit/ |title=Mayors launch reporting platform of cities at Climate Summit &#124; WMSC 2010 Mexico City &#124; World Mayors Summit on Climate 2010 |publisher=Wmsc2010.org |access-date=2013-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622012603/http://www.wmsc2010.org/2010/11/mayors-launch-reporting-platform-of-cities-at-climate-summit/ |archive-date=2015-06-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> - part of UNEP [[Campaign on Cities and Climate Change]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/urban_environment/issues/climate_change.asp |title=Urban Environment Unit, UNEP |publisher=Unep.org |date=2006-09-20 |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref>

ICLEI promotes [[best practice exchange]] among municipal governments globally, especially [[green infrastructure]], [[sustainable procurement]].

====Other secretariats====
Other international institutions incorporate environmental governance in their action plans, including:

* [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP), promoting development;
* [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO) which works on the climate and atmosphere;
* [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]  (FAO) working on the protection of agriculture, forests and fishing;
* [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) which focuses on nuclear security.

Over 30 UN agencies and programmes support environmental management, according to Najam.<ref name=Najam/> This produces a lack of coordination, insufficient exchange of information and dispersion of responsibilities. It also results in proliferation of initiatives and rivalry between them.

====Criticism====

According to Bauer, Busch and Siebenhüner,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.glogov.org/ |title=Bauer, Steffen; Busch, Per-Olof; Siebenhüner, Bernd; Administering International Governance: What Role for Treaty Secretariats? ""Global Governance Working Paper"" No 29. Amsterdam et al; The Global Governance Project; 2006. |access-date=2019-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107021512/http://www.glogov.org/ |archive-date=2019-01-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the different conventions and multilateral agreements of global environmental regulation is increasing their secretariats' influence. Influence varies according to bureaucratic and leadership efficiency, choice of technical or client-centered.

The United Nations is often the target of criticism, including from within over the multiplication of secretariats due to the chaos it produces. Using a separate secretariat for each MEA creates enormous overhead given the 45 international-scale and over 500 other agreements.

===States===

====Environmental governance at the state level====

Environmental protection has created opportunities for mutual and collective monitoring among neighbouring states. The European Union provides an example of the institutionalization of joint regional and state environmental governance. Key areas include information, led by the [[European Environment Agency]] (EEA), and the production and monitoring of norms by states or local institutions.
See also the [[Environmental policy of the European Union]].

====State participation in global environmental governance====

US refusal to ratify major environment agreements produced tensions with ratifiers in Europe and Japan.

The World Bank, IMF and other institutions are dominated by the developed countries and do not always properly consider the requirements of developing countries.

===Business===

Environmental governance applies to business as well as government. Considerations are typical of those in other domains:

*  values (vision, mission, principles);
*  policy (strategy, objectives, targets);
*  oversight (responsibility, direction, training, communication);
*  process (management systems, initiatives, internal control, monitoring and review, stakeholder dialogue, transparency, environmental accounting, reporting and verification);
*  performance (performance indicators, benchmarking, eco-efficiency, reputation, compliance, liabilities, business development).<ref name=white>{{Cite web |url=http://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/GEHO0904BKFE-e-e.pdf |title=White, Andrew; Klernan, Matthew; Corporate Environment Governance. A Study into the Influence of Environmental Governance and the Financial Performance; Environment Agency (United Kingdom Government); 2004. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081026205128/http://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/GEHO0904BKFE-e-e.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

White and Klernan among others discuss the correlation between environmental governance and financial performance. This correlation is higher in sectors where environmental impacts are greater.<ref name=white/>

Business environmental issues include emissions, biodiversity, historical liabilities, product and material waste/recycling, energy use/supply and many others.<ref name=white/>

Environmental governance has become linked to traditional corporate governance as an increasing number of shareholders are corporate environmental impacts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wallacepartners.net/governance.html |title=Environmental Governance |publisher=Wallace Partners |access-date=2013-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209034511/http://wallacepartners.net/governance.html |archive-date=2013-12-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Corporate governance is the set of [[Business process|processes]], customs, [[policies]], laws, and institutions affecting the way a [[corporation]] (or [[company]]) is managed. Corporate governance is affected by the relationships among [[stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]]. These stakeholders research and quantify performance to compare and contrast the environmental performance of thousands of companies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wallacepartners.net/stakeholders.html |title=Priority Stakeholders |publisher=Wallace Partners |access-date=2013-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301152819/http://www.wallacepartners.net/stakeholders.html |archive-date=2012-03-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Large corporations with global supply chains evaluate the environmental performance of business partners and suppliers for marketing and ethical reasons. Some consumers seek environmentally friendly and sustainable products and companies.

===Non-governmental organizations===
{{Main|Non-governmental organizations}}
According to Bäckstrand and Saward,<ref name=Saward/> “broader participation by non-state actors in multilateral environmental decisions (in varied roles such as agenda setting, campaigning, lobbying, consultation, monitoring, and implementation) enhances the democratic legitimacy of environmental governance.”

Local activism is capable of gaining the support of the people and authorities to combat environmental degradatation. In Cotacachi, Ecuador, a social movement used a combination of education, direct action, the influence of local public authorities and denunciation of the mining company's plans in its own country, Canada, and the support of international environmental groups to influence mining activity.<ref>Bebbington, Anthony; et al.; Los movimientos sociales frente a la minería: disputando el desarrollo territorial andino (Social Movements and Mining: disputes over territorial development in the Andes); in J. Bengoa (ed.) ""Movimientos sociales y desarrollo territorial rural en América Latina"" (Social Movements and Territorial Rural Development in Latin America). Catalonia; 2007.</ref>

Fisher cites cases in which multiple strategies were used to effect change.<ref name=fisher>Fisher, Dana R.; Civil Society Protest and Participation: Civic Engagement Within the Multilateral Governance Regime pp. 176-201; in {{harvnb|Kanie|Haas|2004}}</ref> She describes civil society groups that pressure international institutions and also organize local events. Local groups can take responsibility for environmental governance in place of governments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/hawaii/howwework/community-based-marine-conservation.xml |title=Community-Based Marine Conservation &#124; The Nature Conservancy |publisher=Nature.org |access-date=2013-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905194141/http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/hawaii/howwework/community-based-marine-conservation.xml |archive-date=2013-09-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.flacso.org.ec/docs/WP_005_AndradeM_01_2.pdf |title=Andrade Mendoza, Karen; La gobernanza ambiental en el Ecuador: El conflicto alrededor de la licencia Ambiental en el bloque 31, en el parque nacional Yasuní (Environmental Governance in Ecuador:  the conflict concerning the environmental license for block 31 in the Yasuní National Park); FLACSO; Observatorio Socioambiental; Quito; 2008. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-date=2011-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719134507/http://www.flacso.org.ec/docs/WP_005_AndradeM_01_2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

According to Bengoa,<ref>Bengoa, José; et al. Movimientos sociales, gobernanza ambiental y desarrollo territorial (Social Movements, Environmental Governance and Territorial Development) ; Catalonia; 2007.</ref> “social movements have contributed decisively to the creation of an institutional platform wherein the fight against poverty and exclusion has become an inescapable benchmark.” But despite successes in this area, “these institutional changes have not produced the processes for transformation that could have made substantial changes to the opportunities available to rural inhabitants, particularly the poorest and those excluded from society.” He cites several reasons:

* conflict between in-group cohesion and openness to outside influence;
* limited trust between individuals;
* contradiction between social participation and innovation;
* criticisms without credible alternatives to environmentally damaging activities

A successful initiative in Ecuador involved the establishment of stakeholder federations and management committees (NGOs, communities, municipalities and the ministry) for the management of a protected forest.<ref name=poats/>

==Proposals==

The [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] proposed an agenda for global governance. These objectives are:<ref name=Najam/>

* expert leadership;
* positioning science as the authoritative basis of sound environmental policy;
* coherence and reasonable coordination;
* well-managed institutions;
* incorporate environmental concerns and actions within other areas of international policy and action

=== Coherence and coordination ===

Despite the increase in efforts, actors, agreements and treaties, the global environment continue to degrade at a rapid rate. From the big hole in Earth's ozone layer to over-fishing to the uncertainties of climate change, the world is confronted by several intrinsically global challenges.<ref name=""ProsConsMultiplicity"">{{cite web
| title=The Architecture of Global Environmental Governance: Pros and Cons of Multiplicity
| url=http://www.centerforunreform.org/?q=node/234
| date=January 2007
| publisher=[[Center for UN Reform Education]]
| first1=Maria
| last1=Ivanova
| first2=Jennifer
| last2=Roy
| access-date=30 March 2018
}}</ref> However, as the environmental agenda becomes more complicated and extensive, the current system has proven ineffective in addressing and tackling problems related to trans-boundary externalities and the environment is still experiencing degradation at unprecedented levels.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wilkinson | first = Rorden | title = Global governance : critical perspectives | publisher = Routledge | location = London New York | year = 2002 | isbn = 9780203302804 }}</ref>

Inforesources<ref>[http://www.inforesources.ch/pdf/focus_3_05_e.pdf ''Global Conventions and Environmental Governance'']</ref> identifies four major obstacles to global environmental governance, and describes measures in response. The four obstacles are:

* parallel structures and competition, without a coherent strategy
* contradictions and incompatibilities, without appropriate compromise
* competition between multiple agreements with incompatible objectives, regulations and processes
* integrating policy from macro- to micro- scales.

Recommended measures:

* MDGs (Millennium Development Goals)<ref>[https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ UN Millennium Goals]</ref> and conventions, combining sustainability and reduction of poverty and equity;
* country-level approach linking global and local scales
* coordination and division of tasks in a multilateral approach that supports developing countries and improves coordination between donor countries and institutions
* use of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs)<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/np/prsp/prsp.aspx Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers]</ref> in development planning
* transform conflicts into tradeoffs, synergies and win-win options

Contemporary debates surrounding global environmental governance have converged on the idea of developing a stronger and more effective institutional framework. The views on how to achieve this, however, still hotly debated. Currently, rather than teaming up with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), international environmental responsibilities have been spread across many different agencies including: a) specialised agencies within the UN system such as the World Meteorological Organisation, the International Maritime Organisation and others; b) the programs in the UN system such as the UN Development Program; c) the UN regional economic and social commission; d) the Bretton Woods institutions; e) the World Trade Organisation and; f) the environmentally focused mechanisms such as the Global Environment Facility and close to 500 international environmental agreements.<ref name=""ProsConsMultiplicity""/>

Some analysts also argue that multiple institutions and some degree of overlap and duplication in policies is necessary to ensure maximum output from the system.<ref>{{cite web
| title=Environment and Globalization: Five Propositions
| first1=Adil
| last1=Najam
| first2=David
| last2=Runnalls
| first3=Mark
| last3=Halle
| url=http://www.iisd.org/pdf/2007/trade_environment_globalization.pdf
| publisher=[[International Institute for Sustainable Development]]
| year=2007
| access-date=30 March 2018
}}</ref> Others, however, claim that institutions have become too dispersed and lacking in coordination which can be damaging to their effectiveness in global environmental governance.<ref>{{cite web
| title=Transforming Governance and Institutions for Global Sustainability  
| url=http://www.ieg.earthsystemgovernance.org/sites/default/files/files/publications/ESG-WorkingPaper-17_Biermann-et-al.pdf
| first=Frank
| last=Biermann
| publisher=[[Earth System Governance Project]]
| date=November 2011
}}</ref> Whilst there are various arguments for and against a WEO, the key challenge, however, remains the same: how to develop a rational and effective framework that will protect the global environment efficiently.

=== Democratization ===

Starting in 2002, Saward<ref name=Saward/> and others began to view the [[Earth Summit]] process as capable opening up the possibility of stakeholder democracy. The summits were deliberative rather than simply participative, with NGOs, women, men, indigenous peoples and businesses joining the decision-making process alongside states and international organizations, characterized by:

* the importance given to scientific and technical considerations
* the official and unofficial participation of many actors with heterogeneous activity scopes
* growing uncertainty
* a new interpretation of [[international law]] and [[social organization]] models<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Behnassi | first1 = Mohamed |title= Les négociations environnementales multilatérales: Vers une gouvernance environnementale mondiale (Multilateral Environmental Negotiations: towards world environmental governance) |journal= C Durable: Doctoral Thesis Summary Paper|date= 2003|url=http://cdurable.info/Les-Negociations-Environnementales-Multinationales-NEM-vers-une-Gouvernance-Environnementale-Mondiale-GEM,1136.html}}</ref>

As of 2013, the absence of joint rules for composing such fora leads to the development of non-transparent relations that favour the more powerful stakeholders. Criticisms<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Johal | first1 = Surjinder | last2 = Ulph | first2 = Alistair | title = Globalization, lobbying, and international environmental governance | journal = Review of International Economics | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = 387–403 | doi = 10.1111/1467-9396.00339 | date = August 2002 }}</ref> assert that they act more as a lobbying platform, wherein specific interest groups attempt to influence governments.

===Institutional reform===

Actors inside and outside the United Nations are discussing possibilities for global environmental governance that provides a solution to current problems of fragility, coordination and coherence.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPAN021755.pdf |title=Resolution 60/1 of the United Nations General Assembly. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-date=2012-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227035534/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPAN021755.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Deliberation is focusing on the goal of making UNEP more efficient. A 2005 resolution recognizes “the need for more efficient environmental activities in the United Nations system, with enhanced coordination, improved policy advice and guidance, strengthened scientific knowledge, assessment and cooperation, better treaty compliance, while respecting the legal autonomy of the treaties, and better integration of environmental activities in the broader sustainable development framework.”

Proposals include:<ref>[https://www.un.org/ga/president/62/issues/environmentalgov/resolution230708.pdf UN environmental governance report]</ref>

* greater and better coordination between agencies;
* strengthen and acknowledge UNEP's scientific role;
* identify MEA areas to strengthen coordination, cooperation and teamwork between different agreements;
* increase regional presence;
* implement the [[Bali Strategic Plan]] on improving technology training and support for the application of environmental measures in poor countries;
* demand that UNEP and MEAs participate formally in all relevant WTO committees as observers.
* strengthen its financial situation;
* improve secretariats' efficiency and effectiveness.

One of the main studies addressing this issue proposes:

* clearly divide tasks between development organizations, UNEP and the MEAs
* adopt a political direction{{clarify|date=September 2013}} for environmental protection and sustainable development
* authorize the UNEP Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum to adopt the UNEP medium-term strategy
* allow Member States to formulate and administer MEAs an independent secretariat for each convention
* support UNEP in periodically assessing MEAs and ensure coordination and coherence
* establish directives for setting up national/regional platforms capable of incorporating MEAs in the Common Country Assessment (CCA) process and [[United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF)]]<ref>The CCA is the main diagnostic tool available for teams working in UN countries and their partners. It is used to assess and create a shared understanding of the underlying challenges facing a country during its development. The UNDAF is a product of the CCA analysis and collaboration process and provides the basis for UN cooperation programmes. (Source: ISDR; Words into Action: A Guide for Implementing the Hyogo Framework; United Nations; 2007; chapter 4; p. 81-120).</ref>
* establish a global joint planning framework
* study the aptitude and efficiency of environmental activities' funding, focusing on differential costs
* examine and redefine the concept of funding differential costs as applicable to existing financial mechanisms
* reconsider remits, division of tasks and responsibilities between entities that provide services to the multipartite conferences. Clearly define the services that UN offices provide to MEA secretariats
* propose measures aiming to improve personnel provision and geographic distribution for MEA secretariats
* improve transparency resource use for supporting programmes and in providing services to MEAs. Draw up a joint budget for services supplied to MEAs.

===Education===

A 2001 Alliance 21 report proposes six fields of action:<ref>Ziaka, Yolanda; Robicon, Philippe; Souchon, Christian; Environmental Education: Six Proposals for Citizens’ Action. Proposal Paper, [http://www.alliance21.org Alliance for a Responsible, Plural and United World]; 2001.</ref>

* strengthen citizens' critical faculties to ensure greater democratic control of political orientations
* develop a global and critical approach
* develop civic education training for teachers
* develop training for certain socio-professional groups
* develop environmental education for the entire population;
* assess the resulting experiences of civil society

===Transform daily life===

Individuals can modify consumption, based on [[voluntary simplicity]]: changes in purchasing habits, simplified lifestyles (less work, less consumption, more socialization and constructive leisure time). But individual actions must not replace vigilance and pressure on policies.<ref name=boug/> Notions of responsible consumption developed over decades, revealing the political nature of individual purchases, according to the principle that consumption should satisfy the population's basic needs. These needs comprise the physical wellbeing of individuals and society, a healthy diet, access to drinking water and plumbing, education, healthcare and physical safety.<ref name=boug/> The general attitude centres on the need to reduce consumption and reuse and recycle materials. In the case of food consumption, local, organic and fair trade products which avoid ill treatment of animals has become a major trend.

Alternatives to the personal automobile are increasing, including public transport, car sharing and bicycles and alternative propulsion systems.

Alternative energy sources are becoming less costly.

Ecological industrial processes turn the waste from one industry into raw materials for another.

Governments can reduce subsidies/increase taxes/tighten regulation on unsustainable activities.<ref name=boug/>

The [[Community Environmental governance Global Alliance]] encourages holistic approaches to environmental and economic challenges, incorporating indigenous knowledge. [[Okotoks]], [[Alberta]] capped population growth based on the carrying capacity of the Sheep River.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.okotoks.ca/default.aspx?cid=208&lang=1 |title=Okotoks - 1. Water Management |publisher=Okotoks.ca |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref> The Fraser Basin Council Watershed Governance<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fraserbasin.bc.ca/ |title=Fraser Basin Council - Home |publisher=Fraserbasin.bc.ca |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref> in British Columbia, Canada, manages issues that span municipal jurisdictions. [[Smart Growth]] is an international movement that employs key tenets of Environmental governance in [[urban planning]].

===Policies and regulations===

Establish policies and regulations that promote ""infrastructures for well-being"" whilst addressing the political, physical and cultural levels.

Eliminate subsidies that have a negative environmental impact and tax pollution

Promoting workers' personal and family development.<ref name=boug/>

===Coordination===

A programme of national workshops on synergies between the three Rio Conventions launched in late 2000, in collaboration with the relevant secretariats. The goal was to strengthen coordination at the local level by:

* sharing information
* promoting political dialogue to obtain financial support and implement programmes
* enabling the secretariats to update their joint work programmes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sommetjohannesburg.org/initiatives/gouvernance-environnementale.html |title=Diallo, Hama Arba; La gouvernance environnementale et la synergie entre les trois conventions globales (Environmental Governance and the Synergy between the Three Global Conventions); Johannesburg Summit document; 2002. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120630080411/http://www.sommetjohannesburg.org/initiatives/gouvernance-environnementale.html |archive-date=2012-06-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

According to Campbell,<ref>Campbell, Laura B.; The Effectiveness of WTO and WIPO: Lessons for Environmental Governance? in {{harvnb|Kanie|Haas|2004}}</ref> “In the context of globalization, the question of linking up environmental themes with other subjects, such as trade, investment and conflict resolution mechanisms, as well as the economic incentives to participate in and apply agreements would seem to provide an important lesson for the effective development of environmental governance structures.” Environmental concerns would become part of the global economic system. “These problems also contain the seeds of a new generation of international conflicts that could affect both the stability of international relations and collective security. Which is why the concept of ‘collective security’ has arisen.”

Moving local decisions to the global level is as important as the way in which local initiatives and best practices are part of a global system. Kanie<ref>Kanie, Norichika; Global Environmental Governance in Terms of Vertical Linkages;  pp. 86-113 {{harvnb|Kanie|Haas|2004}}</ref> points out that NGOs, scientists, international institutions and stakeholder partnerships can reduce the distance that separates the local and international levels.

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Climate governance]]
* [[Earth system governance]]
* [[Ecological modernization]]
* [[Environmental globalization]]
* [[Environmental policy]]
* [[Environmental politics]]
* [[Environmental racism]]
* [[Global governance]]
* [[List of international environmental agreements]]
* [[Political ecology]]
* [[Territorialisation of carbon governance]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
*{{cite book |last1=Kanie |first1=Norichika |last2=Haas |first2=Peter M. |title=Emerging Forces in Environmental Governance |publisher=UNU Press |year=2004 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150119065814/http://www.world-governance.org/ Forum for a New World Governance]
* Lennart J. Lundqvist (2004), ''Sweden and Environmental governance: Straddling the Fence''. Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|0-7190-6902-5}}
* Ostrom, Elinor. (1990). Governing the commons. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
* Srivastwa, Amit. (2017). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313676707_Environmental_governance_in_21st_century_a_case_study_of_China's_environmental_governance ""Environmental governance in the 21st century: a case study of China's environmental governance""] (pdf), ''researchgate.net''.

{{sustainability}}
{{environmental social science}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Environmental policy]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Forest governance| ]]
[[Category:Transboundary environmental issues]]"
Green national product,"{{refimprove|date=April 2023}}

{{short description|Economic indicator}}
The '''green national product''' is an economic metric that seeks to include environmental features such as [[environmental degradation]] and [[resource depletion]] with a country's [[Measures of national income and output|national product]].

== Criticism of gross national product ==

The [[gross national product]] (GNP) measures the [[Welfare economics|welfare]] of a nation's economy through the aggregate of products and services produced in that nation.  Although GNP is a proficient measurement of the magnitude of the economy, many economists, environmentalists and citizens have been arguing the validity of the GNP in respect to measuring [[Welfare economics|welfare]].  [[Joseph Stiglitz]], [[Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences|Nobel Prize–winning economist]], states that this standard measurement for any national economy has become deficient as a measure of long-term economic health in the recently resource-driven and [[Globalization|globalizing]] world.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/10/02/8387507/index.htm?postversion=2006092508 | title=Good Numbers Gone Bad | publisher=CNN | accessdate=2008-04-02 | date=2006-10-02 | first=Joseph | last=Stiglitz}}</ref>  Critics suggest that GNP often includes the environment on the wrong side of the balance sheet because if someone first pollutes and then another person cleans the pollution, both activities add to GNP making environmental degradation frequently look good for the economy.<ref name=""Green Accounting"">{{cite web | url=http://www.gwagner.com/research/green_accounting/index.html | title=Green Accounting | publisher=[[Gernot Wagner]] | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-04-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307223603/http://www.gwagner.com/research/green_accounting/index.html | archive-date=2008-03-07 | url-status=dead }}</ref>  Critics of [[mainstream economics]] complain that GNP compiles spending that makes us worse off, spending that allows us to stay in the same place, and spending that makes us better off all in a single measure, giving a nation no clue if they are making progress or not.<ref name=""Cobb Clifford p.2"">Cobb Clifford, and Cobb, John. ""The Green National Product"", [[University Press of America]], c1994. p.2 ""Introduction""</ref>  [[Manfred Max-Neef]], Chilean economist, explains that politicians feel that it is irrelevant whether the spending is productive, unproductive, or destructive.<ref name=""Cobb Clifford p.2""/>  In this sense, it is common to see political policies that call to depredate a natural resource in order to increase the GNP. To take into account the environmental depredation and resource depletion, there is a call to shift away from the traditional GNP and construct an assessment of national product that takes into account environmental effects.

== History ==

=== Measure of economic welfare ===

Ever since the Industrial Revolution, scientists and economists have warned of an [[inflection point]] for the United States economy where expansion is inevitably limited by the steadily decreasing availability of natural resources.  In 1973, [[William D. Nordhaus]] and [[James Tobin]], [[Yale University|Yale]] economists, were the first to question the GNP in ""Is growth obsolete?"".  Nordhaus and Tobin developed a [[Measure of Economic Welfare]] (MEW) and stated that welfare must be sustainable, in the sense that nations that devour their stock of capital are not as ""well"" as the national income would suggest.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c3621/c3621.pdf |  title=Is Growth Obsolete? | publisher=Milton Moss | year=1973 | accessdate=2022-01-02}}</ref>

=== Index of sustainable economic welfare ===

However, in ""The Green National Product"", Clifford Cobb and John Cobb argue that the Measure of Economic Welfare failed to encompass the depletion of [[natural capital]].<ref>Cobb Clifford, and Cobb, John. ""The Green National Product"", University Press of America, c1994. p.10-11 ""How to Measure Welfare: Some Options""</ref>  In 1989, [[Herman Daly]], John Cobb, and Clifford Cobb created what is known as the [[Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare]] (ISEW).  This new measurement of welfare was created in the hopes that it would replace the flawed GNP.  Herman Daly stated that the key flaw of the traditional GNP was that it ignored core accounting principles of business where all revenues and expenses are allocated to income.<ref name=""National Public Radio"">{{cite web | url=http://www.gwagner.com/writing/2004/04/fixing-gdp-green-accounting-in-united.html | title=Fixing GDP: Green Accounting in the United States | publisher=National Public Radio | date=April 9, 2004 | accessdate=2008-04-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080402233502/http://www.gwagner.com/writing/2004/04/fixing-gdp-green-accounting-in-united.html | archive-date=2008-04-02 | url-status=dead }}</ref>  ISEW called for ecological and economic sustainability to coincide since the economy is ultimately dependent on the natural resources that the earth provides.<ref name=""Cobb Clifford p.280"">Cobb Clifford, and Cobb, John. ""The Green National Product"", University Press of America, c1994. p.280 ""Bridging Economics and Ecology""</ref>  Rather than the original GNP, ISEW takes into account costs that are naturally unsustainable.  By creating ISEW, they wanted to expand the current national product so that individuals, businesses, and governments could take actions that will generally enhance welfare, rather than merely enhancing the traditional GNP.<ref>Cobb Clifford, and Cobb, John. ""The Green National Product"", University Press of America, c1994. p.280-281 ""Bridging Economics and Ecology""</ref>

=== Genuine progress indicator ===

In 1995, Redefining Progress created the [[genuine progress indicator]] (GPI) as an alternative to the traditional GNP.  This new measurement of national income would allow policymakers to gauge how well citizens are, economically and socially.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rprogress.org/sustainability_indicators/genuine_progress_indicator.htm | title=Genuine Progress Indicator | publisher=Redifining Progress | year=2008 | accessdate=2008-04-02}}</ref>  Unlike welfare adjustments in the past like MEW and ISEW, GPI adjusts not only for environmental depredation, but also for income distribution, housework, volunteering, crime, changes in leisure time, and life-span of consumer durables and public infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rprogress.org/sustainability_indicators/genuine_progress_indicator.htm | title=Genuine Progress Indicator | publisher=Redefining Progress | year=2008 | accessdate=2008-04-02}}</ref>  This was one of the first alternatives to the traditional GNP to be used by the scientific community and governmental organizations globally.

=== In the United States ===

In 1992, the [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] (BEA) of the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]] initiated intensive work to create an environmental accounting system.<ref name=""Eolss Publishers"">{{cite web | url=http://rcted.ncu.edu.tw/speech/On%20Green%20NP%202007%201117[1].pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210100338/http://rcted.ncu.edu.tw/speech/On%20Green%20NP%202007%201117%5b1%5d.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=2017-02-10 | title=On ""Green National Product"": Theories and a Comparison Among Difference Approaches | publisher=Eolss Publishers | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-04-02 }}</ref>  The BEA began by creating satellite accounts with easily measurable commodities such as petroleum and coal.  The first BEA publication was the U.S. Integrated Environmental and Economic Satellite Accounts (IEESA) in 1994.<ref name=""Eolss Publishers""/>  The initial results were quite significant, and showed how GNP was overestimating the impact of mining industries in respect to the nations economic wealth.<ref name=""National Public Radio""/>  Mining companies didn't care for the initial publications, for obvious reasons, and soon [[Alan Mollohan]], a Democratic House Representative from [[West Virginia]]'s coal country, sponsored an amendment to the 1995 [[Appropriation Bill]].  In response, Congress directed the BEA to suspend further work in [[Sustainability measurement|environmental accounting]], and to obtain an external review on their findings.<ref name=""Eolss Publishers""/>

== Need ==

Many people are calling for a green national product that would indicate if activities benefit or harm the economy and well-being.  This green national product would revolve around the social and economic issues on which many green movements have focused: care for the earth and all that sustain it.<ref name=""Green Accounting""/>  This new national product would differ from the traditional GNP by addressing both the sustainability and well-being of the planet and its inhabitants.<ref name=""Cobb Clifford p.280""/>  It is essential that this system takes into account natural capital, which is currently hidden from our traditional measurement.

== See also ==
*[[Bhutan GNH Index]]
*[[Genuine progress indicator]]
*[[Green gross domestic product]]
*[[Gross National Happiness]]
*[[Happiness economics]]
*[[Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Economic data]]
[[Category:Gross domestic product]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental indices]]"
Tropical Modernism,"{{Short description|Architectural style}}
{{Infobox art movement
|name=Tropical Modernism
|alt=Tropic Modernism
|yearsactive=1953 —
|country=International
|influences=[[Modern Architecture]], [[Vernacular Architecture]]
|majorfigures=[[Geoffrey Bawa]], [[Charles Correa]], [[Vladimir Ossipoff]], [[Lúcio Costa]], [[Oscar Niemeyer]], [[Maxwell Fry]], [[Jane Drew]], [[Paulo Mendes da Rocha]]
|image=File:Planalto panorama.jpg
|caption=[[Palácio do Planalto]] by architect [[Oscar Niemeyer]]}}

'''Tropical Modernism,''' or '''Tropical Modern''' is a style of architecture that merges [[Modern architecture|modernist architecture]] principles with tropical [[Vernacular architecture|vernacular]] traditions, emerging in the mid-20th century. This movement responded to the unique climatic and cultural conditions of tropical regions, primarily in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Pacific Islands.<ref name=""Architropics"">{{cite web |title=Tropical Modernism: A Design that Blurs Boundaries |url=https://architropics.com/tropical-modern-architecture/ |access-date=2023-10-26 |publisher=Architropics}}</ref> Pioneering architects like [[Geoffrey Bawa]] in Sri Lanka, and [[Charles Correa]] in India balanced modern architectural techniques with traditional building practices of their respective regions.<ref name=""Commune Design"">{{cite web |title=Geoffrey Bawa’s Tropical Modernism |url=https://www.communedesign.com/post/geoffrey-bawas-tropical-modernism |publisher=Commune Design |access-date=2023-10-26}}</ref> Today, Tropical Modernism's legacy continues to influence contemporary architectural practices, especially in the quest for [[sustainable design]] solutions in tropical climates.<ref name=""Architropics""/><ref name=""Indonesia Design"">{{cite web |title=Architects and the Tropical Modernism Movement |url=https://indonesiadesign.com/story/tropical-architecture |access-date=2023-10-26 |publisher=Indonesia Design}}</ref>

==Historical development==

{{main article|Modern architecture}}
Tropical Modernism originated in the mid-20th century, a period marked by post-war modernization and decolonization, which saw emerging national identities across the Global South. The movement was a response to the modernist architectural approaches of the time, aiming to adapt them to the unique environmental and cultural contexts of tropical regions.<ref name=""Architropics""/><ref name=""ArchDaily Tanzania"">{{cite web |title=The Legacy of Modernist Architecture in Tanzania: Anthony Almeida and Beda Amuli |url=https://www.archdaily.com/960564/the-global-legacy-of-modernism-in-tanzania |access-date=2023-10-26 |publisher=ArchDaily}}</ref>

===Origins and early pioneers===
The early pioneers of Tropical Modernism include architects like Geoffrey Bawa in Sri Lanka, whose work demonstrated a profound understanding of the local climate and culture, blending modernist principles with traditional vernacular architecture.<ref name=""Commune Design""/> Similarly, architects like Charles Correa in India contributed to the movement by integrating modern architectural forms with traditional Indian architectural elements.

===Post-war modernization===
The post-war era saw a surge in modernization efforts across many tropical countries. The need for new infrastructure and urban development provided a fertile ground for the adaptation and evolution of modernist architectural principles in tropical contexts.<ref name=""ArchDaily Tanzania""/>

===Decolonization and national identity===
The period of decolonization in many tropical regions contributed to the rise of Tropical Modernism, as emerging nations sought to express their newly found national identities through architecture. The movement became a means to reflect a blend of modernity and tradition in architectural designs.<ref name=""V&A"">{{cite web |title=Tropical Modernism: Architecture and power in West Africa |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/blog/museum-life/tropical-modernism-architecture-and-power-in-west-africa |access-date=2023-10-26 |publisher=Victoria and Albert Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Warwick |date=2021-03-26 |title=Decolonizing the Foundation of Tropical Architecture |url=https://journals.openedition.org/abe/9215 |journal=ABE Journal. Architecture beyond Europe |language=en |issue=18 |doi=10.4000/abe.9215 |issn=2275-6639|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Regional variations and evolution===
Tropical Modernism manifested differently across various regions, reflecting the unique cultural, political, and environmental conditions of each area. In West Africa, for instance, the movement was intertwined with political power and national identity.<ref name=""V&A""/> Similarly, in regions like Latin America and Southeast Asia, Tropical Modernism evolved to reflect the distinct vernacular traditions and modernization agendas.

== Characteristics ==
Tropical Modernism is characterized by its seamless integration of modernist principles with tropical vernacular architectures. The style places a significant emphasis on environmental responsiveness, often characterized by extensive use of local materials, passive cooling strategies, and a strong indoor-outdoor connection.

=== Environmental responsiveness ===
A defining characteristic of Tropical Modernism is its responsiveness to the local climate. The design approach often incorporates passive cooling strategies, such as natural ventilation, shading, and water features, to mitigate the harsh tropical climate. Buildings designed in this style are typically oriented to maximize natural ventilation and minimize solar heat gain, thereby reducing the reliance on mechanical cooling systems.<ref name=""Commune Design"" />

=== Use of local materials ===
The use of local materials is a hallmark of Tropical Modernism, reflecting a commitment to sustainability and a respect for local traditions. Materials such as timber, stone, and thatch are commonly used, often in innovative ways that reflect both modernist and traditional craftsmanship.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pmapdx.com/blog-pmafindings/14037/part-i-tropical-modernism-in-a-multicultural-context-at-the-docomomo-us-national-symposium |title=Tropical Modernism in a Multicultural Context at the Docomomo US National Symposium |access-date=2021-10-25 |website=Peter Meijer Architect, PC}}</ref>

=== Indoor-outdoor connection ===
One of the quintessential features of Tropical Modernism is the blurring of indoor and outdoor spaces to promote natural ventilation and a sense of openness. This is often achieved through the use of large openings, verandas, courtyards, and other transitional spaces, which encourage the flow of air and the extension of living spaces into the landscape.

=== Architectural elements ===
Tropical Modernism often incorporates architectural elements that are characteristic of the local vernacular, such as pitched roofs, wide eaves, and raised floor levels, which are adapted to modernist sensibilities. The juxtaposition of modern and traditional elements creates a distinctive architectural language that reflects a synthesis of global modernist trends with local building traditions.

== Notable practitioners ==
Tropical Modernism has been significantly shaped by a number of architects who melded modern architectural principles with tropical vernacular designs. Some notable practitioners include:

* '''[[Geoffrey Bawa]]''': A Sri Lankan architect known for pioneering Tropical Modernism. His work exemplifies the integration of modernist design principles with the traditional architectural elements of Sri Lanka, creating a unique, locally adapted style of modern architecture.<ref name=""Commune Design"" /> 
* '''[[Vladimir Ossipoff]]''': Known as the “master of Hawaiian architecture,” Ossipoff’s work prominently features the elements of Tropical Modernism. His designs emphasize natural ventilation, indoor-outdoor integration, and the use of local materials to create buildings suited for Hawaii’s climate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archinect.com/news/article/150114197/what-is-tropical-modernism-and-how-did-it-find-its-way-to-hawaii |title=What is Tropical Modernism, and how did it find its way to Hawaii? |website=Archinect}}</ref> 
* '''[[Charles Correa]]''': An Indian architect who significantly contributed to Tropical Modernism by integrating modern architectural forms with traditional Indian architectural elements. His design for the Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya in Ahmedabad is a notable example.<ref name="":0"">{{cite web |url=https://www.archdaily.com/tag/tropical-architecture |title=Tropical Architecture |website=ArchDaily}}</ref> 
* '''[[Lúcio Costa]]''' and '''[[Oscar Niemeyer]]''': These Brazilian architects were instrumental in the development of Tropical Modernism in Brazil, with their design for the city of Brasília showcasing modernist architectural principles adapted to the tropical climate.

== Exemplary projects ==
Tropical Modernism is epitomized in various projects that showcase the movement's key characteristics of environmental responsiveness, use of local materials, and indoor-outdoor connectivity. Here are some exemplary projects: 

* '''[[Heritance Kandalama|Kandalama Hotel]], Sri Lanka''': Designed by Geoffrey Bawa, this hotel is a quintessential example of Tropical Modernism. Its design incorporates the natural landscape, local materials, and modern architectural principles.<ref name=""Commune Design"" /> 
* '''[[Liljestrand House]], Hawaii''': Designed by Vladimir Ossipoff, this house exemplifies the seamless integration of indoor and outdoor spaces, a hallmark of Tropical Modernism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archinect.com/news/article/150114197/what-is-tropical-modernism-and-how-did-it-find-its-way-to-hawaii |title=What is Tropical Modernism, and how did it find its way to Hawaii? |website=Archinect}}</ref> 
* '''[[Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya]], Ahmedabad, India''': This museum, designed by Charles Correa, reflects the principles of Tropical Modernism with its use of local materials, passive cooling techniques, and integration of indoor and outdoor spaces.<ref name="":0"" /> 
* '''[[Palácio do Planalto]], Brasília, Brazil''': Designed by Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer, this presidential palace showcases Tropical Modernism with its modernist design adapted to the tropical climate.
* '''[[Salk Institute for Biological Studies|The Salk Institute]], La Jolla, California''': Although not located in a tropical region, the design by [[Louis Kahn]] incorporates key principles of Tropical Modernism. 
* '''[[Pearl Bank Apartments]], Singapore''': Designed by Tan Cheng Siong, this residential high-rise is a hallmark of Tropical Modernism in Southeast Asia. * '''Faculty of Architecture Building, Khon Kaen University, Thailand''': This building is a fine example of how Tropical Modernism can be integrated into educational infrastructure.

<gallery mode=""packed"" heights=""150"" caption=""Examples of Tropical Modern Architecture"">
File:Cooper Apartments 413 seaside Avenue, Honolulu, HI.jpg|[[Cooper Apartments|Cooper Apartment]] (1939) by architectural firm Dahl & Conrad 
File:LiljestrandHouse-from-driveway-near.jpg|[[Liljestrand House]] (1952) by architect [[Vladimir Ossipoff]]
File:Planalto panorama.jpg|[[Palácio do Planalto]] by architect [[Oscar Niemeyer]] (1958-1960)
File:Gandhi Ashram 1227.JPG|''[[Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya|Gandhi Memorial Institution]] by architect [[Charles Correa]]'' (1958-1963)
File:Dialogue-hochi-building.jpg|[[Hawai'i Hochi Building]] (1972) by architect [[Kenzō Tange]]
File:Pearl Bank Apartments, Singapore.jpg|[[Pearl Bank Apartments]] (1976) Designed by Tan Cheng Siong 
</gallery>


== Regional variations ==
Tropical Modernism, though rooted in modernist architectural principles, has been diversified and enlivened by its interaction with various regional vernacular traditions. Below are some regional variations:

* '''Hawaii''': In Hawaii, the style became prominent through the works of architects like [[Vladimir Ossipoff]], who blended Modernism with local vernacular styles. His designs highlighted the importance of environmental responsiveness and cultural sensitivity, which are now considered as seminal examples of Tropical Modernism in the Pacific region.<ref name="":8"">{{cite web|title=Tropical Modernism in a Multicultural Context at the Docomomo US National Symposium|url=https://pmapdx.com/blog-pmafindings/14037/part-i-tropical-modernism-in-a-multicultural-context-at-the-docomomo-us-national-symposium|website=PMA}}</ref>

* '''West Africa''': The style was also adapted in West Africa where it was used as a tool to assert a modern identity post-independence. Architects such as [[Maxwell Fry]] and [[Jane Drew]] utilized Tropical Modern principles to design buildings suited to the local climate while embodying a modern aesthetic.<ref name=""V&A"" />

* '''Brazil''': In Brazil, architects like [[Paulo Mendes da Rocha]] gained international recognition for sustainable designs embodying Tropical Modernism. This regional variant emphasized functionality, aesthetic appeal, and incorporation of natural elements, reflecting a synthesis of Modernism and ""Brasilidade"" or Brazilian-ness.<ref name="":17"">{{cite web|title=Concrete Jungle: Tropical Modernism|url=https://magazine.thebrunoeffect.com/concrete-jungle-tropical-modernism/|website=The Bruno Effect}}</ref><ref name="":18"">{{cite web|title=Paulo Mendes da Rocha: Brutalist master of Brazilian architecture|url=https://www.architonic.com/en/story/italo-rota-paulo-mendes-da-rocha-brutalist-master-of-brazilian-architecture/7001517|website=Architonic}}</ref><ref name="":19"">{{cite web |title=The Edifício Copan |url=https://www.archdaily.com/909420/architecture-classics-copan-building-oscar-niemeyer |website=Arch Daily}}</ref>

== Criticism and colonial legacy ==
Tropical Modernism has faced criticism for its colonial roots, particularly in regions such as West Africa. Initially, this architectural style was employed by colonial powers, representing a form of colonial imposition, especially in British West Africa. The design principles of Tropical Modernism were largely tailored to cater to the comfort of colonial administrators, fostering a notion of a more productive colonial subject to counter calls for independence. Despite its Eurocentric beginnings, post-independence leaders like [[Kwame Nkrumah]] recognized the potential of Tropical Modernism for nation-building, intertwining it with Pan-African ideologies to foster a sense of national identity and progress.<ref name=""V&A"" />

Perspectives surrounding [[Vladimir Ossipoff]] and Tropical Modernism in Hawaii are nuanced. Ossipoff, often dubbed as the ""master of Hawaiian architecture,"" played a pivotal role in bringing the essence of Tropical Modernism to the Hawaiian Islands. His work is known for its environmental sensitivity, cultural contextualization, and appropriateness to Hawaii's unique landscape characteristics, portraying a harmonious blend between modern architectural principles and local cultural and geographic contexts.<ref name=""Digs"">{{cite web |title=Tropical Modernism: The Enduring Legacy of Vladimir Ossipoff in Hawaii |url=https://digs.net/vladimir-ossipoff-changes-the-hawaiian-landscape/ |website=Digs.net}}</ref><ref name=""UH"">{{cite web |title=Vladimir Ossipoff’s Legacy on Hawaii’s Modern Architecture |url=https://guides.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/c.php?g=975178 |website=University of Hawaii}}</ref> He was known for his conviction-driven, no-nonsense approach towards architecture, waging what he called a ""war on ugliness,"" which was brought on by dismal architectural design and rampant over-development in the Hawaiian Islands.<ref name=""Digs"" />

However, it's essential to note that the term ""Tropical Modernism"" itself, as a broader movement beyond Ossipoff's work, has faced criticisms for potentially carrying colonial or Eurocentric undertones, especially when applied in non-Western contexts like Africa. Critics argue that the movement, while aiming to blend modernist and local vernacular architectures, might inadvertently perpetuate a form of architectural colonialism or exhibit a Eurocentric bias, often by dismissing or undervaluing local architectural traditions in favor of modernist principles.<ref name=""Jazeel"">{{cite web|title=Postcolonialism and architecture|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1572576/14/Jazeel_revision%20-%20final%20submission.pdf|website=UCL Discovery}}</ref><ref name=""V&A"" />

== Contemporary relevance ==
The contemporary relevance of Tropical Modernism lies in its ability to address climate-related challenges inherent to tropical regions. Several aspects underscore its modern-day significance:

* '''Sustainable development''': Approximately 50% of the world's population resides in the tropical belt, where the fastest-growing cities are located, along with 70% of the forests that help contain CO2 emissions. The principles of Tropical Modernism are crucial for designing coherent and adapted architecture in these regions, recognizing the values of tropicality along with its specificities.<ref name="":21"">{{cite web |title=Design Guidelines for Contemporary Tropical Architecture |url=https://www.archdaily.com/928807/design-guidelines-for-contemporary-tropical-architecture |website=ArchDaily}}</ref>

* '''Environmental responsiveness''': The style emphasizes passive design elements to achieve [[thermal comfort]], an approach that is critical in tropical climates characterized by high temperatures and humidity. Features such as sunshades, overhangs, and the use of local materials contribute to energy efficiency and [[environmental sustainability]].<ref name="":22"">{{cite web|title=Tropical Modern Architecture|url=https://architropics.com/tropical-modern-architecture/|website=Architropics}}</ref>

* '''Regional architectural expressions''': The resurgence of regional architectures, including Tropical Modernism, is noted in international architectural discourse. This style allows for the exploration of regionalized aesthetics, encouraging reflective design practices that contemplate environmental and human contingencies. It challenges the globalized mainstream architectural aesthetics, promoting a more contextual and thoughtful architectural practice.

== See also == 
* [[Modern architecture]] 
* [[Vernacular architecture]] 
* [[Sustainable architecture]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Modern architecture|state=expanded}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Architectural styles]]
[[Category:1950s architecture]]
[[Category:20th-century architectural styles]]
[[Category:Modernist architecture]]
[[Category:Sustainable architecture]]
[[Category:Low-energy building]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Society & Organizations Institute,"{{Infobox university
|image          = Logo_of_the_Society_&_Organizations_Institute.png
|name           = Society & Organizations Institute
|established    = 2008
|type           =
|director       = Rodolphe Durand
|city           = [[Jouy-en-Josas]]
|country        = [[France]]
|students       = 
|campus         = Jouy-en-Josas
|website= [https://www.hec.edu/en/faculty-research-lp/research-centers/society-organizations-center/about Official website]
}}

The '''Society & Organizations Institute''' is an interdisciplinary center, unique in [[Europe]],<ref>[https://www.b4ig.org/inclusive-business-report-what-it-is-and-why-it-matters-released-by-the-hec-paris-society-and-organizations-institute/ “Inclusive Business Report: What it is and why it matters” released by the HEC Paris Society and Organizations Institute]</ref> which members, professors and researchers, work on societal and environmental issues. Their research, teaching activities and experiments are applied to companies. It is located on the [[HEC Paris]] campus in [[Jouy-en-Josas]].<ref>[https://career-center.aom.org/jobs/19203831/hec-paris-society-organizations-s-o-institute-academic-director HEC Paris, Society & Organizations (S&O) Institute, Academic Director]</ref>

== Details ==
The center is part of HEC Paris. It is located in [[Jouy-en-Josas]]. Around 60 academics work on questions of [[Meaning of life|meaning]], [[Inclusion (disability rights)|social inclusion]] and [[sustainable development]] inside companies.<ref>[https://www.signalhire.com/companies/hec-paris-society-organizations-institute-s-o HEC Paris Society & Organizations Institute (S&O) Overview]</ref> The Institute bases its research around three main topics :
* Purposeful Leadership
* Inclusive Economy
* Climate & Environment.

The center has several programs for undergraduate and graduate students as well as for faculty to promote the concept of society. Several initiatives that the center has started has raised awareness for both society and [[Social inclusion|inclusivity]] in both the community of [[Jouy-en-Josas]] and throughout the country.<ref>[https://www.nexans.com/en/newsroom/news/details/2023/04/nexans-hec-paris-and-hec-foundation-have-joined-forces-to-help-companies-become-more-sustainable.html Nexans, HEC Paris and the HEC Foundation have joined forces to help companies become more sustainable]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.hec.edu/en/faculty-research-lp/research-centers/society-organizations-center/about Official website]

{{Authority control}}
{{coord|48.75910186767578|2.169628143310547|type:edu_globe:earth_region:FRA|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Society and Organizations Institute}}
[[Category:Research organizations]]
[[Category:HEC Paris]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Society]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in France]]"
Integrated Conservation and Development Project,"{{Short description|Type of biodiversity conservation project}}
{{copyedit|date=January 2024}}'''Integrated conservation and development projects''' (ICDPs), are [[biodiversity]] [[conservation ethic|conservation]] projects with rural development components. It is an approach that aspires to combine social development with conservation goals.<ref name="":2"">{{Cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=Ross |url=https://www.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/9080IIED.pdf |title=Integrating Conservation and Development Experience: A Review and Bibliography of the ICDP Literature |last2=Flintan |first2=Fiona |access-date=January 5, 2024 |publisher=Simmons Printers |year=2001 |isbn=1-899825-77-0 |location=Chelmsford}}</ref> These projects look to deal with biodiversity conservation objectives through the use of socio-economic investment tools. The [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF), first introduced ICDPs in the mid 1980s. They wanted to attend to some of the problems associated with the “fines and fences” (non-participatory) approach to conservation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ndiaye |first=Abdoulaye |date=2001 |title=A Practitioner's View of Conservation and Development in Africa: Integrated Management and the Djoudj National Park in Senegal |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/3/article/3078 |journal=Africa Today |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=101–109 |doi=10.1353/at.2001.0017 |issn=1527-1978}}</ref>

== ICDPs under WWF ==
The [[Wildlands & Human Needs Program]] was initiated in 1985 by WWF, and incorporated 19 ICDPs in 12 countries in Africa and South America. They wanted to improve the quality of life of rural people through projects that integrated the management of natural resources with economic development. Today, there are around 300 ICDPs.<ref name="":2"" />

== Various names of ICDPs ==
ICDPs have many different names, like “People-Centered Conservation and Development”, “Eco-development”, “grassroots conservation”, community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), and community wildlife management (CWM), all of which were created by the conservation organizations, rather than the indigenous people.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite web |date=2016-07-07 |title=Sharing the best in global development research for policy and practice. |url=https://www.eldis.org/node/46 |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=Eldis |language=en}}</ref> 

== Characteristics of ICDPs ==
Biodiversity conservation is the primary goal, but ICDPs also like to deal with the social and economic requirements of communities who might threaten biodiversity. They wish to improve the relationships between state-managed protected areas and their neighbors, but do not inevitably seek to delegate ownership of protected area resources to local communities. They usually receive funding from external sources and are externally motivated and initiated by conservation organizations and development agencies. ICDPs are normally linked to a protected area, usually a [[national park]].<ref name="":2"" /> ICDPs, through benefit sharing, are believed to discourage poaching and promote economic development. ICDPs try to benefit indigenous populations in several ways: through the transfer of money from tourism, the creation of jobs, and the stimulation of productivity in [[agriculture]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-07-07 |title=Sharing the best in global development research for policy and practice. |url=https://www.eldis.org/node/46 |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=Eldis |language=en}}</ref>

== ICDP assumptions ==
ICDPs make many assumptions during their project implementations, each of which may prove true or false. They are:<ref name="":2"" />
# Diversified local livelihood options will reduce human pressures on [[biodiversity]], leading to improved conservation.
# Local people and their livelihood practices comprise the most important threat to the biodiversity resources of the area in question.
# ICDPs offer [[sustainable]] alternatives to traditional approaches of protected areas management.
== Critiques of ICDPs ==
Conservation organizations do not necessarily understand the social and economic arenas they are trying to work in. They are the ones to start the ICDPs, rather than the rural people, and have little experience working with communities. They are also unwilling to bear or support legal battles over land and are not willing to strengthen rural organizations because they find it to be “too political”.<ref name="":2"" /> However, WWF claims that ICDPs strengthen local organizations and ""broker new land-use agreements between governments and communities, and helping communities challenge encroachment upon their natural resources, ICDPs involve local communities to improve livelihoods and conservation"".<ref>{{Cite web |title=WWF welcomes new national park in Madagascar |url=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?2693/WWF-welcomes-new-national-park-in-Madagascar |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=wwf.panda.org |language=en}}</ref>

[[Agroforestry]] and organic gardening projects do not work as well, because it is difficult for indigenous peoples to market what is grown.<ref>{{cite web|last=Marcus and Kull|title=Setting the Stage: The Politics of Madagascar's Environmental Efforts|url=http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v3/v3i2a2.htm|work=African Studies Quarterly|accessdate=15 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021201718/http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v3/v3i2a2.htm|archive-date=21 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Minority ethnic groups and women are many times not accounted for in the redistribution of costs and benefits. There are many limitations on participation by women, so many feel there are not equal opportunities for all people within the community.

External effects like a growing market demand for forest and wildlife products, demographic pressures and vested interests like [[illegal logging]], [[mineral extraction]] and [[ranching]] often go disregarded by ICDPs. In addition, [[community-based conservation]] projects are often found to be divergent to the goals of [[biodiversity]] conservation, and should be based more on biological sciences. As stated by Katrina Brandon with, “Not all things can be preserved through use”.<ref name="":1"" /> Another problem is that some of the ICDPs that are funded internationally may not be financially or economically sustainable once their external funding has been exhausted.

=== Integrated conservation and development practices in Madagascar ===
The ICDP in Madagascar has unintentionally led to [[environmental sustainability]] and degradation simultaneously. The organization relies on the cheap and local labor of select individuals to enforce their conservation practices among the communities near the forests. Problems occur due to the disparity in wages and lack of communication between the local conservation agents and the government. The conservation agents are placed in the difficult position of doing their duties as workers for the ICDP and their duties as members of the community. On one hand, the conservation agents are required to monitor the forests, and prevent peasants and other locals from farming portions of the land, which can become violent and dangerous. These encounters between the hired locals and the rest of the community causes friction between them, and run the risk of being shunned.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal|last=Sodikoff|first=Genese|date=2009-11-17|title=The Low-Wage Conservationist: Biodiversity and Perversities of Value in Madagascar|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01154.x|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=111|issue=4|pages=443–455|doi=10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01154.x|issn=0002-7294}}</ref>

The local agents are also aware of the wage gap between them and the external officials who work for the ICDP. The high paying jobs are universally given to foreign workers who come into the community while the low paying, harder working jobs are given to the local conservation agents. This recognition has led many local conservation agents to turn a blind eye to illegal logging and unapproved agricultural practices by other peasants. These interactions lead to further destruction of the environment which contradicts the motives and goals of the ICDP.

Additionally, the arrival of another conservation organization, ANGAP, has also discouraged locals from continuing their conservation work and are beginning to quit their jobs despite the economic ramifications. These labor tensions surrounding conservation help are rarely discussed as Western authorities continually emphasize the successes while diminishing any failures. This is to continue the ideology that all conservation endeavors are inherently beneficial to everyone involved. However, the Malagasy people are aware of these fallacies, and many feel that these conservation organizations are profiteering land for personal gain. Ideas like these continue to cause hesitation among local communities to participate with organizations such as the ICDP.<ref name="":0"" />

The ICDP, however, has introduced many conservation activities encouraging participation among local communities. Tools such as lesson plans, trainings, and increasing communications between themselves and the local community have occurred in order to ease tensions and build a better relationship. The Malagasy people hope this will encourage the ICDP to allow them to take over some of the labor given to foreign workers. By replacing these kinds of positions, the locals will achieve better compensation for their work which will ultimately strengthen relationships.<ref name="":0"" />

== Examples of ICDPs ==
*Annapurna Conservation Area Project, [[Nepal]]
*Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, [[Uganda]]
*Lake Mburo National Park, [[Uganda]]
*Amboro National Park, [[Bolivia]]
*Yancheng Coastal Zone Biosphere Reserve, [[China]]
*Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area, [[Papua New Guinea]]
*Mount Elgon, [[Uganda]]
*Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzanla
*Kilim Ijum, [[Cameroon]]
*Ostional Wildlife Refuge, [[Costa Rica]]
*Projects funded by the UK [[Department for International Development]] (DFID)
For ICDPs to be successful, Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E), systems need to be institutionalized, and unnecessary data collection avoided.

== Related books ==
*''In the Dust of Kilimanjaro'' - David Western
*''Indonesia'' - [[World Bank]]
*''Investing in Biodiversity'' - Michael Wells

==See also==
*[[Conservation International]]
*[[World Wildlife Fund]]
*[[The Nature Conservancy]]
*[[Ford Foundation]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
Case Studies:
* http://app.iucn.org/congress/documents/kmcd/reports/Changqing%20Yu%20-%20Pingwu.pdf{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* http://webh01.ua.ac.be/crc/great_apes_cameroon.html{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* https://web.archive.org/web/20110725050327/http://bcnet.org/text/projects.htm 
* http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/publications/asia/mapping/mapping.pdf
{{Conservation of species}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Integrated Conservation And Development Project}}
[[Category:Conservation projects]]
[[Category:Rural development]]
[[Category:World Wide Fund for Nature]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]"
Malaysian Green Transition,"The '''Malaysia Green Transition''' refers to the [[sustainable development]] strategy implemented by the [[Government of Malaysia|Malaysian government]] to combat [[Climate change in Malaysia|climate change]], stimulate economic growth, and improve societal well-being. The shift towards a [[Green economy|greener economy]] began in earnest in the early 2020s, with ambitious targets set to drastically reduce [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and incorporate [[renewable energy]] sources into the national grid.

== Overview ==
Following global trends and increasing environmental concerns, Malaysia recognized the pressing need for a transition to a green, sustainable economy. The Malaysian government announced a comprehensive plan that centered on sustainable development, green technology, [[Conservation biology|biodiversity preservation]], and [[climate change mitigation]]. This shift, known as the Malaysia Green Transition, aims to decarbonize various sectors, promote renewable energy sources, and establish a [[circular economy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The transition to green energy – Malaysian Green Technology And Climate Change Corporation |url=https://www.mgtc.gov.my/2023/03/the-transition-to-green-energy/ |access-date=2023-06-06 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=OECD |title=Facilitating the green transition for ASEAN SMEs. A toolkit for policymakers |publisher=OECD |year=2021 |location=Canada}}</ref>

== Policy framework and initiatives ==

=== Green Technology Master Plan (2021–2030) ===
The Green Technology Master Plan was one of the first significant policy frameworks laid out by the government to guide the green transition. This blueprint highlights six sectors: energy, manufacturing, building, transport, waste, and water. The plan set specific goals, including achieving 40% renewable energy in the electricity mix by 2035 and enhancing energy efficiency in the manufacturing and building sectors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Six ways that governments can drive the green transition |url=https://www.ey.com/en_my/government-public-sector/six-ways-that-governments-can-drive-the-green-transition |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=www.ey.com |language=en-MY}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Federal Government Administrative Centre |title=Green Technology Master Plan Malaysia 2017–2030 |publisher=Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Watr (KeTTHA) |year=2017 |location=Putrajaya, Malaysia}}</ref>

=== National Biodiversity Policy (2022–2030) ===
The National Biodiversity Policy seeks to protect and manage Malaysia's rich biodiversity while harnessing its potential for sustainable economic development. The policy aims to integrate biodiversity considerations into all relevant sectors and decision-making processes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saudi |first=Mohd Haizam Mohd |last2=Sinaga |first2=Obsatar |last3=Roespinoedji |first3=Djoko |last4=Razimi |first4=Mohd Shahril Ahmad |date=2019-09-01 |title=ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: THE NEXUS BETWEEN GREEN PRODUCT AND GREEN PROCESS INNOVATION |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.8281 |journal=International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=363–370 |doi=10.32479/ijeep.8281 |issn=2146-4553|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Sustainable and Circular Economy Roadmap (2023-2040) ===
The government introduced the Sustainable and Circular Economy Roadmap to transition the country towards a circular economy. The approach promotes the efficient use of resources, waste minimization, and the regeneration of natural systems.<ref>{{Cite web |last=https://www.bcg.com/about/people/experts/dave-sivaprasad |last2=https://www.bcg.com/about/people/experts/vincent-chin |last3=https://www.bcg.com/about/people/experts/hitesh-tak |last4=https://www.bcg.com/about/people/experts/ming-teck-kong |last5=https://www.bcg.com/about/people/experts/ching-fong-ong |date=2021-11-23 |title=Securing Our Future: Net Zero Pathways for Malaysia |url=https://www.bcg.com/net-zero-pathways-malaysia |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=BCG Global |language=en}}</ref>

== Progress and achievements ==
Since the onset of the Malaysia Green Transition, notable progress has been made in several sectors.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last=Wong |first=Fadhli Wong Mohd Hasan |last2=Foley |first2=Aoife |last3=Del Rio |first3=Dylan Furszyfer |last4=Rooney |first4=David |last5=Shariff |first5=Shahidah |last6=Dolfi |first6=Andrea |last7=Srinivasan |first7=Geetha |date=December 2022 |title=Public perception of transitioning to a low-carbon nation: a Malaysian scenario |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10098-022-02345-7 |journal=Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy |language=en |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=3077–3092 |doi=10.1007/s10098-022-02345-7 |issn=1618-954X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The country made significant strides in expanding its renewable energy portfolio, particularly in solar and hydroelectric power. By 2023, the share of renewable energy in the national grid rose to 22%, a significant increase from the previous decade.<ref name="":0"" />

Energy efficiency measures have been implemented across various sectors, with considerable progress in the building and industrial sectors. Mandatory energy audits, green building index certifications, and efficient energy management systems have reduced the energy intensity of these sectors.<ref name="":0"" />

Malaysia has implemented several waste-to-energy projects, transforming municipal waste into energy. An increase in recycling rates and the introduction of policies targeting single-use plastics have contributed to a shift towards a circular economy.<ref name="":0"" />

== Challenges and future directions ==
While the Malaysia Green Transition has seen significant achievements, it faces several challenges, including economic restructuring, financing green technologies, and public awareness and participation.<ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last=Abdullah |first=Hussin |last2=Abu Bakar |first2=Nor' Aznin |last3=Mohd Jali |first3=Mohd Razani |last4=Ibrahim |first4=Fatimah Wati |date=2017 |title=The Current State of Malaysia’s Journey towards a Green Economy: The Perceptions of the Companies on Environmental Efficiency and Sustainability |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/361710 |journal=International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy |volume=1 |issue=7 |issn=2146-4553 |via=Econjournal.com}}</ref>

The Malaysian government plans to continue strengthening its green policies and initiatives, focusing on a just transition that ensures equitable opportunities and benefits for all citizens. Future directions include greater emphasis on nature-based solutions, blue economy, and digitalization in the [[green economy]].<ref name="":1"" />

== See also ==

* [[Environmental issues in Malaysia]]
* [[Energy policy of Malaysia|Renewable energy in Malaysia]]
* [[Economy of Malaysia]]
* [[Circular economy]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Economy of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Renewable energy in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Climate change in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Energy policy of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:2020s in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Emissions reduction]]
[[Category:Renewable energy commercialization]]
[[Category:Environmental policies approved in 2021]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in Malaysia]]"
Climate Change Isn't Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism,"{{short description | Non-fiction book published in 2023}}
{{Infobox book
| name              = Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism 
| pub_date          = 2023
| publisher         = [[Polity Press]]
| isbn              = 9781509556168
| author           = [[Mike Hulme]]
| pages             = 208
| language          = English
| subjects          = [[Climate change]]
}}

'''''Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism''''' is a book by [[Mike Hulme]] published in 2023 by [[Polity Press]].

== Synopsis== 
''Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism''<ref name=""book"">Hulme, Mike. 2023. Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism. 1st edition. Medford: Polity.</ref>  is a book by Mike Hulme, Professor of Human Geography at the [[University of Cambridge]], where the author introduces the readers to his meaning of the term / neologism ‘climatism’. According to a blurb for the book offered by [[Ted Nordhaus]] of the [[Breakthrough Institute]] climatism  reduces the condition of the world to the fate of global temperature or to the atmospheric concentration of Carbon dioxide, to the detriment of tackling serious issues as varied as poverty, liberty, biodiversity loss, inequality and international diplomacy. Hulme notes that the term has been used before, and noticeably in Steve Goreham’s ''Climatism, Science, Common Sense and the 21st Century Hottest Topic'', New Lenox Books 2010. While Goreham contest the human origin of climate change, Hulme holds the opposite view, p.&nbsp;168.<ref name=""book""/>

==Main==
The author opens the book with a discussion of how the [[Syrian Civil War]], started in March 2011 after civil unrest following the torture by [[Bashar al-Assad|President Assad]]'s security agents of young Syrians schoolboys, was blamed on climate change: according to the narrative, a multi-year draught had displaced agricultural labourers to towns and cities, with a consequent unrest for lack of available jobs.

The narrative was upheld by authoritative figures such as the US secretary of state [[John Kerry]], President [[Barack Obama]],  [[Prince Charles]] and important institutions such as the [[World Bank]], [[Friends of the Earth]]. As a result, in the following years the flux of migrants escaping the civil war was likewise blamed on climate change by the President of the European Commission [[Jean-Claude Juncker]], p.&nbsp;2.<ref name=""book""/>

Hulme disagrees with this narrative and argues that blaming the civil war in Syria,  the increase of hate speech and racist tweets on Twitter, or floods devastation on climate is ultimately a distraction from tackling their major underlying causes. p.&nbsp;2.<ref name=""book""/>

According to a review<ref name=""rev1"">Jennifer Bernstein, 2013, Mike Hulme: ''Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism'', Journal of Environmental Studies and Science, 1–4</ref> Hulme is clear that he believes human behaviour is changing the climate and that society should move toward net zero emissions.

Hulme compares ‘climatic determinism’ to [[racial determinism]] in presenting value-based judgments as science, and offers an alternative based on what he calls ''climatic pragmatism'', as a recipe that is ''contextually sensitive, diverse and pragmatic'' (p.&nbsp;11 of Hulme's book).<ref name=""book""/>

Still for review<ref name=""rev1""/>  the author – ''living a tension between critique and sympathy regarding climate change'' – is aware of the risk of his work being appropriated by [[Climate change denial|climate deniers]], and has accepted the risk to fight what he perceives as the dangers of climatism.<ref name=""rev1""/>

Each chapter ends with a section entitled ‘Retort’ where likely objections are discussed, and a ‘Further Reading’ section at the end of the book offers suggestions relating to climate science, the relation between expertise, politics and democracy, the different meanings of climate change, the power of narratives, climate reductionism and climate anxieties.

For Hulme climate change has become the lens through which we perceive and address societal challenges.<ref name=""Escobedo""/> This has made climate as a ""self-sufficient"" narrative capable of explaining political, socio-ecological, and ethical dilemmas.<ref name=""Escobedo""/>

Hulme dedicates a chapter to reconstruct the genesis of climatism in ten ""moves"",<ref name=""Pielke-Hahn""/> Among these, the adoption of global temperature as a ""flawed index for capturing the full range of complex relationships between climate and human welfare and ecological integrity"" (move 3) appear as especially relevant.<ref name=""Pielke-Hahn""/>

For Hulme the moves have led to the ideology of climatism, making climate change into the ""leitmotif of contemporary politics.""<ref name=""Pielke-Hahn""/>

A final chapter entitled ""If Not Climatism, Then What?"" offers Hulme's recipes, under the banner that ""Wicked problems need clumsy solutions"": these include foregrounding scientific uncertainty, defusing deadline-ism, and acknowledging the plurality of values and goals as.<ref name=""Pielke-Hahn""/>

==The chapters== 
A succinct summary of the book chapter by chapter is offered in:<ref name=""Maxwell""/> 
# ‘From Climate to climatism’, ''How an Ideology is Made''. Introduces climatism as an ideology.
# ‘How did Climatism Arise’, ''Fetishizing Global Temperature''. Describes the ascent of climatism in ten ""moves"".
# ‘Are the Sciences Climatist’, ''The Noble Lie and Other Misdemeanors''.Presents use and misuse of climate scenarios, with particular attention to [[IPCC]]'s [[Representative Concentration Pathway]] 8.5.
# ‘Why is Climatism So Alluring’, ''Master-Narratives and Polarizing Moralism''. The main ingredient of climatism: climatism as a [[Metanarrative|master narrative]], its [[Manichaeism|Manichean]] worldview and its apocalyptic rhetoric.
# ‘Why is Climatism Dangerous’, ''The Narrowing of Political Vision''. Exemplifies the perverse effects of compressing all ailment of the world under a single heading, unlike the broad spectrum of the [[sustainable development goals]]. The case of  deforestation in Indonesia driven by European Union biofuel policies.
# ‘If Not Climatism, Then What’, ''[[Wicked problem|Wicked Problems]] Need Clumsy Solutions''. Gives a recipe for progress: replace a culture of [[hubris]] with one of humility, discontinue presenting the future in terms of cliff-edges or no-return points, embrace a plurality of values and perspectives, including site-, culture- and context-specific values and perspectives.
# ‘Some Objections’, ''You sound Just Like…''. Anticipates objections to the positions expressed in the book.

==Reception== 
The reception of the book is varied. For Teresa de León:<ref name=""Escobedo"">de León Escobedo, T. G. (2023). Scalar dissonances, knowledge-making, sense of urgency, and social narratives about the future. Contours of the climate change debate in Latin America. Tapuya: Latin American Science, Technology and Society, 6(1), 2278839.</ref><blockquote>Hulme has the merit of having shown how the social encounter with nature has been narrowed by a generic distinction of villains and saviors of the Earth, which has triggered ethical reflections about what is more socially sensitive to nature and what is not. </blockquote>For Volker Hahn, writing in the blog<ref>http://rogerpielkejr.blogspot.com/</ref> of [[Roger Pielke Jr.]]:<ref name=""Pielke-Hahn"">Roger Pielke Jr. 2023. 'Book Review: Climate Change Isn’t Everything'. Substack newsletter. The Honest Broker (blog). 7 August 2023. https://rogerpielkejr.substack.com/p/book-review-climate-change-isnt-everything.</ref><blockquote>Hulme’s book may not deliver radically new or surprising insights. But it is a concise digest of the current climate discourse and depicts where things are going wrong.  </blockquote>

For Nicholas Clairmont<ref name=""Clairmont"">{{Citation | vauthors=((Clairmont, N.)) | year=2023 | title=A warming planet needs cooler heads. | url=https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/warm-planet-cool-heads | access-date=7 December 2023}}</ref> writing in [[The New Atlantis (journal)|The New Atlantis]]:<blockquote> The book is a welcome remedy for a climate discourse beset by scientization, the antidemocratic process by which “scientific statements substitute — or at least become a short-hand — for ethical or political reasoning and argument.”</blockquote>

A more critical view is offered by Simon Maxwell:<ref name=""Maxwell"">Maxwell, Simon. n.d. 'Climate Change Isn’t Everything by Mike Hulme'. Simonmaxwell: Bridging Research & Policy (blog). Accessed 11 January 2024. https://simonmaxwell.net/blog/climate-change-isnt-everything-by-mike-hulme.html.</ref><blockquote>It’s hard to decide whether Mike Hulme’s new book is: (a) a salutary warning to over-enthusiastic advocates of climate action, (b) a case of over-egging the pudding in regard to same, or (c) and despite  protestations to the contrary, a gift to climate deniers. The book has elements of all three, but I confess Hulme’s central assertion, that ‘climatism’ has emerged as a technocratic, pervasive and apocalyptic ‘ideology’ which explains all the world’s ills and claims pre-eminence in policy, strikes me mainly as a case of over-egging the pudding.</blockquote>

== See also ==
* [[Climate Change]]

==References== 
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*https://www.geog.cam.ac.uk/people/hulme/ Prof. Hulme page at the [[University of Cambridge]] 
*[https://www.politybooks.com/blog-detail/climate-change-isnt-everything-liberating-climate-politics-from-alarmism Book page] at [[Polity Press]]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Environmental issues]]
[[Category:Globalization]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Earth sciences]]
[[Category:Environmental science]]
[[Category:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]
[[Category:World Bank]]
[[Category:History of environmentalism]]
[[Category:Environmental policy]]
[[Category:Global governance]]"
Ghazi Barotha water supply project,"{{distinguish|Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project}}
The '''Ghazi Brotha Water Supply Project''' is a long-term proposed initiative aimed at providing adequate water supply to the twin cities of [[Rawalpindi]] and [[Islamabad]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2448190/mega-water-project-far-from-taking-off|title=Mega water project far from taking off|date=November 29, 2023|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://propakistani.pk/proproperty/wasa-proposes-ghazi-barotha-water-supply-project-for-twin-cities-water-needs/|title=Wasa Proposes Ghazi Barotha Water Supply Project for Twin Cities' Water Needs - ProProperty}}</ref> The project was initially conceptualized in 2008 and has been in the works for over 15 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://propakistani.pk/proproperty/cda-urges-investment-in-water-related-projects-instead-of-roads-and-interchanges/|title=CDA Urges Investment in Water-Related Projects Instead of Roads and Interchanges - ProProperty}}</ref> It is designed to supply 200 million gallons of water per day to the twin cities from the [[Indus River]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2422133/wasa-seeks-leg-up-for-mega-water-project|title=WASA seeks leg up for 'mega' water project|date=June 17, 2023|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref>

==Background==
The twin cities of [[Rawalpindi]] and [[Islamabad]] are facing a water crisis as water levels in the [[Rawal Dam|Rawal]] and [[Khanpur dam]]s are rapidly depleting due to prolonged drought. The ongoing construction and growing population in Rawalpindi city and cantonment areas have increased the demand for water. Lack of progress on the Ghazibrotha water supply project has further aggravated the expected crisis.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2452509/drought-sparks-water-shortage-fears | title=Drought sparks water shortage fears | date=8 January 2024 }}</ref>

==Project details==
The project envisages providing 600 million gallons per day (MGD) to the twin cities after completion in three phases. The estimated cost of the first phase of the project is 22 billion 98 crore 23 lakh rupees. However, due to long delay, the cost of the proposed project has reached 150 billion rupees. The project involves the construction of a 24&nbsp;km long water pipeline from [[Ghazi Brotha]] to the water treatment and storage site at [[Sangjani]].

In July 2021, the [[Capital Development Authority (Islamabad)|Capital Development Authority]] (CDA) and the [[Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources]] (PCRWR) collaborated to assess groundwater, create a regulatory framework and recharge groundwater. A memorandum of understanding has been signed. The cooperation was expected to last for three years. The government has also planned to bring 100 MGD from [[Ghazi Brotha Dam]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/869765-100mgd-water-from-ghazi-barotha-dam-to-islamabad-cda-pcrwr-sign-mou-on-technical-support-supply | title=100MGD water from Ghazi Barotha Dam to Islamabad: CDA-PCRWR sign MoU on technical support, supply }}</ref><ref>https://pcrwr.gov.pk/consultative-meeting-on-demonstration-of-nature-based-solution-for-improving-the-resilience-of-groundwater/</ref>

===Cost===
As the project will be developed in three phases, the [[Water and Sanitation Agency]] (WASA) has proposed that the [[Government of Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab government]] bear only 25 percent of the construction cost of the Ghazi Brotha project. Vasa has also agreed to contribute 25 percent for the project.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/amp/1663699 | title=Wasa asks Punjab to bear only 25pc cost of Ghazi Barotha water project | date=14 December 2021 }}</ref> The total estimated cost of the first phase of the project is estimated at Rs 22.98 billion. As part of Phase I and II, 200 million gallons of additional water per day (MGD) will be made available to the people of the Twin Cities. After completion of Phase III, water supply will increase to 250 MGD per day.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2422133/wasa-seeks-leg-up-for-mega-water-project | title=WASA seeks leg up for 'mega' water project | date=17 June 2023 }}</ref>

===PC-1 phase 1===
In December 2021, the PC-1 of the project, involving land acquisition of Rs 3.1 billion, has been given clearance. The first phase of the project is estimated to cost Rs 80 billion, to be completed in three years and will culminate in a collective supply of 200 mgd of clean water to Islamabad and Rawalpindi, with each city getting an equal share.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2332496/pc-1-of-ghazi-barotha-project-okayed | title=PC-1 of Ghazi Barotha project okayed | date=5 December 2021 }}</ref>

==Current status==
Despite its importance, the Ghazi Brotha water supply project has suffered setbacks, with progress limited to briefings and discussions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2452509/drought-sparks-water-shortage-fears|title=Drought sparks water shortage fears|date=January 8, 2024|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref> The project was excluded from the [[Annual Development Program]] (ADP) submitted by the [[Water and Sanitation Agency]] (WASA) for the financial year 2023–24.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2424745/mega-water-project-for-twin-cities-scrapped|title=Mega water project for twin cities scrapped|date=July 5, 2023|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref> However, the government has planned to start this project with an investment of 150 billion rupees.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/pakistan/govt-to-initiate-rs-150b-project-of-water-sup-1020764.html|title=Govt To Initiate Rs 150b Project Of Water Supply To Federal Capital From Ghazi Barotha Dam: Ali Nawaz|website=UrduPoint}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Proposed infrastructure in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Proposed water supply infrastructure]]
[[Category:Environmental issues in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Water scarcity]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Urban planning in Pakistan]]"
Voie verte,"{{Short description|Autonomous communication route used in France.}}
{{Confusion|Coulée verte}}
[[File:CEVA-Voie verte-37.jpg|thumb|Voie verte between [[Chêne-Bourg]] (Geneva, Switzerland) and [[Ambilly]] (Haute-Savoie, France)]]
A '''voie verte''' is an autonomous communication route reserved for non-motorized traffic, such as [[Pedestrian|pedestrians]] and [[Cycling|cyclists]]. Voies vertes are developed with a view to integrated development that enhances the [[:fr:Environnement|environment]], heritage, quality of life, and user-friendliness. In Europe, they have been organized since October 1997 within the framework of the European Green Network<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ministère de la transition écologique et solidaire |date=2001 |title=Circulaire du 31 mai 2001 relative à la mise en œuvre du schéma national de véloroutes et voies vertes. - Élaboration des volets régionaux |url=https://www.af3v.org/IMG/pdf/circulaire-vv-mai2001.pdf |journal=Bulletin du ministère |language=fr |issue=1-6: N°21}}</ref><ref>[http://www.aevv-egwa.org/ Site de l'Association Européenne des voies vertes]</ref> to coordinate and regulate uses often prohibited in certain countries or that compete with motorized practices.<ref>Cartographie des chemins accessibles et constats d'infractions pour suivre à vtt la parade des bateaux lors des ""Voiles de la Liberté"" de Rouen à l'Estuaire de la Seine; CRCommerceIndustrie, DRJeunesses-Sports, PlanèteVtt, CNAvironRouen; Ports/Préfet 1989/1994.</ref>

== Context ==
In this regard, [[Towpath|towpaths]], old rural paths, and disused [[Railway track|railway tracks]] are privileged mediums for the development of voies vertes.<ref>[http://www.aevv-egwa.org/fr/declaration-pour-un-reseau-vert-europeen/ ''Déclaration de Lille''], September 12, 2000.</ref> If managed appropriately (through [[sustainable gardening]] and [[restoration ecology]], and without the use of pesticides in the surroundings, which can then potentially play a role in the [[Green infrastructure|green infraestructure]] and blue network), voires vertes are one of the elements of [[sustainable development]] policies in the relevant areas.

For English speakers, [[Greenway (landscape)|greenways]] refers to voies vertes, but also more generally to ""a road that is good from an environmental point of view"" (Turner, 1995,<ref>Turner quoted by himself in TURNER T., 2006, ''Greenway planning'' ''in Britain: recent work and future plans'', vol. 76, no. 1-4, pp.240-251 ([http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204604001434 Abstract)]</ref> or - in England, according to a survey cited by Turner in 2006: ""a linear space containing elements planned, designed, and managed for multiple purposes, including ecological, recreational, cultural, aesthetic, and others compatible with the concept of sustainable land use"") or a wide range of landscape and urban planning strategies including, to varying degrees, an environmental concern associated with transportation infrastructure,<ref>Jack Ahern (Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning, University of Massachusetts), ''Greenways as a planning strategy'' ; Landscape and Urban Planning Volume 33, Issues 1-3, October 1995, Pages 131-155 Greenways doi:10.1016/0169-2046(95)02039-V ([http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016920469502039V Abstract])</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fábos |first=J.G. |year=1995 |title=Introduction and overview: the greenway movement, uses and potentials of greenways |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |volume=33 |issue=1–3 |pages=1–13|doi=10.1016/0169-2046(95)02035-R }}</ref> the edges of which have often acquired special value<ref>Hobden D.W., Laughton G.E. et Morgan K.E., 2004, ''Green space borders, a tangible benefit ? Evidence from four neighbourhoods in Surrey, British Columbia, 1980-2001'', Land Use Policy, vol. 21, no. 2, pp.129-138</ref> and are sometimes associated with the concept of a biological corridor in Europe.<ref>Jongman R.H.G., Külvik M. et Kristiansen I., 2004, ''European ecological networks and greenways'', Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 68, no. 2-3, pp.305-319.</ref>

== History and Evolution ==
From 1975 to 1995, voies vertes proliferated significantly in the urban [[Landscape|landscapes]] of so-called ''developed'' countries.<ref name=""histSearns95"">Robert M. Searns, ''The evolution of greenways as an adaptive urban landscape'' ; Landscape and Urban Planning Volume 33, Issues 1-3, October 1995, Pages 65-80 Greenways doi:10.1016/0169-2046(94)02014-7 online 23 February 2000.</ref> For example, by 1995, more than 500 communities were building them in North America alone. They address new human needs while also extending some of the functions of ancient rural roads. More than simple facilities or landscaping, they increasingly aim to provide a counterbalance to the loss of natural landscape in the context of increasing urbanization and agricultural industrialization. As times changed, the notion of ''chemins verts'' ou ''corridors verts'' evolved to meet new needs and challenges.<ref name=""histSearns95"" />

Three distinct stages (or ""generations"") of voies vertes can be identified as forms of urban and peri-urban landscape:

# The first generation consisted of wooded paths, bordered by grassy and flowered embankments or ancestral walking paths,<ref name=""histSearns95"" /> complementary to road networks;
# Recreational and discovery trails, or routes away from traffic zones, providing access to rivers, streams, ridges, and urban fabric, allotment gardens, etc., followed. Generally, automobiles were excluded<ref name=""histSearns95"" /> (''[[Reserved lanes]]'');
# The latest generation is often more multifunctional, primarily reserved for soft travel and leisure, sometimes also for landscape enhancement, while also seeking to address certain vital needs of fauna, and flora (and sometimes fungi, with the conservation of deadwood). Ditches, swales, and flood-prone areas can also play a roleb in water and flood management (in urban or rural areas). Path edges are designed and managed to act as wildlife corridors with a potential [[buffer strip]]. Like [[grassy strips]] or other types of buffer zones, some voies vertes also contribute to improving water quality (with, for example, ditches and swales serving as [[Wetland|natural wetland]]). They also provide resources for outdoor education, landscape discovery, and interpretation. Planners must therefore adopt multidisciplinary approaches, sometimes merging formerly opposing disciplines such as [[civil engineering]], [[architecture]], [[landscape ecology]], [[sustainable gardening]], or [[Wetland|wetland ecology]].<ref name=""histSearns95"" /> In France, the term ''voies vertes'' tends to overlap with that of the voies vertes in the cycle route and voies vertes network.<ref>[http://asso.proxiland.fr/ffct-sarthe/default.asp?a=10425 Qu'est-ce qu'une voie verte ?] Illustrated sheet (Comité départemental de cyclotourisme FFCT de la Sarthe)</ref>

== Network status ==

=== {{Country|Belgium}} ===
In Belgium, a network of {{Value|2200|u=km}} of voies vertes was already defined in 2003, of which {{Value|900|u=km}} were developed.<ref>Source : 4° Conférence européenne sur les Voies vertes au Palais des Congrès de Liège, in Belgium.</ref>

In the [[Wallonia|Walloon Region]], they form the [[RAVeL network]].

In [[Flanders]], there is a network of [[Towpath|towpaths]], [[Train|railway trails]], and other independent cycle paths. Most are integrated into the [[Numbered-node cycle network|numbered-node cycle networks]] of the [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]], or belong to [[LF-routes]] (Dutch: ''lange-afstandsfietsrout''e, long-distance tourist cycle routes) or the [[bicycle highway]] network (Dutch: ''fietssnelweg'', utilitarian voies vertes providing direct routes between and around cities).

=== {{Country|Netherlands}} ===
In the Netherlands, the situation and terminology are comparable to Flanders, with the difference that there are few rail trails and many other independent cycle paths.
[[File:Voies vertes et véloroutes.svg|thumb|208x208px|Voie verte and cycle routes in [[France]], open or planned in 2011.]]

=== {{Country|France}} ===
In France, a decree of September 16, 2004 introduced voies vertes into the Highway Code: voies vertes are defined as roads ""{{Text|exclusively reserved for the circulation of non-motorized vehicles, pedestrians and horse riders}}<ref name="":1"">Marie-Pierre Genecand, [https://www.letemps.ch/societe/geneve-voie-verte-viretelle-deja-noir « À Genève, la Voie verte vire-t-elle déjà au noir ? »], ''[[:fr:Le_Temps_(quotidien_suisse)|Le temps]]'', October 16, 2018 (page consulted on October 16, 2018).</ref>.""

=== {{Country|Switzerland}} ===
In Switzerland, there's a cross-border voie verte from [[Geneva]] to [[Annemasse]].<ref name="":1"" /> A voie verte through [[Lausanne]] (along the railroad tracks) is programmed for completion in 2018.<ref>Laurent Antonoff, [https://www.24heures.ch/vaud-regions/cyclistes-coulent-verte-long-voies-cff/story/26108869 « Les cyclistes se la coulent verte le long des voies CFF »], ''[[24 heures (Suisse)|24 heures]]'', 20 juin 2018 (page consultée le 16 octobre 2018).</ref>

== Features and Benefits ==
They are most often developed on old railway lines,<ref name=""Hecker"">{{cite web |author=Antoine Beyer |date=November 2021 |title=Grandeur, décadence et possible renouveau du réseau ferroviaire secondaire français |url=https://geoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr/informations-scientifiques/dossiers-thematiques/mobilites-flux-et-transports/articles-scientifiques/reseau-ferroviaire-secondaire-france |website=Géoconfluences}}<!-- auto-translated from French by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> [[Towpath|towpaths]],<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last=Hecker |first=Anne |date=2006 |title=Véloroutes et voies vertes : supports, ou objets touristiques ? |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/edyte_1762-4304_2006_num_4_1_982 |journal=Cahiers de géographie |volume=4 |language=fr |issue=Transport et tourisme |pages=199–208 |doi=10.3406/edyte.2006.982 |via=EDYTEM}}</ref> roads closed to automobile traffic, and cultural routes ([[Roman roads]], [[pilgrimage]] routes). They have certain characteristics:

# ''Ease of access'': their low or nonexistent slopes allow for use by all types of users, including those with reduced mobility;<ref name="":0"" />
# ''Safety due'' to their physical separation from roadways and appropriate intersection design;
# ''Continuity'' of routes with alternative solutions in case of obstacles;
# ''Environmental respect'' along the paths and encouragement for users to respect it.

Voies vertes also offer services, located in preserved old facilities such as former railway stations and [[Lock (water navigation)|lockkeeper's]] houses. These services can be of various types: accommodation, [[Museum|museums]], bike rental, equestrian accommodation, community centers, etc. They cater to both local users and tourists. voies vertes are provided with information (maps, brochures, etc.) about the route itself and nearby sites. For example, several tens of kilometers of the former [[Coastal railway line of Var|coastal railway]] of the [[Chemins de fer de Provence|Chemins de Fer de Provence]] have been converted into a cycle path between [[Toulon]] and Pramousquier (in the municipality of [[Le Lavandou]]).

This example illustrates the main criticism of voies vertes, namely the fact that they sometimes contribute to downgrading and therefore definitively condemning railway lines that could potentially be reopened for collectivization and decarbonization of travel in peri-urban or rural areas, instead of taking up space on roads. This competition between two complementary modes in an era of [[energy transition]] inducing increasing decarbonization of travel can therefore be ironic.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://esprit.presse.fr/actualites/diane-delaurens/des-velos-et-des-trains-42262 | title=Revue Esprit }}</ref>

== Photographs ==
<gallery mode=""packed"">
File:Nová Bystřice, Greenways Praha-Wien.jpg|Voie verte from [[Prague]] to [[Vienna]] ([[Nová Bystřice]], [[Czech Republic]])
File:France road sign C115.svg|French voie verte[[signage]]
File:110langresgreenwayhouse.jpg|Voie verte built on a former railway line in [[Langres]]
File:Littoral varois 05.JPG|Cycling path arranged on the former [[coastal railway line of Var]].
File:High Trestle Trail Bridge, Madrid, Iowa, United States (Unsplash F9o7u-CnDJk).jpg|[[High Trestle Trail]], [[Railway track|rail trail]] in [[Madrid, Iowa|Madrid]], Iowa, USA.
</gallery>

== Notes and references ==
<references responsive=""0"" group=""""></references>

== See also ==

* [[:fr:Aménagement_cyclable|Aménagement cyclable]]

{{Autres projets|commons=category:Voie verte}}

=== Bibliography ===

* {{Cite book |last=Bonduelle |first=Michel |title=La France des voies vertes: cyclistes, rollers, randonneurs |year=2003 |isbn=2-7373-3131-5 |edition=Ouest-France |location=Rennes |page=141 |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |title=France à vélo, France des voies vertes: les clefs de la réussite |publisher=ODIT France |year=2006 |isbn=2-915215-26-X |location=Paris |page=104 |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |last= |url=https://www.mobilservice.ch/admin/data/files/mobility_topic_section_file/file/479/2000_guide-de-bonnes-pratiques-des-voies-vertes-en-europe_fr.pdf?lm=1535101285 |title=Guide de bonnes pratiques des voies vertes en Europe: exemples de réalisations urbaines et périurbaines, Association européenne des voies vertes |publisher=Commission européenne, Direction générale de l'environnement |year=2000 |location=Bruxelles |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mercat |first=Nicolas |title=Voies vertes: fréquentation et impact: panorama de l'offre |publisher=[[AFIT]] |year=2003 |isbn=2-910388-94-8 |location=Paris |page=93 |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |url=http://www.enviplans.net/guidelines/reading/mobility/greenwaysBP_EUguide_05_fr.pdf |title=Guide co-rédigé par les ministères français de l'environnement, de l'équipement, des sports : «Fiche ""choix techniques""», véloroutes et voies vertes |year=2000 |page=90 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Cahier des charges ""Schéma national des véloroutes et voies vertes"" |publisher=Ministère de l’Aménagement du territoire et de l’environnement, Ministère de l’Équipement, des transports et du logement, Ministère de la Jeunesse et des sports; Secrétariat d’État au Tourisme |publication-date=May 2001 |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |last= |title=Pistes cyclables - conception des structures |publisher=[[LCPC, Certu]] |year=1986 |page=50}}
* {{Cite book |title=Recommandations pour les aménagements cyclables |publisher=Certu |publication-date=April 2000 |page=108}}
* {{Cite book |title=Fiches véloroutes et voies vertes 1 ""Les relais vélo"" et 2 ""Traversées d'agglomération"" |date= |publisher=MEDD |year= |location=Paris |publication-date= |language=fr |type=October and November, 2001}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mission nationale Véloroutes et voies vertes - MN3V |url=https://www.valleesdesgaves.com/Fichiers/documents/0_mn3v_note.pdf |title=Véloroutes voies vertes l'avenir est aux circulations douces |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |title=Réseau vert européen, actes du colloque de Lille |date=September 2000}}
* {{Cite book |last=Agence française de l’ingénierie touristique (Afit) |url=http://www.afit-tourisme.fr/ |title=Voies vertes: fréquentation et impact |year=2003}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Le Brethon |first=Brigitte |date=March 2004 |title=Propositions pour encourager le développement de la bicyclette en France |journal=La Documentation française}}

=== Related articles ===

* [[Greenway (landscape)]]
* [[RAVeL network]]
* [[Green infrastructure]]
* [[Long-distance cycling route]]
* [[Rail trail]]
* [[Otago Central Rail Trail]]

=== External links ===

* [https://www.helloasso.com/associations/teamvttevasion Team VéloTousTerriens Evasion Rouen]
* [http://www.aevv-egwa.org/fr/ Association Européenne des Voies Vertes]
* [http://www.af3v.org/ Association Française des Véloroutes et Voies Vertes]
* [http://www.francevelotourisme.com/ France Vélo Tourisme]
* [http://www.voies-vertes.info/ Carte de France des voies vertes]
* [http://www.voiesvertes.com/ Le portail touristique national des parcours à vélo et de voies vertes]
* [http://www.oevv-egwo.org/index.php?lng=&page=1 Observatoire Européen des Voies Vertes]
*[http://mrw.wallonie.be/DGATLP/DGATLP/Pages/DAU/Dwnld/RAVeL/Actes_colloque_Liege_2003.pdf 4<sup>e</sup> Conférence européenne sur les voies vertes, Actes du colloque sur les Voies vertes urbaines et périurbaines(6,7,8 novembre 2003), Liège - Belgique]
{{Portal bar|Environment}}

{{Road types}}



[[Category:Traffic signs]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Ecology]]"
Climate change effects on tropical regions,"'''Climate change effects on tropical regions''' includes changes in [[marine ecosystem]]s, human [[livelihood]]s, [[biodiversity]], degradation of [[tropical rainforest]]s and effects the environmental stability in these areas. [[Climate change]] is characterized by alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events. Tropical areas, located between the [[Tropic of Cancer]] and the [[Tropic of Capricorn]], are known for their warm temperatures, high biodiversity, and distinct ecosystems, including rainforests, coral reefs, and mangroves.<ref name="":0"">{{Cite journal |last=Kreier |first=Freda |date=2022-04-01 |title=Tropical forests have big climate benefits beyond carbon storage |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00934-6 |journal=Nature |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-00934-6|pmid=35365819 |s2cid=247865559 }}</ref><ref name="":1"">{{Cite journal |last=Mitchard |first=Edward T. A. |date=July 2018 |title=The tropical forest carbon cycle and climate change |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0300-2 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=559 |issue=7715 |pages=527–534 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0300-2 |pmid=30046067 |bibcode=2018Natur.559..527M |s2cid=50785296 |issn=1476-4687|hdl=20.500.11820/1e3b2f39-0c65-49ad-b62c-46655bcbbad9 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="":2"">{{Cite web |last=Dunne |first=Daisy |date=2018-01-30 |title=Rainforests: Scientists concerned climate change is altering the tropical life cycle |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/rainforests-scientists-concerned-climate-change-is-altering-the-tropical-life-cycle/ |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}}</ref><ref name="":3"">{{Cite web |title=Cross-Chapter Paper 7: Tropical Forests |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/chapter/ccp7/ |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=www.ipcc.ch |language=en}}</ref>

== Alterations in the Carbon Cycle of Tropical Forests ==
Tropical forests are crucial in the global carbon cycle, acting as significant [[carbon sinks]] by absorbing CO2 through [[photosynthesis]].<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" /> However, climate change is altering this balance.<ref name="":2"" /> Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns can reduce forest growth rates and change species composition, potentially diminishing the forests' capacity to sequester carbon. Extreme weather events, such as droughts and storms, can lead to increased tree mortality, further reducing the carbon storage capacity of these forests and threatening their biodiversity and ecological services.<ref name="":1""/>

== Degradation of Tropical Rainforests ==
Tropical rainforests are experiencing significant threats from climate change. Changes in rainfall patterns and increased temperatures can lead to droughts, affecting the health and distribution of rainforest species. These changes exacerbate the effects of [[deforestation]] and [[land-use change]], leading to biodiversity loss and affecting the livelihoods of [[indigenous communities]] and local populations dependent on these forests. Moreover, the degradation of rainforests contributes to climate change by releasing stored carbon into the atmosphere, creating a feedback loop that further accelerates [[global warming]].<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" /><ref name="":2"" />

A study highlighted in a 2022 [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] article underscores the broader climate benefits of tropical forests beyond carbon storage. Tropical forests cool the planet by one-third of a degree through biophysical mechanisms such as humidifying the air and releasing cooling chemicals, in addition to their role in extracting carbon dioxide from the air. This underscores the critical importance of preserving tropical forests not only for their carbon storage capacity but also for their broader role in regulating the Earth's climate.<ref name="":0"" /><ref name="":1"" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=3 ways climate change affects tropical rainforests |url=https://www.conservation.org/blog/3-ways-climate-change-affects-tropical-rainforests/ |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=www.conservation.org}}</ref>

== Changes in Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries ==
The warming of ocean waters has caused [[coral bleaching]] and the degradation of coral reefs, which are vital to marine biodiversity and [[Fishery|fisheries]]. [[Coral reef]]s support a large proportion of the world's fish species, providing food and livelihoods for millions of people. As ocean temperatures rise, the symbiotic relationship between corals and their algae is disrupted, leading to bleaching and, in severe cases, the death of coral colonies. This not only affects the species that directly depend on coral reefs but also impacts the larger marine food web and fisheries productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lam |first1=Vicky W. Y. |last2=Allison |first2=Edward H. |last3=Bell |first3=Johann D. |last4=Blythe |first4=Jessica |last5=Cheung |first5=William W. L. |last6=Frölicher |first6=Thomas L. |last7=Gasalla |first7=Maria A. |last8=Sumaila |first8=U. Rashid |date=September 2020 |title=Climate change, tropical fisheries and prospects for sustainable development |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0071-9 |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |language=en |volume=1 |issue=9 |pages=440–454 |doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0071-9 |bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..440L |s2cid=220948114 |issn=2662-138X}}</ref> In addition, climate change impacts oceanic currents and sea levels, further altering fish distributions and habitats. Furthermore, [[ocean acidification]], resulting from increased [[CO2]] levels, compromises the ability of shellfish and corals to form shells and skeletons, further endangering marine ecosystems and the communities that depend on them.<ref>{{Cite arXiv |title=The Impact of Rising Ocean Acidification Levels on Fish Migration |eprint=2306.10953 |last1=Gilfoyle |first1=Asuna |last2=Baird |first2=Willow |date=2023 |class=q-bio.PE }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wolfram |first1=Uwe |last2=Peña Fernández |first2=Marta |last3=McPhee |first3=Samuel |last4=Smith |first4=Ewan |last5=Beck |first5=Rainer J. |last6=Shephard |first6=Jonathan D. |last7=Ozel |first7=Ali |last8=Erskine |first8=Craig S. |last9=Büscher |first9=Janina |last10=Titschack |first10=Jürgen |last11=Roberts |first11=J. Murray |last12=Hennige |first12=Sebastian J. |date=2022-05-16 |title=Multiscale mechanical consequences of ocean acidification for cold-water corals |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=8052 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-11266-w |pmid=35577824 |pmc=9110400 |arxiv=2110.01701 |bibcode=2022NatSR..12.8052W |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>

== Adaptation and Mitigation ==
Addressing the impacts of climate change on tropical regions requires global cooperation and local action. Strategies include protecting and restoring ecosystems, implementing sustainable land use and fisheries management practices, and reducing [[greenhouse gas]] emissions. Technological innovations, such as satellite monitoring of deforestation and forest fires, along with community-based conservation efforts, can play a crucial role in these strategies. Additionally, promoting sustainable agricultural practices near tropical forests can help preserve these ecosystems while supporting local economies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The impacts of climate change in the Tropics |url=https://www.jcu.edu.au/state-of-the-tropics/publications/2014-state-of-the-tropics-report/2014-essay-pdfs/Essay-2-Corlett.pdf}}</ref>

The [[World Resources Institute]] highlights solutions that serve both adaptation and mitigation purposes, including protecting coastal wetlands, promoting sustainable agroforestry, decentralizing energy distribution, and securing indigenous peoples' land rights. These strategies not only help reduce carbon emissions but also improve resilience to climate impacts. For example, coastal wetlands buffer storm surges and floods while storing significant amounts of carbon. Agroforestry practices enhance land productivity and carbon sequestration, and decentralized energy systems improve resilience to climate variability. Recognizing and securing the land rights of indigenous peoples, who manage a substantial portion of the world's land, can lead to better forest conservation outcomes and lower deforestation rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Suarez |first=Isabella |date=2020-02-10 |title=5 Strategies that Achieve Climate Mitigation and Adaptation Simultaneously |url=https://www.wri.org/insights/5-strategies-achieve-climate-mitigation-and-adaptation-simultaneously |journal=WRI |language=en}}</ref>

In [[Zimbabwe]], for example, a case study of smallholder farmers in the [[Nyanga District]] showcased the integration of traditional grains, drought-resistant crops, and early planting among other adaptation strategies. The involvement of community leaders, professionals, and local residents provided a rich source of knowledge on effective practices to combat the impacts of climate change on food security and livelihoods. This approach emphasizes the importance of local knowledge and community-based strategies in developing resilience to climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mushore |first1=Terence Darlington |last2=Mhizha |first2=Teddious |last3=Manjowe |first3=Moven |last4=Mashawi |first4=Linia |last5=Matandirotya |first5=Electdom |last6=Mashonjowa |first6=Emmanuel |last7=Mutasa |first7=Collen |last8=Gwenzi |first8=Juliet |last9=Mushambi |first9=George Tawanda |date=2021 |title=Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies for Small Holder Farmers: A Case of Nyanga District in Zimbabwe |journal=Frontiers in Climate |volume=3 |doi=10.3389/fclim.2021.676495 |doi-access=free |issn=2624-9553}}</ref>

[[NASA]] plays a critical role in providing the scientific data necessary for understanding and addressing climate change globally. Through missions like GRACE, [[ICESat]], and Sentinel-6, NASA documents crucial changes in the Earth's ice sheets and sea levels, offering invaluable insights for both mitigation and adaptation efforts. Although not directly involved in policy-making, NASA's data supports global climate action by informing decision-makers, scientific communities, and the public.<ref>{{Cite web |last=website |first=NASA's Global Climate Change |title=Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation |url=https://climate.nasa.gov/solutions/adaptation-mitigation |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Climate change]]
* [[Climate change in the United States]]
* [[Climate change in Australia]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Climate]]
[[Category:Tropics]]
[[Category:Climate action plans]]
[[Category:Climate change and the environment]]
[[Category:Climate change adaptation]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation researchers]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Marine conservation]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Tropical rainforests]]
[[Category:Deforestation]]"